Carburising and Carbonitriding

Carburising and carbonitriding are often referred to as case hardening. This is because this is exactly what the do – form a hard case or shell around the still tough core of a steel component.

Why case harden?

It’s mainly to do with wear. In general terms the harder a piece of steel is the less it wears. So if we are producing a component like a gear we want it to be Carburising andas hard Carbonitriding as possible so that it does not wear out. Unfortunately, in steels, high hardness has other consequences – one of those is loss of ductility. Hard steel tends to be brittle. So, if we made our gear out of hard, wear resistant steel, then as soon as it was shocked – by changing gear for instance – the gear teeth would fracture and fall off. The solution to the problem is case hardening - a hard wear resisting outside and a tough shock resisting core.

How is it done?

Carburising and carbonitriding are often referred to as case hardening. This is because this is exactly Fortunately for the automotive industry, the biggest user of gears, the what the do – form a hard case or shellhardness around of the quenched still tough steel core isof relateda steel component.to its carbon content as illustrated in Figure 1. So, if we start with a tough, low-carbon steel and add carbon to the surface we will end up with the sort of duplex structure we are after. Why case harden?

It’s mainly to do with wear. In general terms the harder a piece of steel is the less it wears. So if we are producing a component like a gear we want it to be as hard as possible so that it does not wear out. Unfortunately, in steels, high hardness has other consequences – one of those is loss of ductility. Hard steel tends to be brittle. So, if we made our gear out of hard, wear resistant steel, then as soon as it was shocked – by changing gear for instance – the gear teeth would fracture and fall off. The solution to the problem is case hardening - a hard wear resisting outside and a tough shock resisting core.

How is it done?

Fortunately for the automotive industry, the biggest user of gears, the hardness of quenched steel is related to its carbon content as illustrated in Figure 1. So, if we start with a tough, Figurelow-carbon 1. steel The dependency of hardness on carbon content of steel and add carbon to the surface we will end up with the sort of duplex Figure 1. The dependency of hardness on carbon content of steel structure we are after. Back in the dark ages before computers, the carbon was added to the surface Back in the dark ages before computers, the carbonby was heating added to up the gear to around 900ºC for a few hours packed in charcoal. the surface by heating up the gear to around 900ºCCarbon for a few hourswas transferred from the charcoal to the steel and diffused in to form packed in charcoal. Carbon was transferred from thea charcoalcase when to the the gear was quenched. All fairly crude, but it got you there. steel and diffused in to form a case when the gear was quenched. All fairly crude, but it got you there.

Important things about the case

If there is too little carbon in the case, it will be softer than it could be and will wear more quickly. If it is too high there can be two distinctly different results. If it is just a bit too high, then instead of the nice hard martensite, we start to “retain” some of the high temperature phase called austenite which is soft. As a result the case gets softer (Figure1). This problem can be corrected by cooling the gear below room temperature increasing the hardness as shown by the second line in Figure 1. This can be achieved using a Linde CRYOFLEX® cryogenic treatment chamber. Important things about the case

If the carbon level increases even further we reach the limit of solubility of carbon in steel and start to form a very hard, very brittle compound, iron carbide, in the steel. This is not too bad if the carbide is in the form of small balls as it improves some types of wear. However, it usually forms as a network at the surface and this leads to cracking. It can be converted to the ball type by re-heating and quenching from around 850ºC. This is what the 2 Carburising and Carbonitriding old timers did routinely with the charcoal treated parts, slow cool from the furnace to ball up the carbide, then re-heat and quench.

If the carbon level increases even further we reach the limit of solubility of carbon in steel and start to form a very hard, very brittle compound, iron carbide, in the steel. This is not too bad if the carbide is in the form of small balls as it improves some types of wear. However, it usually forms as a network at the surface and this leads to cracking. It can be converted to the ball type by re-heating and quenching from around 850ºC. This is what the old timers did routinely with the charcoal treated parts, slow cool from the furnace to ball up the carbide, then re-heat and quench.

The hardness distribution and total depth of the case is also important. An idealised hardness profile is shown in Figure 2. The high hardness plateau represents the depth of wear beyond which the part is unserviceable. More case than this is a waste of time and money. The transition from case to core is important. Too steep and stresses will be produced at the interface leadingFigure to spalling 2. Idealised of case hardness profile the case in service. Too shallow and not only a waste of time but a Figure 2. Idealised case hardness profile reduction in toughness of what should be core. If the total case is The hardness distributionmanufactured fromand mild total steel. depth Mild steel of needs the acase faster wateris also quench important. achieve An too deep there will be insufficient tough core to withstand impact idealised hardnessa hard profile carburised is caseshown and inin larger Figure sections 2. even The that high is not hardnessenough. The plateau loading. The control necessary to reach this result can be achieved answer is to add some nitrogen to the case in a process called carbonitriding. using a CRYOFLEX® carbon control system. represents the depthThis decreases of wear the beyondquenching whichrate needed the to part harden is theunserviceable. steel. Our old More case than this istimers a waste would includeof time some and leather money. clippings The and bonestransition with their from charcoal case to to core add the nitrogen. is important. Too steep and stresses will be produced at the interface leading Case hardening mild steel to spalling of theModern case case in hardeningservice. technology Too shallow and not only a waste of time but a reduction in toughness of what should be core. If the total case is too Most case hardened components are made from low alloy steel Because pack carburising in charcoal is so uncontrollable, not to say messy, a so they are hard enough when quenching in oil.deep To lower there costs will cleanerbe insufficient alternative wastough sought. core Unfoto withstandrtunately, most impact easily availableloading. The ® some components are manufactured from mild steel.control Mild steelnecessary hydrocarbons to reach do this not resulttransfer cantheir becarbon achieved to steel wellusing at acarburising CRYOFLEX temperatures. A transfer agent is needed. Carbon monoxide performs this needs a faster water quench achieve a hard carburisedcarbon case control and system.role well, but needs hydrogen to release the carbon dioxide formed from the in larger sections even that is not enough. The answer is to add steel surface as shown in Figure 3. The required gas mixture is generated some nitrogen to the case in a process called carbonitriding.Case hardening This from mild natural steel gas or propane by an endothermic reaction and contains decreases the quenching rate needed to harden the steel. Our old approximately 20% carbon dioxide, 40% hydrogen and 40% nitrogen. This ® timers would include some leather clippings and bones with their can also be achieved using the heat from the furnace in a CARBOCAT insitu atmosphere generator. Later the same mixture was produces from charcoal to add the nitrogen. Most case hardened components are made from low alloy steel so they are thermally cracked methanol and nitrogen. Linde’s CARBOTHAN® hard enough whenatmospheres quenching are an examplein oil. of Tothis. lowerIf carbonitriding costs issome needed components ammonia is are added as the source of nitrogen as nitrogen itself is effectively inert at these Modern case hardening technology temperatures.

Because pack carburising in charcoal is so uncontrollable, not to say messy, a cleaner alternative was sought. Unfortunately, most easily available hydrocarbons do not transfer their carbon to steel well at carburising temperatures. A transfer agent is needed. Carbon monoxide performs this role well, but needs hydrogen to release the carbon dioxide formed from the steel surface as shown in Figure 3. The required gas mixture is generated from natural gas or propane by an endothermic reaction and contains approximately 20% carbon dioxide, 40% hydrogen and 40% nitrogen. This can also be achieved using the heat from the furnace in a CARBOCAT® insitu atmosphere generator. Later the same mixture was produces from thermally cracked methanol and nitrogen. Linde’s CARBOTHAN® atmospheres are an example of this. If carbonitriding is needed ammonia is added as the source of nitrogen as nitrogen itself is effectively inert at Figure 3. The carburising mechanism in endothermically generated gas these temperatures. Figure 3. The carburising mechanism in endothermically generated gas These gas carburising technologies dominate the market today with the sealed or integral quench furnace, shown diagrammatically in Figure 4, being the workhorse of the industry. The parts, usually jigged to keep the apart, enter the vestibule through the front door. Once purged with endothermically generated carburising gas, the middle door opens and they are transferred to the hot chamber for carburising and the middle door is closed. After the time required to achieve the desired case depth the load is transferred back to the vestibule and is lowered into the oil bath to quench it. Once cooled it exits back through the front door. During the carburising phase the carbon level in the steel is controlled by the amount of hydrocarbon added to the endothermically generated gas mixture.

back through the front door. DuringCarburising the carburising and Carbonitriding phase the carbon level3 in the steel is controlled by the amount of hydrocarbon added to the endothermically generated gas mixture.

These gas carburising technologies dominate the market today with the sealed or integral quench furnace, shown diagrammatically in Figure 4, being the workhorse of the industry. TheFigure parts, usually4. Schematic of a sealed quench furnace jigged to keep the apart, enter the vestibule through the front door. Once purged with endothermically generated carburisingEven though gas, the this process works well it is now viewed as insufficiently middle door opens and they are transferred to the hot chamber for carburising and the middle door is closed. Afterenvironmentally the time required to friendly. Heat and flames from the burning atmosphere achieve the desired case depth the load is transferredgases back as to thethey leave the furnace make it difficult to integrate into modern vestibule and is lowered into the oil bath to quenchmanufacturing it. Once cooled it cells and the parts need to be washed after treatment to exits back through the front door. During the carburisingremove phase the the quench oil before they can be processed further. After several carbon level in the steel is controlled by the amountfalse of hydrocarbonstarts, we now have low pressure carburising using acetylene as the added to the endothermically generated gas mixture. carbon source followed by high pressure gas quenching usually with nitrogen

Even though this process works well it is now viewedor helium as if a faster quench is needed. As the process takes place entirely in insufficiently environmentally friendly. Heat anda flamessealed, from thecold-wall Figure 4. Schematicvacuum of afurnace sealed quench it c anfurnace be integrated into production lines burning atmosphere gases as they leave the furnace make it difficult Figure 4. Schematic of a sealed quench furnace (Figure 5) andEven parts though emerge this process clean works and well dry it readyis now viewedfor the as next insufficiently operation. to integrate into modern manufacturing cells and the parts need toenvironmentally friendly. Heat and flames from the burning atmosphere be washed after treatment to remove the quench oil before they cangases as they leave the furnace make it difficult to integrate into modern be processed further. After several false starts, we now have low manufacturing cells and the parts need to be washed after treatment to pressure carburising using acetylene as the carbon source followedremove the quench oil before they can be processed further. After several by high pressure gas quenching usually with nitrogen or helium false starts, we now have low pressure carburising using acetylene as the carbon source followed by high pressure gas quenching usually with nitrogen if a faster quench is needed. As the process takes place entirely or helium if a faster quench is needed. As the process takes place entirely in in a sealed, cold-wall vacuum furnace it can be integrated into a sealed, cold-wall vacuum furnace it can be integrated into production lines production lines (Figure 5) and parts emerge clean and dry ready (Figurefor 5) and parts emerge clean and dry ready for the next operation. the next operation.

Figure 5. A modular vacuum carburising system at BMW Figure 5. A modular(photo courtesyvacuum of ALD) carburising system at BMW (photo courtesy of

ALD) Figure 5. A modular vacuum carburising system at BMW (photo courtesy of ALD)

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