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TRUJILLO: EL FANTASMA Y SUS ESCRITORES (Análisis Y Sistematización De La Novela Del Trujillato)

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TRUJILLO: EL FANTASMA Y SUS ESCRITORES (Análisis Y Sistematización De La Novela Del Trujillato) UNIVERSIDAD DE GRANADA DEPARTAMENTO DE LITERATURA ESPAÑOLA TESIS DOCTORAL TRUJILLO: EL FANTASMA Y SUS ESCRITORES (Análisis y sistematización de la novela del trujillato) Ana Gallego Cuiñas FEBRERO, 2005 “aquel que teniendo a su cargo una multitud fácilmente sumisa, no perdona la sangre de su misma raza, sino que, levantando falsas acusaciones, como suele suceder, lleva a sus adversarios a los tribunales y se mancha de sangre en ellos inmolando sus vidas y gustando de la misma sangre de su linaje con su boca y su lengua impuras. Su labor se cifra en desterrar y matar y en proponer el perdón de las deudas y el reparto de las tierras, por lo que no es extraño deba perecer a manos de sus enemigos, o convertirse en tirano”. Platón, La República “Una tierra cuya capa vegetal tiene debajo pólvora y candela, humo y sueño, sueño y pólvora, juntos” Marcio Veloz Maggiolo, De abril en adelante “Nadie que esté satisfecho es capaz de escribir, nadie que esté de acuerdo, reconciliado con la realidad, cometería el ambicioso destino de inventar realidades verbales” Mario Vargas Llosa. “La literatura hispanoamericana no es un mero conjunto de obras sino también las relaciones entre esas obras. Cada una de ellas es una respuesta, declarada o tácita, a otra obra escrita por un predecesor, un contemporáneo o un imaginario descendiente. Nuestra crítica debería explorar estas relaciones contradictorias y mostrarnos cómo esas afirmaciones y negaciones excluyentes son también, de alguna manera, complementarias”. (Octavio Paz, Inmediaciones) ÍNDICE INTRODUCCIÓN: LA NOVELA DEL TRUJILLATO 1. INTRODUCCIÓN 2. LA NOVELA DEL TRUJILLATO: UN MOTIVO DE DISCUSIÓN 2.1. LA NOVELA DEL TRUJILLATO TRAS LA CAÍDA DEL DICTADOR: EL SUPLICIO DEL TÁNTALO 3. LA NOVELA DEL TRUJILLATO COMO NOVELA HISTÓRICA Y NOVELA DEL DICTADOR: CONSIDERACIONES TEÓRICAS 3.1. NOVELA HISTÓRICA 3.1.1.LA NUEVA NOVELA HISTÓRICA 3.2. LOS NEGOCIOS LITERARIOS DEL SEÑOR DICTADOR 3.2.1. LA DICTADURA HISPANOAMERICANA 3.2.2. LA NOVELA DEL DICTADOR Y LA CRÍTICA: DEL “SEÑOR TIRANO” AL “RECURSO DEL SUPREMO PATRIARCA” 3.2.2.1. TRUJILLO NOVELADO: LA CONQUISTA POR LA PLUMA Y POR LA ESPADA 3.2.3. NOVELA DE DICTADOR, NOVELA DE DICTADURA 4. EL DISCURSO NOVELÍSTICO DOMINICANO: PROBLEMAS Y DEBILIDADES 4.1. LA NOVELA DEL TRUJILLATO: FALLOS Y DEFICIENCIAS 5. LA NOVELA DOMINICANA EN EL DEVENIR HISTÓRICO: MOVIMIENTOS LITERARIOS 6. LA NOVELA DEL TRUJILLATO ANTE LA CRÍTICA: ESTADO DE LA CUESTIÓN 7. ANOTACIONES METODOLÓGICAS 7.1. ELECCIÓN DEL CORPUS 7.2. ANÁLISIS Y SISTEMATIZACIÓN 7.2.1.PERIODIZACIÓN 7.2.2.TIPOLOGÍA 7.2.3.CARACTERIZACIÓN CAPÍTULO I: “CÉSAR O NADA”. LA ESCRITURA DEL DITIRAMBO FRENTE A LA ESCRITURA DE LA RESISTENCIA (1930-1960) I.1. RAFAEL LEONIDAS TRUJILLO: HISTORIA DE UN GENOCIO I.1.1. VIDAS ASESINADAS...CAUSAS DE UN ASESINATO: EL 30 DE MAYO I.2. TRUJILLO: FIGURA CICLÓPEA DONDE LAS HALLA I.3. AMBIENTE INTELECTUAL EN EL TRUJILLATO: LA MUTILACIÓN DEL ARTE I.3.1. LOS ESCRITORES DOMINICANOS EN LA ERA DE TRUJILLO I.4. LA NOVELA TRUJILLISTA: EL DISCURSO LITERARIO COMO PROPAGANDA I.4.1. ECOS DE LA IDEOLOGÍA TRUJILLISTA I.5. ENTRE EL TRUJILLISMO Y LA CRÍTICA VELADA AL AUTORITARISMO I.5.1. HACIA UNA LECTURA ANTITRUJILLISTA I.5.2. HACIA UNA LECTURA TRUJILLISTA I.6. LAS TRES CARAS DE LA VERDAD: EL MASACRE SE PASA A PIE, CEMENTERIO SIN CRUCES Y LA FIESTA DEL REY ACAB I.6.1. LA CRÍTICA VELADA BAJO EL CAJÓN: EL MASACRE SE PASA A PIE I.6.2. LA CRUZ DEL EXILIO CONTRA EL CEMENTERIO DE TRUJILLO: ANDRÉS REQUENA I.6.3. LA FIESTA DE LA “NOVELA DEL DICTADOR” ACAB I.7. EL ESPAÑOL ABANDONA LA ISLA EN ATAÚD: LOS TRES SALEN POR EL OZAMA CAPÍTULO II: ENTRE EL NACIONALISMO Y LA MODERNIDAD (1961-1979) II.1. PANORAMA POLÍTICO: BREVE TURBULENCIA REVOLUCIONARIA Y LARGO ORDEN REACCIONARIO II.1.1. LA REVOLUCIÓN DEL 65 II.1.2. BALAGUER: EL MISMO PERRO CON DISTINTO COLLAR II.2. LA NOVELA DE LA REVOLUCIÓN Y REVOLUCIÓN EN LA NOVELA II.2.1. LA NOVELA BÍBLICA Y LA DENUNCIA DEL TRUJILLATO (1961- 1964) II.2.2. HACIA LA EXPERIMENTACIÓN ESTÉTICA Y LA INVECTIVA DEL TRUJILLATO (1965-1979) II.2.2.1. LA NOVELA DEL TRUJILLATO, NOVELA DE DICTADURA A) HACEDORES DEL TRUJILLISMO: MILITARES, FUNCIONARIOS, ESPÍAS, CRIMINALES B) LA VENGANZA DEL PUEBLO: LA NARRACIÓN DE LOS REBELDES C) RETRATOS DEL DESMESURADO ABUSO DE PODER DEL TRUJILLATO D) EL DISCURSO PESIMISTA DE LA HISTORIA DOMINICANA: SIN ESPERANZA, CON CONVICCIÓN II.2.2.2. TRATAMIENTO EPISÓDICO DEL TRUJILLATO: EL ESCUPIDO, DE ABRIL EN ADELANTE Y PISAR LOS DEDOS DE DIOS II.2.2.3. PRESENCIA DE TRUJILLO EN EL DISCURSO LITERARIO II.2.3. LAS TINIEBLAS DEL PATRIARCA II.2.4. LA EXPERIMENTACIÓN LITERAIA AL SERVICIO DEL TRUJILLATO CAPÍTULO III: DEL SENTIMIENTO PESIMISTA DE LA VIDA (1980-1989) III.1. SINOPSIS DE LA REALIDAD POLÍTICA DOMINICANA DE LOS OCHENTA III.2. EL HORIZONTE LITERARIO: ANCLAJES PASADOS Y NUEVAS PERSPECTIVAS DE FUTURO III.2.1. LA VINDICACIÓN DEL TRUJILLISMO III.2.1.1. MEDALAGANIO O LA PASIÓN DEL DICTADOR III.2.1.2. LA NOCHE QUE TRUJILLO VOLVIÓ MENOS TRUJILLO QUE NUNCA III.2.1.3. LA NOCHE DE TRUJILLO: RELATO DE UN MAGNICIDIO III.2.2. NOVELAS DE LA DICTADURA: CONTINÚA LA LUCHA A CUERPO CONTRA EL TRUJILLISMO III.2.2.1. LA NARRACIÓN DE LA OPOSICIÓN III.2.2.2. ABUSO DE PODER SOBRE EL PUEBLO III.2.2.3. EL MILITAR: SÍMBOLO ORONDO DE LA VIOLENCIA DEL RÉGIMEN III.2.3. EL TRATAMIENTO EPISÓDICO DEL TRUJILLATO: SÓLO CENIZAS HALLARÁS Y CURRÍCULUM III.2.4. NOVELAS DEL DICTADOR REALMENTE MÁGICAS III.2.4.1. LA BIOGRAFÍA DIFUSA DE SOMBRA CASTAÑEDA III.2.4.2. EL REINO DE MANDINGA III.2.5. LOS PERROS DEL SEÑOR BERNARDO VEGA: UN CASO ESPECIAL CAPÍTULO IV: EL BOOM DE LA NOVELA DEL TRUJILLATO (1990-2000) IV.1. SITUACIÓN POLÍTICA: EL ADIÓS DEFINITIVO DE BALAGUER IV.2. LA EXPLOSIÓN EDITORIAL DE LA NOVELA DEL TRUJILLATO IV.2.1. TRATAMIENTO DEL PESIMISMO DOMINICANO IV.2.2. LAS TRES VOCES DEL DICTADOR IV.2.2.1. LA VOZ DE TRUJILLO IV.2.2.2. LA VOZ DE LA MUJER: DE LA SEDUCCIÓN A LA VIOLACIÓN IV.2.2.3. LA VOZ DEL PERSONERO IV.2.3. NOVELAS DE LA DICTADURA, NOVELAS CORALES IV.2.3.1. LA DENUNCIA DE LA REPRESIÓN Y EL ABUSO IV.2.3.2. LAS MIRABAL Y GALÍNDEZ: UN DUÓ DE ÉXITO IV.2.3.3. CONJURAS Y CONJURADOS A) CONJURAS B) CONJURADOS IV.2.4. NOVELA DEL DICTADOR: MUSIQUITO IV.3. NOVELAS DEL TRUJILLATO ESCRITAS POR PLUMAS FORÁNEAS CONCLUSIONES BIBLIOGRAFÍA APÉNDICE 1. UNA CRONOLOGÍA DEL TRUJILLATO 2. TRANSCRIPCIÓN DE ENTREVISTAS SEMI-ESTRUCTURADAS A ESCRITORES Y CRÍTICOS DOMINICANOS Introducción: LA NOVELA DEL TRUJILLATO 1. INTRODUCCIÓN Este capítulo introductorio pretende esclarecer el objeto del estudio condensado en estas páginas: la “novela del trujillato” desde los albores de la dictadura de Rafael Leonidas Trujillo hasta nuestros días, cuya justificación reside en una realidad incuestionable: la abrumadora cantidad de este tipo de publicaciones en dicho lapso temporal y la falta de un estudio científico que la delimite. Así, el objetivo de esta Tesis es orillar estas ausencias críticas -en aras de otorgarle el lugar que merece no sólo dentro del andamiaje literario dominicano, sino caribeño e hispanoamericano-, y proceder a la investigación (clarificación, sistematización y análisis) del “fenómeno del trujillato” como discurso literario. Para la absoluta comprensión de este proceso literario al que dio origen la tiranía de Trujillo y que ha continuado in extenso la pasada centuria, es necesario acometer la tarea de calibrar la dimensión y la presencia de este fenómeno en el discurso literario dominicano: Trujillo sigue vivo en la sociedad y en la literatura dominicana dentro y fuera de sus fronteras. Por este motivo, considero forzoso esbozar lacónicamente las directrices estéticas y temáticas de las letras dominicanas para, con posterioridad, apercibir -a través del estudio de un corpus extenso de novelas- la evolución interna de esta línea de escritura, indefectiblemente influida por el mandato trujillista y luego, por la historia política dominicana: el gobierno que ha dominado el escenario político insular de las últimas cuatro décadas: Balaguer y su neotrujillismo. Y es que “It world be practically imposible to refer to any aspect of Dominican life an culture without dealing with a political dimension”1, la literatura dominicana no puede desvincularse del estudio de la historia del país. En un principio puede parecer un proyecto excesivamente complejo por varios motivos: el amplio marco temporal del estudio -de 1930 hasta el año 2000, fecha de publicación de La fiesta del Chivo, última novela del trujillato,- que podría resultar inabarcable. Otra traba, reside en el hecho de que esta novela se inserta principalmente en el discurso literario dominicano, terreno ignoto y de escaso interés para gran parte de los críticos europeos e incluso hispanoamericanos. Consecuencia de esto último es el inmenso vacío de producción científica sobre este asunto del trujillato que encontré no 1 Estrella Betances de Pujadas, The influence of Rafael Trujillo in dominican literatura, Columbia University, 1991. Dissertation. sólo a un nivel internacional –puesto que ya existen nítidas deficiencias con respecto a la literatura dominicana en general- sino a nivel nacional: es palpable el exiguo desarrollo de la novelística dominicana y de un aparato crítico literario sólido. Contrariamente, las novelas del trujillato escritas por autores no dominicanos no presentaron ningún problema, pues esta temática “ha trascendido las fronteras dominicanas”2 y ha sido abordada por escritores de la talla de Mario Vargas Llosa, Manuel Vázquez Montalbán y Julia Álvarez. No obstante, y a pesar de las incertidumbres que asoman en el acercamiento a un fenómeno literario sucintamente estudiado, a un objeto que había de parecer una esfinge imposible de descifrar por la heterogeneidad de los modelos discursivos a los que me enfrentaba, decidí embarcarme en este proyecto, ciertamente extenuante.
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