Archaeobotany of Fruit Seed Processing in a Monsoon Savanna Environment: Evidence from the Keep River Region, Northern Territory, Australia

Journal of Archaeological Science 32 (2005) 167–181 http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas

Archaeobotany of fruit seed processing in a monsoon savanna environment: evidence from the Keep River region, Northern Territory, Australia

Jennifer Atchisona, Lesley Heada,*, Richard Fullagarb

aGeoQuEST Research Centre, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong 2522, Australia bDepartment of Prehistory and Historic Archaeology, University of Sydney, 2000, Australia

Received 15 April 2003; received in revised form 11 March 2004

Abstract

We analyse archaeobotanical remains from three excavated rockshelter sites, Jinmium, Granilpi and Punipunil, in the Keep River region, northwestern Australia. The record is dominated by burnt fragmented seed remains from the fruit trees Persoonia falcata and Buchanania obovata, consistent with ethnographic records of whole fruits being pounded into pastes and cakes at the beginning of the summer wet season. Surface seed samples of non-cultural origin are mostly whole and unburnt, and contain higher proportions of grass seeds. Sustained processing of fruit seeds is ﬁrst visible in the archaeological record about 3500 years ago. Spatial and temporal variation in its intensity is evident since that time until it declines following European colonisation. The decline does not represent total site abandonment, but a reorientation of activities following the ecological and social changes that came with pastoralism. The former included the local decline of P. falcata with more intense ﬁre regimes. Ó 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Persoonia falcata; Buchanania obovata; Ethnobotany; Holocene

1. Introduction change ([13]: p. 773). This signiﬁcant problem of archaeological visibility continues to constrain under- Hunter–gatherer interactions with plants have long standing of the range of ways people interacted with been an important ingredient of debates surrounding their environments during the Holocene. agricultural origins [12]. As Hastorf [13] has argued, The focus on morphological change has involved there are now many archaeological examples of plant a focus on grains and starchy staples (e.g. [19]) and their cultivation and use either preceding, or independent of, role in the reproduction of sedentism, surplus and the morphological changes in plants usually involved hierarchy. However, Hastorf ([13]: p. 773, after Far- in strict deﬁnitions of agriculture. Many plants were rington and Urry [9]) argues that the earliest propagated actively tended, moved around and actively used for plants included rather the ‘medicinal, industrial, spicy, thousands of years without visible morphological hallucinatory or merely exotic’. In this paper we use the example of fruits and fruit processing. Although their archaeological preservation is somewhat fortuitous (cf. * Corresponding author. Tel.: C61 2 4221 3124; fax: C61 2 4221 [4]), these remains illustrate a broader social context of 4250. plant use in which preservation, storage, seasonality and E-mail address: [email protected] (L. Head). gender are all important variables.

In her overview Hastorf draws most examples from South America, but the issues are salient in a variety of environmental contexts. Despite an extensive ethnobotanical literature relevant to Aboriginal use and processing of plant foods in northern Australia, the archaeobotanical visibility of these activities remains limited. Aboriginal people maintain detailed knowledge of – and in many cases practise – the management and utilisation of carbohydrate staples, seasonally abundant fruits, grass seeds and potentially toxic plant foods such as cycads (e.g. [8,16,18,21,28,31]). The seasonal tropics offer particular challenges to archaeological preservation. Microscopic material preservation sites, notably pollen, are restricted to the north east of the continent, and most sites with archaeobotanical remains are restricted to the Holo- cene [5,10,17,20,25,30]. Consequently any identifiable material recovered in the region is of significance. On a continental scale the picture of Australian Aborig- inal plant interactions provided by archaeobotany is at best fragmentary, containing poor quality preserved material in mostly localised recorded sites. A notable exception is the Carpenter’s Gap site in the Fig. 1. Keep River study area, northwestern Northern Territory, western Kimberley, dated to about 40 000 BP [23,24]. Australia. McConnell and O’Connor examined extensive macro- botanical remains, inferring continued Aboriginal occupation and utilisation of a wide variety of species 2. Study area in the southwestern Kimberley during the last glacial maximum. The areal focus of the study is the lower Keep River In this paper we analyse new material from archaeo- catchment in the northwest corner of the Northern botanical remains at three sites across a region of the Territory (Fig. 1). The region has a warm, dry mon- eastern Kimberleys: Jinmium, Granilpi, and Punipunil soonal climate with a distinct wet season between excavated in the Keep River, northwest Northern Ter- December and April, and annual rainfall of 750– ritory (Fig. 1). This study is part of a broader project 900 mm. Most important land systems in the area are examining long term relationships between Aboriginal estuarine deltaic plains, open woodlands over tall grass people and their environment in the region. Our specific sandy plains, and rugged sandstone and conglomerate aims here are to: hills with a series of more isolated outliers. Jinmium, Granilpi and Punipunil are all examples of the latter. distinguish between the cultural and non-cultural Aboriginal groups with attachments to this area include components of the archaeobotanical record via Gajerrong, Miriuwong, Jamanjung and Murinpatha morphology and species assemblage, people. examine the chronology and taphonomy of the The region is dominated by a large sandy plain, cultural plant remains, predominantly vegetated by savanna woodland. The by comparing archaeobotanical and ethnobotanical upper stratum of this savanna is mostly Eucalyptus with evidence, infer patterns of Aboriginal plant utilisa- Eucalyptus tetradonta and Eucalyptus miniata being tion and environmental interaction both prior to and dominant. Other common genera include Acacia, immediately after European contact. Terminalia and Gardenia. The understorey is mostly grass with Sehima, Chrysopogan, Themeda, Heterpogan, We will argue that plant visibility in this archaeo- Sorghum and Plectrachne being common [29]. Within logical record is a direct result of people processing the savanna woodlands a number of trees that produce the fruit, adding complexity to questions of resource edible fruits are also present. We focus here on abundance and availability. We will also demonstrate Buchanania obovata (Murinpatha name: kilen, common that the plant record contributes significant information names: bush mango, wild mango, green plum) and to broader understandings of hunter–gatherer response Persoonia falcata (Murinpatha name: kathan, common to change by adding detail to questions about season- name: wild pear). B. obovata trees are today scattered ality, resource manipulation and burning. widely throughout the savanna, but also occur in J. Atchison et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 32 (2005) 167–181 169 clusters that offer particularly abundant sources of fruit. for individual projects. A collection of representative P. falcata now has a much more restricted distribution in botanical material prepared by Allen [2] and additional the study area, for reasons discussed later in the paper. material obtained by JA were sent to the Parks and Wildlife Commission of the Northern Territory herbarium for identification. Further specimens (predomi- 3. Methods nantly grasses) were sent to the N.S.W. Department of Agriculture Seeds Laboratory, the Australian National Of the dozen excavations undertaken for the project, Herbarium and the Queensland herbarium of the those with significant quantities of archaeobotanical Brisbane Botanic Gardens. Identified and unidentified remains including consistent preservation at depth were seeds were counted, photographed and examined for chosen for detailed analysis. Some excavated pits morphological evidence of gnawing or other use–wear contained very small volumes of poorly preserved features and compared with recorded ethnographic material that were not useful for identification and information for evidence of processing. Through these analysis. Recovered material from the seven suitable methods a significant proportion of the collection was 1 ! 1 m pits (four at Jinmium, one at Granilpi and two identifiable, however quantities of unidentified speci- at Punipunil) are discussed here. Excavations followed mens are also recorded in the results. The size of the natural stratigraphic changes with a maximum spit reference collection is small and constrained as wet depth of 15 cm. All excavated material was dry sieved in season access to the sites was not possible. This limited the field through 2–4 mm and O4 mm sieves, prior to the flowering and fruiting bodies that could be collected being transported back to the laboratory. Bulk samples from each species, however the NT government col- of the !2 mm sediment were also collected. lections are extensive and were utilised with the An assessment of the modern seed assemblage close assistance of trained botanists. to each archaeological site can provide a useful picture B. obovata seed fragments can be distinguished from of contemporary seed distribution. This analogue en- P. falcata seed fragments on the basis of surface pat- ables an examination of the present day vegetation, terning and shape. B. obovata seeds showed some sur- contemporary dispersal processes, and resulting modern face patterning on the outer surface and in most cases assemblages, as well as some insight into what differ- had fractured along the natural fracture plane ences there might be between cultural and non-cultural (Fig. 2a,b). P. falcata seeds and seed fragments had assemblages. Seed distribution is influenced by a range a distinct lack of surface patterning and the seeds had no of dispersal factors including, distance from parent plant, wind, rolling, and animal action such as birds, bats etc. Nine modern samples were collected at Jinmium and seven at Marralam over a 2 ha plot containing the excavated pits. This included sampling under the entire range of parent tree species present at each site. An area of soil and surface litter approximately 20 cm ! 30 cm (the size of a spade) and 10 cm deep was collected in each case. For consistency with the excavation samples the surface samples were also sieved back in the laboratory using the same sieve sizes (4 mm and 2 mm). All samples were extremely dry and fragile, with high proportions of burnt and carbonised material. Experi- ments with wet sieving [3] caused considerable damage to the remains so only hand sorting was undertaken. Material from both surface and archaeological samples was sorted in two size fractions, O4 mm and 2–4 mm. A pilot study of seed recovery from the !2 mm fraction of the surface samples indicated that the time and expense of this procedure was not warranted by the additional information obtained. In 15 of the 16 samples more species were recovered from the O2 mm than !2mm fractions, so the smaller fraction of the archaeological Fig. 2. Seed remains recovered from the Keep River archaeological sediments was not analysed. excavations. a, Whole Persoonia falcata seed; b, whole Buchanania The lack of archaeobotanical keys in Australia [6] obovata seed; c, B. obovata fragments; d, P. falcata fragments. Note means that reference collections need to be developed each scale division equals 1 mm. 170 J. Atchison et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 32 (2005) 167–181 natural fracture plane. Seed fragments of P. falcata were points and flaked stone, as well as other materials of generally more angular than those of B. obovata cultural origin including ochre, charcoal and various (Fig. 2c,d). types of bone. AMS 14C dating was used here to examine directly In the upper Units (6 and 7) of pits C1/I (Fig. 3), C1/ the age of seed fragments (P. falcata) recovered from the II and C1/III (Fig. 4), the O4 mm fraction contains a three archaeological deposits, for comparison with other diversity of taxa including grasses (e.g. H. contortus), 14C, TL and OSL dates. As well preserved P. falcata and fruit seeds such as B. obovata, P. falcata, T. latipes, seeds were found consistently throughout the profiles of and Vitex glabrata. In all cases the fruit seeds are each of the deposits, dating was focused on this species. unburnt. Some whole, i.e. intact, but burnt B. obovata and P. falcata seeds were recovered from Unit 3 of C1/I. Seed dates are shown in these diagrams and summarised 4. Results in Table 2. The species assemblage of the upper Units of the 2– 4.1. Surface seed assemblages 4 mm fractions (Figs. 5 and 6) is fairly similar with the addition of smaller seed species such as Glycine sp., The common feature of all the surface assemblages at Setaria apiculata and Yakirra majuscula. The lower Jinmium and Marralam is the widespread occurrence of Units of the 2–4 mm fractions are however markedly grass seeds, notably Heteropogan contortus and Panicum different to the larger fractions. Most notable are the sp. (Table 1). Fruit seeds are locally abundant close to high densities of P. falcata and some B. obovata seed parent trees, for example under Erythroxylum ellipticum, fragments, particularly in CI/III. In pit C1/I the density B. obovata and Terminalia latipes trees. Most recovered of both of these species peak in Unit 3, while in pits C1/ material was unburnt. Samples collected from Marra- II and C1/III these seed fragments peak in Unit 4. All of lam had the highest proportions of burnt to non-burnt the seed fragments from these two species below unit 5 seeds, no doubt because the site had been burnt fairly were burnt. recently prior to sampling. 4.3. Granilpi 4.2. Jinmium The Granilpi excavation site is within a boulder The prominent stacks and boulders called ‘Jinmium’ cluster on the western side of an extensive sandstone are located at the northwestern edge of several hectares outcrop displaying abundant rock art [32]. The rock- of outcropping sandstone with rock art and archaeo- shelter is composed of two large leaning boulders logical deposits in at least eight rockshelters. The C1/IV forming a shaded tunnel. The maximum depth reached pit is located 15 m west of the main rock shelter. The in the G1 pit was approximately 150 cm with cultural seed assemblage in this pit is wholly confined to the material found down to this depth. One major upper unit, i.e. the top 40 cm and was more similar to stratigraphic break was observed in the G1 profile the surface grab samples than any of the other excavated between dark organic sediment with charcoal, at 60– pits. A range of grasses was found, mostly within the 70 cm, which overlays an orange sand. Archaeological top 10 cm. Panicum sp., Mimosaceae, Lotus sp. and material includes high densities of flaked quartz, P. falcata seeds were found below 30 cm, however, these quartzite and fine grained stone as well as a number of were all recovered in very low densities. A small peak stone points, some bone, shell and ochre. in burnt seeds is recorded in C1/IV, comprised wholly of The top few spits (Unit 3 and top half of Unit 2) P. falcata seeds. While this pit contains abundant other (Figs. 7, 8) of both size fractions contain a diversity of archaeological material, e.g. stone artefacts, it has less fruit tree seeds and seed fragments, including B. obovata, culturally deposited plant material. This could be either Owenia vernicosa, P. falcata, Pavetta brownii, T. latipes because processing was concentrated closer to the and V. glabrata. H. contortus and unidentified seeds shelter, or because the more open context of C1/IV on make up the remainder of the upper assemblage. Similar the sand plain has mitigated against preservation of to Jinmium, the two species B. obovata and P. falcata plant material. form the dominant component of the lower half of The maximum depth of each of the four Jinmium Unit 2. B. obovata peaks in spit 8 (32.6–37.5 cm) and excavation pits (CI/I–IV) was approximately 200 cm with P. falcata in spit 11 (48.75–54.1 cm). Almost all of the cultural material found to a depth of 150 cm. Each pit seeds recovered from below 30 cm depth were burnt. was predominantly comprised of loose partially sorted sand with rubble increasing in density towards the base. 4.4. Punipunil Seven stratigraphic Units have been defined and are summarised in detail in Fullagar et al. [11]. Archaeolog- Punipunil is a shallow rockshelter up to 10 m from ical materials included pounding stones, cores, stone dripline to rear rockwall lying along the base of a steep Table 1 Numbers of whole, fragmented, burnt and unburnt seeds from the surface sampling at Jinmium and Marralam Taxa J1 J2 J3 J4 J5 J6 J7 J8 J9 M10 M11 M12 M13 M14 M15 M16 Acacia sp. w.6, ub w.4, ub w.1, ub w.1, ub f.3, ub w.2, ub w.35, ub; f.25, ub Allotropis w.2, ub semialata Alysicarpus sp. w.1, ub Asteraceae f.1, ub Buchanania f. 1, b w.5, ub w.2, ub; w.26, ub; w.6, ub; w.3, ub; w.13, ub; w.58, ub; w.65, ub; w.1, ub obovata f.3, ub f.8, ub f.24, ub f.5, ub f.2, ub f. 81, ub f.56, ub .Acio ta./Junlo rhelgclSine3 20)167–181 (2005) 32 Science Archaeological of Journal / al. et Atchison J. Cajanus sp. f.1, ub w.1, ub Crotalaria f.1, b f.1, ub; w.12, ub; f.4, ub w.1, ub; w.1, ub; w.1, ub w.1, ub w.1, ub w.1, ub f.8, ub crispata w.1, ub f.41, ub f.1, ub f.1, b Desmodium sp. f.1, ub w.2, ub w.2, b w.8, ub; w.5, ub; w.1, ub; w.140, ub w.55, ub; w.10, ub f.1, ub f.1, ub f.1, ub w.2, b Digitaria sp. w.1, ub Erythroxylum w.12, ub; f.88, ub w.108, ub; w.14, ub w.27, ub ellipticum f.54, ub f.47, ub Eucalyptus w.3, ub; w.1, ub f.2, ub f.4, ub tetradonta f.3, ub Euphorbia sp. w.1, ub Glycine clandestina Heteropogan w.9, ub; w.1, ub; w.10, ub; w.5, ub; w.6, ub; w.2, ub; f.69, ub f.28, ub w.1, ub; f.16, b; f.41, b; f.57, b w.30, ub; f.26, ub; f.40, b f.37, b contortus f.109, ub; f.33, ub f.129, ub f.110, ub f.215, ub f.23, ub f.32, ub f.12, ub w.69, ub f.57, b f.17, b f.1, b Lotus sp. w.1, ub Opelia f.1, ub w.2, ub amentaceae Owenia w.1, ub vernicosa Panicum sp. w.2, ub; w.1, ub; w.13, ub; w.13, ub; w.9, ub; w.5, ub; w.20, ub; w.4, ub; f.4, ub f.3, ub w.1, ub f.2, ub f.4, ub f.19, ub f.92, ub f.39, ub f.28, ub f.35, ub f.17, ub Persoonia w.2, ub falcata Terminalia w.2, b; f.2, ub f.3, ub w.8, ub; w.16, ub; w.1, ub w.1, b; latipes w.1, ub; w1, b; f.18, ub f.1, ub f.4, ub f.29, ub Vitex w.1, ub; glabrata f.2, ub Uraria w.51, ub lagopodiodies Unidentified O200ub 25, ub 42, ub 61, ub 87, ub 51, ub 82, ub 75, ub 80, ub O100, ub 46, ub 71, ub 4 ub; 4 b w.3, ub; f.17, ub w.2, ub; f.22, ub f.57, ub J1-9 (Jinmium surface sites 1–9). M10–16 (Marralam surface sites 10–16).

w denotes whole seeds; f denotes fragmented seeds; ub denotes unburnt seeds; b denotes burnt seeds. 171 172 J. Atchison et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 32 (2005) 167–181

Depth cm Cyperus javinicaHeteropogan contortusBuchanania obovata Persoonia falcataTerminalia latipesVitex glabrata 0 Unit 7 Unit 6 10

20 Unit 5

30 Unit 4

50 Unit 3

70 Unit 2

100

110 Unit 1

120

130

140

No. of whole and fragmented seeds 0 0.5 0 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 0 0.5 0 0.5 per litre x 10-1 Fig. 3. C1/I Pit, Jinmium, Species Assemblage O4 mm. Species assemblage from pit C1/I from the O4 mm fraction. Numbers of whole and fragmented seeds are measured per litre. No seed material was dated from this pit. cliff within a sheltered gorge. Two trenches were ex- of P. falcata and B. obovata seed fragments was re- cavated in the deepest area with a sandy floor: PP1 was covered from spit 6B (33–43 cm). Associated strati- excavated close to the drip line, and PP2 approximately graphic evidence indicates that this is a pit dug into spit 5 m away close to the back wall. Both pits are 6. All of the seeds more than 15 cm below the surface characterised by loosely packed sandy sediment with were burnt. The species assemblage in pit PP2 is also a high charcoal content. The maximum depth was 90 cm dominated by fruit tree species. in PP1, with cultural material in the upper 60 cm. The stratigraphy of the pit was characterised by predominantly loosely packed sandy sediment with a high 5. Discussion charcoal content. Both pits contained a variety of cultural materials including flaked stone, grinding 5.1. Distinguishing seeds deposited by cultural and stones, stone points, bone, ochre, shell and glass. PP2 non-cultural means sediment is very dry and loose, and likely to be disturbed and mixed by kangaroo hollows. The modern seed assemblages are characterised first Fruit tree seeds dominate all units of the PP1 seed by the high density of grass and other small seed species, assemblage (Figs. 9, 10). B. obovata, T. latipes and and second by spatial concentrations of mostly unburnt Terminalia ferdinandiana form the major components of fruit tree seeds near the parent tree. Small seeds such as both the O4 mm and 2–4 mm fractions. A major peak those of Panicum sp. or Y. majuscula are fairly light and J. Atchison et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 32 (2005) 167–181 173

. sp

C (AMS) Depth 14 cm ages (yr BP) Heteropogan contortus Xenostegia tridentataDesmodium Buchanania obovataTerminalia latipes Unidentified 0 Unit 7 Unit 6

Unit 5 20

30 1050±60 (Wk7691) 1210±60 (Wk7692) Unit 4 40

50 Unit 3

60 Unit 2 70

80 1060±70 (Wk7693)

100

110 Unit 1 120

130 3400±60 (Wk7694)

140

150

No. of whole and fragmented seeds 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 0.1 0 0.1 0 0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0 0.1 per litre x 10-1

Fig. 4. C1/III Pit, Jinmium, Species Assemblage O4 mm. Species assemblage from pit C1/III from the O4 mm fraction. Numbers of whole and fragmented seeds are measured per litre. 14C (AMS) dates are sourced from Persoonia falcata seed material dated at the Waikato dating laboratory (these results are presented in Table 2).

Table 2 Summary of dates obtained in this study Site Depth (cm) Spit Material Technique Age Lab. code C1/III 33–39 10B seed fragment 14C AMS 1050G60 Wk7691 C1/III 33–39 10B seed fragment 14C AMS 1210G60 Wk7692 C1/III 80–84 18A seed fragment 14C AMS 1060G70 Wk7693 C1/III 127–137 25A seed fragment 14C AMS 3400G60 Wk7694 G1/I 22.4–27.6 6 charcoal conventional 14C 200G60 Wk7301 G1/I 43–48.75 10 seed fragment 14C AMS 2620G60 Wk7696 G1/I 43–48.75 10 seed fragment 14C AMS 2970G70 Wk7695 G1/I 118.43–128.14 20 seed fragment 14C AMS contaminated G1/I 96.83–107.75 18A seed fragment 14C AMS 1780G90 Wk7895 G1/I 96.83–107.75 18A charcoal conventional 14C 6170G200 Wk7302 G1/I 128.14–135.33 21A charcoal conventional 14C 3202G59 Wk7303 G1/I 107.75–118.43 19 pit sediment TL 8400G100 W2459 PP1 33.25–43.25 6B seed fragment 14C AMS 3330G60 Wk7699 PP1 33.25–43.25 6 charcoal conventional 14C 3500G100 Wk7700 PP1 33.25–43.25 6 seed fragment 14C AMS 3540G70 Wk7698 174 J. Atchison et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 32 (2005) 167–181

. sp . . sp . sp sp Depth rsoonia falcata cm Crotalaria Glycine Heteropogan contortusErythroxylumPanicum ellipticum Xenostegia tridentataAcacia BuchananiaPavetta obovata brownii Pe Terminalia latipesVitex glabrata Unidentified 0 Unit 7 Unit 6 10

20 Unit 5

30 Unit 4 40

50 Unit 3 60

70 Unit 2 80

100

110 Unit 1 120

130

140

No. of whole and fragmented seeds 0 8 16 0 8 16 0 4 0 0.4 0 8 16 0 8 0 8 16 0 20 0 8 16 0 2 0 0.8 1.6 0 4 8 0 0.4 per litre x 10-3 x 10-3 x 10-3 x 10-2 x 10-2 x 10-2 x 10-2 x 10-2 Fig. 5. C1/I Pit, Jinmium, Species Assemblage 2–4 mm. Species assemblage from pit C1/I from the 2–4 mm fraction. Numbers of whole and fragmented seeds are measured per litre. No seed material was dated from this pit.

may be moved or blown around a large area quite topography of the sand sheet surrounding the shelter is readily. Their widespread distribution most likely re- also quite flat so it is unlikely that seeds would collect flects this process. Fruit seeds may also be moved by there by rolling or water deposition. birds, but in general, the main component of seed In contrast, the high densities of burnt fragments of assemblages underneath a large fruit tree are seeds of the B. obovata and P. falcata seeds in the lower levels of all same species. Large and or heavy seeds are not well sites are considered to be cultural (Fig. 11). Processing distributed away from larger fruit trees. of P. falcata and B. obovata has been recorded in a The upper Units of each of the rockshelter excavation number of north Australian ethnographic and archae- pits contain a significant component of grass, other ological studies. Smith and Kalotas [31] and Kenneally small seed species and/or fruit tree seeds, most of which et al. [22] describe the processing sequence of P. falcata are unburnt. The high density of grass seeds and low by the Bardi people from the western Kimberley. In this density of unburnt fruit seeds (similar to the off site case ‘‘the edible fruit (is) usually collected from the assemblages) support the idea that the upper Units as ground and eaten raw when ripe [yellow]; (or the) edible defined are essentially non-cultural assemblages. The seed pounded, (and) mixed with water to make a black whole unburnt seeds in the upper layers of CI/I–III were custard’’ ([22]: 171). B. obovata also has extremely hard probably introduced to the site through chance distri- seeds and we have recorded a similar processing bution by birds, since this site is not overhung by fruit sequence of B. obovata by senior members of the trees. Fruit seeds in the upper layers were always found Marralam community. Both species are known as wet in relatively low densities. There are no perches or season fruit sources to local Aboriginal senior women. crevices underneath the C1 rockshelter and it would The fruit is picked or collected when ripe, mashed into seem a fairly unsuitable site for animal seed caching. The a paste with a large stone and often mixed with sugar J. Atchison et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 32 (2005) 167–181 175

. sp

Depth Pavetta brownii cm 14 C (AMS) Heteropogan contortus Desmodium Xenostegia tridentataCalytrix exstipulataMimosaceae Buchanania Erythroxylumobovata ellipticumPersoonia falcata Terminalia latipesVitex glabrataUnidentified 0 ages (yr BP) Unit 7 Unit 6 10

20 Unit 5

30 1050±60(Wk7691) 1210±60(Wk7692) Unit 4 40

50 Unit 3

60 Unit 2 70

80 1060±70(Wk7693)

100

110 Unit 1 120

130 3400±60(Wk7694)

140

150

No. of whole and fragmented seeds per 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 0 0.2 0 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0 0 0 0 0.2 0.4 0 0 0 0.2 litre x10-1 Fig. 6. C1/III Pit, Jinmium, Species Assemblage 2–4 mm. Species assemblage from pit C1/III from the 2–4 mm fraction. Numbers of whole and fragmented seeds are measured per litre. 14C (AMS) dates are sourced from Persoonia falcata seed material dated at the Waikato dating laboratory (these results are presented in Table 2).

(Fig. 12). The mash is consumed raw and any seed spat the fire (a procedure used to discourage ants in a camp out (for full details see [16]). Processing such as site, Wightman, pers. comm., 1998), it is difficult to described above would account for the fragmentation. determine the exact order of processing events from the With regard to the seeds being burnt, Smith and remains themselves. What is clear is that each of the Kalotas [31] report that because P. falcata seeds are so three rockshelters has been an important focus for fruit hard, they are pounded and warmed in hot ash. processing. The implications of potential storage pro- Crawford ([8]: 46–47) noted that P. falcata fruits at vided by dried fruit cakes are considerable, and could Kalumburu in the west Kimberley were sun-dried, relate to situations of resource scarcity, travel and/or cooked in ashes, hammered and then stored in paper- ceremonial activity. bark. The high density of P. falcata seeds in the inferred cooking pit at Punipunil is consistent with this process. 5.2. Chronology, taphonomy and the onset of fruit We have found no records of B. obovata having been seed processing burnt in this way but the burnt nature and consistent size (dominating the 2–4 mm fractions) of both species The onset of sustained fruit seed processing occurred in the seed assemblages suggest they have both been about 3500 BP at Punipunil I, with comparable dates for processed in a manner similar to that recorded above. It bulk charcoal and P. falcata seeds in Unit 2. The lowest is possible that the cooking process makes the tough seeds occur slightly above the lowest cultural material in seeds easier to open, as with other hard seeds (e.g. this site. There is flaked stone (O4 mm) in spit 7 (unit 1) Macadamia sp.). While it is also possible that the fruits of PP1 and the lowest seeds are in Spit 6 and 6B (Unit 2) were first smashed and the hard seed coats discarded in of PP1. 176 J. Atchison et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 32 (2005) 167–181

14 C (conventional Depth C (AMS) and 14 ages (yr BP) Buchanania obovata Owenia vernicosaPersoonia falcataTerminalia latipesUnidentified cm TL Unit 3

20 200±60 (Wk7301)

30 Unit 2

40 2620±60 (Wk7696) 2970±70 (Wk7695) 50

Unit 1 100 6170±200 (Wk7302) 1780±90 (Wk7895) 110

8400±100 (W2459) 120

130 3202±59 (Wk7303) No. of whole and fragmented seeds 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0 0.1 0 0.1 0 0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 per litre x 10-1

Fig. 7. G1/I Pit, Granilpi, Species Assemblage O4 mm. Species assemblage from pit G1/I from the O4 mm fraction. Numbers of whole and fragmented seeds are measured per litre. Conventional 14C (italics underlined) and 14C (AMS) are sourced from charcoal and Persoonia falcata seed material, respectively, dated at the Waikato dating laboratory. The TL date (bold) is sourced from sand dated at the University of Wollongong TL laboratory (these results are presented in Table 2).

At Granilpi abundant seeds at the base of the abrupt changes at Granilpi) indicate that preservational charcoal-rich Unit 2 suggest an onset at about 3000 BP. factors rather than actual onset of the activity are Occasional seed fragments occur in the lower sandy Unit influencing the record more at Jinmium. The chronology 1, but we cannot rule out down-profile movement of provided by the seeds does not, on its own, suggest any seeds and small charcoal fragments. The latter explana- significant movement of seed material within the C1/I, II tion would account for the seed date of 1780 G 90 or III trenches, although movement of carbon material (Wk7895) at a depth with a bulk charcoal date of and mixing of sediment below 1 m depth are indicated by 6170 G 200 (Wk7302). High frequency of stone artefac- the range of radiocarbon dates (conventional, AMS, and tual material to the base of the deposit indicates that elemental carbon) and luminescence age estimates (TL occupation of the site occurred well before the onset of and OSL; multiple aliquots, single aliquots and single seed processing. grain) discussed by Roberts et al. [27]. The oldest seed At Jinmium the oldest seed date is 3400 G 60 date is quite consistent with the seed chronology as (Wk7694) at 132 cm, with the most intensive deposits a whole, although its depth well below any stone points – in younger layers. Seeds from the lower units of CI/III that here and elsewhere in the study area are consistently were noticeably weathered. This and the more gradual younger than about 3500 years – lends support to decline in seeds with depth (compared to the more arguments for significant movement and/or mixing in J. Atchison et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 32 (2005) 167–181 177

C (conventional Depth 14 C (AMS) and cm 14 ages (yr BP) Heteropogan contortus Buchanania obovata Pavetta brownii Persoonia falcata Terminalia latipes Vitex glabrata Unidentified TL Unit 3

200±60 (Wk7301) 30 Unit 2

40 2620±60 (Wk7696) 2970±70 (WK7695) 50

Unit 1 100 6170±200 (Wk7302) 1780±90 (Wk7895) 110 8400±100 (W2459) 120

130 3202±59 (Wk7303)

No. of whole and 0 2 4 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 0 4 8 12 16 0 1 2 0 10 0 2 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 fragmented seeds -2 -3 -2 -2 per litre x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10

Fig. 8. G1/I Pit, Granilpi, Species Assemblage 2–4 mm. Species assemblage from pit G1/I from the 2–4 mm fraction. Numbers of whole and fragmented seeds are measured per litre. Conventional 14C (italics underlined) and 14C (AMS) are sourced from charcoal and Persoonia falcata seed material, respectively, dated at the Waikato dating laboratory. The TL date (bold) is sourced from sand dated at the University of Wollongong TL laboratory (these results are presented in Table 2).

Unit 1 sediments. On the other hand, the date is Within individual sites, particularly intense phases of consistent with a Holocene chronology for human fruit seed deposition occur, for example in Jinmium pit occupation in Unit 1 (contra [11]), as proposed by III about one thousand years ago, with overlapping seed Roberts et al. [27]. dates from samples more than 40 cm apart. However, the variability evident in the three Jinmium pits and two 5.3. Spatial and temporal trends in fruit Punipunil pits suggests that these reﬂect spatial vari- seed processing ability within sites (cf. [33]) rather than any sort of broader trend. Any exploitation of fruit in the region would have At all sites fruit seed processing was one of a num- been a highly seasonal activity, since the timing of fruit ber of activities being undertaken. For example, the availability is locked in to the timing of the wet season, Jinmium pit III phase also has high densities of ochre which has considerable monthly variation. Both species and stone points. At Granilpi there is also a correlation ﬂower between July and October and fruit between of seed processing with artefact densities including stone October and December, but fruiting is also recorded in point production in the lower half of Unit 2. Initial the literature through January and February [7,29]. evidence for exploitation of seeds seems to precede any Occupation of the rock shelters to process fruit is thus direct evidence of stone point production [1]. most likely to have taken place sometime between One trend visible at all three sites is the decline in October and February, coinciding with the onset and processed B. obovata and P. falcata seed fragments development of the monsoon. towards the top of each site. Above the decline in 178 J. Atchison et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 32 (2005) 167–181

) and

standard Depth 14 C ( 14 C (AMS) ages (yr BP) cm Stemodia lythrifolia Buchanania obovata Persoonia falcata Terminalia ferdinandiana Terminalia latipes Unidentified 0 Unit 5

Unit 4 10

Unit 3

3330±60 (Wk7699) 40 3500±100 (Wk7700) Unit 2 3540±70 (Wk7698)

50 Unit 1

70 sterile

No. of whole and fragmented seeds 0 4 8 12 16 0 2 4 6 8 0 10 20 0 4 8 12 16 0 0.2 0.4 0 2 per litre x 10-3 x 10-2 x 10-2 x 10-3 x 10-2 Fig. 9. PP1 Pit, Punipunil, Species Assemblage O4 mm. Species assemblage from pit PP1 from the O4 mm fraction. Numbers of whole and fragmented seeds are measured per litre. Conventional 14C (italics underlined) date is based on charcoal and 14C (AMS) on Persoonia falcata seed material, respectively, dated at the Waikato dating laboratory (these results are presented in Table 2).

processed fragments, both species only occur as whole recorded in a minimum 1 km radius. The species is and unburnt seeds, suggesting that they are non-cultural considered marginal at Jinmium and Granilpi and non- in origin. The upper units of each pit also contain a existent at Punipunil, with a small but regenerating significant component of grass and other small seed population at Marralam. The most likely explanation species and or fruit tree seeds, most of which are is the shift to more intense late dry season fires as unburnt, similar to the off site assemblages. Available Aboriginal patterns of burning throughout the dry dates and occurrence in these levels of post contact season were disrupted with colonisation. Intense fires archaeological materials such as glass indicate a date for have been identified elsewhere by Aboriginal people as this phase within the last 150 years. impacting negatively on P. falcata flowering and fruiting This phase is not simply one of site abandonment, [14,34]. Further research is needed on this issue. but represents a reorientation in activities associated with the arrival of pastoralism. This includes intensi- fication of point production at a number of sites (cf. [1,15]). Even so, since we know from ethnographic evi- 6. Conclusion dence that wet season occupation of many traditional sites was maintained during ‘holiday times’ from station The picture of plant use presented in this paper is work [26], it could be expected that fruit seed processing an artefact of fortuitous taphonomic processes. Here would be part of this occupation. Significantly however, preservation is a direct result of Aboriginal people during detailed mapping and observation of each burning and carbonising the particularly dense hard excavated site [3], no viable or adult P. falcata were seeds as part of the fruit processing technique, a process J. Atchison et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 32 (2005) 167–181 179

) and . sp Depth standard C ( cm 14 Acacia Buchanania obovata Persoonia falcata Terminalia latipes Unidentified 14 C (AMS) ages (yr BP) 0 Unit 5

Unit 4 10

Unit 3

3330±60 (Wk7699) 40 3500±100 (Wk7700) Unit 2 3540±70 (Wk7698)

50 Unit 1

70 sterile

No. of whole and 0 1 2 3 4 0 0.5 1 1.5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 fragmented seeds per litre x 10-2 x 10-2 Fig. 10. PP1 Pit, Punipunil, Species Assemblage 2–4 mm. Species assemblage from pit PP1 from the 2–4 mm fraction. Numbers of whole and fragmented seeds are measured per litre. Conventional 14C (italics underlined) date is based on charcoal and 14C (AMS) on Persoonia falcata seed material, respectively, dated at the Waikato dating laboratory (these results are presented in Table 2).

undertaken in a unique microenvironment, that is, small long term and more recent patterns of Aboriginal plant isolated sandstone rock shelters in the surrounding use. This picture depicts seasonal and fluctuating oc- sandy plain. cupation of the small sandstone rockshelters while fruit While P. falcata and B. obovata were both found in was available over the late Holocene. Nevertheless the high densities in each of the archaeological excavations, ethnographic record allows us to give considerable life it is not suggested that these were the only plants pro- to the archaeological window. We know that, although cessed. In fact, the morphology of the remains that were short-lived, the wet season fruits provide abundant found suggests that it was only those species with hard, foods highly valued by both adults and children for charred seed coats that survived decomposition. Fruits their taste and ease of access. We can envisage large with more fragile seeds that were consumed raw, scale processing of the fruits by groups of women to including V. glabrata, T. ferdinandiana and T. latipes, facilitate longer term storage. The implications of such are strongly represented in the upper archaeological storage for travel, ceremonial gatherings and inter- levels, but were presumably also eaten during earlier group exchange are being considered in ongoing work times for which the evidence has not survived as well. that compares the fruit seed window with other The archaeological record of even less well preserved archaeological windows such as those of stone artefacts plants such as yams and other tubers is being pursued in and ochre. this project via studies into starch residues on stone In contrast however, evidence of fruit processing tools. ceases with the arrival of pastoralism and changed fire Burning of the seeds through processing has enabled regimes, suggesting a significant shift in peoples’ utiliza- the cultural and non-cultural components to be quite tion of these rocky outcrops, and potentially also a clearly distinguished and allows us one window into change in the ecology of these environments. 180 J. Atchison et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 32 (2005) 167–181

Fig. 11. Percentage of burnt and unburnt seed material in each excavation pit.

Acknowledgements

We are indebted to Biddy Simon and Polly Wandanga of the Marralam community for collaboration over many years. Assistance with excavation and plant recording was provided by Maurice Simon, May Melpi, Paul Melpi, Iza Pretlove, Eileen Huddleston, and Ken Mulvaney. Funding was provided by the Australian Research Council and the University of Wollongong (Research Centre for Landscape Change).

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