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Merchants of War: Mercenaries, Economy, and Society in the Late Sixteenth-Century Baltic

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Merchants of War: Mercenaries, Economy, and Society in the Late Sixteenth-Century Baltic Merchants of War: Mercenaries, Economy, and Society in the Late Sixteenth-Century Baltic by Joseph Thomas Chatto Sproule A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of History University of Toronto © Copyright by Joseph Thomas Chatto Sproule 2019 Merchants of War: Mercenaries, Economy, and Society in the Late Sixteenth-Century Baltic Joseph Thomas Chatto Sproule Doctor of Philosophy Department of History University of Toronto 2019 Abstract The polities of the sixteenth-century Baltic competed and cooperated with one another and with local power groups in fluctuating patterns of rivalry and expedient partnership. Mercenarism thrived in this context, as early modern governments were seldom equipped with the fiscal and logistical tools or the domestic military resources needed to wholly meet the escalating challenges of warfare, while mercenaries themselves were drawn to a chaotic environment that afforded opportunities for monetary gain and promotion into the still- coalescing political elites of the region’s emerging powers. This study sits, like the mercenary himself, at the intersection of the military, the economic, the social, and the political. Broadly, it is an analysis of mercenaries in Livonian and Swedish service during the so-called Livonian War of 1558 to 1583. Mercenaries are examined as agents of the polities for whom they fought and as actors with goals of their own, ambiguously positioned figures whose outsider status and relative independence presented both opportunities and challenges as they navigated the shifting networks of conflict and allegiance that characterized their fractious world. The aims of this study are threefold. The military efficacy of Western and Central European professional soldiers is assessed in an Eastern ii European context, problematizing the notion of Western military superiority in a time of alleged military revolution. The effects of prolonged warfare on Estonian and Livonian society are examined with an eye on interactions between local communities and the foreign soldiery, as well as on the ramifications of increasing participation in military enterprise by segments of the Livonian population. Mercenarism is also analyzed as a key site of the early modern struggle for greater governmental control over the economy and legitimate violence, whether through the cooption of privileges traditionally enjoyed by non-state and local power groups or through partnership between these factions and centralizing governments. iii Acknowledgments There are several people who deserve thanks for their roles in the completion of this project. The University of Toronto’s Department of History provided a supportive environment that made my graduate experience a positive one. I would like to thank Vivian Hwang for her invaluable assistance in assembling my examination committee and organizing the defense. Steve Penfold was a source of friendly and useful advice toward the end of the process. The Department of History also assisted in funding my graduate studies through a C.P. Stacey Connaught Graduate Fellowship and a departmental Conference Travel Award. Funding for archival research in Tallinn and Stockholm came from a number of sources: the Estonian Scholarship Fund offered by the Chair of Estonian Studies, a Research Travel Grant from the School of Graduate Studies, Massey College’s Catherall Travel Bursary, and a Dissertation Grant from the Association for the Advancement of Baltic Studies. An Ontario Graduate Scholarship and a Doctoral Fellowship from the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada helped to finance my studies. I was the beneficiary of the kind assistance of many people at the National Archives of Sweden and the Tallinn City Archives. In Tallinn, Juhan Kreem was especially generous with his time and help. My doctoral project began to coalesce during the second year of my degree, while I was reading for my comprehensive examinations. Conversations with Kenneth Mills greatly enriched my comps experience and provided me with new perspectives on how to think and write about history. His continued feedback and support as a committee member made the entire PhD more enlightening and more enjoyable. The idea for a dissertation on mercenaries emerged from my comps field with Ritu Birla, and her support was hugely beneficial to my experience as a graduate student and to the eventual completion of this project. In particular, her insightful comments on an earlier draft of this dissertation significantly improved the final text. Nicholas Terpstra was a supportive member of my doctoral committee who offered sage advice at a number of junctures throughout my doctoral studies. I am especially grateful for his invaluable feedback on multiple drafts of the text that would become my first publication. Piotr Wróbel kindly agreed to join my doctoral examination committee, and his participation and iv feedback are appreciated. I would also like to thank Jason Lavery for his contributions as external appraiser and examiner. I am grateful for his report on the dissertation and his comments during the final oral examination. There are many friends and acquaintances who made my years as a graduate student more enjoyable and who offered advice on various aspects of my studies. Jilly and Ten Ten were my most constant writing companions. Conversations with Benjamin Lukas were a great opportunity to compare notes and trade ideas on sixteenth-century mercenaries. Alexandra Guerson frequently provided advice on navigating graduate school and many other aspects of university life, as well as being a friendly and collegial co-worker in New College’s International Foundation Program. Working with Andrea Williams as part of the Faculty of Arts & Science’s Writing Instruction for TAs program was a very positive experience that made me a better teacher. Robin Sutherland-Harris offered some useful tips on how to prepare for the defense, and I thoroughly enjoyed working with her as TAs and later as co-instructors. Most of all, Carol Chin had a hugely positive influence on my whole experience as a PhD student. She was exceptionally generous with her time, and she provided me with invaluable mentorship, friendship, and advice on every aspect of university life. Landing as a TA in her course in the first year of my PhD was one of the best things that happened to me as a graduate student. Words cannot adequately express my gratitude to my doctoral supervisor, Jüri Kivimäe, without whose encouragement and guidance this project would have been impossible. Taking his course on the Hanseatic League inspired me to return to graduate school and to undertake studies in Baltic history. He was a constant source of advice on every aspect of my studies, both in Toronto and in Tallinn, where he introduced me to the collections of the Tallinn City Archives. Professor Kivimäe’s kindness, erudition, and wisdom are gifts that I will always carry with me. He has opened up new worlds to me. Finally, I would like to thank my family for a lifetime of support. My sister, Mae, is an inspiration to me, and I hope that I can bring a fraction of the originality and passion that she brings to her work to my own. My parents, Wendy and James, are the most supportive, v understanding, and caring that anyone could ask for. From the start, they encouraged my curiosity and fostered a lifelong passion for learning, setting me on the long and winding path that has led to this dissertation. They were always there for me throughout my many years as a graduate student, and nothing I have done would have been possible without them. They have my everlasting thanks. My wife, Kayo, has never wavered in her support of my studies, and I am supremely grateful for her patience and understanding as I pursued this long and difficult undertaking. She has been the best of companions throughout this journey. All of them have my love. vi Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................................ ii Acknowledgements..................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................... vii List of Appendices .................................................................................................................... viii Introduction................................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1 Mercenaries, Military Revolution, and the State in Early Modern Europe ............... 15 Chapter 2 Definitions and Problems: Who Was a Mercenary? ................................................. 45 Chapter 3 Context and Causes of the Livonian War .................................................................. 65 3.1 The Livonian War in Historical Context........................................................................... 65 3.2 Causes of the Livonian War .............................................................................................. 73 Chapter 4 The Course of the War ............................................................................................... 92 Chapter 5 Military Organization of the Sixteenth-Century Baltic Powers ............................... 124 Chapter 6 Mercenaries as Agents:
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