Descendants of Silesian Migrants in

Krystyna Rożek-Piechura et al.

Anthropological Review • Vol. 83(3), 261–277 (2020)

Silesians in Texas and Upper : anthropometric, functional and physical activity characteristics

Krystyna Rożek-Piechura1, Zofia Ignasiak2, Monika Kurzaj1, Teresa Sławinska2, Anna Skrzek1, Sławomir Kozieł3, Robert M Malina4

1Faculty of Physiotherapy, University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, 2Faculty of Physical Education, University School of Physical Education, Wroclaw, Poland 3Department of Anthropology, Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wroclaw, Poland 4Professor Emeritus, Department of Kinesiology and Health Education, University of Texas, Austin, Texas, USA

Abstract: Anthropometric, functional and physical activity characteristics of contemporary adult descen- dants of Upper Silesian immigrants to Texas in the mid-19th century and current residents in Upper Sile- sia were compared. The sample included 45 residents in Central Texas, 25 women and 20 men, and 36 residents in rural Upper Silesia, 24 women and 12 men, 54-76 years of age. Variables included selected demographic characteristics, anthropometry, estimated body composition, several physiological indicators, strength and functional fitness, and physical activity. Sex-specific MANCOVA and Chi square were used for comparisons. Descendants of Silesian immigrants to Texas were taller, on average, while differences in other anthropometric variables were variable. All residents in Silesia and the majority of descendants of Silesian migrants to Texas were overweight or obese. Differences in hemodynamic and respiratory func- tions and responses to a 6-minute walk were inconsistent, while none of the fitness variables differed significantly between the samples. Although residents in Upper Silesia were significantly more physically active descendants of in Texas, >80% of the men and women in both samples scored below the criterion-reference standard for the maintenance of physical independence in the 6-minute walk.

Key words: aging, functional fitness, physical activity, weight status, respiratory function

Introduction Goldstein 1943; Lasker 1952, 1954; Lan- fear 2012). Early studies (Boas 1911, Studies of the physical characteristics of 1912) were focused on changes in the migrants have a long history in anthro- morphology of immigrants and descen- pology (Boas 1911, 1912; Shapiro 1939; dants in the as they adapt-

Original Research Article Received: July 16, 2020; Revised: August 06, 2020; Accepted: August 06, 2020 DOI: 10.2478/anre-2020-0018 © 2020 Polish Anthropological Society 262 Krystyna Rożek-Piechura et al. ed their new environments. Other stud- Methods ies considered the representativeness of migrants relative to the population Background from which they had emigrated (Sha- piro 1939; Illsley et al. 1963); physical Poland did not politically exist at the differences between adults migrants and time of the migration of residents from sedentes (Hulse 1969; Goldstein 1943; Upper Silesia to Texas in the mid-19th Lasker 1952, 1954) and to a lesser extent century. Upper Silesia was in the sector in child migrants and sedentes (Scottish of Poland that was part of the Kingdom Council for Research in Education 1953; of Prussia. German and Czech migrants Malina et al. 1982); and the influence of from the Kingdom of Prussia preceded migration on population genetic struc- the Polish migrants in Central Texas in ture (Spuhler 1976; Little et al. 1989). the1840s, and Fr. Leopold Moczygemba, Following the genre of Boas (1910, who was of Silesian ancestry, was sent to 1912), Rosiński (1934a, 1934b, 1934c) minister to Bavarian Catholics in Cen- considered the descendants of Polish mi- tral Texas in the early 1950s. Given the grants in Texas in 1929 and 1930. The opportunities in the region at the time, initial migration of from the region Fr. Moczygemba encouraged his relatives of Upper Silesia (part of the Kingdom and friends in Upper Silesia to migrate to of Prussia) to Central Texas occurred in Texas. The first wave of Polish migrants 1854 (Dworaczyk 1936) and a subse- arrived in Panna Maria, south of San quent migration from western Małopol- Antonio in Central Texas in December ska (western part of the Kingdom of 1854 (Dworaczyk 1934; Przygoda 1971; Austria) to region north of Houston, Brożek 1972; Baker 1975, 1979, 1982; Texas, occurred in the 1870s. Consis- Dawson et al. 2004). It was estimated tent with other studies of the period, the that the initial migration into the region study of Rosiński was largely typological included 65 families. Over the next two with a focus on craniofacial dimensions, years, three other migrations of Poles although height was measured. The from Upper Silesia followed, 16 families study compared the heights and cranio- in February 1855, 700 individuals in De- facial dimensions of migrants who were cember 1855, and 30 families at the end born in Silesia/Małopolska with those of 1856 (Przygoda 1971). The migrants of descendants of the migrants born in settled in the same region as the initial Texas. The latter were, on average, taller migrants and also other areas of central than migrants born in Silesia/Małopols- Texas and the region south of it. ka (Rosiński 1934a). The purpose of the present study is to Ethics compare the anthropometric, functional and physical activity characteristics, and The project was approved by the Senate indirectly the health status of adult de- Commission on Ethics in Scientific Re- scendants of Upper Silesian immigrants search at the University of Physical Edu- to Texas in the mid-19th century with cation in Wrocław on February 18, 2009. those current residents in Upper Silesia. All subjects provided written informed Both samples were surveyed in 2013 and consent, to participate in the study. 2014. Descendants of Silesian Migrants in Texas 263

Participants grants to Texas in the present study were recruited from families whose histories The study was conducted in 2013 and included ancestors who had migrated 2014 in two locations: the city of San from Silesia to Texas. Antonio and surrounding communities in the state of Texas, United States, and Procedures Strzelce Opolskie in Upper Silesia, Po- land. As noted, Polish migrants to Texas All subjects initially completed a ques- from Silesia in the mid-19th century ini- tionnaire which included date of birth, tially settled in Panna Maria, about 50 place of residence, education, indicators miles (80 km) south of the city of San of socio-economic status (SES), health Antonio. Subsequently and over time, status and use of alcohol and/or tobac- the early migrants and descendants co. Each participant was also interviewed moved to other communities in the re- about his/her health status. Other specif- gion. With the assistance of a local priest ic information was obtained by measure- of Polish ancestry, a sample of 45 indi- ment or questionnaire as noted below. viduals of Silesian origin were identified, 25 women and 20 men. To be included, Anthropometry and Body the individuals had to be fifth generation Composition descendants of the initial migrants to Texas from the territory of Upper Silesia Weight was measured to the nearest 0.1 in the 19th century. This was verified on kg using a unit that included an anthro- the basis of detailed interview with the pometer; standing height was measured descendants of the emigrants. The crite- to the nearest 0.1 cm with this unit rion required that they trace their origin (model 764, SECA, Hamburg, Germany). to marriages between women and men Waist and hip circumferences were mea- of Polish immigrants from Silesia, and sured to the nearest 0.1 cm over clothing in subsequent generations of marriag- (with firm pressure applied) at the level es between descendants of immigrants of the umbilicus and greater trochanters, from Silesia. Twelve individuals lived in respectively. The triceps, subscapular and San Antonio, 24 lived in seven towns abdominal skinfolds were measured to in the vicinity of Panna Maria (largely the nearest 1 mm using a Harpenden cal- to the north-northeast), and 9 lived in iper (Harpenden Skinfold Caliper Com- three towns east-southeast of San Anto- pany GMT). The body mass index (BMI, nio. The average age of the women was kg/m2), waist-hip ratio, and the sum of 68.3±4.8 years and that of the men was the three skinfolds were calculated. 69.0±3.7 years. Body composition was estimated us- The Silesian sample in Poland in- ing a near-infrared interactance with cluded 36 residents in Upper Silesia, 24 a Futrex analyzer (Flowscreen, Jaeger, women and 12 men, who lived in a rural Wuerzburg, Germany, version 1.3). Rel- area. The average age of the women was ative (%) and absolute (kg) fat mass, 63.1±4.4 years and that of the men was fat-free mass (FFM, kg) and total body 64.8±4.2 years. Silesian migrants to Tex- water (TBW, liters) were estimated. Rel- as in the mid-1850s were from this re- ative fatness and FFM were used in the gion, and the descendants of Silesian mi- analysis. 264 Krystyna Rożek-Piechura et al.

Physiological Indicators Physical Activity

Diastolic and systolic blood pressures Level of physical activity (PA) was esti- and heart rate were recorded using a mated with the short form of the Inter- M10-IT monitor (Omron, CITY, The national Physical Activity Questionnaire Netherlands). Blood pressures and (IPAQ). The IPAQ short form considers heart rate were measured at rest before PA over the past seven days and includes a six-minute walk, and at 1 and 5 min- seven questions asking for number of utes after the walk. The walking area was days spent in three PA formats (vigorous, a specially marked section of a corridor moderate and walking) and time spent marked for a walking distance of 30 me- (hours, minutes) in each format. The last ters. The subject walked at a self-select- question asked for time spent sitting on a ed pace and was informed of the distance weekday; unfortunately, many responses covered during the walk. for the last question were incomplete or Respiratory function was assessed lacking. with the Masterscreen Spirometry sys- Days per week and hours per day spent tem (Jaeger, Germany) following the in vigorous and moderate PA and walking, standards of the American Thoracic Soci- and total time in PA in hours per week ety (Miller et al., 2005). After familiariz- were calculated. Estimated MET minutes ing the participants with the procedures, per week (MET min/wk) in PA were also forced vital capacity (FVC), forced expi- calculated and used to classify the weekly ratory volume in 1 s (FEV1) and peak PA of each individual following Biernat et expiratory flow (PEF) were measured. al. (2007): insufficient, <600 MET min/ The absolute values were compared rel- wk; sufficient, >600 <3000 MET min/ ative to reference norms published by wk; high, >3000 MET min/wk. the European Coal and Steel Communi- ty (Quanjer et al. 1993) and integrated Statistical Analysis with the Masterscreen Spirometer. FVC and FEV1 values used to determine the Descriptive statistics were calculated presence of restrictive or obstructive by sex for the descendants of Silesian lung disease. immigrants to Texas and contemporary residents in Upper Silesia; age differed Functional Fitness significantly within each sex. Sex-specif- ic MANCOVA, with age and age squared The six items of the Functional Senior as covariates, was thus used to compare Fitness Test (Rikli and Jones 2001) were the descendants of Silesian immigrants administered: upper (arm curl) and low- to Texas and contemporary residents in er (chair stand) body strength, cardio- Upper Silesia. Age and age squared ad- vascular endurance (6-min walk), agility just for potential linear and non-linear and dynamic balance (8-foot up-and-go), effects of age distributions, respectively. and upper (back scratch) and lower (sit Chi square was used in comparisons of and reach) body flexibility. Details of the categorical variables Analyses were done tests have been reported (Ignasiak et al. with SPSS for Windows (version 22.0, 2017). IBM SPSS, Chicago, IL). Statistical sig- nificance was set at p < 0.05. Descendants of Silesian Migrants in Texas 265

Results of Silesian males, age-adjusted means for weight, height, sitting height, BMI, waist Allowing for the relatively small sample circumference and estimated FFM are sizes, selected demographic characteris- greater among descendants of Silesian tics and two health-related behaviors are migrants to Texas; on the other hand, generally similar within each sex, except hip circumference and the sum of three for level of education (Table 1). All de- skinfolds are larger in residents of Up- scendants of Silesians in Texas have a per Silesia. The distribution of the two secondary or higher education, whereas groups of males by weight status does residents in Upper Silesia are distributed not differ significantly χ( 2 = 1.92). All 12 between basic/vocational and second- Silesian men are either overweight (5) or ary/higher education. obese (7); the majority of the Texas sam- Anthropometric and body composi- ple is also overweight (5) or obese (13); tion characteristics of the two samples two men were of normal weight. are summarized in Table 2. As noted Among females, on the other hand, earlier, age differs significantly between descendants of Silesian migrants to Texas groups in each sex. After controlling for are significantly taller p( <0.01) and have age among males, only one variable dif- a greater sitting height (p<0.01), while fers significantly between descendants residents in Upper Silesia have a signifi- of Silesian migrants to Texas and resi- cantly higher BMI, waist circumference, dents in Upper Silesia. Sitting height is sum of skinfolds, relative fatness, and significantly taller among men in Texas waist-hip ratio (p<0.05). All women in (p<0.05). Allowing for the small sample the Silesian sample are either overweight

Table 1. Selected demographic characteristics of descendants of Silesian immigrants to Texas and contem- porary Silesian residents in Poland (Upper Silesia) Females Males Silesians in Silesians in Texas Poland Texas Poland Marital status Married 64% 83% 85% 92% Not married 36 17 15 8 Education Basic/Vocational 0 63 0 50 Secondary/Higher 100 37 100 50 Self-reported health status Very good 19 4 16 0 Good 79 83 80 92 Poor 2 13 5 8 Alcohol consumption Yes/often 4 13 60 25 No/occasionally 96 87 70 75 Cigarette smoking Yes 0 4 90 83 No 100 96 10 17 266 Krystyna Rożek-Piechura et al. - SE 1.0 3.2 1.3 0.7 0.4 2.6 2.8 6.0 0.9 1.3 1.01 Poland M 82.3 33.7 83.2 53.2 97.6 0.85 99.6 44.0 45.9 156.5 115.3 SE 1.0 3.1 1.3 0.7 0.4 2.6 2.7 5.7 0.9 1.3 0.01 Silesians in Age-adjusted Texas M 78.0 28.7 87.6 53.2 88.7 0.80 82.5 40.0 46.0 164.8 110.7 ** ** ** * * * * ** F 0.82 0.00 1.24 0.00 6.38 5.10 4.59 3.80 8.38 15.49 31.22 16.60 Females SD 4.4 4.5 5.8 3.5 1.7 2.9 6.1 13.1 10.5 12.0 0.06 26.4 Poland (n=24) M 63.1 81.5 33.1 83.7 53.3 96.6 0.85 98.9 43.3 45.9 157.2 114.0 Silesians in SD 4.8 4.8 6.1 3.1 1.5 5.4 6.0 16.2 13.5 13.4 0.08 28.1 Texas (n=25) M 68.3 78.8 29.3 87.1 53.1 89.6 0.80 83.5 40.7 46.0 164.0 112.0 SE 1.7 4.7 1.4 0.7 0.3 3.9 2.5 6.1 1.7 2.0 0.02 Poland M 89.4 30.9 89.3 52.5 0.94 73.2 30.5 61.9 170.1 103.6 110.2 SE 1.3 3.5 1.0 0.5 0.3 2.9 1.9 4.5 1.3 1.5 0.01 Silesians in Age-adjusted Texas M 95.2 31.5 91.6 52.7 0.99 63.7 31.4 64.5 173.7 105.9 106.9 * ** F 2.49 0.83 0.08 0.28 0.19 0.95 2.89 1.36 0.15 0.93 5.34 8.79 Males SD 4.2 3.9 2.8 2.3 0.8 8.4 7.6 4.6 4.3 10.1 0.04 16.5 Poland (n=12) M 64.8 89.7 30.6 90.0 52.6 0.95 72.4 29.4 63.0 171.1 103.6 109.1 Silesians in SD 3.7 5.9 4.6 2.5 1.1 7.6 5.6 6.8 15.9 13.1 0.07 19.1 Texas (n=20) M 69.0 95.0 31.6 91.2 52.7 0.98 64.1 32.0 63.8 173.1 105.9 107.6 2 p<0.01 ** and contemporary (all residents other in variables; (age) Upper age and Silesia, and MANCOVA results Poland, age-squaredof ANOVA as covari ates) and age-adjusted means standard errors Age, yrs Height, cm Weight, kg Weight, BMI, kg/m Sitting ht, cm Sit ht ratio c, cm Waist Hip c, cm WH ratio Sum skf, mm Sum skf, Fat, % Fat, FFM, kg p<0.05, Table 2. Age, anthropometric characteristics and estimated body composition (means, standard deviations) of descendants of Silesian migrants to Texas to Texas of Silesian migrants of descendants (means, standard deviations) body composition characteristics and estimated 2. Age, anthropometric Table * Descendants of Silesian Migrants in Texas 267 2 4 2 4 3 4 4 2 4 SE 0.2 0.1 0.3 Poland M 86 72 76 67 69 2.9 2.1 4.2 149 101 112 101 2 3 2 4 3 4 4 2 4 SE 0.2 0.1 0.3 Silesians in Age-adjusted Texas M 85 73 97 78 73 65 3.6 2.7 4.6 143 110 105 * * F 0.07 1.22 0.04 0.65 0.14 0.17 0.46 0.80 0.60 5.21 6.62 3.86* Females 8 8 17 12 18 16 15 18 13 SD 0.4 0.4 0.7 Poland (n=24) M 87 73 76 68 70 2.9 2.2 4.1 150 101 114 101 Silesians in 9 10 15 10 17 77 21 18 19 SD 1.1 0.9 1.8 Texas (n=25) M 84 72 97 78 72 65 3.5 2.7 4.7 143 108 104 1 4 4 6 4 5 6 3 6 SE 0.2 0.2 0.6 Poland M 91 79 83 71 86 3.8 2.9 6.2 162 101 104 100 1 3 3 3 3 4 4 2 5 SE 0.2 0.1 0.4 Silesians in Age-adjusted Texas M 84 72 97 76 95 69 67 2.9 2.2 4.3 146 101 ** * * * ** F 2.13 0.30 1.53 0.16 0.35 0.29 7.01 6.99 6.75 4.49* 8.54 Males 10.95 3 8 14 10 21 13 14 19 22 SD 0.6 0.6 1.8 Poland (n=12) M 91 77 83 97 70 80 4.0 3.0 6.4 159 100 102 Silesians in 1 6 13 11 14 11 15 16 10 19 SD 0.7 0.6 1.7 Texas (n=20) M 84 74 98 76 97 70 71 2.7 2.2 4.2 147 102 p<0.01. ** deviations), and lung function (FVC – forced vital capacity, FEV – forced expiratory volume, PEF – peak expiratory force) of descendants Silesian FEV – forced expiratory deviations), and lung function (FVC – forced vital capacity, age-adjusted and covariates) age-squaredas and (age MANCOVA of results Poland, Silesia, Upper in contemporaryresidents and Texas to migrants means and standard errors DBP, mmHG DBP, mmHG SBP, HR rest, bpm bpm HR after, HR recovery, bpm FVC, liters FVC, % FEV1, liters FEV1, % % FEV1/FVC, l/s PEF, % PEF, n=19 for indicators of lung function. p<0.05, Table 3. Diastolic (DBP) and systolic (SBP) pressures at rest, heart rate (HR) before and immediately after and 5 minutes after exercise (means, standard (means, after exercise 5 minutes and after and immediately before rate (HR) heart at rest, pressures and systolic (SBP) (DBP) Diastolic 3. Table * 1 268 Krystyna Rożek-Piechura et al. 17 SE 1.2 0.9 0.7 0.3 1.4 1.5 0.02 0.03 Poland M 0.8 502 31.4 0.39 0.69 15.0 16.3 6.55 −4.8 16 SE 1.2 0.9 0.7 0.3 1.3 1.5 Silesians in 0.02 0.03 Age-adjusted Texas M 0.1 492 30.1 0.40 0.66 14.1 18.1 6.38 −1.3 F 0.57 0.13 0.52 0.48 2.50 0.15 0.17 0.13 2.37 Females 58 SD 6.4 5.4 3.8 1.4 5.5 4.9 0.11 0.15 Poland (n=24) M 1.3 509 33.1 0.41 0.73 15.9 17.1 6.35 −3.9 Silesians in 88 SD 6.0 2.9 3.5 1.1 6.6 8.6 0.10 0.14 Texas (n=25) M 485 28.4 0.37 0.63 13.3 17.4 6.58 −0.3 −2.2 24 SE 2.3 1.3 1.2 0.3 2.5 4.4 0.04 0.04 Poland M 544 45.4 0.51 0.73 16.7 20.1 6.08 −4.4 −10.2 18 SE 1.7 0.9 0.9 0.2 1.9 3.3 0.03 0.03 Silesians in Age-adjusted Texas M 493 47.6 0.52 0.75 15.4 17.0 6.08 −7.6 −13.0 F 0.52 0.01 0.04 0.57 3.56 2.45 0.00 0.89 0.23 Males 85 SD 4.3 4.2 3.6 1.0 9.2 0.09 0.09 10.6 Poland (n=12) M 560 47.8 0.54 0.76 16.9 20.3 5.65 −5.6 −11.2 Silesians in 1 74 SD 4.1 4.0 1.0 6.7 10.5 0.15 0.18 15.3 Texas (n=20) M 484 46.1 0.50 0.73 15.3 16.9 6.34 −6.9 −12.5 p<0.01. ** Upper Silesia, Poland, results of MANCOVA (age and age-squared as covariates) and age-adjusted means standard errors results of MANCOVA Upper Silesia, Poland, Dominant grip, kg Grip/weight, kg/kg Grip/FFM, kg/kg Chair stands, n/30 sec Arm curls, n/30 sec 6-min walk, m Up & go, sec Chair sit & reach, cm Back scratch, cm p<0.05, Table 4. Grip strength and functional Table fitness (means, standard deviations) ofTexas and descendants contemporary of Silesian residents migrants in to * Descendants of Silesian Migrants in Texas 269

(7) or obese (17), while the weight sta- and 2 of 24 females in the Upper Silesian tus of Silesian descendants in Texas 9 samples, and 1 of 20 males and 2 of 25 of normal weight, 5 overweight and 11 females in the Texas samples are classi- obese (χ2 = 10.60, p<0.01). fied as having some degree of pulmonary Hemodynamic and respiratory charac- obstruction compared. The differences teristics of the two samples are summa- also are not significant (males,χ 2 = 0.14, rized in Table 3. Diastolic blood pressure p=0.71; females, χ2 = 0.98, p=0.61). is significantly higher in Upper Silesia Grip strength and the functional fit- males (p<0.1), while systolic blood pres- ness of descendants of Silesian migrants sure and heart at rest and after exercise to Texas and contemporary residents in do not significantly differ between male Upper Silesia are summarized in Table descendants of Silesian migrants to Texas 4. None of the fitness variables, includ- and residents in Upper Silesia. Similarly, ing grip strength, differ significantly be- blood pressures and heart rate at rest and tween descendants of Silesian migrants after exercise do not differ significantly to Texas and residents in Upper Silesia between the two samples of females. among both males and females. Rela- Indicators of respiratory function (Ta- tive to norms for U.S. adults 65+ years ble 3) differ significantly between the of age, i.e., below, at [normal] or above samples. FVC (liters, p<0.01), FEV1 the reference (Jones and Rikli 2002), (liters, p<0.05) and PEF (liters/sec, distributions of descendants of Silesian p<0.05) are significantly higher in male migrants to Texas and Silesians resident residents in Upper Silesia, while FVC, in Upper Silesia do not differ except for FEV1 and PEF are significantly higher in upper body strength and agility in males female descendants of Silesian migrants and upper back flexibility in females (Ta- to Texas (p≤0.05). The three relative re- ble 5). Significantly more males in the spiratory function indices (FVC %, FEV1 Texas sample score below normal in the %, FEV1/FVC, %) do not significant- arm curl and agility, while proportionally ly differ between males and females of more males in the Upper Silesia sample Silesian ancestry in Texas and in Poland. score above normal in the arm curl. On PEF % is significantly higher among Sile- the other hand, significantly more - fe sian males in Poland (p<0.05), but does males in the Texas sample score above not differ between the two samples of normal in upper body flexibility (back females. scratch) compared to Upper Silesian Compared to norms (European Coal females. and Steel Community, 1983) for relative Estimated levels of PA among Silesian FVC, all Upper Silesian males and fe- descendants in Texas and Silesians in Po- males are classified as normal, while 1 of land based upon the IPAQ short-form 20 males and 3 of 24 females among the questionnaire are summarized in Tables descendants of Silesian migrants to Tex- 6A (males) and 6B (females). Given the as are classified as having some degree variability in self-reported levels of PA, of pulmonary restriction. The differenc- days and time spent in vigorous and es are not significant (males, χ2 = 0.62, moderate PA do not differ significantly p=0.43; females, χ2 = 4.18, p=0.12). between Silesian descendants in Texas Corresponding comparisons for FEV1 and Silesians in Poland in both sexes, indicate similar results; 1 of 12 males respectively. However, estimated days 270 Krystyna Rożek-Piechura et al. and time walking, total PA (hrs/wk), and males are about twice as active as male MET min/wk differ significantly (males descendants of Silesians in Texas, while p≤0.05; females p<0.01). Silesian males Silesian females are more than three and females in Poland are significantly times as active as female descendants more active than male and female de- of Silesians in Texas. Based on the cri- scendants of Silesians in Texas. Silesian teria of Berniat et al. (2007), all Silesian

Table 5. Functional status (frequencies) of descendants of Silesian immigrants to Texas and contemporary Silesian residents in Poland (Upper Silesia) relative to norms for U.S. adults 65+ years of age (Jones and Rikli 2002) Males Females Silesians in Silesians in Texas Poland Texas Poland (n=20) (n=12) (n=25) (n=14) Lower body strength (chair stand) Below 2 2 2 2 Normal 14 5 18 15 Above 4 5 5 6 Chi square 2.53 0.54 Upper body strength (arm curl) Below 6 1 1 1 Normal 13 6 15 15 Above 1 5 9 8 Chi square 7.27* 0.04 Aerobic endurance (6 min walk) Below 17 9 16 15 Normal 3 2 7 9 Above 0 1 2 0 Chi square 1.77 2.26 Agility (8 foot up-&-go) Below 14 3 11 12 Normal 6 9 14 9 Above 0 0 0 3 Chi square 6.10* 4.11 Lower back flexibility (sit & reach) Below 13 7 7 2 Normal 6 3 15 17 Above 1 2 3 5 Chi square 1.21 3.38 Upper back flexibility (back scratch) Below 11 4 12 12 Normal 5 5 3 10 Above 4 3 10 2 Chi square 1.50 9.09* Descendants of Silesian Migrants in Texas 271 - - SE SE 0.49 0.36 0.50 0.41 0.45 0.54 5.14 0.69 0.74 0.81 0.69 0.61 0.64 7.67 1378 2577 Poland Poland M M 0.9 2.14 2.75 1.88 6.51 5.86 1.97 2.58 3.31 2.86 6.68 4.26 54.52 52.34 12211 14001 SE SE Silesians in: Silesians in: 0.48 0.35 0.49 0.40 0.44 0.52 5.02 0.53 0.56 0.62 0.52 0.46 0.49 5.86 1347 1972 Texas Texas M M 1.66 1.26 1.84 1.12 3.39 1.68 4063 2.02 1.50 3.28 1.93 4.83 2.10 15.32 26.16 7051 F F 0.00 1.16 0.00 1.00 0.43 0.36 1.47 1.49 5.06* 6.27* 6.60* 3.96* 21.32* 27.23* 26.04* 15.66* 0–7 0–9 0–7 0–8 1–10 1–12 0–7 0–7 0–9 1–7 Range 0–10 1–10 14–126 Range 15–126 4518–38610 3318–41916 1.5 1.5 3.0 2.3 7.0 5.0 Md 63.0 2.5 1.0 3.0 1.5 7.0 6.0 Md 14781 53.0 11371 (n=12) (n=12) Silesians in Poland SD 2.7 3.4 2.4 2.9 0.6 2.4 Silesians in Poland 34.8 SD 2.4 2.1 2.7 2.2 1.3 3.0 27.2 12030 8161 M 2.3 2.9 3.3 3.1 6.7 4.7 M 59.3 2.5 1.4 3.1 2.1 6.7 6.0 57.6 16012 13309 0–6 0–4 0–7 0–4 0–7 0–8 0–64 0–7 0–6 0–7 0–6 0–7 0–7 Range 0–81 Range 0–19152 0–13896 2.0 1.0 4.0 2.0 5.0 1.5 Md 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 3.0 1.0 4.0 20.0 Md 5172 1440 (n=19) (n=19) SD 2.0 1.7 2.4 1.4 2.3 1.7 SD 2.1 1.5 1.9 1.6 2.6 1.6 15.5 4531 Silesians in Texas 19.1 4105 Silesians in Texas M M 1.8 1.3 3.3 1.8 4.8 1.8 1.3 0.8 1.5 1.0 3.2 1.5 21.3 5780 12.3 3009 0.05 scendants of Silesian immigrants to Texas and contemporary Silesian residents in Poland (Upper Silesia), and results of the MANCOVA controlling MANCOVA the of results and Silesia), (Upper Poland in contemporaryresidents and Silesian Texas to immigrants Silesian of scendants for age and squared, age-adjusted means (M) standard errors (E) scendants of Silesian immigrants to Texas and contemporary Silesian residents in Poland (Upper Silesia), and results of the MANCOVA controlling MANCOVA the of results and Silesia), (Upper Poland in contemporaryresidents and Silesian Texas to immigrants Silesian of scendants for age and squared, age-adjusted means (M) standard errors (E) Days/week, n Hrs/day Days/week, n Hrs/day Days/wk, n Hrs/day Days/week, n Hrs/day Days/week, n Hrs/day Days/wk, n Hrs/day ≤ Vigorous PA Vigorous Moderate PA Walking hrs/wk Total, PA MET units, min/wk Vigorous PA Vigorous Moderate PA Walking hrs/wk Total, PA MET units, min/wk Table 6A. Means (M), standard errors (SE), medians (Md) and ranges for indicators of physical activity (PA) after IPAQ (short form) among MALE de MALE among form) (short IPAQ after (PA) activity physical of indicators for ranges and (Md) medians (SE), errors standard (M), Means 6A. Table *p Table 6B. Means (M), standard errors (SE), medians (Md) and ranges for indicators of physical activity (PA) after IPAQ (short form) among FEMALE de FEMALE among form) (short IPAQ after (PA) activity physical of indicators for ranges and (Md) medians (SE), errors standard (M), Means 6B. Table *p <0.01. 272 Krystyna Rożek-Piechura et al. males (n=12) and females (n=24) have BMI, waist circumference, sum of skin- a high level of weekly PA (>3000 MET folds and relative fatness (Table 2). min/wk) compared to 12 of 19 males of As noted earlier, Rosiński (1934a, Silesian ancestry in Texas (χ2 = 4.70, p = 1934b, 1934c) studied the heights and 0.09) and to 8 of 25 females of Silesian craniofacial dimensions of immigrants ancestry in Texas (χ2 = 25.00, p < 0.001). from Silesia in the 1850s (Kingdom of Prussia) and from Małopolska in the Discussion 1870s (Kingdom of Austria) to Texas and descendants of the respective immi- Allowing for the relatively small sam- grants to Texas in 1929–1930. Age rang- ple sizes, comparisons of descendants of es and heights of the Polish immigrants Silesians in Texas and residents in Upper to Texas and descendants of the immi- Silesia suggest several trends. Among se- grants to Texas in 1929–1930 and of the lected demographic characteristics, only descendants of Silesian immigrants to one differs between the groups. All de- Texas and residents in Upper Silesia in scendants of Silesians in Texas had com- the present study (2013–2014) are com- pleted secondary or higher education, pared in Table 7. Allowing for variation while residents in Upper Silesia had a in ages of the subjects at the time of the basic/vocational or secondary/higher ed- respective surveys, several trends are ucation (Table 1). suggested. First, descendants of immi- Although not statistically significant grants of both sexes to Texas in 1929– and allowing for the relatively small 1930 were, on average, taller than those samples, male descendants of Silesian who immigrated. Second and allowing immigrants to Texas were, on average, for the small samples, descendants of taller and heavier with a higher BMI and immigrants of both sexes to Texas in estimated FFM than residents in Upper 2013–2014 were, on average, taller than Silesia. Female descendants of Silesian contemporary residents in Silesia. Third, immigrants to Texas were taller, while male descendants of immigrants to Tex- residents in Upper Silesia had a higher as in 1929–1930 and in 2013–2014 did

Table 7. Sample sizes, age ranges and means (M) and standard deviations (SD) for the heights of Polish immigrants to Texas and descendants of immigrants to Texas in 1929-1930 and descendants of Silesian immigrants to Texas and residents in Upper Silesia, Poland in 2013–2014* Immigrants from Silesia/Małopolska to Texas and Descendants of Immigrants to Texas Current Residents of Upper Silesia Height, cm Height, cm Year of survey Residence N Age range N Age range M SD M SD Males 1929–30 Texas 96 38–83 167.0 6.6 464 18–68 173.6 5.9 2013–14 Silesia 12 59–75 171.1 3.9 20 63–76 173.1 5.9 Females 1929–30 Texas 86 38–75 155.9 4.7 449 18–68 160.1 5.3 2013–14 Silesia 24 54–70 157.2 4.5 25 60–75 164.0 4.8 *Data for 1929–1930 are from Rosinski (1934a). The age ranges of the immigrants and descendants of immigrants were estimated from graphs comparing the heights of the groups. Descendants of Silesian Migrants in Texas 273 not differ in mean heights, while female its attention. In both groups of males descendants of immigrants to Texas in and females and allowing for the small 2013–2014 were, on average, taller than numbers, the overwhelming majority of descendants of immigrants to Texas in subjects (>80%) scored below the cri- 1929–1930. terion-reference standards for the main- The weight status and health-related tenance of physical independence in the behaviors of the small samples in the 6-minute walk (Rikli and Jones 2012). present study merit attention. All Sile- Among Polish adults 60–87 years, in sian men and women were classified as contrast, 39% of males and 53% of fe- overweight or obese based on the BMI. males did not meet the age- and sex- The majority of descendants of Silesian specific criteria for the 6-minute walk immigrants to Texas were similarly clas- (Ignasiak et al. 2017). The results for the sified, although two men and nine wom- present study were especially surprising en were of normal weight. On the other given the differences in physical activi- hand, residents of both sexes in Upper ty between descendants of Silesian mi- Silesia were significantly more physical- grants to Texas and residents in Upper ly active than male and female descen- Silesia in both males and females (Table dants of Silesians in Texas; the differenc- 6). Residents in Upper Silesia walked es were especially apparent in walking, significantly more and overall had great- total physical activity during the week er estimated levels of physical activity and estimated MET units expressed as per week than descendants of Silesian min/week (Table 6). The lower physi- migrants to Texas. cal activity levels of the descendants of Although there is interest in poten- Polish immigrants living in Texas were tial links between factors associated with likely-related to lifestyle differences, spe- migration and subsequent health status cifically those related to subsistence and (Benthan 1988; Deverteuil et al. 2007; occupation. The observations for descen- Heller et al. 2002; Moorin et al. 2006; dants living in Texas were, nevertheless, Marshall et al. 1999; Potter et al. 2001; consistent with the relatively low levels Szklarska et al. 2008), this question can- of physical activity among older adults not be addressed in the present study in the U.S. (Kruger et al. 2007; U.S. De- as about five or six generations have partment of Health and Human Services elapsed since the migration of the Sile- 2010). sians to Texas in the 1850s, in addition In contrast to the observations for to the small samples. Moreover, studies physical activity, none of the fitness vari- addressing potential links between fac- ables, including grip strength, differed tors related to migration and subsequent significantly between descendants of health concern mainly contemporary Silesian migrants to Texas and residents migrants and in some cases internal mi- in Upper Silesia in both males and fe- grants within a country. males (Table 4). Relative to norms of the Nevertheless, there is interest inter- fitness tests for U.S. adults 65+ years of generational mobility in earnings and age (Jones and Rikli 2002) there were economic status (Chetty et al. 2014; no consistent trends in either sample Yuksel 2007; Ferrie 2005; Corak 2004; (Table 5), although the 6-minute walk, Solon 1992; Zimmerman 1992), both of an indicator of aerobic endurance, mer- which are factors associated with health 274 Krystyna Rożek-Piechura et al. status and outcomes. Currently available and heavier with a higher BMI and es- data, however, do not span five or six timated FFM than residents in Upper generations. A recent study of mothers Silesia. Female descendants of Silesian and their children across three genera- immigrants to Texas were taller, but res- tions based on national survey data in idents in Upper Silesia had a higher BMI the United States highlighted the im- and estimated fatness. All residents in portance of maternal health outcomes Silesia and the majority of descendants which persisted across generations, e.g., of Silesian migrants were classified as BMI and specific health conditions such overweight or obese. as asthma and depression (Akbulut-Yuk- Differences in hemodynamic and re- sela and Kugler 2016). Characteristics of spiratory functions and responses to a the father were not considered. Never- 6-minute walk were inconsistent be- theless, persistence of intergenerational tween the samples, while none of the effects were reduced the longer immi- fitness variables differed significantly grants remained in the U.S., i.e., as they between the descendants of Silesian mi- became more acculturated to the Amer- grants and residents in Upper Silesia in ican way of life including diet, habits of both sexes. Although residents Upper regular physical activity and perhaps risk Silesian men and women were more taking behaviors. The preceding trend physically active than Silesians in Texas, is sometimes labeled the “immigrant the overwhelming majority of men and epidemiological paradox” (Baker et al. women in both samples (>80%) scored 2015). below the criterion-reference standards for the maintenance of physical indepen- Limitations and Overview dence in the 6-minute walk.

In addition to limited numbers, the Acknowledgments samples in the present study included older adults who were born and reared The assistance of Rev. Father Frank under very different conditions in Texas Kurzaj in recruiting subjects of Silesian and Upper Silesia. The Texas sample is ancestry in Texas is acknowledged and comprised of descendants of migrants greatly appreciated. to Texas about five-six generations ago; The research was supported by funds however, information on admixture with for the statutory research of the Phys- other ethnic groups in Texas and on the iotherapy Department of the AWF in health status of the migrant families Wrocław. over time is not available. Nevertheless, male descendants of immigrants to Tex- The Authors’ contribution as in 1929–1930 (Rosiński 1934a) and in 2013–2014 did not differ in mean KR-P design the study, write the first and heights, while female descendants of im- final draft; MK, AS, TO-S took part in migrants to Texas in 2013–2014 were, on designing the study, wrote the first and average, taller than descendants of immi- last draft; RM and SK did statistical anal- grants to Texas in 1929–1930. ysis, interpretation f results, wrote the Male descendants of Silesian immi- first and last draft; ZI was a leader of the grants to Texas were, on average, taller study, wrote the first and last draft. Descendants of Silesian Migrants in Texas 275

Conflict of interest Boas F. 1912. Changes in bodily form of de- scendants of immigrants. Am. Anthropol. The authors declare that there is no con- N.S. 14:530–62. flict of interest. Brożek A. 1972. Ślązacy w Teksasie: Relacje o najstarszych osadach polskich w Ameryce. Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Corresponding author Naukowe. Chetty R, Hendren N, Kline P, Saez E. 2014. Sławomir Kozieł, Department of Anthro- Where is the land of opportunity? The pology, Hirszfeld Institute of Immunol- geography of intergenerational mo- ogy and Experimenatl Therapy, Polish bility in the United States. Q. J. Econ. Academy of Sciences, Wrocław, Poland 129(4):1553–623. e-mail address: slawomir.koziel@ Corak M. 2004. Generational Income Mobil- hirszfeld.pl ity in North America and Europe. Cam- bridge University Press, Cambridge. Currie J, Madrian B. 1999. Health, health in- References surance and the labor market. In: Ashen- felter O, Card D (Eds.), Handbook of La- Akbulut-Yuksela M, Kuglerb AD. 2016. Inter- bor Economics, Vol. 3. Elsevier, Amster- generational persistence of health: Do im- dam, pp. 309–415. migrants get healthier as they remain in Dawson Ebrom J, Beard Warren J, Beard Korus the U.S. for more generations? Econ Hum K, Lynn Highley Ch, Moczygemba Watson Biol 23:136–48. MA. 2004. Ślązacy Teksańczycy Emigracja Baker E, Rendal M, Weden M. 2015. Epide- ze Śląska do Teksasu w latach 1852–1859. miological paradox or immigrant vulner- : Wydawnictwo Świętego Krzyża. ability? Obesity among young children of Deverteuil G, Hinds A, Lix L, Walker J, Robin- immigrants. Demography 52(4): 1295– son R, Roos LL. 2007. Mental health and 320. the city: Intra-urban mobility among indi- Baker TL. 1979. The First : viduals with schizophrenia. Health Place Silesian Settlements in Texas. College Sta- 13:310–23. tion, TX, Texas A&M University Press. Dworaczyk E. 1936. The First Polish Colonies Baker TL. 1982. The Polish Texans. San An- of Americans in Texas; Containing also tonio, TX. University of Texas Institute of the General History of the Polish People Texan Cultures. in Texas. San Antonio: The Naylor Co. (re- Baker TL. 1975. The Early History of Panna printed 1979). Maria, Texas. Lubbock, TX: Texas Tech Ferrie, J. 2005. The end of American excep- Press. tionalism? Mobility in the United States Bentham G. 1988. Migration and mobility: since 1850. J. Econ. Perspect. 19(3):199– implications for geographical studies of 215. disease. Soc Sci Med 26:49–54. Goldstein MS. 1943. Demographic and bodily Biernat E, Stupnicki R, Gajewski AK. 2007. changes in descendants of Mexican immi- International physical activity question- grants, with comparable data on parents naire (IPAQ) – Polish version. Wychow- and children in Mexico. Institute of Lat- anie Fizyczne i Sport 51(1):47–54. in American Studies, University of Texas, Boas F. 1911. Changes in the bodily form of Austin descendants of immigrants. United States Heller RF, McElduff P, Edwards R. 2002. Im- Immigration Commission, 61st Congress, pact of upward social mobility on popula- Senate Document no. 208. Washington, tion mortality: Analysis with routine data. DC. Government Printing Office. Br Med J 325:134–37. 276 Krystyna Rożek-Piechura et al.

Hulse FS. 1969. Migration and cultural se- among French electricity and gas workers. lection in human genetics. In: PC Biswas, Cancer Causes Control 10:495–502. Managing editor, The Anthropologist Miller MR, Hankinson J, Brusasco V, Bur- (Special Volume). Department of An- gos F, Casaburi R, Coates A, et al. 2005. thropology, University of Delhi, India, pp ‘‘ATS/ERS Task Force: Standardisation of 1–21. lung function testing’’ Eur Respir J, Series Ignasiak Z, Sławińska T, Skrzek A, Rożek K, 26:319–38. Kozieł S, Malina RM, Posłuszny P. 2017. Moorin RE, Holman CDJ, Garfield C, Bra- Functional capacities of Polish adults of meld KJ. 2006. Health related migration: 60–87 years and risk of losing functional evidence of reduced ‘‘urban-drift’’. Health independence. Ann Hum Biol 44(6):502– Place 12:131–40. 9. Potter LB, Kresnow MJ, Powell KE, Simon Illsley GW, Finlayson A, Thompson B. 1963. TR, Mercy JA, Lee RK, et al. 2001. The The motivation and characteristics of in- influence of geographic mobility on near- ternal migrants. Milbank Mem Fund Q ly lethal suicide attempts. Suicide Life 41:217–48. Threat Behav 32(1 Suppl):42–48. Jones CJ, Rikli RE. 2002. Measuring function- Przygoda J. 1971. Texas Pioneers from Po- al fitness in older adults. J Active Aging, land: A Study in the Ethnic History. Waco, pp 25–30. TX: Library Binding Company. Kruger J, Carlson SA, Buchner D. 2007. How Quanjer PH, Tammeling GJ, Cotes JE, Peders- active are older Americans? Prev Chronic en OF, Peslin R, Yernault J-C. 1993. Lung Dis 4(3):A53. volume and forced ventilatory flows. Re- Lanfear AK. 2012. Records of the Institut fuer port Working Party, Standardization of Deutsche Ostarbeit (1940–1943): Using Lung Function Tests, European Commu- anthropometrics of Polish populations to nity for Steel and Coal. Official Statement examine secular trends and region specific of the European Respiratory Society. Eur variation. Doctoral dissertation, Universi- Respir J 6(16):5–40. ty of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN. Rikli RE, Jones CJ. 2001. Senior Fitness Test Lasker GW. 1952. Environmental growth fac- Manual. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. tors and selective migration. Hum Biol Rikli RE, Jones CJ. 2012. Development and 24:262–89. validation of criterion referenced clinically Lasker GW. 1954. The question of physical se- relevant fitness standards for maintaining lection of Mexican migrants to the U.S.A. physical independence in later years. The Hum Biol 26:52–8. Gerontologist 53(2):255–267. Little BB, Malina RM. 1989. Genetic drift Rosiński B. 1934a. Emigracje Europejskie do and natural selection in an isolated Zapo- Stanów Zjednoczonych pod względem an- tec-speaking community in the Valley of tropologicznym. Archiwum Towarzystwa Oaxaca, southern Mexico. Hum Hered Naukowego we Lwowie, Dział III, Tom 6, 39:99–106. Zeszyt 12. Malina RM, Buschang PH, Aronson WL, Sel- Rosiński B. 1934b. The American people of by HA.1982. Childhood growth status of Polish origin in Texas. In A Decade of eventual migrants and sedentes in a rural Progress in Eugenics: Scientific Papers Zapotec community in the Valley of Oaxa- of the Third International Congress of ca, Mexico. Hum Biol 54:709–16. Eugenics. Baltimore, MD, Williams and Marshall B, Chevalier A, Garillon C, Goldberg Wilkins Company, pp 113–8. M, Coing F. 1999. Socioeconomic status, Rosiński B. 1934c. Emigracje Europejskie do social mobility and cancer occurrence Stanów Zjedn. Ameryki Północnej. Prze- during working life: a case-control study gląd Antropologiczny 10:42–4. Descendants of Silesian Migrants in Texas 277

Scottish Council for Research in Education. Szklarska A, Lipowicz A, Łopuszańska M, 1953. Social implications of the 1947 Jankowska EA, Bielicki T, Koziel S. 2008. Scottish Mental Survey. London: Univer- Biological condition of adult migrants and sity of London Press. non-migrants in Wrocław, Poland. Am J Shapiro HL. 1939. Migration and environ- Hum Biol. 20(2):139–45. ment. London: Oxford University Press. US Department of Health and Human Ser- Solon G. 1992. Intergenerational income mo- vices 2010. Healthy People 2010. Avail- bility in the United States. Am Econ Rev able at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/ 82(3):393–408. healthy_people/hp2010.htm. Spuhler JN. 1976. The maximum opportu- Yuksel M. 2007. Intergenerational mobility nity for natural selection in some human of immigrants in Germany: Moving with populations. In EBW Zubrow, editor, De- natives or stuck in their neighborhoods? mographic Anthropology: Quantitative IZA Working Paper No. 4677. Approaches. Albuquerque, University of Zimmerman D. 1992. Regression toward me- New Mexico Press, pp 185–226. diocrity in economic stature. Am Econ Rev 82(3):409–29.