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K odak J.'limited, kings way, london, w.c.2 THE ENGLISH COUNTRYSIDE r I 'H E report of the Scott Committee on Land Utili- X sation in Rural Areas completes the work begun by the Royal Commission on the Distribution of the NATU RE Industrial Population, the terms of reference of which excluded the consideration of agriculture; and although its major and minor recommendations are No. 3807 SATURDAY, OCT. 17, 1942 Vol. 150 sometimes rather confusingly blended, the report is clearly a reconstruction paper of the first importance. It has life and colour and gives substance to some of CONTENTS those aspirations for an ampler and more satisfying Page national life which the War has accentuated. More­ The English Countryside ..... 441 over, like the interim report of the Uthwatt Com­ The Triumph of Time. By Prof. Herbert Dingle 444 mittee, it reiterates the importance of immediate Introspective Psychology. By B. M. B. 446 action. A survey of the report appears on p. 448. Discussions on Citizenship ..... 447 Broadly speaking, the Scott report, like that of the Barlow Commission, centres upon two main Land Utilization in England andWales 448 recommendations : first, that there should be national Theory of X-Ray Diffraction. By Prof. P. P. Ewald 450 long-term planning for industry and for agriculture Key Metals and the Location of Industry. By Prof. in England and Wales ; and secondly, that for that C. B. Fawcett . .451 purpose a national planning authority should be set Minerals, Old and New, from the Sea. By Dr. E. F. up. Both principles have been restated by the Armstrong, F.R.S...... 453 Uthwatt Committee in its report, and the Govern­ Obituaries : ment has repeatedly announced its adherence to these Prof. E. Fawcett, F.R.S. By Prof. J. M. Yoffey . 455 views and declared its intention to establish the Dr. Leonard Klatzow. By B. M. Crowther 456 requisite planning authority. The Scott report should dispose of whatever hesitation has been News and Views ...... 456 responsible for the protracted delay in bringing Letters to the Editors : intention to performance. The final argument is The Saqqara Graph : its Geometrical and Archi­ convincing : “It is our firm belief that a vital in­ tectural Significance.— R. S. Williamson . 460 centive to the war effort is the presentation of a Function of the Kidney in Dehydration.— D. A. K. clear picture of a better world which lies ahead and Black, Dr. R. A. McCance and W . F. Young . 461 which, if plans are drawn up and the essential pre­ Use'of Desiccated Chick Embryo in Tissue Culture parations made in advance, can be achieved after this Technique.— Dr. R. I. Shukoff 461 struggle is over. To delay planning and the legis­ Potassium, Fermentation and the Cell Membrane. lation to carry the plans into effect until the time — Prof. Edward J. Conway .461 for action is upon us—the end of the war—we Interatomic Distances in Carbon.— A. Taylor 462 believe to be a fatal error.” That is the fundamental conviction behind all the Buddleias on a Bombed Site.— Rosamond F. Shove 463 pressure for planning for reconstruction both nation­ Mating Call-note of Moths.— N. L. Silvester 463 ally and internationally, and the case for immediate Nova Cygni (1942).—George Alter 463 planning could scarcely have been put better than Functions of the Research Associations.— Philip R. by the Scott Committee. Coursey ...... 464 This conclusion is reinforced by the melancholy A Flight of Pure Imagination.— Sir Charles Boys, record of the effects of the Town and Country F.R.S...... 464 Planning Act, 1932, and the Restriction of Ribbon English Social Stratification ..... 465 Development Act, 1935, reviewed in the sixth chapter of the report, which deals with planning Determination of Equilibrium Diagrams by X-Ray powers. This is a striking illustration of the futility Methods ...... 465 of any piecemeal attack on the problem. Despite its Electrical Engineers and the Post-war Period 467 complexity it must be tackled as a whole, though strangely enough, there are matters in which the majority report consistently fails to do so—notably Editorial and Publishing Offices in regard to agriculture. MACMILLAN & CO., LTD., The poor equipment which Great Britain possesses ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON. W.C.2. at the moment for dealing with the most pressing Telephone Number: Whitehall 8831 tasks in this field gives special interest and importance Telegrams : Phusis Lesquare London to the recommendations of the report in regard to Advert/semenfs should be addressed to machinery. Here the Committee, assuming that the G. Scott & Son, Ltd., Talbot House, 9, Arundel Street, London, W .C.2 Telephone : Temple Bar 1942-3 policy of the Government involves the establishment of a Central Planning Authority, proposes that rTtfeannual subscription rate is £4 100, payable in advance. Inland o r Abroad jAU rights reserved. Registered as a Newspaper at the General Post Office machinery should be set up now to make plans for the use of land, and that the necessary legislation of good land should not be alienated from its present should be passed so that the plans can be put into use unless it can be clearly shown that, on balance, operation immediately on the cessation of hostilities. it is in the national interest that the change The report outlines a definite scheme of work to be should be made ; he would throw the onus of proof accomplished in five years, and it distinguishes not on the applicant who seeks to make the change, carefully between planning and development— but on the agricultural occupier or interest, who between the formulation of a national plan and its should be required to show cause why land should execution. not be diverted to some other use. In this way, he Planning, the Committee considers, should be the argues that, using the machinery of planning control, function of the planning body within the Govern­ while the best land would not be unnecessarily ment, and development the concern of the separate alienated from agriculture, constitutional develop­ Ministries. Moreover, despite insistence on a ment would not be hindered by the maintenance of Central Planning Authority, the Committee does not land for agriculture unless a clear case of national regard its recommendations as involving any specific advantage were established. form of Government machinery. In fact, it considers Prof. Dennison maintains that the majority are that the establishment of a separate Ministry of inclined to treat village life and agriculture too much Planning is undesirable and that it is impossible to as if they were museum pieces and to preserve them visualize a Central Planning Authority taking over by methods which threaten the standard of life both the execution of planning proposals or any other of the villages and of the nation. Fear of the dis­ form of development in those spheres which are the turbing effects of the introduction of industries to the direct concern of existing Ministries. The proposals countryside leads his colleagues, in his view, to over­ involve a transfer from the Ministry of Works and look the advantages they would bestow. Moreover, Planning, as constituted under the recent Act, of all while evidence was submitted that changes in agri­ planning functions, in order to separate them from culture may well result owing to national nutritional the development functions of that Ministry. needs, the bare fact is noted in the majority report, As to the machinery, the Committee appears to be and it is left to Prof. Dennison to elaborate the point. unanimous. When we come to the general character of His observations on the probable effect of the new our future policy and the aims that should guide our ideas of nutrition and protective foods on agriculture plans, there are serious differences of opinion between is only one example of the way in which his minority the majority report and the minority report signed report gives precision and incisiveness to a document by Prof. S. R. Dennison. On many questions there which, despite many admirable features, is somewhat is indeed agreement, for example, in regard to the discursive and vague, and lacks the lucidity of the restoration of the village crafts and the improvement Barlow Commission’s report. of rural life, but Prof. Dennison in his minority report The difficulty—and the differences between the puts forward an entirely different outlook and per­ majority and the minority reports—arises in the spective, and his criticism is both trenchant and interpretation of what is meant by “the maintenance fundamental. The question he raises as to the of a prosperous agriculture”, “the well-being of rural relative efficiency in use of our resources is the one communities” and “the preservation of rural which gives the report a major claim on the attention amenities”. In regard to the first, Prof. Dennison of scientific workers. bases his argument on economic considerations and In their introduction the majority, while endeavour­ the relation of the maintenance of agriculture to the ing to evaluate and assess the significance of the standard of life of the rural worker. Both the extent permanent physical factors in the shaping of the and the type of agriculture are involved, and although countryside, have sought to avoid the temptation of recent reports from the industrial side dealing with looking back to the past and seeking to perpetuate reconstruction recognize the importance of a correct it, and in their recommendations they clearly seek to balance between industry and agriculture, the look forward and to visualize many changes. They majority report carries the analysis little further. recognize that British agriculture, however vital to Prof. Dennison considers that the assumptions of the nation in time of war, cannot be maintained in the majority report would only provide better the same position in time of peace. The conditions standards of life for the rural worker at the expense to be imposed on constructional development in the of the community. countryside must be such as will be consistent with In a progressive society, the ultimate prosperity the maintenance of a prosperous and progressive of agriculture must depend upon increased efficiency ; agriculture. The Committee is mindful, too, that the but this is not necessarily achieved by increased pre-war prevalence of malnutritional disease must output. Greater specialization may also be important, never again be allowed to recur. particularly in regard to improved nutrition. That The gravamen of Prof. Dennison’s criticism is that, depends upon the type of food as well as on quantity, while facing change, the majority are afraid of it ; involving more vegetables, milk and other protective they are excessively tender to the general body of foods which traditional agriculture in England and agricultural interests, allowing it too large a say in Wales has never supplied in adequate amounts ; and matters which concern the nation as a whole. He as Prof. Dennison rightly points out, the needs of the disputes entirely, for example, the whole idea on consumer as well as the quality of the land must which is based the recommendation of the majority determine what shall be grown. The aims of agri­ that land which is included in one of the categories cultural policy in Great Britain should be, as Viscount Astor and Mr. Rowntree put it, “to promote a happy changes in the countryside, but there is no reason marriage between nutrition and agriculture rather why they should not create greater amenity than than to shut out overseas competition, to improve existed before. It is in fact difficult to conceive of a the conditions of the agricultural labourers rather more fitting way to use land in the national interest than to increase their numbers, to treat agriculture than to use it for the new construction necessary to as an industry or group of industries . . . existing for provide better living conditions for the people—and the purpose of satisfying human wants with the their children after them—now dwelling in congested minimum of toil, rather than as a way of life to be towns. In particular, it is important not to attempt preserved with the minimum of change”. to preserve amenities which can only be preserved as The essential point in determining the type and long as full access to them is denied to those whose size of agriculture is that the full measure of economic heritage they are. progress, the improvement of standards of living, can Socially and politically, it is clearly undesirable to take place only if, as technique and economic condi­ foster a cleavage of interest between agriculture and tions change, resources are no longer deliberately the rest of the community by isolating the country­ impeded in their movement from uses which yield a side from the effects of the impact of town life. small return of goods to those which yield a larger Agriculture and agricultural workers have a more return. To attempt to retain resources in any existing positive part to play in the life of Great Britain, and form of activity which gives a lower product than they can only play it if they are brought more closely others, which are new and developing, must involve into touch with what is the major part of British life. a loss to the community in general, in that standards Equally it is true that closer contact with the country­ of life as a whole are kept down. What has to be side is desirable to give balance and health to the remembered is that, as Prof. Dennison again points industrial population, and an agricultural policy out, for many types of produce we can obtain more which accepts as inevitable an antagonism between food by employing labour and capital in manufactur­ town and country would be nothing less than a ing goods which are exported, and importing food in national disaster. return, than we can by using the same amount of The happy marriage thus foreshadowed between labour and real capital in agriculture to produce the agriculture and nutrition could have no more valuable food directly. This is one of the recognized advan­ consequence than that the changes in agriculture tages that Great Britain has over Germany, and the would involve a smaller number of workers in a answer to the argument that a large agriculture must prosperous agriculture providing adequate standards be maintained for purposes of security in time of war. for the worker and making isolation as unnecessary The need is not denied, but it will not be achieved as it is undesirable ; such changes, if combined by methods which are wasteful of man-power in war with careful control of constructional develop­ as well as in peace. Malnutrition will not be conquered ments, would leave unimpaired the major amenities by growing more food at great cost, but by cheap of the countryside, and also create new forms of food,' obtained with the minimum expenditure of amenity, all of which would be accessible to a resources. larger proportion of the population than can enjoy Social policy might well be directed to increasing the countryside to-day. Such a policy would firmly the demand for the protective foods—for example, establish a harmony of interest between town and milk—so as to cushion any fall in the agricultural coimtry which would make for mutual understanding, output in other directions, and this is a legitimate goodwill and the dynamic adaptation which Prof. contribution to the well-being of rural communities Dennison is assuredly right in holding should mark which is not at the expense of the whole community. a positive policy in the interest of the nation as a Prof. Dennison, however, differs from the majority whole. of his colleagues in holding that the rural community, Whatever the difference between majority and if it has lower standards as a result of lower wages minority reports in regard to outlook and policy, and in agriculture, should not be protected from the as to the objective which should guide a national impact of higher standards. While supporting such policy—and clearly these are great—there is agree­ recommendations for the improvement of rural life ment as to the imperative necessity for more effective as spreading village colleges like those now estab­ planning of land utilization in England and Wales. lished in Cambridgeshire, village halls, village playing- Both apply pressure at the point at which the Govern­ fields, and the universal supply of electricity, he holds ment is most dilatory, and there will be grave dis­ that the introduction of a certain degree of industrial satisfaction if there is now any further prolonged development offers the best hope of improving the delay in providing the machinery and the legislation social and economic conditions in the countryside. in readiness for the work to be done when the War The two main advantages are the provision of alter­ is won. A large part of the means of establishing a native employment, usually with higher standards of policy which will command the full support of iving, and the introduction of improved physical and forward-looking minds in all parties is now in the social services. hands of the Government, and though it is clear that In regard to the preservation of amenities, Prof. there are fields in which policy has yet to be thought Dennison challenges the majority view that amenities out and investigations completed, public opinion will iepend on farming, or even on a particular type of assuredly look for the action which will equip the agriculture. Changes in the type of farming and the country to seize the opportunities which will pre­ development of physical reconstruction may bring sently be ours. THE TRIUMPH OF TIME As a summary of a lifetime’s study of the funda­ mentals and ultimates of existence, the book is sur­ The Conquest of Time prising in two respects. In the first place, it is written By H. G. Wells. (The Thinker’s Library, No. 92.) more carelessly than one would have thought fitting Pp. x + 86. (London : W atts and Co., Ltd., 1942.) for the occasion. True, we sometimes meet the perfect 2s. net. phrase—for example, the reference to “a God-shaped void” in the mind of the infant—but more often HIS little book has been written by Mr. Wells to passages occur which seem meaningless, such as “this Tsupersede “First and Last Things”, which was present period of world warfare, in which . . . people his attempt in 1908 “to get my ideas about the worlddie far more significantly than they have ever died and myself into some sort of order”. The new volume before”, or “Natural Philosophy . . . went along the is stated on the cover to be the author’s presentation line of science, in the expectation that a great free of “the final fruits of his philosophic thought”, and correlation of individual effort would ensue without he himself presents it as ‘ ‘a fairly lucid and consistent further effort as the collective truth”. Secondly, summary of modern ideas concerning the funda­ there is little of the “serene and impersonal con­ mentals and ultimates of existence”. The change of templation” which is to mark the maturity of the title is at least appropriate, for one who has con­ new man and which, we are told, one may “share quered time becomes as God, with whom there is no to a very considerable extent even now”. The book last or first, and the brevity of the book is as com­ is as full of vigour and combativeness as anything mendable as it is rare in a treatment of so large a that Mr. Wells has written ; it looks for strength in theme. vitriolic protestation rather than in quietness and Mr. Wells’s philosophy is as follows. The indi­ in confidence. It impresses one, in fact, as the product vidual hum an life is a synthesis of isolated experiences, more of temporary excitement than of settled con­ often mistakenly regarded as continuous. This illusion viction. of temporal continuity creates a dread of its cessation, It is, however, the substance of the book, and not death, and of pain, and gives rise to an idea of per­ its form, that calls for chief attention, and it may be sistence after death which imposes the tyranny of said at once that it is unconvincing. To explain the dead past on the living present. The individual why, it is necessary to consider briefly what we mean is actually an element in a larger structure, the by time, and how we have come to mean it. species, with which it interacts. The character of the It is not generally realized by modern scientific species largely determines (through both physical thinkers what little prominence time had in pre- inheritance and mental adaptation) the character of Galilean philosophies. It was taken for granted as the individual, whose variations from the norm in being practically identical with consciousness itself, turn react on and modify the character of the species. thus calling for no special thought on its own account. The individual life is thus not “a tale told by an The great achievement of Galileo was to create con­ idiot” ; it is a factor in the progress towards “the ceptions in terms of which motion could be treated awakening of consciousness in the universe”. As the mathematically, and to this end he represented time universe through the species advances to this goal, as a space-like dimension which could be measured— the successive generations of individuals gradually divided up into equal parts as a length is. But this become freed from the tyranny of time. They cease dimension, or spacified extension, of time was so con­ to fear death, they acquire more knowledge of the ceived for the one purpose of making motion amenable forgotten past and more insight into the future, thus to mathematical treatment. The world describable acquiring “an ever-expanding Now”. The religion in term 3 of it was specifically limited by Galileo to of the new man “demands the subordination of the the world of mechanical phenomena. All else—even self, of the aggressive personality, to the common physical experiences like heat, sounds, smells, colours creative task, which is the conquest and animation and the rest—he excluded from this world and of the universe by life”. The full course of the in­ located in the perceiving being. dividual human life will be “from action to an It is difficult to over-estimate the value of this ultimate serene and impersonal contemplation. The colossal achievement, for it has made possible the body and the personality will die at length like an whole of modern physical science. It is difficult also old garment laid aside”. to over-estimate the illusions it has created, for, hav­ All this drama of evolution, however, is simply an ing seen the value of the concept of ‘spacified’ time in appearance to our conscious life of what is actually mechanics, subsequent thinkers, less perspicacious a rigid, determined system in four-dimensional space­ than Galileo, have taken it to be a universal receptacle time. The latter is the reality ; “it is simply from for the whole of human experience, and therefore as the subjective and illusory point of view that there representing in a more precise form everything that seems to be free movement”—that is, movement human consciousness has ever meant by time. Con­ along the time axis. “Our consciousness is a series sequently, the whole of experience has been distorted of delusively unified conditioned reflexes”—an “illu­ to fit a concept to which most of it is non-conform- sion of a unified personality” which “joins up a series able. Our experiences have been ranged out in the of traces which constitute our conscious life”. The mathematical continuum, and hopes and fears anti passage of time is an illusion ; all that is actual in passions (which are obviously non-spatial) have been personal life is a discrete set of static points in the placed cheek by jowl with the spatial positions of rigid four dimensional system, and somewhere in that mass particles as occurring at such and such instants frame, at places having higher values of the (-co­ of spacified time, and the incongruous “history” thus ordinate than ours, a very much larger number built up has been regarded as something objectively of, points—“the universe”—possesses consciousness “true” and infinitely more “realistic” than the direct (which presumably means that it also has illusions, experiences which have been so regimented. though Mr. Wells does not state specifically what How different our modern conception of time is the life of the universe is). This is the conquest of from that of pre-Galilean thinkers may be illustrated time. in several ways, of which perhaps the simplest is to ask what we mean by the “reversal” of time. We so as to go faster than that alleged maximum. But take this now to mean simply a reversal of.the order in reality you cannot do that. You are imagining of events in the time sequence, made visible by running the impossible.” a cinema film backwards, because we have lost the This is quite wrong. Whether the rocket is moving habit of thinking of time except as a space-like with any speed at all or is at rest, you can leap for­ dimension. To a pre-Galilean, however, the phrase ward just the same ; it is, in fact, the first principle would have seemed rather silly, but it would have of relativity that what happens in a system is inde­ suggested a state of mind in which one knew the pendent of the uniform motion of that system as a future but not the past, and as fast as the future whole. The finite maximum of material velocities is became realized it would be forgotten except in so a characteristic not of motion but of the terms in far as we might calculate it as we now calculate which we choose to measure motion. What is true is future eclipses. The reversal of time would have been that, when we leap forward from the rocket, an a passage from actuality into impotentiality, instead observer to whom the rocket is moving at Mr. Wells’s of that from potentiality into actuality of which we speed and who adopts our customary method of are, in fact, conscious. The loss of ready awareness measuring velocities, will find our speed represented of this aspect of time, and the imposition of another, by the same number as that of the rocket. But we admirably suited for its purpose, on the whole of can with equal justification choose a different scale experience, for most of which it is not at all suited, of velocity units such that any velocity up to infinity is the true tyranny, and the first step towards any is possible. Bridgman has described a simple process conquest of time must be the relief of our thought which will serve our purpose. Imagine a framework from this incubus. carrying a string along which a transverse vibration Towards this end Mr. Wells contributes nothing. may be sent at a definite speed relatively to the He accepts unquestioned the Galilean conception, in framework. Call this unit speed. Now let the frame­ its Einstein-Minkowski rather than its Newtonian work of an exactly similar system travel side by side development, and is blind to all that it ignores. He with this vibration. The vibration of its string will tries to mould experience to fit it, and thinks that he then move forward (relatively to the first framework, has thereby released experience from it. His “con­ which is the standard of rest throughout) at two of quest” of time is, in fact, a complete and whole­ our units of speed. By continuing the process we hearted surrender. He maps out the history of the can build up a scale of velocities extending upwards individual and the species ; shows where our various to infinity. emotions and aspirations are located in the time Now let us measure some naturally occurring sequence of the individual; is convinced that when speed—that of an a-particle, say—by such a scale. he has so distributed all the experiences which come Then there is no limit to the speed which may be within range of his knowledge the individual ceases reached. We may imagine a particle, when it is near to be ; and sums up our personalities as merely the speed of light, emitting an electron in the same “serviceable synthetic illusions of continuity”. direction which travels twice as fast by this scale as Mr. Wells’s view of the space-time continuum of the particle itself. By our ordinary system of measure­ relativity is fundamentally erroneous. That con­ ment the electron would be reckoned as moving only tinuum is a conception, a development of the original slightly faster than the a-particle. That is because Galilean terms more flexible than the Newtonian de­ the limitation is inherent in the method of measure­ velopment, and so better fitted for the purposes of ment ; it is not something imposed on the behaviour mechanical physics. It is not, as Mr. Wells imagines, of the moving body. something independently existing to which experience We may take a third system of measurement. A must be adapted, bu t precisely the reverse. W e do not moving body can exhibit a Doppler effect, and we explore the universe and count its dimensions; we try can measure its speed by the displacement of a to rationalize our experience of movements, and choose spectrum line. Choose a scale of velocities such that as a means of doing so the concept of a continuum velocity is proportional to the change of wave-length, of 1,2,3 . . . . or n dimensions, whichever makes dX ; for any speed small compared with that of light our task simplest. In science experience is sacred. this will be very close to our present scale. But now We may describe it as we like in order to establish with this scale a speed of recession may be infinite, rational relations between one experience and another, but a speed of approach cannot be greater than a but what we cannot do is to deny it; hence what­ certain finite value, simply because a wave-length ever we do with motion cannot legitimately contain can be increased w ithout lim it, but cannot be decreased a denial of it. Now let us hear Mr. Wells : “From below zero. The same moving body, measured from the standpoint of the space-time continuum there is in front, moves with the finite speed of light, and, no movement; the whole system is rigid. It is measured from behind, moves infinitely fast. The simply from the subjective and illusory point of view fact is that we can impose a finite limit on speeds, that there seems to be free movement.” He takes or let them become infinite, by suitably choosing our the Frankenstein monster and puts the experience arbitrary procedure for measuring them. This is for which it was created under its control. literally true, because “finite” and “infinite” pertain This inversion of the order of scientific reasoning, to measures, and not to what is measured. They are by which experience is subjected to the creations of characteristics of numbers ; they have nothing to do reason instead of being the origin and end of their with experiences—or with Nature, if one prefers that creation, is so vital to the whole subject that another term . example will not be out of place. “In our universe”, The deeper insight into the character of scientific writes Mr. Wells, “the extreme limit of motion is reasoning which relativity has made possible is not *99 ,796 kilometres a second. Nothing has even been to be fully appreciated in a generation, and no reason­ Itnown to go faster than that. You can imagine able person would expect Mr. Wells, whose synoptic SttJurself doing so, you can imagine yourself on a rocket view takes the whole field of human endeavour as Soing at 299,796 kilometres a second, and you can its field, to be familiar with all that many specialists pmagine yourself standing up and leaping forward still find strange and paradoxical. But when he takes this very point of the maximum attainable velocity wild ecstasies shall be matured into a sober pleasure, as the text for a sermon on the “great irritation of and he has reached the serenity of contemplation into commonplace people” faced with the necessity of which the individual life shall widen out, he will give shedding cherished ideas ; and, further, builds on his us another version of the final fruits of his philosophic own misconceptions a system of philosophy which thought. It is distressing to think that a life of such he presents with such blind dogmatism that he can great achievement and penetrating vision should declare that one who sees its worth “is bound to culminate in such an anticlimax. regard a bishop or a contemporary statesman as H e r b e b t D in g l e . somewhat of a barbarian and morally and mentally his inferior. . . . It is difficult to talk to them as equals”—even those who most admire Mr. Wells’s great gifts and are most conscious of the sincerity INTROSPECTIVE PSYCHOLOGY and disinterestedness of his efforts towards a better and happier state of existence, must feel the necessity Body and Self, One and Inseparable of pointing out that his magnificent castle is nothing Also Cosmic Rays and Light and other Writings. but a mirage, and that he has little chance of seeing By Percy A. Campbell. Pp. vii-f 156. (San Francisco : anything more substantial until he is prepared to George Fields, 1942.) 2.50 dollars. grant some measure of intelligence to those who announce a different prospect, even though to him HIS book consists of an essay in introspective it may seem only a sandy waste. psychology, and miscellaneous papers written So much for the error which lies at the root of Tbetween 1933 and 19-12, which are chiefly concerned Mr. Wells’s philosophy. It remains to indicate the with the primary cosmic rays. illusory character of the most prominent feature of The value of any work in introspective psychology the philosophy itself. He is clearly justified in regard­ is difficult to assess as there is no objective standard ing the individual, the self, as a conception (“illusion” against which it can be measured. It can only be is not the right word) of continuity binding together referred to the self-observation of the reader, who, if a discontinuous set of memories. I can remember he is to avoid dogmatism, must tacitly prefix the some incidents in my life, between which gaps exist phrase ‘so far as my experience of myself is concerned’ in the time-scale, and to rationalize my experience to any judgment which he may make about it. The I therefore form a conception of a continuously exist­ only approach to an objective standard would lie in ing individual, my “self”, of whose career I have for­ the work of great artists, poets and philosophers, gotten some portions. In the same way, if I observe whose peculiar genius it is to express emotional and a sunspot on Monday, miss the cloudy Tuesday, see intellectual experience which is common to all, and it nearer the centre of the sun’s disk on Wednesday in which we realize ourselves to be at one. The and later near one limb of the sun, lose it for a fort­ language of this experience being artistic and con­ night or so, and then pick it up near the opposite ceptual symbolism (as found in groat works of art limb, I form a conception of a continuously existing and systems of philosophy), introspective psychology •spot which has rotated uninterruptedly with the sun. would appear to be an inhabitant of the mind’s no- There comes a time, however, when I no longer see man’s-land, belonging neither to science, art, nor it where the postulated continuity of existence would philosophy. In my own view, however (and all state­ lead me to expect, and I say that it has ceased to be ments in this review will perforce be based upon that), —or has “died” if I wish to be poetic. Now it may the value of such an essay as this lies in the fact be that my continuous self will similarly cease to be— that it does strike a note in the mind of the reader I do not doubt it—but I see no reason to suppose which sets him thinking ; and that it does suggest that therefore I, who conceived it, will thereupon a new pattern for his thought useful to him in what­ cease to be conscious, any more than I ceased to be ever branch of life he may bo working. conscious when the sunspot ceased to be. Anyone Mr. Campbell was a pupil of William James for a who thinks I will must give some reason for his short time, and the essay takes the form of a com­ belief; there is none in the mere ending of what Mr. mentary on James’s thought and psychological obser­ Wells goes so far as to call an “illusion”. vation. The main thesis is th a t the centre of conscious­ The fallacy in Mr. Wells’s argument is that he con­ ness is not in the brain, but in the sensorium. The fuses the subjective, conscious individual, which is brain is merely the ‘central telephone exchange’. never in the time dimension or time stream or what­ Consciousness proceeds from the functioning together ever it may be called, with the postulated object of of the various elements in the body. The James-Lange consciousness—the continuously existing self which theory, referred to frequently in the essay, is the is conceived so that it does lie along the time axis. classic example of this position. It follows that The one fundamental and inescapable characteristic ‘conscious is as conscious does’, and that psychology of the conscious individual is that it is always and has no need of a separate self, a dens ex machina only at the present; I cannot be conscious at any aloof and exalted. Individuality depends upon the time b ut now, and this is not an accident, it is manner of integration of the bodily functions. To obviously of the very essence of consciousness. The take an analogy from art, the self is like an aisthetic conquest of time consists simply in realizing that we whole, which is dependent for its own particular already know that. All the interactions of the postu­ wholeness upon the relationship of the elements used lated individual and the postulated species which in its creation : though these elements—for oxample, Mr. Wells describes so succinctly are actual and colour, form, and canvas —may not vary, they may important, but they do not touch the question of the produce an infinite number of ‘wholes’. destiny of the conscious individual ; they refer to a Another implication of Mr. Campbell’s position is few among the many things of which he is conscious. “consciousness is consciousness only to itself”. Belief Despite the length of Mr. Wells’s extension along in the soul is a “song of the sensorium”, a false sense the i-axis, he is still mentally as young as ever. We of selfhood and separateness arising from the play of may therefore hope that in after-years, when these consciousness upon itself. Many great thinkers have been “soul-mongers”, and Mr. Campbell instances in this War are attacking under the name of humani- James himself as an outstanding example. tarianism. Moreover, this conception of fundamental Mr. Campbell’s thesis strikes a very familiar note human rights as individuals and as citizens is recog­ in my sensorium (or, rather, in the sensorium that is nized as carrying the corresponding obligation for the me). The intellectualist de,us ex machina is well and community as a whole of securing for its members the truly consigned to limbo, together with all the notions fullest development of which they are capable in of separateness which go with it, and all the volumes both these capacities, and at the same time of training of metaphysical sticking-plaster which have gone to them in respect for the equal rights and freedom of rectify a state of affairs which never existed. Senti­ others. mental ‘uplift’ has been well and truly pinned down The first of these pamphlets, by E. M. Hubback, as a “song of the sensorium”, and one finds oneself “How to Lead Discussion Groups”, deals with the collecting other examples of that handy form of efficient setting up and running of such groups. It entertainment. But does Mr. Campbell go far enough ? is intended mainly for the use of less experienced After reading his book I find Shelley’s question rising leaders and chairmen of small groups anxious to unbidden in my mind : discuss public affairs, but the greater part of the pamphlet is occupied by an excellent bibliography “Whence are we, and why are we ? Of what scene ranging over modern political ideas; government The actors or spectators ?” institutions and social and economic problems in To pursue the analogy of the self and the artist’s Great Britain ; the British Commonwealth ; foreign canvas, what of the idea, the motive force which countries ; international affairs ; and on clear think­ both preceded the grouping of colours and forms and ing and psychology. This bibliography, though which finds expression as the genius, the raison d'etre, selective, is well balanced and should render the of the picture ? It did not just happen. It was pamphlet of much wider service than to the novitiate generated in someone’s mind. Does Mr. Campbell, in group discussion. therefore, pursue his analysis far enough to be justi­ Mr. Francis Williams’s pamphlet (No. 2. “The fied in his conclusions ? If the affirmation of the Democratic Idea”) is of an entirely different type. soul is a ‘song of the sensorium’, the negation of the In four brief chapters he sets forth lucidly and soul smacks dangerously of being another. Although suggestively the challenge that is inherent in the it is agreed that there is no separate self, the existence democratic idea, its slow emergence from the first of a principle of integration, different in different stirrings in ancient Greece to the American Declara­ individuals, is actually implied by this essay, while tion of Independence, its meaning and effect on the involving no idea of separateness. Some such notion whole pattern of our lives, the values that spring as this seems to have been at the back of James’s from this recognition of human dignity, and the mind in the passage quoted as an example of his practical problems that confront us as we seek to “soul-mongering”. translate the ideals of democracy into a system of “The perfect object of belief would be a God or living as a community. The task of relating the ‘Soul of the World’ . . . so definitely conceived as to latest expression of democracy in the four freodoms show us why our phenomenal experiences should be of President Roosevelt with its historical origins and sent to us by Him in just the very way in which they slow evolution could scarcely have been better done come. . . .” (“Principles of Psychology” , vol. 2, p. 317, in such brief compass, and Mr. Williams does not quoted on p. 116). fail to lay stress on the duties as well as the privileges Lastly, it is worthy of mention that the greatest of democracy, or to indicate the ways in which we ‘soul-mongers’ have been fully convinced of their own may equip ourselves to discharge such responsi­ impermanence, and have been certain that their bilities. reality lay in their being an effluence, an expression, Elizabeth E. Halton’s pamphlet (No. 4. “Our a creation. B. M. B. Towns”) is equally felicitous. Her method is entirely different. Rapidly but concisely she travels over the whole range of problems involved in rebuilding our towns, from the design of the house to suit the DISCUSSIONS ON CITIZENSHIP needs of widely varying types of occupation, the problems of roads, of open spaces, of transport, the Handbooks for Discussion Groups location of industry, the planning of town and No. 1 : How to Lead Discussion Groups. By E. M. countryside, to questions of cost and maintenance. Hubback. No. 2 : The Democratic Idea. By Francis Her annotations are good, and discussion groups Williams. No. 3 : Is Britain a Democracy ? By taking up this pamphlet should be enabled to arrive Frank Hardie. No. 4 : Our Towns. By Elizabeth at a sound and well-balanced opinion on the policy E. Halton. Pp. 24 each. (Published for the Associa­ and action that will be required. tion for Education in Citizenship.) (Bickley : English Mr. Hardie’s pamphlet (No. 3. “Is Britain a Universities Press, Ltd., 1942.) 3d. net each. Democracy ?”) is scarcely in the same class as the other three, but none the less should serve its end, HE series of Handbooks for Discussion Groups though his bibliography is open to criticism as much which has been issued by the Association for too limited. It is longer than the others, but it TEducation in Citizenship, judging by the fourcovers its ground thoroughly and is likely to stimu­ which are here under notice, appears to be admir­ late lively discussion when used intelligently. Of ably designed for the purpose it seeks to serve. this no less than of the remaining pamphlets, it can There can be no two opinions in a democratic society be said that they should not disappoint the hopes of as to the crucial importance of the organized dis­ the Association for Education in Citizenship that cussion of the social, economic and political problems they will play a useful part in ensuring that the which have arisen or are arising out of the War. The inevitable changes in social arrangements and assump­ pamphlets are based frankly on the idea of democracy tions are faced in an atmosphere of co-operation and and in support of what the enemies of the democracies goodwill. both of the Town and Country Planning Act, 1932, LAND UTILIZATION IN ENGLAND under which the unwillingness of many local authori­ AND WALES ties to collaborate with their neighbours has been lamentably apparent, and of the Restriction of Ribbon HE report which the Committee on Land Utilisa­ Development Act, 1935, the weaknesses of both Acts tion in Rural Areas, under Lord Justice Scott being concisely indicated. Both failed for the same T as chairman, has submitted includes the majorityreason—the claims for compensation against the report and also a minority report by Prof. S. R. authority administering the Act. Assuming there­ Dennison, which differs in outlook and its observa­ fore that the policy of the Government includes the tions on policy rather than in the detail of the actual establishment of a Central Planning Authority, the recommendations, particularly in regard to machinery Committee in the third part of the report outlines and procedure, a note of reservation by Prof. Dennison the machinery and procedure required for planning and Mrs. H. Hichens and an additional memorandum and development. The Government machinery for on valuation and rating by the chairman, vice- the formulation and execution of national planning chairman, Mr. H. S. Cooper, Mr. A. E. Monks and is conceived as consisting of a standing committee Mr. P. Robinson. The Committee was appointed by of the Ministers concerned under the chairmanship Lord Reith in October 1941 to consider the conditions of a non-departmental Minister of Cabinet rank, which should govern building and other constructional Government departments concerned with develop­ development in country areas of Great Britain con­ ment, a Central Planning Commission and such ad hoc sistently with the maintenance of agriculture, and in bodies as may be required to carry out functions not particular the factors affecting the location of industry, already covered by existing Ministers or other having regard to economic operation, part-time and authorities or bodies. seasonal employment, the well-being of rural com­ The Central Planning Commission should consist munities and the preservation o f rural amenities. The o f a full-time independent paid chairman, with terms of reference did not include Scotland. ministerial status, and a number of part-time or full­ The majority report is in three parts. The first time commissioners chosen on account of their special reviews the present position, successive chapters deal­ qualifications and knowledge as individuals of proved ing with the land and population, the countryside, ability in their own spheres. The staff of the Com­ the impact of town on country, the effects of urban mission should consist of Civil Service personnel, growth on the countryside, the War and probable chosen with an internal knowledge of the departments post-war trends and planning powers. The admir­ with which the Commission will be in contact, and able chapter on the countryside describes the pattern other persons, including some specialists, chosen for of the countryside and its evolution, including their knowledge of particular subjects and the the influence of agriculture and types of farming and prosecution of research. Outside London, the Com­ factors determining farming systems, the origins of mission should be represented by local officers to the landscape pattern and the changes during the settle so far as possible all matters of local importance. last few decades, as well as the drift from the land and The duties of the Commission should include unified its causes. The Committee points out that the beauty research and inquiry ; the collection and correlation and pattern of the countryside are the direct result of information and the direction of research in con­ of the cultivation of the soil, and there is no antagon­ nexion therewith ; the formulation of national ism between use and beauty. The physical impact of planning principles in accordance with directions re­ town on country is then analysed, as well as the ceived from the Minister, and the translation of consequences which have flowed from the greater national policy into concrete terms of national appearance of the townsman in the country, whether planning ; the formulation and communication of as a rambler, a motorist or a week-end visitor. A general principles for the guidance of local planning study of the effects of urban growth on the country­ authorities and the initiation, either direct or through side leads to the conclusion that, on balance, more the local officers, of schemes of national importance ; harm than good has been done to the countryside and the approval or disapproval of plans submitted in England and Wales by constructional development by local planning authorities and decisions thereon in before the War, while the broad conclusions reached accordance with Government policy. While much as a result of the review of the developments of the of the work of the Commission will be advisory, there pre-war years and the changes brought about by should be a statutory obligation on all departmental the War are that the former trends of constructional Ministries to afford all requisite information to the development, with some slight modifications tending Commission, and to consult with it and to consider to a greater diffusion into country areas, will, unless its advice. Exceptionally, bodies with executive checked and diverted, reassert themselves after the powers, for example, a National Parks Authority, War. A post-war building boom, possibly even more may be set up where the policy of the Minister of intensive than that which took place in the 1920’s, National Planning requires executive action. if left to take care of itself, will lead to the same and In regard to local planning, the report recommends probably worse evils than those which characterized that the local authorities continue to exercise their the inter-war period. The evils to the social well­ functions as planning authorities, but no longer with­ being of town inhabitants as a result of ill-considered out guidance, and it should not be possible for local or uncontrolled urban spread are now well known, authorities to refuse to co-operate in planning schemes. and the evils from the point of view of the country­ Local planning must be compulsory and not per­ side were no less apparent in the years leading up to missive. Normally, the primary local planning unit the present War. The future of the countryside will should be the county or a county borough and its be profoundly affected by the choice between hap­ surrounding area, or a comparable combination of hazard and planned constructional development. local government units. Qualified personnel must This argument for the immediate establishment be employed, and consultation between neighbouring of the necessary machinery for planning and control planning authorities be compulsory. Local planning is reinforced by a survey of present planning powers, authorities should be freed from the restrictions in zoning agricultural land due to liability for com­ town- and country-planning schemes to cover the pensation, and where they are carrying out their whole of England and Wales, providing a full indica­ assigned part in a national plan, the expense should tion of the areas where industrial zones are or are not fall on their own local financial resources. not to be established, and satellite towns or new In regard to procedure, the Committee considers settlements located ; secondly, a definite number that direct national action on broad lines will be of houses for rural workers ; a full survey of all required by the Central Planning Authority without villages and hamlets to determine the existing facilities waiting for the formulation and submission of for village social centres (including playing-fields), planning schemes by local planning authorities. The and the drawing up of a plan for the provision where work of determining the main types of land along suitable of centres of the village college type, and the the lines used by the Land Utilization Survey is part opening in all counties of a long-term building pro­ of the research which should be organized by or on gramme ; programmes for electricity, water and gas, behalf of the Central Planning Authority. The recom­ based on the survey made in the first year ; the mended procedure for controlling land use in country national park scheme, with hostels, etc., in working areas involves the national delineation of certain land order ; the determination and sign-posting of all foot­ areas; the local zoning of land similar to that paths and bridle-paths ; rules, if any, for the control adopted in present town and country planning of access to the countryside, the use of commons ■schemes ; and the consideration of individual cases in and highways and other rights of way ; the elimina­ certain zones where such a course appears desirable. tion of unsightly advertisements, petrol stations, etc. ; In planning rural land, the majority report recom­ and the registration of title. With all this, an educa­ mends that particular importance should be attached tional campaign to promote better understanding to agricultural considerations, and that land included between town and country should be carried on in one of the categories of good land should not be continuously. alienated from its present use unless it can be clearly This outline of the recommended five-year plan shown that it is in the national interest that the indicates how comprehensive are the recommenda change should be made. Again, the majority report tions of the majority report detailed in Part II and recommends that the power of compulsory acquisition summarized in Part V. Some of these have already of land by the State be exercised where required in been outlined in describing the five-year plan. Others the interests of national planning or for achieving relate to forestry and arboriculture, where an ex­ that high degree of permanent efficiency in agriculture tension of afforestation on poor land together with which vitally affects the essence of the problem. They the establishment of foresters’ part-time holdings recommend that the new 2 i in. to the mile maps and national forest parks are recommended, as well be made available for all planning purposes, and as enforcement by the Forestry Commission of the stress the importance of adequate status and training proper management of all woodland in the country. of planners and architects. Great importance is In regard to village institutions, establishment of a attached to a very high standard of professional permanent advisory committee on village life and qualifications being required and maintained. institutions is recommended, as well as the provision In the fourth part of the report, there is outlined of adequate playing-fields for every village. The a five-year plan for England and Wales, starting importance attached to housing, to the provision of from the position as it will be after the War and not electricity at no higher price to the consumer than as it is at this moment, though between then and in the towns, the extension of gas supplies to rural now the extremely important work of recording war­ areas, to a review of the whole question of water time changes and of collecting and tabulating supply, all undertakings for which should be brought statistically and cartographically the developments under national planning control, has already been now taking place must be completed. Research work indicated, while other major recommendations cover carried out by the Planning Division of the Ministry industry in country areas and housing and planning of Works and Planning, the Farm Survey of the in such areas, as well as such matters as aerodromes, Ministry of Agriculture, and the Nuffield College defence works, roads and railways, advertisements Social Reconstruction Survey are regarded as essen­ and cemeteries. tial parts of the war effort. A proper co-ordination In regard to the farmer, it is recommended that of the research underlying national planning is an extractive industries should be subject to effective essential function of the Central Planning Authority. planning control, and that in principle no person or While some of the essential research cannot be carried body should be allowed to work land for the ex­ out until the War ends, the Committee recommends traction of minerals and leave it in a derelict con­ that a plan be drawn up, consistent with the general dition. Legislation should be passed imposing an policy for continuous national planning, of work to obligation on all those who derive benefit from the be completed within five years. working of land for minerals to restore that land for Within the first year, the system of land classifica­ agriculture or afforestation or other purposes within tion for planning purposes should be agreed, and the a short specified time after the land has been worked standard procedure for co-operation between the out. The dispersal and future use of war factories appropriate town-planning officers and officers repre­ established in the countryside should be determined senting agricultural and rural interests laid down, by the Central Planning Authority in conjunction the panels of architects and planners set up, the with the other departments concerned. Linked comprehensive investigation of electricity, gas and industries should remain in existing urban concen­ water supplies and the demarcation of national parks trations or trading estates, and where light industries and natural reserves completed, and the National are brought into rural areas, they should be located Parks Authority established. The Government should in existing . or new small towns. Production and lay down a definite agricultural and food policy for storage units of public utility undertakings located at least five years, having regard to the increasing in villages or in the open countryside should be sub­ knowledge of nutrition and the national health. ject to street planning control as regards siting and Within the five years there should be completed first appearance. Rural trades and crafts should continue to be sited in small towns or villages and should three-dimensionality of the crystal shape is carried be encouraged. No modern industry has been over to the array of secondary diffraction maxima suggested which would provide seasonal or part-time which surround each main maximum. The resulting employment for agricultural workers and their complicated intensity distribution in space, modified families, and appropriate bodies should be asked to by the ‘crystal shape factor’, is the three-dimensional make a special study of this problem. Before new generalization of the well-known one-dimensional dif­ towns are established in country areas, vacant or fraction function which determines the resolving derelict industrial sites in existing towns should be power of a plane grating of finite width. fully utilized. New satellite towns, housing estates, The most profound influence of the three- garden cities and suburbs should be sited wherever dimensionality is, however, to be found in the strong practicable away from the better farm land, and due interaction of each element with all its neighbours ; attention paid to agricultural considerations in their this makes the theory of diffraction a part of the siting. Sporadic buildings in villages and rural areas major problem of the propagation of an optical field should be controlled, and new villages and extensions through the crystal, that is, part of the problem of of villages should be planned and should be so far refraction and dispersion by the crystal. The result­ as possible of a compact and closely knit character. ing ‘dynamical theory’ of X-ray diffraction is fully All new villages and country towns should be situated treated in Laue’s book. away from main traffic roads though within easy access While these points still bear a correspondence to of them, and all existing villages and country towns the problems encountered for the plane grating, there which have main traffic roads running through them are three others which liave no counterpart. The should be by-passed so far as possible. New buildings first of these is due to the thermal motion of the in country areas should use to the full all the possi­ diffracting centres, which not only produces an un­ bilities which new materials and new building tech­ avoidable irregularity of the lattice but also endows niques have made available, though the buildings each centre with a velocity leading to a Doppler should be designed so as to harmonize with their effect of the scattered radiation. The second new surroundings. point is the production of scattered radiation of in­ coherent character and of Compton-modified fre­ quency. The last is connected with the possibility of generating, for example by electronic bombardment THEORY OF X-RAY DIFFRACTION of the crystal, monochromatic radiation at the interior By P rof. P. P. EWALD of the crystal; this radiation has been shown by Queen’s University, Belfast Kossel to emerge preferentially in certain directions. The aspects of the theory as enumerated determine HE numerous books on the diffraction of X-rays the scheme of Lavie’s book. The author starts with by crystals all treat the subject with the view the theory of atomic scattering along wave-mechanical T of introducing the reader to the methods for deter­lines, but in rather a novel manner. He first points mining crystal structures. It is true that some out that the general theory of integration of Maxwell’s presentation of the theory of optical interference can­ equations permits the introduction of various forms not be omitted and that the various books go into of scalar and vector potentials. Now for the perturba­ this theory to varying degrees. B ut it is only v. Laue’s tion problem of finding the scattered radiation with­ recent book* which makes the optical theory of X-ray out blurring the distinction between the perturbing interference in crystals its main aim. In it, the usual incident potential and the normal constitutional methods of crystal structure determination are cur­ potential of the atom, only one of these forms is tailed or omitted, since they involve more geometrical suitable, namely that in which the fields derived than optical discussion, once the reduced intensities from the vector potential cannot cancel those derived Are taken as known. Om itted as well is the description from the scalar potential. This is true for the atom of experimental methods, as the emphasis of the book as well as for the entire crystal, and the correct intro­ is on theory. duction of the potential is essential for the unity of What variety and scope the subject presents will method in treating atoms and crystals. The full become apparent on comparing it with the correspond­ development of the method will Be found in the para­ ing theory of the diffraction of light by a plane optical graphs introducing the dynamical theory, where the grating. This theory consists of two parts : the dif­ wave-mechanical concepts are further related to fraction by a single element of the grating (slit, wire classical Maxwellian theory. The existence of the or groove) and the action produced by the repetition Schroedinger current can be interpreted classically of such elements. The first part is not important for as due to a changing polarization, and the polarization most aspects of the effect of a plane grating, other together with the electric field vector E can be com­ than the distribution of intensities over the spectra pounded to a dielectric displacement D. This is as of different orders. Its counterpart in X-ray dif­ in Lorentz’s theory of electrons, except for the differ­ fraction is the theory of the atomic factor, and this ence th a t D is here a vector locally determined by the brings the subject at once into the domain of wave- -function for each electron, and not an average mechanical atomic theory. value over a distribution of polarization unknown in The second part of the theory, the grating effect detail. The distinction between E and D leads to the proper, is more involved for X-rays by the fact that definition of a dielectric constant which for a crystal they encounter in a crystal a three-dimensional is a periodic function in space. The theory of diffrac­ grating. This fact leads to geometrical propositions tion and of scattering is thus reduced to the problem concerning the main directions of diffraction which of integrating the Maxwellian equations for the equal in beauty the geometrical constructions of the propagation of waves in a medium of varying dielectric Fresnel-Hamiltonian crystal optics. Furthermore, the constant. These variations are determined, according to wave-mechanics, by the ground state of the system * Röntgenstrahlinterferenzen. Von Prof. M. v. Lane. Pp. viii-J-358. (Leipzig : Akademische VerlagsgeseUschaft Becker und Erlcr Kom. as long as absorption is negligible, and by higher Ges., 1941.) states as well near absorption edges. The reduction of the problem of X-ray diffraction thermal factor differs from the recent treatment on to wave-mechanics has been developed in papers by wave-mechanical lines given by Bom and Miss Sargin- Laue and his co-workers Kohler, Moliere, Lamia, but son and others, but it seems unlikely that the results it is given a more connected discussion in this book. would be greatly affected. Its main advantage is the uniformity of method in As a second step, of purely dynamical, not optical, treating the scattering by atoms, molecules and theory, the mean square displacements of the atoms, crystals, and for the latter the foundation of the resolved along the normal to the reflecting planes, dynamical theory on the Fourier series for the have to be calculated as functions of the temperature. electron density in the crystal. Laue’s book, stressing the optical part, does no more Among the problems that have to be dealt with by than outline this problem. the dynamical theory are the intensity of reflexion In the last third of the book, which deals with by a perfect crystal, the multiple reflexion resulting the dynamical theory, many interesting details will in a weakening (Aufhellung) or strengthening be found apart from the general approach which has (Umweganregung) of the main reflexion, and the already been described above. The theory of “lattice source method” of diffraction of Kossel. The Renninger’s ‘multiple reflection’ and of Kossel’s latter has been reduced in a most elegant way by ‘crystal source method’ are worked o u t; with respect Laue to the established formalism of the dynamical to the former it seems a pity that no attention has theory by using an optical reciprocity theorem which been given to the experimental and theoretical work relates the intensity received outside the crystal from of Weigle and co-workers. A careful discussion is a source inside it to the intensity created by an ex­ given of the transition from the dynamical to the ternal source at the point of emission within the kinematical theory in the case of small crystals. crystal. Another item is the dynamical theory for frequencies Apart from the dynamical theory, the optical side near to an absorption edge, following a paper by of the theory of the temperature factor has been G. Moliere. treated with great care and clarity by v. Laue. It is Anyone familiar with the subject will appreciate true that this theory remains on the level of the the sound physical and mathematical basis of v. Laue’s ‘kinematical’ theory of diffraction which includes only book, and the many original and critical ideas incor­ •such effects as result from composing scattered wave­ porated in it. The reading is not difficult in spite of lets derived from a single primary (incident) wave of the fairly involved mathematics, and the limitation given propagation. Instead, the treatment to be of the book to points of major optical interest ex­ aimed at should be to study the propagation of an cludes detail which may be necessary for the dis­ optical field, consisting of an indefinite number of cussion of experimental data, but which would fatigue waves of adaptable velocities, through the tem- the general reader. It is to be hoped that the author perature-disturbed crystal, in the same way as it is may find it possible to complete a similar account done for the undisturbed crystal in the dynamical of the theory of electron diffraction, a closely related theory. subject on which he has been engaged for the last This combined thermal-dynamical theory has so ten years simultaneously with the subject presented far not been attempted. Laue’s treatment is, however, in this volume. ■superior to most previous presentations in employing a uniform method for discussing the temperature effect on the scattering by molecules and by crystals. In both systems the thermal displacements can be KEY METALS AND THE LOCATION regarded as due to superimposed normal oscillations about the equilibrium position, and the independent OF INDUSTRY* co-ordinates of the system are its normal co-ordinates By P r o f . C. B. FAW CETT which perform simple harmonic oscillations of fre­ quencies, say, vj. As a result of these, the scattered University College, London radiation can be expressed as a sum of components ROM the beginnings of man’s knowledge of metals of Doppler-modified frequencies

Dairy Thermometers Contact Thermometers Clinical Thermometers Domestic Thermometers Industrial Thermometers Refrigerator Thermometers

THERM O M ETERS FOR Calorimetry, Meteorology, Technology

GLASS THERMOMETERS DIAL THERMOMETERS STEEL THERMOMETERS Paper Scales Opal Scales Engraved Scales

ONE COMMON FEATURE ACCURACY AND RELIABILITY

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For full particulars write to : Evans Electroselenium Ltd. Westminster Bank Chambers, Bishop’s Stortford, Herts THE WEST OF SCOTLAND WIGAN AND DISTRICT MINING THE INSTITUTE of CHEMISTRY of AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND TECHNICAL COLLEGE GT. BRITAIN & IRELAND AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS The Governing Body invites applications for a (Founded 1877) Applications are invited for the post of Second post as LECTURER IN MATHEMATICS AND Technical Assistant (Male). Candidates (gradu­ PHYSICS. Duties to commence as soon as pos­ (Incorporated by Royal Charter, 1885) ates preferred) must hold recognised agricultural sible. The appointment is open to candidates of qualifications; and may have to provide a car. either sex. Salary in accordance with the Salary ^200x10 x 300 with cost of living bonus. Burnham Technical Scale. Applications stating age, training and qualifica­ Further particulars and application form will APPOINTMENTS REGISTER tions to be lodged with the undersigned on or be sent by the undersigned on receipt of a A Register of Chemists (Fellows, before 24th current. stamped addressed foolscap envelope. Applica­ 6 Blythswood Square, A. J. WILSON, tions should be sent in as quickly as possible, Associates and Senior Registered Stu­ Glasgow. Secretary. and in any case not later than October 31, 1942. dents) , who are available for appoint­ October 7, 1942. J . F. S. ROSS. ments or who are seeking to improve Principal and Clerk to the KENT EDUCATION COMMITTEE Governing Body. their position, is kept at the office of October 9, 1942. the Institute. The facilities afforded by MEDWAY TECHNICAL COLLEGE. SENIOR DEPARTMENTS. GILLINGHAM this Register are available (free) to Full-time Lecturer in engineering subjects re­ Bio-chemist (male or [female) required to Companies and Firms requiring the ser­ quired to take up duties as soon as possible. conduct biological vitamin assays and nutri­ vices of chemists, and to Universities, Work includes Higher National Certificate and tional investigations in the laboratory of a Final B.Sc. Degree Courses. Applicants must be well-known firm of food manufacturers. A Colleges and Technical Schools requir­ graduates of a British University or hold equi­ degree in Chemistry (or its equivalent) and ing Teachers of Chemistry and Tech­ valent qualifications and must have had industrial experience of the breeding and experimental nology. A list of Laboratory Assis­ experience with a first-class engineering firm. use of small animals essential. For a suitable tants is also available. Ability to teach Aircraft Engineering or Industrial applicant, the post is permanent and pension­ Administration would be an additional recom­ able. Salary from £250 up to £5/600 p.a. Particulars of the Regulations and mendation. Salary in accordance with Burnham according to qualifications, experience, and Examinations of the Institute can be Scale for Technical Teachers. ability to take responsibility. Box S.234, obtained (free), on application to the Forms of application should be obtained from Bensons, Kingsway Hall, London, W.C.2. the District Education Officer, Fort Pitt House, Registrar. Rochester, and should be completed and returned All communications to be addressed to The Principal, Senior Departments, Medway Geologist with Honours in Geology and to The Registrar, the Institute of Technical College, Gillingham, Kent, as soon as Mineralogy British and Continental Universi­ possible. ties seeks post—academic, in the field, labora­ Chemistrv, 30 Russell Square, London, tory or in business where such experience W.C.i.______Assistant required immediately in the could be used. Britisher, trained engineer and Biochemical Department for the duration. If not liable for military service. Box 879, T. G. Scott & Son, Ltd., 9 Arundel Street, Research Assistant (Graduate in Science male must be ineligible for military service. or Agriculture) required for an investigation Candidate with experience of Hospital Bio­ London, W.C.2. on the resazurin test. Salary £250 p.a. chemistry preferred. Salary according to Results of work done may be used towards qualifications and previous experience. Apply Microscopes Wanted for important higher degree. Apply by October 21 to to Medical Superintendent, Dudly Road scientific and research work. Complete and Secretary, N.I.R.D., Shinfield, Reading. Hospital, Birmingham, 18. elaborate outfits up to £500 particularly required. Highest possible prices paid. For Sale: Journal of Scientific Instru­ Microscopes, second-hand, a large selec- Prompt cash. High prices also paid for ments from November, 1930 (Vol. 7, No. 11) tion of instruments in perfect condition; 8d. Leicas, Contaxes and similar miniature to present d a te —Apply Box 877, T. G. Scott stamp for list.—Chards, Specialists (Est. 70 cameras.—Wallace Heaton, Ltd., 127 New & Son, Ltd., 0 Arundel Street. London, W.C.2. years). Forest Hill, S.E. 23. Bond Street, London. W.l.

HE fact that goods made of raw materials Tin short supply owing to war conditions are advertised in this publication should not be taken as an indication that they are OPTICAL METHODS OF necessarily available for export. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS By THOMAS R. P. GIBB, Jr., Ph.D. Instructor in Analytical Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of MICROSCOPES AND ACCESSORIES Technology W AN TED HIGHEST PRICES GIVEN 391 pages, 9 x 6, 300 illustrations, 35s. net W rite, call or phone International Chemical Series DOLLONDS (Dept. N.) 42M STRAND, LONDON, W.C.2 N this unique contribution to the literature of analytical Telephone: Tempi« Bar 3775 I chemistry the author covers the fundamental theory, the design, and the practical application of the ten optical instru­ ments which are most widely used in organic and inorganic chemical analysis. Emphasis is placed on the design and technique of modern rapid methods of micro and macro analysis by means of the spectrograph, spectrophotometer, colorimeter and allied instruments, refractometer, micro­ scope, and polariscope. -Contents- Preface The Microscope General Considerations and Elementary Crystallography Notes on Instruction Identification of Crystals with Spectrochemical Analysis the Polarizing Microscope The Spectrophotometer TheColorimeter.Turbidimeter, The Refractometer Nephelometer, and Fluoro- The Polariscope p h o to m e te r Index

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PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BY FISHER, KNIGHT AND CO., LTD., ST. ALBANS present to the extent of much less than 1 in 1,000 50 tons each of such metals as manganese, lead, parts of sea-water. A technique of handling large aluminium, and titanium. volumes at low cost has to be elaborated before the There is an interesting organism, a holothurian sea can become a source of minerals. or sea slug, found off the Cornish coast, which has It is of interest that some plants and animals have the power of concentrating vanadium in its structure, the power of concentrating certain of the ingredients though the quantity in the neighbouring rocks is

OBITU ARIES Prof. E. Fawcett, F.R.S. some overlapping, into four main periods. In the first period he was interested in bones and joints T h e death on September 22 of Edward Fawcett generally, but the interest gradually narrowed down has taken away from British anatomy yet another to problems of bone growth and formation of epi­ outstanding personality. A fine figure of a man, his physes. This second or epiphyseal period passed carriage was always firm and erect, even in old age ; over to the third, in which interest was focused more and this bodily vigour was the physical counterpart especially on the development of individual bones of of a robust and active mind. the skull. This led, naturally, to the fourth and Born in 1867, he graduated M.B., C.M., at E din­ most important period, when he published his burgh in 1889, and his interest in anatomy was already researches on the growth of the mammalian chondro- shown in his student days, for he was demonstrator cranium. It is the work done in this fourth period of anatomy in the School of Medicine for two years which constitutes his most important and funda­ before he qualified. He spent three years at the mental contributions to biological science. Yorkshire College, Leeds, and after this brief interlude During 1917-23 he published in rapid succession proceeded to his permanent home in Bristol. In detailed accounts of the primordial cranium of a 1893, a t the age of twenty-six, he was appointed number of mammals : Microtus (1917), Erinaceus professor of anatomy in University College, Bristol, (1918), Poecilophoca (1918), Miniopterus (1919), and in that capacity he served until his retirement Tatusia (1921), Xerus (1923), and Homo (1923). All in 1934, when he was made emeritus professor. For his work was marked by scrupulous honesty and an a large part of that time (1905-34) he also served as unremitting attention to detail. Both his histological Dean in the Faculty of Medicine. For practically and reconstruction work were of a uniformly high forty years, therefore, he was associated with the technical order. Bristol Medical School as a whole, and the Anatomy Briefly to epitomize Fawcett’s work, one may say Department in particular, and in the development that he enlarged our knowledge of the development of both he took an exceedingly active part. He was and morphology of the bones of the facial skeleton, elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1923. and made fundamental and extensive contributions As an anatomist Fawcett was held in high esteem to our understanding of the detailed anatomy of the by his colleagues. He was successively vice-president mammalian primordial cranium. His researches of the Anatomical Society of Great Britain and under this head are classical, and will remain as a Ireland (1913), treasurer (1914-25), and president permanent contribution to vertebrate morphology. (1927-29). At the Budapest International Medical Various pieces of lesser work, such as those on the Congress (1909) he was president of the Anatomical development of the clavicle, the epiphyses of the Section. axial skeleton, and the ossification of the sacrum, From a review of an extensive list of published also constitute a lasting addition to our knowledge papers, Fawcett’s work may be seen to fall, with of osteology. However, Fawcett possessed such a superabundance ment of the London Television Station owed a con­ of energy that his anatomical labours, considerable siderable part to the improvements arising out of his as they were, by no means exhausted it. In 1919 he work on photo-electric surfaces and allied subjects ; founded the Bristol Spelseological Society, and held among his colleagues he acquired an enviable reputa­ office as president from its foundation until 1936. He tion as a master of this difficult and delicate art. He published numerous reports on human skeletal maintained, as is not always easy in an industrial remains submitted to him for examination, and laboratory, a close contact with pure science, and indeed at the time of his death two such reports were was always quick to see the value of academic dis­ awaiting publication, one dealing with remains coveries for the solving of practical problems. His associated with a beaker at Corston, Somerset, the work, largely unpublished, did not receive the wide other with some human bones from a Roman stone recognition it deserved, but there is no doubt that a coffin exposed during the recent air-raids on Bath. career of increasing distinction was opening before During his latter years, Prof. Fawcett was engaged him. in work of an archaeological nature, in which he took His lively and generous personality made him a great delight. As in his anatomical, so in his archaeo­ particularly agreeable colleague, at once stimulating logical work, he was influenced by two factors, the and sympathetic, and led him to take a keen interest consideration of form and of development. He made in the welfare of those around him, especially of the a study of the ancient chairs to be found in Bristol junior staff under his care. The shock of his loss was and the surrounding counties, and arranged them keenly felt when, at the end of a period of especially according to their structural evolution. The same intense work, he died suddenly, of a long-standing principles made him an accurate student of medieval but unsuspected heart weakness, literally at his post architecture, for he made detailed observation of of duty. B. M. C r o w t h e r . mouldings and other architectural features, and so was able to fix the date of a building or part of a T h e secretary of the Association of Scientific building with authority. Workers writes: He made complete lists of the achievements of The name of Dr. Leonard Klatzow will always be royal arms in churches in the counties of Somerset, associated, by a large circle of friends and fellow- Gloucester and Wiltshire, and the City of Bristol, workers, with the renaissance of the Association of and he knew the arms of every family living within Scientific Workers in recent years. He joined the th irty miles of Bristol. His eye for detail led him to be Association in 1936, at the end of a public meeting the first person to record the anthropophagous figures held in the Imperial College of Science on “Defence which appear, often at a great height from the and the Responsibility of the Scientist”, and ground, on the external fabric of some churches. immediately threw himself wholeheartedly into its Prof. Fawcett leaves a widow, a son, and a daughter. work. Nobody who met him failed to be infected by J . M. Y o f f e y . his enthusiasm for the Association and the ideas it stood for, which gave full scope for his sense of responsibility to his fellow scientific men and to the Dr. Leonard Klatzow community as a whole. His lively imagination, T h e death of Dr. Leonard Klatzow occurred on methodical mind and personal charm admirably September 22 at the age of thirty-five. Dr. Klatzow fitted him for this work, and within a few months was educated in South Africa, and came to England he was elected to the executive committee and in 1930 as a Rhodes Scholar, obtaining his D.Phil. appointed honorary treasurer, a post which he held after three years’ research work at the Electrical for more than three years. In two major enterprises Laboratories, Oxford, during which he published at least he played a leading part, namely, the setting several valuable papers in collaboration. up of the Scientific Films Committee, and, later, of In 1934 Klatzow entered the research laboratories the London Scientific Films Society; and the of Electrical and Musical Industries, Ltd., at a time complicated negotiations which led to the establish­ when experimental development of high-definition ment of the Unemployment Benefit Fund for scientific television was beginning. The successful establish­ workers.

NEWS and VIEWS Soviet Scientific Work on Potatoes in this case to help the Collective and State farms A l o n g cable has been sent by Prof. Lysenko, increase the output of food and raw materials. president of the Lenin Academy of Agricultural Genetics, he says, is the science dealing with the Sciences, to Sir John Russell, chairman of the Anglo- nature of the living organism and its reactions to Soviet Scientific Collaboration Committee, describing various environmental influences at different stages recent results of Soviet scientific work on the potato of its development. The better the laws of inheritance crop which in the U.S.S.R., as in Great Britain, is are understood, the easier it is to govern the nature now of very great importance as human food. The of the plant organism and modify it in any desirable message begins by stating that the Odessa Institute direction, thereby creating new plants possessing char­ of Genetics and Selection, of which he was for a long acters useful to man. time director and where much of this work was begun, War conditions have made it necessary greatly had been evacuated before the Germans captured the to increase the area under potatoes in the U.S.S.R. city. The investigations now being made under because they furnish more food and industrial Lysenko’s general direction by various scientific raw material per acre than any other crop. The bodies, like all other scientific investigations in the difficulty arose, however, that supplies of ‘seed’ U.S.S.R., are exclusively directed to the war effort ; were insufficient to allow of much expansion. The shortage was overcome by using potato tops in place and social questions. The fifth is a joint commission of seed, and methods for their preparation and plant­ of the London International Assembly and the ing were elaborated. In 1942 a total of 150,000 ha Council for Education in World Citizenship on the were thus planted in various parts of the south-east place of education, religion and science and learning and centre of the U.S.S.R. and the yields were not in post-war reconstruction. The last to be set up, inferior to those of potatoes planted in the usual its membership is large and keen. way, and in regions where ring rot is prevalent plants No section of the London International Assembly grown from tops were less liable to the disease than constitutes purely or mainly a research organization, those grown from seed. During the winter, extensive but it provides allied research workers, statesmen and preparations are being made to collect potato seed responsible persons interested in international affairs material from Government and public vegetable with a focus and a forum where the fruits of research stores and from private houses to ensure considerable and trends of thought and policy can be brought enlargement of next year’s potato area, and mean­ together. The need for documentation and informa­ while the scientific workers are continuing work on tion is supplied to some extent through facilities collection of the tops and on their storage and afforded by the Royal Institute of International preparation for planting. A request has been sent to Affairs at Chatham House, and a liaison officer Lysenko for details of the methods adopted. maintains contact between the work of the two Another method of increasing production in the organizations. The Allies can, moreover, draw on southern regions, based on Lysenko’s own work, research carried out by their Governments and on a is to arrange for two sowings of potatoes in one number of other institutions which are described. season. The old method was to sow in April, but These include the Allied Post-War Requirements the high June temperature led to poor crops of Bureau, the scope of which was indicated at the small tubers. The -difficulty was overcome by plant­ Inter-allied Government meeting at St. James’s ing in July ; the crop is not large but as seed it is Palace in September 1941, and groups like the New much better than the original seed, and, planted in Europe Circle, the membership of which is drawn the following April, it gives considerably higher yields. from about nine European countries, including Civil Seed for the July planting, however, cannot in the servants, business men, engineers, students and hot southern regions be kept over from the previous journalists. year ; on the other hand, the freshly gathered seed Brief reference is also made to the work of the does not readily sprout; a period of rest is necessary. National Institute of Economic and Social Research, Investigation showed that the length of this period the Nuffield College Social Reconstruction Survey depends on external conditions, particularly on the and to various branches of the work of the Royal extent to which air can gain access to the plant Institute of International Affairs. The paper in­ nutrients contained in the tuber. Access of air is cludes accounts of various allied institutions such prevented by the skin, and when this is removed as the Belgian Commission for the Study of Post- sprouting rapidly occurs. The technical problems War Problems, the Czechoslovak Research Institute, associated with the large-scale application of this Fighting French Service d’Etudes de Documentation simple device have been worked out, and during the et de Liaisons, the Statistical Research Section of the summer of 1942 experiments were made on collective Greek Ministry of Finance, official research under the farms and individual plots in irrigated areas of Ministry of Justice, Luxembourg, the Study Group Central Asia, the results of which will enable the for Reconstruction Problems of the Netherlands, the potato area of the southern regions to be greatly Polish Research Centre, the Jugoslav Post-War expanded in 1943. In conclusion, Prof. Lysenko Reconstruction Committee and research carried out stated that the problem now confronting us is to by a number of Norwegian ministries, the co-ordina­ make the utmost use of our knowledge of the laws tion of which is now being discussed. The same num­ governing the development of plants so as to obtain ber contains a review of research concerning some the largest possible yields of the best quality crops post-war domestic problems of the United States, from our fields. which gives an account of the activities of the National Resources Planning Board. Seven fields of Reconstruction Research exploration as elements of a post-war programme T h e third number of Agenda (London: Oxford have been suggested by the Board, covering demob­ University Press. 6s. quarterly) is notable for the ilization, public works, industry, expansion of Service valuable article on “Reconstruction Research con­ activities, security, finance and international ac­ ducted in Britain by the European Allies”, by Ethel J. tivities. Lindgren. This article contains almost the first full account of the origin and character of the London Post-War Planning in the United States International Assembly established as a result of the A p a m p h l e t on post-war planning entitled “After initiative of the League of Nations Union in the the War—Full Employment”, by A. H. Hansen, summer of 1941, for purposes of study, discussion which has been issued by the National Resources and a free exchange of views as private individuals Planning Board, suggests that the American Govern­ and not as representatives of Governments or parties. ment is making systematic attempts to prepare its Of the five commissions established in November people for post-war problems. It is also of interest 1941, only the first is concerned w ith a war-time as indicating the present outlook in the United States problem, namely, political warfare. The second deals on post-war problems. While stress is laid upon the with the trial of war criminals and to the third was importance of retaining freedom of enterprise, relegated future international organization and freedom for collective bargaining and for co-operative security against war, and to the fourth social and action, as well as of choice of occupation, the impor­ economic reconstruction. By the end of January tance of planning for full employment and to prevent 1942, four sub-commissions had been appointed, a post-war depression is recognized. A shift towards dealing with collective security, international organ­ a higher consumption economy is visualized. Points ization, economic and financial problems and labour in a Government programme for this purpose include extensive research in industry, in the univer­ in 1941 deal with chromite, strontium minerals, sities and in Government bureaux to develop new phosphates and clay, and several others are in pre­ products and processes, the improvement of educa­ paration. No. 6 (1942), “Indian Precious Stones”, by tional standards and the technique of production and Dr. L. A. N. Iyer, is a useful pamphlet of fifty-four distribution and of transport, building and public pages, with two plates illustrating the mining of ruby health. at Mogok in Burma. It rather gives the imprassion of The expansion of expenditure on public welfare, a hasty compilation from scattered sources of in­ including old-age pensions and family allowances, is formation ; but some additional matter is given suggested, and the importance for international co­ relating to the Mogok “stone tract”, where the author operation of pursuing internal policies designed to was engaged in the production of the Geological promote active employment as well as for the develop­ Survey maps. There, in addition to ruby, a con­ ment of backward countries and for implementing siderable variety of minerals of gem quality has ways and means to open outlets for foreign invest­ been found. Apart from these, and the sapphire of ment, promote world trade and the world-wide use Kashmir and the many gemstones of Ceylon, there of productive resources is recognized. With regard are really few occurrences of importance in India to the war period, a policy of high income and excess proper, except for semi-precious stones such as agate profits tax with a broadening of the individual income- and almandine garnet. tax base and steeply graded surtax-rates is advocated, At one time, however, India was the only known as well as the part-payment of wages and salaries in source of diamond, and many of the famous stones defence bonds and a sharp increase in excise taxes found centuries ago are of Indian origin. (One of on commodities competing with the war programme. these, known as “The Moon of the Mountains”, In the post-war period a policy of retaining the was sold by auction in London in August 1942 progressive tax structure and broadened tax base for £5,200.) At the present time the production with a major emphasis on the individual income-tax is very small, averaging for the years 1929-33 and less reliance on the corporate income-tax is less than 1,500 carats (300 grams) and valued suggested, together with a sharp reduction in defence at 74,040 rupees (£5,555), the bulk of this coming consumption taxes and adequate plans by private from Panna State. It would be interesting to enterprise for investment in manufacturing plant know how many persons, working by primitive and equipment, railroads, public utilities and housing. methods in small and scattered pits, were engaged in producing this handful (J lb.) of small diamonds. The Third Earl of Rosse and his Telescopes They would be of no use in the trade as industrial Mb. M. A. E l l is o n has described (J. Brit. Astro. diamonds. India is actually a large importer of Assoc., 52, Sept. 8, 1942) th e celebrated experiments diamonds for jewellery purposes. At one time India of W illiam Parsons between 1827 and 1845 for the was also the sole producer of corundum (of which improvement of reflecting telescopes. The earlier ruby and sapphire are colour varieties of gem quality) workers in speculum metal had jealously guarded for abrasive purposes, and in fact the name corundum their secrets of grinding and polishing, and each step is of Indian origin, but the present output is again in the process had to be established anew by experi­ very small. menters. The earliest researches of Parsons were undertaken to determine the composition of speculum Refrigeration of Fish in Australia metal, which should possess the qualities of white­ A n account of the application of refrigeration to ness, high reflectivity, and resistance to tarnish. It the Australian fishery industry has been published was found that the conditions were best realized in by the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research an alloy of four atoms of copper to one of tin, and (Commonwealth of Australia: Division of Food Bpecula differing to a slight degree from this pro­ Preservation and Transport. Circular No. 4. P, portion of the alloys were found to dim rapidly, Melbourne 1, 1942). This is written in non-technical though they were quite brilliant when polished. language and has been prepared to serve as a guide Unfortunately, this alloy was liable to shiver at the to the fish industry on the basic refrigeration require­ slightest blow or sudden temperature changes, and ments. As the result of a survey of the important attempts to cast it in disks more than about a foot fishing centres along the south coast of New South in diameter were abandoned. Wales and some centres in Victoria and Tasmania, it A description is given of the different telescopes— was found that it was possible to catch in eastern the 3-ft., the 6-ft., and the 18-in. reflectors—and also Australian waters considerable supplies of fish suit­ of their mountings. There was a general impression able for an important canning industry as well as for th a t the 6-ft. reflector had an altazimuth mounting. a substantial trade in fresh fish. Serious difficulties Actually, the movements of this telescope were must, however, be overcome before any great ex­ equatorial, but they were limited to one half-hour on pansion can take place. These notes are issued as a each side of the meridian. It is interesting to notice guide to future development based on the necessity that ys Andromedae was used as evidence of its for preserving fish by refrigeration to meet the re­ defining power. Robinson records that he saw the quirements of a large and stable industry. system distinctly, as two neatly separated stars, under a power of 828. The separation at this time Tin Economy in Cable Jointing (1845) was about 0-5". The paper concludes w ith a A n e w type of wipe or fillet joint is described by list of assistants at Birr Castle Observatory and a J. T. Lowe (Bell Lab. Rec., 20, No. 11, Ju ly 1942) short account of their work. which makes it possible to meet the essential require­ ments for a wiped joint using far less solder without Indian Precious Stones the necessity for a new wiping technique. Essentially, T h e Geological Survey of India has recently com­ the new method consists of carefully beating in the menced the publication of a series of Bulletins of cable sleeve ends to the proper shape to facilitate Economic Minerals as a war-time measure to direct formation of a satisfactory fillet of solder and to attention to India’s mineral resources. Those issued obviate rounding out the sleeve ends with solder. Tests of strength, resistance to fatigue and gas- tory, Wellington. Two prominent shocks were on tightness show the new joints to be fully as good as June 6 with epicentre east of the New Guinea region the old. The wiping technique is somewhat simpler and focal depth about 100 km., and on June 24 at and is well liked by jointers. The adoption of the Wairarapa. Thirty-one local earthquakes were new technique reduces the amount of tin the Bell recorded during the period, including the Wairarapa ■System would ordinarily need for wiping solders by shock mentioned above. This reached intensity 7 on more than 60 per cent. the instrumental magnitude scale (New Zealand Bulletin P-104, p. 3) and was followed by nine Distribution of the Stars principal aftershocks and about 418 minor shocks. D r . B a r t J . B o k , of Harvard, has made a report Several of the aftershocks reached intensity 4J, and (

Height of ordinate of arc of circle as calculated ...... 98 94*8 85 67-7 41 0 Height given on ostrakon .... 98 95 84 68 41 0 (The ‘84’, differing from 85, is explained as probably due to careless measuring, or writing 3 cubits for 3 cubits 1 finger.)

These results seem to confirm Jarrett Bell’s sug­ gestion. I found some dissatisfaction, however, in the fact that the figures 155, 253 and 200, though connected, of course, by the Pythagorean relation (253)2 — (155)2 = (200)2 approximately, have no Tig. 1. Fig. 2. simple relation to each other such as one might ex­ pect an Egyptian to have used. I therefore tried a This method could be adapted to suit any position base line the length of which was exactly four fifths of the base line XY. Thus (Fig. 2), h being known, of the radius. a X ( = h) would be drawn and O arbitrarily fixed. In Fig. 1, OR, the radius, is 5 units, and XY, the aO would then be divided into five equal parts, and base line, is 4. By Pythagoras’ Theorem, OX = 3 . the system of squares drawn. F and H would be so a X = 2. The lengths of the other ordinates’ found by their co-ordinates (4, 3) and (3, 4), and the b, c, d, e, which are 0-8 units apart, are given by y in figure completed as before. The nearer XY is to OR the more rounded will be the arch at its ends, and (^-f3)2 = 52 — 0 ,8 a ; 52— 1 -6 2 ; 5 2- 2 - 4 2 ; 5 2- 3 - 2 2- the more curvilinear generally. = 24-36; 22-44; 19-24; 14-76. C apart4 points out that the Egyptian artist used y + 3 =4-936; 4-737; 4-386; 3-842. his system of squares to provide a canon for the drawing of human figures. Bearing this in mind, one The ordinates, a, b, c, d, e, are therefore 2 ; 1 -936 ; can imagine a canon of arch construction in which 1-737 ; 1-386; 0-842. the position of the base line XY would be limited On multiplying these by 49, to change 2 to the to five possibilities, namely, OR, AB, CD, EF, OH required 98, these figures become : 98 ; 94-9 ; 85-1 ; (Fig. 2), which lie on consecutive lines of the system 67-9; 41-3. of squares. At a later period this scale of base lines These results are as close to the ostrakon measure­ might be abandoned, as the historic diatonic scale ments as are those of Jarrett Bell, and, in view of has been abandoned by the atonalists of to-day, in the simplicity and significance of the geometry of favour of a freer canon under which any line parallel Fig. .1, it would seem that the ostrakon measurements to OR served as base line. were derived from a similar figure. To obtain the As regards the geometrical significance of the lengths 98, 95, 85, 68, 41, as direct measurements Saqqara graph, it is shown that the construction of from a circle, the radius, OR, should be 245, that is, the circle of 5-unit radius is facilitated by using the 5 x 49, OX 147 and XY 196. A modern m athem at­ fact that points with co-ordinates (3, 4) and (4, 3) ician might expect the Egyptian to have used round lie on its circumference. Since the Egyptian architect numbers like 250, 150, 200. These numbers, indeed, constantly used a squared surface, it seems reason­ are suggested by Jarrett Bell’s 253, 155, 200, and, able to suppose that he knew this fact, which de­ being in the proportion 5:3:4, satisfy the geometry pends on the rectangular property of the triangle of of Fig. 1. The Egyptian, however, might find occult sides 3, 4 and 5 units. The Saqqara graph is geo­ significance in 245, 147, 196, since they are the metrically important because it furnishes definite respective products of 5, 3, 4 by “seven tim es seven” . evidence of this knowledge, if my suggestion that it On the other hand, these numbers may have come was evolved from a base-line of four fifths of the out of the circumstances for which the graph was radius of a circle is accepted. Thus we arrive at the drawn on the ostrakon. The curve of the graph interesting conclusion that the geometrical basis of apparently gives the shape of a saddleback con­ the Saqqara graph, and possibly of a canon of arch struction near which the ostrakon was found (Clarke construction, is the right-angled triangle of sides 3, and Engelbach). 4 and 5 units. This triangle was therefore probably known to the harmony with this, it has been observed by Nadal Egyptians as early as the fifth millennium b .c ., as the et al.5, and confirmed in the present investigations, ostrakon is ascribed to the Third Dynasty. that there is no hsemo-concentration in dehydration of this degree, so that there can be little alteration R. S. W i l l i a m s o n . in blood volume. Graywalls, One must therefore consider the kidneys of a de­ Okehampton, hydrated adult as essentially normal with regard to Devon. the amount of blood supplied to them, and in the amount of glomerular filtrate formed. Consequently, 1 Annales du Servtee des Antiquity de l'figypte, 26, 197-202 (Cairo, 1926) the very striking changes in the volume and con­ • “Ancient Masonry”, 52-53 (London, 1930). stitution of the final urine must be determined by ’ Ancient Egypt, 103 (Sept./Dec., 1933). tubular activity, stimulated no doubt by pituitary, * "Egyptian Art”, 156. suprarenal and possibly other hormones. D. A. K . B l a c k . R. A. M cC a n c e . Function of the Kidney in Dehydration W. F. Y o u n g . Department of Medicine, O n e of the minor consequences of total war is the resurgence of classical physiological problems, such Cambridge. as the effects of haemorrhage and of dehydration. Sept. 28. Although pure dehydration, in the sense of a de­ ‘McCance, R. A., and Widdowson, E. M.. J. Phytiol., 95, 36 (1939). ficiency of water but not of salt, is rarely met with •McCance, K. A., and Widdowson, E. M., Lancet, 2, 247 (1937). clinically, it is precisely this disturbance which 1 Black, D. A. K., Powell, J. P., and Smith, A. F., J. Physiol., 99, 344 (1941). presents itself in desert warfare, and in lifeboats or on * Young, W. F., and McCance, 11. A., Arch. Dis. Child., 17. 65 (1942). rafts. One aspect of dehydration which has received 6 Nadal, J. W.. Pedersen, S., and Maddock, W. G., J. Clin. Invest., much less attention than it deserves is the function 20, 691 (1941). of the kidney. Very little urine is formed, and it might have been anticipated that there would have been interesting changes in its composition, and Use of Desiccated Chick Embryo in possibly in its mode of secretion. There was the Tissue Culture Technique possibility, for example, that a shortage of water in the organism might lead to a diminished blood flow T h e successful use of desiccated 9-11-day chick to the kidney, or a diminished glomerular filtration embryo as a source of growth-promoting factor was rate. reported in 1940 (Peacock and Shukoff). Since then, The urea, inulin and diodone clearances have been repeated tests have been made with desiccates stored determined in four men who had abstained from all for periods up to 2J years at 4° C. All the samples water for three or four days, while taking a dry diet tested were equally effective and retained their growth- supplying adequate protein, calories and salt. They promoting potency and their capacity to coagulate had lost 4 per cent to 7‘2 per cent of their body plasma. Apart from the advantages of essential weights. The results are shown in the accompanying economy in war-time, the use of dried embryo greatly table. simplifies the technique of tissue culture and helps to standardize results, as it tends to eliminate any individual differences between embryos, and one batch of desiccate can be used for a long series of experiments. Freezing at 0° C. does not appear to affect the desiccates, but storage in a refrigerator at 4° C. has proved quite satisfactory. R. I. S h u k o f f . Research Department, Glasgow Royal Cancer Hospital, Glasgow. Sept. 26.

Potassium, Fermentation and the Cell As was to be expected, small volumes of urine Membrane were passed during dehydration, and the urea clear­ I n a letter in N a t u r e 1 and subsequent communi­ ances were correspondingly reduced. Three of the cation to the Journal of Physiology2 there was men showed a fall of about 20 c.c. per min. in the described, with experimental verification, the prin­ inulin clearance ; but to appreciate this fall in ciples controlling the accumulation of potassium in glomerular filtration rate in its proper perspective, isolated muscle. This accumulation could occur to a one must compare it w ith the much greater reductions considerable extent without volume change, and the in inulin clearance which have been found in diabetic theoretical position established led naturally to an coma1, alkalosis2, hsomatemesis3 and in the dehydra­ explanation of the potassium content of the original tion of young infants with gastroenteritis4. The muscle. Further aspects were considered in later diodone clearance, which may be taken to measure communications3-6, Prof. F. G. Donnan also con­ renal plasma flow, is much more variable, even in tributing6» 7. normal subjects, than the inulin clearance ; but our Viewed in the light of this theoretical development, figures did not give any evidence of a reduction in Pulver and Verzar’s description of experiments the amount of blood flowing through the kidney. In showing the accumulation of potassium in the initial stage of fermentation in yeast, and its subsequent Interatomic Distances in Carbon release8, is of much interest, as also the recent account of a similar occurrence in bacteria (E . coli) by I n a recent paper, B. E. Warren1 has developed a Leibowitz and Kupermintz9. These experiments are mathematical treatment of the diffraction of X-rays in fact beautiful illustrations of the principles of from random layer-lattices and has derived the Laues potassium accumulation1’2, and the explanation con­ expression for the asymmetrical shape of a cross­ cerning the potassium exchanges is as follows. The grating spectrum line which such a lattice produces. yeast membrane, for example, is permeable to He has also shown that when the dimensions of the potassium and cations of the same or lesser diameter, cross-lattice are small, they can be computed from but is impermeable to sodium or ions of greater the formula diameter (the sodium ion, as is well known, being larger than the potassium ion from the greater number of associated water molecules). The mem­ where ß is the line broadening in radians, X the wave­ brane is permeable at the same time to phosphate length of X-rays, e the dimension of the cross-lattice, but not to ions of greater diameter such as the and 0 the Bragg angle. This means that the particle phosphate esters of hexose or adenosine—and this size so calculated is approximately double the size type of electrolyte permeability need only be postu­ obtained from the well-known Scherrer equation lated for the active or growing cell. When glucose enters from without, it is esterified and the effective product of the concentrations of the potassium and phosphate ions falls within. Phosphate enters where c has a value of the order of unity3. therefore and can only do so with potassium, more A further consequence of the Warren theory is that phosphate is esterified, and the process goes on as the peaks of the asymmetrical cross-grating spectra long as the esters accumulate and hold potassium in are displaced from their positions in the direction of equivalent relation. Meanwhile part of the glucose increasing 0 by an amount which depends upon the is synthesized to glycogen, so that more glucose than crystal size. The increase in sin0 is given by potassium molecules will have entered the cells. As A (sin 0) = 0 • J 6 X/e. Thus the lattice spacing d the fermentation proceeds, the accumulated esters calculated from the Bragg equation 2d sin 0 = n \ will be again broken down, and ultimately to carbon would be in error bv an amount dioxide, alcohol and phosphate, so that the effective product of potassium and free phosphate ion con­ centrations becomes greater than at the outset, and potassium and phosphate will leave the cells. if the two-dimensional nature of the lattice producing It will appear from this description that an ion as the spectrum line were not appreciated. small or smaller than potassium should serve as well, A direct test of the validity of equations (1) and provided it is likewise comparatively unreactive (3) can be made by applying them to the data already chemically with respect to the mechanisms involved. available on carbon. U. Hofmann and D. Wilm4, It has been shown6 that all the potassium ion can be H. E. Blayden, H. L. Riley and A. Taylor5 and T. taken out of yeast under certain conditions and Schoon“ have found that as the «-dimension of carbon replaced with the ammonium ion, and that such decreases, there is an apparent decrease in the «- yeast will ferment glucose quite readily, and the parameter, which would mean that the distance of cells multiply. approach of the carbon atoms in the net planes be­ The membrane permeability described above, comes appreciably smaller by an amount far greater applying to yeast, and to muscle and other tissues than the normal experimental errors in the measure­ of vertebrates, would seem to be of a general kind, ments of the diffuse Debye-Scherrer halos. In view though it may be occasionally altered in cells of a of the extremely strong linkage between the carbon very specialized function. It is, in short, and with atoms in the net planes, such a large decrease in the respect to electrolytes, the normal or standard pore interatomic distances is very difficult to understand. permeability of the cell membrane, and why it should This has led me to review these data in the light of lie so has been briefly considered3. Distinct from the W arren formulas. All the crystallite sizes o?>tained this pore permeability is what may be termed the by the workers mentioned above have been obtained wall permeability concerning the passage of sub­ by using equation 2 with c:l. Now if, in con­ stances as solutes through the substance of the formity with equation 1, we compute the true layer membrane. Such substances include the lipoid lattice dimensions z, which are almost double the soluble group and possibly ions like magnesium o-dimensions obtained by the various workers men­ which may enter into organic combination with cell tioned above, and substitute these new values in membrane constituents. equation 3, we obtain a series of corrections which E dwabd .T. Conway. can be applied to the corresponding 0-C distances. Biochemical Department, The results averaged out for a large number of car­ U niversity College. bons are illustrated in the accompanying graph. Dublin. Curve a indicates the earlier values of the 0 -C Sept. 28. distances plotted against the «-dimension obtained on the basis of equation 2, which approach asymptotic­ 1 Conway, E. J., and Boyle, P. J.; Nature, 1 4 4 , 709 (1939). ally the value of the C-C distance in macrocrystalline * Boyle, P. J., and Conway, E. J., J. Physiol., 100, 1 (1941). 3 Conway, E. J., Nature, 147, 574 (1941). graphite. Curve b shows the same C-C distances * Conway, E. J., O'Brien, M. F., and Boyle, P. J., N ature, 148, 662 plotted against values of the «-dimension obtained (1941). with the new equation 1. On applying the corrections ‘ Conway, E. J., and Breen, J., Nature, 148, 724 (1941). to curve b on the basis of equation 3, we get an * Dorman, F. G., Nature, 148, 723 (1941). ’ Conway, E. J., and Donnan, F. G., N ature, 149, 383 (1942). almost constant value of the interatomic distance, a •Pulver, K., and Verzar, F., Helv. Chim. Acta, 23. result which could not have been obtained from the * Leibowitz, J., and Kupermintz, N., N ature, 150, 233 (1942). original crystallite dimensions given in curve a. The C C interatomic distance (A.) com­ be still ust m equation however, from puted carbon, of c-dimensions o cosgaig spectra. cross-grating not aus ie i pbihd data*’*. published in given Values little doubt th a t they afford a direct verification of of verification direct a equations afford of they t validity a th the doubt little uh oe esnbe n h bss f u existing our of seem basis the on the crystallites in Earlier rod­ ith reasonable plate-like w stages more first whereas associated be much small. the for t could a crystallites, too th carbon like of a-dimensions much indicate to grain-growth been the seem of have results values photographs existing the t a th Curve Curve gonal close-packed and cubic face-centred cobalt, for for cobalt, face-centred cubic and close-packed gonal cross-lattice dimension equation is in conformity w ith ith w conformity in is equation dimension cross-lattice Debye-Scherrer from calculated carbons orphous’ ‘am lorpc oiiain o te ae lmn, hexa­ two element, where same or the lamellae, of solid fine of of out modifications form precipitate the allotropic in phases where solution alloys, of study knowledge of the grain-growth of crystals. The new new The crystals. of grain-growth the of knowledge hs lte ies *' ideas. latter these thickness by gliding along planes perpendicular to a a to perpendicular submicroscopic axis. of planes trigonal along layers common gliding by successive thickness form example, * Sclierrer, P., “ Kolloidchemie” , th ird edition, 387 (Zsigmondy, 1920). (Zsigmondy, 387 edition, ird th , Kolloidchemie” “ P., *Sclierrer, 1 Warren, B. E., E., B. 1Warren, ■von Laue, M., M., Laue, ■von ‘ Hofmann, U., and Wilm, D., D., Wilm, and U., Hofmann, ‘ * Blayden, H . E., ltiley, H. L., and Taylor, A., A., Taylor, and L., H. ltiley, E., . H *Blayden, * Schoon, T., T., *Schoon, of of as recorded in in recorded as During a recent study of the flora of the site of three three of site the of flora the of study recent a During were found. The houses were bombed in the autum n n autum plants the in Buddleia bombed were houses numerous The Kew, found. in were houses bombed n diin o n wes hrceitc f waste of characteristic weeds spring. any following m the to in cleared addition In sites the and 1940 of x — x C—C distances of curve curve of distances C—C x — x Q Moan of Hofm ann and Wilm’s results* on new basis. Curve Curve ...... basis. new on results* Wilm’s and ann Hofm of Moan Q O Mean of Blayden, Riley and Taylor’s results5 on new basis. basis. new on results5 Taylor’s and Riley Blayden, of Mean O These results are so reasonable th a t there can be be can there t a th reasonable so are results These Similar cross-lattice problems m ay also arise in the the in arise also ay m problems cross-lattice Similar ct oos Slar) Ltd., (Saltaire), Motors Scott T he appearance of considerable num bers of plants plants of bers num considerable of appearance he T Buddleia variabilis Buddleia hs Rev., W., Phys. F. Jones, (1941). Instr., (1939); (1939); b. Mean curve for C—C interatom ic distance on basis o f f original o basis on distance ic interatom C—C for curve Mean

hpe, Yorks. Shipley, udea o a obd Site Bombed a on Buddleias 18, 18, J . Amer. Chem. Soc., Chem. Amer. . J ne. Chem., Angew.

1 (1941). 91 Knut., K . Z 56, 56, Crystallite size in a-direction (A.) a-direction in size Crystallite hs Rev., Phys. Proc. Roy. Soc., A, Soc., Roy. Proc. 972, 978 (1939). Taylor, A., A., Taylor, (1939). 978 972, N e r u t a 6, 1 (96; 2 17 (1932). 127 82, (1926); 115 64, on a bombed site in Kensington, Kensington, in site bombed a on

2

51, 51, 5 9 , , 9 5 , since the the since , Elelctrochem., . Z 608 (1938). 608 1,

9 (1941). 693 , 2 6 1 b and 3. I have long felt felt long have I 3. and

is not an isolated case. case. isolated an not is ih re correction. arren W with

180 (1940). Taylor, A., A., Taylor, (1940). 180 166, 166, 16 (1938). Patterson, A. L., L., A. Patterson, (1938). 16 000 2 54 (1936). 504 42, Z reflexions are are Z reflexions hl Mag., Phil. A. A. Ce. Soc., Chem. . J T r o l y a J . Seien. . J

31, 31, . 67 339 b.

ground there are a t least sixty Buddleias. Some of of Some Buddleias. sixty least t a are there ground these are 5-6 ft. in height and have bloomed freely ; freely bloomed have and height in ft. 5-6 are these ooa castrensis) cosoma houses, and I have not identified the parent plant, plant, parent the three identified these of not have gardens I the in flowered. and also have Buddleias any houses, m no t u b are plants There smaller are others m oth, I was astonished to hear a powerful, low-toned the low-toned over low powerful, a Bending small hear to table very a male. a on astonished in the t was c wings I alighted ttra its a oth, t m I to arc vibrate to loggia. radial a in commenced and canvas in shelter Zwicky of a nova in Cygnus a t R. A. 20h. 56m., 56m., 20h. A. R. t a Cygnus in nova a of Zwicky tap-roots, site sturdy long, the ex­ their are to reached seeds due neighbourhood largely certainly Buddleia the have probably in and distance. small present some ely trem t are a though Buddleias t u b the region has been photographed seven times on on done times being work seven more prevented photographed Clouds been nights. has four by region the discovery mag. the 35-7°, of + informed Dec. was Sidmouth, tory, 1 sub­ down­ sandy e hard th the reach to and is penetrate aterial m to soil. plants surface able the of been trodden success have The which wind-blown. being by hum like th a t of a distant single-engined fighter. As As fighter. single-engined distant a of t a th like hum and bright moonlight restricted the exposure time. time. exposure the restricted date moonlight this Since bright and 22. September before observation recognized bu t not measured ; on the plates of of plates the on ; measured easily be not could image t bu star the 23 recognized September of plates of exposure October photovisual of a and night the Only the latter are not uncommon here, the observations deceived. t o observations n was the ear the here, sure ake m uncommon to not repeated are were latter the faintest star m agnitude on the plate being about about being plate the on agnitude m star faintest the on : e tim easur­ exposure m a yielded increased exposure despite later image no t a able th rapid so was taken. was observation aural no quivering Silver occasion this t the t a a of th th hairs discovered dorsal earlier had I aurally. stars (taken from the H.D . catalogue) and are listed listed are and standard : catalogue) enty table . tw H.D following about the of the from in help (taken the ith stars w determined em itted waves of a length too short to be perceived perceived be to short too length a of waves itted em defined star image in 7 ’5 min., the m agnitude decrease decrease agnitude m the 7 ’5 min., in image star defined the stroking gently by induced be could wings the of September 24 no star image appeared a t all, the the all, t a appeared image star no 24 September N 92 et 2 m 3s 1-4±-8 10-03(±0-17) 10-14(±0-18) 30s. 7m. 22 Sept. 1942 A A e adn. et 18. Sept. Gardens. Kew n etme 1 te oma Lcyr Observa­ Lockyer an Norm the 18 September On Bournemouth. Cliff, ast E Formerly, it has been suggested th a t the female female the t a th suggested been has it Formerly, Russell-Cotes A rt Gallery Gallery rt A Russell-Cotes Photographic and photovisual m agnitudes were were agnitudes m photovisual and Photographic e r u t a While the exposures of September 22 gave a well- well- a gave 22 September of exposures the While 13 Burlington Avenue, Burlington 13 w e f c. 2. 5- y>14-5 4 1 > .y > -5 15 2h. 1 Oct. D ate Exp. Exp. ate D , 150, 150, , 2 2m >2 >12 >12 20m. 24 „ 3 0. V>l- 5 - l l > ^ > 2 1 ll-5 > JV > 2 1 20m. 23 „ and Museum, and

aig alnt o Moths of Call-note Mating Sept. Sept. as g, fml gon lce ( lackey ground female a ago, days 320 (1942). (1942). 320 oa yn (1942) Cygni Nova 12. was disturbed in daylight from its its from daylight in disturbed was 8 ______. Cloudy sky prevented an an prevented sky Cloudy . (lsa Gamma), (Plusia Y R 1 was clear and steady, steady, and clear was d n o m a s o mpv p m 2 . a obtained. was h. N . . N L. L.

F. F. S r e t s e v l i S e v o h b ut on on ut b ala- M . ; 12

on both dates ; the plate of October 1 yielded a work, and would help towards Sir Lawrence Bragg’s recognizable but not measurable star image, the aim of discovering “the best way of applying our limiting magnitude being 15-5. great natural scientific ability to the strengthening There was thus magnitude loss of about 5m. in of our industrial position”. nine days. So rapid a fading, corresponding to a drop PillLir R. O o u r s e y . of intensity to one hundredth, occurs very rarely N utteries, with novse. A similar steep fall is known only with Liss, three novae : Corona; (1866)1, Aurigse (1892)2 and H ants. Herculis (1934)3 ; the decreases were 4-2m. in eight 1 N ature, 150, 373 (1942). days, 7 -4m. in twenty-three days and 5m. in ten days, respectively. The average magnitude loss (0-5m. per day) is about the same in all cases, except Nova A Flight of Pure Imagination Auriga? (0-3m.), b ut the sudden fall of about 1-5m. It is possible that the enclosed photograph and within twenty-four hours—between September 22 lines might not be out of place in N a t u r e as a sequel and 23—is equalled only by Nova Herculis between to Sir Richard P aget’s verses of June 15, 1935. So April 3 and 4 (6 -2m. to 7 -6m.). Thus Nova Cygni far as I can remember, I took the photograph some ■seems to resemble Nova Herculis, at least in this time after the year 1912 when my paper on rotating part of the light curve. films appeared (Proc. Roy. Soc., 87) and the Rainbow Note added in proof: On October 11 the Obser­ vatory succeeded in getting another photograph of 2h. 15m. exposure time on which the star image was only just visible, and the magnitude must therefore have been equal to or less than 16m. G e o r g e A l t e r . Norman Lockyer Observatory, Sidmouth. Oct. 6. 1 Huggins, Mon. Not. Roy. Ast. Sor., 52, 275 (1866). ’ H a n . A nn., 81, 136/37 (1920). ■ Beer, Mon. Not. Roy. Ast. Soc., 95, 538 (1935).

Functions of the Research Associations

I t is difficult to draw valid conclusions from any generalization about “industrial research”. It covers a wide field of subjects and an equally wide field of quality. Depending upon the particular industry and the type and size of firm engaged in it, “industrial research” ranges from relatively minor constructional or similar developments right through to real research upon scientific fundamentals. The extent to which the latter is possible by individual firms depends so much upon the extent of the permissible expenditure that the work of the research associations tends also to cover an equally wide range. il Without doubt cases exist where criticism can be levelled at the lack of intimate knowledge of the work of the industry possessed by the staffs of the research associations. It is to meet such deficiencies that I support the suggestion of greater interchange be­ tween their staffs and those of the industrial lab­ oratories. Such exchanges would, in my opinion, “Why does Sir C. V. Boys elect To do the things we least expect ?” help both parties ; and I would not restrict such Sir Richard gave the explanation*. interchange to any except the director and his But how ? Weil, here’s an illustration— “A photograph which cannot lie" immediate assistants. Shows clearly that he docs it by Dr. Toy1 is certainly correct in his statements con­ A flight of pure imagination. cerning the essential nature of confidence in the Cup became a popular scientific toy. I then intended association’s staff, but I feel that these staff inter­ to get out a third edition of my book on “Soap changes should only help to increase such confidence Bubbles” with the Rainbow Cup as the chief addi­ by broadening the knowledge each of the others. tion, and the idea of the fake photograph occurred Among many industrialists this complete confidence to me as being a permissible diversion. Stumbling does not exist, particularly when it is known that the upon this at the present time, with the Paget verses association’s staff have had no personal practical con­ fresh in memory, the seven lines with the photograph, tacts with the work of the industry. In these instances, of which three are quoted, flashed across my mind the tendency is undoubtedly to confine the associa­ and seemed appropriate for publication. This must tion’s work to generalities—such as can be guided by be my apology. a committee. I am indebted to Messrs. Kodak Ltd. for the print I do not overlook the very many original and often from which the figure is taken, in which they have fundamental researches that have been completed eliminated a blemish in my original negative. by the research associations ; but I am sure that a C. V. B o y s . more free interchange of personnel would aid such * Sir Richard Paget, N a t u r e , June 15, 1935. method has been largely used by Prof. Owen for ENGLISH SOCIAL STRATIFICATION determining phase boundaries. One of his first OCIAL stratification exists in most societies, yet publications was “A Determination of the Limit of S upon the English it exerts a powerful, subtle the a-Solid Solution in the Copper-Zinc System”. and complex influence, to a much greater extent The results agreed well with those found by the than in younger culture-pattems. Strangely, how­ standard metallurgical methods, but copper-cadmium ever, the subject has attracted very little attention caused more trouble on account of the volatilization from psychologists. Psychologists ought to regard of the cadmium. Zinc alloys could also be made by social stratification as a problem to be studied as heating a mixture of the powdered metals to the objectively as a geologist studies the layers in a cliff melting point of zinc. Then alloys were investigated face. The practical issues are of importance for the in a high-temperature camera, the aluminium-zinc welfare of the future*. system being studied by this means. Later work by Social stratification, however, is not the result of Gayler has confirmed the accuracy of this research, inevitable forces. Already since the War we have satisfactory results being obtained up to the melting seen many changes, changes which are much more point of zinc. The accuracy of the work depends on difficult to study in a large town than in a village. the composition and on the lattice parameter. The One classification distinguishes between those with more rapidly the parameter changes with composition opportunities and those without; in some parts of the better the results are likely to be. It is more the country even the probability of living is less than difficult if the boundary changes very rapidly with in other more favoured localities, while positions of increasing temperature, as in the copper-indium power and responsibility tend to go to persons chosen system, and accurate temperature control is vital. from an arbitrarily restricted group. If the diplomatic In order to make alloys of more reliable composi­ and civil services are to be made effectively demo­ tion, Prof. Owen has devised a shaking furnace. The cratic a definite study ought to be made of the materials are placed in small silica tubes which may requirements, and of the arguments for and against be lined with graphite. After shaking for a quarter drawing from a narrow group. of an hour or longer, the alloy may be quenched or Another classification is the social one based mainly slowly cooled to obtain very small ingots down to on titles, money, ownership of land, education, con­ half a gram in weight. Specimens selected from trasted with the stigma attached to the performance different parts of the ingots were sent away for of manual work. This two-class division of English analysis. There is usually agreement to 0-1 per cent society means that public life is administered too with the intended compositions. The powders from frequently by people who know little at first hand these specimens are sieved before use and heat- about the life of the general public. Social differences treated in an evacuated silica or ‘Pyrex’ tube. The are shown by choice of words and phrases, speech- work has been checked up by a satisfactory com­ melody, manners and games, and, to a certain extent, parison of the results from alloys made up by fusion religion. The solution of many problems in social and interdiffusing. Identical parameter measure­ psychology needs more knowledge of the sentiments ments have been obtained from powders and from and ideals which characterize different social strata, solid specimens. so it is necessary to study the more and the less Extremely reliable results have been obtained desirable social phenomena, to find out how, when even with the silver-arsenic system, no errors due to the causes are not economic, they have arisen. It volatilization being detectable. A very important would be a pity if the lessening of privilege led to a point is the effectiveness of quenching. A special decreasing tolerance of individual differences. furnace has been devised by means of which speci­ * “Psychological Aspects of English Social Stratification.” By T. H. mens may be quenched in less than two seconds. Pear. Reprinted from the "Bull. John Hylands lAbrary", 26, Ho. 2, The a boundary of the copper-tin system has been 1942. determined with an accuracy of 0-1 per cent. Similar results were found for the copper-aluminium system, but there is more difficulty with the silver-aluminium system because the ß-phase is not retained, the DETERMINATION OF EQUILIBRIUM possible error being 0-4 atomic per cent. Dr. W. Hume-Rothery spoke on the application DIAGRAMS BY X-RAY METHODS of X-ray methods to the determination of phase DISCUSSION on the determination of equili­ boundaries in metallurgical equilibrium diagrams. A brium diagrams by X-ray methods arranged Two types of investigation are valuable : either the by the Institute of Physics was held at the Royal determination of a rough equilibrium diagram or the Institution, London, on September 22. The chairman, determination of an accurate diagram. For the Sir Lawrenoe Bragg, pointed out that the meeting rough survey it is preferable to use X-rays in con­ was largely due to Dr. W. Hume-Rothery’s initiative, junction with the older methods, the former for the and that it might be regarded as a continuation of lower, the latter for the higher, temperatures. There the Institute’s conference on X-ray technique held is, however, a possibility that the filings will not at Cambridge last Easter. behave in the same way as the lumps, particular The opening talk was by Prof. E. A. Owen, Bangor, precautions being required to deal with two-phase who was one of the first to apply X-ray methods to alloys, where the powders may give misleading the study of equilibrium diagrams in an exact way, results unless each particle contains both phases in his subject being “The Determination of Phase the same proportions. Boundaries in Equilibrium Diagrams by X-Ray For accurate work the liquidus and solidus are best Methods”. The accurate determination of lattice determined by the older methods, but for investi­ parameters was begun at the National Physical gating transformations in the solid state the high- Laboratory, the initial publication being that of temperature camera supersedes thermal analysis Preston and Gayler on the “Age Hardening of provided that the composition of the filings is ac­ Copper-Aluminium”, who used a focusing camera. This curately known. Moreover, the X-ray method is particularly useful for the identification of phases in temperature is lowered, but structures which are ternary and other complicated systems. readily shown up by the X-ray powder method after The older methods are more sensitive for the a few days heat treatment may be invisible under determination of the precise limits of the phase the microscope even when the alloy has been heated boundaries, yielding an accuracy of one part in a for weeks, owing to the fine nature of the precipitate. thousand for the microscope. Prof. Owen’s results When the structure is decomposed during quenching, are invaluable for comparing the X-ray with the as in the change from austenite to martensite, a microscopic technique. The a-phase boundaries lead combination of the two methods is essential. to satisfactory agreement, but in the case of the two Dr. L. M. V. Gayler gave a brief summary of the ß -phases there are wide divergencies at the higher classical methods used by metallurgists for deter­ temperatures. This may be ascribed to unavoidable mining equilibrium diagrams. Chemical analysis is decomposition of the filings during quenching, and it an essential foundation upon which all physical is therefore advisable that specimens should be measurements should be based. The use of X-rays examined by the microscope to test whether they are is subject to certain limitations. The liquidus and suitable for the application of the X-ray method. solidus of a system must first be established by the Work done at Oxford includes an examination of older methods. There is still much to learn about the copper-gallium diagram by X-rays. The ß-phase the nature of the freezing point. Why do some phases was examined in the high-temperature camera and such as CuAl and CuAla separate by peritectic re­ in the form of quenched filings. At the high tem­ actions, whereas Cu3Al comes directly from the peratures the structure is body-centred cubic, but melt ? X-rays have been very little used on such during quenching it is transformed to hexagonal problems. close-packed. Another difficulty in the use of the Small amounts of fine-grained precipitate, though X-ray method is that the relation between the lattice identified by the microscope, may be insufficient to spacing and composition within a phase is not register on the X-ray film ; but X-rays are of con­ necessarily a smooth one. A notable example is the siderable use in identifying unknown phases in iron-aluminium system; also many systems con­ ternary systems, even if they sometimes overlook the taining magnesium recently investigated by Dr. presence of a phase which has been seen micro­ Rayner at Oxford. In conclusion, it is now recognized scopically. This is not improbable when there are that there are so many pitfalls in the use of X-rays two phases present with the same structure, and such for the exact location of phase boundaries in equili­ a case occurs in the tin-silver-mercury system. brium diagrams that help is needed from other Where there are transformations in the solid, both methods. metallurgical and X-ray methods are necessary. Dr. A. J. Bradley spoke on the examination of When transformations cannot be suppressed by heat-treated alloys by X-rays and the microscope. quenching, high-temperature X-ray work is ex­ Alloys must be made up from extremely pure ingred­ tremely valuable. It is essential to use X-rays for ients, say 99 • 95 atomic per cent. The discordant results the examination of superlattices, but it seems obtained from the aluminium-manganese system can doubtful whether they should be inserted on an probably be ascribed to the gross impurities formerly equilibrium diagram. Time may be saved by the found even in the best manganese available. Errors X-ray analysis of powders. Cold work, recrystal­ in the initial composition are not always put right lization and grain growth are best studied by X-rays. by chemical analysis, for when the amount to be Solid solubility limits are readily determined by analysed exceeds 50 per cent of the alloy, there may them, but the process of precipitation should also be be difficulties in reaching the desired standard of studied by other means. The use of both X-rays accuracy. Lattice spacing measurements are then a and the microscope is like changing the degree of valuable check on chemical analysis. magnification, and both are essential. Before X-ray examination alloys rhust be lump- Sir Lawrence Bragg then discussed the value of and powder annealed. The former gives uniformity, equilibrium diagrams, and pointed out that the the latter impresses a definite structure on the essential fact is not the exact boundary, as this specimen. Lump-annealing treatment is only effective depends largely on accidents in the previous heat if carried out just below the final freezing point or treatment, but rather what possible phases may solidus temperature. For example, NiAl3, when exist. Neither is the equilibrium diagram directly cooled from the melt, is found to be contaminated used in industry, as all industrial materials are out w ith N i2Al3 and aluminium. Lump annealing, if of equilibrium. One possible criticism of the X-ray carried out at the right temperature, produces pure powder- method is that industry is more interested NiAlj. Powder annealing is necessary to give good in metals in the lump form. Their gas content is X-ray photographs, as the act of filing or grinding im portant. may be enough to change the crystal structure of the Dr. D. Stockdale emphasized the importance of original lump ; but, on the whole, the annealed purity, equilibrium, analysis and the method of powder should correspond more exactly to true examination. More than one method should be used, equilibrium conditions. especially to cheek up changes of phase during The microscope shows the difference between a quenching. For example, in the aluminium-copper single-phase alloy and one containing two or more system, the microscope gives more reliable results phases, but only the X-ray method can show with than the X-ray method for the ß-phase, but the certainty which phase is present. Thus in theory silver-copper system gives identical results by either the X-ray method is the ideal means for the investi­ method. Where there are discrepancies it will often gation of alloy equilibrium diagrams ; but at present be found that in the earlier work pure metals were the microscopic technique, being the more fully not available, or insufficient precautions were taken. developed, is the more reliable. This is especially Mr. D. A. Oliver stated that extreme accuracy is true at high temperatures, as the high-temperature scientifically important but that the practical man X-ray camera is still in its infancy. would like to have a collated system of diagrams Heat treatments must be greatly lengthened as the revised every five years. While it is desirable to use a variety of methods, X-ray work has yielded brilliant making a new alloy near each corner. Much less results. Dr. H. Lipson gave an example in direct than 1 per cent of the face-centred cubic or body- conflict with the theory of phase equilibrium, that of centred cubic phases can be detected, but it is some­ the metal cobalt. The purity of the metal was 99-99 times difficult to detect the presence of phases with per cent, and yet it was not possible to find a definite more complex structures. A very large camera would transition point. On cooling, the hexagonal form be needed if the structure was of low symmetry. begins to appear just above 300° C. and the amount Time is saved when the system contains many increases down to room temperature. On reheating, triangles. it only changes back to the face-centred cubic form Mr. C. Wainwright stressed the importance of above 400° C. expert chemical analysis. Mr. N. J. Petch pointed Mr. G. D. Preston pointed out that X-rays can out that there is a vital difference in the behaviour give additional information not available by the of lumps and powder from low-alloy steels. Often microscope. The mechanism of phase changes is when the lump remains austenitic, quenched filings most important. Dr. G. V. Rayner supported may contain a great deal of martensite. Dr. A. H. Jay, accurate work in order to supply reliable data to the in agreement with a previous speaker, recommended theorists. He agreed that the X-ray method would the electrolytic method of preparing surfaces instead often give results just as accurate as the microscopic, of acid etching, which is not reliable. but it was no more speedy in operation. Dr. H. Lipson would like to study the liquid state Dr. W. Wrazej described the use of X-rays in the by means of X-rays, but considers that the micro­ investigation of an iron alloy which showed two scopic method should be left to the metallurgists, distinct groups of crystals on microscopic examina­ while Dr. M. L. V. Gayler pleaded for co-operation tion. The problem was whether these belonged to between physicists and metallurgists. Emphasis was different phases or whether they were merely dif­ placed on the difference in behaviour between pure ferently oriented crystals. The back-reflexion and commercial metals. Prof. E. A. Owen was also method proved that the latter was the true ex­ in favour of co-operation, and strongly supported planation. the focusing camera. Dr. A. H. Jay stated that he had just designed an Dr. W. A. Alexander pointed out some discre­ X-ray camera to work up to 1,500° C. In determining pancies between X-ray and microscope results on phase boundaries by the lattice spacing method, the nickel-aluminium system. In the copper-nickel- difficulties were caused by irregularities as in the aluminium system there is a decrease in solid iron-nickel system. He expressed some scepticism solubility as the alloy cools, which is important from about the value of extremely pure materials ; results the point of view of the hardening of copper-rich do not always come up to expectations. alloys. There is supersaturation at low temperatures. Dr. H. O’Neill, though very interested in phase Dr. A. J. Bradley suggested three stages in precipi­ diagrams, does not consider that extreme accuracy tation at low temperatures : the first affects the is of vital importance for industrial work. If alloys physioal properties, the second the X-ray results and are examined in the lump form, the polished surface the third the microscope results. layer gives broadened lines. If this is removed by Mr. F. A. Fox urged that the X-ray worker should etching, there is a selective solution and the X-ray use the microscope, and Dr. L. Frommer stated that results are unreliable. Gas may upset the equilibrium quenched lumps differ from the surface to the of alloys. It would be interesting to follow the interior. tempering process of steel at 400°-300° C. by means of X-rays. Dr. J. L. Haughton directed the attention of the audience to the value of other physical measure­ ments such as electrical conductivity and dilatation. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS AND Dr. L. Frommer finds it necessary to investigate THE POST-WAR PERIOD his specimens in the form of lumps, because he is trying to follow the industrial process of age-hardening N his inaugural address on October I to the Institu­ in a complex aluminium alloy. The difficulty is to I tion of Electrical Engineers, Prof. C. L. Fortescue obtain a useful surface. For this purpose he uses first referred to two aspects of the political and diamond turning and faces up the surface with the economic conditions likely to prevail in Great Britain diamond. This prevents the surface layer from being after the War. First, a great effort will be made to distorted as with polishing. Dr. A. H. Jay has used improve the living and working conditions of the less a special method for getting X-ray photographs highly paid members of the community; and without powdering. A high narrow slit is used, the secondly, Great Britain will for a long time import a specimen being rotated to give continuous lines. large proportion of essential food supplies and a Dr. W. Hume-Rothery then commented on a considerable quantity of the raw materials required point raised by Prof. Owen, who showed that the for industries. X-ray method follows the solubility curve better In discussing the export and import tendencies anil than the microscope at lower temperatures, and in proposing a course of action to redress the balance, explained that it only needs more care to improve Prof. Fortescue considers that one of the first pro­ the microseopie results without waste of time. In blems to be coped with in the post-war period is the answer to a request from Dr. Hume-Rothery for an conservation of coal and its more efficient use. In explanation of intensity methods for determining this connexion reference is made to the Weir Com­ phase diagrams by X-rays, Dr. A. J. Bradley re­ mittee’s report of 1931 on main-line electrification marked that the method has been mainly used for and to the Moore-Brabazon Committee’s report of the determination of three-phase triangles in ternary 1933 on the Severn barrage scheme, the provisions systems. It needs three alloys in each triangle to of which would save 9-10 million tons of coal a year give the approximate compositions of the corners in the one case and about 1J million tons in the other. from the relative proportions of the phases present The Caledonian power and the Grampian (Glen in each alloy. More exact values can be obtained by Affric) power schemes are also mentioned. In the domestic sphere an improvement in the APPOINTMENTS VACANT efficiency of heating apparatus might play a greater A pplications are invited for the following appointments on or part in the conservation of coal than would the before the dates mentioned : development of the rather scanty sources of available T e a c h e r o f E n g i n e e r i n g D r a w i n g a n d S c i e n c e at the Castleford water-power. The possibility of using the energy of the Whitwood Technical College and Junior Technical School—-M. G. condensate from power stations offers good prospects Swaine, Education Offices, Smawthorne Lane, Castleford, Yorks. (October 20). when planned in combination with intensive horti­ R e s e a r c h A s s i s t a n t (g r a d u a t e i n S c i e n c e o r A g r i c u l t u r e )— culture on a large scale and industries requiring The Secretary, National Institute for Research in Dairying, Shinfield, considerable quantities of process steam. Reading (October 21). T e a c h e r o f G e n e r a l S c i e n c e S u b j e c t s in the Junior Technical Prof. Fortescue outlined the facilities and training Department of the Mining and Technical College—The Principal, which in his view should be made available to young Technical College, Church Street, Barnsley (October 23). S e c o n d T e c h n i c a l A s s i s t a n t ( m a l e )— T h e Secretary, West of men entering upon engineering careers in the post­ Scotland Agricultural College, 6 Blythswood Square, Glasgow war years. The school-leaving age will probably be (O ctober 24). raised to 15 or 16, and four or five years will be C l i n i c P sychologist ( w o m a n ) at. the St. Andrews and Dundee Training Centre—The Director of Studies, Training College, Park Place, needed after that for training in the sciences and for Dundee (October 24). workshop instruction. A further two or three years L e c t u r e r ( m a n o r w o m a n ) i n M a t h e m a t i c s a n d P h y s i c s —The Principal and Clerk to the Governing Body, Wigan and District Mining •should be devoted to subject-m atter chosen from and Technical College, Wigan (October 31). engineering practice, mathematics applied to engineer­ L e c t u r e r i n E n g i n e e r i n g S u b j e c t s at the Medway Technical ing problems, industrial economics, works adminis­ College, Senior Departments, Gillingham.—The District Education tration or industrial psychology. The student’s final Officer, Fort Pitt House, Rochester. award would depend on the work done during the first four or five years and on the presentation of a satisfactory thesis covering the work of the later years ; at the conclusion of this, the student should REPORTS and other PUBLICATIONS be ready to take his place in productive industry. (not included in the monthly Books Supplement) Prof. Fortescue makes a plea for the thorough Great Britain and Ireland investigation by engineers of the relative advantages Bibliography on Welding in Aircraft Construction. (B.7.) Pp. 10. of road and rail transport in Great Britain and also (London: Institute of Welding.) [229 Industrial Practice for Spot Welding Light Alloys. Prepared for in such other spheres as the public health services the R.52 Sub-Committee on the Spot Welding of Light Alloys by a and agriculture. The necessary researches would Panel R.521 on Technique for Spot Welding of Light Alloys. (T.8.) Pp. 12. (London : Institute of Welding.) [229 need to be conducted on a national scale, possibly by British Council Map No. 1 : Europe and the Middle East. Scale a national research institution or perhaps an extended 1 :11,000,000. 30 in. x 24? in. Printed in six colours. No. 2 : The Far East. Scale 1 : 11,000,000. Outline edition. 30 in. x 24| in. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. No. 3 : North America to Britain. Scale 1 : 11,000,000. Outline edition. Then there will be the urgent and difficult problem 30 in. x 24^in. (London: Royal Geographical Society.) No. 1, of reabsorbing men into industry from the Armed flat or folded in cover, 5s. ; No. 1, flat, with Nos. 2 and 3 in Outline. 8s. [229 Forces without dislocating the lives of those who have remained in industry. Tentatively it is suggested Other Countries Indian Ecological Society. First Annual Report. Pp. 6. (Bombay : that all the younger men in industry be gradually Royal Institute of Science.) [229 drafted into the Forces, after the War, for two or Report of the King Institute of Preventive Medicine, Guindy, by three years of military duty, their places being taken Major K. Padmanabha Menon, and Report of the Government Analyst, Madras, by Herbert Hawley. Pp. ii+72. (Madras: Government by men of suitable qualifications now in the Forces. Press.) 8 annas. [229 By the time the young men from industry have Records of the Geological Survey of India. Vol. 76 (Bulletins of Economic Minerals, No. 6): Indian Precious Stones. By L. A. N. completed these military duties, industry should be Iyer. Pp. 54+2 plates. (Calcutta: Geological Survey of India.) in a position gradually to re-absorb them. 1 rupee ; Is. 6

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