Indigenous Country As a Context for Mental and Physical Health: Yarning with the Nukunu Community

38 Indigenous Country as a context for mental and physical health: Yarning with the Nukunu Community

Daria Trzepacz Bernard Guerin Jared Thomas University of South Australia

It is often mentioned that Australian Indigenous people1 have a strong attachment to their Country that leads to better health outcomes, but it is unclear how these are concretely linked. Nukunu leaders and community members aged between 30-60 years (six men, four women), were asked in focus groups and interviews about their attachment to Country. The main themes that emerged suggested that: Their country brings Nukunu an identity and sense of belonging; that it was a place with nurturing qualities; people felt unhappy and unfulfilled away from their land; people returned to country to recover from illness; and activities conducted on country such as natural resource management provided Nukunu with group cohesiveness and empowerment. The implications of findings suggest Nukunu people should return to Country when experiencing any illness, as it has clear benefits to psychosocial wellbeing. Some suggested pathways from being on Country to better physical and mental health are presented. Further research should investigate how Indigenous attachment to Country can be better incorporated into mental health practices.

It has long been reported anecdotally there are an increasing number of papers on that there are strong and positive the physical health aspects of being on relationships between Indigenous people and Country or caring for Country. There are also their Country (Bishop, Vicary, Mitchell, & many statements in the literature regarding Pearson, 2012; Dwyer, 2012). This is now the importance of Country to identity. reflected in a small number of research Finally, throughout this paper, we also make studies across diverse disciplines, but there is reference to what we will refer to as “creative not a great deal of systematically collected texts” - novels, biographies, poems - that material. Further, much of what is known is make mention of the importance of collected in a specific context with a specific Country. While these latter sources are not Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander group, necessarily systematic in the examination of but the findings are then generalised across the concept, they are a useful addition in all contexts and groups, but other understanding the specific features of why communities are yet to be tested. The aim of Country is so important. this research was to informally talk with one Mental Health and Well-Being specific group to (a) gain some more concrete There is research linking Country to ideas of what Country means, and the social well-being and mental health, for contexts by which Country is associated with example, evidence for the social and mental better health outcomes, and (b) gauge the health benefits of attachment to Country diversity rather than automatically assume (Bishop et al., 2012; Ganesharajah & generality. Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres The connections that have been found Strait Islander Studies, 2009; Guerin & to Country vary according to the literature Guerin, 2012; Guerin, Guerin, Tedmanson & searched, and references for these are Clark, 2011), as well as the consequences to detailed below. There are many general mental health of being removed from comments spread through the anthropological Country. Vicary and Bishop (2005; also literatures, although they tend to be incidental Bishop et al., 2012), for example, found that to the focus on social relationships and Indigenous people who spent large amounts community organisation. Some psychology of time away from their Country reported studies discuss mental health aspects, and experiencing episodes of depression, perhaps

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due to a loss of this spiritual link between Guerin, 2014), in which mental health can be themselves, their Country and community. understood within the context of Indigenous Upon becoming ill, Indigenous elders culture—their community, spirituality, land, recommended that they return to their and Law (Bishop et al., 2012; O’Brien & Country to make a spiritual reconnection Jackson, 2007; Tse, Lloyd, Petchkpvsky, & with the land that was believed to improve Manaia, 2005; Vicary & Andrews, 2000, their health. They suggested that being 2001). These studies suggest that to prevent unable to return to Country to alleviate these or treat mental illness it is important for feelings resulted in a deterioration of their Indigenous people to reconnect to their mental health. culture, Country and spirituality (Mackean, Pretty, Bishop, Fisher and Sonn (2007) 2009). For instance, Gabb and McDermott suggested that children of the Stolen (2007) suggested that clinicians need to be Generations experienced more mental health aware of the experiences Indigenous people problems than those whose parents had not have had that contribute to their trauma, such been removed (see also Fromene & Guerin, as colonisation, dispossession, Stolen 2014a, b). They attributed this to the support Generations, transgenerational trauma, and belonging provided by traditional racism and discrimination. They stress the community and kinship structures on land, importance of a reconnection with the land, which may be important in forming a secure culture and community, which can aid in identity. Clearly, while this is suggestive, it treatment of mental illness and may help to would be difficult to separate out the many prevent its occurrence. effects involved: Being removed from Health and Caring for Country family; being put into alterative living Other research suggests that it is arrangements that could be damaging; and important to fulfil obligations to land in order being removed from Country per se. to maintain physical health (Dwyer, 2012). Separation from Country is only one aspect This might work through many factors such of what occurred for those of the Stolen as emotion change, physical exercise on Generation. Country, etc. Westerman (2004) suggested Creative texts also suggest that that Indigenous people may become ill attachment to Country might only become because they have done something wrong apparent when Indigenous people lose their culturally or are being ‘paid back’ for Country or are away from their land. For wrongdoing, which indicates that Indigenous instance, in Rose’s (2002) research, spirituality is linked to the fulfilment of Indigenous women suggested that their obligations to their family, land and culture. attachment to land is only apparent when Garnett and Sithole (2007) found that the their country is threatened or lost. Rose management of land was an important aspect suggested that many people suffer when of traditional owners’ identity and health— places of significance on their land are they spoke of feeling sad at being unable to damaged or destroyed, and they compare carry out duties to their land. being away from their Country to heartbreak. A number of studies point to the This also suggests that those who have lived psychosocial benefits of directly caring for on Country uninterrupted for many Country or Natural Resource Management generations might not talk or think as much (NRM). For example, Burgess, Johnston, about attachment to Country because it is Bowman and Whitehead (2005) reviewed embedded in their everyday lives and taken biomedical research and suggested that for granted. activities such as landscape burning, Finally, there is also literature which subsistence hunting, Indigenous ranger discusses how mental health treatment can programs and cultural practices conducted on incorporate Indigenous conceptions of Country gave young Indigenous men an Country when Indigenous people seek help. opportunity to develop independence. This Most of these studies suggest that it is also provided those participating with an important for clinicians to view mental opportunity to develop social cohesion, illness in a holistic manner (Guerin & which contributed to group collective esteem The Australian Community Psychologist Volume 26 No 2 December 2014 © The Australian Psychological Society Ltd

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and efficacy. Kingsley, Townsend, Phillips people to experience a loss of culture and and Aldous (2009) also found that people spirituality, which has coincided with a loss participating in these types of activities were of belonging, identity and self-esteem. able to develop greater respect for themselves Morgan, Slade and Morgan (1997) have because they were surrounded by culture, suggested that this loss of identity has meant leading to an improvement in self-esteem. Indigenous people have become confused Other studies on NRM have found about their identities, which has led to stress- direct benefits to psychological health related disorders, antisocial behaviour and (Ganesharajah & Australian Institute of self-destructive tendencies. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies, Some creative texts, such as poetry, 2009). For example, Burgess et al. (2009) anthologies and stories, also discuss the found that participating in activities on importance of a connection to the land for country, such as the control of invasive Indigenous people’s identity (Morgan, Mia, weeds and feral animals, commercial use of & Kwaymullina, 2007, 2008). They suggest wildfire and cultural maintenance activities, that Country allows Indigenous people to appeared to contribute to lower psychological experience an identity and sense of distress, as measured by the Kessler belonging, which can help them to improve Psychological Distress Scale. Burgess, Berry, their self-esteem and provide them with a Gunthorpe and Bailie (2008), using a greater sense of confidence. questionnaire and multiple regression The Country is further discussed as a modelling, found that participation in NRM source of nourishment. In Rose’s (1996) was significantly correlated with a construct anthology, she compares Country to a person, measure of holistic local Indigenous health, who the Indigenous people care for like a anngurrunga-wanam, a state of vitality of family member. This close connection to the mind, body and soul. Country means that Country is a source of Other studies recorded the negative nourishment for the body, mind and heart of consequences (such as greater stress) for ill Indigenous people, as it provides for their and dying Indigenous people who were needs. There is also a suggestion that a relocated to respite care away from their reciprocal relationship between Country and Country (McGrath, 2007; McGrath, Holewa people exists, in that when Country is & Buckley, 2007; McGrath & Patton, 2006; unhealthy this impacts on the person, and McGrath et al., 2006). The researchers vice-versa. Rose (2002) suggests that healthy attributed this to the comfort and familiarity relationships can be changed by damage to that is associated with their families and Country. The Indigenous person who is community when on Country. aware of this is best able to live according to Identity the Laws of the land and be strong, healthy There have also been links made and happy. However, if the person is at odds between the land and a sense of identity and with the Law they may become ill (Rose, belonging for Indigenous people (Bishop et 2002). al., 2012; Dwyer, 2012; Garnett & Sithole, Research Questions 2007). In one study, Ypinazar, Margolis, While it is known that an attachment Haswell-Elkins and Tsey (2007) found strong exists between Indigenous Australians and reported links between Indigenous people their Country, less is known about the ways and their community, stories, ceremonies, in which this occurs, nor the paths through ancestors, sacred sites and tribal areas, with which attachment is strengthened. This is these aspects of culture helping Indigenous complicated because, as we have seen people to establish a positive identity. The above, the context of Country has many authors suggested that colonisation, on-going aspects. The studies outlined also conflate social practices, and Australian Government different Indigenous groups who have very policies, and the consequent loss of different contexts. For the groups of connection to land, have led Indigenous Indigenous people mentioned above, some

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have been living on Country for thousands northern pastoral regions that skirted the of years, whereas for others, they have been Flinders Ranges, so during colonisation they living in urban settings for the last few had land taken away, were attacked brutally, generations, perhaps with foster care, and and later had children removed from the are only now rediscovering their Country groups that survived. Stories of massacres and Indigeneity. All of the thoughts and are told. aspirations about Country in the various A Nukunu Dreaming story (passed on literatures are important, but it can be orally through family and therefore to one of questioned that their findings are the authors) prophesised the negative effects generalisable across all Indigenous groups in of colonisation, and taking away Nukunu Australia. Country from its people. This is the story of The aim of the current study was to the character Kutnyu and the Dreaming investigate the attachment to Country for the Serpent Wapma. Wapma created the Nukunu people, whose Country lies north of Flinders Ranges and a river on the southern Adelaide, South Australia. This was border of Nukunu country. He later conducted with just one group from one transformed into a whale and ventured out to Country but the aim was to add to what we sea. Wapma saw Kutnyu trespass, so he know already rather than attempt to provide swam up the river, changed back into the certainly and generality. This was achieved serpent, swallowed Kutnyu for his crime, through talking with key community and returned to the sea as a whale. Many members about many of the themes years later, in this Dreaming story, a Nukunu discussed above, and any thoughts of their couple are surprised when they have a child own about attachment to Country. We who is completely white. Nukunu believed wished to place this in the specific context this child to be Kutnyu, returned after of Nukunu and not generalise to other punishment and white from living inside of groups. For example, the communities the Wapma's stomach. To this day Nukunu further north in the APY Lands of South refer to non-Indigenous people as kutnyu. Australia have been actively living on their This Dreaming story was created before lands for many generations, even after European colonisation and emphasises that colonisation. Their reports on attachment to Nukunu country should be respected Country should be collected and described (Mascall, 2009). separately, before any statements regarding Like many of the surrounding groups, general inferences can be made (e. g., the Nukunu people were taken off their Guerin & Guerin, 2010, 2011). Country, and lived in missions (Point Pearce in particular) and on the outskirts of rural Context: The Nukunu Community, towns, and put under strict behavioural Dreaming and Country control by governments. For example, those Nukunu Country is about 250 kms in the Point Pearce Mission were forbidden north of Adelaide in South Australia, by law to talk to their relatives living on the encompassing Crystal Brook, Pt Pirie, outskirts of Port Augusta, and the police Quorn, Wilmington and Pt Augusta, the would arrest them if found. Of course, many upper eastern Spencer Gulf and the Flinders stories are told of how they evaded the Ranges. The Nukunu people have police and had family meetings together in experienced trauma as a direct result of Port Augusta under the cover of darkness. colonisation and the removal of children All Nukunu now live a Western way from their families due to Australian of life and almost all are employed in Government policies that were in place up to various locations around South Australia, the 1970s. Like many groups in the region many in professional jobs. Many live in (Andyamathanha, Banggarla, Kokatha, urban centres built on their Country, in Port Kaurna, Narangga, Ngadjuri), their Country Augusta, Port Germein and Port Pirie, but lay on the route out of Adelaide to the none are living on the land in the bush, as

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they once had prior to the arrival of descendants are “getting on with it”, rather Europeans. So many are living on Country than letting the grief and hurt regarding these but not living “off the Country” for shelter historical events dominate their lives. and food. However, they speak of their ancestors as In the 1980s some Nukunu traditional experiencing their culture and beliefs lands were returned, and so they are looking “crumbling”, and refer to the tremendous at ways to redevelop their community. There mental anguish, depression, and feeling of are plans to create a Nukunu economy on total hopelessness that their ancestors must Country in a culturally and environmentally have felt when their land was taken from sensitive way (Mascall, 2009). Although no them. one wishes to live permanently on their Country in the bush at this stage, Nukunu Method wish to maintain it for visiting, respite, The context for the interviews, camping and reviving their cultural practices therefore, was of an Indigenous Australian for their children and future generations. group that had been broken up and prevented Linking the research to Nukunu was from living on Country in the bush and also opportune because there is very little carrying out many cultural practices since written about Nukunu by the community or early colonial times. They had not lived on others. For example, they are not mentioned Country in the bush for years, and most were in the widely known South Australian living in urban centres in relatively good volume of Mattingley and Hampton (1998) employment. Some of these centres are built and only a few details are written about on top of their Country, however. They now them in Sutton (1995) and Taplin wished to reinvigorate tradition and culture, (1879/1967). Many papers exist in museum re-learn from early accounts, and develop storage but most of what is known is only their Country for future generations of known by Nukunu themselves, orally or in Nukunu. creative form, which is where much of the Participants above is sourced. The Nukunu community is small, and As an example, a video called Nukunu the 17 main adult members were contacted stories of heritage and identity: Six short through one of the authors who is a member films (McKinnon, 2003) discussed the of the community. Of these, 10 Nukunu impact of colonisation on Indigenous leaders and community members over the people. The Nukunu descendants discussed age of 30 were willing to share what the oral history of how the early European attachment to Country meant to them. All settlers and Australian Government officials the others were interested but unable to made no attempt to understand the language, oblige because of work and family wishes or concerns of the Nukunu people commitments. There were four women and when it came to the ploughing of land, six men; five of the participants were based building of dams and chopping down of in the Port Augusta area and five were based trees on their country. They also discussed in the urban Adelaide area. Their ages how the settlers attempted to control ranged between 30 and 60 years. Nukunu people by fencing off their land, Procedure keeping them off waterholes, and preventing With the Nukunu leaders’ approval, them from kangaroo hunting and going to participants who were willing to be part of scared places. This meant they were unable the study were chosen from the community. to conduct ceremonies and pay respects to The researcher followed the cultural their ancestors, which was a very important consultants’ advice (cf. Bishop, Vicary, aspect to their culture. Andrews, & Pearson 2006) on all matters. At that time the Nukunu people did not The nature of the project was circulated to voice their disapproval of these activities, as all involved and the researchers followed up they had no power. Similarly today, the with a phone call, email or Facebook

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enquiry. To aid this, the researcher created a this was done rigorously with more than Facebook page titled The importance of one researcher present. This is common in Country for social wellbeing of Nukunu. Indigenous research methods. This contained information about the project Due to the nature of the topic, there and what participation would involve. The were no specific set of questions but there researcher requested to be the Facebook were general issues for participants to friend of participants who the cultural respond to as well as raising issues of their consultants advised to contact, and then own. During interviews and focus groups, invited them to join this group. The they were asked about: researcher advised participants that they  What they think attachment to Country were able to post comments on the page, and means? that they were able to do this anonymously  What it would mean to lose their by sending it to the private email box of one Country? researcher. An information sheet and  What being on Country means to consent form was also provided to potential them? participants by email and through a letter.  What are the different ways that caring The researchers travelled to Port for Country affects or changes their Augusta to speak to participants and also life? had meetings with others in Adelaide. The  What do they actually do with the researchers informally interviewed Country in the past/present? (“yarning”) a number of Nukunu about their  How do they see the redevelopment of attachment to Country. They also informally their Country affecting them? yarned with some Nukunu who were not  How would they like to interact with greatly involved in Country about similar the Country in the future? ideas, focusing on what it would mean if  How does attachment to Country they could be involved in Country more in enhance their social and emotional the future. wellbeing? The focus groups and interviews were conducted for approximately one hour but Findings some went much longer. No interpreters There were several themes that were required as all participants spoke fluent emerged from discussions with Nukunu. English (their language is still being revived These themes were based on the authors’ from colonial suppression). All informal reading and re-reading of the notes taken interviewing was done under approved and later discussion with Nukunu ethical protocols of the University of South community members. The main themes Australia but with any provisos requested by suggested that: Country was a source of Nukunu. identity; being on Country provided Bishop et al. (2006) suggest the most Nukunu people with an opportunity to be effective way to carry out research with “nourished”; the participants were upset at Indigenous people requires developing a the loss of Country; the Country was seen relationship and ‘yarning’ with them. The as a place where people would be able to participants were free to withdraw their recover from illness; and activities such as consent to participate in the project at any natural resource management (NRM) time without prejudice, and they could brought people a sense of social wellbeing. choose whether to respond to each general Within these themes, there were also some question as the interviewer raised it (see subthemes which are highlighted below. below). The general questions were not We see these themes as over-lapping to inherently stress-provoking, indeed it was make a general story, but we have welcomed. Their answers were recorded in separated them into theme headings for note form since they did not wish for audio- ease of presentation. taping as it was considered rude. However,

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Identity Country . Connection to community, land and Source of values. The Nukunu spoke of culture. Most Nukunu interviewed reported Country as pulling people back to their a strong spiritual connection to Country, values and giving them a sense of meaning which enhanced their identity and sense of by which they were able to focus on what life belonging. For example, the participants meant to them and discover who they were. reported experiencing acceptance for who They believed that upon losing their Country they were on Country, as they were they would feel disconnected, because they surrounded by their families and the would lose their identities and lose their self. community. Country was also depicted as a One 31year old female participant described part of who they were and a part of their the experience of being away from Country soul, the country and people being viewed as and losing this foundation, which for her interconnected. One 40 year old male meant losing a sense of who she was, and her participant claimed he did not own the identity: country, it owned him: People have built a home (the Nukunu people have been Country), however they may removed from Country only by a continue to travel a journey physical nature not spiritual. For without this foundation. The us today the hills, trees, animals experiences they have are the and ocean remain a strong and bricks, however if the bricks are spiritual connection. We as loose and they are without their individuals experience different foundation (the country) they and similar emotions upon our experience emptiness as they visits. I have heard of a saying don’t have the resilience and “the hills are alive”, as a Nukunu strength to keep going. person, I truly understand what is The Country as a Source of meant by this statement. My Nourishment connection to land reminds me Nurturing. The participants spoke of that I do not own it, it owns me. I their Country as being a source of comfort. have a responsibility to ensure One participant discussed driving over the that it is no longer taken for hill on the highway and seeing the Flinders granted and its riches are Ranges, comparing this to having a “hot preserved for future generations. bath or putting on a pair of fluffy socks”. Self –respect. The participants linked They felt the weight lifted off their disrespecting country to disrespecting their shoulders; it was a relief to get there. This own self. For example, killing an animal or was again emphasised when participants chopping a tree unnecessarily were both reported that returning to Country was like viewed as sacrilege. Country was spoken walking into open arms, where they felt at about as a “blueprint for living”. The ease and safe. One 50 year old female attachment of the Nukunu to the land was participant spoke of the uplifting feeling she depicted as holistic, involving physical had when on Country: knowledge of Country, and knowledge of Country is a powerful place and spiritual and cultural beliefs associated with by being there you absorb this their Country. One participant spoke of the energy. This energy is our sea, sky, land, water, wind, plants, animals, ancestors talking to us and ceremonies and song and how these are all teaching us about Country. interconnected and governed by the Vulnerability pressures. Some Nukunu Dreaming stories and storylines that run reported that the Country could be used as a along Nukunu Country, with the Dreaming place of respite for people with drug and seen as Law. This Law governed how to be a alcohol problems. The participants good man/woman and how to look after associated dislocation from Country and the

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resulting loss of culture with anti-social claimed: behaviour. They believed that people Losing Country is like losing an involved in these behaviours would benefit arm or a leg, it’s a part of you, you from learning the knowledge and meaning have to have it. associated with Country. The Nukunu Loss of culture. The Nukunu discussed believed that Country was important in that upon losing their Country, their culture discovering your identity and that forming would be lost or would disappear. This an identity was a huge struggle for ‘lost included their kinship, status of their clan people’ because they have no spiritual group, their heritage as a proud race, sites of connection to their ancestors. significance and the Dreamtime, which were Places on Country with healing and a vital aspect of their identity. The loss of nurturing qualities. Other participants spoke these traditional roots means many of going to specific places on country to feel participants would lose their strength and at peace. When they needed closure on depth in life, as described by a 40 year old personal issues or they were troubled, they male participant: returned to Country, comparing it to going to Our traditionalistic roots are a church, a psychiatrist or Gallipoli. Some great starting point for seeking Nukunu spoke of visiting sacred places on personal strength and depth to Country. They reported feeling familiarity life. The music, dreaming, and they felt watched over or looked after ancestors, language and land of here by their ancestors. When faced with my native place are food for my problems, these special sites were where they soul and have a profound effect claimed their ancestors spoke to them and on my wellbeing. gave them advice. Resilience. The participants discussed One place was Woma farm and the how previous Australian Government remains of the church at Baroota Reserve, policies were aimed at separating Nukunu which was seen as a sanctuary for many people from their Country and culture, but Nukunu. Many participants reported Baroota they were proud of the resilience of their to be a special site where they were together, people in maintaining this connection, as and could “talk and be blackfellas without described: having to answer to anyone”. They claimed However this has come at a price, Baroota was a place where Nukunu ancestors knowing that we have been had a very strong presence and where they denied our Aboriginal culture. enjoyed going due to this strong connection. Our ancestors were unable to One participant recalled a dream he had in practice and pass on their which he fell into Baroota Creek and the customs, Laws, language, ancestors wanted to talk to him. Others spiritual beliefs and the true specifically referred to the Great Tree (now meanings of land unreservedly. It destroyed), the salt-lake crossed by the road is amazing to know how resilient to Stirling North, the salt-lake near Nukunu generations were and Umeewarra, and the adjacent spring which is have been considering, the now buried, as places of significance. abhorrent policies of yesteryear The Loss of Country were designed to remove them Losing you soul. Many individuals also from (Country) the Australian spoke of what would happen if they lost their landscape, under the premises of Country. They believed taking away their colonisation. Country compares to taking away their heart Living or travelling away from and to the rape of their mother. The Country. Most Nukunu reported that it was participants spoke of dying inside, feeling painful living in the city away from Country. violated and disempowered upon the loss of They spoke of feeling unhappy and their land. A 60 year old male participant unfulfilled when away from their land,

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whereas at home they spoke of feeling It does not belong here. comfortable. Many described going overseas The Country’s Role in Recovery from and feeling homesick, as they yearned to Psychological Distress return to country. One participant cried as he Many of the points already reported left their land to go overseas and spoke of show the sense of well-being associated wanting to be home while being there. with being on Country and working with Some Nukunu who have built a life in Country. Other, more specific, comments urban Adelaide have claimed they would like were also made with respect to mental to return to Country to live and work if this health and Country. would be possible. One participant liked to Relation to mental health. The Nukunu take the Country with them, and took rocks spoke of returning to Country when they and a desert rose from their Country to keep experienced illness. This was not only for with them in the city, to remind them of their “physical” illnesses but many reported Country when they were unable to visit. A 50 needing to return to Country when they year old female participant explained that she became sad or depressed. Further, when a had a feeling that her destiny is to return to Nukunu person became ill they were Country and become more involved and advised to return to Country and make a contribute to the Nukunu community: fire, as this was seen as nurturing and a way You can take away Country, but for them to heal. Many participants you can’t take away our spiritual emphasised that the Country was connection. The Country is somewhere where they were able to relax always with me, it has never left and feel less stressed, as described by a me. male participant: Loss of Country through mining and When burnout or rundown from ‘development’. The participants spoke of work life the Country is being devastated and sad at being unable to somewhere where I can recharge prevent the development of their land by my batteries and regather myself mining companies. They claimed these and be replenished. companies were destroying the ecosystem One participant claimed their job was and environment and putting money and highly stressful and being on Country profit before preservation of the country. allowed them to get their thoughts back. They compared chopping down trees and They reported feeling normal, and at peace destroying sand hills to taking away the when on Country. stories of the Dreamtime, their ancestors and Activities on Country that Brought Greater their heritage. One of the participants spoke Social Wellbeing of the spirits of their ancestors living in these Healing properties of food. The sacred areas. Further, Nukunu were upset that Nukunu also spoke of activities they the marina, weirs and dams were blocking completed on Country that were beneficial tidal flows and were concerned at the harmful for their wellbeing. Participants spoke about environmental effects that were occurring to how bush tucker was not just eaten for its an area they valued and with which they felt a taste, but also for the properties of the food, strong sense of spiritual connection. The and that the knowledge surrounding it had a participants spoke fondly of their childhoods purpose. The participants believed foods when they walked freely in many of these would aid in the healing of illness. The areas to gather food. A 40 year old male foods eaten were emu, yabbies, kangaroo, participant described his feelings regarding fish (snapper, yellowtail, whiting, tommy the effects of redevelopments on the rough), crabs, oysters, razorfish, cockle, ecosystems: squid, sweet potato, yams, quandongs, bush If you take water out of the grape, wattle seed, bush celery and red system it falls apart. If you take berry. A 40 year old female participant my spirituality away I fall apart. commented that these foods contribute to

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positive mental health: “There are certain gathering, suggesting this was a way to join foods that keep you in check.” their families together. The participants also Healing properties of plants. The expressed a desire for Nukunu youth to have Nukunu also spoke of the healing properties an education on Country so that they could of plants, such as the Madison plant which better understand their culture. They felt it was used as medicine or an antibiotic for was important for them to know that in life colds. Three participants were also aware of you need your group to “prop you up”, and signals that indicated good and bad times make you feel better about yourself. ahead for the Nukunu people. For instance, Natural Resource Management. The they discussed how leaf structure and Nukunu spoke of healthy environments growth, the sky and the appearance of producing healthy people. They believed that certain animals such as the eagle and the contributing to the environment was return of whales to the Spencer Gulf (a sign important for Nukunu people’s physical and that Nukunu culture is getting stronger) were mental health. A 60 year old female important to their understanding of what was participant spoke of “Healing others by happening to them and their Country. healing the land”. This involved having Recreational activities conducted on knowledge of Country and the properties of Country benefited mental health. The bush tucker, and being resourceful in their Nukunu also spoke of activities that they own Country. For example, they were taught completed on Country that they felt were not to take things for granted (to pillage), not important for their social and emotional well to break/chop trees, and to leave bush tucker -being: walking, hunting, fishing, driving for future generations. through the country, having picnics, The Nukunu expressed a desire to camping and sitting by the campfire and share the resources of the Country but also sharing stories or listening to birds. One 50 protect them and keep them safe. They year old male participant expressed his believed that activities which have been desire to walk on Country: planned for the future, such as planting trees, I like catching up with family in seed gathering, walking tours and building a any environment, but most of all I cultural centre, will help future generations miss the trips to the Flinders and bring people together, and generate Ranges that I used to do so often cohesiveness. They felt that these activities when I was living and working in would be empowering and give people hope Port Augusta. Our busy working for the future as it would allow them to add schedule makes it hard to do all another layer to their culture. Many of those things now, and the participants expressed their enthusiasm for Flinders always beckons. I have the activities they were involved in with the walked over 400km of the Country. For example, a participant who was Heyson trail and none of it was in involved in the clearing of Country enjoyed Nukunu Country, so I am eager to this activity. However, many felt a heavy see it sometime soon. sense of obligation to participate, reporting Another participant spoke of dancing heavy work and family commitments that on the Country for their ancestors. The required them to be off Country. dancing was intended for the purpose of showing respect, and finding spiritual Discussion healing for the loss of an Indigenous person. Despite being Westernised and living They reported the dancing gave them the in urban centres, all Nukunu people in this ability to let go of their inhibitions, hang-ups study reported strong feelings and and it made them stronger. It was also a connections for their Country, and they made source of identity and belonging. Some a variety of points that give a more concrete Nukunu also spoke of renewing connection understanding of the nature of attachment to with the land today by hunting and Country. It should also be noted that not all

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Nukunu agreed with, or reported, all of the reported feeling relaxed and less stressed points and there was diversity therefore when there, which aided in the recovery amongst community members. Moreover, process. The participation in activities such when talking about parts of Country, different as natural resource management allowed Nukunu had different key sites they talked Nukunu to generate group cohesiveness and about. This re-emphasises the point made at was believed to be an empowering activity the beginning that we should not assume a for their whole community (Dwyer, 2012; common focus for Country even within a Guerin & Guerin, 2012). strong community. Nevertheless, some Within each of these themes, there relatively common themes emerged. were a plethora of specific activities and There are clearly limitations in this concrete consequences related to Country, research, and any similar research. It is which was a context for important and varied difficult to get large samples or ask rigorous positive outcomes. Clearly, there are strong questions or get concrete answers to reported benefits to health and mental health questions about Country. We acknowledge from being on Country, whether living there these limitations but in turn we do not wish or visiting, and these were linked to the roles what we have found to be seen as any more of family and community when on Country, than what Nukunu told us about the effects of food and exercise improvements, stress their Country. Within these constraints, we reduction and respite, and the ability to sense believe we gained a comprehensive picture identity and engage in cultural practices. The from the majority of the adult members, but specific contributions of these different much more remains to be done. We also want aspects are difficult to determine, as many these limitations to warn future researchers to are interconnected. For example, walking on be open for events other than those we have Country will also typically involve being found. with family and community, exercising, There were strong health and mental respite from work and Western influences, health outcomes attributed to the various etc. It would be difficult to separate these in factors related to Country and being on research. Country. Nukunu attachment to Country is It can also be seen in the discussions clearly associated with psychosocial benefits. reported here that there are many concrete Five main themes emerged from the ways that “attachment to Country” can have discussions conducted with the Nukunu effects on both physical and mental health. people, which give more concrete examples “Attachment to Country” is not a hazy notion of “attachment to Country” for them. The just experienced as a vague feeling, as many country was a place that allowed Nukunu to non-Indigenous people might believe. The develop an identity, where their connection to results show clear and observable paths the community, land and culture meant it was through which being on Country can change a place of acceptance, allowing them to health. This might be through increased develop self respect and a set of values that family and community attachments, were important to the formation of a secure medicines or healthy foods taken from identity. Their Country was also a source of Country, healthier behaviours when doing nourishment, upon returning to country the things on Country, or the stress-reducing and participants felt at ease, experiencing greater depression-reducing effects reported by comfort and a renewed feeling of energy. The participants when spending time quietly in Nukunu felt that the loss of their Country certain, special locations on Country. All would be disempowering, comparing it to these can be fruitfully explored in future heartbreak, as it would lead them to lose their research with Indigenous clients as part of cultural heritage. They claimed to be unhappy treatments for ill health. and unfulfilled when away from their land. Nukunu also strongly report that The participants returned to Country to heal visiting or being on Country is vitally from illness, in particular, depression. They important to their reinvigoration of

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community and culture. Their context is Combining these themes with the different to many other Indigenous groups— material outlined in the Introduction—both they are mostly well-employed and living in research and creative texts, we suggest urban centres, have lost their Country many Figure 1 as a guide when thinking or decades ago in bad circumstances but have researching the effects of Country and had some country returned, they have lost treatments for clinical work. When on many oral traditions of their cultural Country, there is a “hub” of family, spiritual practices, and much of the land has been and identity aspects that are usually degraded. So the attachment and relationships present—they usually go together and might to Country that have been expressed here are be difficult to separate in future research. clearly part of this context unique to Nukunu. While one can be with family and This becomes especially important when community when not on Country, most reported how important it was for young participants spoke of a special difference Nukunu to be taken on Country and learn when on Country with family. One can also their culture, and was seen by many as a be engaged with spirituality and identity useful antidote to the increasing drug and when away from Country and from family alcohol lifestyles of those young people. and community, but special significance

Figure 1: Possible Pathways to Better Health Outcomes from Being on Country

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seems to rest on this hub being present attachment to Country, this research shows simultaneously when on Country. This needs what this means in a more concrete way for to be further explored in many diverse the Nukunu people of South Australia. communities. There also seems to be a “hub” of References physical activity, better eating and Bishop, B. J., Vicary, D. A., Andrews, H., & nourishment when on Country. Once again, Pearson, G. (2006). Towards a culturally parts can be achieved when not on Country appropriate mental health research process but the hub seems significant. Through these for Indigenous Australians. The two “hubs” participants reported direct Australian Community Psychologist, 18, physical health (from the physical hub) and 31-41. mental health (from the family and Bishop, B. J., Vicary, D. A., Mitchell, J. R., community hub) benefits. & Pearson, G. (2012). Aboriginal Some other benefits were less clear and concepts of place and Country and their more indirect but we have tentatively linked meaning in mental health. The Australian them, from talking with participants, to Community Psychologist, 24, 26-42. general effects of stress-reduction and respite. Burgess, C. P., Berry, H. L., Gunthorpe, W., This means that the separation of the two & Bailie, R. S. (2008). Development and hubs is not clear and would be difficult to preliminary validation of the ‘Caring for prove in research. It would be especially Country’ questionnaire: Measurement of useful for future research looking more an Indigenous Australian health closely at the links from being on Country to determinant. International Journal for better mental health outcomes, and how these Equity in Health, 7, 1-14. might be utilised in mental health treatments Burgess, C. P., Johnson, F. H., Berry, H. L., in culturally appropriate ways. This Figure is McDonnell, J., Yibarbuk, D., Gunabarra, meant only as a guide to help researchers C., Mileran, A., & Bailie, R. S. (2009). think through the many connections. Healthy country, healthy people: The Figure 1 is not meant to apply to all relationship between Indigenous health Indigenous groups in this country, and the status and ‘caring for country’. Medical different contexts for the different groups will Journal of Australia, 190, 567-572. lead to many variations in how these hubs are Burgess, C. P., Johnston, F. H., Bowman, D. formed, if at all, and which components are M., & Whitehead, P. J. (2005). Healthy more or less important. As pointed out above, country: Healthy people? Exploring the even within Nukunu there were differences in health benefits of Indigenous natural how these and other items were considered. resource management. Australian and What is important, we believe, is to treat the New Zealand Journal of Public Health, context of each group as potentially being 29, 117-122. importantly different, and to take into Dwyer, A. (2012). Pukarrikarta-jangka consideration that specific context before muwarr – Stories about caring for beginning the investigation. When enough Karajarri country. The Australian context-specific studies have been Community Psychologist, 24, 11-23. undertaken, commonalities and differences Fromene, R., & Guerin, B. (2014a). across contexts can be explored. Australian Indigenous clients with a Overall, these results point to the likely Borderline Personality Disorder strong positive effects of attachment to diagnosis: A contextual review of the Country on stress, mental ill health, and poor literature. The Psychological Record, 64, physical health. This applies not only to 559–567. treating adults with psychological distress, Fromene, R., & Guerin, B. (2014b). Talking but also to preventative measures for younger to Australian Indigenous clients with Nukunu. Although it has been previously Borderline Personality Disorder labels: noted that Indigenous people have an Finding the context behind the diagnosis.

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Inc. 1 videocassette (VHS) (20 mins). Psychologist, 35, 181-185. [Video recording] Vicary, D., & Andrews, H. (2001). A model Morgan, D. L., Slade, M. D., & Morgan, C. of therapeutic intervention with M. (1997). Aboriginal philosophy and its Indigenous Australians. Australian and impact on health care outcomes. New Zealand Journal of Health, 25, 349- Australian and New Zealand Journal of 351. Public Health, 21, 597-601. Vicary, D. A., & Bishop, B. J. (2005). Morgan, S., Mia, T., & Kwaymullina, B. Western psychotherapeutic practice: (Eds.). (2007). Speaking from the heart: Engaging Aboriginal people in culturally Stories of life, family and Country. appropriate and respectful ways. Western Australia: Fremantle Press. Australian Psychologist, 40, 8-19. Morgan, S., Mia, T., & Kwaymullina, B. Westerman, T. (2004). Engagement of (Eds.). (2008). Heartsick for country. Indigenous clients in mental health Western Australia: Fremantle Press. services: What do cultural differences O’ Brien, L. M., & Jackson, D. (2007). It’s a play? Australian e-Journal for the long way from the office to the clerk bed: Advancement of Mental Health, 3, 1-7. Remote area mental health nursing in Ypinazar, V. A., Margolis, S. A., Haswell- Australia. Journal of Transcultural Elkins, M., & Tsey, K. (2007). Indigenous Nursing, 18, 135-141. Australians’ understandings regarding Pretty, G., Bishop, B., Fisher, A., & Sonn, C. mental health and disorders. Australian (2007). Psychological sense of community and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, and its relevance to well-being and 41, 467-478. everyday life in Australia. The Australian Community Psychologist, 19, 6-25. Authors’ Note 1 Rose, D. B. (2002). Country of the heart: An The terms for referring to people are all Indigenous Australian experience. contentious in different contexts. It is Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press. preferable to use specific group names Rose, D. B. (1996). Nourishing terrains: whenever possible so Nukunu has been used Australian Aboriginal views of landscape in this way throughout. However, when and wilderness. Canberra: Australian referring to descendants of the original Heritage Commission. peoples of Australia in general we have used Sutton, P. (1995). Country: Aboriginal “Indigenous” instead of “Aboriginal” since boundaries and land ownership in Nukunu were happy with this and there is no Australia. Canberra: Australian History contention-free term. One of the aims of our Inc. research is to be more specific and move Taplin, G. (1879/1967). The folklore, away from research and statements manners, customs, and languages of the purporting to be about “all” Indigenous South Australian aborigines: Gathered Australians. from inquiries made by authority of South Australian Government. Johnson Reprint Acknowledgements Corp, New York. A special acknowledgment must be made to Tse, S., Lloyd, C., Petchkovsky, L., & the Nukunu Community for assisting and Manaia, W. (2005). Exploration of allowing this study. This research was Australian and New Zealand Indigenous partially supported by grants from the people’s spirituality and mental health. Australian Research Council (ARC Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, DP0877901) and the Australian Institute of 52, 181-187. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies Vicary, D., & Andrews, H. (2000). (AIATSIS G07/7290). This reporting has Developing a culturally appropriate been read by members of the Nukunu psychotherapeutic approach with Community and approved. We also wish to Indigenous Australians. Australian thank one reviewer for extremely useful comments that were extensively documented.

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Address for Correspondence Bernard Guerin School of Psychology (Magill Campus), University of South Australia GPO Box 2471 Adelaide 5001 +618 83024485 [email protected]