f>w RABLROADmMIIGHWAlf U S Depaflment ofTransportation GRikDE CROSSING F&era! ~Ighway AdmlnlWr*!on HAIMDBOOK
–SEC4DND EDITION FHWA-TS-86”275 SEPTEMBER1986 FOREWORO
This handbook provides general infer.nationon railroad-highway crossings, including Cilaracteristicsof the crossing environl~~nta~~ US~rs, and the physical and operational improveinentsfor safe and efficient use by both highway and rail traffic. The handbook wil1 be of interest to Federal, State and local ilighwayagency personnel, railroad officials, consulting engineers and educators involved witilrailroad–highway grade crossi:lgsafety and oper3ti9n.
The late William J. Hedley contributed generously of his 5ackground and experience tu,wardthe colnpletionof this handbook.
This is the second printing of the second edition of the handbook. The only change from the first pri,ltingis a revision of Figure 24, page 103, to reflect the guidance for placement of the railroad crossing pavements marking synbol in relation tu the location ,ofthe advance wa,-rringsign.
A standard distribution of the handbook was made to the FHdA Region and Division offices, the State highway agencies and the T~ Centers in ?986. Copies of the handbook were also pr>vided to the Federal Railroad Ad~:)inistrationand the Association of A;nericanRailroads for “their ~se. A limited n(~mberof copies are available from the Railroads, IJtilitiesand Programs Branch, HNG-?2, Federal liigl~wayAdministration, Washington, D.C. 205% and the RD&T Report Center, HRD-11, Federal Highway Administration, 6300 Georgetown Pike, ~~cLean,Virginia 22101-23Y6. Copies may be pur~tlasedfroin the N~tional Technical Infer.lationService, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
.&&f s~~ Stanley R. 3y(ngton Director, Office of Implementation Federd? IiighwayAdministration
NOTICE
This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the Department of Trans})ortationin the interest [jfinformation exchange. The United States Govern!nentassumes no 1iai)i1ity for its contents or use thereof. The contents of this report reflect the views of the author, who is responsible for the accuracy of the data presented herein. The contents do not necessarily reflect the official policy of the Departinentof Transportation]. This report does not constitute a standard, specification, or regulation.
“TheUnited States Govern;nentdoes not endorse products or manufacturers. Trade or manufacturers’ names appear herein only because they are considered essential to the object of tilisdoc(~ment. T(@chnicolkepotiDocumentationpeg,
1. R.P.t, No. FHWA TS-86-215 4.1;,1.andS.b+itl. ~2G0”*’”m*”’Ace*’s’O”M” ~= Se?tember 1986 Railroad-Highway Grade Crossing Handbook-2nd Edition ~,~.,,Q,m,n*~,gen,,o,,on~odo — — 8 P.r{o,m,.s O,g.n,,.,i.nR.p.,, N.. 7.A.?ho,,,) 2- B.H. Tustin, H. Richards, H. i!cG(:e,and R. Patterson — 9. P.,l.,mi.o0,9m,,.,;onNom. md Add,.,, /10.W..ku.,tN..(TRAISI
Tustin Enterprises FCP Category 12 (A) — 2903 Maple Lane 11.Con,,..,o,G,..,N.. Fairfax; Virginia 22031 13.Typ..1R.per,andP.r,.dCev.r.d 12,S9..,.,;.$A9...YNom. o.dAdd,.,, Office of Implementation Federal Highway Administration c 6300 Georg;to~ Pike 14.Sp..,.,,.g Ag..cyCod. McLean, Virginia 22101-2296 r— - , — 15.$.ppl.m.n,o,yN.,., FHWA Contract Manager (COTR): Eric ltinley(HRT-20) FHWA Office of Engineering Cont:~ct: Jim Overton (KNG-12] FRA Office of Safety Analysis: Tom P. Well [RRS-Z:[)
Rail-Highway grade crossing safety and operational problems involve two component$-- the highway and the railroad. The!highway component involves drivers, pedestrians, vehicles and roadway segments in the vicinity of the crossing. The railroad component involves the trains and the tracks at the crossing. The element of risk present at a given location is a function of the ch~lracteristicsof the two components and their corresponding;elements. Sever:llformulas are described which seek to quantify the degree of risk, identify the locations most urgently in need of improvement, and prioritize the!hazardous locations which have been isolated. Various types of at-grade crossin~;improvements described include active warning devices, passive warning devices, sight distance improvements, operational improve- ments, and crossing surface improvements. Grade sel)arations,or crossing closures are suggested as improvement solutions where either extremely high or low demmd for the crossing exists. The ultimate choice for a crossing improvement is determined by balancing the benefits in accident reduction and reduced user costs against costs for the improvement. Procedures, models and computer programs whick~ will assist making these selectior~sare described.
— 17.K,YWo,d, 18.Distrtb.?oon$?.~.m.nl No restriction. This document is Grade Crossing, Railroad, availablt!to the public through the Traffic Control, Crossing Surfaces National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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9 8 17 16 Is 14 3 2 1 ‘..,., RAILROAD-llIG~AY GRADE CROSSING WNDBOOK
Chapter Pa{;e
List of Figures ...... v List of Tables ...... A. Backgromd ...... 1 1. Introduction to Railro/id-HighwayGrade Crossings ...... 2. Safety and Operations :itRailroad-Highw%y Grade Crossings ...... : B. Railroad-Highway Grade Cr~>ssingPrograms ...... 8 C. Responsibilities at Railroad-Highway Grade Crossings ...... “1& D. Some General Lagal Considerations - Railroad-Highway Grade Crossings ...... )...... ;23 E. References ...... 27 II. COWONENTS OF A RAILROAD-HIG~AY GRADE CROSSING A. The Highway Component ...... :29 1. Driver ...... :29 2. Vehicle ...... 33 3. Roadway ...... <...... 36 4. Pedestrian ...... t..... Lo B. Railroad Components ...... Lo 1. Train ...... 41 2. Track ...... 45 C. References ...... 49 III. ASSESS~NT OF CROSSING SAFETY AND OPERATION A. Collection and Maintenance of Data ...... 51 B. Identification of CrOssinigsfor Further Analysis ...... ’63 1. Peabody Dimmick Formula ...... 63 2. New Hampshire Index ...... 56 3. NCHRP 50 ...... 66 4. U.S. DOT Accident Pred,ction~uations ...... 70 5. Florida DOT Accident Prediction Model ...... 76 C. Engineering Study ...... ’79 1. Diagnostic Study Team Method ...... 79 2. Other Engineering Studies ...... 84 D. The Systems Approach ...... 85 E. References ...... 87 iii -. tihapter Fage IV. IDENTIFICATION OF ALTERNATI~S A. Elimination ...... 1. Grade Separation ...... ;: 2. Highway and Railroad Relocation ...... 91 3. Closure ...... 92 4. Abandoned Crossings ...... 94 B. Passive Traffic Control Devices ...... 96 1. Signs ...... o...... 96 2. Pavement Markings ...... 102 C. Active Traffic Control Devices ...... 103 1. Flashing Light Signals ...... 104 2. Automatic Gates ...... 108 3. Warning Bell ...... 110 4. Active Advance Warning Sign ...... 114 5. Traffic Si~als ...... 115 6. Train Detection ...... 125 D. Site and Operational Improvements ...... 131 1. Sight Distance ...... 131 2. Geometries ...... 135 3. Illumination ...... 140 4. Shielding Supports for Traffic Control Devices ...... 141 5. Flagging ...... 142 6. Miscellaneous Improvements ...... I42 E. Crossing Surfaces ...... 143 1. Unconsolidated ...... I50 2. Asphalt ...... I50 3. Wood Plank ...... I54 4. Sectional Treated Timber ...... 155 5. Precast Concrete Slabs ...... 156 6. Continuous Concrete pavement ...... 159 7. Steel Sections ...... 159 8. Rubber Panels ...... 161 9. High Density Polythylene Modules ...... 164 F. Removal of Grade Separation Structures ...... 166 G. References ...... 168 v. SELECTION OF ALTERNATIVES A. Warrant Procedures ...... 171 B. Economic Analysis Procedures ...... 171 1. Cost-Effectiveness Analysis ...... 172 2. Benefit-Cost Ratio ...... 173 3. Net Annual Benefit ...... 175 C. Resource Allocation Procedure ...... 177 D. Selection of Other Improvements ...... 179 E. References ...... 1al iv Chapter page VI. I~L_TATION OF PROJECTS A. Funding ...... 183 1. Federal Sources ...... 183 2. State Finding ...... 185 3. Local Agency Finding ...... 186 4. Railroad Funding ...... 186 B. Agreements ...... 186 C. Accounting ...... 187 D. Design and Construction ...... 189 E. Traffic Control During Construction ...... )...... 191 1. Traffic Control Zones ...... 194 2. Traffic Control Devi(:es...... 196 3. Application ...... 200 F. References ...... 203 \711. MAINTENANCE I?ROGRAM A. Maintenance Program ...... 205 B. References ...... 208 VIII. ElrALUATIONOF PROJECTS AND PROGR~S A. Project Evaluation ....!)...... 210 B. Program Evaluation ...... 211 C. Administrative Evaluation ...... 212 D. References ...... 212 IX. SPECIAL ISSUES A. Private Crossings ...... 213 B. Short Line Railroads ...... 215 C. High Speed Rail Corridors ...... 217 D. Special Vehicles, Pedestrians, Motorcycles, and Bicycles ...... 218 1. Trucks with HazardoufsMaterial Cargo ...... 218 2. Long and Heavily Laden Trucks ...... 219 3. Buses ...... 219 4. Motorcycles and Bicy,~les...... 219 5. Pedestrians ...... 220 E. Refersncss ...... 221 v Chapter Page x. SUPPORTING PROGRMS A. Driver Education and Enforcement ...... 223 B. Research and Development ...... 225 C. References ...... 23I APPENDICES A. Separate State Funding Programs Crossing Improvements ...... 233 B. States Having Maintenance Finding Programs ...... 235 C. Class Iand II Railroads ...... 23? D. Example of a Diagnostic Team Crossing Evaluation Report used by Nebraska ...... 239 E. State Agencies Having Authority to Close Crossings ...... 245 F. Crossing Surfaces used by States, Trial Basis or Adopted for General Use, 1984 ...... 247 GLOSSARY ...... 249 INDEX ...... 257 LIST OF FIGURES Fi~e Page 1. Crossing Exposure Index ...... L 2. Historical Phases of Crossing Safety Programs ...... 6 3. Public Crossing Accident Rate by Type of Urban Road, 1983 ...... 3? 4. Public Crossing Accident Rate by Type of Rural Road, 1983 ...... 38 5. Public Crossing Accident Rate by Annual Average Daily Traffic, 1983 ...... 39 6. Public Crossing Accident Rate by Number of Trains per Day, 1983 ...... 46 7. U.S. DOT/AAR National Rail-Highway Crossing Inventory Form ...... 53 8. Crossing Identification ”NumberTag ...... 9. Accident Report Form for Federal Railroad Administration ...... ;: 10. Accident Report Form for National Highway Traffic Safety Administration ...... 58 11. Accident Report Form for Bureau of Motor Carrier Safety ...... 61 12. Accident Report Form for Materials Transportation Bweau ...... 64 13. Curves for Peabody Dimmick Formula ...... 67 14. NCHRP 50 Priority Index ...... 69 15. Sample Questionnaire for Diagnostic Team Evaluation ...... 81 16. Study Positions for Diagnostic Team ...... 82 17. Type III Barricade,...... 9L 18. Typical Crossing Signs ...... 97 19. Crossing Sign (Crossbuck) ...... 98 20. Typical Sign Placement Where Parallel Road is ove~ 100 feet from Crossing ...... 100 21. Typical Sign Placement Where Parallel Road is within 100 feet of Crossing and Intersecting Road Traffic must Stop ...... ,.... 100 22. Typical Sign Placement Where Parallel Road is within 100 feet of Crossing and Parallel Road Traffic must Stop ...... ,,.... 100 23. Typical Application of a Stop Sign at a Crossing ...... 101 24. Typical Placement of Warning Signs and Pavement Markings ...... 103 25. Typical Alignment Pattern for Flashing Light Signals with 30-15 Degree Roundel, Two-Lane, Two-Way Roadway ...... 105 26. Typical Alignment Pattern for Flashing Light Signals with 20-32 Degree Romdel, Multi-Lane Roadway ...... 106 27. Typical Flashing Light Signal - Post Mounted ...... 105 28. Typical Flashing Light Signal - Cantilevered ...... 106 29. Use of Multiple Flashing Light Signals for Adequate Visibility Horizontal Curve to the Left ...... 108 30. Use of Multiple Flashing Light Signals for Adequate Visibility Horizontal Curve to the IRight...... 103 31. Typical Clearances for Flashing Light Signals with Automatic Gates ...... 113 32. Typical Location of Signml Devices ...... Illo 33. Typical Location Plan, Wlght Angle Crossing, One-Way Two Lanes ..... 111 34. Typical Location Plan, Wlght Angle Crossing, One-Way Three Lanes ...... 111 vif Figure Page 35. Typical Location Plan, Divided Highway with Signals in Medians Two Lanes Each Way ...... 112 36. Typical Location Plan, Divided Highway with Signals in Median, Three Lanes Each Way ...... 112 37. Typical Location Plan, Divided Highway with Insufficient Median for Signals, Two Lanes Each Way ...... 113 38. Typical Location Plan, Acute Angle Crcssing for Divided Highway with Signals in Median, Two or Three Lanes Each Way ...... 113 39. Typical Location Plan, Obtuse Angle Crossing for Divided Highway with Signals in Median, Two or Three Lanes Each Way ...... 114 40. Examples of Active Advance Warning Signs ...... 114 Example of Cantilevered Active Advance Warning Sign ...... 114 ?2: Key to be Used with Figures 43 through 53 ...... 117 43. Typical Preemption Sequence, Signalized Intersection, Four Lane Undivided Roadways, Two Phase Operation ...... 117 44. Typical ?reemption Sequence, Signalized Intersection, Two Lane Roadways with Railroad Bisecting Intersection, Two Phase Operation ...... o...... 118 45. Typical Preemption Sequence, Signalized Intersection, Four Lane Undivided Roadways with Railroad Bisecting Intersection, Two Phase Operation ...... 118 46. Typical Preemption Sequence, Signalized Intersection, Two Lane Roadways with Crossings on Two Approaches, Two Phase Operation ..... 119 47. Typical Preemption Sequence, Signalized Intersection, Four Lane Undivided Roadways with Crossing on Two Approaches, Two Phase Operation ...... a...... 119 48. ‘Typical Preemption Sequence. Signalized Intersection. Four Lane wi~h Railroad-Bisecti;g One”Roa~way, Two Phase Opera~ion with Pedestrian Signals ...... 120 49. Typical Preemption Sequ(nce, Crossing Between Two Signalized Intersections, Two Phase Operation with Pedestrian Signals ...... 120 50. rypical Preemption Sequence, Signalized Intersection, Four Lane Divided and Two Lane Roadways with Crossing on Major Approach, Three Phase Operation ...... 121 51. Typical Preemption Sequence, Signalized Intersection, Four Lane Divided and Two Lane Roadways with Crossing on Minor Approach, Three Phase Operation ...... 121 52. Typical Preemption Sequence, Intersection with Beacon Control, Crossing on Major Approach ...... 122 53. Typical Preemption Sequence, Intersection with Beacon Control, Crossing on Minor Approach ...... 122 54. Relocation of Intersection Stop Line to Reduce Possibility of Vehicles Stopping on Tracks ...... 123 55. Relocation of Intersection Stop Line and Signal Faces to Reduce Possibility of Vehicles Stopping on Tracks ...... 124 56. Use of Additional Traffic Control Signals at Crossings ...... I24 5?. Standby Power Arrangement ...... 126 58. DC Track Circuit ...... 127 59. Three Track Circuit System,...... 128 Vlxl. Figure Page 60. Track Circuits with Timing Sections ...... 128 61. AC-DC Track Circuit ...... 128 62. Audio Frequency Overlay Track Circuit ...... 129 63. Motion Sensitive Track Circuit Bi-Directi.onalAFFliCatiOn ...... 129 64. Motion Sensitive Track Circuit Uni-Direct,ionalApplication ...... 130 65. Constant Warning Time Track Circuit Uni-I)irectional Application ...... ’...... 130 66. Constant Warning Time Track Circuit Bi-Di.rectional Application ...... !...... 130 67. Crossing Sight Distances ...... 131 68. Sight Distance for a Vehicle Stopped at Crossing ...... 134 69. Elements of a Highway Cross Section ...... 137 70. Elements of a Railroad Track Cross Section ...... 138 71. Typical Pullout Lane at a Crossing ...... 139 72. Connection of the Rail to the Crosstie ...... 147 73. Typical Cross Section thru Plain Bituminous Crossing ...... 150 74. Typical Cross Section thru Asphalt Cross~.ngwith Timber Headars ...... 153 75. Typical Cross Section t,hruAsphalt Cross~.ngwith Flange Rails ...... 4...... 153 76. Detail Section thru Flengeway of Asphalt Crossing ...... 154 77. Typical Cross Sectionc,f Epflex Railseal ...... 154 78. Typical Cross Section thru Wood Plank Crossing ...... t...... 155 79. Typical Cross Section t,hruSectional Trested Timber Crossing ...... 155 80. Typical Cross Section t,hruConcrete Slab Crossicg ...... ‘,56 81. Typical Cross Section t,hruFAB-RA-CAST Crossing ...... 158 82. Typical Cross Section t,hruPremier Cross5.ng...... ‘58 83. Typical Cross Section thru Continuous CoIlcretePavement ...... 159 84. Typical Cross Section ?,hruSteelpank Crossing ...... -60 85. Typical Cross Section t,hruR.R. Crossings, Inc. Crossing ...... 160 86. Typical Cross Section t,hruGoodyear Tire & Rubber Co. Crossing ..... ‘61 87. Typical Cross Section t,hruOMWI Crossing ...... 162 88. Typical Cross Section t,hruParko Crossin/1...... ‘62 89. Typical Cross Section thru Red Hawk Crossing ...... 163 90. Typical Cross Section t,hruStrail Hi-Rai:LCrossing ...... ‘63 91. Typical Cross Section thru SAF & DRI Crossing ...... ‘64 92. Typical Cross Section t,hruCOBRA X Cross:Lng...... ‘i64 93. Sample Cost-Effectivene:ssAnaylsis Worksheet ...... :?& 94. Sample Benefit-to-Cost Analysis Workshee-i...... ‘176 95. Crossing Resource Allocation Procedure ...... ‘78 96. Resource Allocation Procedure Field Verification Worksheet ...... “180 97. Areas ina Traffic Control Zone ...... ’95 98. TyFical Signs for Traffic Control in Work Zones ...... ‘197 99. Use of Hand Signaling Oevices by Flagger ...... 200 100. Crossing Work Activitif?s,Two Lane Highway, One Lane Closed ...... 201 101. Crossing Work Activities, Multi-lane Urbnn DivicledHighway, One Roadway Closed, Twc,Way Traffic ...... 201 102. Crossing Work Activitic!s,Closure of Sidf?Road Crossing ...... 202 ix Figme Page 103. Crossing Work Activities, One Lane of Side Road Crossing Closed ...... 202 104. Typical Private Crossing Sign ...... 215 105. Recommended Sign and Marking Treatment for Bicycle Crossing ...... 220 x LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Railroad Line Miles and Track Miles ...... 2 2. Freight and Passenger Tr&,inMiles ...... 2 3. Public At-Grade Crossings by Mctional Classification, 1983 ...... 3 4. Public At-Grade Crossings by Highway System, 1983 ...... 4 5. Fatalities at Public Crossings, 1920 - 1983 ...... 5 6. Accidents, Fatalities, aridInjuries at Pub:LicCrossings, 1975-1983 ...... c,...... 5 7. State and Local GovernmerltJurisdictional l!uthorities Concerned with Crossings ...... 2!0 8. Public Crossings by Warnj.ngDevice, 1983 ...... 30 9. Needed Information and Df>siredResponses of Vehicle Operator ...... 32 10. Motor Vehicle Accidents ?lndCasualties at l?ublicCrossings by Vehicle Type, 1983 ...... 34 11. Desi~ Lengths for Desi~l Vehicles ...... 35 12. Types of Freight Equipmerlt...... 44 13. Public At-Grade Crossings by Number of ThrllTrains and Switching Trains Per Day,,1983 ...... ~b5 14. Accidents at Public Crossings Involving Mo-borVehicles by Type of Train, 1983 .....!...... ~k5 15. Maximum Train Speed as a Fmction of Track Class ...... i+6 16. Public At-Grade Crossings by Type of Track, 1983 ...... ih8 17. Accidents and Casualitie!sat Public Crossi]~gsInvolving Motor Vehicles by Track Type a]ldTrack Class, 1983 ...... ib9 18. Variations of New Hampsh!LreIndex ...... 68 19. U.S. DOT Accident Prediction ~uations for Crossing Characteristic Factors ...... ’71 20. U.S. DOT Accident Prediction Factor Values for Crossings with Passive Warning Devices ...... ’71 21. U.S. DOT Accident Predicf;ionFactor Values for Crossings with Flashing Light Warning Df?vices...... ’72 22. U.S. DOT Accident Prediction Factor Values for Crossings with Gate Warning Devices ...... 72 23. U.S. DOT Final Accident l?redictionfrom Initial Prediction and Accident History (1 year of accident data (T = 1)) ...... ’73 24. U.S. DOT Final Accident l?redictionfrom Initial Prediction and Accident History (2 years of accident data (T = 2)) ...... ‘,..... ’74 25. U.S. DOT Final Accident l?redictionfrom Initial Prediction and Accident History (3 years of accident data (T = 3)) ...... 4!..... ’74 26. U.S. DOT Final Accident Prediction from Initial Prediction and Accident History (4 years of accident data (T = 4)) ...... (!..... ’75 27. U.S. DOT Final Accident Prediction from Initial Prediction and Accident History (5 years of accident data (T = 5)) ...... 30. Factor Values for U.S. DOT Fatal Accident Probability Formula ...... ?7 31. Factor Values for U.S. DOT Injury Accident Probability Formula ...... 7? 32. Distances to Establish Study Positions for Diagnostic Team Evaluation ...... 82 Placement Distances for Advance Warning Signs ...... 99 ::: Effectiveness of Active Crossing Warning Devices ...... 104 Coefficients of Friction ...... 132 :i: Sight Distances for Combinations of Highway Vehicle and Train Speeds ...... 133 Rate of Change in Elevation of Pavement Edges ...... 138 ;:: Approach Length of Pullout Lane ...... 140 39. Dowstream Length of Pullout Lane ...... 140 40. Public Crossings by Surface Type, 1983 ...... 144 41. Gromd Stabilization Fabrics ...... 146 42. Crossing Surface Data Sheet ...... 151 43. Comparison”of Cost-Effectiveness,Benefit/Cost, and Net Benefit Methods ...... 17? Effectiveness/Cost Symbol Matrix ...... 1?9 ::: Channelizing Devices for Tapers ...... 196 46. Sign Spacing for Urban Areas ...... 200 47. Accidents at Private Crossings, 1979-1983 ...... 214 48. Accidents at Private Crossings by Roadway User, 1983 ...... 214 49. Motor Vehicle Accidents at Private Crossings by Traffic Control Device, 1983 ...... 214 xii 1. OVERVIEW This handbook provides general As additional railroad lines information on railroad - highway were built and extended, they facili- crossings, characteristics of the tated the?establishment and growth of crossing environment and users, and toms in the midwest and west by pro- the physical and operational imF,rove- viding a relatively rapid means of ments that can be made at rail.road- transpori,ation of goods and people. highway grade crossings to enhance Towns d 1 .-,., Chapter I Overview Table 2. Freight and Passenger Train Miles Table 1. Railroad Line Miles* Year Train Miles and Track Mile~** 1974 534,039,763 1975 468,321,148 Year Line Miles Track Miles 1976 491,057,525 1977 493,890,675 1939 235,064 386,085 1978 497,134,000 lg44 227,335 374,710 1979 499,514,000 1947 225,806 374,027 1980 488,948,812 1951 223,427 371,782 1981 467,614,668 1955 220,670 366,406 1982 401,374,432 1967 209,826 341,499 1983 388,534,905 1971 205,220 334,932 1984 411,070,321 1975 199,126 324,156 1979 184,500 300,000 Source: Ref. 16 1980 179,000 290,000 1981 168,000 278,000 1982 159,123 263,330 shows the trend in freight and pas- 1983 155,879 258,703 senger train miles since lg74. * ~xcept for years 1982 and 1983, Initially, safety at railrOad- railroad line miles are the aggregate highway grade crossings was not con- length of roadway of all line-haul sidered a problem. Trains were few railroada. It excludes yard tracks, in number and slow, as were highway sidings, and parallel lines. Joint- travelers who were usually on foot, ly used track is touted only once. horseback, horse-dram vehicles, or Years 1982 and 1g8S include Class I cycles. By the end of the century, railroads only. crossing accidenta were increasing and communities became concerned **Except for years 1982 and 1g83, about safety and delays at crossings. railroad track miles are total miles Many States, cities, and tows adopt- Of railroad track in the United ed laws, ordinances, and regulations States, including multiple main that required the railroads to elim- tracks, yard tracks and sidings, inate some crossings and provide owned by both line-haul and switching safety improvements at others. and terminal companiea. Years lg82 and 1983 include Class I railroads Railroad-highway grade crossings only. On average, the Class I rail- became more of a concern with the ad- roads account for about 95 percent of vent of the automobile in the early total railroad mileage. For lg7g and 1900’s. By 1920 vehicles traveled subsequently, data include estimates approximately 45 billion miles an- for other than Class 1. nually. Vehicle miles of travel have increased more than 36-fold dwing Source: Ref. 12 the intervening 63 years to 1.65 trillion vehicle miles in lg83. More recently, vehicle miles of travel have been increasing at a lower rate of 1.3% per year. Road mileage also 2 Chapter I overview grew during the 63 years tO approxi- Table 3. Public At-Grade Crossings mately 3.88 million miles in 1983. by Functional Classification, 1983 The number of railroad-highway grade crossings grew with the growth Rural in highway miles. In cities and ------toms , the grid method of laying out Functional Classification Nwber streets was utilized, particularly in the midwest and west. A CrOSSing Interstate* 20 over the railroad was often provided Other principal arterial 1,568 for every street, resulting in about Minor arterial 4,633 ten crossings per mile. In 1983, Major cc,llector 13,793 there were 379,611 total intersec- Minor cc,llector 13,296 tions of vehicular and pedestrian Local 95,108 traveled ways with railroads. This Not reported 4U equates to approximately 2.4 crOss- ings per railroad line mile. Total 128,462 Crossings are divided intc,cate- gories. Public crossings are!those Urban on highways waler the jurisdiction ------of, and maintained by, a public au- FunctiorlalClassification Nmber thority and open to the traveling public. In 1983, there were 242,980 Interstate* 95 public crossings, of which 2!05,339 Other fr,eeway/expressway 529 were at-grade and 37,641 were grade Other pl.incipalarterial 7,472 separated. Private crossin~;s are Minor al-terial 12,837 those on roadways privately Owrledand COllectnr 11,475 utilized only by the land ow~ler or Local 44,469 licensee. There were 133,011 I)rivate crossings in 1983. Pedestrian crOss- Total 76,877 ings are those that are used solelY by pedestrians and there were?3,620 *CrOssings classified as ‘vlnter- pedestrian crossings in 1983. statel’ are typically located on raps. Sixty-three percent, 128,1162,of public at-grade crossings were 10cat- Source: Ref. 11 ed in rural areas, compared to 76,877 in urban areas. For both url)anand rural areas, the majority of crOss- crossings is the exposure inclex, the ings are located on local ro:ids as product of annual train miles and depicted in Table 3. Twent:!-three vehicle miles, divided by 10 to the percent of public at-grade crnssings 18th power for convenience. The expo- are located on Federal-aid highways sure index quantifies the interaction as shown in Table 4. Fiftee]o per- between railroad and highway traffic, cent, 32,200, are located on State and provides a suitable base for highways. assessing trends in crossin$;safety. Figure 1 illustrates the trend in the The most important singl’= sta- exposure index. tistic affecting the occurrence of accidents at railroad-highway grade 3 Chapter I OveTview Table 4. Public At-Grade Crossings by Highway System, 1983 800 700 r } Highway System Nmber 600 Iv ~ Interstate 129 , Federal-aid primary 10,182 Federal-aid urban 13,3g8 500 Federal-aid secondary 24;193 1 Non-federal-aid 157,394 400 Not reported 43 300 A /“ Total 205,339 Note: Crossings classified as ltlnter- 200 P, state” are typically located on raps. 100 Source: Ref. 11 I ! 1 1 1 I I I 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 Year 2. Safety and Operations at Railroad- Highway Grade Crossings Figure 1. Crossing Exposure Index National statistics on crossing accidents have been kept since the early 1900!s as a result of the re- These reporting requirements quirements of the Accident Reports remained essentially the sae until Act of lg10. The Act required rail 1975 when the Federal Railroad Admin- carriers to submit reports of acci- istration (FRA) redefined a report- dents involving railroad personnel able railroad-highway grade crossing and railroad equipment, including accident. Under the new guidelines, those that occurred at crossings. any impaCt “between railroad On-track Not all crossing accidents were re- equipment and an automobile, bus, ported because the railroads were truck, motorcycle, bicycle, fam ve- required to report only those acci- hicle, pedestrian or other highway dents that resulted in: user at a rail-highway crossingt~1 must be reported. 0 a fatality; Table 5 gives the number Of 0 an injury to a person sufficient fatalities occurring at public rail- to incapacitate him Or her for a road-highway grade crossings from period of 24 hours in the aggre- 1920 to lg83. Also shown separately gate during the 10 days immediat- elyfollowing; or, ------1Rail-Highway Crossing Accident/ 0 more than $750 dmage to railroad Incident and Inventory Bulletin NO. equipment, track or roadbed. Calendar Year 1983, Washington, DC: Federal Railroad Atiinistration lg84. Chapter I Overview Table 5. Fatalitie!3at Public Crossi]~gs,1920-1983 Motor Motor All Vehicle All Vehicle Al! Veticle .—Year —Fatabties Fatalities ——Year FatalitiesFatalltle5 —cYear Fatalities——FatatiVes 1920 1,791 1,273 1940 1,808 1,588 1960 1,364 1.261 1921 t,705 1,262 1941 1,931 1,691 1961 1,291 1,172 1922 1,810 1,359 1942 1,970 1,635 1982 1,241 1,132 1923 2,268 1,759 1943 1,732 1,396 1963 1,302 1,217 1924 2,149 1.688 1944 1,840 1,520 1964 1,543 1,432! 1925 2,206 1;784 i945 1,903 1,591 1965 1,534 1,434. 1926 2,491 2,062 1946 1,851 1,575 1966 1,780 1,657 1927 2,371 i,974 1947 1,790 1,536 1967 1,632 1,52CI 1928 2,566 2,165 1948 1,612 1,379 1968 1,546 1,44:1 i929 2,485 2,085 1949 1,507 1,323 1969 1,490 1,381 1930 2,020 1,695 1950 1,576 1,410 1970 1,440 1,36;! 1931 1,811 1,580 1951 1,578 1,407 1971 1,356 1,267 1932 1,525 1,310 1952 1,407 1,257 1972 1,260 1,190 1933 1,511 1,305 1953 1,494 1,328 1973 1,185 1,077 1934 1,554 1,320 g ;,303 1,181 1974 1,220 1,128 i935 1,680 1,445 ,448 1.322 1975 978 788 1936 1,786 1,526 1956 1,338 1;210 i976 1,114 97[1 1937 1,875 1,613 1957 1,371 1,222 1977 944 846 1938 1,517 1;311 1968 1,271 1,141 1978 1,021 g2g 1939 1,398 1,197 1959 1,203 1,073 1979 834 72i, 1980 788 708 1981 697 62S 1982 580 526 Source: Ref. 11 and 13 1983 542 4%3 are fatalities resulting from collis- ions involving motor vehicles. Ta- Table 6,,Accidents, Fatalities,*and ble 6 provides data on the nmbe!r of Injuries at Public Crossings, accidents, injuries and fatalities at 1975-1983 public railroad-highway grade cross- ings for the period from 1975 - 1983. Accidents and injuries from 1Si20tO _year ——Ac{>idents Fatalities Injuries 1974 are not provided because not all accidents and injuries were recluired 1975 1“1,354 978 4,16a to be re~rted during those yea~,s. 1976 12,114 1,114 4,831 1977 12,299 944 4,64g The motor vehicle fatalit:{sta- lg78 12,435 1,021 4,256 tistics are depicted graphically in 1979 11,552 834 4,172 Figure 2 which clearly demonstrates 1980 ‘3,763 78a 3,662 the overall improvement in safefcy at 1981 3,546 697 3,121 crossings. The exposure inde:~prO- 19a2 7,158 580 2,508 vides a means by which crossing sta- 1983 6,562 5Q2 2,467 tistics can be compared thrOllghOUt the years. The fatality ratio (num- *Including motor vehicle and non- ber of fatalities divided bY the motor vehicle accidents. exposure index) for the years 1920 through lg83 is also depicted in Source: Ref. 11 Figure 2. 5 Cnapter I Overview + ?s I 1920-193( — epressionVeryFew Improvements‘— II 1935-141— FederalAidPrograms 1 5 VarPeriod—UttleActivit~ PeriodofIncreasedFederalK k M + Fatality + i 920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 Year Figure 2. Historical Phases of Crossing Safety Programs Chapter I Overview The variation in the fatality couted for 0.03% of all moto]:vehi- ratio appears to be related to var- cle accidents o)tpublic roads. How- ious occurrences over the years. ever, the severity of crossing acci- From 1920 to 1930, railroad expendi- dents demands s,pecialattention. In ture for the construction of grade 1983, there were 483 motor vehicle separations and crossing active traf- fatalities at crossings and a total fic control devices was extensive. of 42,584 motor vehicle fatalities. During the early four year period of Thus, crossing fatalities acoounted the depression, railroad expenditures for 1.1% of all motor vehicle fatalit- for crossing improvements lagged, and ies. Orle out of every 430 vehicle the fatality ratio remained about the accidents resulted in a fatality, but same. Starting in 1935 some special one out of every 12 crossing acci- Federal progrms were initiated tO dents resulted in a fatality. improve crossing safety and. the fatality ratio decreased. During the Whil.e railroad - highway grade war period of the 1940’s, crcssiW crossing accidents account for only a improvement work was greatly reduced smll portion of all highway acci- and the fatality ratio increased dents, they represent a large portion slightly. Since 1946, Federal-aid of all r:~ilroadaccidents. In 1983, has increased and the fatality ratio there wer>e1,073 fatalities resulting has correspondingly been decrea~sing. from all. railroad accidents / inci- dents. of these, 53.6%, 575, oc- During the period between 1960 curred at crossings, both public and and 1967, the fatality ratio reu~ined private. almost constant; however, the rlmber of fatalities increased as dicl the In additian to the possibility exposure index. This was in spj.teOf of a collision between a train and a continual Federal funding for grade highway user, a railroad - highway separations and crossing traffic!con- grade crnssing presents the possibil- trol device improvements. A nat,iOnal ity of an accident that does not concern for crossing safety was de- involve “atrain. Non-train accidents veloped as witnessed by the h[)lding include: rear-end accidents in which of national conferences to addresa a vehicle that has stopped at a the increase in casualties. Thncarn particularly with re- The result of this safety progr+m and gard to the transportation of hazard- other emphases On crossing saf!?tyis ous materials by truck and the trans- illustrated in Figure 2 which shows portation of passengers, especially the drsmatic reduction in the ]~mber school buses. These “special Vehi- of fatalities involving motor vehi- cles” are, in many Statas, x.equired cles. by law to stop at all crossings and look for a train before proceeding In 1983, approximately 18.:3mil- across the tracks. The driver Of a lion motor vehicle traffic accidents vehicle that is following a special occurred. Crossing accidents ac- vehicle may not expect to stop and 7 Chapter I Overview maY rear-end the vehicle, perhaps wish to reach electric customers in resulting in a catastrophic accident. the city, hence railroads may lease space for electric power transmission While safety is a primary cOn- lines. Also, with the new develop- cern, railroad-highway grade crOas- ment of fiber optic cables for high ings affect the public and railroads capacity comunicat ions services, in other ways. In the 19th century comunicationa Comon carriers are most communities and cities welcomed also finding railroad rights of way and actively encouraged the ~Onstruc- into center cities very attractive. tion of railroad lines to and within Thus, On the positive side, commun- the community. As the benefits of itiesand railroads are finding mutual this transportation service were re- advantages in communicating and coop- alized, the communities and the rail- erating with each other on this road system within the communities mutual situation. grew. Today, highway-oriented trans- portation provides much of the ser- vice needed for commercial and Other B. Railroad-High~y Grade Crossing land uses in and near the central PrOgras city. Newer industrial developments that need rail transportation are The first authorization of Fed- frequently located in outlying areas. eral funds for highway constmction occurred in 1912 when the U.S. COn- Historically, railroads cme in- gress allocated $500,000 for an to the centers of communities because experimental rural post road program. the railroads were first or because The Fedaral-Aid Road Act of 1916 pro- the community wanted the railroad to vided Federal funds to the States for enter to provide transportation to the constmction of “rwal post the rest of the country. In todayts roads”. These finds could be expend- environment, especially with high ve- ed for railroad-highway wade cross- hicular traffic, conflicts have aria- ing safety improvements as well as en over the railroads’ location in other highway constmction. The central cities. From the eomunity States had to match the funds on a viewpoint, the railroad is now a 50-50 basis and they oftan required dividing force providing delays~ con- the railroads to pay the state,s 50% gestion, and concerns over emergency share and sometimes mre. The Feder- vehicle response while traina are al Highway Act of 1921 provided funds moving through, blocking mny street with similar provisions except that crOssings. Some communities impose the expenditure of Federal funds was speed restrictions on the trains, restricted to a limited connected thereby exacerbating the situation of system of principal roads now called delays because trains take longer to the Federal-aid primry highway sys- clear crossings. tem. From the railroad viewpoints The Depression era of the 1930’s speed restrictions are undesirable brought about a change in railroad because of the delays incurred by and highway traffic volmes and cre- trains ?lOwing down to pass through ated a nead for Federal assistance to the comunity. However, the central promote safety as well as to provide citY location has an advantage for emplowent throughout the nation. the railroad. Its right-of-way may Congress passed the National Indus- be attractive to power companies who trial Recovery Act in 1g33 that, 8 Chapter I Overview among other things, authorized the for crossing projects on a rei:mburs- President to provide grants totaling able basis up to 100%. $300 million to the States to be used in paying any or all of the costg for In the 1960’s the Interstate eliminating the hazards of railroad- Comerce Cwission conducted an in- highway grade crossings. The States vestigation of railroad-highway grade did not have to provide matching crossing safety. It conciuded that fwds and the improvements did not the public was now responsible for have to be mde at crossings on the crossing safety and recommended that Federal-aid highway system. Congress take appropriate action by stating: The Hayden - Cartwright Act of 1934 authorized additional funds for Sinc6? the Congress has the au- the construction of railroad-highway thorj.tyto promulgate any neces- grade separations and traffic coctrol sary legislation along this line devices at crossings. Federal funds it is recommended that it give were available for initial construc- serious study and consideration tion costs but not for maintenance to erlactmentof legislation ~flith costs nor for right-of-way cc,sts. a view to having the public in- Other Federal-aid highway funds were cluding the principal users, provided in the Emergency Relief Ap- assume the entire cost of rail- propriation Act of 1935, the Authori- high~ray grade crossing improve- zation and Amentient Act of 1936~ the ments or allocating the costs Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1938, and equitably between those bene- the Federal Highway Act of 1940. In fited by the improvements.2 spite of these efforts to eliminate crOssings, the number of crossings In ‘1970, the U.S. Congress actually increased due to nwe!rous passed two acts, the Highway Safety highway construction projects being Act and i,heFederal Railroad Safety completed during the sme period. Act, that conte,inedspecific provi- sions concerning railroad - highway The Federal-Aid Highway Act. of grade crossings. The Highway Safety 1944 authorized the expenditure! of Act authol>izedtxo demonstration pro- Federal funds for Federal-aid l!igh- jects, one for tke elimination of at- ways in urban areas and provided for grade crossings along the Northeast the designation of a Federal-aid sec- Corridor high speed rail passenger ondary highway system and a national route frorkWashir,gton, D.C. to Bos- system of Interstate Highways. While ton, ~ and the other for the elimin- the States had to provide 50Z mntch- ation or :Lnstallationof traffic con- ing funds for expenditures on the trol devices at public crossings in primary, secondary, and urban hi:;hway and near Greenwood, SC. The Act pro- systems, the entire cost for the vided $3’1 million for these demon- elimination of railroad-highway ~;rade stration projects. crossing hazards on the Federal.-aid system could be paid from Fecleral ------funds. However, no more than 50% of 2Preventi0n of Rail - Highway tbe right-of-way and property damage Grade Crossing Accidents Involving costs could be paid with Fecleral Railway Trains and Motor Vehicles, funds. In addition, no more tharl10% Washington, DC: Interstate Ccmerce of the total funds apportioned to Comissio]~, November 1962. each State in any year could be used 9 Chapter I Overview The Railroad Safety Act of lg70 Based on the recommendations of required the Secretary of Transporta- this study, the U.S. Congress, in the tion to undertake “... a comprehensive Highway Safety Act of 1g73, estab- study of the probla of eliminating lished a categorical safety progra and protecting railroad grade cross- for the elimination of hazards at ings“ and to provide “recommendations railroad - highway grada crossings. for appropriate action includi~, if Section 203 of the Act authorized, relevant, a recommendation for equi- from the Highway Trust Fud, $175 table allocation of the economic million for crossing improvements on costs of any progrm proposed as a the Federal-aid highway system. The result of such study!!. Similarly, Federal share of improvement cOsts the Highway Safety Act of lg70 called was set at 90%. This Act also estab- fOr “...a full and complete investi- lished funds for other categorical gation and study of the problem of safety pro~as that could be used providi~ increaaed highway safety at for crossing improvements at the public and private ground-level rail- Statea’ discretion. Section 230 es- highway crossings ... iucluding the tablished the Safer Roads Demonstra- estimate of the cost of such a prO- tion Progrm that provided funding grm” .3 for safety improvements off the Fed- eral-aid highway systa. Funds mder The Federal Highway Administra- this program were available for three tion (FHWA) and the Federal Railroad types of safety projects: to elimin- Atiinistration (FRA) preparad a two- ate hazards at railroad-highway grade part report to satisfy the require- crossings; to improve highway urking ments of the legislation. Part I and signing; and, to eliminate road- discussed the crossing safety probla side obstacles. The Pavement Marking and Part II provided crossing im- Demonstration Progrm, Section 205, provement recommendations, one of provided finds for pavement ~rkings which was a Federal finding progra on any road. The Federal-Aid Highway exclusively for crossings. The Sec- Amendments of 1974 added Section 21g, retary also recouended that the which provided funds for the con- Department of Transportation, in co- struction, reconstwction, and im- operation with the railroad industry provement of highways off the Feder- and appropriate State agencies, de- al-aid highway system. velop a national inventory of crOss- ings and a unifom national nmberi~ In 1975, all public and private Systa of crossings. In addition, crossings had been smveyed in the the Secretary recomendad that rail- Us. DOT/AAR National Rail-Highway road-highway grade crossing safety Crossing Inventory progra. This research be emphasized and that invento~ showed that the majority of effOrts tO educate drivers regarding crossings, 77%, were located off the the potential hazards of crossings be Federal-aid highway systm and thus furthered. were not eligible for improvement with Federal funds from the Section ------203 pro~m. Thus, in 1976 the U.S. 5Railr0ad-HighWaY Saf‘ty) Part Co%ress provided funding for all I: A Comprehensive Statement of the public crossings. The legislation Problem, A Report to Congress, Wash- authorized an additional $z50 million ington, DC: U.S. Department Of from the Highway Trust Fwd for Transportation, November 1971. crossinzs on the Federal-aid highway systm and $168.75 million from the 10 Chapter I Overview general fund for crossings off the menta, new grade separations and re- Federal-aid highway systa. construction of existing grade sepa- rations, crossing closures or removal The Surface Transportation of existing crossings, and crossing Assistance Act of 1978 continued the eliminat.ions by relocation of high- Section 203 categorical funding pro- ways and/or relocation of railroads. gra by providing $760 million for For projects to eliminate or reduce safety improvements at any public hazards,at crossings, the State may crossi~ -- the distinction between utilize Federal funds for 100% of the on and off the Federal-aid highway prelimiz~aryengineering and construc- system was eliminated. tion costs. Right-of-way costs are funded at 75%. Most projects require In 1982, Congress again contin- no additional railroad share of ued the railroad-highway grade cross- coats. ing safety tiprovement progrm in the Surface Transportation Assistance The Federal-Aid Highway Act of Act. The Act provided $760 u[illion lg73, section 163, established a dem- for crossing safety projects during onstration progra to eliminate rail- the four fiscal years 1983 through road-highway co~licts in specified 1986. urban nreas. Additional funds were provided in the Federal-Aid Highway The Section 203 funds are appor- Amenherlts of 1974, the National Mass tioned to the States in the following Transportation Assistance Act of manner: 50% of the money is appor- 1974, the Federal-Aid Highway Act of tioned accovding to the ratio of the 1g76 aridthe Surface Transportation nmber of public crossings in[ each AssistarlceActs of 1978 and 1982. State to the total nwber of public crossings in the entire country. The These demonstration projects are remainder is apportioned on the!basis intended to determine the feasibility of area, population and road mileage. of increasing highway safety by the The Federal funds are eligible for relocat?Lon,consolidation, or separa- 90Z of the project costs and ulay be tion of rail lines in center-city used for any public crossing, on or areas. The funds are available for off the Federal-aid highway nystem. 95~ of the project costs, with the For more information on the rc!quire- State or local governments providing ments governing the expenditc~re of the matching 5$. Federal funds on grade crossir~g im- provements, see Chapter VI, Im~}lemen- These demonstrateion projects tation of Projects. were designated for Elko, NV; Lin- coln, NE; Wheeling, WV; Blue Island, Other regular Federal-aiclhigh- Carbondale, Dolton, East St. Louis way funds, such as those frc)m the and Sp:”ingfield, IL; New Albany, primary, secondary, and urbarlprog- Terre Haute, Lafayette, and H-end, rms, may also be used for creasing IN; Anoka, MN; Brownsville, TX-Mata- improvements on the Federal-aiclhigh- moros, Mexico; Greenville, TX,;Metai- way system. These improvements can rie, LA; Augusta, GA; and Pine Bluff, include the installation of standard AR. signs and pavement markings, the installation or upgrading of active In the Surface Transportation traffic control devices, crossj.ngil- AssiataIlce Act of 1982, Title II, lminatiOn, crossing surface inlprOve- Section 202, Congress authorized the Chapter I Overview expenditure of $7.05 billion for the California established a grade separ- continuation of the on and off system ation fund with an initial appropria- highway bridge replacement and reha- tion of $5 million per year. The bilitation program. All bridges car- purpose of the fund was to eliminate rying highway traffic on public existing at-grade crossings by con- roads, regardless of ownership or structing new grade separations or by maintenance responsibility, are eli- improving existing grade separations. gible for improvement uder this pro- Eighteen additional States have since gram. This includes highway bridges established separate finding progras owned by railroads. for crossing improvements. Appendix A contains a brief description of the In addition to administering State funding programs as of lg84. Federal funds for improvements at railroad-highway grade crossings, the States may also utilize other FHWA is active in conducting research State finds for crossiag improvements On crossings. The FRA is also active and to provide the required 10% match in conducting research pertaining to for projects funded mder the Federal railroad - highway grade crossings. Section 203 program. In addition to More detailed information on crossing financing cOsts directly associated research is contained in Chapter X, with the improvement of railroad- Supporting PrOgras. highway wade crossings, al1 States contribute incidentally to the cross- Many States have been active in ing components. In general, for crossing improvement programs for crossings located on the State high- decades. States have been responsi- way system, States provide for the ble for initiating and implementi~ construction and maintenance of the projects under the various Federal highway approaches and for traffic f~ding progrms. In general, most control devices not located on rail- States once required the railroad or road right-of-way. Typically, these the local goverment to provide the include advance warting signs and fuds needed to match the Federal pavement markings. Presently, 17 contribution. However, in the 1930’s States have programs to contribute some States began to apportion ftian- towards the maintenance of flashiog cial responsibility for crossing lights, gates, track circuitry, improvements baaed on the benefits crossing surfaces, and crosshucks. each, the public (highway agency) and These States are listed in Appendix the private (railroad) received, from B. More information on State ma.tite- the project. nance programs is included in Chapter VII, Maintenance Progrm. California was the first State to establish a State crossing protec- States are involved in other tion fund. In 1953, the Public Util- areas of crossing safety improvement ities Commission was authorized by besides the financial contributions legislation to expend or allocate towards improvement projects. Gov- fuds from the State Highway User erment agencies and the nation’s Fwd , or any other fud, to assist railroads are participating in Oper- the cities and counties in paying ation Lifesaver programs which have their allocated portion of the costs been established in forty - four for the installation of active traf- States. Operation Lifesaver Programs fic control devices on non-Federal- are designed to improve crossing aid highways and streets. In 1g57 safety through education of the pub- Chapter I Overview lic regarding the hazards of CP099- ly upon the railroads. The question i~9, promotion of engineering im- of whc, is responsible f’~r what provements, and enforcement of wtor- aspects of the crossing program cOn- i9t traffic law9 at crossings. Thege tinues to be refined. individual State programs are coor- dinated on the national level by the While public agencies have es- National Safety Council. More infor- tablisb,edfunding programs for cross- mation on Operation Lifegaver is ing imF,rovements,railroads l~avecon- included in Chapter X, Sup~rti~ tinued to contribute financially as Programs. well. In some cases, the railroad may pay all or a portio]n of the Some States also conduct rail- required retching funds of a Federal road-highway grade crossing research, Section, 203 project in excha~e for utilizing Highway Planni~ Research some other benefit such as the clO- (HPR) funds made available by the sure Clf an adjacent crossi]ng. &ny FHWA. Other studies are conducted railroads have established right-of- in-house or on a contractual basis way clearance programs that assist in with consultant firms and diversi- tiprovi,ng quadrant sight distance at ties and are financed from regular crossin~gs. State highway funds. At present, costs for mainte- Some local government agencies nance C,fcrossing trsffic co]~trolde- participate in railroad-highway grade vices and crossing surfaces are pri- crossi~ safety by providing the marily fwded by the railroads. matching funds for improvement pro- Crossing devices and surfaces are jects constructed waler the Section usually maintained by railroad work 203 Federal program. Localities have forces because they are i]~tegrated been contributing for decades through into the signal system regulating the installation and maintenance of train operations and into the physi- traffic control devices located in cal railroad track structme. Also, advance of crossings. Some cities labor ~reements generally specify and counties conduct safety studies that union members are to perfom at specific crossing locations. this type of work. A survey by the Association of American l?ailroads The railroad industry has, his- detemined that annual maintenance torically, contributed greatly to the costs associated with active traffic improvement of railroad-highwa,ygrade control devices can range fr{>m$1~200 Crogsings. Until the advent of the to $3,000 per crossing in 1982 dol- automobile in the early 1900!s the lars dependent upon the complexity of railroads were considered to be pri- the system. With over 55,000 cross- marily responsible for safety at ingS with active trtific control cr09sings. After that, the concept devices, the annual expend:Lture by of joint responsibility between pub- railroads for crossfig maintenance is lic agencies and private agencies, substantial, ,#ithminimal ct>stshar- t.e. the railroads, began to emerge. ing by other involved parties, such A9 discussed previously, the Federal as Federal, State, or local govern- goverment and State governments be- ment agencies. gan to contribute financially towards crossing improvement projects, thus Railroads also work wif;h local accepting part of the responsibility communities to alleviate operational that originally had been placed sole- coneems at railroad-highway grade Chapter I Overview crossings. For example, locations these organizations are discussed in for train crew changes can be made the next section. outside of city limits to avoid blocking crossings by non-moving trains. Railroads conduct some re- C. Responsibilities at Railroad - search for the purpose of identifying H~hway Grade Crossings new technologies and furthering new concepts regardi~ crossing safety An issue that is as old as the and operations. grade crossing safety problem itself is that of responsibility. MO The Association of American should provide and pay for the traf- Railroads (AAR) has been active in fic control devices at railroad-high- crossing programs and has established way grade crossings? a separate State-Rail Programs Divi- sion within its Operations and Main- During the years from 1850 to tenance Department. This Division 1870, there was tremendous growth in provides information to the U.S. Con- population that followed the rail- gress and the U.S. Department of roads west. Consequently there was Transportation to assist in the need for new highways and streets, establishment and atiinistration of practically all of which crossed the crossing programs. Railroad inter- railroads at grade. In most cases ests and concerns regarding crossings the responsibility for these cross- are typically coordinated through the ings automatically fell upon the AAR office. The State-Rail Progras railroads. Occasionally, there were Division has appointed a railroad em- accidents at crosstigs, but they were ployee in each State to serve as the usually not as seriuos as those AAR State Representative on crossing occurring today. programs. A list of these represen- tatives is available from the AAR. One of these early accidents, involving the collision of a train Other railroad related companies and wagon at Lima, Indiana, resulted also participate in crossing safety in a court suit that eventually progr~s. The signal suppliers and reached the U.S. Supreme Court in the manufacturers of crossing sur- 1877. In Centinental Improvement Co. faces provide guidance for the selec- v. Stead, the Court had to detemine tion of a specific device or crossing who was liable for the damages in- surface. In addition, these compan- curred. In its decision the Court ies are actively conducting research said that the duties, rights, and to improve their products. obligations of a railroad company as well as a traveler on the highway at Other groups and organizations the public crossing were “mutual and are actively involved in railroad- reciprocal”. It also said that a highway grade crossing safety pro- train had the right - of - way over grsms. These include the National crossings because of its “character”, Safety Council, the National Trans- ,,momentum,,, and *1the requirements Of portation Safety Board, the American public travel by means thereof”. The Railway Engineering Association, the railroad, however, was bound to give Railway Progress Institute, the reasonable and timely warning of the Transportation Research Board, and train’s approach. The Court further various other highway safety organi- stated that “those who are crossing a zations. The responsibilities of railroad track are bound to exercise Chapter I Overview ordinary care and diligence to ascer- of the expense or cost for the con- tain whether a train is approachi~”. stmction, maintenance, improvement, This Supreme Court decision clearly or elimination of public railroad- indicated that there was a responsi- highway grade crossings. bility upon the railroads tc, warn travelers on the highways c,f ap- The crossing safety problem was proaching trains and a responsibility changad greatly by the appearance of of travelers to look, listen and stop motor vehicles on the Nation’s high- for approaching trains.4 ways arid streets in 1893. As the number of motor vehicles, highway During the late 1890’s, the nm- mileage, and railroad trackage in- ber of crossings and the number of creaaed, so did the number of cross- accidents increased. Many States, ings ar[d crossing accidents. The cities, and towns dmanded that the dmands for elimination of crossings railroads take immediate action to grew str,ongernationwide. Besause of eliminate the hazardous crossings and the dominance and financial status of to provide better traffic control de- the railroad industry during this vices at others to minimize the acci- period, the public, State legislative dents. Nmerous laws, ordinances, and regulatory bodies, and most af and regulations were enacted or the coursts,did not hesitate to place adopted to enforce these demnds. the majcjr, or entire, responsibility There was no unifomity among the for crossing separations and improve- laws, ordinances, and regula.tions. ments on the railroads. By 1915 the Neither was the division of responsi- railroads were beginning to feel the bility nor the allocation of costs impact of the crossing safety prob- specified. lem, a~kdestablished a national com- mittee to study the problem. Duri~ In 1893, the U.S. Supreme Court, the period from 1915 to 1924, this in New York & N.E. Ry. v. Town of committee, the National Safety Coun- Bristol, upheld the constitutionality cil, arid the Amarican Railway Asso- of a Connecticut statute that re- ciation angaged in extensive public quired the railroads to pay three- educatic)nprogrms to reduce the num- fourths of the costs to improve or ber of accidents at crossings. eliminate crossings where the highway was in existence before the railroad. The depression era of the 1930’s If the highway was constructed after brought about abrupt and varyi~ the railroad, the State required the changes in the volmes of rail and railroad to pay one-half of such highway traffic, which contributed to costs. This so-called “Senior-Junior” changes in the responsibility for principle was followed by the c-is- crossing improvements. A new idea of sions and courts in several States to public r,espOnsibilitywas enhanced by detemine the railroads’ division of Congress in its passage of the responsibility or liability for the National Industrial Recovery Act of construction, improvement 0? elimina- 1933 and.The Hayden-Cartwright Act of tion of crossings. From 1896 to 1935 1934 that provided funds for the con- the U.S. Supreme Court adhered to the structicn of railroad-highway grade position that a State could allocate separations and the installation of to the railroads all, or a portfon, crossing traffic control devi(>es. ------This expanded Federal highway 41bid. constriction progrsm had a gr{~atdeal Chapter I Overview of influence on the U.S. Supreme were delayed, or never started, be- Court’s landmark decision in Nash- cause of prolonged negotiations, ar- ville, C. & St. L. Ry. v. Walters in gments, and litigation on the issue 1935. Just-ice Brandeis, writing for of railroad benefits. A compromise Lhe majo~ity of the Court, said: was eventually reached whereby each of the crossing improvement projects The railroad has ceased to be would be classified as being in one the prime instrment of danger of five general classes. Depending and the main cause of accidents. upon the classification assigned to It is the railroad which now an individual project, the railroads requires protection from dangers would be liable for up to 10% of the incident to motor transporta- costs of crossing improvements fi- tiOn.5 nanced with Federal - aid highway funds. The FHWA later modified this In light of that decision, some policy and presently the railroads Skate legislatures, commissions, and are required only to share in 5 per- CouPts revised their divtsion of cent of the costs of certain types of responsibility criteria, and the re- crossing work on Federal-aid highway sulting allocation of costs relating projects. to crossing safety projects. In the early 1960’s, the I~ter- The Federal-Aid Highway Act of state Commerce Comission completed 1944 provided that any railroad in- an investigation to detemine what volved in any crossing improvement actfon should be taken to prevent ?Yoject, paid for entirely or in part crossing accidents. In its report with Federal funds, would be liable and accompanying orde~, the C~is- to the United States for “a sw bear- sion said that: ing the same ratio to the net bene- fits received by such railway from For practical reasons costs as- such project that the Federal funds sociated with crossing safety expended on such project would bear improvements should be borne by to the total cost of such project”. public funds as users of the This subsection also p~ovided that crossing plus the fact that it the net benefits received by a rail- is the increasing highway traf- way should not “be deemed to have a fic that is the controlling ele- reasonable value in excess of ten ment in accident exposure at percent of the cost of any such pro- these crossings. ject”. The Commissioner of Public Roads was authorized to determine the The Commission also said that: railroad benefits on the basis of recommendations made by the State In the past it was the rail- highway departments and other infor- road’s responsibility for pro- nation.6 tection of the public at grade crossings. This responsibility During the period from 1944 to has now shifted. Now it is the lg46, many crossing safety projects highway, not the railroad, and the motor vehicle, not Vne train ------which creates the hazard and 51bid. must be primarily responsible for its removal. Railroads were 61bid. Sn operation before the problem 16 Chapter I Overview presented itsslf and if tl~e in- At the Federal Level creasing seriousness is a result of the increasing devslop]uentof 0 Fede:ral H~.ghway Administration highways for public US(:, why (FNA) should not the cost of grade crossing protection be assessed 0 Fede:ral Railroad Administration to the public? (FRA) The Commission found: 0 Naticnal Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) That highway users are th,:prin- cipal recipients of the b(?nefits 0 National Highway Traffic Safety following from rail - l~ighway Administration (NHTSA) grade separations and from spe- cial protection at rail-l~ighway At the State Level grade crossings. For thYLsrea- son the cost of installi]lg and 0 State highway departments maintaining such separati[>nsand protective devices is a public 0 State departments of transporta- responsibility and should be tion financed with public funds the ~. ye, .~s highway traffi> de_ State regulatory agsncies 0 State highway safety agencies During the 1970’s the public assumed more of the responsibYLlities 0 State departments of public safety for financing crossing safe.ky im- provements. Federal highway l{?gisla- At the Total Level tion in 1973, 1976, 1978, 19<30,and 1982 provided categorical funds for 0 Highl~aydepartment field mainten- crossing safety improvements. Today, ance offices an understanding exists that~ because railroad-highway grade crossi]lgsin- 0 County road engineer offices volve two transportation modes, one public and the other private, their 0 City public works agencies safe and efficient operation ]:equire strict cooperation and coordCLnation 0 Law enforcement agencies of the involved agsncies and organi- zations. Public agencies havj.ngre- Th(?U.S. Department of Transpor- sponsibilities at an intersectYLon of tation (DOT) seeks to ensure that a the two modes include the following. viable and safe national transporta- tion system is maintained tc trans------port people and goods while making 7preventi0n *e~~de~~l - ‘w efficient use of our national re- Grade Crossing In\rolvinK sources, Three agencies within the Railway Trains and Motor Vel_, U.S. DOT, F~lA, FRA, and NHTSA, Washington, DC: Interstate Commerce activel~r participate in crossing Commission, November 1962. programs. Chapter I Overview The FHWA administers Federally d:an of the National Rail-Highway fuded programs, several of which are Crossing Inventory that contains available for crossing improve:nents. physical and operating characteris- In addition to finds from the Section tics of each crossing. The info-- 203 categorical crossing program, tion is submitted voluntarily by the funds from the primary, secondary, railroads and States. The FRA works and urban progrms may be utilized at with other agencies and organizations crossings. The FHWA apportions these in overseeing the submission of the finds to the States according to leg- inventory data to ensure accurate and islated formulae and in the mowts timely fnformation. authorized by Congress for each pro- gram. It establishes procedures by The FRA conducts field investi- which the States obligate the funds gateions of selected railroad acci- to specific projects. It oversees dents, including crossing accidents. the overall implementation of the The FRA investigates complaints by Federally funded programs. the public pertaining to crOssings and makes recommendations to the The FHWA establishes standards industry, as appropriate. for traffic control systems at crOss- ings and publishes these in the -= The FRA conducts research to al on Uniform Traffic Control De- identify solutions to crossing prob- vices. The FHWA has also adopted, lems, primarily from a railroad per- for use in Federal-aid highway proj- spective. Typical research includes ects, various design criteria and progr~ management tools, train-borne guidelines developed by AASHTO and warning devices, and track circuitry other organizations. The FHWA pro- LmprOvements. Research is coordinat- vides technical assistance to the ed with FHWA and In some cases, FHWA States through the distribution of contributes financially. state - of - the - art handbooks and through special training classes. Both the FHWA and FRA have field offices located throughout the coun- The FHWA conducts research to try, which collaborate with the State support the above activities. Typi- highway agencies, and the individual cal research ~-nvolvesroad-side traf- railroads, respectively, on a day-to- fic control devices, accident causa- day basis. They ensure that policies t%on, program management tools, and and regulations are effectively im- accident countermeasures. All of plemented and provide feedback to FHwA‘S crossing research is coordi- headquarters regarding needa realized nated wtth FRA and, in some cases FRA at the field level. FHWA has a Divi- contributes financially to the proj- siOn Atiinistrator located in each ects. The FHWA promotes maintenance State. of individual State grade crossing inventories and maintenance of the The NHTSA is involved in the national inventory by the individual crossing program on a limited basis. States. It maintains the Fatal Accident Reporting System (FARS), a data base The FRA maintains the Railroad containing information on all fatal Accident/Incident Reporting Systa highway accidents. NHTSA cooperates that contains information reported by with FRA and FHWA in providing infor- the railroads on all crossing acci- mation contafned in FARS that is per- dents. The FRA also serves as custo- tinent to crossings. Chapter I Overview The National Transpo;rtatIon Private and non-profit agencies ‘Safety Board (NTSB) provides ~a com- and or,ganizat’ionshavtng sc)me con- prehensive review of the safety cerns for crossings include the fol- aspects of all transportation modes. lowi~ : Through special analyses and a(~cident investigations, it identifies speci- 0 Railroad companies fic safety problems and asst>ciated remedies that are presented as recom- o Equipment suppliers mendations to specific agencif?s and organizations. Results of re(20mmen- o Rail labor organizations dations pertatni~ to crossings include: 1) the adoption of the o Asso(ziation of American Flailroads Operation Lifesaver Progrm by the (AAR) National Safety Council; and, 2) the development by FHWA of a s]>ecific o Amer:tcanRaf.lwayEngineeri.~ Asso- progra addressing the operat:Lon of ciation (A~A) trucks carrying hazardous msterials over crossings. o AmerLcan Short Line Railrc,adAsso- ciation (ASLRA) Jurisdiction over railroa(i-high- way grade crossings resides prf~marily o Railway Progress Institute (RPI) with the States. Within some States, responsibility is divided amor]gsev- o Amer:Lcan Association of State eral public agencies and tbe rail- Highway anclTransportation Offi- road. In a number of States, juris- cial!3(AASHTO) diction over the crossing is a:;si~ed to a regulatory agency referred to as 0 Transportation Research Board a Public Utilities C-ission, Public (TRB;) Service commission, or similar desig- nation. In other States, the ~lUthOr- o National Safety Council (NSC) ity is divided among the public administrative agencies of the State, o AmerfLcan Road and Transportation countys and city having jurisdiction Builders Association (ARTBA) and responsibility for their respec- tive highway systems. State k,ighway o Amerf.canTrucking Association (ATA) agencies are responsible for t,heim- plementation of a program that is o Instf.tute of Transportation Engi- broad enough to involve any public neers (ITE) crossing within the State. Table 7 indicates the State agencies respon- The Assc,ciation of American sible for public and private crOss- Railroads is a voluntary, unincorpor- ings, and whether their jurisdiction ated, non-profit organization cOm- is regulatory or atiinistrative. posed of member railroad companies operating in the United States, Can- State and local law enforcement ada and Mexico. It is a joint repre- agencies are responsible fc,r the sentatilre and agent of these rail- enforcement of traffic laws at CrOSS- roads ir]connection with Federal reg- ings. Local goverment bodis!s are ulatory matters of town concern to responsible for ordinances governing the industry as a tiole. operational matters related to cross- i~s. Chapter I Overview Table 7. State and Local Government Jurisdictional Authorities Concerned with Crossings R..__ e —------A“t hori tx_E$&s21cK_!2 Private Cr.. si.g* s-c-c HWY.C S.i:c .- Puc s-c-c DOT DOT D;; DOT DOT -- s-c-c Idaho Pi; Illinois Corn. c Indiana Psc 10”. DOT Corp. c -- s-c-c -- s-c-c DOT Maryland DOT Massachusetts Puc -- no Hi.h,i8.. DOT -- Minnesota DOT D;; No b!i.sissippi PSc s-c-c No Mi,s”uri Psc s-c-c No M<,,, t,,”. Psc Hvv. C Nsbraska Nevada New Ham”shire DOT C“FP. C ,5,,,: Y<,, k DO’r +I”rt,lt Ca,”li”a -- North Dakota Psc Ohio Puc Corp. c -- Oregon Puc .- Pe”nsyl. ani. PUC -- Rhofie Island PUC DOT South Carolina s-c-c South Dakota DOT DOT Ye, T,,>” ..,.. Psc s-c-c No T,,,., s-c-c Utah Pi; DOT !: Psc . . No Corp. c Yes No u&Tc -. Yes No Psc Hwy-cty Yes N. TC -- Yes No Psc -- No Con.c commerceCommission PVC PublicUtilities Commission, Divisiofi of Public Utilities, P“blic Utility Commissioner Corp. c Corporation Commission DOT Department of Tra..portation s-c-c State, ComtY, City, divided authority Hw. C Highway Commia, ion, Department of EighmYs, TC Traneport.tie” Com.i..io” ::-ctYHi~h”.yG...i..i.”andCity,divided.“th.rit~DaTG utilities and Trensport.tion C...iss”.” publicS.=,i..C...iss”,”,PublicS.r.i..Boud SOUrCe: Itef. 6 20 Chapter I Overview In the area of crossings, the work P:lans. Comittee g, ~ighway AAR works closely with the U.S. DOT, Railway PrOgrms, is charged with the U.S. Congress, NTSB, the Ne[tional matters pertaining to railroad-high- Safety COuncil (NSC), the Railway way grade crossings. Progress Institute (RPI) and others. Th<>American Short Line Railroad The AAR has crossing representat- Association (ASLRA) is a non-profit ives in each State. These State organization representing the inter- representatives, who are railrc,adem- ests of fts member railroads. It ployees, provide liaison with groups provides liaison between its members and government agencies having inter- and other groups having interests in ests in crossings within that State. the railroad industry. The ASL8A They hold meetings when deemed neces- works l~iththe U.S. DOT and the U.S. sary to ensure that a cooperative ap- Congress to ensure that the unique proach is established and maintained. characteristics of small railroads are cO~sldered in national legisla- The AAR provides some of the tions an,d regulations. financial support for the National Operation Lifesaver progrm and works The Railway Progress Iostitute closely with the NSC in promoting the (BPI) is an organization of railroad continued development of this pro- equipment suppliers. It se:rves as gra. liaison on the national level between its members and those agencies and The AAR conducts research per- organizations having interest:~in the taining to crossings. Some of this railroad indust~. research is conducted jointly with other organizations~ e.g. AASHTO and The RPI monitors the development the U.S. DOT. Recent research has of national policies and progl?amsand included a cOmpilatiOn of State laws detemines the:~rimpact on its mem- and regulations pertaining to cross- bers. It identifies the futlire de- ings and a review of the “tilizatiOn mand for its members’ products and of train-borne traffic warnin,g de- identifies areas of needed ?roduct vices. The AAR cooperates with Other development and research. Organizations conducting resear,?h by providing infomat ion on crossings Each of its members is continu- from the railroad perspective. ally conducting in-house research For tine purpose Of improving existing The American Railway Engineering products and developing new products Association (AREA), an organization to meet :railroadneeds. Improvements of railway engineers and off:Lcers, fn the crossing area involve constant and having a close relationship with warni~ ‘timedevices, Crossirlg sur- AAR, serves to advance bowledgf? per- faces~ a]tdmodifications to aL1tomatic’ taining to the scientific and e(!onom- traffic control devices. RPI is a ic location, construction, and main- financial supporter of Operation tenance of railways. It has 22 tech- Lifesave;?and a collabOratOr ~,iththe nical comittees that develop facts National Safety Co~lncil. and infowation pertaining to their scientific and technical int The Transportation Research The American Road and Transpor- Board (TRB) was established in 1920 tation Builders Association (ARTBA) and operates mder the corporate is an organization whose members in- authority of the National Researth clude representatives of the railroad Council, which serves both the industry, public officials at all National Academy of Sciences and the levels of government, business firms National Academy of Engineering. The in the traffic safety industry, and purpose of TRB is to advance knowl- highway contractors. For many years, edge of the nature and performance of ARTBA has supported programs of Fed- transportation systems through the eral assistance for safety improve- stimulation of research and dissemi- ments at grade crossings. nation of information. The TRB1s objectives are accomplished ‘through American Trucking Associations, technical committee activities, In.. (ATA) is the national organiza- amual meetings, seminars and work- tion of trucking industry management. shops, computerized information ser- It represents all segments of the vices, publications, and special industry and deals with all phases of projects. the industry1s operations. TRB Committee A3A05, RailrOad- Safety has the highest priority. Highway Grade Crossings, promotes As a part of its overall safety ef- crossing research and sponsors tech- fort, the ATA’s Safety Department nical papers for publication and pre- develops material to inform manage- sentation at the TRB Amual Meeting. ment and drivers of grade crossing It identifies areas of needed re- hazards and the safe practices neces- search and publishes a bibliography sary to avoid accidents. The depart- of past crossing research and other ment has developed a grade crossing substantive documents in the general evaluation program for use by members area of railroad-highway grade cross- of its safety arm, the ATA Council of ings. Safety Supervisors, at the State and national level. The National Safety COucil (NSC) was established in 1913 and The Institute of Transportation chartered by Congress as a not-for- Engineers (ITE) is a professional profit voluntary service organization scientific society of transportation Chapter I Overview professionals responsible for plan- in advance. Over the past 25 years ning, design, operations, and Inainte- this situation has changed dramat- nance of surface transportatit>n fa- ically. SOvere~.gn imun~.ty k~as been cilities. The ITE has more th:~n7000 eroded through the actions c~fcourts members in over 70 countries. The and/or legislatures and now survives majority of its members are ijlvolved in less than a third of the States. in highway and public transportation. Consequ{sntly, mny State highway de- Many Institute members, emplo!~ed by partments have become vulnerable to government agencies, industrj,, and lawsuit:s for damages resulting from consulting firms, work direct;Lywith highway accidents. railroad - highway grade cl,ossing issues and problems. Since many States now may be sued for negligence on the part of its officers or employees, new empha- D. Some General Legal Co~ider<~tions- sis ha!s been placed upon the legal Railroad-Highway Grade Cros:;~s respons:Lbilityof parties involved in the se:LectiOnand implementation of Highway and railroad en~~ineers crossing safety .~provements. This are becoming increasingly involved in is especially true when the State is a field of litigation that WZLS re- respons:Lble for determining which cently of concern only to attc>rneys. crossin[$s are to be upgraded and the Today, it f.sincumbent upon stzlffsof type of warning systernsto be in- State highway departments, local stalled,, transportation agencies, and rail- roads to become aware and keep The State has a duty to correct abreast of highway law in gener,aland a dangerous condition when its agency the legal elements Of oPer~,tional has act,ual or “constmcttve!f nottce practices in particular. This dis- of the hazards. The sctual notice cussion of legal considerattc,ns in requirement does not apply when the the administration and management of dangerous condition is the res,~ltof railroad-highway grade crossings is a the State’s own negligence. For ex- very basic discussion of a very com- ample, a State is not required to plex subject. It is not meant to have ac!tual notice of faulty cOn- interpret the law or establish guide- structicjn, maintenance, or repair of lines. It is intended only to alert its highways, because the State is transportation agencies and railroads expecteclto know of its own actions, of the need to recognize and respond i.e. “constructive!? nottce. ,,con- to the possible consequences of fail- structive” notice is howle dge im- ure to maintain and safeguard the puted by law, usually after a.ninjury railroad-highway wade crossing. The has occu[rred. However, if the danger particular aspects of a specific did not arise as a consequence of ac- potential legal problem should be tive negligence (such as faulty con- discussed with an attorney. Stmction ), the agency has tl~e duty to make repairs once it has actual Until recently, govermnent enti- notice of the defect. ties were generally immune from law- suits on the theory of 11sovereign Most courts hold that the State immunity” derived from English common must have had notice of the d,:fector law. Under the sovereign immunity hazard for a sufficient or reasonable doctrine, a government entity can be time ,,t~afford them a reasonable op- sued only if it consents to the suit portunity to repair the cond?tton or 23 Chapter I Overview take precautions against the danger.” 0a legal duty exists between the Statutes may require that States have parties; notfce of the condition for a speci- fied period of time. If, for exam- o a violation or breach of that duty ple, the notice period is five days, by one of the parties; and, and an accident was caused by a de- fect that originated early in the day o daage to the other party as a of the accident, the statutory notice proximate result of the breach of period would not be satisfied and the duty. agency would not have had a reasona- ble opportunity to effect repairs. Torts can be either intentional On the other hand, the notice may be (e.g., assault, and battery, false satisfied where the condition has ex- imprisonment, trespass, and theft) or isted for such a time and is of such unintentional (e.g., negligence). a nature that the State should have The primry concern for crossings are discovered the condition by reasona- allegations of negligence. ble diligence, particularly where there is no statutory specified time. Liability for a tort means the In such instances, the notice is said legal obligation to pay money damages to be constmctive, and the State’s to the person injured or dmaged. knowledge of the condition is said to More than one person or organization be tiplied. In deciding whether the may be liable for dmages arising out State had notice, the courts may of the same incident. In the case Of consider whether the defect was la- negligent conduct by an employee, tent and difficult to discover. That both the employee and the employer is, the court will consider the na- my be liable. ture of the defect, its location and duration, the extent and use of the Negligence can be defined as the highway, and whether the defect could failure to do something that a “rea- be readily and instantly perceived. sonable person” would ordinarily do, Routine inspection and correction or the doing of some~ning that a rea- procedures are important in light of sonably prudent person would not do. the trend by courts to pemit less Negligent conduct is that which cre- and less time before findi~ “con- ates an unreasonable risk for others structive notice”. to whom is owed a duty of exercising care. To wderstand the legal respon- sibilities of traffic agencies and The reasonable person is a cri- railroads, it is necassary to wder- teria used to set the standard of stand the basic principles and termi- care in judging conduct. In effect, nology of tort law. this test of negligence represents the ,,failure to use OrdinarY care,” A tort in legal terminology is a and is most often used in determining civil wrong other than breach of con- liability. In the context of this tract, for which a court of law will Handbook, engineers may be fomd to provide a remedy in the fom of an be negltgent if their conduct does action for money daages. There are not measure up to that of a hypothe- three basic elements involved in any tical reasonable, prudent, and care- tort action: ful engineer mder similar circu- mstances. 24 Chapter I Overview Contributory negligence refers Ftially, and perhaps most impor- to cOnduct that falls below the tantly, the accepted standards and standard of care that a persOn practices of a profession, :Lrade,or a driver) is legally require~e.g.to industry define the standard Of care exercise for his own safety, and this by which conduct is judged. Included failure is a contributing cause to in the definition of ‘!acceptedstand- the injury or daage he has suffered. ards and practices!lis the Manual on Until recently, in most States, a UnifO~ Traffic Control De;~ices——- and finding of contributory negligence by other similar standards. The Ameri- the court would bar a plaintiff from can Railway Engineering Association recovering dmages even if the de- promulgates technology pertaining to fendant’s negligence had been estab- railroads in its Manual of Railway—— lished and was the primary cause of Enginee~. This is not a stand- the accident. Contributory negli- ard, however, but a wans oj;provid- gence as a bar to recovery is being ing railroad engtieers with guide- gradually eroded in the U.S. by the lines for the construction of rail- doctrine of “comparative negligence!!. roads. Comparative negligence is a rule To place tbe above concepts in of law adopted by mny States whereby perspective, it is necessary to rec- the negligence of both part~es is ognize the following characteristics compared, and recovery is pe:mitted of tort liability. despite the contributory negligence Of the plaintiff. However, plain- o Negligence is the failure to use tiff’s d~ages are usually decreased reasonable care. in proportion to his own contr:Lbutory negligence. o Court decisiom in tort c].aimsare basei on the concept of the exis- Duty in tort law is an 26 Chapter I Overview making such decisions. Design i~un- The scheduling of improvement ity ~tatutes represent a fu~ther ef- projects has become a significant fort by legislatures to immunize gov- issue in,recent court cases involving ernmental bodfes and employees from crossing accidents. The application liability arising out of negligence of administrative rules and proce- or errors tn a plan or design duly dures to ensure the expeditious in- approved under current standards of stallation of safety improvements reasonable safety. based upon the principal of the alle- viation of the highest potential haz- The courts consider two factors ard is a.major factor In these cases. in determining whether a State has taken reasonable care in giving the It shOuld be ObviOus that it iS public adequate warning at a rail- more 10gical to expend public funds road-highway grade crossing. These in sound management practices and in factors can be stated in the follow- proper highway maintenance than in ing mnner. the settlement of claims or in pay- ment of adverse judgments. Conse- o In light of the history of acci- quently, it would seem appropriate to dents and/or level of traffic at review maintenance activities and the particular crossing, was an reporting procedures to limit expO- accident reasonably foreseeable? sure to tort liability. It would If S0, also seem helpful to assure that all agency employees involved in such ac- o Was the State reasonable in its tivities are well informed of the le- choice of warning devices to alert gal implications of their functions. the public of the foreseeable risk? It has been suggested that agen- cies and railroads could significant- Liability for accidents occur- ly reduce tort liability suits in- ring at grade crossings is governed volving traffic control devices by by the law of negligence. The law implemer[tingfour basic principles. imposes upon states and railroads the duty to exercise reasonable care to 0 Know the laws relating to trsffic avoid injury to persons using the control devices highway. States and railroads are under no duty to provide absolute 0 Condu\ct and maintain an inventory safety. of devices Potential liability in crossing 0 Replace devices at the end of accidents may create a reluctance on their effective lives the part of States, railroads, and suppliers, to initiate new technology 0 Apply approved traffic control de- or procedures that may lead to charg- vice specifications and standards es of negligence. Experimentalion and in-service trials of new devices is restricted by both potential liti- E. References gation and the contractual, insur- ance requirements and negotiation 1. Accident/Incident Bulletin, Wash- that are involved. ington, DC: Fe{eral Railroad Admin- istration, published annually. Chapter I Overview 2. Alternative Solutions to Railroad 12. RailrOad Faet~, Washington, DC: Impacts on Communities, Final Report, Association of American Railroads, Minnesota Department of Transporta- September 1983 and October lg84. tion and North Dakota State Highway Department, December 1981. 13. Railroad-Highway Safety, Part I: A Comprehensive Statement of the 3. Amos, Charles L., ‘tRailroadCross- Problem, A Report to Congress, Wash- ings‘v, Better Roads, Vol. 49, No. 9, ington, DC: U.S. Department of Trans- September 1979, No. 10, October 1979. portation, November 1971. 4. Annual Report on Highway Safety 14. Railroad-Htghway Safety, Part II: Improvement Programs, Washington, DC: Recommendations for Resolving the Federal Highway Administration, Problem, A Report to Congress, Wash- published annually. ington, DC: U.S. Department of Trans- portation, August lg72. 5. Federal-Aid Highway Program Manu- ~, Washington, DC: Federal Highway 15. Report on the Unit Coal Train Afiinistration, updated periodically. Comunity Impact Conference, Washing- ton, DC: U.S. Department of Trans- 6. Federal Highway AtiinistratSon portation, August 1979. Survey of Region and Division Of- fices, unpublished, 1984. 16. Schercinger, John M., ‘t1g84 Grade Crossing Statistics Show Continued 7. Gertler, Judith B., A Study of Safety Improvement”, Washington, DC: State Programs for Rail-Highway Grade Assocl.ation of American Railroads, Crossing Improvements, Washington, September lg84. DC: Federal Railroad Administration. Report FRA-oPPD-78-7, June lg78. “ 17. Schoppert, David W. and Dan W. Hoyt, Factors Influencing Safety at 8. Highway Statistics, Washington, Highway-Rail Grade Crossings, Wash- DC: Federal Highway Administration, ington, DC: Highway Research Board. published annually. NC~RP Report 50~ lg~8. g. ‘!Maintenance Cost Study of Rail- 18. Traffic Control Devices Handbook, road-Highway Grade Crossing Warni~ Washington, DC: Federal Highway Systemsqf, Association of American Administration, 1983. Railroads, October 1982. 10. Prevention of Rail-Highway Grade Crossing Accidents Involving Railway Trains and Motor Vehicles, Washing- ton, DC: Interstate Comerce Comis- sion, November lg62. 11. Rail-Highway Crossing Accident/ Incident and Inventory Bulletin, Washington, DC: Federal Railroad Atiini~tra~ion, published annually, 2a II. COWONRNTS OF A RAILROAD-HIGWAY GRADE CROSSING A railroad-highway grade cross- Typically, an advance warning sign ing Uy be viewed as simply a special and pavement markings inform the mo- type of highway intersection, in that torist that a crossing lies ahead in Vne three basic elements of highways the travel path. The crossing itself are present: the driver, the vehi- is identified through the use of the cle, and the physical intersection. crossbuek. These traffic control de- As with a highway intersection, driv- vices, advance warning sign, pavement ers must appropriately yield the marktngs, and crosshuck, are temed right - of - way to opposing traffic; “passive” because their message re- but unlike highway intersections, the mins constant with time. opposing trsffic, trains, only rarely must yield Yne right-of-way to the ,,A=t~vett traffic ~ont~~l devices motorist. Drivers of motor vehicles tell the motorist whether or not a have the flexibility of altering train is approaching or occupying the their path of travel and can alter crossing and thus give a variable their speed within a short distance. message. Typical active traffic con- Locomotive engtieers, on the other trol devices are flashing lights and hand, are restricted to moving their automatic gates. trains down a fixed path and changes in speed can only be accomplished The U.S. DOT/AAR National Rail- much more slowly. Because of this, Highway Crossing Inventory provides motorists bear most of the responsi- information on the number of public bility for avoiding collisions with crossi~s having each type of traffic trains. In effect, the “Railroad control device as shown in Table 8. Crossing,,cro~ab~ck is a “Yield” sign and motorists have an obligation to so interpret it. Traffic and highway A. The l[~hway Component engineers can assist motorists in their task by providi~ them with 1. Driver proper highway design and traffic control devices. The driver is a key component of the railroad-highway grade crossiw Tbe components of a railroad- scene and is responsible for obeying highway grade crossi~ are divided trafftc control devices, traffic into two categories: highway and laws, and the rules of the road. railroad. The highway component is Highway and railroad engineers, who further classified into four ele- plan and design initial installations ments: driver, vehicle, roadmy, and and later improvements of railroad- pedestrians. The railroad component highway grade crossings, should be Is classified tito train and track aware of the several characteristics, elements. The location where these capabilities, requirements, needs, two components intersect must be de- and obligations of Vne driver. This signed to incorporate the basic needs information wil1 help them, through of both highway vehicles and trains. the proper engineering design of crossing installation and improve- Traffic control devices are uti- ments, to asaist drivers in meeti~ lized to provide the motorist with their responsibilities. information concerning the crossing. Chapter II Components of a Railroad-HighwayGrade Crossing Table 8. Public Crossings a speed greater than is re~onable by warning Device, 1983 and prudent under the conditions and having regard to the actual and potential hazards then exist- Warning Device Number ——Percent ing. Consistent with the forego- ing, every person shall drive at a Gates 19,473 9.48 safe and appropriate speed when Flashing lights 34,120 16.62 approaching and crossing an inter- Highway signals, section or railroad grade cross- wigwags or bells 2,618 1.27 ing...a Special* 7,181 3.50 ------0 Passing (Sec. 11-306) Total Active 63,392 30.87 No vehi.eleshall be driven on the left side of the roadway ~der the Crossbucks 126,963 61.83 following conditions: StOp signs 1,374 0.67 Other signs 883 0.43 when approaching within 100 feet ------Of or traversing any ... rail Total Passive 129,226 62.g3 highway crossing unless other- wise indicated by official traf- fic control devices ...9 No signs or signals 12,721 6.20 ------0 Stopping (Sec. 11-701) Total 205,339 100.00 Obedience to signal indicating *“Speeial~i are traffic control sys- approach of train. Whenever any tems that are not train activated, person driving a vehicle apprOa~h- such as, a crossing being flagged by es a rail highway crossing mder a member of the train crew. any of the circumstances stated in this section, the driver of such .Source: Ref. 8 vehicle shall stop within 50 feet, but not less than 15 feet from the nearest rail of such railroad, and The Unifora Vehicle Code (UVC), shall not proceed until he can do a model set of motor vehicle laws, so safely. The foregoing require- describes the actions that a driver ments shall apply when: is required to take at crossings. The UVC defines the “appropriate ac- -a clearly visible electric or tions” that vehicle operators are to mechanical signal device gives take for three situations: vehicle warning of the train; speed approaching the crossing; vehi- cle speed traversing the crossing; ------and, stopping requirements at the 8Uniform Vehicle Code and Model crossing. Set out below are the pro- Traffic Ordinances, Evanston, IL: visions in the Uniform Vehicle Code National Comittee on Unifom Traffic for these actions. Laws and Ordinance, 1961, and Sup- plement published in 1984. 0 Approach Speed (Sec. 11-801) ‘Ibid. No person shall drive a vehicle at 30 Chapter II Components of a Railroad-Highway Grade Crossing -a crossj.ng gate is lowered or Approach Zone -- Tllis zone is when a human flagman gives or the a“~a in which drivers begin to conttnues to give a signal of formula:~e actions needed tO avOid the approach or passage of a colliding with trains. Drivers use railroad train; this zone to search for a train or signal, to recognize any hazards, and -a railroad train approaching to decide on the proper course of within approxi!mtely 1,500 feet action. The approach zone precedes of the highway crossing emits a the non]?ecovery zone. s~.gnal audible from such dis- tance and such railroad train, Within the approach zone, the by reason of its speed or near- vehicle operator must become aware ness to such crossing, is an that a crossing is ahead. Inform- immediate hazard; and, ation is usuaily provided by an ad- vance warning sign and, in some cas- - an approachi~ railroad train es, by pavement mrkings. In virtu- is plainly visible and is in ally all situations, the driver must hazardous prOXimity tO such take notice through visual observa- crossing.10 tion of the crossing itself, its as- sociated control devices, and sOme- The UVC also prohibits any vehi- times through the sound of the train cle from driving around or under any horn. gate or barrier while it is closed or while it is being opened or closed The advance warning should be (Sec. 11-701b). placed at a distance in advance of the crossing such that the driver is Each State has its own regula- provided sufficient time to alter ve- tions that may vary from those above. hicle speed and take tne appropriate More information on State laws and action. It is incmbent upon the regulations affectim crossings are driver to heed the advance warning co~tained in a Comp~lation of-State and to operate the vehicle such that Laws and Regulations on Matters the driver can respond properly tO ,AffectingRail-Highway Crossings. the conditions ahead. Sign placement distances for advance warning signs The situations faced by a driver are discussed in Chapter IV, Identi- of any vehicle at a crossing occurs fication of Alternatives. in three areas or zones. These zones are adapted from the information Nonrecovery Zone -- The nonre- handling zones defined in A User’s covery zone begins at the point along Guide to Positive Guidance. Infoma- the road where drivers must make a ~n handling zones are particular stop decision if a train is approach- areas of road that correspond to sec- ing or occupying a crossing. Theore- tions of highway on which drivers tically, if the stop/go decision is should ideally make certain decisions delayed beyond the beginning of the concerning the upcoming crossing. nonrecovery zone, the amowt of high- The three zones are described below way remaining will be insufficient to and shown in Table 9. avoid a collision. The nonrecovery zone ends at the beginning of the ------hazard zone. It starts at the stop- l“Ibid.—— ping sight distance point required by the vehicle speed. Stopping sight Chapter II Components of a Railroad-Highway Grade Crossing ‘Ta.ole9. Needed I!lforma-Lio~zand 2esired ReSpO:ISeS of Vehicle Opsrator Needed Desired Location l“f<, r~ .R&s&o>~ APProa cl, z“”. Cr.ssi”g i. akead L.,,kaheadFo..... dataO“p,ese”~ .“”di~i.”s I I I I I I If: I 1) Train is on crossing Begin stop ma”e””er I 3) Troi” not i“ “ici”ity Be ca”tio”s a“d l“ok I left a“d right for i i“f”r”atiom I I I Ilazaxd zone I If: 1 ) ab””e stop 2) abc,.e and velocity Co/No-go across tracks and direction of tra, n 3) Verification of L“ok and go across “o train tracks ---- m m *Information should be obtained from signs , markings, a“d signals pr.”ided at , a“d i“ ad” . . . . “f tke crossing. Vehicle speed sh”.ld be adj”ste. d c“ c“rre late with che length of the No”-recovery Zone. 32 Chapter II Components of a Railroad-Highway Grade Crossing distances are discussed in Chapter ured along the highway on either side IV, Identification of Alternatives. of the tl”acks. This zone is the area where stopped or approaching rotor The proper design and installa- vehicles can collide with approach- tion of traffic control devices will ing or stopped trains. This zone can provide the majority of drivers with be considered as being 15 feet either the information needed to make the side of the closest and farthest decision to stop, if necessary. At rail. crossings with passive traffic con- trol devices, the motorist is prO- In this final zone, the objec- vided with a view of the crossbuck tive is for the mtorist to cross the that, by its design, infO~s the mo- tracks safely. At crossings with torist of the location of the cross- passive control devices, the pmdent ing and requires, as a regulato~y de- driver has heeded the advance warning vice, that the motorist approach the and the crossbuck and has detemined crossing at a speed such that the if a train is occupying or approach- vehicle can be stopped safely if a ing the crossing. The driver then train is approaching or occupying the brings the vehicle to a stop short of crossing. Having been provided this the hazard zone. At crossings with information, the motorist must oper- active traffic control devices, the ate the vehicle as required by the pmdent driver has heeded the acti- prevalent conditions, e.g. visibility vated device and brings the vehicle of an approaching train. Thus, if a to a stop short of the hazard zone. driver’s view of an approaching train is restricted, e.g. due to sight Once stoDoed. a driver must not ‘.. , obstructions, inclement weather, or cross the tracks mtil a decision has darkness, the driver should reduce been made that it is safe to dO S0. vehicle speed so that, if necessary, This action is dictated by law or it can be stopped. regulation. Active traffic control devices 2. Vehicle are designed to assist the driver in making the appropriate stop/go deci- The design and operation of a sion. Active traffic control devices railroad-highway grade crossing must are activated by an approaching train take into consideration the variety and thus provide this information tO of vehj.cles that are 1ikely to trav- the motorist who is then required by erse the crosstig. In this regard, law to stop in advance of the cross- crossings are exposed to the full tng. Ideally, all crossings would array of vehicle types found on the have active traffic control devices; highway,,from motorcycles to tractor- however, the cost to install and trailer trucks. These vehicles have maintain them at the 205,000 public widely different characteristics that at-grade crossings is prohibitive. will directly influence the design Thus, active traffic control devices elements of the crossing. Equally are placed at those crossings consid- important is the cargo these vehicles ered to be nore hazardous than oth- carry, especially children in school ers. buses and hazardous materials in trucks. Hazard Zone -- The hazard zone is the rectangle formed by the width Table 10 shows the nmber, type, of the highway and a distance meas- and percentage of rotor vehicle acci- Chapter II Components of a Railroad-Highway Grade Cross~ng Table 10. Motor Vehicle Accidents and Casualties at Public Crossings by Vehicle Type, 1983 Automobiles Buses Trucks Motorcycles Total Total Accidents Nuber 4,273 11 1,945 43 6,272 Rate* 3.50 1.63 4.76 3.58 --- Percent 68.13 0.17 31.01 0.69 100.0 Total Fatalities Nmber 315 0 151 17 483 Rate* 0.26 0.00 0.37 1.U2 --- Percent 65.22 0.00 31.26 3.52 100.0 Total Injuries Nmber 1,603 35 717 1‘1 2372 Rate* 1.31 5.18 1.76 1.40 --- Percent 67.58 1.47 30.23 0.72 100.0 Vehicle miles of travel (billions) 1,221.85 6.75 408.51 12.00 1,649.11 Registered vehicles 123,169,738 555,819 35,197,962 5,736,001 164,659,520 Accidents per mfllfon vehicles 34.69 19.79 55.26 7.50 --- *Rate is the nmber of accidents, fatalities or injuries divided by billions of vehicle miles traveled. Source: Ref. 8 dents by vehicle type ~.nvolving buses can be attributed to the high trains at crossings during 1983. The nmber of passengers typically fomd data provides some indication of the in buses. Of the 11 bus accidents relative hazard for each of the vehi- occurring in 1983, five involved cleS. Trucks have the highest over- school buses. all accident rate, t.e. nmber of accidents per number of vehicle miles Several physical and petiomance traveled on all highways. characteristics of vehicles itiluence the safety of vehicles at crossings. Motorcycle accidents have a These include vehicle dimensions, higher fatality rate, probably be- braking performance, and acceleration cause of the lack of operator protec- performance. tion provided by the vehicle. Buses, trucks and motorcycles all have high- Vehicle Dimensions. The length er injury rates than automobiles. Of a vehicle has a direct bearing On The relatively high injury rate for tbe inherent safety of a vehicle at a 34 Chapter II Components of a Railroad-Highway Grade Crossing crossing and consequently is an Table 11. Design Lengths ex?licit factor conside~ed in the for Design Vehicles provision of sight distance. Lo~g vehicles, and vehicles car~ing heavy Lengtn loads, have longer braking distances _.—Type Vehicle Designatio~ (ft) and slower acceleration capabilities; hence, long vehicles may be exposed Passenger car P 19 to a crOssing fOr an even greater Single u!nittruck Su 30 period of time than that in propor- Single u~nitbus BUS 40 tion to their length. Intermediate sai- trailer truck ~-l~o 50 Vehicle length is explicitly Large semi-trailer considered in determining the effect truck m-50 55 of sig’ht distance and the cOrnep Semi-trailer, f~lll- sight triangle on the safe speed for trailer truck ~-60 65 vehicles approaching the crossing, and in determining the sight distance Source: Ref. 6 along the track for vehj.cles stopped at the crossing. Design lengths of various vehicles are specified by the The width of the vehicle may be American Association of State Highway a factor in considering the width of aad Transportation Officials (AASHTO) the highway surface and hence the and are shown in Table 11. This data length of the crossing surface meas- was, however, developed prior to the ured along the track. With the pas- enactment of the Surface Transporta- sage oj?the Surface Transportation tion Assistance Act of 1982, which Assistal~ce Act of 1982, trucks with increased the allowable maxi.mm widths of 102 inches till become more dimensions for truck tractor-trailer commonplace. Combinations. In some cases, geomet- ric and design vehicle criteria con- Another vehicle dimension that tained in the AASdTO design mnual is important in the design of cross- are thus not appropriate for those ings is the combination of under- highways which must accomoaate cer- clearanlte and wheelbase. This is tain of the larger truck configura- particularly relevant for long truck tions. It is anticipated that AASHTO trailers with low clearances such as Will publish updated criteria to low-bed trailers and furniture vans. accommodate these concerns. These vehicles can become lodged on a crossing if the grades of the cross- Unless trucks are prohibited on ing and its approaches are not ade- the crossing, it is desirable that quate. the design vehicle be at least a tractor semi-trailer truck (~-50). Braking Performance. One compo- Typically, the design vehicle should nent of stopping sight distance is a be a tractor semi-trailer full-trail- function of the vehicle’s braking er truck (~-60) for those crossings perforunce. If a crossing experi- on routes desIgnated for larger ences a significant percentage of trucks, although special considera- heavy trucks, any given sight dis- tion should be given to especially tance will dictate a slower speed of long vehicles that may be present. operation to allow for the braki~ performance of these vehicles. Chapter II Components of a Railroad-Highway Grade Crossing .-Acceleration Performance. Ac- train collisions l~ithtrucks trans- celeration of vehicles is ixnportant porting hazardous materials occur to enable a stopped vehicle to accel- annually. Their exainat ion of the erate and clear the crossing before a accident data revealed that these train that was just out-of-sight, or accidents tend to occur near truck just beyond the train detection cir- teminals. CUitry, reaches the crossing. Large trucks that have relatively poor ac- Provis~.onsto enhance safety for celePatlOn capabilities, coupled ,xith these special Vehicles are further their long lengths, make them partic- discussed in Chapter IX, Special ularly hazardous in this type of sit- Issues. uation. 3. Roadway There are three phases of opera- tion for a truck that has stopped at A major component of the cross- a crossing: ing consists of the physj.cal aspects of the highway on the approach and at 0 start-up whel?the cllltchi.s being the crossing itself. The followi~ engaged; roadway characteristics are relevant to the design and control of rail- 0 acceleration from the point of road-highway grade crossings. full clutch engagement; and, 0 Location -- urban, rural 0 COntinued travel until the cross- ing is cleared. 0 Type of road -- arterial, COIIec- tor, local Another aspect of the accelera- tion performance of vehicles at 0 Trafftc volme crossings is the design of tinecross- f.ngand the condition of the crossing 0 Geometric features -- number of surface. Crossings and approaches lanes, horizontal and vertical that are on a steep rise are dfl,ffi- aligment, sight distance, cross- clultand time consming to cross. ing angle, etc. Also, vehicles will move SIOWer over crossings that have rough surfaces. 0 Crossfig surface and elevation Special Vehicles. Three vehj.cle 0 Nearby intersecting highways types‘are of particular concern for crossing safety: e) trucks car~ing 0 Illumination hazardous materials; b) vehj.clescar- rYing Passengers for hire; and, c) These elements will be discussed school buses. Accidents involving briefly in this Chapter and in detail these vehicles can result in numerous in subsequent Chapters. injuries and/or fatalities, perhaps in catastrophic proportions if cer- Location and Type of Road. Fig- tain hazardous cargoes are involved. ures 3 and 4 show the accidents per Crossing per year for Ig83 as a func - In a special study condticted by tiOn of type of road for the urban the National Transportation Safety and rural system. Roads are classi- Board (NTSB), it was determined that fied by function, from interstate to an average of 62 accidents involving local roads. Crosstigs designated as Chapter 11 Components of a Railroad-Highway Grade Crossing Pjpe 0: u,’,,. ?Oad ; - I“t, rstate 2 - Other freeway“r expressway 3 - Otherprincipal arterial “o’: 95* ,, .,. 1 2 3 h 5 6 T;fpeofUrban8.0.6 . Then..berat the top of each bar represents the numberof.ro.singsf.?thattype.fr.aa. Figure 3. Public Crossing Accident Rate by Type of Urban Road, 1983 Source: Ref. 8 i]lterstate are pr?.marily on inter- Fe)?the rural system, the number state rwps or frontage roads. of accidents per crossing per year by type of highway is shown in Figure 4. Accidents occurring at crossings Accident rates for crossings on rural on all types of urban roads exceeded minor collectors and local roads are the overall 1983 national average of below the national average. The high 0.03 accidents per year as shown in nmber of crossings on the local Figure 3. Urban crossings often car- rwal system that have minimal acci- ry more vehicular traffic than rural dents influences the national aver- crossings and have sight restrictions age, which was 0.03 accidents per due to developed areas. Urban cross- crossing per year in 1g83. i.n~s also involve obstructions to continuous traffic flow such as con- Traffic Volue. The effect of trolled 37 Chapter II Components of a Railroad-Highway Grade Crossing 20“ Typ.Ofisu~.1RO.C 0.10 1 - T“terscate 2 - Other principal arterial 3 - Minor arterial 4 - Xajor C“llect”r 0.08II 5 - >lin”rC“llect”r 6 - Local 0.02 0.00 1 2 3 4 5 6 TYP~OfH.ralRoad *Then“.berat ths top of each bar represents the number of crossings for that type of road. Figure 4. Public Crossing Accident Rate by Type of Rural Road, 1983 Source: Ref. 8 accident frequency increases with in- These features, in turn, affect sight creasing traffic volume. However, distance to, and at crossings. traffic vollme alone is not a suffi- cient forecaster of accidents at Nuber of Lanes. Only a small crossings, as demonstrated by acci- portion, 6$, of crossings are on dent prediction models, that are dis- highways with more than two lanes. cussed in Chapter III, Assessment of It is not bown how ~ny crossi~s Crossing Safety and Operation. with two lanes have an approach width greater than two lanes. The reduc- Geometric Features. The geomet- tion of lane width at a crossing can ric design features that can affect affect vehicle-vehicle accidents as safety at railroad - highway grade well as accidents with trains. crossings Include the following. At two lane crossings, a pullout 0 Nwber of lanes and pavement l~idth lane may be provided for tmcks or 0 Horizontal and vertical aligment buses that are required to stop at 0 Crossing angle the crossing. By providing a pullout 0 CrOasing elevation 38 Chapter II Components of a Railroad-Highway Grade Crossing 7,683* 11,655* 38.855* M . . . 1-250 251-500 501-lK lK-5K 5K-10K >10K Ar>nualA.,erageDailyTraf:ic Thenumberat thetopofeachbarrepresentsthe““mberofcrossing.withthatlevelofr,r.ffi. Figure 5. Public Crossing Accident Rate by Annual Average Daily Traffie, 1983 Source: Ref. 8 lane, the likelihood of a rear-end face may contribute to an accident by collision may be reduced. diverting the driver’s attentfon from the continuing prime obligation of Crossings with more than two looking for a train. In order to lanes may be candidates for canti- maintain a smooth crosstig, the fun- levered flashing lights to improve damental difference between the two visibility for the driver. traveled ways must be recognized. The railroad track is a flexible platfom Aligment and Sight Distance. and the highway subgrade supports a Sight distance to the crossing is af- rigid pavement. There must be a com- fected by the horizontal and vertical plete separation between them and alignment of the highway and the there should be adequate drainage. crossing angle. Crossings located around a curve or over the crest of a Another aspect of the crossing hill may require special attention is its elevation. Vehicles that must from the motorist. cross the tracks from a stop position cannot accelerate quickly on steep Crossing Surface. The rough- grades. In addition, trucks with low ness of a crossing surface and its uderclearances may become trapped on approaches is often a major area of a severely hmped crosstig. concern for the driver. A rough Sur- Chapter II Components of a Railroad-Highway Grade Crossing Intersecting Highways. Approxi- 4. Pedestrian mately 36% ~f~~oad-highway grade crossings have a highway inter- In 1983, accidents involving pe- section within 75 feet. Frequently, destrians at crossin2s accounted for roads parallel tracks and intersect- only 1%, 68, of all crossing acci- ing roads als[>intersect the railroad dents. As can be expected, these I-esulting in s crossing near the accidents almost always result in an highway Intersection. injury or fatality. In fact, in 1983 there were 37 pedestrian fatalities, The higher occurrence of acci- 6.8% of all crossing fatalities. dents at these crossings is in part Tnese statistics do not include due to a short stora2e area for vehi- pedestrian accidents occurring else- cles waiting to move through the where along railroad tracks. Exclud- intersection after passin2 over the ing accidents and incidents at cross- crossing. If the intersection is ings, 400 trespasser fatalities signalized, or if the approach from occurred on railroad property during tinecrossing is controlled by a stop 1983. This represents 37% of all sign, then queues may develop to the railroad related fatalities. crossing, leaving a vehicle “trapped’! on the crossing. Also there are more There are several types of pre- distractions to the mOtOrist and Inore ventive measures that might be em- vehicle-vehicle conflicts. ployed. The list includes: Crossings within a close dis- o fencing or other devices for en- tance to a signalized or stop-con- closing rights-of-way; trolled Intersection should be care- fully evaluated for proper controls. o grade separations; The critical distance is a function of the number of vehicles expected to 0 additional signing; be stopped by the intersection con- trol. 0 safety education; and, Illumination. Illuinination of 0 surveillance and enforcement. the crossing c= definitely aid the motorist. In 1983, 2,582, of 6,272 These measures are discussed in more total crossing accidents, occurred detail in Chapter IX, Special Issues. durin2 darkness. Illumination may be effective in redlucingaccidents at night. The U.S. DOT / AAR National B. Railroad C-ponents Rail-Hi2hway Crossing Inventory re- ports that commercial power is avail- Railroad companies are classi- able at over 90% of public crossings. fied by the Interstate Commerce Com- Therefore, lightin2 is feasible at mission (ICC) on the basis of gross most crossings, depending, of course, revenue. Effective Janua~ 1, 1982, on t}le reliability of the power the ICC adopted a procedure to adjust source. Design details on illumina- the Class I threshold for ifilation tion are discussed in Chapter IV, by restating current revenues in 1g78 Identification of Alternatives. constant dollars. A Class I railroad company has an annual gross operating revenue In excess of $50 million in 1978 dollars which equates to about 40 Chapter”II Components of a Railroad-Highway Grade Crossing $83.5 million in 1983 dollars. A change of consist and gross from Class II railroad has an annual gross 6,500 tO 13,500 tons, while a car in operating revenue of between $10 and a local freight may move only a cou- $50 million in 1978 dollars. Class ple of miles and represent the entire III railroads include all switching train consist. Dedicated piggyback and terminal companies and all rail- trains may be limited to 25 to 50 roads with annual gross operating cars, and run over several railroads revenues of less than $10 million in with fe%,, if any, intermediate stops 1978 dollars. In 1983, there were 27 to set out and pick up blocks of cars Class I and 18 Class II railroads in at major terminals. This variation operation as shorn in Appendix C. in rail movements occurs also on the microsca.le, i.e. at individual rail- In 1983, there were about 270 road-highway grade crossings. Thus, Class III line-haul railroads and the design of traffic control systems about 142 switching and terminal com- at crossings must allow for a wide panies, also Class III. Many of variation in train length, train these Class 111 railroads provide speed> and train occurrence. switthing and terminal services for the larger Class I and II railroad Long trains, e.g. unit trains, companies. Some Class III railroads directly affect the operation of take over the operation of a single highway traffic over crossings and line that a larger railroad abandoned indirectly affect safety as well. for economic reasons. Class III Unit trains consist of as many as 100 railroads often require assistance freight cars with the same lading. with regard to railroad-highway grade Coal and grain are two major commodi- crossings because of their limited ties that are transported in unit manpower and financial resources. trains. Because of their lengths, These small railroads are often un- unit t]:ainswill take longer to pass able to seek out Federal and State over a crossing and, in effect, close funds for improving crossings, yet the crossing to highway traffic for a safety at their crossings is just as longer period of time. In addition, important as at any other crossing. some commwities have passed ordi- nances restricting train speed for For the purposes of this hand- the purpose of improving safety. book, the railroad components of However, this practice directly re- railroad-highway grade crossings have duces the level of service for high- been divided into two categories, way traffic and may also affect safe- train and track, as discussed below. ty. Because of the longer period of time during which the crossing is l.- closed to highway traffic, a motorist may take risks by passing over the During every business day, ap- crossing just ahead of a train. In proximately 100,000 freight cars are many cases, risks such as these are loaded in the United States, Canada, not successful and collisions re- and Mexico. Statistics as to the av- sult. erage length, net lading, and overall speed of freight trains in a typical Trains other than mit trains year do not begin to describe the va- typically consist of a variety Of riety of operations involved in rail- cars and ladings. A few cars may be road freight movements. Unit trains picked up along the way and may be may cover over 1,500 miles without a dropped off from the same train or 41 Chapter II Components of a Railroad-Highway Grade Crossing may be taken to a railroad yard where road companies. In accordance with a new train is made up of cars with labor agreements, employees of pri- similar destinations. It is obvious vately owned railroad companies oper- that trains must stop to pick up ate Amtrak passenger trains over that cars, but it is unfortunate that some railroad’s trackage. Some private Of these pick-up points are located railroad companies continue to oper- in the central portion of communi- ate passenger trains particularly for ties. ,Thisresults in trains moving commuter service in urban areas. slowly over the crossing, or even Some municipal, regional, and State standing on the crossing as the pick- authorities have taken over railroad up is made. With the lengths of commuter services. Many light-rail freight trains today, an entire com- transit companies are in operation munity can be physically divided by a and being constructed in this country freight train stopped on all of its with rlumerouscrossings and 10ngitu- crossings. dinal street use. (These are not normally considered as railroads .in Railroads have operating proce- tabulating crossing accidents). On dures designed to prevent extensive the heavy rail rapid transit systems, blockage of crossings and many States there are few crossings of public have passed regulations prohibiting highways at-grade. Vne blockage of crossings for various lengths of time. Twenty-nine States X.ocomotives and cars obviously expressly prohibit trains from block- form a train, but for crossing pur- i!lgcrossings for a period that var- poses any rail operation over a high- ies from 5 to 15 minutes. Of these, way is of concern, whether it is one 16 States exempt moving trains. A or more engtnes or a group of cars freight train can be divided to allow pushed over a crossing. Most locomo- highway traffic to pass through, but tives today are diesel-electric or this practice requires the braking straight electric although some rail- system to be filled with air, whf.ch roads operate stem locomotives as can take considerable time. Changes special passenger trains for histori- in operating practices that may cal purposes. In 1983, there were assist in the alleviation of these 25,838 10cOmOtive units in service on types of problems are discussed fur- Class I railroads, all but 63 of the ther in Chapter IV, Identification of units were diesel-electric. Alternatives. All locomotives are equipped Railroads carry passengers in with headlights that are illuminated addition to freight although this whenever the locomotive is in motion. mode of transportation has declined One type of light is a 30 volt, 200 during recent decades due to con- .~attPAR-56 sealed bea lamp with an struction of the interstate highway output of 200,000 to 300,000 candle- system, the convenience of the auto- power. Tbe lamp is usually used in mobile, and the speed of the air- pairs. Some railroads use oscillat- plane. Amtrak, the National Railroad ing headlights, comprised of one or Passenger Corporation, provtdes pas- more standard locomotive headlight senger service nationwide. This lamps on a mounting plate that is railroad, created by Congress in moved by a small mntor in a figure 1971, operates over track owned by eight, circular, or oval pattern. itself (primarily in the Northeast) The light beam thus “sweeps” across and over track owned by other rail- the tracks. Chapter II Componen-tsof a Railroad-Highway Grade Crossing Several different types of roof locomotive. The locomotive enginee:r lights are sometimes used on locomo- sowds the horn in advance of :> tives to serve as markers illyards so crossing in a sequence of two long that the locomotive can be easily blasts, followed by a short blast, located among numerous freight cars. then followed by one long blast. Th? These types of roof lights include point of initiation of the whistle i;~ beacon lights* strobe lights, and indicated by a whistle post located sequentially flashing lights. In an alongside of the tracks. Many States effort to make the locomotive as vis- have laws pertaining to the Iocatiom ible as possible; some railroads uti- where the horn must be blom. Ninet- lize these types of lights at rail- een States specify 80 rods (1/,L road-highway grade crossings~ either mile), but 14 others specify varying illuminating them whenever the loco- distances ranging from 300 to 1,80,3 motive is in motion or illuminating feet. them in advance of crossings. The Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) Some local agencies have passed considered a regulation that would ordinances prohibiting the soundin,g require the mandatory use of strobe of the whistle in certain areas to lights or, in a later proposed rule- lessen the environmental noise im- making, the use of any of the four pact. This is not generally recom- types of roof lights at crossings. mended because the train whistle pro- However, based on information re- vides warning to a motorist or pedes- ceived in response to the proposed trian that a train is approaching ths rulemakings and on an indepth analy- crossing. Even at crossings with sis of costs and benefits~ the FRA active traffic control systems, the concluded that “...the information in train whistle provides a redundant the Docket does not support the prop- indication that affects the hearing osition that alerting lights are of a highway user while the traffic effective in reducing the incidence control device affects sight. of grade crossing accidents. Without that support a Federal regulatory re- In 1983, there were 1,542,278 quirement that railroads equip their freight cars in service. The majori- locomotives with an alerting light is ty of these were box cars, hoppers, not justified’!.1’1 and covered hoppers as shown in Table 12. In addition, there were 2,61D Locomotives are also equipped passenger-train cars,in service in with air powered horns that are used 1983, not including those owned by to sound a warning of a train’s ap- commuter authorities which do not proach to a crossing and are used for report to the Interstate Commerce various other signals in railroad op- Commission. The majority of freight erations. The FRA requires the horn cars have a capacity of 70 or 100 to produce a minimum sound level of tons; however, 125 ton cars are usei 96db(A) at 100 feet forward of the track rated to support them. Over 1 car size is standardized by :R ~terchange regulations. A car 1lllDisplay of Altering Lights by 10.08 feet wide by 15.08 feet high Locomotives at Public Rail-Highway can go an~here. Some cars may be as Crossings: Termination of Rule Mak- high as 17.08 feet. Overall car body ing,‘f Docket No. RSGC-2, Notice 4, length.is limited to 89 feet, or 95 Federal Register, Vol. 48, No. 88, feet including the couplers. Washington, DC: May 5, 1983. Chapter II Components of a Railroad-Highway Grade Crossing Table 12. Types of Freight Equipment ous factors affect a traints acceler- ation capability such as the number Type Number of locomotive units, the horse~wer rating of each unit and, of course, Box Cars: the number and weight of freight Plain box 17a,465 cars. At low speeds, a commuter Equipped box 157,291 train may accelerate at 1.5 mph per Covered hoppers 303,172 second while a fast freight may Flat cars 142,291 accelerate at O.3 mph per second. As Refrigerator cars 63,705 speed increases, the acceleration Gondolas 171,554 rate decreases, a freight with 4.0 hp Hoppers 315,ao5 per ton can accelerate at only about Tank la3,730 O.1 mph per second at 70 mph. Other 26,265 The br~ing system used on Total I,542,27a trains is the air brake that provides adequate uninterrupted pressure froln Source: Ref. 9 car to car. The single air hose at the end of each car is manually con- nected to its neighbor and then the Railroad freight cars are not brake system is charged. When brak- illuminated and the installation of i~ is required, the pressure in the reflectorized markers on freight cars brake pipe leading back through the has been studied for some time. The train is reduced. This causes the most recent study found that the ra- valve on each car to use air from the pid accumulation of dirt necessitates auxiliary reservoir to build up pres- frequent cleaning of the reflectors, sure in the brake cylinder, thus ap- which represents more than half of plying the brakes. For an emergency the total cost of freight car reflec- application, the brake valve opens torization. In this study, tests tine brake pipe to atmospheric pres- were conducted on the Canadian rail- sure and the resulting rapid rate of road systea, where reflectors have brake pipe pressure reduction causes bean installed on freight cars since the car valves to dmp the contents 1959, and on the Boston and Maine of both auxiliary and emergency res- Railroad that installed high intensi- ervoirs j.ntothe brake cylinder. ty retroreflectors for the purposes of the study. Reflector reflective Braking distances are dependent intensity was found to be reduced to on mny factors that vary for each 23% of its initial value after six train, e.g. nmbe r and horsepower months in service. After one and two rating of locomotives, number and years in service, reflective intensi- weight of cars, adhesion of wheels on ty degraded to 14 and 5%, respective- rails, speed, and grade. Tnerefore, ly, of its initi.alvalue. This deg- the braking distance of a train can ~adation of reflective i.ntensttyre- not be stated exactly. An estimate sults in the reflector providing lit- is that a typical 100 car freight tle to no improvement in visibility train traveling 60 mph would require of freight cars at crossings. over one mile to stop in emergency braking. Primarily because of their enor- mous weight, railroad trains are slow Table 13 shows that the majority to accelerate and decelerate. Nurner- of crossings have rail traffic con- Chapter II Components of a Railroad-Highway Grade Crossing Table 13. Public At-Grade Crossings by Nmber of Thru Trains and Switching Trains Per Day, 1983 Switching Tr.i”, <1 30,571 35,b3? 15,665 16,13o 5,051 5,983 2,194 4,385 335,6?6 1-2 27,905 9,233 6,745 b,7?6 2,823 2,17b 964 1,b5b 58,2?8 2-3 6,770 1,883 2,054 2,659 1,253 67o 501 “919 16,709 6.10 3,740 982 942 ?,630 819 989 299 627 ?0,028 11-15 754 190 192 302 90 108 81 1,8L9 16-20 621 133 117 218 87 94 135 3,508 21-25 14> 36 20 66 15 36 380 >25 346 84 81 144 lH 105 27 7,03? Total 70,850 48,178 25,816 27,865 ?0,245 30,140 4,217 6,028 205,339 Source: Ref. 8 sisting of less than three through number of trains per day. The cross- trains per day and less than three ing accident rate is the number of switching movements per day. Tbe ma- accidents occurring at crossings with jority of crossing accidents involve the specified nmber of trains per freight trains as shown in Table 14. day, divided by the number of cross- ings within the category having that Generally, crossings with higher same number of trains per day. nwbers of trains per day would be expected to have more crossing acci- In summary, trains, and their dents. Figure 6 demonstrates this by operations, vary cons iderably from giving the crossing accident rate by day to day. While averages can be developed for length, weight, number of engines, and number of cars, this Table 14. Accidents at Public average train would rarely be seen in Crossings Involvi~lgMotor reality. Likewise, the scheduling of Vehicles by Type of trains varies such that a motorist Train, 1983 can never depend on it when negotiat- ing through a crossing. Speeds of trains also vary considerably, such Type of Train Accidents that one crossing may be used by pas- senger trains traveling at ao mph, Freight Q,540 freight trains traveling at 50 mph, Passenger 223 and switching trains traveling at Yard switching 74a only five mph. Other* 761 2. Track Total 6,272 In the United States, railroad ~,,other!iincludes mixed trains, work trackage is classified into six cate- trains, light locomotives, single car gories based upon maximum permissible or cut,of cars. operating speed. The Federal Railroad Administration’s (FRA) track safety Source: Ref. a standards set maximm train speeds 45 Chapter II Components of a Railroad-Highway Grade Crosstig 0.10 0.08 m / > 0.06~ 0.00 <1 1-2 3-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-:)0 >30 Numberof Train. Figure 6. Public Crossing Accident Rate by Number of Trains per Day, 1983 Source: Ref. 8 for each class of track as shown in Table 15. Maximum Train SDeed Table 15. as a Function of Track Class Initially, there were many dif- Track Class Passenger Freight ferent track gauges; however, in 1863, President Lincoln designated 4 6 110 mph 110 mph feet 8.5 inches as the gauge for the 5 80 railroad to be built to the Pacific Q :: 60 coast. Other railroads then began 3 60 40 changing to thj.s gauge. 2 30 25 1 15 10 The rolling resistance that pro- Excepted None Allowed 10 vides many of the technological ad- vantages for railroads as a means of Source: Ref. 12 transportation is made possible by the steel wheel rolling on a steel rail. This steel wheel to steel rail to the underlying soil by a series of contact involves pressures of over steps, going from the rail to a steel 50,000 lbs per square inch, that are plate under the rail (tie plate), then reduced to pressures acceptable that spreads the load over a wooden 46 Chapter 11 Components of a 13allroad-HighwayGrade Crossing tie, that spreads the load over rock Ballast.is used to hold the ties or slag ballast, that spreads the in place, to prevent lateral deflec-. load to a sub-ballast (usually grav- ti0n9, and to spread out the load el, cinders, or sand), that spreads that averages about 100 pst just the load to the subgrade consisting wderneath the tie. Ballast must bc? of either the native soil below or able to resist degradation from the some superior material obtained off effects of tie motion that generat.c: site. “fines” that may “cement” into azl impervious mass. Ballast must also Rail is rolled from high quality provide good drainage that is espe-. steel and that being rolled today cfally Important for the strength of weighs from 115 to 140 lbs. per yard the subgrade, and also prevents mud and is six to eight inches high. For from working its way up to contmi-. the last 50 years the standard rail nate the ballast. length has been 39 feet for transpor- tation in 40 foot cars. In track, Railway track is normally main-. these rails are held together by tained by sophisticated high produc-. bolted joint bars or are welded end tion mechanized equipment. Track: to end in long strings. Bolted surface is maintained by tamping ma-. joints are, however, less rigid than chines that raise the track and corn-. the rest of the rail so that the rail pact the ballast waler the tieg. In ends wear more rapidly. COntinuously this process it is often necessary to welded rail is often used today, par- raise the track a few inches, and the> ticularly on main line tracks. Rail best f~rack stability will occw if is welded into lengths of about 1,500 this raise can conttnue through the? feet and taken to the point of in- crossing area instead of leaving al stallation. The remaining joints can dip in the track. Lowering track is be eliminated by field welding in- a very costly operation and can leacl place. to subgrade instability problems. The steel rails are spiked to Tl”ack components are generally ties that are typically msde of wood replaced as needed. A typical heavy-. with preservative impregnated to pre- duty freight llne on tangent may bci vent decay. The ties hold the rails surfaced every two years, have about. to gauge, support the rail, distrib- 25% of its ties renewed every eight ute the load to the ballast, and pro- years, and have its rail changed eve-. vide flexibility to cushion impacts ry ’12years. of the wheels on the rail. Pre- st.ressedconcrete ties have come into Similar to htghways, railroad greater use on American railroads in track is classified intO several cat-. recent years, but still represent un- egories dependent on its utilizatiorl der 1% of the ties in use in the U.S. fn t.e]%s of traffic flow. Mairl tracks are used for through trairl Spikes or otinerrail fasteners movements between and through sta-. are used to connect the rail to the t.iOns and terminals. Branch line ties for the primary purpose Of Pre- trackage typically carries freight venting the rail from shffting side- from its origin to the main line ori ways. Since rail has a tendency to which it moves to its destination oz- move lengthwise, rail anchors are to another branch line to its desti.. used, particularly on heavy-duty nation,, Passing tracks, sometimes track. called sidings, are used for meeting! Chapter II Components of a Railroad-Highway Grade Crossing and passing trains. Side tracks and During the early years of rail- industrial tracks are used to store roading, methods had to be devised to cars and to load or unload then. ensure that two trains did not meet at the same time on the same section The U.S. DOT/AAR National Rail- of track. This was initially accom- Highway Crosstig Inventory reports plished through the use of timetables that, as of 1983, 120,538 public at- and train orders. Block signal sys- grade crossings consist of one main tems were developed that indicated to track only. “Main” track is one the locomotive engtieer whether or which carries through movement as op- not a train was ahead i.n the next posed to switching movements or ter- block of track. These signals were minal movements. Therefore, branch set manually until the track circuit lines have a main track as do main was developed that sensed the pres- lines. Public at-grade crossings by ence of a train illthe block and set nmber of main and other tracks are the signals automatically. Tne track given in Table 16. circuit was designed to be fail-safe so tinatif the battery or any wire Accident statistics show that connections fail, or if a rail was the majority of accidents occur on broken, a clear signal wo,~ldnot be main tracks. This is, of course, due displayed. Insulated joints were to the fact that there are mre used to define the limits of the crossings with main tracks and gener- block. Various types of track cir- ally more train traffic moves over cuits are utilized j.na,~tomatictraf- main tracks. Accidents and casual- fic control device installations at ties by track type and track class railroad-highway grade crossings. are given in Table 17. Table 16. Public At-Grade Crossings by Type of Track, 1983 Nmber of Main Tracks Other —.Tracks o _ 1 _ 2 ~ ~ ~ > Total o 0 120,538 10,132 322 a7 5 3 131,oa7 1 23,213 25,269 2,845 96 21 1 -- 51,445 2 5,331 8,627 1,259 40 12 ~ -_ 15,271 3 1,626 2,572 423 25 8 -- -- 4,654 4 448 89a 197 12 7 -- -- 1,562 5 178 342 106 a 3 -- 1 638 25 167 335 102 1 4 ~ -- 611 Total 30,963 15a,581 15,064 5~4 142 10 4 205,26a Note: The number and type of tracks were not provided for 71 crossings. Source: Ref. a Chapter II Components of a Railroad-Highway Grade Crosstig Table 17. Accidents and Casualties at Public Crossings Involviw Motor Vehicles by Track Type and Track Class, 1983 Track Class* Track Type 1 2 ~ & & —6 Unknown Total Main Accidents a23 1,360 I,74a 1,382 93 3 71 5,480 Killed la 4a 159 219 26 --- 3 473 Injuries 236 529 758 590 33 1 35 2,~a2 Yard Accidents 27a 69 20 5 ------44 416 Killed 2 ------2 Injuries 44 25 11 2 ------13 95 Sidi~ Accidents 79 22 7 4 1 --- 10 123 Killed ------Injuries 15 8 1 ------24 Industry Accidents 174 29 11 10 ------20 24U Killed 5 ------3 a Injuries oa 5 --- 3 ------11 67 Unknown Accident 1 1 2 2 ------3 9 Killed ------Injuries ------2 1 ------1 4 Total Accidents 1,355 1,481 1,7aa 1,403 94 3 14a 6,272 Killed 25 4a 159 219 26 --- 6 4a3 Injuries 343 567 772 596 33 1 60 2,372 *See Table 15 for a definition of Track Class Source: Ref. 8 C. R=EREWCRS 1. Accident/Incident Bulletin, Wash- Simons - Boar&an Publishing Corp., ington, DC: Federal Railroad Atiin- lga2. istration, published annually. 3. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 2. Amstrong, John H., The Railroad - ~, Washington, DC: General Services What It Is, What It Does, Omaha, NE: A*inistration, published annually. 49 Chapter II Components of a Railroad-Highway Grade Crossing u. “Display of Alerting Lights by 12. Traffic Control Devices Handbook Locomotives at Public Rail-Highway Washington, DC: Federal Highway Ad- Crossings”, Teminiation of Rule mak- ministration, 1983. ing, D6ck:t No. RSGC-2. NotIce 4. Fe~&ral Register, Vol. 48, No. 88, 13. Unifom Vehicle Code and Model Washington, DC: May 5, 1983. Traffic Ordinance, National C~ittee on Unifom Traffic Laws and Ordi- 5. Poage, J.L., J.C. Pomfret, and nances, 405 Church Street, P.O. Box J.B. Hopkins, Freight Car Reflectori- 1409, Evanston, Illinois 60204, 1961 zation, Washington, DC: Federal Rail- and Supplement published in lg84. road Atiinistration, Report FRA-RRS- 83-1, December lg82. 6. A Policy on Geometric Design of Highway and Streets, Washington, DC: herican Association of State High- way and Transportation Officiais, lg84. 7. Post, T.J., G.J. Alexander, and H. Lunenfeld, A User’s Guide to Positive Guidance, Second editfon, Washington, DC: Federal Highway Atiinistration, Report FHWA-TO-81-1, December, 1981. 8. Rail-Highway Crossing Accident/In- cident and Inventory Bulletin, Wash- ington, DC: Federal Railroad Atiin- istratiOn, published annually. 9. Railroad Facts, Washington, DC: Association of American Railroads, October 1984. 10. Railroad/Highway Grade Crossing Accidents Involving Trucks Transport- ing Bulk Hazardous Materials, A Spe- cial Study, Washington, DC: National Transportation Safety Board, Report NTSB-HZM-81-2, September 1981. 11. Russell, Eugene, R., Beverly Narm, Charles L. Amos, and John M. Schercinger, COmpilatIon of State Laws and Regulations on Matters Af- fecting Rail-Highway Crossings, Wash- ington, DC: Federal Railroad Atiinls- tration, Report FHWA-TS-83-203, April 1983. 50 III. A8SESSWNT OF CROSSING SAFNTY AND OPERATION The Federal Highway Administra- 0 a process for establishing priorit- tion (FHWA) requires each State to ies for implementing highwa:{ develop and implement a highway safe- safety improvement projects. ty tiprovement program that consists of three components: planni~, imple- The implementalion component mentation, and evaluation. The proc- consists of a process for programmiw~ ess for improving safety and opera- and implementing safety improvements. tions at railroad - highway grade The evaluation com~nent consists Or crossings consists of the same three a process for determining the effec’t components and may be considered a that safety improvements have i]t part of a State’s highway safety reducing the number and severity OF improvement program. accidents and potential accidents. FHWA policy and procedures for a This section of the Railroad- highway safety improvement program Highway Grade Crossing Handbook pro- are contained in the Federal - Aid vides guidance for tha planning comp- Highway Program Manual, Volme 8, onent consisting of the collectio]~ ChaDter 2, Section 3 (FHPM 8-2-3). and maintenance of data, the analysis The objective of a highway safety of data, and engineering studies. I!~ improvement program is to reduca ‘fthe addition, the “systems approach”, a number and severity of accidents“ and method by which several crossings are decreaae “the potential for accidents studied collectively, is discussed. on all highways”. Chapter IV identifies the various crossing improvements that are availa- FHPM 8-2-3 requires the planning ble. Chapter V presents guidelines component to consist of: for selecting improvements based On safety and operational effectiveness 0 a process for collecting a~ldmain- and costs. Chapter VI provides guide- taining a record of accident, lines for the implementation compo- traffic, and highway data, includ- nent of the safety program and Chap- ing, for railroad - highway grade ter VIII addrasses the evaluation crossings, the characteristics of component. both highway and train traffic; 0 a process for analyzing available A. Collection and Wintenace of Datm data to identify highway loca- tions, sactions, and elements de- A systematic method of identify- temined to be hazardous on the ing problem locations is most impor- basis of accident experience or tant. For railroad - highway grade accident potential; crossings two types of information are needed: invento~ and accident 0 a process for conducting angtieer- data. Inventory data includes the ing studies of hazardous loca- location of the crossing, volmes of tions, sections, and elements to highway and train traffic over the develop highway safety improvement crossing, and Ag~~n:ld~~am~:sea;: projects; and, the crossing. . crossing are also neaded. Chapter III Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation The FHPM 8-2-3 specifies that The crossing identification nm- each State mintain “a record of ac- ber, shown in Figure 8, was installed cidents, highway data, highway traf- at each crossing by nailing or strap- fic and train traffic for railroad- ping a temporary tag to a crossbuck highway grade crossings’!.State main- or flashing light post. These tempo- tenance of the U.S. DOT/AAR National rary tags were designed to last a Rail-Highway Crossing Inventory will maximm of fIve years and should be satisfy this survey requirement. replaced with pemanent tags. The State inventories containing data two most common methods used to in- similar to that provided in the na- stall pemanent tags at the crosstig tional inventory will also suffice. are: 1) metal tag on which tinecross- ing number is embossed by raised The U.S. DOT/AAR National Rail- imprinting; and, 2) stenciling the Highway Crossing Inventory was devel- nmber on the post. oped in the early 1970’s through the cooperative efforts of the Federal The FRA voluntarily serves as Highway Atiinistration (FHWA), Feder- custodian of the national inventory al Railroad Atiinistration (FRA), file. Data in the inventory are kept Association of American Railroads current through the voluntary submis- (AAR), individual States, and indi- sion of information by the States and vidual railroads. Each cross ing was railroads. Since the national inven- surveyed, both public and private, tory is updated by numerous States grade separated and at-grade, and and railroads, systematic and uniform data were recorded on the inventory procedures are required to assist the form shorn in Figure 7. The invento- FRA in processing the data. Three ry contains data on the location of basic procedwes have been developed. the crossing, ~ount and type of highway and train traffic, traffic Individual Update Forms. This control devices, and other physical is the procedure originally developed elements of the crossing. for updating the na~ional-invento-~. Whenever a change occurs at a crOss- Each crossing was assigned a ing, e.g. installation of traffic unique identification nmber consist- control devices, the railroad or ing of six numeric characters and an State initiates an update form. This alphabetic character. The alphabetic involves completing the following character provides an algorithmic identification data elements on the check of the six numeric characters. fore: crossing identification nm- To detemine the correct alphabetic character, sum the products of each of the first six digits times the digitts position (position one is the left-most digit). Divide this total 1 Wss sm by 22 and then interpolate the remaindar according to the following: O-A 6-G 12-N 17-U 836597H I-B 7-H 13-P 18-v 2-c 8-J 14-R Ig-w 3-D 9-K 15-s 20-X 4-E 1O-L 16-T 21-Y Figure a. Crossing Identification 5-F 11-M Nmber Tag 52 Chapter III Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation 0., 2,%-W,, U.S. DOT– AARCROSSING INVENTORY FORM A. INITIATING AGENcV C. REA=N FOR UPDATE: ❑ RAILROAD ❑ STATE GCWAVGESIN EXISTING CROSSING DATA 0. EFFECTIVE DATE ❑ NEW CROSSING +~+ 0. cROslNGNUMBERl I I II I I IU ❑ CLOSED CROSSING Part 1 L.ca~i.n..dClassificatio”of All Crossin9s(M”st Be Completed) 1. Ra~lro.d Ow,at, ”9tim,,”” 2. Ra;\ro8dmvisio. or Re~ion 3. Ra,lroad Subdiv;,;o”or D,,,,,., COMPLETE REMAINDER OF FORM ONLY FOR PUBLIC VEHICLE CROSSINGS AT GRADE Pan 11 DeTai led I“formatio” for Public Vehic” la, at Grade Cross; n~ 2. SPeed of Train at cro$s;”~ 1A. 7,,;.,1 Number of D,(I, Train Movement, 0.T,,italSwed.,”9,OverCrossing ,,,.0.. M.u,m,n, “ Z:;::’me f,o~[,,1,.1,,l~,h mm’E~~a~ ~ 2 3 Figure ?. U.S. DOT/AAR National Rail-Highway Crossing Inventory Form ~o~rce: Ref. 14 53 Chapter 111 Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation ber, effective date of.the change, The primry disadvantage of the State code, county code, railroad individual form method is that the code, and type of update, i.e. a form must be completed for every change at an existing crossing, a new cha~e. This may result in a tilne- crossing, or a closed crossing. Oth- conswing effort particularly for er data elements are completed only changes that affect a nwber of if they have changed or if they were crossings. For example, if a rail- not previously reported, such as for road changes its operation over a a new crossi~. route that results in an increase in the number of traias per day, an in- To ensure that the State and dividual form would be completed for railroad are in agreement on the ele- each crossing. To assist in these ments contained in the inventory, a types of changes, the FRA has estab- process was developed by which each lished procedwes for the “mass” up- would have the opportunity to review dating of one or two data elements. an update initiated by the other. If the railroad initiated the update, it Fill-in-the-Blanks List. One of would retain a copy of the four-part the ,,mass!,updating procedures is the form (usually the last copy that is fill-in-the-blanks list that consists orange) and send the other three cop- of a printout of specified informa- ies to the State agency. The State tion currently contained in the in- reviews the information and makes any ventory on a crossing and a series of appropriatee changes. It then sends blanks for those data elements that the pink copy back to the railroad are to be changed. The list can be for its files, retains the yellow obtained from the FRA by request. copy for its files, and sends the For exmple, if a State wanted to original, or green copy, to the FRA change the annual average daily traf- for processing. fic (AADT) for all crossings in a county, the list would consist of the If a State initiates the update, six identifying elements, the current it retains the orange copy and sends AADT and a blank. The State can the other three to the railroad for quickly review the crossing informa- itS review. The railroad then re- tion on the list and enter the new tains the pink copy for its files and AADT if it had changed. returns the other two (green and yel- low) to the State. The State retains The list is usually sorted by the yellow copy and submits the green railroad (if it is a State request) copy to the FRA for processing. or by State (if it is a railroad request) so that a copy of the list This procedure allows both the can be sent to the other party. The State and railroad to concur on the entire list is then sent to the FRA crOssing information prior to submit- for processing. tal to FRA and establishes the State as the agency that submits all data Magnetic Tape. Another “mass” to FRA. Another advantage of this updating procedure involves the sub- procedure is that both the State and mission of’data via computer magnetic railroad have a bard copy record of tape. This method is advantageous the update that can be placed in a for those States and railroads that file along with the original inven- maintain the inventory on a computer. tory record. A State or railroad may enter changes Chapter III Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation onto its own computer file and then FRA till provide “feedback” to any periodically send FRA a magnetic tape State or railroad upon request. The of the changes in a prescribed for- FRA can provide information from the mat. This method, once established, national inventory in three primary provides for tbe updating of the na- ways. tional file with relative ease. How- ever, three cautions should be noted. 0 One Page Per Crossing Printout -- This is simply a computer generat- o The information contained on the ed printout that contains all the magnetic tape must be in the pre- information for a crossing on a scribed format. Since FRA re- single 8.5 inch by 11 inch sheet ceives information from 50 States of paper. The information has and numerous railroads it must be been decoded and is easily read. able to process the magnetic tape without having to make any changes o Continuous Feed Fom -- This is a to its fomat. Details on the re- fom identical to the individual quired fomat can be obtained from update fom that can be generated FRA. by computer. o The magnetic tape must contain on- o Lists -- The FRA will also gener- ly changed information and not the ate, upon request, a list of spec- entire crossing record. FRA’s pro- ified information for specified cedures creates a new crossing re- crossings. This might be useful cord whenever any data element is fOr obtaining current data on the changed. Submission of a State or elements contained in a priority railroad’s entire crossing file index fomula. would result in a new record for each crossing regardless of wheth- The continuous feed fom may al- er any data element changed. The so be used for updating by States and national inventory consists of railroads that have computer facili- 500,000 original crossing records ties. Changes are made on the State most of which have been updated at or railroad’s computer and an update least once. The unnecessary crea- form is automatically generated and tion of a new record would result processed as described under the “in- in an extremely large file to dividual form” procedue. msnipulate and maintain. Data contained in the national o The other party must be provided inventory or a State inventory must with a printout of the changed be used with care. The data should information on the magnetic tape be verified in the field as discussed for its records. in a later section on engineering studies. The national inventory is One primary disadvantage of the used not only by States and railroads tWo ,,mas~!,updating procedures is in conducting their crossing improve- that a single fom is not generated ment programs but also by national for each crossing which could be and Fe,ieral agencies in assessing placed in a manual file. Many States crossing improvement needs and in and railroads do not have computer conducting research. Both States and facilities for maintaining the inven- railroads are urged to keep the tory and rely upon a manual file on information in this valuable data each crossing. To overcome this, the base up-to-date. 55 Chapter III Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation Information on railroad-highway rail-highway wade crossing!!.12 The grade crosshg accidents is also fom used for reporting crosstig needed to assess safety and Opera- accidents is shown in Figme 9. An tions. Data on accidents involving annual summary of the accident data traina are essential in identifying (and the national inventory data) is crossings with safety problems. In prepared by FRA, titled Rail-Highway addition, data on accidents not in- Crossing Accident/Incident and Inven- vOlving trains, but occuring at or tory Bulletin. This document and near a crossing, are useful. For other data contained in the accident example, non-train involved accidents data file can be obtained from FRA. may indicate a deficiency in sight distance such that a vehicle suddenly The NHTSA mintains a data base stops at a crossing causing the fol- on all fatal highway traffic acci- lowing vehicle to hit the leading dents including those occurring at vehicle in the rear. railroad - highway grade crossings. The data base is called FARS for Fa- Accident data are available from tal Accident Reporting System. The several sources including State and form utilized for these fatal acci- local police and the FRA. In addi- dents is shown in Figure 10. tion, the National Highway Transpor- tation Safety Administration (NHTSA) The Bureau of Motor Carrier and the FHWA maintain some info~- Safety (BMCS) maintains data on high- tion on crossing accidents. way accidents involving motor carri- ers. A reportable accident is one Most State and local police that involves “a motor vehicle en- maintain a record of all highway gaged in the titers’tate,foreign, or traffic accidents, including those intrastate operations of a motor car- occurring at or near crossings. It rier who is subject to the Department is essential that the police record of Transportation Act resulting in: the crossing identification number on 1) the death of a human being; or, 2) the accident report fem. If the bodily injury to a person who, as a accident did not involve a train, but result, receives medical treatment occurred at or near a crossing, the away from the scene of the accident; crossing identification number should or, 3) total dsmage to all property also be recorded on the report fem. aggregati~ $2,000 or more based on Thus, accidents in which the presence actual costs or reliable esti- Of the crOssing (regardless of the mates”.13 These accidents are rePOrt- presence of a train) was a contribut- ed on the fom shown in Figme 11. ing factor to the accident can be identified. It is recommended that Accidents fnvolving the trans- the accident report form gtve the port of hazardous materials are re- crossing identification number for ported to the Materials Transporta- accidents that occur within 200 feet ------of a crossing. 12C0de of Federal Regulations~ The FRA requires each railroad Title 49, Washington, DC: Superin- to report any “impact between rail- tendent of Documents, Government road on-track equipment and an auto- Printing Office, published annually. mobile, bus, truck, motorcycle, bicy- cle, fam vehicle, or pedestrian at a 131bid. 56 Chapter 111 Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation Figure 9. Accident Report Form for Federal Railroad Administration 57 ,.. Chapter 111 Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation I . . .,,,,.,., 4, . AC,.., ,. C.ce,.M,., --, .,. ,..”-,-k..,,, - “., -. . ,,,,,“inMF”L, ”EM, 5, Q d.. Figure 10. Accident Report Form for National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 58 Chapt2r III Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation ,..,.,..,,..,,,,,,, (,,4!:!,.,.,,oaf. ?3 ,.. ,. Chapter III Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation ,,,,,,..,,.,,,,,,,,..“,,,;,,.., ?3 ,,,,,,.:,:,.!,,,,“,,,.,,..,,,,,,,.,,,9S4Fa,.1Acclde”tRew”l”gSys,e~(FARS),.,,,,,,,,,” Wi>.ml.4..,,rr.fr.S-,, PERSON LEVEL ,,. :,, ,:,, ”,” ___... Mti”,,!m!m Sir, c..,, .,, . T*.NSACTION...E ? B : CA.. ~ ,,,,, ,, o..,ml sum,=.. (.s. . ..ss) 3 m “M,!.., ch.-T~ “:,3,,,,, q:*A~ ... ,s), ,,. t I S5.,I,GPOS!T!O. 1.1 t 0,.,..,,, . 1111 . -– NO!A,,,=@m m ...... ” m,, “w. ,,- 2,* ,W, IM, Figure 10. Accident Report Form for National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (Continued) 60 Chapter III Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation Ttis::?&”mw “.. .*Am- 0, -Nsmm.rlo. MOTOR CARRIER ACCIDENT REPORT SWU’O!’”M”OWA: ztk?L:m&’% Otig~naland two copies of MCS 50-T shall be filed with the &rector, Regional Motor Carrier SafeW Ofice, FHWA, as Wunrd by 394.9. Copy shall be retained !“ Carr,er,s file. Grcle or (X) appropriate boxes below. 1. Name Ofcarrier (Co,Do,ate b“si”ess “area) 2. Principal Address (Street and .6, Citi. State, ZIP Code.) pa) [z-w w Figure 11. Accident Report Form for Bureau of Motor Carrier Safety 61 Chapter III Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation Code I A,,. I ...... J ...... Fwm M= 5&T (&72) F., ,.!. by,,. ,Uwri”,md.ti d OW”m.”,,. “.s. .Wmmm, ,.”.” O* W.,,,”*”, . .. . *MO, %,=. S*., *, M. s,...... m &, Figure 11. Accident Report Form for Bureau of Motor Carrier Safety (Continued) 62 Chapter III Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation tion Bursau (MTB) of the Research and o the potential danger to large num- Special Programs Administration bers of people at public crossings (RSPA). An immediate telephone no- used on a regular basis by passen- tice is required under certain condi- ger trains, school buses, transit tions and a detailed written report buses, pedestrians, bicyclists, or is required whenever there is any un- by trains and/or motor vehicles intentional release of a hazardous carrying hazardous materials; and, material during transportation or temporary storage related to trans- 0 other criteria as appropriate in portation. Accidents are to be re- each State. ported when, as a direct result of hazardous materials: 1) a person is Various hazard indices and acci- killed; 2) a person receives injuries dent prediction formulae have been requiring hospitalization; 3) esti- developed for ranking railroad-high- mated carrier or other property dam- ,Jay grade crossings. These are com- age exceeds $50,000; or, 4) a situa- monly used to identify those cross- tion exists such that a continuing ings that are to be investigated in danger to life exists at the scene of the field. Procedures for conducting the incident. The form used for the onsite inspection are discussed reporting these accidents to MTB is in the next section. Some hazard shown in,Figure 12. indices incorporate accident history as a factor in the ranking formula; if not, this factor should be subjec- B. Identification of Crossings for tively considered. Fmther Analysis There are several advantages of A systematic method for identi- using a hazard index to rank cross- fying crossings that have the ,most ings. A mathematical hazard index need for safety and/or operational enhances objectivity. It can be cal- improvements is essential in order to culated by computer, thus facilitat- comply with requirements of the Fed- ing the ranking process. As cross- eral Highway Program Manual (FHPM), ing conditions change, a computerized which specifies that each State data base can be updated and the should maintain a priority schedule hazard index recalculated. of crossing improvements. The prior- ity schedule is to be based on: The hazard indices or accident prediction formulae commonly used are o the potential reduction in the the Peabody Dimmick Formula, the New number andlor severity of acci- Hampshire Index, the National Cooper- dents; ative Highway Researth Program Report 50 Form,,la (NCHRP 50), and the U.S. o the cost of the projects and the DOT Accident Prediction Formulae. resources available; Several States have developed their own formulae. o the relative hazard of public railroad-highway grade crossings 1. Peabody Dimmick Formula based on a hazard index formula; The Peabody Dimmick Formula, 0 onsite inspections of public published in 1941, was based on five crossings; years of accident data from 3,563 rural crossings in 29 States. It is 63 Chapter III Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation Department OF TRANSPORTATION ..,...... 0.s ,., ,,.,, ), HAZARDOUS MATERIALS INCIDENT REPORT ,NSTR”CT,ONS: S“,,!!’, t,,i, ,,,”,, i“ d.,,,,,,,,, ,. ,,!? ““..,,,,, 0,,,,, “~ “?,,!,,””s ,V.,eti,, 0,,.,,,””,, M.,erfi,, T.J”sP”,,I,;o” ““r., u, L),,,l,,,,>, c”! ,,, T,4. SP,,,C4,,. ”, ,,’,,,h,,, g,,>., i~.c. 2“59”, (ATTN: “p. 0,”.). If ,p,,. ,Io”id.d i., ,ny,i, cm ~sinddequa,e, cc,,,,,, \ .,. ,,r~, ,,, ”, ““d., s<,,,”” E,, ,,!/., ”,,,,,,, ,,,,., ,,, ,,>.,.,,, nun!he, bums cam,,,,,.,. CoPie, “f ,,,i, ,“, m, ,“ ,,m,, ,. s“,,.,.. ,.,,. ,.,.,,,,..,,0. . . . Y,,s“, ,,,.. ,,,,.s ,,,.,. ,, ::..: CA R.,,. .,, :$.1.,,. . , ,0,.,. j !,. s.,,,., ,,.,. s, (“>u R, Es, ,0s5 AND D+MAGE . . . ,0 ..,..00 as..,..,,. s ,.”07”,. !,. ,s,,..,,...... , ..,, ,.O .R ...... ,NCL”., NG ..,, ,,. .“. s.. ,..s.., ,.,.., O }2. . ...,, ,,. $.., .,.., O . . 0, CO NT9M, NA, ,0. ,R. ””d o,,,” ..1,.,,, ,4. .s,,.. ,.. ,.,,. .”..,,,, ., ..,,. OO”, .A, CR, AL, .= L,,, EO $ H. ZARDO” S ..,,,,.,, ,,”0.,,0 — ,,...... s. 16. ,., ,,, . . ..; , ,,. T. AD&NAM. 1.*. 172,10?, C.I.3, 1.%. 172.$01. Cot., ) ..,,,, OF PACK.,,”, ,,,, ”,, , a. !.. ?,* .!, ,.,.,, ,...,. h,,., ,!, ) LOOSE FITTINGS, “AL” ESO. ,,2, FAILURE o, ,NN, m :%iE-- I S= ,,,,.,.,.co..,,,..,,,.<”,.,,,,,9.SPACEFOR.0,“s,ON.“ !i,,.,c.,...... ,rm 00, F ,mo., (,,.,0) ,9,,,76) I,d i,,,,,:,, ,,,l,,,. ,,, i,l.”,,,<,,l(c ,S,c$,gn., i”,, ,., ,,,,., ,2. Figure 12. Accident Report Form for Materials Transportation Bureau 64 Chapter 111 Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation Figure 12. Accident Report Form for Materials Transportation Bureau (Continued) 65 Chapter 111 Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation sometimes referred to as the Bureau One State adds 1 to T, the aver- of Public Roads formula. The formula age daily train traffic. Several used to determine the expected number States use a hazard index that basi- of accidents in five years is: cally incorporates the New Hampshire Index but also includes other factors (V0.170) (~o.151) such as: A5 = 1.28 ------+ K po.171 Train speed Number of tracks Highway speed Surface condition where: Sight distance Nearby intersection Crossing angle Fuctional class A5 = Expected number of accidents Crossing width of highway in 5 years Type of tracks Vertical alignment V = AADT, Annual average daily Surface type Horizontal alignment traffic Population Number of hazardous T = Average daily train traffic Number of buses material trucks P = Protection coefficient Number of Number of passengers K = Additional parameter school buses Number of accidents A5 can be determined from a set of Some of these hazard indices are curves as shorn in Figure 13. shorn in Table 18. 2. New Hampshire Index 3. NCHRP 50 The New Hampshire Index is as The hazard index presented in follows: NCHRP Report 50 can be expressed as a complex formula or reduced to a more HI = (V)(T)(Pf) simple equation of coefficients that are taken from a few tables ad where: graphs. The simple formula for cal- culating the expected number of acci- HI = Hazard index dents per year is show in Figure 14. v= AADT, Amual avsrage daily traffic NCHRP 50 also provides formulae T= Average daily train traffic for estimating the number of nOn- Pf = Protection factor train involved accidents per year as — 0.1 for automatic gates follows. — 0.6 for flashing lights 1.0 for signs only Automatic gates: Several modifications of the New X = 0.00866 t 0.00036 (ADT), or Hampshire Index are in use. Some States use various other values for P f as follows. EA = -~-~. 00866 t 0.00036 (ADTj Automatic gates 0.13 or 0.10 Flashing lights 0.33, 0.20.or 0.60 All other traffic control devices: Wigwags 0.67 Traffic signal x = 0.00499 t 0.00036 (ADT), or preemption 0.50 Crossbucks 1.00 66 Chapter III Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation 2468101214 161814 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 Highway Traffic Vehicles Per Oay ERailroad Traffic Trains Per Day (1,000$) Fig”]:. 13b. Re].ation Between Railroad Trafficar,d Figure13.. RelationBetweenHighwayTraffica“d Accident~acror,~b AccidentFactor,Va sag”, ...... ,,65 Bells, ...... 1.78 wQw,g ...... 1,99 wgwaga”d Bells ...... L 2,03 F!ashi”Q Lights ...... 2.18 The basicf“rmof the eq”atio,,for use F1a.hi”n tiahtsa”d Bells,...,,...,,. — 2.25 WgWaQ-an; flashing Lights.. = 2,27 with these curves is: Wgwag, Flashing Llghlsa”dBells ., T 2,35 Watch m,n,8Ho”rs, ...... ,, 22,27 Va x cb watchma”,,6 Hoers,...... 12.43 1.28 ------+ K W,tchma”,24 Ho”rs ,... = 2.52 P’ G8t,,,24HO”,,...... ,.. - 2.56 Gat,*, A.t0.8,1 C...... ,,.. -2.70 1 1 EXAMPLE: Ass”.. a crossing has a“ AADT ::::::s0 0,50 1,00 ,,50 2.00 2.50 3.00 .f 3,442 vehicles, a“ average train Acc’dent F,’,., Fe traffic of 22 trains per day, a“d is equipped with .igwa~s. Fro. Figure 13., Figure 13..RelationBetweenWar”i”gDeviceand tlbe factor d“e to highway traffic of AccidentFactor,Pc 3,442vehicles per day is fo””d to be 3.99. From Fig”r.13b, the factordue to cr.<”trafficof 22 trainsper day is f“undto be 1.59, a“d fromFiRure 13., 6 the factor for wigwaRsis foundto be 1.99. Substitutingthese factors inc. the equati.”, it is fo””dthat tbe haz- 5 a]:dindexis equalto: 4 3.99x 1.59 1.28------+ K .,, &.08 + X, 1.99 FromFig”..13d, K i. determinedto be + 2.58 for a ..1”,of 1“ of 4.08 and, with thisvaluefor the parameter,the expected numberof accidentsin 5 years is 6.66. 0 -1 0 0.5 1,0 1.5 2,0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.,0 4.5 5.0 Unbalanced Accident Factor -1, Fig”.e13d.RelationBetweenDnbalanced Accident Factor a“d Additional Parameter, K Figure 13. Curves for Peabody Dimmick Formula Chapter III Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation Table 18. Variations of New Hampshire Index (SD + AX + NTR) . . - —---- ...... 4 (TT+TTR +SD+AN+AL+L+C+ vsu+w+L1) 3: HI = (V) (T) ------i~;------ (Pf) (Vf) (T) (TS) (NTR) 4: HI = ------igr------+ (70Aa)2+ 1,2(SD);Aa = (V + -f;-)(~) 5: HI = .l(Pf)(Af) (rl)+ (AN)(NTR)(s) (.5L)+ T5((Fcx p) + (i~-~6~-)+ SB) (Vf) (Pf) (T) 6: HI = ------VR + ~N + r ~+ Hs+G+SD+AN 7: HI = (.01)(v) (T)+ (.1) (HS) (TS)+ (SD) (m) (TR) (NTR)(AL)+ (A%+ I) (RF) (LF)(Pf)+ (SB) (SBP)+ (10) (m) where : A5 = Numberof accidentsi“ fiv,eyears S = Factorfor surfacetype Aa = Numberof a.cide”tsper year SB = Numberof schoolbuses A = Accidentfsctor SBP = Numberof schoolb“. passenger. Al = Factorfor highway alignment SD = Factorfor sightdistance AN = Factor for aPProacba“~le T = Average“umber“f Crai”sper day FC = Factorfor f“”cti””.1class Tf = Numberof fast trains G = Fact”rfor approachgrades T, = Number“f slow trains HI = Hazard T“dex ,~ = Train factor IN = Pa<:t”r f“r hazard.”.,“aterials ,r~= Factorfor numberof night t..i.s vehicles TR = Factorfor numbera“d type of tracks HS = Factor for hishway speed TS ,=Factorfor trainspeeds L = Factorfor ““”!berof 1s..s TT = Faccorfor typeof trainmovements 1,1= Factorfor 10..1interference TTR = Factor for tyPe of tracks LP = Factorfor localpriority V = A“T)u*ll average dailytraffic NTR = Factorfor ““mberof tracks Vf = Factorforan”.alaverage daily 1>= F,,,”,for PoPLll.tiO” tr.ffic P = Pr<,tecti””factor VSD = Factorfor verticalsightdistance RF = Factorfor rid-ability w = Factorfor crossingwidth Source: Ref. 5 ADT = Average daily traffic EA = -~D-~.00499 + 0.0036 (ADT~ EA = Expected number of accidents per year where: Modifications of the NCHW 50 hazard index exist. For example, one X = Probability of coincidental Statefs formula is: vehicle and train arrival scaled by 10-3 68 Chapter III Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation 1:.Pt,c,,~Accidek>c Fr. Q.~.. Y = ~ A x “ x current ~r.i”s per D.Y m Urban area Cc.ssb.ck 5000 vehicles Per day “ehicles 5 train. Per day P,, Day 10 yr. ~T) ‘A, Fact.. EXPECTED ACC lDENT ~EQUENCY 250 ------.0003h7 500 ------.000694 EAF = .006516 x 3.06 x 5 1000 ------.001377 EAF = 0.10 2000 ------,002627 EAF = 1 accident e“ery ten yeers 3000 ------,003981 4000 ------.005208 5000 ------.006516 Accident frequency is ~reater 6000 ------.007720 ,ha” 0.02. This vo”ld indicate 7000 ------.009005 need for hi~her type device 8000 ------.010278 9000 ------.011435 Try flashing lights 10000 ------.01267& B = 0.23 12000 ------.015012 14000 ------.017315 ~F = .006516 x .23 x 5 16000 ----—---- .019549 mF = 0.01 10000 ------.021736 20000 ------.023877 THEREFORE =ASHING L lGHTS 25000 ------.029051 ME WARMED 30000 ------.034757 vB, FACTOR COWON~TS (, B S FACTOR BASIC VALUE ADJUS~NTS) BAS 1 C VALUES FOR EXIST lNG DEVICES A Crossb”cks, highway volume 1.s, than 500 P.= day 3.89 B Cr.ssb”ck, , urban 3.06 c Cro,ab”cks . r“ra L 3.08 4.51 D SCOP si~ns, highways “olme 1.,s than 500 Per day E stop .ig”s 1.15 F Wig..g. 0.61 G F1ashi”& lights, “rba” 0.23 N Flashing li8ht,, r“Tal 0,9? 0.08 1 Gate, , “rb,” J Gate, , rural 0,1: Figure 14. NCHRP 50 Hazard Index Source: Ref. 12 NCHRP 50 Hazard Index 0 distance from crossing to business Site Evaluation t ACC/Yr or crossroad; The Site Evaluation factor is based o crossing angls; on the following: 0 distraction from traffic control 0 most restrictive sight distance of devices; and, all quadrants; 0 people factor. Chapter 111 Assessment of Crosstig Safety and Operation Each factor is rated from 1 (best) DT = Factor for number of thru through 5 (worst) and the average of trains per day during day- the 5 factors is used in the formula. 1ight HP = Factor for highway paved (yes 4. U.S. DOT Accident Prediction Equa- or no) tions W = Factor for maximum timetable speed The DOT accident prediction for- HT = Factor for highway type mula combines two independent calcu- ~ = Factor for nwber of highway lations to produce an accident pre- lanes diction value. The basic formula provides an initial prediction of ac- Different sets of equations are cidents on the basis of a crossing!s used for each of the three categories characteristics, similar to other of traffic control devices: passive, formulae such as the Peabody-Dimmick flashi~ lights, and automatic gates, formula and New Hampshire Index. The as shorn in Table 19. second calculation utilizes the actu- al accident history at a crossing The structure of the basic acci- over a determined number of years to dent prediction formula makes it pos- produce an accident prediction value. sible to construct tables of numeri- This procedure assumes that future cal values for each factor. To pre- accidents per year at a crossing will dict the accidents at a particular be the same as the average historical crossing whose characteristics are accident rate over the time period known, the values of the factors are used in the calculation. found in the table and multiplied together. The factor values for the The basic accident prediction three traffic control device categor- formula can be expressed as a series ies are found in Tables 20, 21, and of factors that, when multiplied 22, respectively. together, yield an initial predicted number of accidents per year at a The final accident prediction crossing. Each factor in the formula formula can be expressed as follows: represents a characterist~.c of the crossing described In the national To inventory. The general expression of A= ------(a) + ------(-1-) the basic formula is shown below: To+T TO+T T a= KxEIx MTx DTx HP XMSX where: HT X HL A = Final accident prediction, where: accidents per year at the crossing a= Initial accident prediction, a = Initial accident prediction accidents per year at the from basic formula, accidents crossing per year at the crossing K= Fomula constant N EI ❑ Factor for exposure index --- = Accident history prediction, based on product of highway T accidents per year, where N and train traffic is the nmber of observed MT ❑ Factor for number of main accidents in T years at the tracks crossi~ 70 Chapter III Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation Table 19. U.S. DOT Accident Prediction Equations for Crossing Characteristic Factors Table 20. U.S. DOT Accident Prediction Factor Values for Crossings with Passive Warning Devices miim”m- 8$*,<;,‘- him m, ,,=. “’,,.., ,,m,.b,a “= !!=,, , ,.t,, ,, T,*. K Tr.ck. ~ ,,.,.s m ,.,,, “, SAd ,, ,.,. m .—.. -— . .m,,a 0’ ,.m o ,.m o ,.W ,C,=,],.m o ,,m 01811I.m , ,.W , ,.2, ,,23 , ,.,7 * (..) ,.5’ 5 ,.,’ ~: ~g 2 ,.m :: 3,30 : ,,,2 ,.% ,,W 4 [:: ; ,, : ,.,, , ,.,, : ,.6, : ,.12 07816 0,74 :, ,, w ,.0, , ,.,, & ,.m 20 ,.,7 0%,7 0.6, ;::/ 3, 5.86 , ,.8, 5 ,.>5 25 ,.,1 m,, 0.6, : 51 2 6.,, 6 3,,, 6 ,.,, m 1.26 l.m 8, - ,20 ,.,, ,.6, 35 1.,, : ,,m, ,,, ,m 9.*9 : ,,6, 1.X , ,,m ,0, ,m ,,.78 9 ~;g 2 ,.,, m, 4W ‘*.M . ,.47 40, 5W ,,.,, 11!;0 ,.7, ,5 ,,,, xl ‘w ,,.0, 21-% ,.9, ,.,9 a, ,m ,4.8, 3140 ,.m 2 ,,6, 70, - lm ,6,2, 614 2.B 70 ,.7, ,m, - ,,m ,7.9, ,.7s 130, - ,6w ,9.37 : ,.85 la, ,m 20.s, 8, ,.92 ,m* ,,m ,,.42 . 2.W 25,, ,W ,,.9, m, ,W 25.% ‘m, ,m *g. *6 ,Wl *W ,2.7, ml ,Wm ,,.,, Iml - ,5M 3,,7, 15W1 - ,- 44.4, 2W1 2- 4,,,, ,m, m 5,,65 3m1 4m ,,.,8 4~1 m 60.87 5m1 m 6S, M 6~, 7- 68.8, 7ml m 7,,7, -, ,1- 7,,’4 llml Im a’,’, 13W, ,,m ,,.,, lam, 23m ,m.,, ,-, m ,W.,’ 3-, 37- ~,, ----~ Source: Ref. 7 Chapter III Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation Table 21. U.S. DOT Accident Prediction Factor Values for Crossings with Flashing Light Warning Devices .. “,,,.., ,.”.,“, ;[~1::: ,,W 1,W , .m , .m , .m , .W Source: Ref. 7 Table 22. U.S. DOT Accident Prediction Factor Values for Crossings with Gate Warning Devices am , .m , .m , .m ,.m ,.,, , .m , .W ,.,, ,.,9 1.m ,.*3 ,,,0 ,.m 1,36, ,.2, ,.m ,.,, ::;: , .m ,,68 I.M’ 8 2.07 . 2.2, .———--..,——...—.—— ------.—-..,. ..-..-. -... .. Source: Ref. 7 72 Chapter III Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation TO = Fomula weighting factor, than five years may be misleading be- cause of cha~es that occur to cross- 1.0 ‘ing characteristics over time. If a To = ------significant change has occurred to a (0.05 + a) crossing during the mst recent five years, such as the installation of Values for the final accident signals, only the accident data since prediction, A, for different values that change should be used. of the initial prediction, a, and different prior accident rates, N/T The U.S. DOT has also developed are tabularized in Tables 23 to 27. a formula for predicting the severity Each table represents results for a of a crossing accident. The proba- specific number of years for which bility of a fatal accident given an accident histo~ data are available. accident, P(FA!A), is expressed as: If the number of years of accident data, T, is a fraction, the final 1 accident prediction, A, can be fiter- P(FA 1A) = ------polated from the tables or detemlned l+ CFXMSXTTXTSXUR directly from the formula. The for- mula provides the most accurate re- where: sults if all the accident history available is used; however, the ex- CF = Formula constant ❑ 695 tent of improvement is minimal if da- MS = Factor for maximm timetable ta for more than five years are used. train speed Accident history information older Table 23. U.S. DOT Final Accident Prediction from Initial Prediction and Accident History (1 year of accident data (T = 1)) Initial Pretictio. Number.1 Accidents, N, i. T Yeavs from Basic Model, a 01234 5 0.00 0.000 0.04. 0..,, O,,*, 0.,,0 0.,3. 0.., 0.00, 0.0.6 0.,23 .,,,, 0.,3. .,,,, 0.02 ..0,, 0...4 .,,,0 ..,,, 0.2s. 0,34. ,.03 0,02. 0,,,, 0.,76 .,250 0.3,, 0,,,, .,.4 ,,0,7 0.,,9 .,,02 .,,”4 0.,., ..4:0 0.0, 0.04, 0.,,. 0.,2, 0,,,, .,4., .,s00 0,06 0.0s4 ..:53 0.2s2 0.351 ..450 ~,550 0.07 0.063 0.,70 0.2,, 0.,04 0.4,, 0,5,8 0.0, 0..7, Q., e. 0,3., 0,,,. 0,,3, 0,,4, 0.0, 0.07? 0.>0> 0.325 0.447 ,.,,0 0,6,, ..,0 0.08, .,,,, 0.,.. 0,.,, ,,6., .,,,, 0.,0 0.%60 0.160 0.,.. ,,7,0 0,,6. ,,,.. 0.30 0.22, O,*8, 0.74, ,,0., ,.,,, ,.5,, 0.4, ..27. 0.3.6 0.897 ,,2., ,,3,7 ,,.,s 0.,. 0.323 ..677 x,.32 ,.3., ,,,.2 ~,o,, O.*, .,3.4 0.,,, ,,,,2 ,.,4, ,.,3, ,,,33 ..70 0..00 0.,,, ,,,,7 ,..., ,,,,4 2,:43 0.9, 0,43, 0,8,2 ,,3,, ,.*, , ,. ,7. 2,730 0.,, 0,..2 0.9,, ,,43. ,.,,, ,..,0 2,,,7 ,.00 0 . . . . 1 .0.0 x,:,, ,.02. ,,,,, ,,0,, ,.,. 0,5,2 ,,0,, ,,,8, ,., ,. ,,.,, ,,, s. ,.,, 0.,33 ,.0,, ,,,44 ,.,.. 2,7,. 3,3,, i,,. 0.553 ,, ,2, ,,,., 2.,,, 2,,,, 3,42. ,.40 ..,7, ,.,,3 ,,,,, ,,,4, ,,,,, ,,,,, ,.,0 0.,.s ,. ,9. ,,,0. ,.4,, 3,0,. 3,,,, ,... 0.60, ,.22. ,,.4, 2.,72 3,0,4 3,7,7 ,.70 O.bla 1.255 1..9, 2.3,, ,,,., ,,,.0 ,.,0 0.632 ,,2., 1,,,0 ,.,7, 3,,,, ,,,77 ,.,. 0.644 i.xos 1.966 2,627 ,,2s, ,,9,9 ,,00 0..,. ,,3,s ,,00. ,..,, 3.,,, 4,.,. ,.,0 0,.67 i.,,, ,, ,32 2,,,4 3,,,7 4 ,0,, 2,2. .,6,, ,, ,6, 2, ... ,,,,4 3. 4,. ,,,,, 2.30 0.6.7 1.300 2.090 ,.,,, ,..,, ,.,,, 2,40 0.6,4 1..0. 2., ,. 2.8,, 3.,,, ..2., 2.,0 0.7.. ,.423 ,,,,, ,..,, 3.,7, 4.,,, Source: Ref. 7 Chapter III Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation Table 24. U.S. DOT Final Accident Prediction from Initial Prediction and Accident History (2 years of accident data (T = 2)) Initial Prediction Number of Accidents, N, I“ T Years from BasIc Model, a 0 <234 5678 r 0.00 O.W ,,04, 0.0,, 0,,3. .,,,, 0.22, 0,,73 0,,,. 0.364 0.0, 0.00, .,..3 0,, ,6 0.,70 ., ,2, ..,7, 0,,,0 ., 384 0,+3, 0,0, .,0,. 0,0,, 0,,,0 0.202 0,243 0.3,, 0,3...... , 0,,09 0,03 0, .,. 0,,9, 0.,,4 0.233 0,3., 0,37, 0,.., .,,., 0,,7. ,,04 0.034 ... ,0 0, ,8. 0.263 0,,,, ,,.,, .,492 0.,., 0,..4 0.0s 0.042 0.,,s 0.,0s 0.2.2 0.37, 0.45. 0.,,, 0.62, .,70, 0.06 ,.,., 0.,,, 0,,3. 0,,20 0.,,0 0.,., ,.,9. 0..,0 .,77, ..07 0.0,. 0.,,3 .,,,. 0,,.7 . . . . . 0.,.0 ..6,7 0. 7,4 0.83, ..0. ..0., ,.,.7 ,,2,. 0.,73 ,..,6 ,,,7, 0,.,3 a .7.6 ,..89 0,09 0.,70 0,,.. 0.209 0.,9, 0.50,0. .,7 .. 727 0.83. 0,,4, 0.,0 ..077 0, ,,, .,30. ..,,3 ..,3,0,.34 ..,6, O.,= , .000 0.20 ,. ,33 .. ,000.4.> 0..33 0, ,,. 0,,.7 ,, !,, i .300 ,,4.7 ..,. 0.,76 .,3,2 0.,,8 ..,,, , .000 , .20, ,.4,2 ,..,0 ,, ,2. .,40 0,2,, 0,447 . . . . . 0.,, ! ,, !,. ,, ,7, ,..3, , .,., >.,0, 0,,0 0,,,.0.,0. .,76, ! .02. , .,,. , . . . . ,,8,0 ,.,7, 2,333 0.60 0.,,, 0.,.3 .,,,. 1.10, !.,?, , ..74 , ,,,7 2,23, ,.,,, 0.7, 0.2,0 0,,s0 0.88. ,,1.0 1 ,..0 , .7.. ,,.,0 2. 3s0 2..,0 0.,0 0.,,.0,.,,.,,2. ,,241, .5,. , ..70 2, ,8, 2,,.0 ,.,,, .,,0 0,3,. ,..,,0.,.. ,.293 ,, .,, , ,9., ,,,7. ,,.03 2,,3, ,.00 0.32, 0, ... ,.00. ,.,39 i ..7, 2,0,. ,,,,, ,,.94 ,,032 ,,,0 .,33, 0,.., 1 ..,. , ,3,. 1 .,,7 .. 07. 2.42. 2,,,, 3,,2, ,.20 0,,.3 0, 700 , ,0,7 ,,4,.,., >, 2.,,9 ,..a. 2.843 3. 2.. ,,30 0 ,3,, ,.,,. ,..8, ,..44 ,.,, , ,.!?6 ,.,., 2,,,, ,.270 ,,.. 0.35, ., ,3,,,,., ,,47. ! .,.. ,.2,. 2.59. ,,,., ,.33, ,,,0 0. 3.. ..,4. ,.,22 , .,.. , .s78 2,2,, 2..34 3..,, 3.390 ,..0 ,.37, .,,,. ,. 140 * .,2,, .,0, 2,,,, 2..,. 3..50 ,,.., ,,70 0.37, 0,7.7 ,.,3. *,544 , ,,,3 2, 322 2,7,, ,., W ,,4,, ,,80 ,,3s3 .,777 ,. ,7. * ,,.4 ! ,,,7 2.3,, 2.74, ,.,3, ,,,,2 ,.,0 0.3.s 0,786 ,.,,4 , ,5.2 , ,,,. ,. ,78 2.7,, ,.,73 ,.,7, ,.00 0,39, 0,7,. ,.,9, , ,,,, 2.0.0 ,,.02 2.,04 3.,06 3.60. 2.,0 0,3,. .,,.2 ,.2.. ,,.,3 2.0,, ,, .2, 2.,30 3.,36 3..4, 2,20 ,,400 0,,0, ,.2,, * ,.27 2..,6 2,.4, ,.8,, 3.2.4 3.67, ,,3, 0.4.. 0,,,. ,.,2s * ,.40 2,.,, ,,4., 2.,77 ,.2., ,.7.2 2,.0 0,..7 0,,2, , .2,, , .6,3 2.0., ,,.,, 2.,9. 3.3,. 3.72, ,,,0 0,,,0 0,.2s ,.24. *..., ,.0., 2.,0. ,.,, s 3.3,6 ,.,,4 -.- Source: Kel. I Table 25. U.S. DOT Final Accident Prediction from Initial Prediction and Accident History (3 years of accident data (T = 3)) Initial Prediction Number of Accidents, N, f. T Years from Basic Model, e 01234 56789 10, jj2 .,00 0.,00 ..,4, 0,,,7 0,,,, 0.,74 0.,,7 0,26, .,,.4 0.34s 0.39, ..4,, ,.47. 0.,22 0..,0.0., 0.0,, 0,, ,. ., ,., 0,2,, 0.2.3 .,3,4 . . . . . ,.4,, 0..., 0.,,7 ,,,., 0..,9 0,02 0,.,7 .,07, 0.,,, 0.,90 0 .2., 0,306 0.,.4 0..,, 0,4,, 0.,37 0.,- 0..,, ..,,, .,., 0.,24 0.,89 ..,,3 0.2!, 0.2,2 0,3+7 .,4, , ..476 0.,.0 0.,., 0..49 0.7,4 0.,,. 0,04 0,.3, .. ,0, ,., ?, ,,244 0.3, s . . . . . 0..,, 0.,2, .,,,, ,,.., ..740 0.s,, ,.*.2 0.0, . ..3. 0,, ,, ..,,2 ..,., 0,34. ., .,3 ,,,00 0.,,7 0,.s4 0.,3, . . . . . 0,,.,.,9., 0,06 .,0.s 0,,,s ,.,,, .,293 0.3,6 .,4,, 0.,.1 0.62. 0.707 0,,., ..,72 ::% ,.03, 0.07 0.0,, 0.,40 0.,,, 0,,,. .,.0, .,.,, 0.,s, 0..., ..7,7 ,.8., 0.,34 ,,,,, ,.0, 0.,,8 0.,,, .,2,, .,3,, ..432 0,,,, O..*, .,7,2 0,,0. 0.8,9 0.9,3 ,.0.4 ,.,,, 0.0, 0, ..3 0.,.2 .,2., 0.3,, 0 ..,, 0.,,6 0,6,, 0, 7,. 0.,,2 0,,s, , ,04, ,, ,4, ,.2.. 0.,0 0.069 0.,?, ..276 ,.37, 0, .,3 0.,0. .,6,0 0.,,, 0.s,7 , .000 ,.,0, ,,,.7 ,.,,. 0.20 0., ,4 .,2,7 0. +00 0,,., 0.,., ., .29 ..97, t., ,, , .2,7 , .4.0 , .,43 ,,.06 ,.,2, 0.30 0.,.6 ,.3,7 0,.8, 0,6,, 0.s,, , .000 ,, ,7, $,,,, * .,,2 , ,.,, ,. *,4 ,,02. 2.,9, ,.., ..,70 0.3., 0.,,3 ,,,., 0,,34 ,. ,2, ,,3,9 ,.5,, , .70, , ,89. ,. 0s, ,,277 2...0 0.,0 0,,., ..39. 0,604 0,,, , ,,.,9 , .226 ,,43. ,,..2 , ,.., ,,0s, ,.2.4 2.472 2,679 0,.0 ..,.3 0,42, 0,.., 0,8.4 ,. 0s, , .30, , ,,2, ,,,,. , . . . . ,.,,. 2,407 ,,.,7 ,,s47 0.,0 0,,,, ,,4.6 .,.77 .,,., ,, ,3. ,.36? * ,... ,.,3, ,.0,, 2.,92 2,,,3 ,.7,4 2,,,, 0... .,22, ., +., ,.7,. ..9., ,.,,3 ,..,, ,...2 ,.90, 2.,., 2. 3*O ,..2. ,..,, 3..,9 0.,0 0,,34 0..s, 0,7,, 0.,7. ,.,2, , ..* ,,7,, ,.,., 2.,0. 2,4,, 2.70’ 2.,., ,.,,, ,.00 .,24, 0.4,. .,7.7 ,.00. t .?.3 , . . . . , .7,, ,.01. ,. 2., ,,,,, ,.77, 3.,2. 3.277 !.,, 0.,.7 .. ,0. 0,,.4 ,..,, 1 .2,, ,.,,? , .79, 2.0,6 2.3,, 2.,?, 2.*,, 3,0,. ,.,4. ,,2. 0,,,3 .,,,. 0.779 ,..42 * .3., , .,6, , ,s,2 2. O*, ,.3,. 2..2, 2...4 3.,4, ,..,, ,,,. 0 .2,7 0.3,, 0.,,, , ,.,9 ,,327 ,.,,. , ,s., ,,,.9 2.,,4 ,.6.3 ,,,,, ,,,,, ,..., ,... 0.2.2 0,,3, . ...4 , ,.,, t .3.6 ,..,7 , .,8. ,, ,,, ,.43. z.,., 2.,72 3,,49 3.,,4 ,.,. 0.2.5 0,,.0 . ...4 ,.0,, ,.36, ,, .,7 ,.,,, ,, ,,* 2,46. ,,73, 3,009 ,,2,3 3.,- ,..0 0 .2., .,,.. .,*2. ,.,0, , ,37, , .6,, , ,,33 2.2,0 ,,407 ,,76, 3,.42 ,.3,, ,.s97 ,.,. ..,72 .,,,2 ..83, ,., ,2 , .3,2 , .6,, * ,,s2 ,.2,, 2,,,2 ,,,,, 3,07, ,,3,2 ,..3> ,.,0 0,,7, 0,,,7 .,,.0 ,, ,22 , ... , . ..7 ,. ,69 2.,,2 2.,,. ,,,,7 ,.099 ,.,,, . . . . . ,.9, 0,,77 .,,.2 .,..7 1 .,,, ,,.,6 ,,70, , .,., 2.270 2.,,, 2,,3, ,.,2. 3..09 ,.’,3 ,.0, 0. 2s. 0.,., 0.,,3 ,. ,4. ,,4,7 ,,7,, 2.000 , .2., ,,,7, ,. s.. ,.,47 ,..,4 3,720 2 .,0 .,2.2 0,,7. ,..,, 1.,.s , ,4,. , .,2, 2.013 ,.3.2 ,.59, 2.,,9 3.,.8 ,,4,. ,,74, 2.20 .,28. 0,,7, 0,.6, ,,,,, , ,.., ,. 73, 2 ,0, . 2 ,3,. 2..0. ,,897 ,.,,7 3,,7, ,.,.. ,.30 ..,,. .,,,0 0,870 ,, ,6, ,.,,3 1 ,7., 2..37 2,32, 2..2, ,,,,, 3.20, ,.4,7 3,,.9 2,40 0 .2,7 0,,., 0,,7. ,,,.0 ,,4., ,.,,4 2,.4, 2.34, 2,.3, ,,,2. 3.,,2 3.,,, ,.80. 2 .,, 0,>s? 0,,s4 0, .,, ,,, ,, , ..6, , .7., ,.o, e 2, ,,3 2.6., 2,,42 ,.237 3.,32 ,,s27 I Source: Ref. 7 74 Chapter III Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation Table 26. U.S. DOT Final Accident Prediction from Initial Prediction and Accident History (4 years of accident data (T = 4)) I“itlalPrdlctl.n of Acciti”b, N, 1“ T Yearn from Basic Model, . ~,2345 Numbr~789 ,0,, ,2 13 14 I 1 o.m 0.- 0.04, o.m, ... = ..1,, ..= ..,,0 0.., o.m ..m, 0.,., ,,,s, ,.,- 0.s.2 O,=, 0.,0, o.m. 0.29. 0.., ..0,. 0..,0 0.,,, ..*W .,,89 0.637 0.- 0.2,. ... 0.3.. ..0, 0,.,, 0.02, o.m, ...... 0.,., ..,2. 0.,.4 0.727 ..,,, . ..4 ..,,0 0.0!1 ..*,, 0..2, 0..., 0.,6, ..,,. O.*. o.,ti 0..2. . . . . 0..,. O.*9. ..9,6 0.03, 0.,.> 0.,,, ..m ..,2, 0.,,, . ..4. 0.0’ 0.,93 ;:~ ,,03. ..0,2 ..,,, ..,?4 ..,,, ..,4, ..,2. 0.,00 0.,7 0,,,,0 ,,, ,, .,,., .,,,, O.,W ..*, 0.,7, ..,,, 0.,34 O..* , ,02. 1.10! ,. ,02 . ..., 0.,3, ..22. ..,0, 0.3,, ..4.0 0.=. 0.., ,.,,, 1 .1.. ,.:,0 . ..= 0.,.7 0.,,, 0.,,7 . ..., ...... ,*. ..,0 ,.,,, ,.,,4 ,.,,. 0...2 ..,,6 o.no .,,..,..,, 0.,,, . ..= ,., s, !.2., ,.,7, ,.,0 0.,00 ,.,2, O,,* ..,n ,.’- O.,= e. ,-4 i,.00 1.7:s ,,,,. 0.3. ..,,, ..2,, . ..., ..,., 0.70. ..,,4 , .Om , ..7, 2.02, 2,!.7 0.4. ., ,43 ..,0. 0.4.4 . ..., . . . . . 0.,.. ,. ,0, ,.* ,,0,, 2.232 2,,,, ..,,, ..,,, O.* e..,,0.,,4 ,.0,, ,.!,. 2 ,2,, 2.391 2,,., ..’. 0.,,7 0,,+, 0.,,. ,.,., O..*. ,.0.. , ,,0 0.70 ,, ,3, 2.s1. 2 ..,. 0.,,, 0.3.3 ..,M ..,,, 0.,2, ,.,,, 1 .,- ,. .,, ;::;; . . . . . ,.m ..**2 ..37, ...... 0.”, ,,,,, ,.,4, 2.,0. 2.,,. 0.?0 ... * 0,3,, O.,*J ..,,, 0,,,. ,. ,7, ,.37, 2.,63 2.760 2.9,, ,.00 0.,,, 0.,,, 0.,9...... I.* ,.2.2 ,.,0. ,,.,, 2.s,, ,..,, ,.,. ..,,. . ..0. 0.’., 0.,,, ,.0,. ,.,23 ,..,, ,. ,.m O.NO 0.4.. 0,.,, e.,m 6.,2.04. 3,.,, ,.0,3 ,.24, , ..,0 *.,. ..203 ..4,4 0..,, . ..U ..... 2.90. 3., ,, ,.0.7 ,.,,, ,..., 2.73. ,... o.m. 0.,,, ..6,2 ..,.’ ,.0,. ,.,72 2.?.5 ,.,,. , . ..5 ,.,., l.- 0.20, 0..2. . ..., ..,,4 ,.0.. ,.,H 2.97* ,.,,, * . . . . 2.7,, ,... ,.,,, 0..2. ..*., . ..62 ,..,. ,.2,. 3.007 3,,22 ,.,,3 2..,. ,.,0 0.,,3 0.4,, O..* 0.,., 1 .0...... 3..33 3,2,. , .,=. 2.,37 ,... 0.,,4 . ..., ..6,, 0,,,, $..9, ,.,,, 3.03. ,.,,3 ,.,3. 2 .0,7 ,.,0 0.,,4 . ...7 0,’,, 0,.,, 1.,02 ,.3,, , .,., 1.077 ,.,,. 2. e,, 1..?7 3,, !0 ,.W 0.,,, ..,.0 0,.,, ,,... *.,,9 ,.,32 ,,,,, ,.,9, 3.114 ,.3,7 2,1. 0.2,, 0,4.3 0.4.7 . . . . . *, *,, ,.3,9 , ,,., . . . . . 3.130 ,,,:. 2.,. ..220 0..43 . ...0 ..8,, ,.,,. ,.,,, , .,7. 2.,,. 3. 1., 3.,,. 2.3. ..22, ...... 73 0,,,, ,.,2s ,.3,, ,.,,, ,... ,,,3, 3.159 3.,8: 0,,,, . ..., ,.676 0,,., ,.,,0 ,.,,. , .,0, ,.,.4 3.171 ,.,,, 2.,0 ..22, 0..,, ..,,, 0,,.. ,.,,4 ,,U2 1.,8, , .9,, 3.,83 ,..,, Source: Ref. ? Table 27. U.S. DOT Final Accident Prediction from Initial Prediction and Accident History (5 years of accident data (T = 5)) Initial Prediction Numkr 01 AwO&n& N, In T veam fmm Bmlc Model, a o,~345 ~789 ,011 ,21314 0.0, 0.,...... 0 . ..00 0.120 0.,.. 0.,.0 0.24. 0.,,. . .. . 0.2,, 0.2s, 0.,,, ::% ::R ::ti ::R ::% 0“” os~o ..0, 0.27. 0.32. 0.37s 0.+3. 0..,, 0.,3, ..,., .,6,, 0.’OO 0.”” .,0, 0.6.9 0,,,, !!U {:E !;fi {:!; ;:O 0.307 0.3.. 0,4:1 ..4,, ..,,. 0,,,, 0.6,, . . . . O,o~@ ..090 0.152 0.214 0.274 0,,,8 0.400 .,,6, 0.., 0.,,. ..,.6 0..., 0.,,. :::; ::% :::; 0..,> 0. !.. .. 167 ..233 ..,,, 0.167 0.433 ,.,00 ,.,4> 0.63, 0.7w 0.,4, . ..., ,.sw .,,6, .,.. . ..39 0.:10 0.181 0.23> .,3,3 0.,,. 0, ... 0.,,, 0,6.. ,,6,7 O.,.* 0..,. ..0, 0.3.4 0..1s 0.494 ..,.9 .,.4. 0,7,, 0.,9. 0,... ::% ;:fi: ‘.”” .,0. ::;; ::::; :::: ::;:: .. 3.4 0.442 0.s21 ..600 . ..7. 0.,,8 ,.,3, . ..9 0.91s 0.9.. ,..,, ;:2 ..o~, 0.11. 0.218 0.3.0 0,3,, 0,.6, ..,47 0,6,, 0.,,, 0,7,4 0.,,...... ,, 0.057 .. :+3 0.229 0.1]. O...O . ..86 ..37, ..4,7 0.,. ,,,,,,..00 ,,42:::%; :::;“’” ,.,,,120’ ...,, ..200 0.311 0..22 ..,33 0,...... 0’7”’0.978 0’02’,..,9 ::::: ..,. 0.109 0.?3. .. 16. 0.4?! . ..!. .. 7., 0.873 ,.OW , . ..4 . ..0 ,.,,7 ,.2,, ,.,,, ,.m, ,,6,. ,, ,6. ,,,,, ..,,, 0.~.2 . ..00 0.33s :::<: ..8,. 0..,4 ,..,, ,.,,, ,.,., ,.,,. ,.,. 0.,3, . . . . . ,. .,, ..,,, . ...7 1.oi3 ,. ,60 ,.307 ,..s3 ,.40. ;:% i:% ‘.’” 2,062 0.., ,,,24 ,,, >d ~:yg 2,,. > 0.,., 0.294 0. ..7 0...0 0.>,, . . . . . :.0s? ,.2,2 ,.s.s ,.,,, ,,.7, ..,0 ..I., .. 3.: 0.4.3 . ..21 .,7,, . ..3. ,,.,, ,.,,3 0,,0 0.1:: 0.114 0..7. 0..- . ...0 ..,.2 ,.,,, ,.,,, “’” ““e ::;% ,.,.* 2.042 J.200 ::Y: 0.,. 1 ..., ,..,. 1.?33 ;:;: ::;~ ,.,,, ... $7 0.312 0.407 0.63: 0.,, > 0.,,, ,.0. 6.,6. 0.,,...... ,.,0 0,,., 0.33, . . . . . ::%: 0“32 ‘0”0 ::~ :::~~ :::: ::~~ ~;~ ::~ :.17. 2.34. ::% O.*.4 1.01s 1.10s ,.,,. ,.,2. ,..,. ,.,,, ,,,., ,,3,8 ,,,4, ,,,0 0.,.. 0.138 0.s!0 0.603 0,8,, ,..,s ,.:00 ,.,,, ,.,., ,,7,, ,.,,, ,.0., ,.30 2.23* ;:~ 2.,,, ..,~. 0. 3.2 0.s16 0..?0 0.,., ,.0,, ,,2,, ,.,,, ,.,. ! ,,,,, ,.,,. ,... 2..0. 0.170 ..3.3 ..s21 ..697 0.873 ,,.,,,...8 :::3: ::~ ,.s>. ,.,,, ,.,2, ::!% :::% ,,,,0 ,,,,, ::% ,..,. ,.,. 0.171 0.3.v ..324 .. 703 ..,,0 ,..0 0.,7S 0.3S1 0.330 0.70S 0.884 ,..6s ,.2.3 ,..,, ‘“w “’” 1:~~ 2.11s 2.,,. 2..., $::: ,.,. 0.174 0.3.4 0.,3, 0.7,3 ,,,,, ,,,,, ,.,,, ,,,3, ‘.’w ‘.7m ,.,., ,,s. 0.17. 0.33. 0.,3, ,.7,, ..,,. ,,,,. ,,,,, ,,.,, :::( ::;: ,,..O ;::% ;:%: ~.,o. 2.-7 ::: :::; ::y;: ::fi :::: 0.,., ,.0., ,.2., ,.,., ,..,, ,.,., ,.,,, ,.,,2 ,,=, ;:;: ::% 0.907 ,..., 1.271 1..s3 ,..!,6 ,., !. 2.OM ,.,.2 ,.,6. 2 .,, 2.s.7 :.,m 0.179 0.3.s 0.34s 0.72. ..9,, . . . . . ,.277 ,..60 ,.44, ,,.,6 ,.w, ;::.: 2.,7. ,.,,, ,.,,. 2 .,0 ..,@O ..161 0.3.7 0.731 ..,,. ,.0,, ,.20, ,...s . . . . . ,..,, . . . . . ,.,. :::~ ::~ ::::: ::= ,,9,. ,.,., . . . . . ,,4,, ,,4,, ,,e,, ,,024 ,,m* ;:= ::% ::;fl 2 ... 1.106 :.291 *.4= ,.,,,. ,.,,, 2.0,0 ,.2,, 2.,, ~.222 :::; ::* ,.>,0 0.,., 0.367 0.ss3 0.73. ::E: ,.,., ,.**, ,..,0 ,.6.s ,,,,, ,.OU 2.,,. I 1 I Source: Ref. 7 75 .—.. Chapter III Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation TT = Factor for thru trains per The equations for calculatiW day values of the factors are listed in TS = Factor for switch trains per Table 28 for the fatal accident prob- day ability fomula and Table 29 for the UR = Factor for urban or rural injury accident probability formula. crosstig To simplify use of tbe fomulae, the values of the factors have been tabu- The probability of an injury accident lated for typical values of crossing given an accident is: characteristics and given in Tables 30 and 31 for the fatal accident and 1- P(FA]A) injury accident probability fomulae, P(IAIA) = ------respectively. (l+ CIx~x TKx UR) 5. Florida DOT Accident Prediction where: Model P(FA’IA)= Probability of a fatal ac- The Florida State University de- cident, given an accident veloped an accident prediction model CI = Formula constant = 4.280 for the Florida Department of Trans- MS = Factor for maximu timeta- portation. The mdel was developed ble train speed using stepwise regression analysis, TK = Factor for nmber of tracks transformation of data, dwmy varia- UR = Factor for urban or rural bles, and transformation of the acci- crossing dent prediction mdel to its original scale. The resulting model is as follows. Table 28. Equations for Crossing Table 29. Equations for Crossing Characteristic Factors for U.S. DOT Characteristic Factors for U.S. DOT Fatal Accident Probability Fomula Injury Accident Probability Fomula FatalAccidentProbabilityFormula: I“j”ry Accident Probability Form”la: 1 P(FAIA)= ------1 - P(FA\A) (I+cFx MS XTTXTSXUR) P(:IA IA),,= ...... _ (l+ CIXMSXTKXUR) CrossingCharacterl.stic Equationfor Crossing Fa’tor CharacteristicFactor Crossing Characteristic Equation for Crossing Factor Characteristic- Formulaconstant CF = 695 Maxim”.timetable Fatal accident P(FAIA) - See Table 28 trainspeedfactor MS= ms-’.074 probability Thr” trainsper day -0.1025 Form”la constant CI = 4.280 factor m=(tt+l) Maximum cimet.ble train MS = ~~~~i~~k Suit.htrainper day 0.1025 speed factOr factor TS = (tt + 1) Numberof tracksfactor TK=e urban– Ruralcrossing urban– Ruralcrossing ~R = ,0.1880.. “R = ,0.1844”. factor factor where: ms = maximum timetable train speed,mph tt = numberof thru trainsper day where: m. = maxim”. timetable train speed,mph ts = ““mherof switchcr.i”sper day tk = total“umberof tracksat crossing .r = 1, “rba”crossing .r . 1, urbancross,ng = o, ruralcrossing O, ruralcrossing Source: Ref. 3 Source: Ref. 3 76 Chapter III Assessment of Crosstig Safety and Operation Table 30. Factor Values for U.S. DOT Table 31. Factor Values for U.S. DOT Fatal Accident Probability Formula Injury Accident Probability Fomula I.”j”.y Accident Probabili ty Form”la: FatalAc.ide”tProbabilityF.rm”l.: P(FAIA) = ------!------1 - P(FA]A) (l+ CFXMSXTTXTSXUR) P(IA\A) = ------(l+ CIXMSXTKXUR) where: CF = 695.0,formulaconstant UR = 1.207,urban cros*i”g where: P(FAIA) = Fatal accident probability, = 1.000, rural crossing, a“d See Tables28 a“d 30 CI = 4.280,formulaconstant Maximum Thru Switch UR = 1.202,urban crossing Timetable Trains Traifis = 1.000, rural crossing, a“d TrainSpeed~ Per Day ~ Per Day TS 1 1.000 0 1.000 0 1.000 Maxi.”m Total 5 0.178 1 0.931 1 1.074 Ti”,etable Number 10 0.084 2 0.894 2 1.119 TrainSpeed & Of Tracks ~ 15 0.055 3 0.868 3 1.1s2 20 0.040 4 0.848 4 1.179 1 1.000 o 1.000 25 0.032 5 0.832 5 1.202 5 0.687 1 1.125 30 0.026 6 0.819 6 2.221 10 0.584 2 1.265 40 0.019 7 0.808 7 1.238 15 0.531 3 1.423 50 0.015 9 0.790 9 1.266 20 0.497 5 1.800 60 0.012 10 0.782 10 1.279 25 0.472 6 2.025 70 0.010 20 0.732 20 1.366 30 0.452 7 2.278 80 0.009 30 0.703 30 1.422 40 0.423 8 2.562 90 0.008 40 0.683 40 1.464 50 0.401 9 2.882 100 0.007 50 0.668 50 1.497 60 0.385 10 3.241 70 0.371 15 5.836 80 0.360 20 10.507 90 0.350 Source: Ref. 3 100 0.341 Source: Ref. 3 1. t,,= -8.075+ .3181.S,+ .484l“T + .437l“A + ~SD = Actual minimm stopping sight distance along highway .387lnV + (.28- .28~ )*:X+ v MCSD ❑ Clear sight distance (ability (.33- 1.23- ):$+ .15 (“. crossbucks) to see approaching train along the highway, recorded la. y = exp (.968LP + 1.1OY)/ 4 for the four quadrants estab- lished by the intersection of 2. ta = -8.075+ .318l.St+ .166lnT + .2931.A + the railroad tracks and road) .387lnVv+ (.28- .28- ) + RSSD ❑ Required stopping sight dis- tance on wet pavement .225 (L - 2)***- .233(gates) St = Maximm speed of train 2a. y = exp (.938ta+ 1.109)/ 4 T= Yearly average of the nwber of trains per day t= In of predicted nwber of ac- where: a tdents in four year period at crossings with active traffic A = Vehicles per day or annual control devices average daily traffic In of predicted nmber of ac- L = Nmber of lanes ‘P = idents in four year period at in = Logarithm to the base e Chapter III Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation crossing with passive traffic where: control devices Vv = Posted vehicle speed limit R = Safety Index unless geometries dictate a Y = Adjusted accident prediction lower speed value y = predicted number of accidents X = 90 when less than ten school per year at crossing buses per day traverse the crossing Notes: *This variable omitted if = 85 when ten or more school crossing is flagged or the buses per day and active calculation is less than traffic control devices exist zero. without gates **This variable omitted if = 80 when ten or more school sight restriction is due to buses’ per day and passive parallel road. traffic control devices exist Y,+f*Thisvariable omitted when gates are present. In general, those crossings that rank highest on the hazard index are The predicted number of acci- selected to be investigated in the dents per year, y, is adjusted for field by a diagnostic team as dis- accident history as follows: cussed in the next section. Other crossings may be selected for a field Y=ytiH /(y)(P) investigation because they are uti- lized by buses, passenger trains, and where: vehicles transporting hazardous ma- terials. The FHPM requires that the Y = Accident prediction adjusted potential danger to large numbers of for accident history people at crossings used on a regular Y = Accident prediction based on basis by passenger trainsp school the regression model buses, transit buses, pedestrians, H = Number of accidsnts for six– bicyclists, or by trains and/or motor year history or since year of vehicles carrying hazardous materials last improvement be one of the considerations in P = Number of years of the acci- establishing a priority schedule. dent history period Some States incorporate these consid- erations into a hazard index; thus A simple method of rating each providing an objective means of as- crossing from zero to 90 was derived sessing the potential danger to large based mathematically on the accident numbers of people. prediction. This method, entitled Safety (Hazard) Index, is used to Some States, however, consider rank each crossing. A Safety Index these factors subjectively when se- of 70 is considered safe (no further lecting the improvement projects improvement necessary). A Safety among the crossings ranked highest by Index of 60, or one accident every the hazard index. Other States uti- nine years, would be considered mar- lize a point system so that crossings ginal. The Safety Index is calcu- high on the hazard index receive a lated as follows: specified number of points, as do crossings with a specified number of R= X(l-ti~) buses, passenger trains, and vehicles transporting hazardous materials. 78 Chapter III Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operatio]~ Other States utilize the systems ciencies are identified, couutermeas.- approach, considering all crossings ures can be recommended. within a specified system, e.g., all crossings along a passenger train 1. Diagnostic Study Team Method corridor. The procedure recommended in the Crossings may also be selected original Handbook, adopted in FNA !;~ for field investigation as a result -Y Safety Engineering StudieL of requests or.complaints from the Procedural Guide, and also adopted in public. State district offices, concept by several States~ is th,? local governmental agencies, other diagnostic study team. This term i~~ State agencies, and railroads may al- used to describe a simple survey proc- so request that a crossing be inves- edure, utilizing experienced indiv- tigated for improvement. A change in iduals from various agencies and highway or railroad operations over a disciplines. The procedure involves crossing may justify the considera- the diagnostic team!s evaluation tion of that crossing for improve- the crossing as to its deflc~encl~~. . . ment. For example, a new residential and judgmental consensus as to the or commercial development may sub- recommended improvements. The detailf; stantially increase the volume of of the procedure are discussed below, highway traffic over a crossing such that its hazard index would greatly The primary factors to be consid- increase. ered in the assignment of people to the diagnostic team are first, that the team is interdisciplinary in C. Engineering Study nature, and second, that it is repres- entative of all groups having re.. Engineering studies should be sponsi”bilityfor the safe operation conducted of those railroad-highway of crossings so that each of the grade crossings that have been selec- vital factors relating to the opera-- ted from the priority schedule. The tional and physical characteristics purpose of these studies is to: of the crossing may be properly iden-- tified. Individual team members arc] 0 review the crossing and its envi- selected on the basis of their spe-- ronment; cific expertise and experience. The? overall structure of the team is 0 identify the nature of the prob- built upon three desired areas of re-- lem; and, sponsibility: 1) local responsibili-- ty; 2) administrative responsibility; 0 recommend alternative improve- and, 3) advisory capability. ments. For the purpose of the diagnos-- An engineering study consists of tic team, the operational and physi-- a review of the site characteristics, cal characteristics of crossings may the existing traffic control system, be classified into three areas: 1~ and the highway and railroad Opera- traffic operations; 2) traffic con-. tional characteristics. Based on a trol devices; and, 3) administra.. review of these conditions an assess- tion. Each of these areas should bc? ment of existing and potential haz- represented by one or more of the ards can be made. If safety defi- diagnostic team members as discussed below. ?9 Chapter III Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation Traffic Operations. This area 0 Regulatory agency official includes both vehicular and train 0 Railroad operating official traffic operation. The responsibili- ties of highway traffic engineers and The diagnostic team should study railroad operating personnel chosen all available data and inspect the for team membership include, among crossing and its surrounding area other criteria, specific tiowledge of with the objective of determining the highway and railroad safety, types of conditions that affect safety and vehicles and trains, and their vol- traffic operations. In conducting wes and speeds. the study, a questionnaire is recom- mended to provide a structured ac- Control Devices. Highway main- count of the crosstig characteristics tenance engtieers, signal control and their effect on safety. engineers, and railroad signal engi- neers provide the best source for Figure 15 shows a sample ques- expertise in this area. Responsibil- tionnaire that could be altered to ities of these tem members include reflect individual agencies’ needs. knowledge of active traffic control As an exaple, one State’s question- systems, interconnection with adja- naire is shown in Appendix D. The cent signalized highway intersec- questionnaire shown in Figure 15 is tions, traffic control devices for divided into four sections: 1) dis- vehicle operations in general and at tant approach and advance warning; 2) crosstigs, and crossing signs and immediate highway approach; 3) cross- pavement markings. ing proper; and, 4) s-ry and anal- ysis. Administration. It is necessary to recognize that many of the prob- Each of the sections that ap- lems relating to crossing safety plies to the approaches is further involve the apportionment of adminis- divided into subsections. To conduct trative and financial responsibility. the study, traffic cones are placed This should be reflected in the mem- on the approach as indicated in Fig- bership of the diagnostic team. The ure 16. primary responsibility of these rep- resentatives is to advise the team of Cone A is placed at the point specific policy and atiinistrative where the driver first obtains infor- rules applicable to modification of mation that a crossing is ahead, usu- crossing traffic control devices. ally from the advance warning sign, pavement markings, or the crossing To ensure appropriate represen- itself. The distance from tinecross- tation on the diagnostic team, it is ing is based on the decision sight suggested that a team be comprised of distance, the distance required for a at least a traffic engineer with driver to detect a crossing and for- safety experience and a railroad sig- mulate actions needed to avoid col- nal engineer. Following are other liding with trains. This distance is disciplines that might be reDresented also the beginning of the approach on th~ diagnostic t~m. “ zone as discussed in Chapter II. 0 Railroad administrative official Table 32 provides a range of 0 Highway administrative official distances from point A to the stop 0 Human factors engineer line, dependent upon design vehicle 0 Law enforcement officer speed. The maximm distances are 80 Chapter III Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operaticn ~ATIONAL DATA: Street Name: City: — Railroad: Crassi”g Number: — VEHICLE DATA : No. of ADProach h.,,: Approach Speed Limit: AADT : — Approach Curvature: APPr.ach Gradient: — ~AIN DATA: No. of Tracks: Train Speed Limit: Trains Per Day : — Track Gradients: — sECTION 1 - Distance APDreach a“d Advance warning 1. 1s advance warning of railro.d crossing available? _ If so, what devices are used? — 2. Do advance warnin8 devices alert drivers LO the presence of the cros,i”g a“d al low time to react to .ppro.chi”g train traffic? 3. Do apP,oach grades, roadway turvat”re , or obstructions limit che vie” of advance warning devices? _ If s., ho,, ? — h. Are advance warning devices readable under night, rainy, snowy, or fo~~y co”ditio”s? — SECTION 11 - Imediate High”ay AD Droach 1. What maximum safe approach speed “ill existing sight distance *.pport? 2. Is that speed equal to or above the speed limit o“ that part of the highwey? 3. If“o,,whathasbee”d.”,, 0. ,easO”ably,.”ldbed.”., t. bring this to the dri.er, s atte”ti o”? 4. What restrictive ob~tr”ctio”s to $ight distance mi8ht be removed? 5. Do approach grades or roadway curvature restrict the driver >s view of the crossing? 6. Are railroad crossing signals or other active .ar”i”g device* operating properly a“d visible co adequately war” drivers of appr.aching tra.”s? SEmlON 111 - Crossi”E~ 1. From a vehicle stopped at the crossi”e, IS the si8ht distance down the track to an approaching train adeq”at”e for the driver to cross the tracks safely? 2. Are nesrby intersection traffic si8n.ls or other cOntrol deice affecti. ~ the cr.ssin8 OPerat iOn? _ If so, ho”? 3. 1s the stoppl”g area at the crossing adequately marked? 4. DO vehicles required by la” to stop at all crossi.8s Present a hazard at the crossina? _ why? 5. Do co”ditlons at the crossi”~ ..”tribute to, or are they co”d.cive co, a vehicle stalling at or o. the crossing? __ 6. Are nearby signs, crossing si8”a1s, etc. adeq.etelyProtectedt..i.i.i..hazardst.aPPrOach$.atraffi.?_- 7. 1s the crossing surface satisfactory? _ If “at. ho” and why? 8. 1s surface of highway approaches satisfactory? _ If not, why? SECTION IV - S.mar? and A“alysi* 1. List major attributes of the crossing which may co”trib. te to .afety. 2. List, features which reduce crossing safety. 3. Possible “ethods for improving safety at the crossi”8: 4. Overall eval.atio” of crossi”~: 5. Other come”,,: Figure 15. Sample Questionnaire for Diagnostic Team Evaluation 81 Chapter III Assessment of Crosstig Safety and Operation A train at this point allow. vehicle at ,, B,% to safely prOc-ed a.rOss grad. crOssing IL-- 7 Iiiiiiiiiil TrafficCO”. C ( N“”Reco”ery z.”. TrafficCone I I --Q A Figure 16. Study Positions for Diagnostic Team Table 32. Distances to Establish applicable to crossings with a high Study Positions for Diagnostic level of complexity. Te= Evaluation Cone B is placed at the point Design Distance from Stop Line* where the driver must be able to see Vehicle to Cone to Cone an approaching train so that a safe Speed (mph) A (ft) B (ft) stop can be mde if necessary. This point is located at the end of the 450 - 625 210 approach zone and the beginning of :; 600 - 825 325 the nonrecovery zone. 50 750 - 1025 475 55 875 - 1150 555 Distances to point B are based 60 1000 - 1275 645 on the design vehicle speed and are 70 1100 - 1450 850 shown in Table 32. These distances are stopping sight distances to the *The distance from the stop line is stop line (15 feet from the track) assumed to be 15 feet from nearest and are identical to the values in rail. Table 36, Chapter IV (less the 15 feet). In calculating these dis- 82 Chapter III Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation tances, a level grade is asswed. If 0 Potential location of standing this is not the case, an allowance railroad cars should be mde for the positive or negative effects of grade. o Possibility of removal of sight obstructions Cone C is placed at the stop line, assumed to be 15 feet from the o Availability of information fOr nearest rail. proper stop or go decisions by the driver The questions in Section I of the questionnaire (Figure 15) are The questions in Section III concerned with the fOllowing. aPPIY tO observations adjacent to the crOssing, i.e. cone C. Of particular 0 Driver awareness of the crossing concern, especially when the driver must stop, is the ability to see down 0 Visibility of the crossing the tracks for approaching trains. Also, intersecting streets and drive- 0 Effectiveness of advance warning ways should be observed to detemine signs and signals whether intersecting traffic could affect the operation of highway vehi- 0 Geometric features of the highway cles over the crossing. Questions in this section relate to the following. Men responding to questions in this section, the crosstig should be ob- 0 Sight distance down the tracks served at the beginning of the ap- proach zone, the location of traffic 0 Pavement markings cone A. 0 Conditions conducive to vehicle The questions in Sectfon II are beconing stalled or stopped on the concerned with whether or not the crosstig driver has sufficient information to detect an approaching train and make 0 Operation of vehicles required by correct decisions about crossing law to stop at crossing safely. Observations for responding to questions in this section should 0 Signs and signals as fixed object be made from cone B. Factors consid- hazards ered by these questions include the following. 0 Opportunity for evasive action by the driver o Driver awareness of approaching trains In Section IV of the question- naire the diagnostic team is given o Driver dependence on crossing sig- the opportunity to do the following. nals o List major features that contrib- o Obstruction of view of train ap- ute to safety proach o List features that reduce crossing o Roadway geometries diverting driv- safeky er attention 83 Chapter III Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation 0 Suggest methods for improving After the questionnaire has been safety at the crossing completed, the team is reassembled for a short critique and discussion o Give an overall evaluation of the period. Each member should summa- crossing rize his observations pertaining to safety and operations at the cross- o Provide comments and suggestions ing. Possible improvements to con- relative to the questionnaire sider include the following. In addition to completing the 0 Closing of crossing -- Available questionnaire, team members should alternate routes for highway traf- take photographs of the crossing from fic. both the highway and the railroad approaches. 0 Site Improvements -- Removal of obstructions in the sight trian- Current and projected vehicle gle, highway realignment, improved ad train operation data should be cross section, drainage, or illu- obtained from the team members. In- mination. formation on the use of the crossing by buses, school buses, trucks trans- 0 Crossing Surfaces -- Rehabilita- porting hazardous material and pas- tion of the highway structure, the senger trains should be provided. track structure, or both. Instal- The evaluation of the crossing should lation of drainage and subgrade include a thorough examination of ac- filter fabric. cident frequency, accident types, and accident circumstances. Both train- 0 Traffic Control Devices -- Instal- vehicle accidents and vehicle-vehicle lation of passive or active cOn- accidents should be examined. trol devices and improvement of train detection equipment. Team members should drive each apprOach several times tO become fa- The results and recommendations miliar with all conditions that exist of the diagnostic team should be doc- at, or near, the crossing. All traf- umented, Recommendations should be fic control devices (signs, signals, presented promptly to programming and markings, and train detection cir- implementation authorities. cuits) should be examined as part of this evaluation. If the crossing is 2. Other Engineering Studies equipped with signals, the railroad signal engineer should activate them In addition to the factors men- so that their alignment and light tioned abo,vethere are other consid- intensity may be observed. erations to complete a comprehensive examination of a crossing. These are Two principal references to be briefly described below. used for this evaluation are the Mnual on Uniform Traffic Control De- Traffic Flow Operations. Impor- vices and the Traffic Control Devices tant considerations for traffic flow Handbook. Also, A User!s Guide to operations are the traffic volume Positive Guidance provides informa- (daily and peak how), the mix of ve- tion for conducting evaluations of hicle types, their operating speeds, traffic control devices. the capacity of the road, delays, and 84 Chapter III Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation queue lengths. These should be re- lic crossings are now eligibls for viewed in terms of their status and improvement with Federal funds, the how they might be affected by im- systems approach provides a compre- provemen~s at-the crossing. Tw~ par- hensive method for addressing safety ticular concerns are access across and operations at crossings. the railroad by emergency vehicles and the uss of the crossing by spe- The systems approach considers cial vehicles, i.e. trucks transport- the railroad-highway grade crossing ing hazardous material and buses. to be a part, or a component of, a Standard data collection procedures larger transportation system. For for evaluating these factor; are con- this purpose, the transportation sys- tained in FWA Js Highway Safet3~Engi- tem is defined as a land surface sys- neering Studies, Procedural Guide or tem consisting of both highway and in the Institute of Transportation railroad facilities. The intersec- Engineer’s Manual of Traffic Engi- tion of these two transportation neering Studies. modes affects both safety and opera- tions of the entire system. The Commwity Separation. The engi- objective of the systems approach for neering field survey should also con- crossings is to improve both safety sider the impacts of crossing opera- and operations of the total system or tions on the commmity. Considera- segments of the system. tions include frequency and type of train operations, pedestrian and bi- The systems approach may be cycle access, and number of crossings applied to a segment of the rail com- in the commmity needed to provide ponent of the system. For example, to adequate vehicle access. improve operating efficiency and safety over a specified segment of a rail line, all crossings would be D. The Systems Approach considered in the evaluation. Thus, the systems approach is often called The procedures for evaluating the corridor approach. Or, the sys- railroad-highway grade crossings are tems approach may be applied to an generally based upon the physical and urban area, city, or commmity. In operational characteristics of indi- this case, all public crossings with- vidual crossings. A typical crossing in the jurisdiction of a public agen- safety program consists of a number cy are evaluated and programmed for of individual crossing projects. improvements. The desired outcome is Finding for crossing safety is ap- a combination of engineering improve- proved on the basis of the require- ments and closures such that both ments of these individual projects. safety and operations are highly Therefore, crossing evaluation, pro- improved. gramming, and construction follows traditional highway project implemen- Assume that a segment of rail tation procedures. line is to be upgraded for mit train operations or high speed passenger The concept of using the systems servics. This type of change in rail approach tO railroad - highway grade operations would provide an idsal op- crossing improvements was etianced portunity for the application of the when crossings off the Federal-aid systems approach. Ths rail line may system were made eligibls for Feder- be upgraded by track and signal im- ally fuuded programs. Since all pub- provements for train operations that 85 Chapter III Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation might cause a need for adjustments in each crossing, removal of sight ob- train detection circuits of active structions, rerouting of special traffic control devices. Also, modi- vehicles and emergency vehicles, and fications of train operations and railroad relocation should be consid- speeds may require the installation ered. of active traffic control devices at selected crossings. Federal, State, and local cross- ing funding programs should be re- A system approach developed for viewed to identify the eligibility of crossings in a specified commmity or each crossing improvement for public political subdivision allows for a funding. Other funding sources in- comprehensive analysis of highway clude railroads, urban renewal finds, traffic operations. Thus , unnece- land development funds, and other ssary crossings can be closed and public or private funding sources. improvements made at other crossings. This approach enhances the accepta- There are several advantages of bility of crossing closures by local the systems approach. A group Of officials and citizens. crossings may be improved more effi- ciently through the procurement of Initially, all crossings in the materials and equipment in quantity, system, both public and private, thus reducing product procurement and should be identified and classified transpOrtatiOn costs. Usually, only by jurisdictional responsibility, one agreement between the State, e.g. city, Comty, and State for local jurisdiction, and railroad is public crossings, and parties to the necessary for all of the improve- agreement for private crossings. In- ments. Train detection circuits may formation should be gathered on high- be designed as a part of the total way traffic patterns, train Opera– railroad signal system rather than tions, emergency access needs, land custom designed for each individual uses, and growth trends. The inven– crossing. Electronic components, tory records for the crossings should relay houses, and signal transmission be updated to reflect current opera- equipment may be more efficiently tional and physical characteristics. utilized. Labor costs may be si~if- A diagnostic team, consisting of rep- icantly reduced. Travel time of con- resentatives from all of the public struction crews may be reduced when agencies having jurisdiction over the prOjects are in close proximity of identified crossings and the rail- each other. roads operating over the crossings, should make an on-site assessment of Railroads benefit from the ap- each crossing as described in the plication of the systems approach in previous section. The diagnostic several ways. Train speeds may be team!s recommendations should consid- increased due to safety improvements er, among other things, crossing clo- at crossings. Maintenance costs may sure, installation of active traffic be reduced if a sufficient number of control devices, upgrading existing crossings are closed. Other improve- active devices, elimination by grade ments may efiance the efficiency of separation, surface improvements~ and rail operations. improvements in the train detection circuits. In addition, modification Safety improvements are an obvious of train operations near, and at, benefit to the public. Other bene- 86 Chapter III Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation fits include reduced vehicular de- o Installation of 12-inch lenses in lays and better access for emergency crossing signals vehicles. o Relocation of train loading areas One impediment to the systems approach is that most Federal and 0 Closure of crossings State crossing safety improvement programs provide funding for safety o Removal of switch track improvements only. Also, safety im- provement pro jects may be limited to o Installation of traffic control crossings that rank high on a prior- si~s pertinent to crossing geo- ity schedule. Another impediment is metric the involvement of multiple jurisdic- tions. The Florida Department of Trans- portation (DOT) and other States have The Federal Highway Administra- adopted policies incorporating the tion (FHWA) has endorsed the systems systems approach as a part of their aPProach and its resultant identifi- crossing safety improvement programs. cation of low-cost improvements to The Florida DOT selects track seg- crossing safety and operations. The ments on the basis of the following FHWA has sponsored a demonstration conditions. project that utilized the systems approach to improve crossings along a 0 Abnormally high percentage of rail corridor in Illinois. crossings with passive traffic control devices only In order to eliminate the need for pro ject agreements with each 0 Freight trains carrying hazardous local agency, the Illinois Commerce material in an environment that Commission issued a single order cov- presents an unacceptable risk of a ering the work to be performed at catastrophic event nine locations. This accelerated the project and reduced labor intensive 0 Passenger train routes work. The FRWA and the Illinois Department of Transportation (DOT) 0 Plans for increased rail traffic, agreed that minimal plan submittals especially commuter trains would be required of the local agen- cies, and the local agencies agreed to perform the necessary work at E. References mutually agreed upon lump sum prices mder the supervision of Illinois DOT 1. Box, Paul C. and Oppenlander, J.C. district representatives. Manual of Traffic Engineering Stud- =, Washington, DC: Institute of Improvements made as part of the Transportation Engineers, 1976. demonstration project in Illinois included the following. 2. Code of Federal Regulations, Title Q, Washington, DC: Superintendent o Removal of vegetation of Documents, Government Printing Of- fice, published annually. o Pavement widening 3. Farr, E.H. and J.S. Hitz, Accident o Reconstruction of approaches Severity Prediction Formula for Rail- Chapter III Assessment of Crossing Safety and Operation Highway Crossings, Washington, DC: 12. Schoppert, David W. and Dan W. Federal Highway Administration, Fed- Hoyt, Factors Influencing Safety at eral Railroad Administration, Report HiEhway-Rail Grade Crossings, Wash- FHWA-RD-83/092, JUIY 1983. ington, DC: Highway Research Board, NCHRP Report 50, 1968. 4. Federal-Aid Highway Program Manu- g, Washington, DC: Federal Highway 13. Traffic Control Devices Handbook, Administration, updated periodically. Washington, DC: Federal Highway Ad- ministration, 1983. 5. Federal Highway Administration Survey of Region and Division Of- 14. Update Ma.nl]a.l: Nat.ional ------Rai 1road fices, unpublished 1984. Highway Cros:–..~sin. _...Tnvent~,-... Washing- ton, DC: U.S. Departm,Ientof Trans- 6. GOOdell - Grivas, Inc., Highway portation, 1976. Safety Engineering Studies, Procedur- &Guide,— Washington, DC: Federal Hi gzhway Administ~ati8n. FHWA-TS-81- 226, J~ne 1981. 7. Hitz, John and Mary Cross, Rail- Highway Crossing Resource Allocation Procedure User!s Guide, Washington, DC: Federal Highway Administration and Federal Railroad Administration, Report FHWA-IP-82-7, December 1982. 8. Manual on Uniform Traffic Control —Devices7 Washington, DC: Federal Highway Administration, 1978, Revised 1979, 1983, and 1984. 9. A Policy on Geometric Design of Highway and Streets, Washington, DC: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 1984. 10. Post, T.J., G.J. Alexander, and H. Lunenfeld, A Userts Guide to Posi- tive Guidance, Second edition, Wash- ington, DC: Federal Highway Adminis- tration, Report FHWA-TO-81-1, Decem- ber 1981. 11. Railroad/Highway Grade Crossing Accidents Involving Trucks Transport– ing Bulk Hazardous Materials, A Spe- cial Study, Washington, DC: National Transportation Safety Board., Report NTSB-HZM-81-2, September 1981. 88 IV. IDENTIFICATION OF MTE~ATIVES In the previous chapters, meth- al, offset by construction and opera- odologies for selecting and analyzing tional costs. potentially hazardous railroad-htgh- way grade crossings were presented. Decisions regarding whether the In this chapter, alternative safety crossing should be eliminated or oth- and operational improvements are dis- erwise improved through the installa- cussed. These alt.ernat.ives are pre- t.iOnof traffic control devices or sented by type: crossing elimination; site or surface improvements depends installation of passive traffic cOn- upon safety, operational, and cost trol devices; installation of active considerations. However, the Federal traffic control dev?.ces; site im- Highway Progrm Manual (FHPM) does provements; crossing surface improve- specify that ,,allcrossings Of rail- ments; and, removal of grade separa- roads and highways at wade shall be tions. From information conta%ned in eliminated where there is full cOn- this chapter, tinehighway engineer trol of access on the highway (a should select. several alternative freeway) regardless of the v~~me of ilnprOVementproposals for any partic- railroad or highway traffic”. ular crossing being studied. The *vdo- nothingt! alternative should also be The major benefits of crossing considered a proposal. Procedures elimination include reductions in ac- for selecting song the various cidents, reductions in highway vehi- alternatives are presented in Chapter cle delay, reductions in rail traffic V, Selection of Alternatives. delay, and reductions in maintenance costs of crossing surfaces and traf- fic control devices. A. Eltiinatfon Safety considerations include The first alternative that both train - involved accidents and should always be considered for a non-train involved accidents. Cer- railroad-highway at-grade crossing is tain vehicles, e.g. school buses and elimination. Elimination can be ac- trucks carrying hazardous materials, complished by grade separating the may be required to stop at all cross- crossing, closing the crossing to ings. These vehicles, that may stop highway traffic, or closure of the unexpectedly, my cause collisions crossing to railroad traffic through with other vehicles. In addition, the abandonment or relocation of the the presence of the crossing itself rail line. Elimination of a crossing may cause non-train accidents. For provides the highest level of cross exmple, when stopping suddenly to ing safety because the point of in- avoid a collis%on with an oncoming tersection between highway and rail- train, a driver may lose control of road is removed. However, the ef- the vehicle and collide with a road- fects of elimination on highway and railroad operations may be beneficial or adverse. Thus, the benefits of 14Federal - Aid Highway Program the elimination alternative are pri- Manual, 6-6-2-1, Washington, DC: marily safety and perhaps operation- Federal Highway Atiinistration. Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives side object. Thus, these types of imedi.ate hazard.”15 Therefore~ accidents would be avoided if an at- the existence of a crossing may grade crossing were eliminated. cause some delays to motorists who slow to look for a train. Four types of delay are imposed on highway traffic by crossings. Railroads also sometimes exper- ience delays due to the presence of o Delay due to trains occupying crossings, that may be alleviated crossings. Highway traffic should should the crossings be eliminated. slow down to look for trains, par- Some local jurisdictions restrict ticularly at crossings with pas- train speeds on the basis that cross- sive traffic control devices. Ve- ing accidents would be less severe hicles must stop and wait for a should they occur. Not only are de- train to clear a crossing. Fur- lays caused by trains moving at slow- thermore, there may be some delay er speeds, but also because trains to vehicles which arrive at a are slow to accelerate back to the crossing before those vehicles higher speed. Eliminating crossings that were delayed by a train have would also reduce train delay due to cleared the crossing. crossing accidents. o Delay to special vehicles. Cer- Another benefit of crossing tain vehicles may be required to elimination is the alleviation of stop at all crossings. These in- maintenance costs of surfaces and clude school buses, buses carrying traffic control devices. As dis- passengers for hire, and vehicles cussed in a later chapter on mainte- carrying hazardous materials. In nance, these costs can be quite sub- addition to the delay incurred by stantial for both highway agencies these special vehicles, their and railroads. stopping may also impose delay on following vehicles. Costs of eliminating crossings depend on whether the crossing is o Delay due to crossing surface. merely closed to highway traffic, a Crossing surfaces should be main- grade separation is constructed, or tained so that they provide a the highway or railroad is relocated. smooth surface. These costs are discussed along with other considerations for each type of o Delay due to crossing. This delay elimination alternative. occurs regardless of whether or not a train is approaching or oc- 1. Grade Separation cupying the crossing. Motorists usually slow down in advance of The Traffic Control Devices crossings so that they can stop Handbook suggests that grade separa- safely if a train is approaching. tions be considered specifically in In fact, this is a required safe driving practice in conformance with the Uniform Vehicle Code, 15u~if0~~ vehicle code and Model which states “...vehicles must Traffic Ordinances, Evanston, IL: stop within 15 to 50 feet from the National Comittee on Unifom Traffie crossing when a train is in such Laws and Ordinances, lg61, and Sup- proximity so as to constitute an plement, 1984. Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives the design of new highway routes and however, the costs associated with improvements to railroad facilities. relocation or consolidation can be A grade separation is recommended for quite high. highways that must cross high speed railroad passenger routes. Railroads provide advantages and disadvantages to communities. They While no Federal criteria for generate emplo~ent opportunities for grade separations exist, many States local citizens, provide transporta- have developed their own criteria or tion services to local industries and warrants. Specific criteria provide businesses, and are a source of tax a means to justify the expenditure of revenue to goverment agencies. But funds for separating grades at some the presence of railroads in commun- crossings while not separating grades ities can impose some disadvantages, at others. Obviously, costs and ben- such as vehicular delay and safety efits should be considered Ln the concerns at railroad-highway grade decision-making process; however, as crossings. In addition, the presence discussed in Chapter V, some costs of railroads may impose noise and and benefits are difficult to quanti- oVner environmental concerns upon the fy. Thus, engineering judgment plays comunity. Railroad relocation to a major role in selecting the grade the outer limits of the c-unity may separation alternative. be a viable alternative for alleviat- ing these concerns while retaining A few States consider the grade the advantages of having railroad separation alternative for a crossing service. Relocation generally in- if its priority index is above a volves the conplete rebuilding of specified value. A few other States railroad. facilities. Not only does utilize an exposure index such that this req,uiretrack construction, but if the product of train and highway also acquisition of right-of-way and traffic is above a specified value a construeti.on of drainage structures, separation of grade is considered. signals, communications, crossings and separations, station facilities, It is recommended that grade and utilities. separations be considered as an al- ternative for heavily traveled cross- In some cases, consolidation of ings. However, costs and benefits railroad.lines into comon corridors should be carefully weighed as grade or joint operations over the same separations are expensive to cOn- trackage may allow for the removal of struct and maintain. In some cases, some trackage through a comunity. it may be feasible to separate grades Railroad. consolidation may provide at one crossing in a comunity or benefits similar to those of railroad town and close mogt of the remaining relocation, and possibly at lower crossings. costs. 2. Highway and Railroad Relocation— Benefits of railroad relocation, in addition to those associated with Other alternatives to railroad- crossing safety and operations, in- highway grade crossing problems are clude: improved environment result- relocation of the highway or railroad ing from decreased noise and air pol- or railroad consolidation. These al- lution; improved land use and appear- ternatives provide a solution to oth- ance; and, improved railroad effi- er railroad impacts on comunlties; ciency. Railroad relocation and con- 91 Chapter IV Identtftcatton of Alternatives solidation may also provide for the eas. Planning for highway reloca- elimination of obstructions to emer- tions should consider routes that gency vehicles and the safer movement would eliminate at-grade crossings by of hazardous materials. Collective- avoidtng the need for access over ly, the tangible and intangible bene- railroad trackage or by providing fits may justify the relocation or grade separations. consolidation of railroad facilities, whereas, any one of the benefits 3. Closure alone might not provide sufficient justification for the expense. Closure of a railroad-highway grade crossing to highway traffic Many factors must be considered should always be considered as an al- in planning for railroad relocation. ternative. Numerous crossings were The new location should provide good built when railroads first began alignment, minimum grades, and ade- operating. Then, safety was not a quate drainage. Sufficient right-of- serious concern since horse drawn way should be available to provide carriages could easily stop and train the necessary horizontal clearances, speeds were low. additional rail facilities as service grows, and a buffer for abating noise Closure of at-grade crossings is and vibrations. The nmber of cross- normally accomplished by closing the ings should be minimized. highway. The nwber of crossings needed to carry highway traffic over The railroad corridor can be a railroad in a comunity ts i,nflu- further isolated from residential and enced by many of the characteristics comercial activity by zoning the of the comunity itself. A study of property adjacent to the railroad as highway trtific flow should be con- light and heavy industrial. Busi- ducted to detemine origin and desti- nesses and industry desiring rail nation points and needed highway service can locate in this area. capacity. Thus, optimm routes over railroads can be detemined. Highway To accomplish a rail relocation operation over several crossings may or consolidation project, a partner- be consolidated to move over a nearby ship is required between the Federal crossing with flashing lights and government (if Federal funds are in- gates or over a nearby grade separa- volved), State and local goverment tion. Alternative routes should be agencies, the railroad, and the com- within a reasonable travel time and munity. While the purpose of the distance from a closed crossing. The project may be only to eliminate alternate routes should have suffi- physical conflicts between the high- cient capacity to accommodate the WaY user and the railroad, the part- diverted traffic safely and effi- nership developed for this project ciently. provides an atmosphere of cooperative working relationships that continues There are several stumbling into the future. blocks to successful closure, such as negative comunity attitudes, funding Highway relocations are some- problems, and lack of forceful State times accomplished to provide im- laws authorizing closure or reluctant proved highway traffic flow around utilization of State laws that pemit communities and other developed ar- closure. 92 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives Legislation that authorizes a On the contrary, these crossings State agency to close crossings fa- should be candidates for grade sepa- cilitates the implementation of clo- rations or the installation of active sures greatly. A list of State agen- traffic control devices. cies that have the authority to close crossings is contained in Appendix E. Specific criteria to identify These State agencies should utilize those crossings that should be closed their authority to close crossings are difficult to establish because of whenever possible. Often, a State the nmerous and various factors that agency can accomplish closure where should be considered. The —.Traffic local efforts fail due to citizen bi- Control Devices Handbook suggests ases and fear of losing access across criteria that my be used for cross- the railroad. Local OppOsitiOn may ing closure. It is important that sometimes be overcome through empha- these criteria not be used without sis on the benefits resulting from professional, objective, engineering, closure such as improved traffic flow and economic assessment of the posi- and safety as traffic is redirected tive and negative impacts of crossing to grade separations or crossings closures. with active traffic control devices. Railroads often support closure, not Criteria for crossings on branch only because of safety concerns, but lines: also because maintenance costs asso- ciated with the crossing are elimi- o less than 2,000 ADT; nated. 0 more than two trains per day; and, To assist i.n the identification of crossings that may be closed, the 0 alternate crossing within 0.25 systems approach Inightbe utilized as miles that has less than 5,000 ADT discussed in Chapter 111. With this if two-lane, or less than 15,000 method, several crossings in a comu- ADT if four-lane. nity or rail corridor are improved by the installation of traffic control Criteria for crossings on spur devices while other crossings are tracks: closed. This i.saccomplished follow- ing a study of traf~ic flows in the o less than 2,000 ADT; area to assure continuing access across the railroad. Traffic flows 0 more than 15 trains per day; and, are sometimes improved by the instal- lation of more sophisticated traffic 0 alternate crossing within 0.25 centrol systems at the remaining miles with less than 5,000 ADT if crossings and perhaps the cOnstruc- two-lane, Or less than 15,000 ADT tion of a grade separatiOn at one of if four-lane. the remaining crossings. Criteria for crossing on main line: Another important matter to con- sider in connection with crossing 0 any main line section with more closure is access over the railroad than five crossings within a 1.0 by emergency vehicles, ambulances, mile segment. fire trucks, and police. Crossings that are frequently utilized by emer- When a crossing is permanently gency vehicles should not be closed. closed to highway traffic, the exist- Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives ing crossing should be obliterated by teria of Section 6c-8 of the Manual removing the crossing surface, pave- on Uniform Traffic Control Devices ment markings, and all traffic con- (~TCD), except the colors of the trol devices both at the crossing and stripes shall be reflectorized white approaching the crossing. and reflectorized red. Characteris- tics of a Type III barricade are Generally, the railroad is re- provided in Figure 17. sponsible for removing the crossing surface and traffic control devices Warning and regulatory signing located at the crossing, e.g. the should be installed to alert motor- crossbuck sign, flashin2 light sig- ists that the crossing roadway is now nals, and gates. closed. These signs include the !!Road Closed Signll (R11-2), “Local The highway authority is respon- Traffic Only Sign!! (R11-~, RI 1 -4), sible for removing traffic control and appropriate advance warning devices in advance of and approaching signs as applicable to the specific the crossing, e.g. the advance warn- crossing. ing signs and pavement markings. Nearby highway traffic signals which Consideration should also be are interconnected with crossing sig- given to advising motorists of alter- nals located at the closed crossing nate routes across the railroad. If should have their phasing and timing trucks use the crossing that is being readjusted. closed they should be given advance information of the C1Osure at points The highway authority is also where they can conveniently alter responsible to alert motorists that their route. the crossing roadway is now closed. A Type III barricade, shown in Figure 4. Abandoned Crossings 17, may be erected. If used, this barricade shall meet the design cri- Railroad-highway grade crossings on abandoned railroad lines present a different kind of safety and opera- tional problem. Motorists who con- sistently drive over crossings that are not maintained but have traffic control devices and at which they never see a train may develop a care- less attitude and not take appropri- ate caution. A motorist may then Type III Sarticade maintain this attitude and behavior Wdth of Rail Vmin-l Ymax at crossings that have not been aban- Length of Rail 4 ft. min doned; perhaps resuiting in a colli- Wdth of Stripes 6 in. Height 5 ft. min sion with a train. Thus, credibility Number of Reflector- 3 if facing traffic of crossing traffic control devices ized Rail Faces in one direction may be reduced, not only for the Note For wooden barricades nominal lumber abandoned crossing, but also for oth- dimensions are satisfactory. er crossings as well. Figure 17. Type III Barricade Operational problems exist for abandoned crossings. A careful mo- Source: Ref. 15 torist will slow down in advance of 94 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives every crossing, especially those with some Stabe laws require the railroad Passive traffic control devices. If to also apply for pemi.ssion or nOti- the track has been abandoned, unnec- fy a State agency of its intentions essary delays result, particularly to abandon the line. The State high- for special vehicles required by Fed- way engineer responsible for crossing eral and State laws to stop in ad- safety a]~d operations should be noti- vance of every crossing. These spe- fied of these intentions. The State cial vehicles include school buses, highway agency (SHA) might work out buses carrying passengers for hire, an agreement with the State regl~lato- and vehicles transporting hazardous ry comission that any information on materials. In addition, these vehi- railroad abandonments is automatical- cles may be involved in vehicle-veili- ly sent to the SHA. Additionally, cle collisions that occur because of the SHA should periodically call the their unexpected stops. State regulatory comission Or tine ICC to obtain the records on rail The desirable action for aban- abandonments in the State. Railroad doned crossings is to remove all personnel responsible for crossing traffic control devices related to safety and operations should also the crossing and to remove or pave seek the sae information from their over the tracks. The difficulty is traffic and operating departments. identifying abandoned railroad lines. For example, a railroad my discon- Once a rail line has been iden- tinue service over a line or a track; tified as abandoned or abandonment is with the possibility that another planned, the crossings on that Ii.ne railroad, particularly a short line should be identified. This can be railroad, may later purchase or lease detemined from the State inventory the line to resme that service. of crossings OF obtained from the These railroad lines are called inac- Federal Railroad Administration, CUS- tive lines and, obviously, removing todian of the U.S. DOT/AAR National or paving over the track will add Rail-Highway Crossing Inventory. A substantial cost in reactivating the field Inspection of these crossings service. should be made to detemine if all crossings on that line, both public Another type of inactive rail and private, are listed in the inven- line is one whose service is seasOn- tory and to verify the type of traf- al. For example, rail lines that fic control devices located at each serve grain elevators may only have crossing. trainS during harvest season. The lack Of use during the rest of the This field inspection provides year may cause the same safety and an excellent OPPOrtunity to asse~~ operational problems described ear- the safety and operations of each lier. crossing on that line as discussed in Chpater 111. If the rail line is nOt The first step in addressj.ngthe abandoned., the necessary information problem of crossings on abandOned has been gathered to improve each rail lines is to obtain information crossing by one of the alternatives from the Interstate Comerce Comis- described in following sections. sion (ICC) or a State regulatory com- mission. Railroads are required to If rail service has been discon- apply to the ICC for pemission to tinued, pending resolution of the abandon a rail line. In addition, abandonment application and thus fOr- Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives mal abandonment, imedi.ate measures in order to permit drivers and pedes- should be taken to inform the public. trians to take appropriate action. For exmple, “Exempt“ signs, if au- Passive traffic control devices cOn- thorized by State law or regulation, sist of regulatory, warning, and can be placed at the crossings to no- guide signs, and supplemental pave- tify drivers of special vehicles that ment mrkings. They are basic de- a stop at the crossing is not naces- vices and are incorporated into the sary. Gate arms should be removed design of active traffic control and flashing light signal heads devices. should be hooded, turned or removed. However, if these actions are taken, Signs and pavement markings are the traffic control devices must be to be in conformance with the Manual restored to their original condition on Uniform Traffic Control D= prior to operating any trains over (MUTCD) . The MUTCD is revised Peri- the crossing. The railroad might odically as the need arises. If flag the train over the crosai~ there are differences between this until such action can be taken. Handbook and the current edition of the MUTCD concerning both active and If it appears that rail service passive traffic control devices, the has been permanently discontinued and MUTCD should be followed. reSOIUtiOn of official abandonment appears certain, the track might be Federal law requires that as a paved over and all traffic control minimm each State shall provide devices removed. This action should signs at all crossings. The railroad be taken immediately following offi- crossbuck sign and other supplemental cial abandonment if no possibility signs attached to the crossbuck mast exists for resmption of rail serv- are usually installed and maintained ice. This can be determined by exaa- by the railroad company. The agency ining the potential for industry or responsible for maintenance of the business to require rail service. roadway is nomally responsj.blefor For exmple, if the rail line was advance warning signs and pavement abandoned because the industry that mrkings. required the service has moved and other plans for the land area have 1. Signs been made, then it col~ldbe deter- mined whether need for the rail serv- The typical signs used at rail- ice will continue. An agreement may road-highway grade crossings are be necessary between the public shown in Figure 18. Individual char- authority and railroad to accomplish acteristics and location requirements the physical removal of the tracks. are discussed below. In general, the MUTCD specifies B. Passive 7rtific Control Detices that signs should be located on the right-hand side of the highway where Passive traffic control devices the driver is looking for them. provide static messages of warning, Signs should be located to optimize guidance, and in some instances, mn- visibility. Signs should not be lo- datory action for the driver. Their cated in a highway dip nor beyond the purpose is to identify and direct at- crest of a bill. Care should be tak- tention to the location of a crossing en so that the sign is not obscured 96 -., –...... , .- Chapter IV laenLll lcaclOn or ~lternatt~e~ signs should have the maximum practical lateral clearance from the edge of the traveled way for the EXEMPT Safety of motorists who may leav~ the n highway and strike the sign supports. Advantage should be taken of existing 81s1 guardrails, overcrossing structmes, and other conditions to minimize the DO NOT exposure of sign supports to trsffic. STOP ON TRACKS Normally, signs should not be u closer than six feet from the edge of W,o., n,,.,, R&a the shoulder, or if ~One, 12 feet from the edge of the traveled way. 4 In urban areas, a lesser clearance may be used where necessary. Al- though two fee: is recowended as a e o working urban minimm, a clearance of one foot from the curb face is per- W,3., ,,., W31, missible if sidewalk width is limited or where existing poles are close to the curb. @@@ Signs should be mounted approxi- mately at right angles to the direc- .,0.2 w,0.3 WI04 tion of, and facing, the traffic that they are intended to serve. POst- Figure 18. Typical Crossing Signs mounted signs located close to the highway should be turned slightly Source: Ref. 29 away from the highway to avoid re- flection of headlights off the sign directly back into the driverfs eyes. by parked cars or foli.age,or covered by roadside splatter or snow accmu- Sign posts and their foundations lation. and si~~ momtings should be con- structed to hold signs in a proper In rural areas, signs along the and permnent position, to resist side Of the rOad should be at least swaying in the wind or displacement five feet high, measured from the by vandalism. If ground momt ed sign bottom of the sign tO the ele~atiOn supports cannot be sufficiently Off- of the near edge of the pavement. In set from the pavement edge, sign sup- business, comercial, and residential ports should be of a suitable break- areas, where parking and/or pedes- away or yielding design. Concrete trian movement is likely to occur or bases for sign supports should be where there are other sight obstruc- flush with the ground level. tions, the clearance to the bottom of the sign should be at least seven Sign materials are usually alu- feet. The height to the bottom of a minu, wood, or galvanized or nOrl- secondary sign mounted belOw another galvanized steel. Signs are reflec- Sign may be one foot less than the torized or illwinated to provide height specified above. visibility at night. The require- Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives ments of sign illumination are not buck as shown in Figwe 19. The use considered to be” satisfied by street of this auxiliary sign is optional at or highway lighting or by strobe crossings with automatic gates. lighting. Information on reflective materials is contained in the Traf- Where physically feasible and fic Control Devices Handbook. visible to approaching traffic the crossbuck sign should be installed on Railroad Crossing (Crossbuck) the right-hand side of the highway on Sign (Rl5-1) and Number of Tracks each approach to the crossing. Where Sign (R15-2). The railroad crossing an engineering study finds restricted sign, commonly identified as the sight distance or unfavorable road !!crossb~ek,,sign, consists Of a white geometry, crossbuck signs shall be reflectorized background with the placed back-to-back, or otherwise words ,,Railroad Crossing” in black located, so that two faces are dis- lettering as shown in Figures 18 and played to that approach. Some States lg. A minimum of one crossbuck is and railroads use back-to-back cross- to be used on each highway approach bucks at every crossing? while other to every crossing, alone or in combi- States and railroada place reflector- nation with other traffic control ized white stripes on the back of devices. If there are two or more evary crossbuck. tracks at the crossing, the nmber of tracks is to be indicated on an auxi- Crossbuck signs should be locat- liary sign mounted below the cross- ed with respect to the highway pave- ment or shoulder as discussed above for all signs and should be located with respect to the nearest track in accordance with signal locations as discussed in the next section. Where unusual conditions exist, the place- z-- ment of crossbucks should provide the best possible combination of view and safety clearances as determined by engineering judgment. Advance Warning Signs (WlO-1, WIO-2, W1O-3, W1O-4). The round, black and yellow advance warning sign 9’ft* (W1O-1) is located in advance of the Ill crossing and serves to alert the mo- torist that a crossing is ahead. The advance q.i.edbY10C. warning sign has a minimum CO”ditio”e. diameter of 36 inches. The sign is required in advance of all crossings except the following. I 1 o Low volme roadways (ADT below 500) with approach speeds below 40 mph which cross minor spurs or Figure 19. Crossing Sign (Crossbuck) other tracks which are infrequent- ly used and which are flagged by Source: Ref. 17 train crews Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives o In business districts of large case should it be less than 100 feet cities where active crossing traf - in adva]!ceof the nearest rail. This fic control devices are bei~ distance should allow the driver suf- used ficient time to comprehend and react to the sign’s message and to perfom o In situations where physical con- any necessary Mneuver. The recom- dition do not pemit even a par- mended distances are shown in Table tially affective display of the 33. sign Where a road runs parallel to a When the crossing is on a divid- railroad and the perpendicular dis- ed highway, it is desirable to place tance between the two is less than an additional advance warning sign on 100 feet, there is not enough dis- the left side of each approach. It tance to display the advance warning may also be desirable to place an sign (W1O-1). For traffic turning additional sign.on the left 5ide of a from the parallel road, one of th~ee highway approach when the highway other warning signs (WlO-2, WIO-3, alignment limits the visibility of and W10-4) can be used when their signs mounted on the right side. need has been detemined from an en- gineering study. Typical sign place- The distance from the advance ments for crossings located near warning sign to the track is depend- highway intersections are shown in ent upon the highway speed, but in no Figures 20, 21, and 22. Table 33. Placement Digtances for Advance Warning Signs Su8gested Minimum Warning SifinPlaceme”c Distance (ft)l for Condition B Condition C Posted or 85 Co”ditio” A stop Deceleration to advisory pe..e.ri1e High judgment co”ditio”3 ox desired speed (mph)3 speed (mph) “eededz ~“.e hi~her speed) (10 s,. PIEv) o 10 20 30 40 50 20 175 (4) (4) 25 250 (4j 100 30 325 100 150 100 35 Loo 150 200 175 40 475 225 275 250 175 45 550 300 350 325 250 50 625 3?5 425 400 325 225 55 700 450 500 4?5 400 300 60 ?75 550 575 550 500 400 300 lDistances show” are for 1.”.] roadw,ys, and correcti.”s should be made for grades, Disca”ces are based on 36-inch signs. If 48-inch signs are used, the legibility distance mey be Increased to 200 feet, thus reducing the placement distance by 75 feet. 21, “rb.nareas, if thereis .“ i“-betweenintersectionthatmight c.”f.se the motorist, . supple- mentaryplate.“derneath the war”i”g slg” should be used to specify the dist.”ce to the co”dicio”. 3Distance p.o.id.. for 3-seco.d PIEV, 125 feet sign legibility distance, h..ki”g dist.”.e f.. Condition B a“d comfortable breaking dista”.e for Condition C. 4At these speeds, Sign location depends .“ physical c.”diri... at site .“d .0 .“gge,ted ~lnim”m distance is provided. Source: Ref. 29 99 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives ,+,. @ . I ‘!1 F=”’L Figure 20. Typical Sign Placement Figure 22. Typical Sign Placement Where Parallel Road is over Where Parallel Road is within 100 100 feet from Crossing feet of Crossing and Parallel Road Traffic must Stop Source: Ref. 29 Source: Ref. 29 Advisory Speed Plate (W13-1). The advisory speed plate should be used when sight or geometric condi- tions require a speed lower than the posted speed limit. The advisory speed plate should not be erected un- til the recommended speed has been determined by an engineering study of tinespecific crossing. If the plate is used, the recommended speed should be periodically reviewed and revised as necessary. Should it be deter- mined that the advisory speed plate is not effective in reducing vehicu- lar speeds, then it may be appropri- ate to use a regulatory speed limit sign (R2 - 1). The adviso~ speed plate must be mowted on the same Figure 21. Typical Sign Placement assembly and is normally below the Where Parallel Road is within 100 advance warning sign (W-1O series). feet of Crossing and Intersecting Road Traffic must Stop Stop Sign (Rl-1) and Stop Ahead Sign (W3-la). A stop sign consists Source: Ref. 29 wan octagon with a white message Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives and border on a red background. The shows a typical stop sign installa- standard size is 30” x 3071;however, tion. a larger size is recommended where greater emphasis or visibility iS Do Not Stop On Tracks Sign (R8- required. 8). Whenever an engineering study ~temines that the potential for ve- The use of the stop sign (R1-1) at hicles stopping on the tracks is railroad - highway grade crossings high, a ,,DoNot Stop On Tracks!!sign shall be limited to selected cross- should be used. The sign may be lo- ings where the need has been deter- cated On the near or far side of the mined by a detailed traffic engineer- crossing, whichever provides better ing study. Crossings considered for visibility to the motorist to observe installation of stop signs should be the sign and be able to comply with limited to those having the following its message. On multilane and One- characteristics. way roaclwaysa second sign should be placed on the near or far left side 0 The highway should be secondary in of the crossing. Placement of the character with low traffic ~ount~ R8-8 sign.(s)should be determined as (400 ADT in rural areas, and 1,500 part of an engineering study. ADT in urban areas). Exempt Sign (R15-3, W-lO-la) 0 Train traffic should be substan- The exempt crossing sign is only used tial (10 or more trains per day). 0 A restricted line of sight exists such that approaching ‘traffic is required to reduce speed to 10 miles par hour or less in order to stop safely. At the stop bar there must be sufficient sight distance down the track to afford mple time for a stopped vehicle to start and cross the track before the arrival of a train. An e~ineering study my de- temine other compelling reasons, such as accident history, to install a stop sign. In those latter cases, use of the stop sign should be con- sidered an interim measure until active traffic control devices can be installed. A stop sign should never be used at a crossing with train activated signals. Whenever a stop sign iS in- stalled at a crossing, a !Istopahead!! Figure 23. Typical Application of sign (W3-la) shall be installed in a Stop sign at a CrOssi~ advance of the stop sign. Figure 23 Source: Ref. 2g 101 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives when authorized by law or regulation. 2. Pavement Markings Its purpose is to inform drivers of vehicles, normally required to stop Pavement markings are used to at all crossings, that a stop is not supplement the regulatory and warning required at a specific crossing un- messages presented by crossing signs less a train, locomotive, or other and signals. Pavement mrkings have railroad equipment is approaching or limitations in that they may be ob- occupying the crossing. When used, literated by snow, may not be clearly the exempt sign (R15-3) is placed un- visible when wet, and may not be very der the crossbuck (R15-1) sign. A durable when subjected to heavy traf- supplemental exempt sign (WIO-la) fic. may be placed under the advance warn- ing sign (WIO-1). Pavement markings in advance of railroad-highway wade crossings con- Turn Prohibition Signs (R3-1a sist of an X, the letters RR, a no and R3-2a). At signalized highway passing urking for 2-lane roads, and intersections within 200 feet of a certain transverse lines as shown in crossing, where traffic signal con- Figure 24. These pavement markings trol is preempted by the approach of shall be placed on each approach lane a train, all turning movements toward on all paved approaches to crossings the crossing should be prohibited. where crossing signals or automatic Turn prohibition signs, “NO Right gates are located, and at all other Turn” (R3-la) and “NO Left Turn” (R3- crossings where the prevailing speed 2a), consist of a 24” x 30” rectangle of highway traffic is 40 mph or with black letters and border on a greater. These markings are also to white background. These signs are to be placed at crossings where engi- be visible only when the turn prohib- neering studies indicate there is a ition is in effect; thus a blank-out significant potential cotilict be- or internally illwinated sign, or tween vehicles and trains. These other type of changeable message sign mrkings may be omitted at minor may be used to accomplish this objec- crossings or in urban areas if an en- tive. These signs are activated by gineering study indicates that other the approach of a train using the crossing devices provide suitable sae train detection circuitry as control. flashing light signals. Therefore, these signs could be considered The most common pavement marking active traffic control devices. material is paint; however, a wide variety of other materials is availa- No Passing Zone Sign (W14-3). ble. Pavement urkings are to be re- The “NO Passing Zone” sign may be in- flectorized by mixing glass beads in stalled at crossings to supplement no wet paint or thermoplastic. Raised passing pavement markings. This sign pavement markers can be used to sup- consists of black letters and border plement pavement mrkings in advance on a yellow background and is in the of crossings. The “X” lane lines and shape of a pennant ,dithdimensions of the stop line can be delineated by 36” x 48” x 481’. The sign is to be raised reflective markers to provide placed on the left side of the high- improved guidance at night and during way at the beginning of the no pass- periods of rain and fog. Disadvan- ing zone. tages of the raised pavement mrkers Chpter IV Identification of Alternatives Ath,eel,,ne. . rn.Aws,,.ha,,,ti. . . .., .,,-.,.. ..-..,.,, ,., .V”. . . .W. .,,,,. . . centerline foc two-lane approach oPeration on the aPP,oach to a c,ossi”g. 0“ multi.lane road, the t,a”sverse band, Sh?u!d extend ,.,.s, ,,1 approach /,.,s, ,“d ,nd,v, dual RXR symbol, should be “,ed in each approach lane, Refer to Standard Alphabet for Highway %g”s a“d Markings for RXR symbol, detail,. Figue 24. Typical Placement of Warning Sigr!sand Pavement ~rkings Source: Ref. 17 are the initial cost and the possi- C. Active Trtific Control Devices bility of being dmaged or removed by snow plows. Active crossing traffic control devices are those that give warning All pavement markings are to be of the approach or presence of a reflectorized white except for the no ‘train. They are activated by the passing markings that are to be re- passage of a train over a detection flectorized yellow. The stop line is circuit in the track except in those to be 2 feet in width and extend few situations where manual control across the approach lanes. The stop or mnual operakion is used. Active line should be located perpendicular control devices are supplemented with tO the highway centerline and approx- the sae signs and pavement mrkings imately 15 feet from the nearest that are used for passive control. rail. Where automatic gates are Acttve traffic control devices in- installed, the stop line should be clude flashing light signals, both located approximately eight feet in post-mounted and cantilevered, bells, advance of where the gate–am crosses automatic gates~ active advance warn- the highway surface. ing devices, and highway traffic sig- nals. Also included in this section is a description of the various meth- ods of t,raindetection. 103 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives Driving tasks differ somewhat at nia study and from a study by William crossings with active devices than at J. Hedley covering 23 years of exper- crossings with passive devices only. ience on the Wabash Railroad. Passiva devices indicate that a crossing is present and a highway The effectiveness factors pre- user must look for an approaching sented in Table 34 were developed train and take appropriate action. from “before and after” accident ex- At crossings with active devices, a perience of groups of crossings actu- motorist is told when a train is ally improved. The same effective- approaching. The motorist must take ness would not necessarily be experi- appropriate action when the devices enced at any other crossing where the are activated. Crossing traffic cOn- sae improvements (changes) were trol devices that are train activated rode. It should be remembered that normally incorporate some “fail-safe” in those studies the crossings were design principles. As discussed in a selected for improvement by competent following section on train detection, authorities as a precondition to per- the warning system is designed to formance of the work. Similar effec- give the indication of an approaching tiveness could be antj.cipated under train whanever the system has failed. similar conditions. Active traffic control devices 1. Flashing Light Signals have proven to be an effective method of improving safety and operations at Flashing light signals COnSist railroad - highway grade crossings. of two light units that flash alter- Effectiveness is the percentage re- nately at a rate of 45 to 65 times duction in accidents due to a cross- per minute. Thus, like its predeces- ing improvement. Utilizing data con- sor, the wi.gwag, it simulates a tainad in the U.S. DOT/AAR National watc~n swinging a red lantern. Rail-Highway Crossing Inventory and Wi~ags consist of a single rad light tha Railroad Accident/Incident Re- unit that sways back and forth. porting System data bases, effective- ness factors have been developed for The main components of a flash- active devices. The effectiveness ing light unit are the hood, back- factors are shown i.n Table 34 along ground, roundel, lamp, lampholdev, with results obtained from a Califor- reflector, and housing. The back- Table 34. Effectiveness of Active Crossing Warning Devices Effectiveness Factors (Percent) lg80 1974 1952 Category U.S. DOT California Hedley Passive to Flashing Lights 70 64 63 Passive to Automatic Gates 83 88 g6 Flashing Lights to Automatic Gates 69 66 68 Source: Ref. 4, 12, and 20 104 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives ground is 20 or 24 inches in diameter gree dok,nwarddeflection can be used and is painted a nonreflecting black on cantilevers. Back light units may to provide a contrast for the red use a 70-degree horizontal spread. light. The hood is also painted black. The lap consists of a low watt- age bulb used to ensure operation on Flashing light units are availa- standby battery power should comer- ble in two roundel, or lens, sizes: cial power fail. The wattage most 8-3/8 inch diameter and 12 inch diam- comonly used is 18 or 25 watt; how- eter, the latter my provide somewhat ever, some railroads use quartz- better visibility. iodi.debulbs of 16 or 36 watts. The reflector, or mirror, is mounted The roundel is red and comes in behind the lamp and directs the light a variety of designs that direct tbe back th~ough the roundel. light toward the motorist. The “spreadllghti! roundel distributes Proper alignment of the light is light through the entire angle, one- essential. The lamp must be precise- half the angle being on each side of ly aligned to direct the narrow in- the bem axis. A deflecting roundel tense bea toward the approaching directs a portion of the light from motorist. The flashing light unit on the beam to one side of the axis in the right hand side of the highway is the direction indicated on the lens. usually aligned to cover a distance A roudel having both spreadlight and far from the crossing. The ltght deflecting features is designed so units that are mounted on the back of that the deflection is at a right an- the signals on the opposing approach, gle to the spread. An example is the and thus on the left, are usually 30-degree horizontal deflection and aligned to cover the near approach to 15-degree vertical spread. A roundel the crossing. Figures 25 and 26 show using a 20-degree spread and 32-de- typical alignment patterns for a twO- #c Mi”im”m, measured from crown of roadway to ce”cer of lens “ M, N)M”., MEASURED FROM CROWN OF ROADWAY TO CENTER OF LENS. Figure Z5. Typical Alignment Pattern for Flashing Light Signals with 30-15 Degree Ro~del, Two Lane, Two-Way Roadway Source: Ref. 29 105 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives ~------— Figme 26. Typical Alignment Pattern for Flashing Light Signals with 20-32 Degree Roundel, -0 Multi-lane Roadway -m f<,, curb section, see Figure 31 Source: Ref. 29 ~ 4,, . . . -... L--*~cromRoadwayof .-.----‘—Gro””dLevel lane, two-way highway and for a mul- tilane highway. Figure 27. Typical Flashing Light The Manual on Unifom Traffic Signal - Post Mounted Control Devices (MUTCD) requires Vnat two sets of flashing lights be mount- Source: Ref. 17 ed on each supporting post, baek-to- back, such that two sets of flashing cantilever Arm Type a“d Length <* variable lights face the motorist -- one set on the right, near side of the cross- L— 4 _J ing, and one set on the left, far side. Back-to-back light units may not be required on one-way highways. A crossbuck is always used in con- junction with the flashing light sig- nal and is usually mounted on the same post above the light units. Other supplementary signs my be mounted on the post such as the ,,Do Not Stop on Tracks” sign (R8-8) and the number of tracks sign (R15-2). Flashing light signals are shown in Figures 27 and 28. L ~rou”d Leve , - C.”.. (,[ Roadway , , National warrants for the in- Top of fo.”datio”to be at thesameele..cio”as the stallation of flashing light signals surfaceof thetraveledway and“o morethan4 inches have not been developed. Some States abovethe,urfaceof the ~ro””d have established criteria based on exposure factors or priority indices. Figure 28. Typical Flashing Light Other considerations include the fol- Si@al - Cantilevered lowing. Source: Ref. 17 106 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives o Volume of vehicular traffic with a ]?airof lights mouted on the o Volume of railroad traffic supporti~ mast. However, two or o Speed of vehicular traffic more pairs of cantilevered flashing o Speed of railroad traffic lights may be desirable for multi- o Volume of pedestrian traffic lane ap]?roaches,as determined by an o Accident record engineel?ing study. The cantilevered o Sight distance restrictions lights can be placed over each lane so that the lights are mutually visi- Flashi~ light signals are gen- ble from adjacent driving lanes. erally post-mounted, but where im- proved visibility tO approaching Ca]~tilevers are available with traffic is required, cantilevered fixed, ~“otatableor walkout sup~rts. flashing light signals are used. The primary disadvantage of the fixed Cantilevered flashing lights may be support is that maintenance of the appropriate when any of the following light ulit is usually performed from conditions exists. equipment in the traffic lane, there- by blOcking highway traffic. Rotata- o Multilane highways (two or more ble cantilevers can be turned to the lanes in one direction) side of the highway for maintenance but noi> for aligning the flashing o Highways with paved shoulders or a lights. parking lane that would require a post-mounted light to be more than Walkout cantilevers allow for 10 feet from the edge of the easier maintenance. Standard canti- travel lane levers for mounti~ flashing lights are made with am lengths up to 40 o Roadside foliage obstructing the feet. Where cantilever am le~th in view of post - mounted flashing excess of 35 feet is required, a light si~als bridge structure is preferred. o Line of roadside obstacles such as Post-mounted flashing light sig- utility poles (when minor lateral nals are normally located on the adjustment of the poles would not right side of the highway on al1 solve the problem) highway approaches to the crossing. Horizontal clearances for flashing o Distracting backgrounds such as light si~als are discussed in the excessive number of neon signs. next section along with clearances (Conversely, cantilevered flashi~ for automatic gates. lights should not distract from nearby highway traffic signals.) Additional pairs of light mits maY alsO be installed for side roads o Horizontal or vertical cur~,es at intersecti~ the approach highway 10CatiOnS where extension of near the crossing or for horizontal flashing lights over tha traffic curves. Figure 29 shows the use of lane will provide sufficient visi- multiple pairs of lights to cover a bility for the required stoppi~ horizontal curve to the left on the sight distance. approach highway. A horizontal cmve to the right may be covered by plac- A typical installation consists ing another roadside flashing light of one pair of cantilevered lights unit on the opposite side of the on each highway approach supplemented highway as shown in Figure 30. 107 ,.. Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives 1A u / Figure 29. Usa of Multiple Flashing Figure 30. Use of Multiple Flashiw Light Signals for Adequate Visibility Light Signals for Adequate Visibility Horizontal Curve to the Left Horizontal Curve to the Right Source: Ref. 29 Source: Ref. 29 2. Automatic Gates until the gate arm ascends to clear- ance. The gate mechanism i.s either An automatic gate serves as a supported on the sme post with the barrier across the highway when a flashing light signal or separately train is approaching or occupying the mo~ted on a pedestal adjacent to the crossing. The gate is reflectorized flashing light signal post. with 16 inch diagonal red and white stripes. To enhance visibility dur- In a nomal sequence of opera- ing darkness, three red lights are tfon, the flashing light si~als and placed on the gate arm. The light the lights on the gate am in its nearest to the tip burns steadily normal upright position are activated while the other two flash alternate- immediately upon the detection of the ly. The gate is combined with a approach of a train. The gate arm, standard flashing light signal that shall start its downward motion not provides additional warning before less than ttiee seconds after the the arm starts to descend, while the signal lights start to operate, shall gate arm is across the highway, and reach its horizontal position bafore 108 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives the arrival of the train, and shall level of exposure or the priority in- remain in that position as long as dex as a guideline for the selection the train occupies the crossing. of automatic gates. When the train clears the crossing, and no other train is approaching, On two-way streets, the gates the gate arm shall ascend to its up- should cover enough of the approach right position normally in not more highway to physically block the mo- than 12 seconds, following which the torist from driving around the gate flashing lights and the lights on the without going into the opposing traf- gate arm shall cease operation. In fic lane. On multilane divided high- the design of individual installa- ways, an opening of approximately six tions, consideration should be given feet may be provided for emergency to timing the operation of the gate vehicles. arm to accommodate slow moving trucks. Gates may be made of almj.num, fiberglass or wood. Fiberglass or In determining the need ~or au- al~inUIO gates may be designed with ~ tomatic gates the following factors breakaway feature so that the gate is may be considered. disengaged from the mechanism when struck. The feasible gate length is 0 Multiple main 1~.nerailroad tracks 40 feet. When conditions indicate that a longer gate is required, it 0 Multiple tracks where a train on may be necessary to place gate assem- or near the crossing can obscure blies in the median to cover the ap- the movement of another train proach l~ighway.In these cases, crash approaching the crossing cushions or other safety barriers may be desi]?able. Under no circumstances 0 High speed train operation com- should signals or gate assemblies be bined with limited sight distance placed in an unprotected painted me- dian. 0 A comb~.nation of high speed and moderately high volwe highway and A typical clearance plan for a railroad trtific flashing light signal with automatic gate i.sshown in Figure 31. When no 0 Presence of school buses, transit train is approaching or occupying the buses, or farm vehicles in the crossing, the gate am is held in a traffic flow vertica:l position and the minimm clearanCe from the face of the ver- 0 Presence of trucks carrying haz- tical curb to the nearest part of the ardous materials, particularly gate arm or signal is two feet fOr a when the view dom the track from distance of 17 feet above the high- a Stopped vehicle is obstructed way. Where thare is no curb, a mini- (curve in track, etc.) mm horizontal clearance of two feet from.the edge of a paved or surfaced 0 COnt~.nuance of accidents after shoulder is required with a minimum installation of flashing lights clearance of six feet from the edge of the traveled highway. Where there 0 Presence of passenger trains is no curb or shoulde~, the minimu horizontal clearance from the trav- In addition to the above fac- eled wa~?is six feet. Where flashi~ tors, some States utilize a speci.fied lights or gates are located in the Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives 8 ]6,,~lt,,..t. Reflectorized Red a“dWhite, rBothSides ,, ~fl,, *! O! T!l!! 4f~... — .-J b. C8”ti1ever”F1ashi”gLightsa“dGales V.r,i.alcurb.&. ,.,.,.:, *Somerailroadsrequireminimumclearanceof 15 feet. Figure 31. Typ~.calClearances for Flashing Light Signals with Figure 32. Typical Location of Automatic Gates Signal Devices Source: Ref. 17 Source: Ref. 2Y median, additional width may be re- Figures 33 through 39 show typi- quired to provide the minimm clear- cal location plans for flashing light ances for the counterweight support. signals with and without gates. If i.t is necessary to locate the sup- The lateral location of flashing porting post in a potentially hazard- light and gate assemblies must also ous position to ensure adequate visi- provide adequate clearances from the bility, some type of safety barrier track as well as space for construc- should be considered. These are dis- tion of the fomdat ions. Figure 32 cussed in a later section. shows typical locational requirements for the foundations for flashing 3. Warning Bell lights and cantilevered flashi~ lights with gates. The area for the A crossing bell is an audible foundation and excavation must be an- warning device used to supplement alyzed to detemine the effect on other active traffic control devices. sidewalks, utility facilities, and A bell is most effective as a warn- drainage. While these plans indicate ing to pedestrians and bicyclists. a 1Z-foot mi.nimm clearance between the center of the flashing light as- When used, the bell is usually sembly and the center of the tracks, mowted on top of one of the signal some railroads prefer a 15-foot mini- support masts. The bell is usually mm clearance. activated whenever the flashing 1ight .. Flashi”~Li8hts a. F1ashi”g Lights . . H < 1 I 7+- < T“&cK ~ — “’”’’”L-.4:’”’” b. Flashing Light.andGate. m’ b. Flashing Lights a“d Gates Figure 33. Typical Location Plan Figure 34. Typical Location Plan Right Angle Crossing, One-Way Right Angle Crossing, One-Way Two Lanes Three Lanes Source: Ref. 29 Source: Ref. 29 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives .5 -c ,. -5 112 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives -m I _—— — .- -., Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives r 8’-2”mi” yei.Lowhazard identification beacons mounted above the advance warni~ sign as shown in Figures 40 and 41. The AAWS provides a motorist with ad- vance nrning that a train is ap- proaching the crossi~. The beacons are connected to the railroad track circuit~ and activated on the ap- preach of a train. The AAWS should continue to be activated ~til the crossing signals have been deacti- vated. W1O-1 RR Note:Themedia”widthof8’2”isanoperational & requirementandisnotanAASdTOreco))I– TO me”datio”formedia”width. E qm Figure 39. Tvuical Location Plan fiol,i”~,i~n~y, Ob;use Angle-~rossing for Divided i ControlSy,t?,, (op.,) (Closed)f Highway with Signals in Median Two or Three Lanes Each Way Figure 40. Examples of Active Source: Ref. 29 Advance Warning Signs Source: Ref. 29 SignalS are operati~. Bell circuit- ry may be designed so that the bell stops ringing when the lead end of the train reaches the crossing. When gates are used, the bell may be si- lenced when the gate arms descend to Yellow8eaco” within 10 degrees of the horizontal I position. Silencing the bell when the train reaches the crossing or when the gates are dom may be de- sired to accommodate residents of II suburban areas. 4. Active Advance Warning Sign Figure 41. Example of Cantilevered Active Advance Warning Sign An active advance warning sign (AAWS) consists of one or two 8-inch Source: Ref. 29 114 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives A train-activated advance warn- control. devices till at all times ing sign should be considered at complement rather than negate each, locations where the erossi~ flashing other. The Manual on Unifom Traffic light signals cannot be seen until an Control.Devices (MUTCD) stresses that. approaching motorist has passed the ,,..design, installation, and opera- decision point (the distance from the tion sh~uld be based upon a ~otal track from which a safe stop can be system approach in order that all made). Use of active advance warni~ relevant features may be consid- signs may require some mOdiftcatiOn ered.”~6 A primry criterion is to of the track circuitry. Considera- avoid the entrapment of vehicles on tion should be given to providing a the crossing by conflicting aspects backup source of power In the event of the highway signal and the cross- of comercial power failure. in$ Si~al . The best way to do this is to prevent vehicle queues onto the The AAWS is sometl.mes supple- tracks by the proper design and oper- mented with a message, either active atiOn of the dual signal systems. or paSSiVe, that indicates the mean- ing of tbe device, e.g. “Train When The preemption feature requires Flashing”. A passive supplemental an electrical circuit between the message remains constant while an control relay of the crossing warning active supplemental message changes system and the traffic si~al con- when the device is activated by the troller. The circuit shall be on the approach of a train. closed circuit principle, that is, the traffic sf.gnalcontroller is nor- The AAWS should be placed at the mally energized and the circuit is location where the advance warning wired through a closed contact Of the sign would normally be placed. To energized control relay of the cross- enhance vis~.bility at crosstigs with ing warning system. This is to estab- unusual geometry or site cOnditiOns, lish and maintain the preempted con- the devices may be cantilevered or ition aluring the time the crossing installed on both sides of the high- signals are in operation. Where mul- way. An engineeri~ study should tiple or Successive preemption may determine the most appropriate loca- occur from differing modes, train tion. actuation should receive first prior- ity and emergency vehicles second 5. Traffic Signals priority. Highway traffic control signals Crossings without active traffic located at intersections within 200 control devices but near signalized feet of a crossing should be pre- highway intersections also present a empted by the approach of a train. situation where vehicles may be Signals at intersections further than entrapped on the crossing when a 200 feet from a crossing should also train is approaching. Thus, preemp- be preempted if traffic flow is such tion of the highway traffic signal that vehicles queue up on the cross- should be considered. If the neces- ing, or if an engineeri~ study detemines the need for preemption. Railroad-highway grade crossing sig- 16Manual on Unifom Traffic Con- nals are coordinated with adjacent trol Devices, Washington, DC: Fed- highway traffic control signals so eral Highway Atiinistration, 1978, that the operation of these separate Revised 1979, lg80, lg84. Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives Sary circuitry is to be installed, Optically limiting devices may consideration should be given to add- be employed for traffic signal indi- ing flashing light signals or auto- cations to preclude driver observance matic gates to the crossing at the of conflicting or misleading indica- sme time. tions. The layout of the preemption sequences should specifically state In designing the preaption, the what phase change titerval is to following elements should be consid- occur no matter when the preemption ered: intersection geometries, vehic- begins in relation to the normal ular vOl~e, queue lengths and dissi- phasing sequence. There are an infi- pation rate, proximity of the cross- nite n~ber of railroad - highway ing to the intersection, train mOve- grade crossing configwations. Fig- ments, approach speeds for trains and ures 42 through 53 illustrate how mOtOr vehicles, public transportation the basic principles may be applied. vehicles, school buses, and trucks carrying large or hazardous cargoes. In some cases, geometric or operational characteristics may re- When preempted by train move- quire a traffic signalization strat- ments, the traffic control si@al egy other than the typical ones pre- (after provision of the proper phase viously mentioned. This is especially change intervals) will immediately true when the crossing is extremely provide a short green Interval to the close to the signalized intersection; apprOach crossing the track. This iS is rather far from a signalized done to clear any vehicles that may intersection but queues develop be on, or so close to, the track as across the track; or, the crossing to be in danger, or where vehicles is located between two closely spaced may interfere with the operation of signalized intersections. crossing gates. The traffic signal will subsequently display indications When a crossing is located only to prevent vehicles from entering the a few car lengths from the signalized track area, while at the same time intersection!s stop line, it is like- traffic movements that do not con- ly that vehicles will queue across flict with the railroad movement may the tracks during the red interval of be pemitted. If, at the time of each cycle. Although the track clear- preemption, the green interval is on ance intewal of the preemption an approach that does not cross the sequence may provide sufficient time track, that green t.nterval would be to allow vehicles in the track area immediately teminated with a stand- to proceed through the intersection, ard yellow phase change interval in occasionally an anxious driver may order that green time may be given to stall the vehicle and not clear the the approach crossing the track. crossing. Conflicting i.ndfcationsmust not be permitted and every green signal The potential for this situation indication must be terminated with a can be reduced if the intersection yellow indication as specified in the stop line is removed from its nomal MUTCD. Turning movements onto the location and the stop line in advance hf.ghway with the crossing should be of the crossing is allowed to func- prohibited through the use of blank tion as the intersection stop line. out signs that display “NO Right This configuration effectively incor- Turn!’ or “NO Left Turn“ as appropri- porates the crossing area tito the ate. width of the intersection. The yel- 116 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives 117 ,.. Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives ...— t Ml xMu 118 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives ,Ul 1,1111 Im Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives , , x8,; , 1 -- -- -— -*- —- -- L Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives 21 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives 122 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives low clearance interval should be Optically progrmable si~al extended accordingly to compensate faces should be considered for the for the added travel distance. This far side of the intersection for the situation is illustrated in Figwe track approach. View of these signal 54. faces should be limited to that por- tion of the approach from the tracks Sometimes the crossing stop line to the intersection. The supplemen- is greater than 120 feet from the tal heads should operate in unison farthest intersection signal face with the primry si~als during nor- which governs that approach. When ml conditions. Upon detection of an this occurs, the faces should either approaching train and after appropri- be relocated to the near side of the ate phase change intenals, the pro- titersection or supplemental faces grmable si~al faces would display should be used. This is accomplished a green indication to clear the more economically if box span wire tracks while the prim~ si~als assemblies or ~st ams are employed would display a red indicati.nn in at the ~.ntersection. Then, a sepa- conjunction with the creasing flash- rate span wire assembly my be used ing light signals to hold subsequent on the near side of the titersection traffic at the crossing stop ltie. as shown in Figure 55. To enhance the effectiveness of these alterna- When the distance between a tives, perunent rtght-turn-on-red crossing and a signalized intersec- prohibitions would be appropriate for tion is approximately 150 feet or the track approach with a “Stop Here more and traffic volwes are such on Red” sign (R1O-6) installed at the that vehicle queues routinely develop stop line. onto the tracks, the typical premp- R1O-11, 100t ... n r’” )+~, l~g, /FI 0,..1stop-l,., w kstion \ —— - - -– —*–– + —— — — + F \ \ — ‘\~------ Figure 54. Relocation of Intersection Stop Line to Reduce Possibility of Vehicles Stoppi~ on Tracks Source: Ref. 29 123 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives ——R10-6 STOP m I HERE ON m ,/ I , 20, ~/ 1/ 4 Normal & Iw S,op-line 1- - — ‘-- ——— Lo.atio” + I -- - -- 11 +, II IIIF Figure S5. Relocation of Intersection Stop Line and Si@al Faces to Reduce Possibility of Vehicles Stopping on Tracks Source: Ref. 29 tion strategies may not be capable of clearing the tracks within the nomal warning time provided by the train detection circuit. One solution, lengtheni~ the warning time, may not be feasible. Another option is to employ traffic control signals at the crossing in addition to the ones at the intersection. The additional traffic control signals are located on the intersection side of the crossing and control only the track apPrOach as depicted in Figure 56. A ,,stopHere on Red!!sign (RlO- 6) should be placed at the crossing stop line that also serves as the stop line for the traffic control signals. Using this option during nomal signal operation, the addi- tional signals would operate in coor- Figure 56. Use of Additional Traffic dination with the intersection sig- Control Signals at CrOssi~s nals. For the track approach move- ments, a double clearance interval is Source: Ref. 29 124 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives provided to terminate green t.ndica- unless a train is approaching or tions at the crossing signals prior occupying the crossing. There is no to the temi.nation of green at the indication to the highway user when intersection signals. power has failed. Therefore, crOss- ing control systems are designed to Highway traffic signals shall also operate on standby battery not be used in lieu of flashing light should commercial power be temi.nated signals at crossings that al-e on for any reason. Solar energy may be mainline railroad tracks. However, used to charge storage batteries to highway traffic control signals may power signals at crossings j.nremote be used at industrial track crossings locations. and other crossings where train move- ments are very slow as in switching Storage battery standby power is operations. Operation of highway sig- provided to span periods of comer- nals at crossings should provide cial power failure. The standby approximately the sae warning time assures normal operation of crossing as flashing light signals or automat- signals during a comercial power ic gates. outage. 6. Train Detection ~en this practice was initiat- ed, the crossing signals were normal- To Serve their purpose of advis- ly supplied with AC power through a ing motorists and pedestrians of the step-dowlo transformer. The same AC approach or presence of trains, source provided charging current active traffic control devices are through a rectifier for the standby activated by some fom of train batte~ to maintain the batte~ in a detection. Generally, the method is charged condition. Men commercial automatic, requiring no personnel to AC power failed, crossing signal pow- operate it, although a small nmber er connections were transferred from of such installations are operated the AC source to the battery, as rider mnual control. The automatic shown in Figure 57a. This arrange- method uses the railroad circuit. ment was necessary becadse the ,~~~*- This electrical circuit uses the stant current” rectifiers used in rails as conductors in such a way this servtce were unable to respond that the presence of a solid electri- to changes in battery voltage or cal path, as provided by the wheels load. and axles of a locomotive or r~llroad car, shunts the circuit. The system Present day “constant voltage!! is also designed to be “fail-safe!!; rectifiers can respond to changes in Vnat is, any shunt of the circuit, battery voltage and load, and can whether by railroad equipment, van- provide l?tgh DC cwrent to the bat- dalism, or ,,Open circuit,,, such as a te~ and load during periods when broken rail or track connection, crossing signals are energ~.zeal,ta- causes the crossing signals to be pering Oj!fquickly as soon as standby activated. battery capacity has been replenished after the crossing signals are de-en- Standard highway traffic s~.gnals ergized. This ability of the modern display a light, green, yellov7, or rectifiers permits DC operation of red, at all times except when power the signals whether AC supply voltage has failed and the signals are dark. is present or not. The signals are Crossing signals are normally dark connected directly to battery temi- 125 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives ing, length and acceleration capabil- ities of vehicles using the crossing, highway grades, and the condition of the crossing surface. Care should be taken to ensure that the warning time is not exces- sive. If the motorist cannot see the train approaching (due to sight obstructions or track curvature), excessive warning time may cause a motorist to attempt to cross the tracks despite the operation of the flashing light signals. Excessive warning time has been determined to be a contributing fac- tor in some accidents. Motorists stopped at an activated flashing light signal and seeing no train approaching, or seeing a distant train moving very slowly, might W9 ignore the warning of the signals b.m“.,.”,“.,1.,,RCc,i,.,r and cross the tracks. An accident could result. For example, the sig- nals may have been activated by a Figure 57. Standby Power Arrangement high speed passenger train just out of sight and not by the slower Source: Ref. 25 freight. However, if motorists are successful in clearing the tracks, they may assume that other crossings nals and the power transfer is elimi- have excessive warning time. men nated as shom in Figure 5?b. they encomter a crossing with the minimum warning time, they may ignore On tracks where trains operate the signals, move onto the cross- at speeds of 20 mph or higher, the ing, and become involved in an acci- circuits controlling automatic flash- dent. This credibility problem is ing light signals shall provide for a strengthened if motorists continue to minimum operation of 20 seconds successfully pass through activated before the arrival of any train. signals with excessive warning time. This 20 second warning time is a MINIm. The warning time should be Equipment housing should be of sufficient length to ensure clear- located where it is least likely to ance of a vehicle that might have be struck by a vehicle leaving the stopped at the crc)ssingand then pro- roadway. It should not unduly ceeded to cross just before the obstruct a motorist!s view of an flashing lights began operation. Some approaching train. railroads use a warning time of 25 seconds at crossings with automatic Factors that may be considered gates. Factors that can affect this in the design and installation of a time include the width of the cross- train detection system include: 126 Chapter IV l:dentifieationof Alternatives 0 existing rail and ballast condi- tions; 0 volwe, speed, and type of highway and rail traffic; — R.(8,(,, aa!t,w,,) 0 other train detection circuits that may be used on the same pair Figure 58. DC Track Circuit of rails for the regulation of train movements; Source: Ref. 25 0 train propulsion currents on elec- trified lines; circuits is more than adequate to provide the necessary warning time 0 track switch locations within the for crossing warning systems with aPPrOach warning distances for a today’s train speeds. crossing; The rails are used as conductors 0 train detection circuits used for of energy supplied by a battery. other crossings within the This energy flows through a limiting approaches (overlapping);and, resistor to one rail, then through another limiting resistor to the coil 0 nmber of tracks. of a DC relay, back over the other rail to the battery, thereby complet- Design and application of train ing a simple series circuit. The detection circuits are accomplished relay is energized as long aS the by railroad signal engineers. rails are intact and no train is present on the circuit between the There are five basis types of battery and the relay. The limits of train detection systems in use today: the circuit are established by the use of insulated joints. Insulated 0 direct current track circuit; joints are devices placed between adjoining rail sections to electri- 0 AC-DC track circuit; cally isolate the two sections. 0 audio frequency overlay track cir- In order to provide a means for cuit; stopping the operation of the cross- ing warning system as soon as the 0 motion sensitive track circuit; train clears the crossing, three and, track circuits, as shown in Figure 59, and associated logic elements are 0 constant warning time track ciP- Tequired per track. The logic ele- Cuit. ments are arranged such that, as the train moves through the crossing, the Direct Current (DC) Track Cir- crossing clears for highway traffic cuit. The DC track circuit, shown in as soon as the rear end of the train Figure 58, was the first means used leaves the island section. for automatic train detection. It iS a relatively simple circuit and is All trains activate the crossing still used in mny crossing warning warning system as soon as the first systems. The maximum length of these set of wheels of the train enters the 127 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives AC-DC Track Circuit. The AC-DC track circuit, shown in Figme 61, (sometimes referred to as Type C) is used quite extenstvely when approach distances are less than 3,000 feet and no other circuits are present on the rails. The AC-DC track circuit is a half-wave rectified AC circuit Figure 59. Three Track Circuit with all operating equipment located System at the crosstig. A rectifier is con- nected across the rails at the far Source: Ref. 25 end of the track circuit. As is the case with DC circuits, insulated joints define the limits. An advan- approach track circuit. This track tage of this circuit is that all con- circuit must be long enough to pro- trol equipment is located in a single vide the minimum warning time for the housing at the crossing. ShutiW is fastest train. A slow train will op- also improved due to the somewhat erate the crossing warning aysta for higher voltages used across the a longer period of time. If a train rails. stops before it reaches the crossing, the crossing warning system continues A simple explanation of the to operate which results in an addi- operation of the AC-DC (or Type C) tional delay to highway traffic. track circuit is that the major por- tion of the transformer secondary In order to overcome this prob- current flows through the rectifier lem, approach sections may be divided during one-half-cycle and through the into several short track circuits, as relay during the other half-cycle shown in Figure 60, and timers incor- thus providing a net DC component in porated into the logic. This pemits the track relay. A shunt on the rails more consistent warning time. Also, reduces the rail voltage causing the if a train stops in the approach sec- track relay to release, thereby acti- tion, a “time-out” feature till deac- vating the system. As is the case tivate the warning devices to allow with DC track circuits, three cir- highway traffic to move over the cuits are normlly used to establish crossing. train direction. HO”aii, Figure 60. Track Circuits Timing Sections Figure 61. AC-DC Track Circuit Source: Ref. 25 Source: Ref. 25 128 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives Audio Frequency Overlay Track the track circuit is relatively con- Circuit (AFO). The AFO track cir- stant. A decreasing track circuit cuit, shorn in Figure 62, is similar impedance indicates that a train is in application to the DC track cir- moving toward the crossing. If a cuit, except that it can be superim- train should subsequently stop, tile posed over other circuits which may impedance will again remain at a COO- exist on the rails. Instead of the stant value. If the train is movi]!g battery and relay used in the DC cir- away from a CrOSShg, the impedance cuit, a transmitter and receiver of till increase. Thus, if the tra:in the same frequency are used for each stops on the approach, or moves away AFO track circuit. No insulated from the crossing, the crossing warlt- joints are required with this type of ing system Is deactivated and the circuit. crossing is cleared for highway traf- fic. The AFO track circuit uses an AC signal applied to the rails through a ‘Thistype of circuit is advantfL- transmitter. This signal is trans- geous where trains stop or condu[:t mitted via the rails to a ~e~etver at switching operations within the nor- the opposite end of the track cir- mal a)?proach limits of a particular cuit, which converts the AC signal to crossing. All powered equipment ~.s DC to operate a relay, which in turn, located at the crossing with tile PerfO~s the function of operating additional advant~e that insulat{!d the warning devices via the control joints are not required when appli Source: Ref. 25 ,s,.”. *.!,.” Motion Sensitive Track Circuit. This type of circuit employs audio frequencies similar to the AFO equip- ment and is desi~ed to detect the -- presence, as well as the directiOn of u n.”,,,, motion, of a train by continuously mOnitOping the track circuit tiped- Figure 63. Motion Sensitive Track ance. AS long as the track circuit Circuit, Bi-Directional Appltcatiorr is unoccupied or no train is moving within the approach, the impedance of Source: Ref. 25 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives Where longer approach zones are The latest constant warning time required, or where ballast or track devices, like motion sensitive conditions dictate, a mi-directional devices, may be applied either in a application may be desirable. In mi-directional or hi-directional this type of application, one device mode as shown in Figures 65 and 66, is required for each approach zone, respectively. A uni - directional with insulated rail joints used to application requires twO devices, separate the two approach zones as one monitoring each approach zone, shown iriFigure 6k. with the approach zones being sepa- rated by insulated rail jOints. A terminating shunt is placed at the outermost end of each approach zone. The location of the terminating shunt is determined by the fastest train \ (,dl using the crossing. west East ;g:y~ ;~~yh + 4 Uni-directional application is )\ ~“:~q gu:pg suggested in situations where there are closely following train moves or W6...,,”,‘;;ii: Figure 64., Motion Sensitive Track Circuit, Uni-Directional Application Source: Ref. 25 Constant Warning Time Track Cir- cuit. Constant warning time equip- ment has the capability of sensing a Figure 65. Constant Warning Time train in the approach section, meas- Track Circuit, Uni-Directional uring its speed and distance from Application the crossing and activating the warn- ing equipment to provide the selected Source: Ref. 25 minimum warning time. Thus, regard- less of train speed, a unifOrm warn- ing time is prOvided. If a train stops prior to reaching the crossing, or is moving away from the crossing, the warning devices are deactivated to allow the highway traffic to move over the crossing. With constant warning time equipment, trains can move, or switch on the approaches without reaching the crossing~ and, depending on their speed, never cause Figure 66. Constant Warning Time the crossing warning devices tO be Track Circuit, Bi-Directional activated, thus eliminating ~neces - Application sary delays to highway traffic. Source: Ref. 25 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives to break up frequency pollution. along the track(s) on which a train Uni-directional installations are might be approaching the crOssing in suggested to avoid bypassing insulat- either direction; and, 3) the dis- ed joint 10catiOns when bypassing tance along the track(s) in either these joints is not desirable. direction from a vehicle stopped at the crosstig. These sight distances A bi - directional application are illustrated in Figme 67. uses a single constant warning time device which monitors both approach In the first case, the distance zones. Insulated rail joints are not ahead to the crossing, a driver must required in a hi-directional applica- detemine whether a train OCCUpyiDg tion. Again, terminating shuts are the crossing or there is an active placed at the outemost end of each traffic control device indicating approach zone. The bi - directional the approach or presence of a train. application is nomally used where In such an event, the vehicle must be moderate train speeds are employed, stopped short of the crossing and the thus requiring shorter approach available sight distance may be a zones, and where track and ballast determining factor limiting the speed conditions permit. of an approaching vehicle. Motion sensing and constant warning time track circuits should be considered for crossings on railroad mainlines, particularly at crossings with variations in train speeds and crossings with a number of switching movements on the approach sections. D. Site And Operational Improvements In addition to the installation of traffic control systems, site and operational improvements can contrib- ute greatly to safety of railroad- ti highway grade crossings. Site — improvements are discussed in six u ““-” - d— categories: sight distance, geomet- E ric, illwination, safety barriers, .. “., ,, ...... O,s,,”.,,.. flagging, and miscellaneous. Opera- ~<.. x.:.;?;.:.: s tional improvements ., are discussed j: under miscellaneous. /j“ \: 1. Sight Distance Available sight distances help w . . to determine the safe speed at which “H a vehicle may approach a crossing. There are three sight distances tO consider: 1) the distance ahead to the crossing; 2) the distance tO and Figurer67. Crossing Sight Distances 131 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives The relationship between vehicle and should be increased for less speed and this sight distance is set favorable conditions. forth in the following formula: The second sight distance situa- V2 tion utilizes a so called “sight tri- dH = ?.47 Vvt + --1-- t D t de angle1’ in the quadrants on the vehi- 3of cle approach side of the track. The triangle is formed by: 1) the dis- where: tance (dH) of the vehicle driver from the track; 2) the distance (dT) Of dH = Sight distance measured along the train from the crossing; and, 3) the highway from the nearest the unobstructed sight line from the rail to the driver of a vehi- driver to the front of the train. cle which allows the vehicle The sight triangle is depicted in to be safely stopped without Figure 67. The relationships between encroachment of the crossing vehicle speed, maximum timetable area, feet train speed, distance along the high- Vv = Velocity of the vehicle, mph way (d ), and distance along the t= Perception reaction time, railroa~ (dT) are set forth in the seep assumed to be 2.5 see following formula: f= Coefficient of friction, see Table 35 v V2 D = Distance from the stop line dT = -~ (1.47 Vvtt-~-+2D+L+W) or front of the vehicle to Vv jof the nearest rail, feet, as- sumed to be 15 feet where: de = Distance from the driver to the front of the vehicle, dT = Sight distance along the feet, assumed to be 10 feet railroad tracks to permit the vehicle to cross and be clear The minimum safe sight distance of the crossing upon arrival (dH) along the highway for certain of the train selected vehicle speeds are shown in VT = Velocity of the train, mph the bottom line of Table 3“6. AS L= Length of vehicle, feet, as- noted, these distances were calcu- sumed to be 65 feet lated for certain assumed conditions w= Distance between outer rails, feet, assumed to be 5 feet for a single track Table 35. Coefficients of Friction v ~, t, f, D, are as defined above. Speed (mph) f Distances dH and dT are ‘shornin 10 0.40 Table 36 for several selected highway 0.40 speeds and train speeds. 28 0.35 40 0.32 In the case of a vehicle stopped 0.30 at a crossing, the driver needs to 2: 0.29 see both ways along the tracks to 70 0.28 determine whether a train is approaching and estimate its speed. Sw~rce: Ref. 29 The driver needs to have a sight Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives Table 36. Sight Distances for Combinations of Highway Vehicle and Train Speeds Vehicle Speed (mph) ------o 10 20 30 1)0 50 60 70 ------Train Distance (dT) Along Railroad From Crossing (ft) Speed (mph) ------ 240 145 105 100 105 115 125 135 480 290 210 200 210 225 245 270 720 435 310 300 310 340 370 405 96o 580 415 395 415 450 :~ 540 1200 ?25 520 495 520 565 675 1440 870 62o 595 620 675 735 810 1680 1015 ?25 690 725 790 860 940 1920 1160 830 790 830 900 980 1075 2160 1305 930 890 930 1010 1105 1210 ______Distance (dH) Along Highway From Crossing (ft) ______n/a 70 135 225 340 490 660 865 Note: All calculated distances are rounded up to next higher 5-foot incre- ment. Assumptions: 65 foot truck crossing a single track at 90 degrees; flat ter- rain. Adjustments should be made for unusual vehicle lengths and acceleration capabilities, multiple tracks~ skewed crossings, and grades. Source: Ref. 29 distance along the tracks that will Lt2DtW-d ‘G permit sufficient time to accelerate dT = 1.47VT(-- + ------t J) and clear the crossing prior to the al ‘G arrival of a train, even though the train might come into view as the where: vehicle is beginning its departure process. VG = maximum speed of vehicle in selected starting gear, Figure 68 illustrates this assumed to be 8.8 ft/sec maneuver. These sight distances, for = acceleration of vehicle in al a range of train speeds, are given in starting gear, assumed to be the column for vehicle speed equals 1.47 ft/sec/sec zero in Table 36. These values are J = sum of the perception time obtained from the following formula: and the time required to activate the clutch or an automatic shift, assumed to be 2 sec 133 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives da = distance the vehicle travels able that sight distances Pe~it while accelerating to maximum operation at the legal speed limit speed in first gear, or for approach highways. This is sOme- times impractical. VG2 da = ------or, In order to pemit this, three 2al areas of the crossing environment should be kept free from obstnc- a.a2 tions. The area on the approach from ------= 26.4 feet the driver ahead to the CrOSSing (2)(1.47) should be evaluated to detemine whether it is feasible to remove any obstructions which prevent the mtor- dT, VT, L, D, and W are as defined ist from viewing the crossing ahead, above. a train occupying the crossing or active control devices at the cross- Adjustments for longer vehicle ing. Clutter is often a problem in lengths, slower acceleration capabil- this area, consisting of nmerous and ities, multiple tracks, skewed cross- various traffic control devices, ings, and other than flat highway roadside commercial signing, utility grades are necessary. The fo~ulas and lighting poles, and vegetation. in this section may be used with Horizontal and vertical alianment can proper adjustments to the appropriate also serve to obstruct mot~rist view dimensional value. It would be desir- of the crossing. A Clutter can often be removed with minimal expense, improving the visibility of the crossing and asso- ciated traffic control devices. Traf- fic control devices unnecessary for the safe movement of vehicles through the crossing area should be relnoved. Vegetation should be removed or cut back periodically. Billboards should I B\ be prohibited on the approaches. Changes to horizontal and verti- cal alignment are usually more expen- sive. However, when constricting new highways or reconatrueting existiw highways, care should be taken to minimize the effects of horizontal and vertical curves at a crossing. B The approach sight triangle is the second area that should be kept A free from obstmctions. This area Figure 6a. Sight Distance for a provides an approaching mtorist with Vehicle Stopped at Crossing a view of an approaching train. It can encompass a rather large area Source: Ref. 29 that is usually privately owned. In Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives rural areas, this sight triangle may 2. Geometries contain cropg or fam equipment that block the motorist1s view. For this The ideal crossing geometry is a reason, clearing the sight triangle 90 degree titersection of track and my be cliffieult to achieve. How- highway with slight ascendi~ grades ever, obstructions should be removed, on toth highway approaches to reduce if possible, to allow vehicles to the flow of surface water toward the travel at the legal speed limit for crossing. Few crossings have this the approach highway. Vegetation can ideal geometry because of topography be removed or cut back periodically, or llmitationa of right-of-way for billboards and parking should be pro- both the htghway and the railroad. hibited, and small hills my be Every effort ghould be mde to con- regraded. struct new crosstigs in this manner. Horizontal and vertical alignmnt and The third area of concern is the cross-sectional design are discussed track sight distance, or the area below. along the track. Usually, this area is located on railroad right-of-way. Horizontal Alignment. Desira- Vegetation is often desired along bly, the highway should titersect the railroad right-of-way to serve as an tracks at a right angle with no near- environmental barrier to noise gener- by intersections or driveways. This ated from train movements. However, layout enhances the driver’s view of the safety concern at crossings is of the crossing aud tracks and reduces more tiportance and, if possible, conflicting vehicular movements from vegetation should be removed or cut crossroads and driveways. To the back periodically. Also, if practi- extent practteal, crosstigs should cal, this sight distance area should not be located on either highway or be kept free of parked vehicles and railroad curves. Roadway curvature standing railroad cars. Care should inhibits a driver’s view of a cross- be taken to avoid the accumulation of ing ahead and a driver’s attention snow in this area. may be directed toward negotiating the curve rather than looking for a An engineering study, as train. Railroad curvature inhibits a described in Chapter III, should be driver’s view down the tracka from conducted to determine if the three both a stopped position at the cross- types of sight distance can be pro- ing and on the approach to the cross- vided as desired. If not, other ing. Those crossings that are located alternatives should be considered. on botb. highway and railroad curves The highway speed might be reduced, present matitenance problems and poor either through the installation of an ridability for highway traffic due advisory or regulatory speed sign, to to conflicting superelevations. Sim- a level which confoms with the ilar difficulties arise when super- available sfght distance. It iS elevation of tl~etrack is opposite important that a motorist understand to the grade of the highway. why the speed reduction is necessary, otherwise, it may be ignored unless If the intersection between enforced. At crossings with passive track and highway cannot be mde at control devices only, conaideration right angles, the variation from gO might be given to the installation degrees should be minimized. One of active traffic control devices State limits the minimm skew to 70 that warn of the approach of a train. degreea. At skewed crossings, motor- Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives ists must look over their shoulder to setting trailer design standards, or view the tracks. Because of this minimizing the rise in track due to more awkward movement, some motorists maintenance operations. may only glance quickly and not take the necessary precaution. Some States have addressed this issue by setting standards. The Illi- Generally, improvements to hori- nois Commerce Commission specifies zontal aligment are expensive. Spe- that From the outer rail of the out- cial consideration should be given to ermost track, the road surface should crossings that have complex horizon- be level for about 24 inches. From tal geometries as described above. there to a distance of 25 feet, a These crossings may warrant the maximum grade not to exceed one per- installation of active traffic cOn- cent is specified. From that point trol systems or, if possible, may be to the railroad right-of-way line, closed to highway traffic. the maximum grade is five percent. Vertical Alignment. It is desir- The West Virginia Department of able that the intersection of high- Highways recommends that when a track way and railroad be mde as level as raise of one tnch or more is neces- possible from the standpoint of sight sary, the approach pavement should be distance, ridability, and j braking tapered at a rate of not less than 10 and acceleration df.stances. Drainage feet per one inch of track raj.se. would be improved if the crossing The pavement immediately adjacent to were located at the peak of a 10ng the outermost rail should be level vertical curve on the highway. Ver- for a minimw distance of three feet. tical curves should be of sufficj.ent length to insure an adequate view of The Florida Department of Trans- the crossing. portation (DOT) has initiated a sur- vey of crossings on the State h~.ghway Track maintenance can result in system to determine if a particular raising the track as new ballast is crossing profile will accommodate low added to the track structure. Unless bed vehicles that meet State road the highway profile is properly clearance requirements. The Florida adjusted, this practice results in a DOT has identified seven different ‘ihmped!icrossing that may adversely profile types and co~responding affect safety and operation of high- tables to be used in the determin- way traffic over the railroad. Hmped ationof adequate profiles. crossings can be of particular con- cern for vehicles with low under- The “AmericanRailway Engineering clearances, e.g. “low-boy” trucks. Association (AREA) Manual for Railway It is possible for these trucks to Engineering recommends that the become caught on the tracks, obvious- crossing surface be in the same plane ly causing a hazard. as the top of rails for a distance of two feet outside of rails and that Alternatives to this problem the surface of the highway be not include a design standard that deals more than three inches higher nor six with maximum grades at the crossing, inches lower than the top of nearest prohibiting truck trailers with a rail at a point 30 feet from the rail certain combination of underclearance unless track superelevation dictates and wheelbase to cross the crossing, otherwise. 136 Chapter IV Identification of Alternative:; The Southern Pacific Railroad posite of a railroad track structm Shoulder Shoulder Figure 69. Elements of a Highway Cross Section 137 ,. Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives slopes of up to six percent are vation as the track. This will acceptable for low type surfaces. require a cha~e in the nomal Shoulders should be sloped Suffi- crowned highway. Crossings in curves ciently to rapidly drain surface ~Y encOunter Superelevated track. water but not to the extent that The rate of change in eleVatiOn Of vehicular use would be hazardous. the pavement edges should not exceed Typically, bitwinous and concrete those shown in Table 37. surfaced shoulders are sloped from two to six percent; gravel or crushed AS with the usual design of rock shoulders from four to six per- highways and railroads, adequate cent; and turf shoulders about eight drainage is essential to prevent sat- percent. Foreslopes provide for uration of the track sub~ade and the drainage channels and desirably are pavement structural section and failu- no steeper than 4:1 (horizontal to re of the pavement adjacent to the vertical). crossing. Excessive moisture can lead to pmping and a consequent fouling These guidelines are typical for of the ballast and settlement of the tangent alignment in open areas. track. Where the grade of the highway Variations for curves, urban areas, approach descends toward the crOss- and other roadside environments are ing, provisions should be mde to described in the American Association intercept surface and subsurface of State Highways and Transportation drainage and discharge it laterallY Officials’ (AASHTO’s) A POliCY On so that it will not be discharged on Geometric Design of Highways and the track area. Streets. Elements of a railroad cross Table 37. Rate of Cha%e in section are shown in Figure 70. Elevation of Pavement Edges Shoulder to shoulder widths fOr sin- gle tracks typically vary from 20 to Design Distance Required 26 feet. The top ballast is usually Speed for 1.O-foot Change sloped at a ratio of 2:1. Variations (mph) in Elevation (ft) in cross section occur for track on curves and where right-of-way is 40 175 restricted. 50 200 60 225 The pavement surface adjacent to 70 250 the track should be at the same ele- SubBallast / Figure 70. Elements of Railroad Track Cross Section 138 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives Surface ditches should be might not take appropriate cautionary installed. If required, subdrainage action at the crossing. Parking with suitable inlets and the neces- should be avoided near crossings fojr sary provisions for clean-out should the same reason and because parke,i be made to drain the subgrade thor- vehicles may restrict a wtorist$ :S o~hly and prevent the formtion of view of an oncoming train or a crOss.- water pockets. This drainage should ing warning device. be connected to a storm water sewer System, if available. If not, suita- Certain vehicles (school buses,, ble piping, geotextile fabrics, or vehicles carrying passengers for french drains should be installed to hire, and vehicles transporting haz.. carry the water a sufficient distance ardous materials) are required t() from the roadbed. Where gravity StOp at all crossings before proceed.. drainage is not available, a nearby ing across the tracks. Pullout lanes sump may provide an economical Out- are sometimes provided to remove? let, or the crossing may be sealed these rehicles from the through lanf? and the roadbed stabilized by using such ‘that they can stop withO”t, asphalt ballast or its equivalent. delaying following vehicles. The length of the crosstig meas- A typical pullout lane is showrl ured along the track should be suffi- in Figwe 71. The length of the pull-. cient to include all highway travel out lane on the approach is designed lanes and adjacent shoulders plus two tO provide for the deceleration of feet, with the continuation of all the special vehicle to a stOP ir, traffic lanes across the tracks. advance of the crossing. Recent. research establishes that the! Intersections and driveways length, Ld,,from the beginning of the! should be avoided near crossings. A taper to a point in advance of the! driver’s attention may be distracted crossing, is based on the appropriate toward another vehicle entering Or speeds of the special vehicles as exiting the highway and the driver shown ~.nTable 38. The length of the -— —— _____ Jill I I 15feet Ld La Ld=TotallengthofPull.”clane,a~pro.ch La=TocallengthofPull.”t1...,exir Figure 71. Typical Pullout Lane at a Crossing 139 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives Table 38. Approach Length It is desirable that shoulders of Pullout Lane be provided for an escape route for errant vehicles. A driver trying to Vehicle Length stop without sufficient distance may Speed (mph) (ft) either lose control of the vehicle or need a space to direct the vehicle 30 190 without colliding with a train on the 40 36o crossing. Likewise, the area adja- 50 560 cent to the highway should be kept as 60 850 level as possible and free from obstructions to provide a space for errant vehicles, subject to the space taper on the approach varies, depend- needed for traffic control devices. ing on the type of highway facility and vehicle speed. Adequate StOrage In an engineering study, consid- length in advance of the crossing for erateion should be given to low-cost stopped vehicles should be provided. Improvements such as the removal of parki~ near the crossing and the It would be desirable for the closure of low volme intersecting length gf ~he pulloq.tlane, La, from highways and driveways. the- stopped position in advance of the crossing to the end of the accel- 3. Illumination eration taper, downstream, to allow for acceleration up to the design Illumination at a crossing may speed of the roadway. However, it he effective in reduci~ nighttime seldom would be practical to cOn- accidents. Illminattng most crOss- struct the extended lengths necessary ings is technically feasible since for all vehicle types. The values in commercial power is available at Table 39 are adequate to pemit pas- approximateely 90% of all public senger cars to attain roadway speed crossings. Illminatton may be effec- prior to merging and till allow heav- tive under the followi~ conditions. ier vehicles to accelerate to a speed which wil1 make merging with through 0 Nighttime train operations traffic easier to accomplish. The length of the taper for acceleration 0 Low train speeds varies depending on the type of high- way facility and vehicle speeds. 0 Blockage of crossings for long periods at night Table 39. Downstream Length 0 Accident history that indicates of Pullout Lane that motorists often fail to detect trains or traffic control Vehicle Length devices at night Speed (mph) (ft) 0 Horizontal and/or vertical align- 30 190 ment of highway approach such that 40 380 vehicle headlight beam does nOt 50 760 fall on the train until the vehi- 60 1170 cle has passed safe stopping dis- tance Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives o Long dark trains, e.g. unit coal vertical planes five feet from the trains centerline of the track. The lumi- naires should be oriented toward the o Restricted sight or stopping di~- railroad. Maximum permissible level tance in rural areas of illumination and exact orientation of the luminaires should be deter- o Humped crossings where oncoming mined on a case-by-case basis an.i vehicle headlights are visible should consider site conditions ani under train the level of ambient nighttime illu- mination. Ideally, luminaires shoul,i o Low ambient light levels illuminate an area along the track that is 50% longer than the width of o A highly reliable source of power the road. Illumination should extend to approximately 15 feet ab~~e th~ Recommendations for the place- top of rail. ment and type of luminaires are available in the F~A !s Roadway The luminaires should be posi.- Lighting Handbook and the Illuminat- tiOned to ensure that a motorist o:: ing Engineering Society1s American railroad operator is not subjected to National Standard Practice for Road- glare from the light source. 1:? way Lighting. It is desirable that glare cannot be eliminated, cutOffs at least two luminaires be provided, may be provided to shield the cone o~? one on each side of the tracks, vision of a motorist or locomotive engineer. In rural areas with high On uncurbed roadways, luminaire train speeds, some lighting should b(? supports should be erected as far as directed dow the tracks to illumi.. practical from the traveled way, nate the sides of an approaching desirably outside the clear zone. train. Trains, traffic control. men located within the clear zone, devices, or signs should not be over.. defined in the Guide for Selectingt powered by ~ackground objects or Locating, and Designing Traffic Bar- lighting. riers, luminaire supports should have breakaway bases. If possible, lumi- Train activated illuminatiorl naires should also be located to circuitry can be designed, but should ensure damaged poles will not fall on not be used as a substitute for the tracks. A distance of 25 tO 50 active traffic control systems. feet from the nearest track is recom- mended. 4. Shielding Supports for Traffic: Control Devices Mounting height should be in the range of 30 feet to 40 feet. It is The purpose Of a traffic bar- preferable that the illumination be rier, such as a guardrail or crash, distinctive in color, volume, or dis- cushion, is to protect the motorist tribution so that it clearly distin- by redirecting or containing an guishes the crossing among other errant vehicle. The purpose is not street lighting. tO protect a traffic control device against collision and possible dam- The Oregon Public Utility Com- age. Their use should be limited to mission? recommends that there situations where hitting the object, should be at least one foot-candle of i.e. a traffic control device, is average maintained illumination on a more hazardous than hitting the traf- Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives fic barrier and possibly redirecting have active control devices when the the vehicle into a train. railroad cars are not headed by an engine. Some railroad companies A longitudinal guardrail should require flagging when the train has not be used for trtifie centrol been split or when switching opera- devices at crossings unless the tions necessitate numerous movements guardrail is otinerwisewarranted, as across the roadway. for a steep embantient. The reason for not using a longitudinal guard- 6. Miscellaneous Improvements rail is that it might redirect a vehicle into a train. There are several other site improvements that can be mde to On some crossings, it may be enhance safety and operations at possible to use crash cushions to railroad-highway grade crossings. protect the motorist from striking a One of the alternatives is crossing traffic control device. Some crash closure, as discussed in an earlier cushions are designed to capture, section. rather than redirect a vehicle, and may be appropriate for use at crOss- Prolonged blockage of crossfigs ings to reduce the redirection of a as a result of low train speeds or vehicle into the path of a train. numerous switchi.ng movements can adversely affect crossing safety and The ring type guardrail placed operations. Increased vehicular delay around a signal mast may create the not only affects operations but may sae type of hazard as the signal also affect safety if emergency vehi- mast itself, i.e. the guardrail my cles cannot respond to a life-threat- be a roadside obstacle. They do how- ening situation. Train speeds might ever serve to protect the signal be increased by upgrading the track mast. Since functioning devices are class, removing local speed restric- vital to safety, the ring type guard- tions, and improving crossings to rail may be used at locations with compensate for local concerns regard- heavy industrial traffic, such as ing the safety of higher speed trucks, and low highway speeds. trains. Crossings located on track- age that has nmerous switching move- When a barrier is used, it ments should be closed, if possible. should be installed according to the If not, switches might be relocated requirements In the Guide for Select- or switching operations might be re- ing, Locating and Designing Traffic scheduled at times other than peak Barriers. highway traffic periods. Establish- ing “hotlines,,between emergency ser- 5. Flaggi~ vices and the railroad can assist the railroad in opening blocked crossings At certain crossings, railroad to allow emergency vehicles access companies may have a policy to use a across the tracks. Sidings might be flagger to stop highway vehicles and extended to allow space for storage pedestrians before allowi~ a train of railroad equipment away fPorn to move over the crossing. These crossings. Rail operations, such as crossings typically have only passive train crew changes and refueling warning signs. Flaggers should be points, might be relocated outside of employed at crossings which do not cowunities. Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives Exposure between trains and ing of the presence of the island and gchool buses, commercial buses, and a definite indication of the proper vehicles transporting hazardous mte- vehicle path or paths to be followed. rials should be minimized because of the potential catastrophic conse- Comprehendive planni~ is essen- quences. These types of vehicles tial to avoid future crossi~ prob- might be rerouted tO avOid crossing lems. Community development should the railroad at-grade, if possible. be planned to avoid crossings at- If not, these vehicles may traverse grade. the railroad at crossingg with active traffic control devices. E. Crossing Stiaces Traffic divisional islands may be used at crossings on multi-lane This portion of the handbOOk roadways to prevent motorigts from provides general information of cur- driving around a lowered gate. Traf- rently available types of crossing fic divisional islands are narrow surfaces. The use of trade names and elongated iglands that follow the the identification of manufacturers course of the highway to separate and distributors are solely fOr the conflicting traffIc movements. convenience of the reader. Such use and identification do not constitute An engineering study should be an OffiCial endorsement by the U.S. conducted to determine if traffic Department of Transportation of any divisional islands are appropriate. product to the exclusion of others The study should consider the acci- that may be suitable. dent history of the crossing, driver response to lowered gates, trsin and As a vehicle moves across a highway traffic volumes and condi- railroad-highway grade crossing, the tions, need for upgraded train detec- mterial on which its tires roll is tiOn Systems, and crossing apprOach commonly referred to as a crossing geometry. Consideration should be surface. It is supported by the given to the potential hazard of the railroad track structure, primrily island itself. the crossties, which in turn trans- fers the highway load, as well as Islands must extend far enough the train load, through the ballast back from the crogsi~ to accommodate to the uderlying sub~ade. traffic queueg and should not have cut-outs for access and egress of For railroads, the crossing sur- local traffic. The pavemant may face and the highway approach pave- require wideni~ to retain mintium ments leading up to the crossing con- lane widths. Vertical transit:lonson fine the track structure and create the raised igland approaches should drainage and maintenance problms. be treated similar to curbed gore areas. Delineators might be placed on Fo]ehighway authorities, cross- the raised island to aid snow plowi~ ings create discontinuity in the nor- operations. mal highway surface, which at best results in somewhat poorer riding The ends of the island should be quality and may result in increased protected as other traffic islands, vehicle operating costs, hazard, and to provide a maximum degree of warn- inconvenience to highway traffic. Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives In negotiating a crossing, the are asphalt, poured - in - place con- degree of attention that the driver crete, snd cast - in - place rubber can be expected to devote to the (elastomeric) compounds. Sectional crossing surface is related to the crossings are those manufactured in condition of that surface. If the sections (panels) that are placed at surface is uneven, the driver’s at- the crosstig and can be ~emoved and tention may be devoted primsrily to reinstalled. These crossing surfaces choosing the smoothest path over the facilitate the maintenance of track crossing, rather than to detemini~ through the crossing. Typical sec- if a train is approaching the cross- tional crossings consist of treated ing. This type of behavior may be timbers~ reinforced conc~ete, steel, conditioned; that is, if a driver is high dens+.typolyethylene, and rub- consistently exposed to uneven cross- ber. ing surfaces, he may assume that all crossing surfaces are uneven whether The U.S. DOTIAAR National Rail- or not they actually are. Converse- Highway Crossing Inventory found that ly, if a driver encounters an uneven the majority of crossings are as- surface unexpectedly, he may lose phalt. Nmbers and percent of cross- control of his veh%cle resulting in ings by surface type are given in an accident. Therefore, provtding Table 40. reasonably smooth crossing surfaces is viewed as one of the several ele- Proper preparation of the track ments toward improving crossing safe- structure and good drainage of the ty and operations. subgrade are essential to good per- formance fro.n any type of crossing Originally, crossing suri”aces surface. Excessive moisture in the were made by filling the area between soil can cause track settlement, the rails with sand and gravel, prob- accompanied by penetrat+.on of mud ably from the railroad ballast. Lat- into the ballast section. Moisture er, crossing surfaces were made of planks or heavier timbers or of bitu- minous material, sometimes using Table 40. Public Crosstngs by planks to provide the flangeway open- Surface Type, 19a3 ings. Treated timber panels and pre- fabricated metal sectf.ons followed, Surface Type Nwber Percent and in 1954 the first proprietaw rubber panel crossing surface was put Sectional timber 29,339 14.29 on the msrket. Presently available Full width plank 30,131 14.67 proprietary surfaces, usually pa- Bituminous asphalt 112,544 54.81 tented, are fabricated from concrete, Concrete slab 849 0.4? rubber, steel, synthetics~ wood, and Concrete pavement 896 0.44 various combinations of these materi- Rubber 1 ,76a o.a6 ala. Metal sections 292 0.14 Okher metal 294 0,14 Crossing surfaces available to- Unconsolidated 28,797 14.03 day can be divided !nto two general Other u2g 0.21 categories: monolithic and section- al. Monolithic crossings are those Total 205,339 100.00 that are formed at the crossing and cannot be removed without destroying Source: Ref. 7 them. Typical monolithic crossings Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives can enter the subgrade and ballast It is desirable that the sub- aeotion from above, below and/or grade be cleaned of all old contami- adjacent subgrade areas. To the ex- nated ballast and bladed tO a level tent feaaible, surface and subsurface surface. Selected subgrade material drainage should be intercepted and should be placed in layers no more discharged away from the crossing. than 12 inches thick, then thoroughly Drai~ge can be facilitated by estab- compacted by approved methods. Sub- lishing an adequate difference in grade material may consist of select elevation between the crossing sur- soils~ soil cement, or asphaltic mix- faces and ditohes or embantient es, to be selected by the individual slopes. The highway profile at all railroad. crossings should be such that water drains away from the crossing. Use of a suitable filter fabric over tbe entire subgrade area under In sltuattons where the grade of the crossing and for a sufficient the highway approach descends toward distance beyond can be a significant the crossing, provisions should be aid in separation~ fIltration, water made to intercept sur~ace and subsur- transport, and tensile reinforce- face drainage and discharge it later- ment. The fabric separates tihebal- ally so thak it will not be dis- last from the subgrade, and thus charged on the track area. Surface restricts ballast penetration down ditches should be installed, If re- into the subgrade and prevents con- quired, subdraimge with suitable tami~tion of the ballast from the inlets and the necessary provisions flow of soft sub~ade material into for clean-out should be made LO drain the ballast layer through pumping the subgrade and prevent the forma- action caused by heavy train loads. tiOn of water pockets. This drainage Fabrics also provtde additional should be connected to a storm water structural support at the ballast- drainage system, if available; if subgrade interface such that loads not, suitable piping~ geotextile fab- are spread over a greater area. rics and/or french drains should be installed to carry the water a suffi- Numerous stabilization fabrica cient d?stance from the roadbed. are available from several manufac- Where gravity drainage is not avail- turers and are useful in a variety of able, a nearby S~P may QPOVlde an civil engtieeril~gfunctions involvi~ economical outlet, or the crossing tiprovements in drainage and reten- may be sealed and the roadbed stabi- tion of fine soil particles. These lized by using asphalt ballast or its fabrics are made of polymers; some equivalent. are woven but uny non-woven ones are produced by spunbonding or by felt- Sfnce drainage is more of a ing. These fabrics are also called problem in multitrack ter?itory, the “engineering fabrics” or ‘iplastic installation of catch basins between filter fabrics’!. However, the term tracks at the ends of a crossing stabilization fabrics better charac- should be considered. Any lag bolt, terizes their function in highway and drive spike or track spike holes in railroad applications where abrasion the ties should be filled and sealed resistance and tensile strength under to prevent entrance of moisture that heavy loads are quite important. causes early deterio?atf.on of the Some of the available products are ties. listed in Table 41. Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives Table 41. Ground Stabilization Fabricg Manufacturer Product Description Amoco Fabricg Co. PrOPex 4557 Highly permeable nonwoven Carthage Mills Filter X Woven fabric of polyvinylidene chloride Monofilament yarns Poly-Filter GB Woven fabric of polypropylene monofilament yarns Poly-Filter X Woven fabric of polypropylene monofilament yarns Crown Zellerbach Fibertex Nonwoven polypropylene, gpunbonded and needlepunched E.I. Dupon de Nmows Typar Continuous filament9 of polypro- & co. pylene, spunbonded Hoechst Fibers Trevira Spunbond Nonwoven polyester continuous Industries filment fabric mechanically bonded by needli~ Mirafi, Inc. Mirafi 100 X Woven polypropylene yarns Mirafi 500 X Woven polypropylene yarns Mirafi 600 X Woven polypropylene yarns Mirafi 700 X Woven polypropylene monofilament yarns Nicolon Corporation Kontrol Woven polypropylene N Phillips Fiber Supac N Nonwoven polypropylene COrpOration mechanically titerlocked by needlepunchi~ and heat bonding Supac w Woven polypropylene Quline Corporation Q-Trac Needledpunched and bonded, COUtinUOUS fil~nt Texel, Inc. Texel Polyester or polypropylene Texpro mechanically bonded by needle- punch procesg. Texel is non-woven and Texpro is woven True Temper Railway True Tex Nonwoven polyester with staple Appliances, Inc. needlepunch bonding 146 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives Some of these fabrics allow the pads 2s acceptable. Figure 72 illus- penetration of water but prevent trates the connectIon of the rail to movement of even the finest soil par- the tie. ticles through them. In addition, these fabrics have various applica- The rails through the crossing tions in below-grade drainage chan- shOuld be laid to ebinate joints nels. Together with ballast or other within the crossing. Preferably, the granular material they are used to nearest joint should be not less than construct non-clogging French drains 20 feet from the end of the crossing. and may be combined with perforated Continuous welded rail may be used, pipe where greater flow capacity is or rails might be welded in the needed. field. The use of heavier rail through the crossing area may be ~ar- When used, the fabric should be ranted at crossings with high traffic rolled beyond each end of the cross- volwes. ing for at least 20 feet. If a rail joint falla within this 20 foot dis- Rails should be spiked to line tance, the fabric should extend at and the track mechanically surfaced least five feet beyond the rail tO appropriate grade and aligment joint. If practical, the fabric such that the crossing surface will should extend mder the highway sur- be in the sme plane as, or slightly face 15 feet each way from the center above, the top of the rails for a line of the track. One manufacturer distance of two feet outside the suggests extending the fabric up the rails. This will assist in avoiding sides of the crossing to prevent soil any jarring and overturning effect fines from migrating horlzontally on the rails from the movement of intO the clean ballast. This tech- nique is called encapsulating or building a fabric envelope. The ballast and subballast should be clean at least 10 inches below the bottoms of the ttes. Clean ballast should be placed a mimhm of one foot beyond the ends of the ties and 20 feet beyond the ends of the crossing. Ties should be either treated No. Q or 5 hardwood ties or cOncrete ties through the crossing surface area and beyond for a minfmw distance of 20 feet. Length and spacing of the ttes should confom to ,,4,,s .“,,,,, ,,s ,.., ., ,,0 ,“””!”, .,,s .;,, ,,,”.,..”8., the type of crossing surface ~ateri- .,,., ..,.,1 .,. als being used. All ties through the crossing area and at least 20 feet beyond each end of the crossing should be fully tie plated, with two or four spikes per tie plate, and fully box an- Figwe 72. Connection of the chored. Optional placement of tie Rail to the Crosstie Chapter IV Identlftcat%on of Alternatives heavily loaded highway vehicles and of 2.5 inches and should extend at will aid in providing a smooth riding least two inches below the top of the surface. In turnv the first two or running rails. Flangeway openings three inches of the top surface of and spaces outside the head of the any non - plastic crossing surface running rails should be sealed to matertal immediately adjacent to the reduce the flow of water into the outside of the head of a running rail ballast and subgrade in the crossi~ should be lowered by clappingapproxi- area. mately one quarter inch, so that it will not be damaged by contact with The crossing length, measured false flanges of railroad car wheels along the track, should be sufficient with worn treads. to extend at least one foot beyond tha edge of the highway pavement, in- Following completl.on of the cluding any paved shoulders on the original tamping, arrangements should highway approaches to the crossing. be made for rail traffic to move over State laws may dictate that +.f hot- the track to induce any initial set- mix b+.tuminous asphalt pavement is tlement, and the track should then be used on the highway approaches, con- retamped to obtain optimum track sta- sideration should be given to instal- bility. This retamping should in- ling the pavement to at least the clude the area of the crosstng and bottom of the tie elevation, placi~ extand one rail length past the near- it in several layers, and rolling it est joint. In its final pOsf.tiOn, parallel to the track with the final the top of the crossing surface layer rolled in both directions. The should be at the same elevation as ends of the crossing surface should the top of the adjscent highway sur- be beveled to avoid dmage by drag- face. ging railroad equipment. Median Str+.ps, shoulder escape routes, and Flangeway openings on the inside sidewalks normlly should have the of the running rails are provided in same surface material installed to various ways. Prefabricated section- provide one continuous crossing sur- al type surfaces make provision for face. In urban areas, separate sec- flangeways in the desIgn and fabrica- tions of crossings may be provided tf.on of the individual sections. In for pedestrian use if sidewalks are the very simple monolithic bitminous somewhat reInoved from the highway. crossing surfaces, flangeways may be However, unless adequate drainage is formed by placing a removable wood provided, the unsurfaced pockets be- strip adjacent to the head of the tween the separate crossing areas may rail and removing it after the sur- create undesirable soft subwade con- face has been compacted by rolling. ditions. This procedure is not recommended, except for crossings with very light Proper preparation of subgrade vehicular traffic. A more durable cannot be overemphasized. Sevaral inner edge of the flangeway will be States have experienced problems witin formed by using a 1ine of permanently crossing surfaces that can be direct- fastened timbers or scrap railS. ly related to inadequate subgrade Constderatfon must be given to the preparation. Typical problas foud impact on track cireu$.tsand appro- at crossings include the following. priate Federal Railroad Administra- tion (FRA) rules. The flangeway o Replacement pavement failed opening should have a minimm widtin (cracked and settled) in apron 148 Chapter IV Identification of Alternative area adjacent to crossing surface mental effects to the serviceability becauae of: of the crosstig surface. In track surfacing projects, the general track - inadequate compaction in apron raise should be tapered off in the area (from ends of ties to ex- area approaching the crosstig so as isting pavement) of subgrade, not to disturb the elevation of the ballast, and pavement material; crossing. Or, the level of the en- tire crossing should be raised and - failure to install header board gradual adjustments should be made in when required; the grade l?.neof the highway ap- proaches consistent with the profile - failure to fom pavement/crOss- design criteria for the class of ing relief joint; highway involved. If more than one track is involved, the adjusted sur- - failure to seal pavement/crOss- face of the entire crossing should ing relief joint; or, lie in one plane and all tracks should be raised to correspond wtth - inadequate existi~ pa,rement the new elevation. removed for crossing installa- tion, creating a space too nar- Caution must also be taken when row to properly compact re- constructing or maintaining crossing placement material. (Mintium of surfaces in signalized track terri- 36 inches is recommended.) tory. The rails must be kept insula- ted one from the other. Metal contact o Frost heaving of pavement on high- between the rails till shunt the way approaches. track circuit and cauae signal fail- ures. Standing water fn the crossing o Improper establishment of highway area may also shwt the circuit. pavement and crossing surface ele- vations resulting in a nOn-uni- In highway resurfacing projects, fOm transition and causing a the crossing surface should be decrease in riding comfort. raiaed, if necessary, to avoid creat- ing a pocket that till increase the o Track settlement causing poor flow of surface drainage into the transition, and loose outside pan- crossing area. Track raises should els due to: be msde where necessary to accommo- datee the highway grade adjustment. - Unstable subgrade (inadequate Also, highway agencies should raise advance investigation) or, approaches where necessary to accom- modate track made adjustments. - Inadequate ballast depth and/or compaction. Proper liasion should be estab- lished between railroad and highway o Improper placement of filter cloth authorities so that plans and sched- and failure to place under track- uling of work can be coordinated to bed. avoid the planning or execution of work on either the highway or rail- Whenever either track resurfac- road that might adversely affect the ing or highway resurfacing projects grade line of the other. This is involve a crossing, appropriate meas- especially true for removing snow urea should be taken to avoid detri- from the crossing surface. Removal of Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives snow from only the crossing surface, may be appropriate for soresvery low and not the approaches, will result density repaved roads, particularly in a trough at the track and may in combination with low-density rail cause a vehicle to stall on the operations, they are mdesirable be- track. The operation of snow plows cause without frequent replacement of must avoid damage to the rails. the materials, vehicles may become Windrows across the track or the caught between the rails. A surpris- highway should be avoided. ingly large number of public cross- ings have this type of surface. If Following are descriptions of they are used, they should be used various types of crossing surfaces only on highways that also are uncon- along with typical cross sections. solidated, i.e. gravel roads. These cross sections do not show a stabilization fabric because the best 2. Asphalt position for a fabric in each situa- tion will depend on the combination An asphalt crossing surface is of subgrade material, subballast, monolithic, formed from a pavement climatic conditions, drainage method, type mixture of non-metallic aggre- and other relevant characteristics of gate and a bituminous binder (usually the site. Information on the use of hot mix). It may include flangeway several types of crossing surfaces by protectors of planks, flange rails, State is given in Appendix F. Table or other devices that form flangeway 42 provides a specification check openings on the inside of the running list for several types of crossing rails. A line of timbers or flange- surfaces. Way railS is sometimes placed on the outside of the running rails. A 1. Unconsolidated cross section of a typical plain as- phalt crossing is shorn in Figure 73. Unconsolidated crossing surfaces are those that consist of sand, grav- Asphalt crossings are relatively el or other material placed between inexpensive to install. However, they and outside the rails. While they must be torn out and completely re- ~Perfor.ted DrainPipe Figure 73. Typical Cross Section thru plain Asphalt CrOssing 150 Table 42. Crossing Surface Data Sheet *3 ~a ~+. .,. Any ,8, ,6 N/A ,9-3,,6 ,4 ,6 Any N,, A, SPe.ified ~ 3,WX ,2 N/R N,R N/A 5/8 x 5 c.”., 0,)”. N,R TS,DR NIB An.,., D., LAG, TS M,R Y Y Y .,6 Y “ Nm N Y , N(R N(R As Spmiti.d N(R N Y Y N(R N/R v N/R ,2 18 ?8 N,A 8 N(R 12 ,2 ,, N(R N/A N/R Y Y Y N/R Y M,R Y Y Y N,R N/A N/R “ Y Y N(R N N/R Iv ~v ,8 w 36 36 3& ,6 58 36 ,6 se 3W 3? f , 2 1 1 2 ~ ,.,, F.,, *W, f.,, f“,, ,.,, “ Y “ ./, “ . Y N N N N N “ N N 2,2W 39,, 3,0# 1,Ow 32w 222, es,” 575, 7m# 570, 1,W IW 275, ,,W 1,5# 9W 4m# 2m# 3,m# 575# m,” .,. N/R Y “ Y “ Y N,. N/R N/R N/R N,A N/A “ Y Y Y v N/R N/A N(A Table 42 (Continued). Crossing Surface Data Sheet Fab-Ra. Genera, K~~w. cobra C*8, ,,,. x(R)(,9,,)Gent,,. , Guard YN “ Y N Y Y Y N N “ Held , N Y , Y N N Y. Y N/R %,.0.,, N. . “ N Y ““ Y N M N RUbb.r, ,Vbbe,, Rubber, R.,,,,, ~,, N/A .,. .,. .,, N,A .,, wood wood wood Wood N. . Y N , “ Y N N .,. ,o~ 22. ,5. 30~ ,o~ 9* 30° 1,. 9* 6, A“y A“, Field Order., O;:;d Orde,.d c“, T.n, N N “ N TO ., Y . Y ,.C,O’Tc., ““ Y Y Y Y Y “ “ Y Y .,. “. Y Y , Y Y “ Y “ Y Y. .,. Y“ “ Y .,,0... Y Y Y Y Y Y , St,.,,. F... M.,,!. Rubber Rubber s,.,, s“bbe, ..,,., RUbber Rubber con.. ..,,,, mm,,, C.”Pad, in center., x.ing b.R,..”,, w,, outRemoving Balance of crossing? ““ Y “ “ Y “ Y N Y Y Y ,.. Y =“e, DR o,r D,,”,=w,,,., HeadD,,”,spike, LAG =Lag Screw, . =A, addlti..a,.0,, ;;W =Lag Screws .,,, Ati,ched washer = mmber screw. TS W = Tmberscrews.),, A,,,.h.d W,,,er, =SP..ifl..ts..sare f., R.R.C.Su,.r Heavy Duty Model.other Ught.r weigh,mod.,,avail,,,,. NoteThe,.,..“,,1s,abl..,s ..(lectedbytheu.,.. Pa.,,,.Ra,,coad Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives placed whenever track resurfacing i9 reduce deterioration of the crossing done. Good track condition through surface that might be caused by the the crossing area and good drainage effect of rail flexure on the bitumi- of the gubgrade will reduce mainte- nous surface Uterial in direct COn- nance cogts. This type of crossing tact with the rail. Planks or tim- can be installed during paving of a bers must be wide enough to extend street or road over light-density over the area of the tie plate and rail lines by allowing the asphalt spikes, to provide support on the paVing machine to continue over the ties, and to be anchored to them. crossing, using the top of rails as a top of pavement reference. A scrap railroad rail may be used to form a flangeway as shown in The use of a plank or timber Figures 75 and 76. The rail ~S laid header, as shown in Figure 74, on on its side with the head fitted each gide of the running rail will againSt the web and under the head Of Figure 74. Typical Cross SectiOn thru Asphalt Crossing with Timber Headers - Compacted Base Material Figure 75. Typical Cross SectiOn thru Asphalt Crossing with Flange Rails 153 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives W,um; no., ,, ,.”...”, —.. Figure 76. Detail Section Thru Flangeway of Asphalt Crossing Light Timber Surface Figwe 77. Typical Cross Section the running rail. The scrap rail is of Epflex Railseal supported by steel chairs that are made and mrketed by Nelson Iron Works, Inc. and also distributed by 3. Wood Plank Virginia Suppliers. They are mde to fit the desired combination of rW- A wood plank crossing surface 1S ning rail and flangeway rail. With formed by installing planks or tiM- this flangeway construction, the bi- bers as individual pieces over the tuminous material is placed against entire crossing area as shown in the vertically-positionedbase of the Figwe 78. An advantage of the wood flangeway rail and against the out- plank crossing is that it can be side of the rmni~ rail. At cross- continuously mintained by replace- ings carryi~ heavier volmes of ment of deteriorated or worn planks highway or railroad traffic, an addi- one at a time. A disadvantage is tional scrap rail may be installed on that it cannot be removed and re- rail chairs on the outside of the placed in sections for track maint- running rail to avoid the deteriorat- enancepurposes, making more dtfficult ing effect of flexure of the running the continuing flow of highway traf- rail on the bitwinous surface. fic during maintenance operations. Another product that provides a Wood planks in a crosstig my be formed flangeway and eliminates con- full depth from top of rail to top of tact of the running rails with cross- tie in order to elimtiate the use of ing surface materials is Epflex Rail- shims. Planks should not be less seal, produced and marketed by Epton than four inches thick and where Industries of Kitchener, Ontario, used, shims should not be less than Canada. An extruded elastomeric pro- 1.625 inches thick. duct formed from an ethylene propy- lene copol~er, it can be used with Flangeway openi~s on the gauge asphalt, concrete and timber sur- side of the running rail are provided faces. Typical cross sections are in various ways, such as by clapping shown in Figure 77. Epflex Railseal the mders fde of a plank to clear the has been installed at more than 200 tie plates and spike heads and spac- crossings on Canadian railroads, the ing them to allow an appropriate first in 1970. flangeway width. Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives ~!, 4? - s.~,, Filler Blocks Mastic Joint Crosstie?“x 9“x 9’- 0’, ~!x6!! Header 14” Tie Plate Figure 78. Typical Cross Section thru Wood Plank Crossing 4. Sectional Treated Timber The panels are fabricated from gw timbers or other suitable hard- A sectional treated timber wood timbers. Usually, the timber is crossing consists of an assembly of thick enough to extend fron the top pre-fabricated treated timber panels, of the rail to the top of the tie and installed between the rails and to not require shims. Thinner timbers the ends of the ties as shown in can be used with shims on top of the Figure 79. The panels can be removed ties. The minimm thickness of tim- and replaced for maintenance pur- ber should be 5.125 inches and the poses. minimm thickness of shims should be 1.625 inches. Ill”strati”e Cross Section thr. Sectional Treated Timber Crossing ,,,1“*,,rock a.,asphalt I s,.,3.. Shw.i”% ,.7 6 .rilli.%of Plank. at E.,, c.,AItem. ceOutside Slab Unit ,..,,.. show,., DW & ,rillim,ofPlank,atkil I Figure 79. Typical Cross Section thru Sectional.Treated Timber Crossing 155 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives The timbers are securely fas- designed to keep tension between the tened together in panels to pemit drive spike and timber. adequate clappingof the ~derside of the edge timbers to provide proper Some manufacturers provide rub- clearance over the tie plates and ber cushions that are placed mder spike heads. A flangeway width of the timber panels to reduce vibra- 2.5 inches on the gage side of the tion. Others provide a non - skid running rail is provided. The safety plate on the top surface of flangeway opening can be filled with the panels as an optional feat~e. rock and asphalt or a treated timber For example, Koppers Company, Inc. filler block. recently introduced “Wear Guard” (patent pending) that is a replace- The widths of the outside panels able 1.125 inch thick high-density vary to accommodate various lengths polyethylene surface. These panels of ties. Typically, the widths are are secwed to the timber panels with 17 inches to accommodate eight foot dome head lag screws or timber ties, 20 inches for 8.5 foot ties, screws. This wear surface can be and 24 inches for nine foot ties. rmoved and replaced when needed Inside panels are a standard 25.5 without having to remove the entire inches. Sections are usually fur- crossing surface. nished in eight foot or 6.4 foot lengths to accommodate 19.2 inch tie Manufacturers of treated timber spacing. Other lengths are availa- panels are: ble. The end panels are beveled four inches at 45 degrees to minimize o The Burke-Parsons-Bowlby Corp.; dmage from dragging railroad equip- o International Track Systas, Inc.; ment. o Kerr-McGee Chemical Corp.; o Koppers Company, Inc.; and, Dome-head drive spikes, washer- o W.J. Smith Wood Preserving Co. head drive spikes, or lag screws ~iith steel washers are used to secure the 5. Precast Concrete Slabs timber panels to the ties. The heads of the washer-head drive spikes and This type of crossing surface the lag screws are countersunk to consists of precast reinforced cOn- provide a smooth riding surface. One erete panels, shown in Figwe 80, manufacturer has an optional double that may be removed and reinstalled coil spring-loaded drive spike that for maintenance and replacement pur- absorbs shock from tinetraffic and is poses. However, due to their weight, ~dge~rmor~,,xo~!!~!! Preformed & Treated 5“ mi. 8“ ma. 8 Steel Channel Oak Fillers in 0.25” M“ltipl,es t 1675””f115H+b’675°t 1675”t 1675 Z%’ ~iam;ter Lag Screws Per Slab< —1 Crossties 8<- 6,’Long Figure 80. Typical Cross Section thru Concrete Slab Crossing 156 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives approximately 1,500 to 2,500 pounds, rail. Typical slabthicknesses are they must be removed by powered five to eight inches. Some concrete mechanical equipment. slabs have edges that are protected with steel armor that require special The reinforcement typically con- provisions for electrical insulation sists of 10 longitudinal 0.375 inch when located in track circuit terri- deformed bars made into two mats of tory. End slabs are beveled to pre- five bars each and spaced one inch vent possible damage from dragging from the top and bottom surfaces, and railroad equipment. Rubber pads that five 0.5 inch deformed bars laid are placed on the the ties are stand- transversely in the bottom of the ard features of International Track slab. The concrete has a compressive Systems installations. strength of 5,000 to 6,000 lbs in 28 days and a one inch maximum slump. The design and installation of precast concrete slab crossings The panels are manufactured in should be such that after a period of various lengths, usually six, eight, time they do not rock. ~~rface spall- or nine feet. A crossing made by ing of concrete slabs can be repaired Permacrete Products Corporation has using an epoxy product. Periodic concrete slabs that fit 18 inch tie surface treatments are sometimes used spacing and a crossing made by Inter- to reduce spalling. national Track Systems has a slab that fits 19.2 inch tie spacing. One One precast concrete slab crOss- or more center sections are placed ing is designed so that the center between the rmning rails with slabs are not held in position by flangeway openings ranging from 2.5 metal hardware but are restrained to 3.25 inches. Outside sections against lateral movement by rubber– usually extend to the ends of the resin filler between the edge of the ties, although some are slightly nar- slabs and the web of the running rail rower. Slabs are typically 16.75 as shown in Figure 81. This filler inches wide. is also used in the space between the outside slabs and the running rail. International Track Systems, The slabs are supported vertically by Inc. has a precast concrete slab that grout bags resting on top of the utilizes two slabs for the center ties. This surface is registered section with treated guard timbers under the name FAB-RA-CAST and is adjacent to the rmning rail, both on distributed by Szarka Enterprises. the inside and outside slabs. Perma- The normal slab units are eight feet crete1s crossing also utilizes long and five inches thick. Clear treated timbers adjacent to the run- openings of 2.5 inches are provided ning rail. The timbers are clappedto on both sides of each head of the fit over the tie plates and spike running rails. This flangeway is heads and form the flangeway opening. filled with a cryogencially processed Timbers are held to the concrete with rubber and moisture cured polyure- tie rods. thane that is field mixed and poured in place. This filler is called FAB- The thickness of concrete slabs RA-FILLER and is used to protect the varies. Some are full depth from top integrity of signal and communica- of rail to top of tie while some use tions systems. Since ~ne slabs are shims on the ties to bring the top not connected to the ties, they can surface of the slab up to the top of be installed in a track having con- Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives field;~~yh RubberResinfillerMolded fie!d/APPrOach forHi-SpeedTrainTraffic P8”el RailroadcrossXe (woo;,S?-1,concreteorBridgeDectingl TemporavLevelingSlacks GroutBags AutomaticallyAnyTr.ckSpike0, (to1/1614StacksPer6 Adi”sttoanyVariations.+RailCfipmaybeUsed PanekGe”geand~eld NotePaving10be RailSze,n. IrregularitiesasGroutandfiller Cutprior10 orS.tia.eVariables ;~ajyf.rmtoany Installation NoteAllSteel(Rail,E“d Rods)R“stproofed I“s.latedRestraintRoadusedin R.”ningRail(Any5..) %gn.1Territow RestraintBracket Figwe 81. Typical Cross Section thru FAB-RA-CAST Crossing crete ties as well as wood ties. The are placed on a O.125 inch thick cOn- top surface is broom - finished to tinuous polyurethane strip that pre- improve skid resistance and reduce vents abrasion between steel and cOn- hydroplaning. crete and provides electrical insula- tion and less rail/wheel noise. No The Premier crossing, shown in spikes, rail anchors or tie plates Figure 82, does not utilize cross- are utilized. The end concrete mod- ties. It is a patented concrete slab ules are sloped 45 degrees to prevent crossing incorporating a precast re- damage caused by dragging railroad inforced concrete base placed on a equipment. A 2.5 inch flangeway compacted subgrade. The running rails width is provided. The top of the are inserted in a custom formed re- finished modules has a textured fin- cess and center panels bolted into ish, cast against a non-skid floor place. The modules are reinforced plate surface. The Premier crOssing with high tensile wire mesh. Rails surface is available from Pacific C,lZ‘d~weldedwirefabric with.. barstre”s”,~.~ o hookdedas she”. 7 L#4 ha,.@ 5,9ctrs Note:#h barsZ. be bent ~[ around1,,diameterPin Figure 82. Typical Cross Section thru Premier Crosshg 158 Chapter IV Identification of Alteruative~ International Pipe and Engineering, the ballast and roadbed sectiOn in Inc. and Railroad Crossings, Inc. the crosstig area, providing the area waler the crossing and on top of the 6. Continuous Concrete pavement ballast is kept clear Of dirt and debris. Accwulation and retention of The cross section of a cast-in- dirt on the steel crossing may lead place continuous concrete surface tO rapf.dcorrosiOn. These surfaces that covers the entire crossing area generally have good riding quality encasing the crossties is shown in but are sometimes difficult to hold Figure 83. This type of surface does in place. Shims are requfred on tOp not allow for track maintenance”with- of the ties. Insulation is required out removing the surface. Therefore, in track circuit territory. a continuous concrete pavement should be used only on auxiliary tracks Steelplank Corporation produces where track resurfacing till not be a Solicl surface sectional steel needed duri~ the life of the cross- crossing that is shown in Figure 84. iw surface. Such a surface might be It is made of die formed 0.25 inch appropriate at 10catiOns where a steel aridconsists of channel shaped track extends longitudinally in a planks for the rmning surface that paved street. While the encasement are solidly welded to U-shaped sup- of a track in a concrete pavement is porting sections that rest directly relatively expensive, it can provide on and are secured to the ties with excellent riding quality over the six inch lag screws. These sup~rt track area. It is totally unsuited risers run perpendicular to the ties for use on a main track. and, while 19.5 inch tie spaci~ is preferred, minor variations in spac- 7. Steel Sections i~ are not critical. Center sec- tions of the five-plank mits are 6.5 several manufacturers have pro- feet long and 4.23 feet wide. Ap- duced prefabricated steel sections of proach panels are 20 inches wide. an open grating type, that may be Tapered end sections are available to installed and removed individually prevent daage from dragging railroad for maintenance and replacement pur- equtpment. To permit installation poses. An advantage of this crossing and removal of lag screws, access surface is the better aeration of holes are provided in the center of 8.25” 6 Lo”git”di”alBars 2“d P.”. / .~th 12,,lap at midpoint betuee” toD of tze and top of concrete l~langeway 6“ mi” (, ,0.25,3”Bevel Paving r- ,P.vi”g . ,. .1 ”.> ,.. ,. . ---- . 8“min ~ ~ -. ..cb ~5,;b_io “git”di”al Bars 25” min cover l~!fctrs 1219lap 15” ctrs Figure 83. Typical Cross section thru Continuous Concrete Pavement 159 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives BarrierStrip Pavement Figure 84. Typical Cross Section thru Steelplank Crossing each plank at each end and the center designed for heavy wheel loadi~s for of the panels. Steelplank crossings heavy industry. Most of their sur- are made to fit the rail height and faces are used as custom applications tie plate thickness and require no for corporations that maintain their shims. The surface is made of steel own sidings and crossing areas. Each safety plates with an abrasive epoxy standard steel Uni-Panel consists of finish for skid resistance. Complete a flat deck plate, formed box channel epoxy encapsulation of crossi~ pan- risers, a diagonal web, and end els can be provided to meet unusual plates. Access holes through the exposure problems. Steelplank panels deck plate permits fastening of the can be built to accommodate curves, Uni-Panel to the tie, using either frogs, and turnouts. full-threaded lag screws or rotating drive spikes, along with rubber shock R.R. Crossings, Inc. manufac- absorbers and metal washers. The tures a steel crossing surface, Uni- Uni-Panel channel risers are custm Panel$ shown in Figure 85, that is made to match the combined height of TypicalHighwayCrossing(132#Rail) G.pDimensioningAro”na8.!1(optional) 56,5(C8.5)Gagetine ~@~ .[r~z~g~[’rj — e w,thWoodX. (Oak)o’ BoltsUsed L8QScrew& fiberShock Cemenlme(7X9X86) 1.c..t.,A,..M.t.Iwasher Absorber TypicalIndustryCrossing(90#Rail] 29/16 Eg=pL — 7.9XWV OakXe Note3Rec.GagePanelAl..A..ilable Figure 85. Typical Cross Section thru R.R. Crossings, Inc. Crossing 160 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives the rail and tie-plate. The standard Thus the Goodyear crossing completely tie spacing is 1~.5 inches, but the covers an 8 foot 6 inch tie and pro- surface can be customized for any vides header strips at each end. For crossing. Flangeways of 2.875 inches nine foot ties, extension pads are are provided. The steel surfaces are furnished as a part of the header coated with a coal tar epoxy and the strips. Panels require perfomed top surface given a non-skid treat- wood shims on top of the t%es held in ment, End sections are tapered to place by eight inch spikes driven prevent daage from dragging railroad tito th~eties. A 0.25 inch rubber equipment. A 0.25 inch rubber gtrlp abrasion pad is installed on top of can be fastened between the center the shims to reduce abrasion and panels to provide signal insulation. wear. A dtamond pattern antiskid surface is molded into the rubber. 8. Rubber Panels The transverse jotits between the panels can be sealed against water This type of cross%ng surface penetration by applying pressure to consists of molded rubber panels usu- compress a O.125 inch by 0.25 inch ally steel-reinforced and with a pat- protrusion at the top edge before the terned surface. The panels can be panels are fastened to the ties. removed and replaced for track main- Rubber header strips are now provided tenance. There are several manufac- instead of wood header boards. Gal- turers of robber crossing panels as vanized steel end plates are fw- discussed below. nished to prevent daage by dragging railroad equipment. The Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company makes a rubber crossing sur- OWI Rubber Products, Inc, a face, known as Supercushion and first subsidiary of Riedel International, produced in 1954, with panels that hes recently introduced a rubber are three feet long, each spanning crossing surface called 0~1. This two tie spaces. The center pads ex- crossing surface, is full-depth and tend from rail web to rail web, with requlr~s no shims, as shown in Figure 2.375 inch flangeway openings. Side a7. It can be installed on concrete panels are 21 inches wide at the top ties. The panels are custom molded and fit against the head of the run- to fit specific rail and tie plate ning rail as shown in Figure 86. dimensions and the six foot long pan- RUBBERPLUG15 HEADER 1P SAMEQuANTITIESAS PLUGS Figure a6. Typical Cross Section thru Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. Crossing 161 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives ~?l,?, *,5,, RubberPlugs FieldPanel, .,,.<.- 5/8,,dk x 10.Ylow Figure 87. Typical Cross Section thru OMNI Crossing els are fastened directly to the ties of each rail. The panels are not with high-stre%th C=rail timber individually fastened to the ties be- screws. Ties must be properly located neath. The assembly of panels form- 6 feet apart to support mating ends ing an individual crossing are held of the panels. Intervening tie spac- together by eight post - tensioned ing is not critical because there are steel rods that pass through pipe- no preformed fastener holes in the formed channels in each panel, two panels and screw locations are field per panel. Anchor rods are fastened adjusted to match tie locations. The at each end of the crossing to steel panels are designed to fit nine foot plates that are bolted to one tie. long ties but field panels can be The panels are 3.5 tithes thick and manufactured to fit shorter ties. The rest on timber shims on top of each panels fit snugly against the rail tie. The top surface of the panels flange and web. A 2.75 fnch flange- has a molded antiskid pattern of way is provided. small protruding circles. Normal panel length is six feet with 18 inch Park Rubber Company produces a tie spacing. Alternate header mate- steel reinforced rubber crossing rials are available in rubber, steel, named Parkco, shown in Figure 88. wood, or poly materials. The steel reinforcement plates fn each panel are convex and directs Red Hawk Rubber Company manufac- deflection forces against both sides tures a rubber crossing surface, Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives Field Shim r Rubber?l”,s Gang,Fad Fieldpad Corrugated steel Plate J Figure 89. Typical Cross Section thru Red Hawk Crossing shown in Figure 89, that contains a to lock the system in place. No 1- 0.25 inch thick corrugated steel bolts, shims, or cables are requtied. plate that is completely encased in The rubber panels accommodate 8.5 three inch thick rubber Dads. Timber foot and 9.0 foot tie lengths, 85 lb screws are used to fasten the panels to 140 lb rail heights and adapts to and creosoted wood shims to the turn-outs and curves. The gauge and ties. The center pads are 3 feet field pads are 36 inches in le~th. long and 4.92 feet wide, providing a The gauge pad extends to and 10cks flangeway width of 2.5 inches. Side under the railhead and on top Of the pads are 21 inches wide. Header mate- rail base on both sides. rial cOmes in 9 or 12 foot le~ths, eight inches high and is made of tim- Structural Rubber Products manu- ber, rubber, or polypropylene. Ties factures a rubber crossing surface should be at least 8.5 feet long on called SAF & DRI, shown in Figure 91. 18 inch centers. The panels are fomed of rubber en- capsulated four by eight inch steel Strail Hi-Rail, a full depth tubes. Two center ~nels are com- ethylene propylene, rubber crossing prised of six tubes and the twO side is shown in Figure 90. This crossing panels are comprised of two tubes was developed in Gemany by the Krai- each. The steel tubes are completely burg Rubber Company, the Huls Chemi- encased in rubber with a 0.3 tich top cal Company, and the Geman Federal wearing surface and 0.5 inch pads on Railways. Being full depth, this the bottom side of each tube at each crossing requires no shims. An antt- tie location. Intermittent vibration skid tread design is used for wear dampeners bear against each side of resistance, water shed, and weather the rail web. Special modeling con- proofing. The panels are fitted to- figurations provtde water tight gether using tongue and groove at the flangeway openings on the gage side transverse joints to reduce noise and of the running rail alo~ with addi- Fu Dep Figure 90. Typical Cross Section thru Strail Hi-Rail Crossing 163 ,.. Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives 7“ x 9r’x 8’6”c..s.tles,Sp..ed20”.tr. Figure 91. Typical Cross Section thru SAF & DRI Crossing tional longitudinal drainage channels in position on the track. A single and smiler transverse channels to plate allows both sections to be provide continuous drainage from end anchored to the tie with just one Lo end of the crossing. The inter- spike. The Model-C will accommodate faces of all panels have tongue and tie spacing of 18 inches. The header groove design to stop water from board is either an elastomeric mate- passing through to the ballast and rial or creosoted timber boards. subgrade. The Model-S panels are fu?~ished in 6.67 foot lengths to 9. —High Density Polyethylene Modules accomodaie tie spacing of 20 inches. The outside panel width is designed This type of crossing surface to fit a tie length of 8.5 feet. The consists of molded panels, usually panel depth of 4.8 inches, including with recesses to serve as openings the bottom pads, requires the use of for lag screws or drive spikes. Pan- timber shims on top of the ties. The els are usually full depth, but some SAF & DRI Model-C, with a panel require wood shims. length of 36 inches, has the capabil- ity to handle sharper track curva- The COBRA X high density poly- ture, and has improved drainage and ethylene crossing, shown in Figure fastening. The Model-C is anchored 92, is manufactured by Railroad Fric- by ductile iron splice plates at each tion Products Corp. Interlocking module point. The splice plate is modules are fastened directly to the rotated into a water tight molded ties. Gage modules, 57 inches wide, rubber pocket after the roodulesare fit between the rails and provide 2.5 1,.. “iLh 0.12 -— 1~ J 1 Figure 92. Typical Cross Section thru COBRA X Crossing 164 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives inch flangeways. Field modules, are weight of rail and size as well as 20 inches wide, extending to the end the volume and type of train traf- of an 8.5 foot tie. These modules fic. span one tie space of 18 inches. Prefomed and countersunk holes, 0 Accident histo~ - Particularly, aligned with the ties, provide a accidents related to the condition drilling template for the anchoring of tl~esurface. drive spikes. The modules are avail- able in various heights between six 0 Engineering jud~ent and eight inches to accommodate a variety of rail sizes and tie plate 0 Costs - Initial construction cost, thicknesses. The mdules are full replacement cost, and maintenance depth and do not require shims. Cost. No national guidelines exist for 0 Expected service life of surface selecting the appropriate surface for a specified crossing. Thirty-seven At least 23 States consider AADT States have guidelines for selecti~ as one factor in selecti~ a crossing the type of crossing surface. Ten surface. The AADT grou~s vary con- States require the railroad to se- siderably. Rubber crossings are lect, construct, and maintain cross- specifted for crosstigs with AADTts ing surfaces. Factors that should be greater than a certain value: the considered in selecting an appropri- minimum value ranges from 1,000 to ate surface are as follows. 10,000. Asphalt and timber crossings are specified for crossings with 0 Highway traffic - The volme, AADT’s of certain values less than a type, and speed of highway traffic value which ranges from 100 to 7,500. affects the loadings the surface mUSt bear. Many States consider Consideration should be given to AADT and percent trucks when using header boards or header strips selecting a surface. made of materials other than wood, e.g. rubber, polymeric, or metal. 0 Highway functional classifica- Some States have found that wooden tion - This factor is generally a header boards deterioratee quickly. measure of the volme and capacity Whatever is used, careful steps of the highway. should be taken to ensure a clean separation between crossing surface 0 Special vehicles - Crossings used and approach pavement. regularly by special vehicles should be given very careful con- The Florida Department of Trans- sideration. portation (DOT), Office of Value En- gineeri~, completed a Highway Plan- 0 Railroad traffic - The volume, ning Research study to develop crite- type, and speed of railroad traf- ria for the selection of crossing fic affects the loading the sup- surfaces. The expected life of each porting track and subgrade bas to surface type is reduced by factors bear. Some States consider gross for various characteristics of a tonnage over the crossing. crossing: AADT, percent trucks, track spacing, and gross train tOn- 0 Track classification - This factor nage. These factors were detemined generally is a measure of the from data on the actual condition of Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives various surface types of variOus F. Removal of Grade Separation Struc- ages. The equivalent annual cost for tures each surface type is then determined based on costs per linear foot. The There are nearly 38,000 public surface type with the lowest equiva- grade separated railroad - highway lent annual cost is selected. crossings in the United States. More than half of the grade separated The Florida DOT has also devel- crossings have a bridge or highway oped a procedure for the selection of structure over the railroad tracks. crossing surfaces for improvement. AS these structures age, become dam- Crossings are assigned points in four aged, or are no longer needed because areas as follows. of changes in highway or railroad alignment or use, alternative engi- 0 Condition of surface - cracking neering decisions must be made. The and patching alternatives to be considered are: 1) upgrade the existing structure to new o Slowing and swerving by drivers construction standards; 2) replace the existing structure; 3) remove the o Dipping and bouncing of vehicles structure, leaving an at-grade cross- ing, and 4) close the crossing and o Rail and pad movement remove the structure. The final formula also considers AADT In general, crossing programs and percent trucks. are based upon criteria established for the installation of traffic cOn- The condition of the crossing trol devices or the elimination of a surface should be evaluated at least crossing. However, rehabilitation of by physical inspection and by riding structures is a significant part of over it. TWO States utilize the Mays the crossing improvement program at Ride Meter to assess surface cOndi- both the State and national level. tion. One State performs skid tests. Currently, there are no nationally A few States assign a rating tO the recognized guidelines for evaluating surface condition using a question- the alternatives available for the naire or point system. improvement or the replacement Of grade separation structures. Other States have conducted evaluations of crossing surfaces in Some States have developed eval- service. Because Of the varietY Of uation methods for the selectiOn Of test conditions, procedures, and doc- projects to remove grade separation umentations, the results of these structures. The following is a sum- evaluations are not reported here. mary of the State of Pennsylvania Following is a list of States knom guidance. to have completed a formal documented evaluation. The purpose of the Pennsylvania guidance is to assist highway depart- Connecticut Mississippi Ohio ment personnel in the selectiOn Of Florida Missouri Pennsylvania candidate bridge removal projects Illinois Montana South Dakota where the railroad line is abandoned. Louisiana Nebraska Tennessee Both bridges carrying highways over Michigan Nevada Wisconsin railroad and bridges carrying aban- 166 Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives clonedrailroads over highways can be In those instances where a railroad considered. cOntin~~estO Operate, other decisions must be made. Some considerations The factors to be considered in for removing a grade separation over, selecting candidate projects are as or ~der a rail line that is still follows. being operated are as follows. For bridges carrying highway over an 0 Can the structure be removed and abandoned railroad replaced with an at-grade cross- ing? o Bridges that are closed or posted for a weight limit because Of o ~o is liable if an acc,ident oc- structural deficiencies (The curs at the new at-grade crossing? length of the necessary detour is important.) o If the structure is to be rebuilt, who is to pay the cost or who is o Bridges that are narrow and there- to share in the cost and to what fore hazardous extent? o Bridges with hazardous vertical o To what standards is the structure and/or horizontal alignment of the to be rebuilt? highway approaches (Accident re- cords can be reviewed to verify 0 mat is the future track use and such conditions.) potential for increase in train frequency? For bridges carrying abandoned rail- road over a highway o If tilestructure is replaced with an at-grade crossing, what delays o Bridges that are structurally ~n- to motorists and emergency service soud and a hazard to traffic will result? Are alternate routes operating mder the bridge available? o Bridges whose piers and/or abut- 0 mat impact will an at-grade ments are in close proximity tO crossing have on railroad Opera- the traveled highway and consti- tions? tute a hazard o mat will be the impact on safety o Bridges whose vertical Clearance of an at-grade crossing vs. a over the highway is substandard structure? o Bridges where the vertical and/or To ensure a proper answer to horizontal alignment of the high- these and other related questions, an way approaches are hazardous pri- engineering evaluation, including marily because of the location of relative costs, should be conducted. the bridge This evaluation should follow proce- dures described in Chapter V. It should be noted that this guidance is applicable to situations that involve abandoned rail lines. Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives G. References 10. Guide for Selecting, Locating, and ~~~ning _-=Traff~B%r=a~——— __ 1. American National Standard Prac- ‘-—ington, DC: Anerxcan Asaoc!ation of tices for Roadway Lighting, New York, State Highways and Transportatf.on NY: Illuminating Engine~ing Society Officials, IY77. of America, July 1977. 11. Heathington, K.W. and T. Urbanik, 2. Code of Federal Regulations, Title ~,Driver Information Systems fOr High- 23, Washington, DC: Generai Services way-Railway Grade Crossings”, _Highway-— ~tiinistration, published annually. Research Record No. 41~, Wash~ngton, DC: H~ghw~y Research Board, 1972. 3. Collision of Amtrak Train No. 88 12. HedleY, Willim J., Proceedings, —.zwith Tractor Lowboy~ailer Com- _-—_— bination Truck, Rowland, N.C., August American Railway Engineering Associa-—— 25, lg83,~shington, ~–—”— National “-~~-e~~~;ago,—-—~tion IL: 1952. Transportation Safety Board, Report No. NTSB/RHR-84/01, 1984. 13. Hedley, Wtlliam J., Railroad- Highway Grade Crossing Surfaces, Washington, DC: Federal Highway~- ministration, August 1979. 14. Illinois Comerce—— Comission—-——Gen- eral Order No. 138 Revised, Spring- ties Comission, June 1974. field, IL: Illinois COmerce COmis- sion, 1Y73. 5. Federal-Aid Highway Program Man- ual, Washington, DC: Feder_~w~ 15. Knoblauch, Karl, Wayne Hucke, and ~ini~tration, updated periodically. Willis Berg, .——Rail Highway Crossing _—_,Accident__ Causation——_— Study._ VOlme II, 6. Federal Highway Atiinistration Technical Report, Washington, DC: Survey of Region and Division Of- ma~=a7—Adminlstrat ton, Re- fices, unpublished, 1984. port FHWA/RD-81/083, August 1982. 7. Federal Railroad Atiinistration, 16. Manual for Railway Engin~ering, Data from the U.S. DOT/AAR National Wasl~ington,DC: American Railway En- Rail-Highway CrOsaing Inventory, gineering Associatf.on,1981. 1g84. 17. —-—Manual on Uniform Traffic Control 8. Field and Office Manual fOr prO= ———Devices,‘———Washington, DC: Feder~ Highway Atiiniatration, 1g78, revised file Surveys— of Highway-Rail At-Grade Crossings on Existing Paved Roadways, lg7g, 1983, 1984. ~1~, FL: Florida Department of Transportation, September 1984. 18. Mather, Richard A., “Public Rail- road-Highway Grade Crossing Illumin- 9. Fitzpatrick, Gary M., Standardiz- ationProject in Oregon”, Washington, ation of Criteria———— for R~w~ DC: Transportation Research Board, =-g Construction, Talla- January 1983. hassee, FL: Florida Department of Transportation, Office of Value Engi- 19. Monroe, Richard L., Debra K. neering, August 1982. Munsel1, and T. Jaes Rudd, Constant ————Warning Time Concept Development for Chapter IV Identification of Alternatives Motorist Warning at Grade Crossings, 28. Standard Alphabet for Highway. Washington, DC: Federal Railroad Ad- Signs and Markings, Washington, DC: ministration, Report FRA/ORD-81/07, Federal.Highway Administration. May 1981. 29. Traffic Control Devices Handbook, 20. Morrissey, J., The Effectiveness Wash~&~:——— Federal Highway Ad- of Flashing Light~nd Flashing ministration, 1983. Lights with Gates in Reducing Agc~ dent Frequency at Public Rail-Highway 30. Uniform Vehicle Code and Model Crossings, 1975-1g78, Washington, DC: Traffic Ordinance,——. — National Committee’ Federal Railroad Administration and of Uniform Traffic Laws and Ordin- Federal Highway Administration, April ances, Charlottesville, VA: The lg80. Michte Company, 1961 and Supplement, 1979. 21. .———A Policy on Geometric Design of =Y>d Streetsv Washingtonv DC: 31. ‘“Use of Traffic Divisional Is- American Association of State Righway lands at Railroad Grade Crossings,” and Transportation Officials, 1984. Technical Notes 84-1, Albany, NY: New ~e=e nt of Transportation, 22. Proceedings, National Conference March 1984. on RXo=hway Crossing Safet~ Colorad~a~ U.S. Air Force 32. West Virginia’s Highway-Railroad Academy I~ter-~’ Education Center, Manual, Charleston, WV: West Virgi~ A~ust 1974. ia Department of Highways, Railroad Section, Right of Way Division, pre- 23. Proceedings, National Conference liminary, 1984. ———on Railroad-Highway Crossing Safety, Salt Lake City, UT: University%f Utah, August 1g77. 24. ——Proceedings, National Rail-High- way Crossing Safety Conference, Knox- ville, TN: The University of Tennes- see, June 1980. 25. Rail-Highway Grade Crossing—— Warn- ing ~ems and Surfaces, Alexandria, r— The Railway Progress Institute, lg83. 26. Roadway Lighting Handbook, Wash- ington, DC: Federal Highway A&ninis- tration, Implementation Package 78- 15, December 1978. 27. Ruden, Robert J., Albert Burg, and John P. McGuire, &tivated Ad- ——vance Warning for Railroad Grade —-—Crossings, Washington, DC: Federal Highway Administration, Report FHWA/ RD-80/003, July 1982. 169 V. SELECTION OF ALTERNATIVES In this Chapter, analyses are Imltially, information on the presented to assist in tiprovement following elements must be estab- alternative selectiOn by exaining lished, using the best available the costs and benefits of each alter- facts and estimates. native and by making comparisons among alternatives. In addition, o Accident costs these analyses can be used to prior- o Interest rates itize prOjects for implementations 0 Service life and funding. o Initial improvement co~t~ o Maintenance costs Methods for selecttng alterna- o Salve~gevalue tives and economic analysis tech- o Traffic growth rates niques which may be utilized are dis- cussed. In addition, the Rail-High- Other considerations are the way Crossing Resource Allocation Pro- effestiveness of the Improvement Ln cedure is presented. Other low-cOst reducing accidents and the effects on solutions are also discussed. travel, such as reduction in delays. The Cost information is not A. Wsrraot Prmedures always readily available, thus some States are reluctant tO impute a As noted in Chapter IV, some dollar cost to human life or personal Federal and/or State guidelines have injury. Considerable care must be been established for certain types of used in establishing values for these improvements. In some cases, these costs. guidelines serve as a threshold for implementation actton when certain The selection of accident cost conditions exist, thus dictating the values is of major importance in the atiprOpriate hprovement alternative. economic analyses. The two most In most cases, however, the guide- common sources of accident costs are: lines provide for several alternative improvements. o National Safety Council (NSC), and o National Highway Traffic Safety B. Economic Aoalysis Pr@edwes Atitnistration (NHTSA). An economic analysis my be NSC costs include wage losses, Performed to detemine the possible medical expenses, insmance adminis- alternative improvements which could trative costs, and property damage. be made at a railroad-highway grade NHTSA i]~cludesthe calculable costs crossing. These procedures involve associated with each fatality and estimates of expected project costs injury plus the cost to society, i.e. and safety and operational benefits consumption losses of individuals and for each alternative. Much Of the society at large caused by losses in fOllOwing discussion is adapted from production and the inability to pro- the methodology presented in the duce. Many states have developed Highway safety Improvement Progrm their own values which reflect their User’s Manual (HSIP User,s Manual). Situation and philosophy. Whichever Chapter V Selection of Alternatives is selected the values ought to be Project costs should include consistent with those used for other initial capital costs and maintenance safety improvement programs. costs and be considered as lffe-cycle costs, i.e. all costs are distributed An appropriate interest rate is over the service life of the improve- needed for most of the procedures ment. considered. The selection of an inappropriatee interest rate could The installation cost elements result in unsuitable project costs Include the following. and benefits and thus, in selection of an ineffective solution. Periods 0 Preliminary engineering of rapid inflation and fluctuation of 0 Labor interest rates make the identifica- 0 Material tion of an appropriate rate somewhat 0 Lease or rental of equipment difficult. The standard rates used 0 Miscellaneous costs by the highway department should be selected. The maintenance costs are all those costs associated with keeping The HSIP Users’ Manual states the system and components in Opera- that the service life of an improve- ting condition. Maintenance costs ment should be equal to the time are discussed in Chapter VII. period that the improvement can rea- sonably affect accident rates. Both The salvage value is def;.nedas costs and benefits should be calcu- the dollar value of a project at the lated for this time period. Hence, end of its service life and is there- the service life is not necessarily fore dependent on the service life of the physical life of the improvement, the project. For crossing signal For railroad-highway grade crossings, improvement projects, salvage values however, it is a reasonable assmp- are generally very smal.1. tion that the improvement would be equally effective over its entire Tnere are several accepted eco- physical life. Thus, selecting the nmic analysis methods, all of which service life equal to the physical require differant inputs, assump- life would be appropriate. tions, calculations, and methods, and which may yield different results. The selected service life can Several appropriate methods are de- have a profound effect on the eco- scribed here. nomic evaluation of improvement al- ternatives; therefore, it should be 1. Cost-EffectivenessAnalysis selected using the best available information. The Depreciation Branch The cost-effectiveness analysis of the Interstate Comerce Comission method is an adaptation of a tradi- (ICC) periodically studies individual tional safety analysis procedure Class I railroads to detamine the based on the calculation of the cost economic life of railroad signal to achieve a given unit of effect equipment. For example, their re- (reduction in accidents). The signif- sults indicate that the average ICC icant aspects of this procedure is signal equipment depreciation period that it need not require the assign- in 1977 for the 20 largest Class I ment of a dollar value to hman railroads was 30 years. injuries or fatalities, and requires miniml manpower to apply. 172 Chapter V Selection of Alternatives The following steps should be 9. Calculate the average annual ben.- Performed for the cost-effectiveness efitj B, in the desired units of technique. effactiveness. 1. Detemine the initial capital 10. Calculate the cost-effectiveness cost of equipment, e.g. flashi~ (CfE) value using one of th 0 nmber of total accidenta pre- vented; A smple worksheet, with fictitj-o”s values, is given tn Figure 93 for 0 n~ber of accidents by type illustration. prevented; This is an iterative process for 0 nmber of fatalities or fatal each alternative improvement. The accidents prevented; results for all projects can then be arrayed and compared for selectton. 0 n~ber of personal injuries or A computer progra can be used fOr personal injury accidents pre- the analysis and ranking of projects. vented; and/or, 2. -—Benefit-Cost——_——___Ratio 0 nmber of Equivalent Property D~age only (EPDO) accidents The benefit/cost ratio (B/C) is prevented. the accident savings in dollars dfvided by cost of the improvement. 4. Determine the annual benefit for Using thts method$ costs and benefits tha project in the selected units ~Y be expressed as either an equiva- Of effectiveness, i.e. total nm- lent annual or present worth value of ber of accidents prevented. the project. 5. Esttiate the service life. The B/C technique requires the following steps. 6. Esttiate the net salvage value. 1. Detemine the initial cost Of 7. Assme an interest rate. implementation of the Crossing Impl-ovementbefng studfed. 8. Calculate the equivalent unifom annual cOsts (EUAC) or present 2. Detemine the net annual opera- worth of costs (PWOC). tfng and matitenance costs. Chapter V Selection of Alternatives COST-EFFECTIVENESSANALYSIS WORKSHEET Evaluation No.: Project No.: Date: Evaluator: 1. Initial implementation cost, I: $ 100,000 2. Annual operating and maintenance costs before project implementation: $ 100 3. Annual operating and maintenance costs after project implementation: $ 1,000 4. Net annual operating and maintenance costs, K = #3 - #2: $ 900 5. Annual safety benefits in number of injury accidents prevented, B, from below: 2 Accident Type Actual - Expected = Annual Benefit Inlury — 4 -— 2= 2 — — — — Total — — 6. Service life, n: 20 years 8. Interest rate: 10 % = 0.10 7. Salvage value, T: $ 5,000 (Annual compounding interest) 9. EUAC Calculation: Capital recovery factor, CR = 0.1175 Sinking fund factor, SF = 0.0175 EUAC = I (CR) + K - T (SF) 100,000 (0.1175) + 900 - 5,000 (0.0175) = 12,562 10. Annual benefit: B (from #5) = 2 iniury accidents 11. C/E = EUAC/B = 12,562 / 2 = $6,281 / iniury accidents prevented 12. PWOC CalcuatiOn: Present worth factor, PW 8.5136 Single payment present worth factor, SPW = 0.1486 PWOC = I + K (PW) - T (SPW) 100,000 + 900 (8.5136) - 5,000 (0.1486) = 106,919 13. Annual benefit n (from #6) = 20 years B (from #5) = Z accidents prevented per year 14. C/E = PWOC (CR)/B (106,919)(0.1175)/ 2 = $ 6,281 / injury accidents prevented Figure 93. Sample Cost-EffectivenessAnalysis Worksheet 174 Chapter V Selection of Alternatives 3. Determine the annual safetj~bene- method is used to select improvements fits derived from the project. that will engure maximum total bene- fits at each location. The net an- 4. Assign a dollar value to each nual benefit of an improvement is safetY benefit unit (NSC, NHTSA defined as follows. or other). Net Annual Benefit ❑ (EUAB) - (EUAC) 5. Esttiate the gervice life of the project baged on patterng of where: historic depreciation of stiilar type9 of projects. EU&B = Equivalent UnifOm Annual Benefit 6. Estimate the salvage value of the EUAC = Equivalent Uniform Annual project or improvement titer its cost primary service life has ended. A positive value for net annual 7. Determine the ~nterest rate by benefit indicates a feasible improve- taking into account the time ment and the improvement, or set of value of money. improve~~ents, with the largest p09i- tive net annual benefit i9 considered 8. Calculate the B/C ratio u9tng to be the best alternative. equivalent unifOrm annual ~Ogts (EuAc) and equivalent uniform The following steps should be annual benefits (EUAB). used to compute the net annual bene- fit. 9. Calculate the B/C ratio using present worth of cost9 (PWOC) and 1. Estimate the initial cost, annual present worth of benefItg (PWOB). cOst, te~inal value, and service life of each improvement. A 9ample worksheet with ficti- tious value9 for the B/C analysis is 2. Esttmate the benefits (in dol- given in Figure g4. lars) for each improvement. This method requires an esttiate 3. Select an !nterest rate. of accident severity in dollar termg, which can greatly affect the outcome. 4. Compute the EUAB. It is relatively easy to apply and is generally accepted in engineering and 5. Compute the EUAC. financial studies. As with the cost- effectiveness method, the process can 6. Calculate the Net Annual Benefit be performed for alternative improve- of each improvement. ments at a single crossing, and ar- rayed for all projects to detemine For the data and calculations priorities for funding. shown in Figwe 94, the net annual benefit would be $g1,438, dete~ined 3. Net Annual Benefit from an EUAB of $104,000 less an EUAC of $12,562. The net annual benefit method i9 based on the premise that the rela- While any of the three methods tive merit of an tiprovement is meas- is an acceptable procedure to follow ured by ita net annual benefit. This for economic analyses, they might Chapter V Identification of Alternatives BENEFIT-TO-COST ANALYSIS WORKSHEET Evaluation No. : Project No.: Date: Evaluator: 1. Initial implementation coat, I: $ 100,000 2. Annual operating and maintenance costs before project implementation: $ 100 3. Annual operating and maintenance costs after project implementation: $ 1,000 4. Net annual operating and maintenance costs, K (#3 - #2): $ 900 5. Annual safety benefits in number of accidents prevented: Severity Actual - Expected = Annual Benefit a) Fatal accidents (fatalities) ~ - ~ = o b) Injury accidents (injuries) 2 c) PDO accidents (involvements) 5 - 3 = 2 6. Accident cost valuea (Source Department ) Severitv ~ a) Fatal accident (fatality) $ 500,000 b) Injury accident (injury) $ 50,000 c) PDO accident (involvement) $ 2,000 7. Annual safety benefits in dollars saved, B: (5a) x (6a) = 500,000 x o = o (5b) X (6b) = 50,000 x 2 = 100,000 (5c) X (6c) = 2,000 x 2 = 4,000 Total = $104,000 8. Service life, n: 20 yrs 10. Interest rate, i: 10Z = 10 9. Salvage value, T: $5,000 (Annual compounding intereat)- 11. EUAC Calculation: Capital recovery factor, CR = 0.1175 Sinking fund factor, SF - 0.0175 EUAC = I (CR) + K - T (SF) - 100,000 (0.1175) + 900 - 5,000 (0.0175) = 12,562 12. EUAB Calculation: EUAB = B = 104,000 13. B/C = EUAB/EUAC = 104,000 / 12,562 = 8.3 14. PWOC CalcuatiOn: Present worth factor, PW 8.5136 Single payment present worth factor, SPW = 0.1486 PWOC=I+K(SPW )- T(PW ) 100,000 + 900 (8.5136) - 5,000 (0.1486) = 106,919 15. PWOB Calculation: PWOB = B (SPW) = 104,000 (8.5136) = 885,414 16. B/C = PWOB/PWOC = 885,414 I 106,919 = 8.3 Figure 94. Sample Benefit–to-Cost Analysis Worksheet 176 Chapter V Selection of Alternatives produce different results dewendins.- The resource allocation model is on the values. Table 43 !Ilustrates designed to provide an initial list this point. In this table, the VSI- of crossing trsffic control improve- ues shown for the second alternat+.ve ments that would result in the great- are from the example provided above. est accSdent reduction benefits on Based on the cost - effectiveness the basis of cost-effectiveness con- method, the analyst wol~ldselect the siderations for a given budget. As third alternative. The benefit/cost designed, the results are checked by ratio method would lead to selecti~ a dia~ostic tea fn the field and the second alternative. The first revised as necessary. It should be alternative would be selected if the noted that the procedure considers net benefit method was followed for only traffic control improvement this example. alternatives as described below. Given that different results can o For passive crossings, single Occur, the agency should not follow track, two upgrade options exist; just one procedure. At least two flashing lights or gates. methods should be followed with the decision based on these results and o For passive, multiple-track cross- other factora, constraints, and Poli- ings, the model allows only the cies of the agency. gate option to be considered tn accordance with the FHPM 6-6-2-1. Table 43. Comparison of COst- 0 For flashing light crossings, the Effactiveness, Benefit/Cost, only improvement option is gates. and Net Benefit Methods Other improvement alternatives, Cost-Effec– such as removal of site obstructions, A1ter– I“itial ti.eness Net crossing surface improvements, illu- m ~ (5/ace.) ~ ~ mination, and train detection cir- A 1,000,000 106,000 2 200,000 cuitry improvements, are not consid- ered in tine resource allocation prO- 8.3 91,&38 B 100,000 6,281 cedure. ( 20,000 5,100 5 70,000 The input data required for the procedure consists of the nmber of predicted acctdents, safety effec- c. Resouroe All@ation Prwedwe tiveness of flashing lights and auto- ~tiC gates, improvement costs, and In lieu of the economic analysis smount of available funding. procedures described above, the U.S. Department Of Transportation (DOT) The ]tumber of annual predicted has developed a resource allocation acctdents can be derived from the procedure for railroad-highway grade U.S. DOT Accident PredictIon Model or crossing improvements. This proce- from any model that yields the nuber dure was developed to asstst States of annual accidents per crosstig. and railroads in determining the (See discussion in Chapter III.) effectfve allocation of Federal funds for crossing traffic control improve- Safe’cyeffectiveness studies for ments. the eouioment.,–.—= used in the resource allocation procedure have been com- 177 Chapter V Selection of Alternatives pleted by the U.S. DOT, the Califor- Caution should be exercised in nia public Utilitias Commission, and developing specific costs for a few William J. Hedley. The resulting selected projects while assigning effectiveness factors of these stud- average costs to all other projects. ies were given In Table 34 for the If this is done, decisions regarding types of signal improvements applica- the adjwted crossings may be unrea- ble for the procedure. Effectiveness sonably biased by the algorithm. factors are the percent reduction in accidents occurring after the imple- The amount of funds available mentation of the improvement. for implementing crossing si~al prO- jects is the fourth input for the The model requires data on the resource allocation procedure. costs of the improvement alterna- tives. Life cycle costs of the The resource allocation proce- devices sho~ld be used, i.e. both dure is shown in Figure 95. It em- Installation and maintenance coats. ploys a step-by-step method, using the Inputs described above. Costs used in the resource allo- cation procedure must be developed For any proposed signal improve- for each of the three alternatives: ment, a pair of parameters. Ej and Cj must be provided for the resource 0 passive devices to flashing allocation algorithm. As shown in lights; Table Q4, j = 1 for flashing lights installed at a passive crossing, j = 0 passive devices to automatic 2 for gatea installed at a passfve gates; and, crossing, and j = 3 for gates in- stalled at a crossing with flashing o flashing lights to gates.” lights. The first parameter, Ej is Accident Hist”ry by FRA Cr”s.inR Crossing Acc.i.d!env Accident Predi.ctio”s Data File -/ f“. Crossings Recommended + Resource Decisions for Accident ,/ ~ 1 Allocation Prediction ~Installation of ; Model Form”la Warning Devices k ?1 U.S. DOT-AAR Cross.”g I“ve”tory Physical & Operating \ Data File Characteristics War”i”g Budget of each Crossing Device Level costs D dd Figure 95. Crossing Resource Allocation Procedure Source: Ref. 3 Chapter V Selection of Alternatives Table 44. Effectiveness/Cost If a passive multiple - track Symbol Matrix crossi]tg,i, is considered, the only improvement option allowable would be Proposed Existing Warni”~ Device installation of gates, with an effee-. Warning Device ~ F1.shi”z LiKhts tivesness of E2, a cost of C2 and an accident reduction/cost ratio of Flashing Lights: Effectiveness -- AiE2/C2. If crossing i was originally :1 -. Cost 1 a flashing light crossing, the only improvement option available would be Automatic Gates: installation of gates> with an effec-. Effectiveness :2 :3 cost 2 3 ~~~K~! ‘f~~~;.t~o~~~~s~fr~?i~d ~ Source: Ref. 3 AiE3/C3. The individual accident reduc- the effectiveness of installing ~ tion/cost ratios which are associated proposed warning device at a crossing with these improvements are selected with a lower class warning device. by the algorithm in an efficient man- The second parameter, C. is the Cor- ner to produce the maximum accidsnt responding cost of the p~oposed warn- reduction which can be obtained for a ing device. predetermined total cost. This total cost is the sum of an integral number The resource allocation procedure of equipment costs (Cl, C2 and C3). considers all crossings with either The total maximum accident reduction passive or flashing light traffic is the sum of the individual accident control devices for signal improve- reductions of the form A.E.. ments. If, for example, a single- IJ track passive crossing, i, is consid- The resource allocation proce- ered, It could be upgraded with ei- dure is being updated to include the ther flashing lights, with an effec_ severity prediction equations dis- tiveness El, or gates, with an effec- cussed in Chapber III. tiveness of E . The number Of pre- dieted acciden2s at crossing i is Ai; If this resource allocation pro- hence, the reduced accidents per year cedure is used to identify high haz- is AiEl for the flashing light option ard crossings~ a field diagnostic and AiE2 ,for the gate optiOn. The team should investigate each selected corresponding costs for these two im- crossing for accuracy of the input provements are Cl and C2. The acci- data and reasonableness of the recom- dent reduction/cost ratios for these mended solution. A worksheet for improvements are A.El/Cl for flashing accomplishing this is included in lights and A.E~d2 for gates. The Figure 96. This worksheet also in- rate of incre~se in accident reduc- cludes a method for manually evaluat- tion versus costs, that results from ing or revising the results of the changing an initial decision to in- compute:rmodel. stall flashing lights with a decision tO install gates at crossing i, is referred to as the incremental acci- D. Selection of Other Improvements dent reduction/cost ratio and is equal to: The types of selection proce- dures described above require infor- Ai(E2-E1) / (C2-C1). mation on installation and mainte- Chapter V Selection of Alternatives RA1L-HIGHWAYcEOss18GRE50URCEALLKATIONPRmEDUREVERlF1CAT1ONWORKSHEET This worksheet pr.vld.. , fo...t ..d i..t...si..s f.r US* 1. field .valu.tiOn .f crossi.s tO determine if jnfti.; recome”datio.s for warning device i.stallati.ns f... the Resource Al1“cation P.”ted.re sh”,ild be r~v;seal. SLep. thr.”gh 5, described below, .h.”ldbe followed i“ .aking the deter.i.ation. 1“ Steps 1 and 3, the in,txal i“for..tie. (left ..1”.”) is obtained f... office inventory data prior to the field i.specti.”. 1“ Step 4, the decision criteria ..1..s are “btai”ed fro. the Resource Allocation M“delpri.tot,t. STEP1: Validate Dataused i“ Calc”lati.g Predicted Accident.: Cr.s.in8 Ch.r.cterlstic Initial I“for.ation Revised l“for.atio” Crossing Nu.ber Locatl.” Existi”swarningDevice TotalTrainsper Day A.”ual Average Daily Highw.y Traffic (.) Day thr” Trains (d) Numb,.ofMainTracks (t) 1. Highway Paved? (hp) Maxi.”. Ti.etable Speed, .ph (.s) IlighwayType (ht) N“.ber of Hi8h”ay Lanes (hi) N“.ber of Yea., of Accident History (T) Nu.ber of Accidents i“ T Years (N) Predicted Accide.t Rate (A) STEP 2: Cal.”late Revised Ac.ide”t Prediction fr.. ~ Formula if *.Y Data i“ Step 1 has been Revised. Re”ised Predicted Accidents (A) = STEP 3: Validate Cost a“d Effective”essData for Rec.me.ded Warning Device A.s.”ed Effecti”e”essof Rec...e”ded War”i”* kvice (E) Ass..ed Cost of Rec.ome”dedWarning Device (C) Re.....”d.d W.ruing Device l“St.11..1O” STEP 4: Deter.i”e if Reco..e.dedWarning Device should be Revised if A, E, or C has Changed. 1. Oht.j. Decisi”n Criteri,e Values fro.ResourceA1loceti”.M“de],Output: ~1=— ~2=— ~3=— ~4=— 2, Calculate:R = - x ~ x - 3. CompareR with Appropriate Decision Criteria .* show. Below: E.i*ci”8 Passive Cr.s.i”g Existing Passive Crossing Existing Flashing LiEht Czossi”g (classes1, 2, 3, 4) (classes1, 2, 3, L) (Cl.,,,, 5, 6, 7) Single Track MultlP1e Track, Como,riso” Decision Com,ariaon Decision Co.Dariso” Decision ~2 4. Revised Re.emended War”i”g Device I“stallatio”* STEP 5: Deter.i”e other Characteristicsthat .ay I“fI.e”ce Warning Device Install.tlo”Decisions Multiple tracks where one trai”lloc..otive Either, or a“y co.bi”atio. of, high .ehic”lar .ay obscure vision of another train? traffic ..1”..s, hish n..hers of train Percent trucks ...e.e.ts. s“bstanti.1 n“.hers of school Pass.”ger trei” operations over crossi”* _ b“,., or trucks carryins hazardous High speed ,..%”s with li.ited sight di.t...e’~ materials, .“us”.llJ restricted .ight C..bin.tio” of high speeds & .oderately high distance .. .o.ti””i”g accident oc.urre.ce.*~ VOl”.e. of hi8h..y % railroad traffic** _ *The cost and effectiveness values for the revised war”i.g deice are assumed to change by a“ a.o..t proportionalto the change i“ these .al.es for the initial tecome”ded warning device .s determined i“ Step 3. **G=tee .leh flashi”a li~hts are the .“1y recome”ded “arni”8 device per 23CFR 646.21L(b)(3)(i). Figure 96. Resource Allocation Procedure Field Verification Worksheet Source: Ref. 3 Chapter V Selection of Alternatives nance costs and safety effectiveness 4. Morrissey, J., The Effectiveness Of each alternative fmp~ovement. of Flashing—-— Lights and ——Flash= —_.Lights —-,____with Gates in Reducing Acci- There is, however, a familY of dent Frequency,-——at Public____Rail-Highway improvements for which there is no —Crossings,.— Washington, DC: Federal data on safety benefits. SUCII ~- Railroad Atiinistratton, Report FRA- provements include closure, removal RRS-80-005, April 1980. of obstructions, surface tiprOve- ments, train detection circuitry im- provements, improved signing and pavement markings, preemption of highway signals at nearby intersec- tions, ?.nnovativesignals, and rail- rOad operational tiprovements. Good engineering practice should be used to identify specific crossing prob- lems and to reveal the most appropri- ate sOlutions for these situations. Extensive economic analysis may not be required to effect safety and op- erational improvements at crossings. Some safety projects may be selected on the basis of other socio- economic considerations, such as State or local political constraints, availability Of financial OF manpOwer resources, etc. These situations must be decided on the basis of individual merit. E. Refermces 1. ——The Effectiveness__ of Automatic ————Protection in Reducing Accident Fre~ -—-quency——______and Severity at Public Gra~ Crossings in California, San Fran- cisco, CA: Califor~ Public Utili- ties Comissfon, June 1974. 2. Highway Safety Improvement—— Pro- grati-User’s Manual, Washington, DC: Federal Highway~inistration. 3. Hitz, John and Mary Cross, Rail- Highway Crossing Resource Allocation—— ~r-ocedure User’s Guide, Washington, ~—- Federal Highway A&inistratiOn and Federal Railroad Atiinistration, Report FHwA-IP-82-7, December 1982. 181 VI. IWL~NTATION OF PRWECTS An organized approach to the portioned on the basis of population, implementation of a railroad-highway area, and road mileage of each State grade crossing improvement program is compared to the total in the nation. necessary so that its administrators will proceed effectively and expedi- Federal Section 203 funds may be tiously to obtain the benefits of the used for, but are not limtted to, the progra. The implementalion component fOllOwing types of crossfig improve- consists of obtafntng all required ment projects. regulatory and funding approvals, preparing and executing agreeme~ts 3 Crosstig elimination by new grade between participating parties (poten- separations, relocation of high- tially Federal, State, railroad, and ways, relocation of railroads, and local highway authority), designing crossing closure without other the selected alternative in detail, construction establishing appropriate accounting procedures (generally set forth in 0 Reconstruction Of existing grade the agreements), and constructing the separations project. 0 Crossing improvement by: - installation of standard signs and pavement markings; Sources of funds for railroad- highway grade crossing improvements installation or replacement Of include Federal, State, and local active warning devices, includ- goverment agencies, railroad indus- fng track circuit improvements try, and special fundi~. The fol- and interconnection tith high- 10wIw is a brief description of waY intersection traffic sig- these fundfng sources. nals; 1. —_,Federal Sources___ crosstig illminat ion; The Surface Transportation crossing surface improvements; !Ssfstance Act Of 1982 a~thOri~ed the and, aPPrOPriatiOn of Federal-aid highway funds through fiscal year 1g86. This - general site improvements Act, a fourth in a series of highway safety acts, continues a railroad- For projects completed with Sec- highway grade crossing Safetjr im- tion 203 funds, the Federal share of provement program that began in 1973. the improvement costs are 90%. This crossing program is cowonly re- States, local governments, railroads, ferred to as the Section 203 program. and other involved parties may par- Fifty percent of the Section 203 ticipate in the remaining 10% share fmda are apportioned to the States of the costs. according to the ratio of the n~ber of public crossings in each State to States cannot require a railroad the total nmber of public crossings to participate in the cost of certain in the nation. The remainder is ap- crossing improvement projects cOm- Chapter VI Implementation of Projects pleted with Federal funds. These standards of the State htghway projects are specified by the agency —————Federal-aid Highway Progra Manual (FHpM), 6-6-2-1, as fOllOws. o Where another facility, such as a highway or waterway, requiring a 0 Projects for crossing improvements bridge st~~~t~re iS located within are deemed to be of no ascertain- the limits of a grade separation able net benefit to the railroads project, the estfmated cost of a and there shall be no requfred theoretical structure and railroad share of the costs. approaches as described above to elimtiate the railroad - highway o Projects for the reconstruction of grade crossing without considering existfng separations are deemed to the presence of the waterway or generally be of no ascertainable other highway net benefit to the railroads and there shall be no required rail- o Where a grade crossing is elimi- road share of the costs, unless nated by railroad or highway relo- the railroad has a specific con- cation, the actual cost of the re- tractual obligation with the State location project, or the estimated or its political subdivision to cost of a structure and approaches share in the costs. uder specified conditions o On projects for the elimination of Ratlroads may voluntarily con- existing crossings at whl.chactive tribute a greater share of project traffic control devices are not in costs. Railroads may be willing to place and have not been ordered or assme a greater share if certain installed by a State regulatory concessions are made, e.g. closure of agency, or on projects that do not one or more crossings. Also, other eliminate an existing crossing, parties may voluntarily asswe the there shall be no required rail- railrOadts share. road share of the project cost. At least one-half of the Section The railroad share of Federal- 203 Federal funds must be used fOr aid projects that eliminate an exist- the installation of “protective” fng crossing at which active traffic devices, which the Federal Highway control devices are in place, or Atiinistrati.on (FHWA) has defined to ordered to be installed by a State include crossbucks, warning signs, regulatory agency, is to be 5%. These pavement markings, flashing light costs are to include costs for pre- signals, automatic gates, crossing liminary engineering, right-of-way, surfaces and illwination. The re- and construction as described below. maining funds may be used for anY type of eligible improvement. o Mere a crossing is eliminated by grade separation, the structure Another Federal progra provides and approaches required to transi- fwds for railroad - highway grade tion to a theoretical highway pro- crossings. The 1982 Surface Trans- file that wo~~ld have been con- portation Assistance Act authorized structed if there were no railroad $7.05 billion for the ‘tonand offtt present, for the nwber of lanes system highway bridge replacement and on the existing highway and in rehabilitation progrm. All highway accordance with the current design bridges on public roads, regardless Chapter VI Implementation of Projeets of existing ownership or maintenance and the joint American Association responsibility, could be eligible un- of State Highway and Transporta- der this program. The Federal share tion Officials (AASHTO) - Associa- in this program is 80%. To be eli- tion of American Railroads (AAR) gible for these funds, the highway Committee, or as required by a bridge over the railroad must be State regulatory agency. included in the State!s bridge inven- tory and be placed onto the State1s There are a number of Federally prioritized implementation schedule. funded railroad relocation and demon- stration projects. These projects In addition to the specific pro- are site specific and are dependent grams described above, other regular upon annual authorization and appro- Federal-aid highway funds may be used priation by Congress. for improvements at crossings. The Federal share is the normal pro-rata There are.several other poten- share for the Federal - aid highway tial sources for Federal funding, funds involved, e.g. 75% for primary particularly if the improvement proj- finds. However, under the provisions ect incorporates specific commmity of the law, certain categories of benefits. These include the follow- finds may be increased up to 100% of ing. the cost of preliminary engineering and construction. In this case right- o Farmers Home Administration. Con- of-way costs remain at 75%. strut-tion of community facilities such as fire and rescue services, Other requirements pertaining to trans]?ortation, social, health, the use of Federal funds are as fol- cultural and recreational facili- lows. ties 0 Federal funds are not eligible to o Economic Development Administra- participate in costs incurred tion. Construction of public fa- solely for the benefit of the cilities to initiate and encourage railroad. economic growth o At grade separations Federal funds o Health and Human Services. Assis- are eligible to participate in tance to develop regional emer- costs to provide space for more gency medical services including tracks than are in place when the operations railroad establishes, to the sat- isfaction of the State highway o Department of Housing and Urban agency and F~A, that it has a Development. Assistance for eco- definite demand and plans for nomic development, neighborhood installation of the additional revitalization and improved cOm- tracks within a reasonable time. munity services and facilities o The Federal share of the cost of a 2. State Funding grade separation project shall be based on the cost to provide hori- States also participate in the zontal and/or vertical clearances funding of railroad - highway grade used by the railroad in its normal crossing improvement projects. States practice, subject to limitations often contribute the matching share as agreed to periodically by FNA for projects financed under the Fed- Chapter VI Implementation of Projects eral-aid highway program. In addi- on highways under their maintenance tion, States sometties finance entire jurisdiction. erOssing projects, particularly if the crossing is on a State highway. 4. —__—-_--Railroad Funding AS Of 1984, 19 States had es- Except in certain Instances, tablished State crossing funds. The raflrOads cannOt be required to con- monies in these funds are dedicated tribute to the costs of most improve- to crossing fiprovement projects, ment projects that are fimnced with either financing them completely or Federal funds. However, railroads providing the required match. These often voluteer to participate if States, and a brief description of they receive some benefit from the their State funding programs aa of project. For exmple, if a project 1984, are contained in Appendix A. includes the closure of one or more crossings, the railroad may benefit In general, for crossings on the from reduced matitenance cost. Rail- State highway system, States provide roads also may assist in low-cost fOr the maintenance of the highway improvements such as changes in rail- approach and for traffic control road operations, track improvements, devtces not located on the railroad right-of-way clearance, and others. right-of-way. Typically, these in- clude advance warning signs ad pave- The maintenance costs incurred ment markings. As of 1984, 17 States by railroads are increased signifi- have legislation authorizing the cantly with the installation of addi- State to contribute to the mainte- tional active traffic control de- nance costs of traffic control de- vices. These costs are discussed in vices and/or surfaces at the crossing Chapter VII. proper. These States and a brief description of their maintenance prO- grams as of 1984 are contained In B. Agrements Appendix B. An agreement between the rail- 3. —-Local Agency Funding road and the agency responsible for the highway should be executed for a There are a nmber of citlea and crossing improvement project. For counties that have established rail- Federal - aid highway projects, the road-highway grade crossing improve- Federal-aid Highway Program Manual ment finds. Some of these programs -), 6-6-z-i,————specifies that the provide funding for partial reim- following be inciuded in the written bursement of railroad maintenance agreement between the State and the costs at crossings, and some have railroad. been established to meet the retching requirements of State and Federal 0 The regulatory provisions of the progras. Local agencies are often FHPM 6-6-2-1 and 1-4-3 incorpor- sources of funding for low-cost im- ated by reference provements such as removing vegeta- tion and providing illumination. In 0 A detailed statement of the work addition, local agencies are respon- to be perfomed by each party sible for maintaining the roadway approaches and the traffic control 0 Method of pawent (either actual devices off the railroad right-of-way cost or lmp Sm) 186 Chapter VI Implementation of Projects 0 For projects that are not for the fic con-irol devices at crossings. elimination of hazards of rail- The mastar agreement requires a rail- road-highway crossings, the c>xtent road to prepare detailed plans and to which the railroad is obligated specific:itions for the work to be to move or adjust its facilities performed and establishes responsi- at its om expense bility for the procurement cf mate- rials fo]: improvements. It contains 0 The railroad1s share of the proj- other p:covisions pertaining to the ect cost general requirements contained in contractl~ral agreements. Change or- 0 An itemized estimate of the cost ders in a specified format are then of the work to be performed I)ythe issued for individual projects. railroad For Federal-aid projects, a sim- 0 Method to be used for performing plified procedure is provided.in the the work, either by raj.lroad FHPM 6-6-2-1. Eligible preliminary forces or by contract engineering costs include those in- curred in selecting crossings to be 0 Maintenance responsibility improved, determining the type of im- provement for each crossing, estimat- 0 Form, duration, and amounts of any ing costs, and preparing the required needed insurance agreement. The agreement must contain the ide]~tificationof each crossing 0 Appropriate reference to or iden- location, a description of the im- tification of plans and specifica- provements, an estimate of costs by tions crossing location, and an estimated schedule for the completion c,fwork. 0 Statements defining the cond:LtiOns Following programming, authorization, mder which the railroad will and approval of the agreemerit,,F~A provide or require protectiv(~ser- may authorize construction, i~lCIUding vices during performance o~t the the acquisition of materials, with work, the type of protective?ser- the condition that work not be uder- vices and the method of reiml]urse- taken u~til the agreement i.sfound ment to the railroad satisfactory by FNA and the final plans, specifications, and estimates 0 Provisions regarding inspection of are approved. Only material zlctually any recovered materials incorpor~ted into the project will be eligible for Federal participation. Master agreements betwe(~n a State and a railroad may be used to facilitate the progress of projects. C. Accounting A master agreement is intended to circumvent the necessity of process- To ‘be eligible for reimburse- ing and executing a separate ~3gree- ment, the costs incurred i.n work ment for each individual crossing performed for railroad-highway grade project. The master agreement sets crossing safety improvements must be forth the purpose of an agen~y to in accordance with strict accounting engage in the construction or precon- practices and procedures. l:n that struction of some part or parts of Federal-aid highway funds are the its highway system that calls for primary revenue source for crossing installation and adjustment of traf- safety improvements, accounting prin- 18? Chapter VI Implementation of Projects ciples adopted by the Federal Highway others for services are also reim- Administration (F~A) have become the bursable. guide for most State and all Federal crossing programs. There are several o Material and supply costs: The reasons for the similarity between actual costs of materials and sup- State and Federal accounting proce- plies including testing, inspec- dures. First, as mentioned pre- tion and handling viously, Federal-aid highway funds represent a major portion of total 0 Equipment costs: The actual ex- State expenditures for crossing penses incurred in the operation improvements. Second, a large part of equipment. costs incurred in of the State funds expended are in equipment leasing and accrued the form of matching funds. Third, equipment rental charges at estab- since States reach agreement with lished rates are also eligible for railroad and local communities for reimbursement. the implementation of crossing proj- ects, under both Federal and State 0 Transportation costs: The cost of funded programs, the accomting pro- employee transportation and the cedure for the two programs require transportation cost for the move- compatibility. ment of material, supplies and equipment The policies and procedures of the F~A on reimbursement to the 0 Protective services cOsts: Ex- States’ for railroad - highway grade penses incurred in the provision crossing work are contained in the of safety to railroad and highway Federal-Aid Highway Program Manual operations during the construction (FHPM), 1-4-3, for Federal-aid hi~h- process way projects. To be eligible For reimbursement, the costs must be: An agreement providing for a 1) for work that is included in an lump sum payment in lieu of a later approved program; 2) incurred subse- determination of actual costs may be quent to the date of authorization by used for the installation or improve- F~A ; 3) incurred in accordance with ment of crossing traffic control FHPM 6-6-2; and, 4) properly attrib- devices and/or crossing surfaces, utable to the project. regardless of costs. If the lump sum method of payment is used, periodic The following is a brief de- reviews and analyses of the rail- scription of railroad-highway grade roadts methods and cost data used to crossing improvement costs that are develop lump sum estimates should be generally considered eligible for made. reimbursement. Progress billings of incurred o Labor costs: salaries and wages, costs may be made according to the including fringe benefits and em- executed agreement between the State ployee expenses. Labor costs in– and the railroad. Costs for mate- elude labor associated with pre- rials stockpiled at the project site liminary engineering, construction or specifically purchased and deliv- engineering, right-of-way, and ered to the company for use on the force account construction. Fees project may also be reimbursed fol- paid to engineers, architects and lowing approval of the agreement. 188 Chapter VI Implementation of Frojects A major problem experiencf;d in should be inclt[ded in the project the accounting process is the tj.meli- design and covered in the agreement. ness of final billing. The raj.lroad should provide one final and con~plete For Federal - aid highway proj- billing of all incurred costs, or of ects, i.t is expected that materials an agreed lump sum, at the earliest and supp:Lies, i.favailable~ will be possible date. The final bj.lling furnished from railroad company should include certification that the stock, (?xcept they may be cbtained work is complete, acceptable, and in from other sources near the project accordance with the terms of the site when available at less ccst,. if agreement. the necessary materials and supplies are not :ivailablefrom company stock, Salvage value of the ex:Lsting they may be purchased either under traffic control devices is a concern competitive bids or existing contin- at crossings to be closed or up- uing contracts, under which the low- graded. If the equipment is rela- est available prices are developed. tively new and in good conditio~l, it Minor quantities and propriets.rypro- is desirable to reuse the equ:Lpment ducts a:reexcluded from these re- at another crossing. However, :Lfthe quirements. The company shot[ld not equipment is older, the cost to be required to change its existing remove and refurbish it may b!~such standards for o]aterialsused in per- that this is inefficient. manent changes to its facilities. SoresStates allow railroads to D. Desigriand Construction stockpile crossing signal mnterials so that :?rojects may be completed as The design of railroad-highway rapidly as possible. Provided the grade crossing improvement projects design of the crossing signals is are usually completed by State or based on the most appropriate equip- railroad engineering forces, or by an ment for the individual project~ this engineering consultant select(?d by practice is acceptable. the State or railroad with the same agency administering the con-bract. Scheduling of crossing I]rojects The designation of the designer is to should be accomplished to nlaximize be mutually agreed to by both the the efficiency of railroad, State, State and the railroad. local, and contractor work forces. This requires coordination aridcoop- The railroad signal department eration between all parties. In usually prepares the design for the addition, construction at crossings active traffic control system includ- should be scheduled to minimi:ze the ing the train detection circuits. In effects on the traveling public. addition, the railroad signal depart- Notice of planned constructiorlactiv- ment usually prepares a detailed cost ities should be sent to local news- estimate of the work. papers, and TV and radio statj.onsone to three months in advance,, Final Adequate provision for ]~eeded notices should be given one \Jeekand easements, rights-of-way, and tempo- one day in advance of commencf?mentof rary crossings for construction pur- construction work. Efforts should be poses, or other property int,>rests made to avoid construction during 189 Chapter VI Implementation of Projects peak hours of highway and train traf- whole or in part with Federal funds. fIc. Under the Federal-Aid Highway prOgraQ Manual (FHPM), 6-6-2-2, protection to When scheduling construction cover such liability of contractors activiti-es, consideration should be is to be furnishe~ unde~ regular given to accomplishing work at cross- contractors’ public liability and ings in the same geographical area at property insurance policies, issued the sme time. In this mnner, trav- in the rimes of the contractors. el time of construction crews and Such policies should be written to transportation costs of materials are furnish protection to contractors minimtzed. This is one advantage of respecting their operations in per- the systems approach because all foming work covered by their con- crossings in a specified rail corri- tract. dor, comunity, or area are improved at the same t?-me. If a contractor sublets a part of the work on any project to a sub- For Federal-aid hfghway projects contractor, the contractor should re- construction may be accomplished by: quire insurance protection in his own behalf under the contractor’s public 0 railroad force account; liability and property dmage insur- ance policies. This should cover any 0 contracting with the lowest quali- liability imposed on him by law for fied bidder based on appropriate daages because of bodily injury to solicitations; or death of persons, and injury to or destruction of property as a result 0 existing continuing contracts at of work wdertaken by such subcon- reasonable costs; or, tractors. In addition, the contractor should provfde for and on behalf of 0 contract without competitive b~d- any such subcontractors, protection ding, for minor work, at reason- to cover like liability imposed upon able costs. the latter as a result of their oper- ations by means of separate and indi- Reimbursement with Federal-aid vidual contractor’s public liability highway funds will not be made for and property daage policies. Alter- any increasad costs due to changes in natively, each subcontractor may pro- plans for the convenience of the vide satisfactory insurance on his contractor, nor for changes that have own behalf to cover his tidividual nOt been approved by the State and operations. the Federal Highway Atiinistration (FHWA). The contractor should furnish to the State highway department evidence Contractors may be subject to that the required insurance coverages liability with respect to bodily have been provided. The contractor injury to or death of persons and should also furnish a copy of this injury to or destruction of property, evidence to the railroad cOm- that may be suffered by persons other pany(ies). The insurance specified than their own employees as a result should be kept in force wtil all Of their operations in connection work required to be perfomed has with construction of highway projects been satisfactorily completed and located wholly or partly within rail- accepted in accordance with the con- road right-of-way and financed in tract. Chapter VI Implementation of Projects In connection with crossing E. Traffic Control During Construc- projects, railroad protective liabil- tion ity insurance should be purchased on behalf of the railroad by the con- Traffic control for r:ailroad- tractor. Railroad protective insur- highway grade crossing construction ance should be in conformance with is very similar to traffic control appropriate State laws. for highway construction. The major differer[ce is that the work area is Railroad protective insurance in joirltuse right-of-way and the coverage should be limited to liabil- possibility of conflict exists be- ities and damages suffered by the tween rail and highway traffic as railroad on accomt of occurrences well as in construction operations. arising out of the work of the con- Construction areas can present to the tractor on or about the railroad motorist,wexpected or unusual situa- right-of-way, regardless of the rail- tions as far as traffic operations road!s general supervision cr cOn- are concerned. Because of this, spe- trol. cial care should be taken in applying traffic control techniques in these The maximum amount of cc,verage areas. for which premiums are to be reim- bursed from Federal funds with re- Both railroad and highway per- spect to bodily injury, death, and sonnel :Lrewell-trained in the safety property damage normally is limited and control of their respective traf- to a combined amount of $2 u[illion fic streams. However, construction per occurrence with an aggregate of practices, agency policy, labor work $6 million applying separately to rules, and State and Federal regula- each amual period. In cases involvi- tions all contribute to the complex- ng real and demonstrable da~lgerof ity of crossing work zone traffic appreciably higher risks, higher dol- control,, men highway construction lar amomts of coverage for which and ma:,ntenance activities at the premiums will be reimbursable from interse(:tiontake place on the tracks Federal funds will be allowed. These or within 15 feet of an active run- larger amounts will depend on circum- ning ra~.1, railroad persomel should stances and will be written for the be pressnt. Railroad maintenance and individual project in accordance with constru(;tionof crossing signals or standard mderwriting practices upon surfaces will often require some aPPrOval Of the FNA Division Admin_ measure of control of highwsy traf- istrator. fic. In determining whether a larger An open communication channel dollar amount of coverage is neces- between railroed and highway person- sary for a particular project,, con- nel is essential to the coo~dination sideration should be given to the of crossing construction and mainte- size of the project, the amount and nance. For example, the railroad type of railroad traffic passing enginee:cingdepartment should. notify through the project area, the volume all highway agencies several weeks in of highway traffic in the project advance of track resurfacing or area, and the accident experi(?nceof crossing reconstruction operations the contractor involved in th ule of the track work activity should A traffic control plan, in de- be confirmed by the railroad engi- tail appropriate to the complexity of neering department a few days before the work project, should be prepared the actual work takes place. Proper and mderstood by all responsible coordination will ensure mlntial parties before the site is occupied. crogging closure time and will reduce A traffic control plan is required to cost of work zone traffic control be included in the plans, specifica- activities. Highway personnel should tions and estimates for al1 Federal- infO~ railroad engineering depart- aid projects as Indicated in the Fed- ments of any work gcheduled within eral Highway program Manual (FH~ the railroad right-of-way weeks Usually the highway agency develops before the work begins. The gchedule the traffic control plans. Any should be reconfirmed with the ra~l- changes in the traffic control plan road a few days before the crews are should be approved by an individual to be on the site. trained in safe traffic control prac- tices. If the construction or mainte- nance activity requires the entire The method for accomplishing crossing to be removed, the crossing traffic control is to be worked out should be closed and traffic should between the railroad and the State or be detoured over an alternate route local highway agency. There is a wide Or temporary bypass. Crossings on latitude as to which party does &he high volme rural and urban highways work. Many States require that the should not be closed duri~ week days agency responsible for the highway on or peak hours. Traffic control for which the crossing is located also be the construction or Uintenance Of responsible for the preparation and crossings should be the sae as that Implementation of the traffic control used for highway construction and plan. This may be the State agency maintenance and should comply with or a local county, city, or town. the applicable reguirments of the Some States require the railroad or Manual- on Unifo~ T~affic Control contractor to fmplement the traffic ———Devices (MUTCD). control plan. It is emphasized that the individuals who prepare or imple- Traffic safety in construction ment the tiraffic control in work zones should be an integral and high areas be trained in the requirements priority element of every project of the MUTCD. Reimbursement for traf- from planning through design and con- fic control costs for a Federal-aid struction. Similarly, maintenance project includes payment fop force work should be planned and conducted account costs and reimbursement for with the safety of motorists, pedes- contractor services. trians, workers, and train crews in mind at all times. The basic safety Traffic movement should be in- Principles governing the design of hf,bited as little as practicable. crossfngs should also govern the de- Traffic control in work sites should sign Of Construction and maintenance be designed on the assumption that sites. The goal should be to route motorists wil1 only reduce their traffic through such areas with geo- speeds if they clearly perceive a metries and traffic control devices need to do so. Reduced speed zoning comparable, as nearly as possible, to should be avoided as much as practi- those for normal crossing situations. cable. Guidelines ?or determining 192 Chapter VI Implementalion o]FProjects speed limits in detour, transitions? maintenance :projects, it may be de- and median crossovers are as follows. temined that such remova:Lis more hazardous than leaving the existing 0 Detours and crossovers should be mrkings in place. If so, special designed for speeds equal to the attentton must be paid to pro~?ide existing speed limit if at all additional guidance by other traffic possible. Speed reductions should control measures. Flagging proce- not be more than 10 mph below the dures can provide positive guidance speed of the entering highway. to the motorist traversing the work area and should be employed when 0 Where a speed reduction greater required to control traffic or when than 10 mph is mavoidable, the all other mefnods of traff:tccontrol transition to the lower limit are inadequate to warn and direct should be made In steps of not drivers. more than 10 mph. Each person whose actions affect 0 Where severe speed reductions are maintenance and construct:Lon zone necessary, police or flag,gersmay safety, frornthe upper-level manage- be used in addition to advance ment personnel through construction signing. Tbe conditions requiri~ and maintenance field l>ersonnel, the reduced speed should “bealle- should receive training appropriate viated as soon as possible. to the job decisions each :Lndividual is required to make. only those Frequent and abrupt changes in individuals who are qualtfied by geometries, such as lane narrowing, means of adequate tratning in safe dropped lanes, or main highway tran- traffic control practices and have a sitions, that require rapid maneuvers basic mderstanding of the participles should be avoided. Provisions should established by applicable standards be mde for the safe operation of and regulations~ includfng those Of work vehicles, particularly on high the MUTCD, should supervise the se- speed, high volme highways. Con- lection, placement, and maintenance struction time should be mini]nfzedto of traffic control devices in main- reduce exposure to potential liazards. tenance and constwction areas. Motorists shOuld be gui,iedin a To insure acceptable levels o:f clear and POSitive mnner wl~ileap- operations, routfne inspection or proaching and traversing construction traffic control elements should be and maintenance work areas. ,idequate performed. This inspecting should warning, delineation, and cbannelSza- verify that all traffic coutrol ele- tion by means of proper pavement ments of the project are in conform- mrking, signfng, and use l~fother ity with the traffic contro:Lplan and devices that are effective unier var- are effective in providing safe con- ying conditions of light and weather ditions for motorists, pedestrians~ should be provided to assure the and workers. motorist of positive guid;snce in advance of and through the wo:rkarea. The ma:!ntenance of roadside safety requires constant attentfo:n Inappropriatee markings sl!ouldbe during the lffe of the construction removed to eliminate any misleading zone because of the potential in- cues to drivers under all co]ndltions crease in hazards. To a(:comodate of light and weather. On sh,ortterm run-off-the-road incidents, disabled 193 Chapter VI Implementation of Projects vehicles, or other emergency situa- to close only one track to train tions, it is desirable to provide an traffic at a time and provide for the mencumbered roadside recovery area continuation of all train traffic that is as wide as practical. Chan- over the remaining track. At other nelization of traffic should be times, the hea~ cost of temporary accomplished by the use of pavement railroad signaling and interlocking markings and signing, flexible posts, may preclude this solution. barricades, and other lightweight de- vices that will yield when hit by an Train crews are notified of con- errant vehicle. Menever practical, struction or maintenance activities construction equipment, materials, through train orders or railroad and debris should be stored in such a signal systems. Appropriate instruc- manner as not to be vulnerable to tions for operating through the area rm-off -the-road vehicle impact. are provided by the dispatcher. A railroad employee is established on As with highway traffic, control the construction site as a flagman to of train traffic through construction advise of approaching trains so that areas must provide for the safety of the labor forces may move off the the labor forces and for safe train track while the train passes through operations. Ideally, construction and the area. maintenance at a railroad - highway grade crossing would occur under con- men planning construction or ditions of no highway or train traf- maintenance work at railroad-highway fic. However, this is rarely practi- grade crossings, proper coordination cal. with the railroad is essential. Through the development of a work To minimize the impact on train plan to meet the needs of rail and operations careful planning is re- highway traffic, safety of highway quired. The railroad should be noti- users, highway and railroad work fied well in advance of plamed con- crews, and train crews can best be struction or maintenance activities. provided. Thus, necessary work can be coordi- nated and proper plans can be made 1. Traffic Control Zones for the operation of train traffic. men traffic is affected by con- Rail traffic is not as easily struction, maintenance, utility, or detoured as highway traffic. Highway similar operations, traffic control users may be directed over an adja- is needed to safely guide and protect scentcrossing which may not be more highway users and workers in a traf- than one mile away. Or, a temporary fic control zone. The traffic con- crossing surface may be inexpensively trol zone is the distance between the constructed adjacent to the work first advance warning sign and the site. point beyond the work area where traffic is no longer affected. Detours for rail traffic may greatly increase the costs of rail Most traffic control zones can operations due to the increase travel be divided into the following parts: time and distance. Temporary track- advance warning area, transition age (shoo-fly) may be expensive to area, buffer space, work area, and construct. At multiple track cross- termination area. These are shorn in ings, work may sometimes be planned Figure 97. Chapter VI Implementation of Projects . devices and pavement markings placed I I on an angle to move traffic out of ,. I its norolalpath.. The length of taper TEWINATIONMEA I is detemined by the speed of traffic -- lets traffic.,,”.. I “omal d.i.i”g and the width of the lane to be I closed. The fcmulae for detemfning s the length of a,taper are: 1 Posted speed 40 mph or less: —. — ~ ‘ORK’AR” WS2 T L = ----- 60 BUFFE;SPACE -- Provide.separation Posted speed 45 mph or more: bet.,.”,,.ffi.& w.,ke,, I L=WS ~oN ,,EA where: --..”.straffic0“, Ofit,n.mal~,,h L ❑ taper length W = width of lane or offset t S = posted speed or off peak 85 percentile speed -- tellstraftic what . to exPect ahe,,d The recommended nmber and spac- ing of channelizing devices for var- ious speeds and widths of closing are . 1 given in Table 45. Figure 97. Areas in a Traffic A two-way traffic taper is used Control Zone in advarlce of a work area that occu- pies part of a two-way road in such a Source: Ref. 4 way that the remafnder of the road is used alternately by traffic in either direction. A short taper is used to The advance warning area should cause tr)afficto slow down by giving be long enough to give motorists ade- the appearance of restricted align- qUate time to respond to the cha~ed ment. Clneor more flaggers are usu- conditions. The length is at least ally emF,lOyedto assign the right-of- 1500 feet in rural areas but may be a way. T~o-way traffic tapers should minimm of one block in urban areas. be 50 tc,100 feet long, with channel- izing devices spaced a maximwn of 10 If a lane or shoulder is closed, to 20 feet. a transition area is needed to chan- nelize traffic from the nomal high- The buffer space is the open or way lanes to the path required to unoccupied space between the transi- move traffic around the work area. tion and work areas and provides a The transition area contains the margin of safety for both traFfic and tapers that are used to close lanes. workers. Channelizi~ devices should A taper iS a series of channelizi~ be placed along the edge of the buf- Chapter VI Implementalion of Projects Table 45. Channelizing Devices for Tapers Taper Length (L) Nmber of Spacing of Speed Lane Width (feet) ChannelSzing Devices Along 10 11 12 ———Devices for Taper —_Taper (feet) 70 75 80 20 105 115 125 : 25 150 165 180 7 205 225 245 8 ;; 270 295 320 40 450 495 540 1; 45 500 550 600 13 50 550 605 660 13 55 ~ource: Ref. 4 I“erspace at a spacing In feet of two ing signs used fn construction work times the posted speed Iimlt. areas are shown in Figure 98. The work area is that portion of The high conspicuity of fluores- the highway that contains the work cent orange colors provides an addi- act?.vityand is closed to traffic and tional margin of safety by producing Set aside for exclusive use by work- a high visual impact in hazardous ers, equipment, and construction ma- areas. Therefore, where the color terials. The work area is usually orange is specified for use in traf- delineated by channelizing devices or fic control for construction and shielded by barriers to exclude traf- maintenance operations, it is accep- ffc and pedestrians. table to utilize materials having fluorescent red-orange or yellOw- The termination area provides a ora~e colors. short distance for traffic to clear the work area and to return to the Sf.gns may be attached to posts normal traffic lanes. A downstre~ or portable supports that are light- taper may be placed in the termin- weight, yielding, or breakaway. The ationarea to shift traffic back to lninimm height requirements for signs !ts nomal path. attached to posts are shown in Figme 98. Signs on portable supports are 2. —-—Traffic Control Devices— required by the MUTCD to be at least one fOOt above the highway. ——Signs. Regulatory and warning signs are used in construction work Pavement —-—markings. Pavement areas. Regulatory signs impose legal marki~gs and delineators outline the restrictions and may not be used vehicular path, and thus guide the w?.thout pemission from the authority motorist through the construction having jurisdiction over the highway. area. Pavement markings include lane Warning signs are used to give notice stripes, edge stripes, centerline of conditions that are potentially stripes, pavement arrows, and word hazardous to traffic. Typical warn- messages. Markings are made of paint Chapter VI Implementation of Projects be accomplished with lines of traffic Roadside Sign cones, ,~therchannelizing devices, or Rural District ROAD DETOUR strips of adhesive - backed reflec- C~RUHION 500 FT torized tape. AHEAO :, When pavement placed dtlringthe — day is ‘to be opened to trzffic at 6’-l2’–dQ night [~ndpermanent striping cannot ! ‘; be placf~dbefore the end of work, a $~-e temporary stripe should be applied to >,.. 1 ...L-, ..—..-—-....1.:. —.-. provide an indication to tk!edriver With Advisory of the location of the lane or cen- Speed Plate terline. Standard marking patterns are mos’tdesirable for this use. On Roadside Sign rock-sc]~eened seal coats, stripi~ Urban should ioe apP1.iedfollowing removal Distr5ct STREET of exce~ssscreenings. 2‘mi” CLOXO mm Fe]”relatively long-tem~ use or when thf? surface is to be covered ~~ later reflec- ~ p.5 Tiith another layer, -, torized traffic paint, or F,reformed - i adhesive-backecltape, with or without & Ii raised pavement markers should be .,,,,,,,.,..,~, ,. ,,..,. considered. For relat~.velysb,ort-term use, and when frequent shifts are to Figure 98. Typical Signs fc)r be made, adhesive - backed reflec- Traffic Control in Work Zorles torized tape is useful. Raised pave- ment markera may be used to fom the Source: Ref. 3 pavement markings or may be used to supplement ~rked stripes. High speeds and volmes of traffic may (with bead reflectorization), raised justify raised markers for even com- reflectorized markers, prc!formed paratively short periods. They are adhesive - backed reflectortzecltape, particularly valuable at points of cold preformed reflectorized plas- curvatul.eand transftton. tics, hot reflectorized plnstics, epoxies, and other mterials placed Palrementarrows are useful in by heating and sprayi~. guiding traffic when the traveled way does not coincide with the configura- The standard markings planned tion of the exposed surface area, fOr the road should be in pl:,eebe- such as when tk~ecolor of the transi- fore opening a new facility tc~traf- tion pavement is different from the fic. Also, if revised lane pe~tterns existing pavement. Pavement arrows are planned for the work zone, tempo- are especially useful on a two-way, rary markings should be placed before undivid(?droadway to remind the driv- the traffic is changed. Where! this er of opposing traffic. “Two-Way is not feasible, such as during the Traffic” signs should be used in con- process of making a traffic shift or junction] with the arrows for the carrying traffic through surfacing application. Tbe arrows should be operations, temporary delineat~.onmay completely remcved once the two-way Chapter VI Implementation of Projects traffic condition is no longer are 28 inches high should be used on needed. high speed roadways, on all facili- ties during hours of darkness, or Whenever traffic is shifted from whenever more conspicuous guidance is its nomal path, whether a lane is needed. Cones are reflectorized for closed, lanes are narrowed, or traf- use at night with a six inch wide fic is shifted onto another roadway reflectorized band placed no more or a detour, cotilicting pavement than three Inches from the top or markings should be removed. Excep- with a lighting device. tions to this may be made for short- tem operations, such as a work zone Tubular markers are also light- ~der flaggers’ control or moving or weight, easy to install, and are a mobile operations. Use of ratsed minor impedence to traffic flow. They pavement markl~s or removable mark- must be set in weighted bases or fas- ings may be economical since they are tened to the pavement. They should be usually easier to remove when no at least 18 inches high with taller longer needed. devices preferred for better visibil- ity. Wrkers should be reflectorized ~elineators. Delineators are for use at night with two reflec- reflective units with a ~inimm torized bands, three inches in width, dimension of approxi[nately three placed no more than two inches from inches. The reflector units can he the top and no more than six tithes seen up to 1,000 feet under nomal between the bands. conditions when reflecting the high beams of motor vehicle headlights. Vertical panels are 8 to 12 The delineator should be installed inches in width and a minimu of 24 about four feet above the roadway on inches in height. They are advanta- lightweight posts. geous in narrow areas fiere barri- cades and drma would be too wide. Delineators should not be used They are mounted on lightweight posts alone as channelizing devices In work driven into the ground or placed on zones but may be used to supplement lightweight portable supports. The these channelizing devices in outlin- ora~e and white stripes on vertical ing the correct vehicle path. They panels slope down toward the side are not to be used as a warning de- that traffic is to pass. They should vice. To be effective, several delin- be reflectorized as barricades and eators need to be seen at the same installed such that the top ia a min- time. The color of the delineator imu of 36 inches above the highway. should be the same as the pavement marking that it supplements. Drms are highly visible and appear to be fomidable objects thus Channellzing Devices. Channel- comanding the respect of motorists. i zing devices consist of cones, tubu- They should be mrked with horizontal lar markers, vertical panels, drums, orange and white stripes that are barricades, and barriers. Cones are reflectorized, four to eight inches lightweight devices that may be ti-de. The drm must have at least stacked for storage, are easy to two sets of orange and white stripes place and remove, and are a minor but can also have nonreflectorized impedance to traffic flow. They are spaces up to two tichea wide between at least 18 inches high. Cones that the stripes. 198 Chapter VI Implementation of Projects Barricades should be constructed form the taper to close a lane or of lightweight materials and are shoulder, or : Lighting Devices. Three types Flagging. Flagging sk,ould be Of warning lights may be used in used ~~en required to control construction areas. Flashing lights traffiC or when all other methods of are appropriate for use on a channel- traffic control are inadequate to izing device to warn of an i:jolated warn and dtiect drivers. Tbe proce- hazard at night or call attent,f.onto dures for flagging traffic are con- warning signs at night. High titen- tained in Sections 6F-2 through 6F-7 sity lights are appropriate to use on of the MUTCD. The standard signals advance warning lights day and night. to be used by flaggers are !1lus- Steady-burn lights are apprc>priate trated fLnFigure 99. Flaggers shOuld for use on a series of channe!lizing be in sf,ght of each other or have devtces or on barriers that either direct communication at all times. Chapter VI Implementation of Projects these figures may be adjusted to fit field conditions in accordance with the guidelines presented in the MUTCD and the Traffic Control Devices Hand- book. When nmerical distances a= To Stop Traffic shown for siKn s~acing, the distances are intende~ f~r rural areas and urban areas with a posted speed limit of 45 mph or more. For urban areas with a posted speed of 45 mph or ,- : less, the sign spacing should be in <, -. confownce with Table 46. II T,affj.c Signs with specific distances .’ Proceed shcwn should not be used if the actual distance varies significantly t from that shorn. The word nessage ,,Aheadll~hculd be used in urban areas and in other areas where a specific distance is not applicable. Standard To Alert crossing pavement markings are not *“d S1OW shown in the figures for clarity and Traffic should be utilized where appropriate. All applicable requirements for Figure 99. Use of Hand Signali~ traffic control in work areas set Devices by Flagger forth in the MUTCD shall apply to construction and maintenance of Source: Ref. 3 crossings. Additional traffic cOn- trol devices other than those shown in the figures should be prcvided A nuber of hand signaling when highway and traffic conditions devices such as STOP/SLOW paddles, warrant. These devices should cOn- lights, and red flags are used to fcm to the requirements of the control traffic through work zones. MUTCD. All traffic control devices The sign paddle bearing the clear that are not applicable at any speci- messages “Stop” or “SICW” prcvides fic time shal1 be covered, removed, motorists with more positive guidance or turned so as to not be visible to than flags and should be the primary the motorist. hand-signaling device. The use of flags should be limited to emergency situations and at spot locations that Tabla 46. Sign Spacing fcr can best be controlled by a single Urban Areas flagger. Sign Spacing 3. Application Speed Lim?t x Y Typical applications of traffic 30 mph or less 300 ft 200 ft control devices fn crossing work 35 mph or 40 mph 450 ft 300 ft zones are shorn in Figures 100 through 103. The dimensions shown in Source: Ref. 4 200 Chapter VI Implementation of Projects OEm;yE ‘0’40 CONSIRW Barricade Trailer or Vehicle Twom A“l.AD with Orange Flags * SW Rural or Flashing Lights~~ ~ $y<>Rural 500’min .W.>+, :* ~r;n ‘“’”:?: y: d + ~ ------+ d 4 4D’..W. Legend ❑ m ~~nes ~ FlaggerStation m — Type111Barricade For X a“d Y dime”$sio”s,See Table h6 [email protected]~ossing Work Activities, Two Lane High,iay,One Lane Closed Source: Ref. 4 ~~ For X and Y dimensions, See Table 46 For L dimensions, See Table 115 Figure 101. Crossing Work Activities, Multi-lane U]:ban Divided Hj.ghway One Roadway Closed, Two Way Traffic Source: Ref. 4 201 Chapter VI Implementation of Projects Legend m B cones ~ FlaggerStation — TypeIIIBarricade 4- \“ + 4 -+------T ‘= ------G b b Bd %=> I 111! ~ I I I 1~[ I I I I I ! ! I I ! I I I ! I ! ~! I I + For x and Y dimensions,See Tsble 46 Figure 102. Crossing Work Activities, Closure of Side IloadCrossing Source: Ref. 4 Figure 103. Crossing Work Activities, One Lane of Side Road Crossing Closed Source: Ref. 4 202 Chapter VI Implementation of Projects F. References 1. Federal-Aid Highway prOgr~ ~nz ual, Washington, DC: Federal Highway ministration, updated periodically. 2. Federal Highway Administration Survey of Region and DivfsioD Of- fices, unpublished, 1984. 3. Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices, Washington, DC: Federal Highway Administration, 1978, Revised lg7g, 1983, 1984. 4. Traffic Control Devices Handbook, Washington, DC: Federal Highway Administration, 1983. activi:Ly. Although there are cur-- rently no Federal safety regulations The railroad - highway grade specifically addressing the mainte-. crossing is unique to other highway nance of these devices, a few Stat Railroad personnel maintain the The highway agency is usually devices at the crossing and their responsible for maintaining the high- control circuitry. Highway traffic way approaches, all traffic control signals located near the crossing may devices on the approaches, except the be preampted utilizing the sae train crossbuck sIgn, ill~ination, and detection circuitry as the signals at special signtng at the crossing such the crossing. Where this !~ccurs, as the “Exempt” sign, the “DO Not coordination of railroad and l~ighway Stop On Tracks” sign, and the stop mint enance activit?-esis essential sign. to safe and efficient traffic opera- tion. An open channel of communication between the local matitenance staff Nomally, railroad maintenance of the highway agency and the rail- of traffic control devices is accom- road company 3s essential. Each high- plished as a part of the regular way agency maintenance foreman should maintenance progrm for signals cOn- have a railroad company telephone trolling train operations. Railroad nmber available on a 24 hour basis signal maintenance personnel are sta- to repo]”tcrossing device failure or tioned at specific locations along malfunction. In additfon, the rail- the railroad line and are responsible road signal maintainer should estab- for all signal maintenance within lish and maintain contact wtth the their assigned territories. Gener- highway agency maintenance supervi- ally, the maintenance of crossing sor(s) in the signal maintainer’s devices is only a portion of the assigned territory. railroad signal maintainer’s daily Chapter VII Maintenance Program The U.S. DOT/AAR inventory nw- the markings. Sign deterioration is ber assigned to the crossing should only one of several factors to be be used in any communication between considered in sign maintenance. Of railroad and highway maintenance per- equal or greater importance are van- sonnel. This requires that the inven- dalism and inadvertent dmage. Care- tory nwber board be displayed at ful choice of material, momt%w each crossing and properly main- height and mounting technique can tained. reduce dmage from vandalism. D~age caused by accidents can be con- Highway maintenance personnel, strained through regular inspection during the course of their nomal and repair. travel, should be encouraged to be on the lookout for dmaged or malfunc- The maintenance of the sight tioning crossing traffic control de- triangle, beyond railroad right-of- vices. To ensure the proper reporting way, presents a unique problem. Ex- of devices in d!srepair, the railroad cept for the portion of the sight signal department should infom high- triangle within the roadway right-of- way agency personnel as to how and Way, most of the sight triangle in- why the devices operate and what con- volves private property. The removal stitutes failure. A procedure for of trees, vegetation, crops, buSld- reporting dmaged or malfunctioning ings, signs, storage facilities, and devices should be developed. In Texas other ObstruetiOns to the dr?ver’s the State highway agency has posted view of an approaching train requires signs at all crossings on the State access to the property and an agree- highway system. These signs request ment with the property owner for the notification of devices in disrepair. removal of the Obstruction. A tol1 free nmber along with the crossing inventory nmber is included Some maintenance activities at on the sign that Is momted on the or near crossings may require traffic flashing light signal post. control. The procedures specified in Chapter VI for traffic control in The htghway agency maintenance construction areas are applicable to progra should follow normal highway maintenance activities as well. inspection and maintenance proce- dures. For exaple, both signs and In addition to their usual pavement ~rkings should be inspected responsibility for the maintenance of during both daylight and nighttime the crossing surface and traffic con- conditions every three to six months. trol devices at the crossing, rail- This inspection should include the roads also maintain sight clearance condition and adequacy of reflectiv- within railroad right-of-way. This ity of the signs and markings. Pave- includes vegetation control, removal ment marking experience at a particu- of unused railroad buildings and lar locale may indicate an approxi- placment of rail cars. mate interval between repainting 0p- erations. Such a determination will Since these maintenance activ- pemit the progr-ing of repainti~ ities are a part Of rout?ne railroad into the overall striping progrm for signal and maintenance-of-way aCtiV- the area. However, periodic inspec- ity, site specific maintenance costs t~on should not be eliminated in anY are difficult, if not impossible, to case as spilled loads, resurfacing calculate. As with most Federal high- and other occurrences nay obllte~ate way funding progrms, maintenance Chapter VII Maintenance Progra expenditures associated with crOss- o Type III -- Cantilever type sig- ings are not reimbursable under the nals at single track, average AAR progra. However, 17 States and a few units 18.23 local governmental agencies have passed legislation authorizing con- 0 Type IV -- Cantilever type signals tribution, by the State, to the main- with gates at single track, aver- tenance of crossing surfaces and/or age AAR Wits 27.81 traffic control devices located at the crossing. Finding for these pro- 0 Type V -- Standard flashing light grms is either by State legislature signals with gates at two main appropriations or by local ordinance. tracks, average AAR mits 34.30 Appendix B contains infomaticn on State maintenance progrms. 0 Type VI -- Cantilever type signals with gates at two main tracka, Such maintenance agreements be- average AAR units 36.04 tween a railroad and a State must contain mutually agreed to defini- 0 Type VII -- Special layout with tions of eligible devices. In sOme multiple gates and tracks, average cases, the devices are defined as AAR Lmits 48.25 flaahing lights only or flashing lights and gates, with specification The AAR wit method for defining of the nuber of tracka. Or, traffic crossing maintenance provides an op- control devices my be defined in portunity for negotiating a specific terns of AAR units. Railroad signal dollar value for each unit and then Systas are comprised of component applying this value to any combina- parts, each of which (individually or tion of units. Dollar values are in combinations) have been assigned reportecl for AAR units in the 1982 relative unit values by the Associa- publication. These values, if used, tion of berican Ratlroads (AAR). The should be adjusted for current ecO- relative unit values were developed nomic conditions. for accounting and record purposes directed toward determining installa- Any method used for the reim- tion, replacement, maintenance and bursement of matitenance costs sho!lld operating costs on an industry-wide consider the components of mainte- unifom basis. Comittees of the AAR nance. Maintenance costs are cOm- have established recommended prac- prised of equipment, material, labor, tices for the application of these tranaportationp atiinistratiOn, ac- ~its. A 1982 AAR technical report counting, and training costs. Labor classifies the following types of costs involve the hourly wage and croaaing traffic control systems by benefits received by the ~ailroad, AAR units. State, local goverment, or contrac- tor employee. Materials associated o Type I -- Standard flashing light with maintenance include the spare signals at single track, average and replacement parts as well as the AAR units 13.85 tools needed for repair. Transporta- tion must be provtded fOr laborers 0 Type II -- Standard flashiq; light and mater%als. signals tith gates at single track, average AAR units 23,*89 Chapter VII Maintenance Program B. References 1. Federal Highway Atiinistration Survey of Region and Division Of- fices, unpublished, 1984. 2. !!MaintenanceCost Study Of Rail- rOad-Highway Grade Crossing Warning Systms ,*!Wa~hingtOn, DC: Association of kerican Railroads, October 1g82. VIII. EVALUATION OF PROJECTS AWD PROGRW An integral part of any rafl- evaluattor~is to improve the agency’S road-highway grade crossing improve- ability to make future decisions ment program is the evaluation of regarding the improvement progrm. individual projects and the OVeral~ These decisions can be aided by con- program. The Federal - aid Hi&~a~ ducting formal effectiveness and ad- Program Manual (FHPM), 8-2-3, sPeci- mfnistrative evaluations of ongoing fies that ‘em State’s highway safety and comp].eted improvement projects tiprovement program should include an and progrms. evaluation of the progra. This eval,~ationcomponent Is to fnclude a In the Highway Safety Evalua- determination of the effects the tion, Procedural__— Guide, two types of improvements have in reducing a~cci- evaluation are addressed: effective- dents, accident potential, and scci- ness evaluation and administrative dent severity. This process skiould evaluation. These two types of eval- include: uation Will be discussed in ttis chapter only in sufficient detail for o the cost of, and the safety bene- the user to be aware of the need for fits derived from, the vaz,fOus it and the procedwes. However, the means and methods used to mitf.gate reader should refer to the Procedural or eliminate hazards; ——Guide fol-more details. Also, the followlng references provide more 0 a record of accident exper:Lence useful information on safety evalua- before and after the implementa- tion procedmes. tion of a highway safety improve- ment project; and, 0 Lunenfeld, H. Evaluation of Traf- fic Operations, Safety and posi- 0 a comparison of accident nwbers, ‘~u=~s, Washing- rates, and severity observed after ton, DC: Federal Highway Adminis- the tiplementation of a highway tration, Report No. FHWA-1o-80-I, safety improvement project with October 1980. the accident nwbers, rates, and severity expected if the imp]eove- 0 Tarrants, W.E. and Veigel, C .H., ment had not been made. ~he Evaluation of Highway Traffic Safety Programs, Washington, DC: In addition, the evaluation pro- National Highway Traffic SafetY gram is to include an annual evalua- Administration, Report DOT-HS-80- tion and report of the State’s over- 525, Febnary 1978. all safety improvement program and the State’s progress in implementing 0 Comcil, F. lti.et al., Accident the individual Federal progras, such Research Manua~, Washington, DC: as the Section 203 crossing progrm. Federal Htghway Administration, Report FHwA/RD-80/016, February Evaluation is an assessment Of 1980. the value of an activity as measured by its success or failure in achiev- 0 Berg, W. D., Expertiental Design ing a predetermined set of goals Or ~r Evaluating the Safety Benefits objectives. The ultimate goal of of Railroad Advance Warning Signs, Chapter VIII Evaluation of Projects and Progras Washington, DC: Federal Highway PurPOses; 3) evaluation objectives Atiinistration, Report FHWA-RD-7g- and measures of effectiveness; 4 ) ex- 7a, April 1979. perimental plans; and, 5) data re- quirements. A. Project Evaluation While it would be desirable to evaluate all improvement projects, Improvements to railroad-highway mnpower and fiscal capabilities do grade crossings that have aS their not always pemit this. Consequently objective the enhancement of safety when selecting projects for evalua- should be evaluated as to their ef- tion, the followi~ factors should be fectiveness. This can be done for in- constdered. dividual projects and should be done for the overall improvement progrsm. 0 Improvement types that are ques- An effectiveness evaluation for safe- tionable as to their effectiveness tY purposes is the statistical and economic assessment of the extent to 0 Projects that have sufficient data which a project Or program achieves necessary for statistical analysis its ultimste safety goal of ~educi~g the number and/or severity of acci- 0 Projects that are directly related dents. It also can be expanded to to accident reduction - include an assessment of the inter- mediate effects related to safety If the nuber of accidents oc- enhancement. The latter type evalua- curring before the improvement fs too tion becomes particularly relevant few to allow a significant reduction fOr crossings because the low nwber of accidents to wcur, the project of accidents occurring at a crossing ~Y be evaluated along with other may preclude any meaningful accident- similar projects. This is frequently based evaluation of individual cross- the situation with crosstigs sinee ings or a smll nmber of them. they experience very few accidents. If projects are aggregated fOr eval- The Procedural Guide lists seven uation, it is essential that the: functions—that should b: followed in conducting an effectiveness evalua- 0 Countermeasures for each be iden- tion. tical; o Develop an evaluation plan 0 types Of locations be similar; o Collect and reduce data and, 0 Compare measures of effectiveness 0 Perfom statistical tests 0 project purposes be similar. 0 Perform economic analyses o Prepare evaluation docments The experimental plan selected o Develop and update a data base shoxld be consistent with the natwe of the project and the completeness The essential elements of the and availability of data. The most principal funct?.ons are described comon experimental plans for evalua- below. ting safety improvement projects are: 1) before and after study with con- The evaluation plan addresses trol sites, and 2) before and after such issues as the selection of: 1) study. projects for evaluation; 2 ) project 210 Chapter VIII Evaluation of Projects and Progras The most desirable meas~lre of provides another perspective. From effectiveness (MOE) for cr,ossing such analysis, an assessment of cost safety improvements would be the re- and accident reduction effects, in duction of accident frequency or se- combination, may be made. This aspect verity. However, since a long periOd of an evaluation is very important as of time may be required to ~~lSS an it is possible to have a very effec- adequate saple size, especially for tive project that is cost-prohibi- individual projects, evaluations can tive in terns of future use under be made based on other measures such similar circumstances. as: There are many economtc analysis o traffic performnee - speed,,stop- techniques. The two most Comonly ping behavior, and conflfcts, or used fo]eevaluating completed highway safety improvement projects are the o driver behavior - looking, com- benefit/cost (B/C) and cost/effec- pliance, and awareness. tiveness (C/E) methods. The evaluation plan describes An effectiveness data base is an the types and amounts of data neces- accwulation of project evaluation sary for the evaluation. Data for results that are directly usable as the before situation could be ob- input to future project seleCtiOn. tained from the engineering study The data base: (see Chapter III) used to asaist in determining the crossfng problem and 0 contains pertinent infO~atiOn on appropriate improvement. Additional the accident reducing capabilities data, if not available from histori- of countermeasures and/or proj- cal records, till have to be col- ects; lected before the tiproveme]tt is made. If the measure of effective- o must be continually updated with ness involves accident data, several new effectiveness evaluation in- years of data would be required. fomat ion; and! Traffic and driver behavior data can be collected four to six weeks after o should only conta?n evaluation project implementation. results from reliable and properly conducted evaluations. The effect of the project(s) on tbe selected MOE must be detemined. With such a data base, accident Computations are made tO dete~ine reduction factors can be established the expected value of the MOE if the and refined over time. These factors project(s) had not been implemented in turn. can be used in dstemini~ and the difference between the ex- the most cost-effective improvements. pected MOE and the actual observed value of the MOE. This difference should then be tested to determine if B. Pro~- Evaluation it is statistically significant. Thle preceding section outlined An important objective of an ef- the process for conducting evalua- fectiveness evaluation is to obtain a tions of one or more improvement complete picture of how well the com- p~~ject,s. This evaluation prOcess can pleted project is perfoming from a and should be applied to the entire safety standpoint. Economic analysis crossing improvement program or cOm- Chapter VIII Evaluation of Projects and Progrms ponents of it. The entire progrm 0 Identify atiinistrative issues would consist of all those activities including physical improvements to 0 Obtain available data sources the crossing, changes in railrOad Or highway traffic operations, and 0 Prepare atiinistrat;.ve data sm- changes in law enforcement and in mary tables driver education. 0 Evaluate administrative issues Throughout the pro~a it may be useful for the policy mker to iden- 0 Prepare and distribute the evalua- tify whether certain specific progrm tion report subsets are effective. These progra subsets could fnclude types of im- 0 Develop and update data base provements such as: 0 installation of flashing lights; D. References 0 relocation of crossing; 0 illminatiOn; 1. Berg, William D., Experimental 0 sight distance improvements; or, Design for Evaluating the Safety 0 combinations of two or more types. Benefits of Railroad Advance Warning m, Washington, DC: Federal High- The steps and procedwes in con- way Atiinistration, Report FHWA-RD- ducting the progrm, or subset of the 79-78, April 1979. progra, effectiveness evaluation are essentially the same as for projects. 2. council, F.M. et al., A~~ident FHWA’s Procedural Guide should be Research Manual, Washington, DC: Fed- referred~~o~-d~ eral Highway Atiinlstration, Report FHwA/RD-80/016, February 1980. C. Atiifistrative Evaluation 3. Federal-Aid—— Highway Program Man- ual, Washington, DC: Federal Highway This evaluation is the assess- Atiinistration, updated periodically. ment of the scheduling, design, con- struction, and operational review 4. Goodell - Grivas, Inc., Highway activities undertaken during the im- Safety Evaluation Procedural Guide, plementation of the crossing improve- Washington, DC: Federal Highway ment progrm. It evaluates these ac- Atiinistration, FHWA-TS-81-219, OCtO- tivities in terns of actual resource ber 1980. expenditures, planned versus actual resource expenditures, and produc- 5. Lunenfeld, H. Evaluation of Traf- tivity. fic Operations, Safety and Positive guidance Projects, Washington, G In the FHWA —-Procedural Guide, Federal Highway Atiinistration, Re- eight steps are recommended for port No. F~A-1 0-80-1, October 1980. atiintstrative evaluation as listed below. 6. Tarrants, W.E. and Veigel, C. H., The Evaluation of Highway Traffic o Select evaluation subjects Safety Atiinistration, Report DOT-HS- ~5, February 1978. o Review project (progrm) details 212 ,. 1,X.SPECIM ISSUSS There are several issues that construction project or other sea- are important to railroad - highway sonal acttvity grade crossing safety and operations that either were not specifically In some instances, changes in covered in previous chapters or that land use have resulted in an expan- warrant special consideration. These sion of a crossing’s use to the ?.ncludeprivate crossings, short line extent that it has become a public railroads, high speed rail corridors, crossing as evidenced by frequent use pedestrians, bicycles and motor- of the general public. This may occur cycles, and special vehicles. whether or not any public agency has accepted responsibility for maint- enanceor control of the use of the A. Private CrOssi~s traveled way over the crossing. The railroad and highway agency should Private railroad-highway grade continually review the use of private crossings are those that are on,road- crossings so that mutual agreement is ways not open to use by the public obtained on its appropriate classifi- nor are they maintained by a public cation. If the general public ts authority. According to the U.S. making use of the crossing, appro- DOT/AAR National Rail-Highway Cross- priate traffic control devices should fng Inventory, in 1983 there were be installed for thetr warning and 133,011 private crossings in the gutdance. Usually, State and Federal Un~.tedStates. Usually, an agreement funds are not available for use at between the land owner and the rail- private crossings. road governs the use of the private crossing. The nuber of accidents at pri- vate crossings represent a Smll Typical types of private CrOSS- portfon of all crossing accidents; ings are as follows. however, safe design and operation at private crossings should not be Over- o Farm crossings that provide access looked. Very few private crossings between tracts of land lying on have active traffic control devices botb sides of the railroad and many do not have signs. Typical- ly, they are on narrow gravel roads o Industrial plant crossing5 that often with poor roadway approaches. provide access between plant facilitateson both sides of the In 1983, there were 599 acci- railroad dents, 33 fatalities, and 156 in- juries at prtvate crossings. These o Residential access crossings over represent reductions, since 1979, of which the occupants and their 37.4$ in accidents, 32.7% in fatal- fnv:tees reach private residences ities, and 24.3% in injuries as shown from another road, frequently a in Table 47. public road paralleling and adja- cent to the railroad right-of-way As with accidents at public crossings, the majority of acctdents o Temporary crossings established at private crossings involved automo- for the duration of a private biles. Table 48 gives the nuber of Chapter IX Special Issues Tabls 47. Accidents at Private Tabls 49. Motor Vehicle Accidents Crossings, 1979 - 1983 at Private Crossings by Traffic Control Device, 1983 ~ Accidents Fatalities Injuries Traffic 1979 957 206 Control Device Aacidents Percent 1980 848 $ 228 1981 749 31 172 Automatic gates 7 1.24 1982 590 I29 Flashing lights 26 4.63 1983 599 z 156 Highway signals, wigwags or bells 13 2.31 Source: Ref. 3 Special* 3? 6.58 Crossbucks 162 28.83 Stop signs 52 9.25 accidents and casualties by roadway Other signs 21 3.74 user for 1983. No signs or signals 244 43.42 At private crossings, the major------ity of motor vehicle accidents, 345 Total 562 100.00 or 61.4%, occurred during daylight, while 185, or 32.9%, occwred during darkness. The remaining 32 accidents *!!Specialtyare traffic control sys- occurred during either dusk or daw. tems that are not train activated, Most of the accidents involving motor such as a crossing being flagged by a vehicles, 244 or 43.4%, occurred at member of the train crew. crossings without signs or signals as shorn in Table 49. Accident rates Source: Ref. 3 (number of accidents at crossings Table 48. Accidents at Private Crossings by Roadway User, 1983 Type of Accidents Fatalities Injuries Vehicle ——No. z 4No ~ J_No % Automobile 261 43.57 17 51.52 76 48.72 Truck 189 31.55 11 33.33 50 32.05 Tractor-trailer 111 18.53 1 3.03 20 12.82 Bus ------_____ -- _____ School bus --- ____ ------Motorcycle 1 0.17 -- _____ ------Pedestrian 0.34 2 6.06 -- _____ Other* 3: 5.84 2 6.06 10 6.41 Total 599 100.00 33 100.00 156 100.00 *!Iother!1usually refers to farm equipment. Source: Ref. 3 21L Chapter IX Special Issues with each type of traffic c~ntrol of the private crossing. Every effort device dfvtded by number of crossings to close the crossing should be made. with that t~ue of traffic control device) cann~~ be detemined for If the private crossing is de- private ~rOssings since no natfonal termined to be essential to the pri- statistics are kept on the type of vate landowner, then the crossing traffic control devices at private should be mrked with some type of cross?.ngs. sign. Controversy exists over wheth- er the marking sho~ld be identical to Some States and railroads have public crossings so that the motorist established minimum Signing require- is presented with unifom traffic ments for private crossings. Typical- control devices, or whether the mark- ly, these signs cons~st of a crOss- ing should be distinct to notify the buck, stop Siw, andlor a warning motorist that the crossing is private against trespassing. California and and that use without pemission is Oregon public utility commiss~Oners trespassing. No national guidelines use a standard highway stop sign exist; however, tt seems reasonable together with a sign indicating that that the crossing should be marked so the crossing is a private crOss~ng. that it is identified as a private A typical configuration is shown in crossing. Supplemental crossbucks or Figure 104. stop signs might also be installed. As with public crossings, the Some private crossings have suf- first consideration for improv?ng ficient train and roadway traffic private crossings is closure. Adja- volme that they require active traf- cent crossings should be evaluated to ftc control devices. Cons?.derations determine if they can be used instead for the installation of these devices are the same as for public crossings, as discussed in Chapter IV. Federal funds, and often State fwds, cannot be used for the Installation of traf- fic conl;rol improvewnts at private crossings. The railroad and the land- owner ,~suallycae to an agreement regarding the f!-nanctng of the de- vices. In some cases, if the land- owner is required to pay for the installation of the crossing and its tra~fic control devices, the land- owner might reevaluate the need for the cross%ng. B. Short Ltie Railroads ;! There are nmerous short line ~~il~~~d~ and the nmber is growing F~~~~e 104. Typical Priva~Le due to Federal deregulation. Short Crossing Siw line railroads are typically Class 111 railroads, as defined by the Source: Ref. 1 Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC ). Chapter IX Special Issues class III railroads Include all way budgets of short line railrOads. switching and terminal companies and The general condition of the aban- all line-haul railroads that have an doned plant, as acquired by the new annual gross revenue of less than $10 owner, is usually far from best. The million, in 1978 constant dollars. track condit+-on my be adequate, Many of these short line railroads requiring relatively little annual provide switchtng and terminal serv- expense in comparison to other plant ices fOr the larger Class I and II needs. Therefore, as annual track railroad companies. Many of the shOrt maintenance ~O~t~ are ~ed”ced, cros~- line railroads belong to the American ing expenditures may constitute as Short Line Railroad Association much as 50% of the annual mainte- (ASLRA). Headquartered in Washington, nance-of-way budget over the next 10 DC, the ASLRA provides liaison with years. Thfs, of course, depends on governmental agencies, serves as a factors such as the location of the SOUrCe fOr information and ~SS is- line in relation to population cen- tance, and provides other benefits to ters, and intensities of heavy truck short line railroads. t~affic. Some short line railroads took On short line raiiroads, there over the operatfon of a stngle line is often a lack of specialized per- that a larger railroad abandoned for sonnel for handling the many crossing economic reasons. Short line rail- responsib?.lities,such as the contin- roads often require assistance with uing maintenance of highly complex regard to railroad - highway grade electronic crossing traffic control crossings because of their limited equipment. manpower and financial resources. These smll railroads ape often While rail traffic on the smal- unable to seek out Federal and State ler lines generally tends to be funds for improving crossfngs, yet sparse~ as well as slow, these cross- safety at their crossings is just as ings, fn comparison to the larger important as at any other crossing. railroads are not necessarily safer. National statistics indicate that the Ownership of these smaller lines vast majortty of crossing accidents are from a variety of investment occur at relatively low train speeds. sources such as, State or local gov- ernments, port authorities, other Adequate planning is essential short lines, private entrepreneurs, to ensure the proper fomation of new and sh?.ppergroups. Many new owners short I.ine railroads and to imprOVe of short lines are keenly aware of their survival as a necessary part of costs of line acquisition, track and the natton’s transportation system. rolling stock rehabilitation, along When dealing with short line rail- with other operational expenditures. roads, State agencies should be aware Yet, new operators may be unaware of of their limited experience, skills, the substantial expenditures needed and knowledge. State agencies can for rebuilding crossing surfaces, assist by informing short line rail- renewing older traffic control sys- roads of the requirements for improv- tems, and maintaining them. ing crossings on their system and direct them to other appropriate Costs associated with crossings sOurces of information. State agen- may comprise a considerable portion cies should ensure that the short of the llmtted annual maintenance-of- line railroads operating in their 216 Chapter IX Special Issues State are included in the lines Of roved or gravel roads with lfmited comunicat ion regarding crossings. visibility along the raflroad tracks. Short line railroads also should be encouraged to participate in other Special attent!on should be giv- crossing safety programs such as en to crossings on high speed rail Operation Ltfesaver. passengel~routes. Some States utilize priority indices that include a fac- tor for train speed or potential dan- C. High Speed Wil Corridors gers to large nmbers of people. In this mnner, crossings with high Special considerations must be speed passenger trains are likely to given to railroad - highway grade rank higher than other crossings and crossings on high speed passenger thus be selected for crossing im- train routes. The potential I?or a provements. catastrophic accident! injuring mny passengers, demands special atten- Another method for improving tion. Not only does this i]>clude crossings on high speed passenger dedicated routes with speeds ovsr 100 routes is to utilize the systems mph, but also other passenger routes approach. As dfscussed in Chapter over which trains my opera:~e at III, the systems approach involves speeds higher than freight trailts. the inspection and evaluation of safety and operations at crossings Variation in warning time at within a specified system, such as crossings equipped with active traf- along a high speed rail corridor. fic control devices my occur with high speed passenger trains. Because It is desirable that all cross- of the wide variation in train speeds ings located on high speed rail cor- (passenger trains versus fre?ght ridors either be closed, grade sepa- trains), train detection circuitry rated, or equipped with automatic should be designed to provide the gates. The train detection circuitry appropriate advance warning for all should provide constant warning time. trains. Where feasible, other site improve- ments may be necessary at these High speed passenger trains pre- crossings. Sight distance should be sent additional problems at crossings improved by clearing all unnecessary with only passive traffic control signs, parking, and buildings from devices. Safe sight distance along each quadrant. Vegetation should be the track from a stopped position periodically cut back or removed. must be much greater for a faster Improvements in the geometries of the train. The sight distance along the crossing should be made to provide track from the highway approach must the best braking and acceleration also be greater unless vehicle speed distances for vehicles. is reduced. In addition, it iS dif- ficult to judge the speed of an EdLlcationof the public is an oncoming train. important element for the improvement of safety and operations at crossings Private crossings are a major on high speed rail corridors. This concern for high speed passenger can be accomplished by publicity cm- trains. These crossings usually have paigns and public service announce- only passtve traffic control devices ments as described in the next chap- and often consist of narrow, unimp- ter. Public education might also Chapter IX Special Issues alleviate some fears of high speed improvements and, Ln turn, these trains and provide for better rail- tiprovements should consfder the road-co~unity relatlons. State agen- special needs of these vehtcles. ties and railroads sho~~ld cOOpera- tively undertake this important Dra@-ng on the National Trans- public education capaign. portation Safety Board’s study of train accidents involving these vehi- Special signing might also be cles, and their subsequent recomme- employed at these crossings to remind ndations, there ara several suggested the public that it is used by high ways to address this concern. speed trains. No national standard exists fOr such signing; however, the 0 Trucks carrying buy~ hazardous signing should be in conformance wf-th matertals should use routes that th~ gu~delines provided in the Manual have grade separations or active on Unifom Traffic Control D== control devices. mere routes that mr):-—’”––——-— have crossings with only passive control devices are near temi- nals, the crossings should be D. SQecfal Vehicles, Pedestrians, considered for upgradtng to active Motorcycles,and Bicycles control. Railroad-highway grade crOsSingS 0 Insure that active warning devices are designed and controlled to accom- provide sufficient warning time so modate the vehicles that use them. that trucks have available the The vast majortty of these vehicles distance required for stOQping. consist of automobiles, buses, and Also, for vehicles that are all types of trucks. Generally speak- stopped at the crossing when stg- ing, improvements to the crossi~ nals are not operating, adequate with these users in mind will be warning time should be provided adequate for any other special users for clearance of tracks by loaded such as trucks carrying hazardous trucks before the arrival of a materials, long-length trucks, school train. buses, motorcycles, bicycles, and pe- destrians. However, these users have 0 If feasible, where there is an U* 218 Chapter IX Special Issues At crossings where there is a 3. Buses—.- _ significant volme of trucks that are required to stop, Considerateion Since buses carry many passen- should be given to providing a pull- gers and have perforwnce character- out lae. These auxiliary lanes allow istics similar to large trucks, these the trucks to come to a stop and then vehicles also need special considera- to cross and clear the tracks without tion. conflicting with other trafffc. Hence, they minimize the likelihood Many of the measures suggested of rear-end collisions or other vehi- for trucks with hazardous materials cle-vehicle accidents. They would be apply to buses. Ratlroad - highway appropriate for two-lane highways or grade crossings should be taken tito for high-speed multilane highways. consideration when planning school bus routes. Potentially hazardous 2. _Long and—_ Heavily Laden Trucks crossings should be avoided if possi- ble. Crosstngs along school bus As discussed in Chapter II, routes should be evaluated by the large trucks kve particular problems appropriate highway and ratlroad per- at crossings because of their length sonnel to identify potentially dan- and perfornance characteristics. gerous crossings and the need for Longer clearance times are required improvements. Dr?.versshould be in- for longer vehicles and those slow to structed on safe crossing procedures accelerate. Also, longer braking dis- and be mde aware of expected rail- tances become necessary when trucks road operations, such as the speed are heavily laden, thus reducing and frequency of train movements. their effective braking capability. 4. —.——————-Motorcycles and Bicycles With the passage of the Surface Transportation Assistance Act of Although motorcycles and bScy- 1982, there will likely be both long- cles typically travel at different er and heavier trucks. Consequently, speeds, these two-wheeled vehicles when considering improvements, the can experience the same problem at designer should be aware of, and crossings. Depending on the angle and design for, the mount and type of type of crossing, a cyclist may lose current and expected truck traffic. control of the vehicle 219 Chapter IX Special Issues if a bicycle trail crosses tracks at- Nonetheless, there are several grade, the bicyclist should be warned types of preventive measures which of this with suitable markings and can be employed. signs such as those show in Figure 105. ——-—Fencing. Fencing that encloses the right-of-way nay be used to re- strict access. A six to eight foot high chain link fencing, sometimes topped with barbed wire, is comonly used. Fencing is usually placed on both sides of the right-of-way, but J15‘ ?.tcan be an effective deterrent to indiscriminate crossing if placed on 4, only one side. The main objectton to fencing is Its cost, which may be in excess of $100,000 per mile for con- struction. Furthermore, it does not bar entrances at crosstngs. Alter- natively, a single four foot fence, placed parallel to the track and across a pedestrian crossing route might be a lower-priced and somewhat effective deterrent. Fencing is com- monly used between multiple tracks at comuter stations. Maintenance is an additional cost of fencing. Separated——.Crossings.— In order to prevent vandalism of continuous fenc- ing, pedestrian crossings might be provided over or waler the track(s) at reasonable intervals. Pedestrian grade separations are expensive and Figure 105. Recomnded Sign and should be designed to maximize pedes- Marking Treatment for trian use. If a structure is built, Bicycle Crossing it should be accessible and pedes- trians should be directed to it Source: Ref. 2 through the use of barriers, fencfng, or signs. 5. Pedestrians—. ——Improved Signing. An exmple whereby pedestrian and trespasser The safety of pedestrians cross- safety near railroads can be enhanced ing railroads is the most dtfficult through improved signing concerns to control because of the relative electrified rail lines, in particu- ease with which pedestrians can gO lar, their eatenaries (the overhead under or around lowered gates. Pedes- wires used to carry energy to elec- trians typically seek the shortest tr!c locomotives). The electrical path and, therefore, may not always current is so great that shocks can cross the tracks at the highway or result without actual contact with designated pedestrian crossing. the wire. Warning signs along elec- Chapter IX Special Issues trified railroads can reduce zLcci- 3. Rail-Highway Crossing Accident/ dents. These signs should provide Incident and Inventory_——v—-—-m;tTnT both symbolic representation (such as ~a–shington, DC: Federal Ra~lroad a lightning bolt) and the warning A&inistratiOn, published annuallY. legend. 4. —Railroad/Highway.-—— Grade Crossing,—-— ~——.——Safety Educatfon. The education Accidents Involving_.Trucks——. Transport-———— of actual and potential trespassers ing Bulk Hazardous—-———— Materials, A Spe- can reduce the incidence of right-of- ——cfal Study, Washington, DC: National way accidents. IndZviduaS railroads, Transportation Safety Board, Report as well as the Association of Ameri- NTSB-HZM-81-2, September 1981. can Railroads, have for many years conducted active railroad safety pro- 5. Railroad-Highway-——— Safety, Part II: grsms through the schools. Recommendattons_—. for———-.Resolving— ihe ———-——————-Problem, A Report to Congress, Wash- Surveillance and Enforcement. in~ton, DC: U.S. Department of Trans- No form of a p=ian safety pr;- po~tat~on, August 1972. gram can be effective without some level of surveillance and enforce- 6. Sonefeld, Otto F., “Crossing Costs ment. At present, trespassing is Can Endanger New Short Line ‘U~abil- generally considered a misdemeanor, ity”, Railway Track and—-————Structures, and law enforcement officials are May 19ar——— often indisposed to prosecute. A more effective procedure for some fores of railroad trespassing would be to treat it like ja~alktng, and issue a citation with automatic imposition of a fine if a hearing were waived. Such a procedure would impose some burden on the trespasser who might otherwise only be reprimanded. Because of the variety of fac- tors that may contribute to pedes- trian hazards, detailed studies are necessary to determine the most ef- fective measures to provide for pe- destrian safety at specific 10ca- tions. E. References 1. Federal Highway Administration Survey of Region and Division Of- fices, unpublished, 1984 2. ———.Manual on Unifom Traffic———Control Devices, Washington, DC: Federal Highway Administration, 1978, Revised 1979, 1983, 1984. X. SUPPORTING PROGW Progrms other than engineering roads, American Association of State support, and in fact are essential Highway and Transportation Officials, to, railroad-highway grade crossing American.Short Line Railroad Associa- safety and operations. These programs tiOD, National Transportation Safety include public education of crossing Board, American Trucking Association, components and driver responsibili- National Tank Truck Carriers Inc., ties, enforcement of the traffic laws National School Transportation Asso- governi~ movement over crossings, ciation, American Driver and Traffic and research of the various compo- Safety Education Association, Nation- nents of crossings. al Association of Women Highway Lead- ers Inc., Railway Progress Institute, and other national. organizations. A. Driver Education -d Eofo~-ent Forty-four States have adopted Opera- tion Lifesaver programs. As discussed in Chapter II, motorists have major responsibilities While many railroads had educa- for their safe movement over cross- tional progrms, Operation Lifesaver ings. Since railroad trains cannot was fomally initiated by the cooper- stop as quickly as motor vehicles, ative effort of the Union Pacific drivers must take precaution tc,avoid Railroad, the State of Idaho, and collisions with trains. However, many many communities in Idaho in 1972. motorists are unaware of these re- Cooperation between the railroad and sponsibilities and do not tiow the public agencies was what made this meaning of crossing traffic c!ontrol progrm different from previous rail- devices. Education of motorists on road educational progras. Encouraged safe driving actions, train Opera- by the results of the Idaho program, tions, and crossing traffic (!ontrol the Umlon Pacific Railroad and the devices can minimize crossing acci- State of Nebraska started a statewide dents. progr~,, Programs were also initi- ated in Kansas and Georgia. Since the early part of this century, railroads have endeavored to In 1977, it becae evident that educate the publlc about crossings. a national focal point was needed to On their own initiative, man~~rail- facilitate effective excha~e of in- roads developed materials and dis- fO~ation concerning these individual tributed them to the news media, law State pl-ograms. The National Trans- enforcement agencies, schools, and pOrbation Safety Board recommended civic clubs. They made presentations that tileNational Safety Council, a at schools, CIV%C club meetings, and private, nOnprOfit, nongovernmental other gatherings of people. organization, serve as an Operation Lifesaver catalyst. In January 1978, Today, these educational pro- the National Safety Council assmed grams have evolved into a nat:Lonwide the responsibility to serve as the program called Operation Lifesaver. national coordinator for the develop- This progra !s coordinated by the ment, implementation, and evaluation National Safety Council and sul~ported of a nationwide Operation Lifesaver by the U.S. Department of Transporta- progra. The Comcil has worked to tion, Association of American Rail- develop progrms in all States, has Chapter X Supporting Programs developed materials to be used by Many Operation Lifesaver pro- State progrms, and has held national grms work with drivers of special and regional workshops and symposiws vehicles, i.e. school bus drivers and to train volwteers and disseminate truck drivers, to educate them on information. their responsibilities and the poten- tial danger at crossings. In sOme A State Operation Lifesaver pro- States, associations representing gram usually begins by the establish- these groups are actively involved in ment of an advisory and a coordinat- the program. Many Operation Lifesaver ing committee. The advisory commit- programs work with driver training tee is made up of highly visible courses to ensure that safe driving individuals from government agencies, practices at CrOSSingS are included ~ivfc OrganiZatiOns, and the railroad in course material. Many State driv- industry who support the program by ing manuals have been revised to their endorsements and by seektng the include or update the sectfon on support of other itiluential persons. railroad-highway grade crossings. The support of the Governor of the State is impOrta*t and usually While education may be consid- achieved. It is important that the ered the primry effort of Operation advisory committee has representation Lifesaver programs, many address from both the railroad industry as enforcement, engineering, and evalua- well as State highway agencies to tion as well. Enforcement of traffic demonstrate the cooperative aspects laws is important to remind motorists of the program. The coordinating of safe driving practices at crOss- COmmittee iS respOnsibl@ for the ings as well as to “punish!!the reck- development and implementation of the less driver. Many State laws require Operation Lifesaver progrsm. motorists to stop at crossings at which the flashing light signals are Educational activities of Opera- activated and not to proceed wtil it tion Lifesaver programs are varied. is safe to do so. Many drivers, how- The goal is to reach as many people ever, do not stop. Other State laws aS possible through whatever medium prohibit drivers from moving around is available and appropriate. Typi- lowered gates; however, many drivers cally, the Operation Lifesaver com- do S0. Through the enforcement of mittee and volunteers make presen- these traffic laws, and others, driv- tations at schools, civic association ers will understand that these laws meetings, and other gatherings of exist for their own safety. people. They “distributematerials at fairs, in shopping centers, through In some States, local and/or the mail, and wherever people are State police have become active in gathered. They wOrk with the media, Operation Lifesaver by making presen- TV, radio, and newspapers to broad- tations and by writing citations when cast publlc serv!ce announcements, to a motorist violates the law. This appear on talk shows, and to print support is essential. It is also articles and editorials regarding important to educate the police in crossings. They develop the materi- the matter of traffic laws and safe als, films, slide shows, and public driving practices at crosstngs. Many service announcements that are dis- instances have occurred where a tributed. police officer unknowingly violated 224 Chapter X Supporting Programs the law or, when questioned, dis- uation to ensure that the quality of played lack of knowledge of crossing the progrm is maintained and that it traffic laws. is reaching its stated goals. Railroad po~ce are also fn- While Operation Lifesaver is de- volved in Operation Lifesaver prO- signed to improve safety at railroad- grams. They assist prtiarily in mak- highway grade crossings, the program ing presentations. While they dO not has many positive side effects. have the authority to stop and arrest First, the cooperative effort between motorists at crossings, they can ar- the State, local communities, and rest or warn trespassers. They also railromds often enhances relation- can assist by notifying the State or ships. Many communities have been local police of unsafe driving prac- aggravated by rail operations that tices occurring at specific crOss- they nay perceive to be too slow, too ings. fast, too noisy, or unattractive. Through Operation Lifesaver, rail- Railroads also assist by having roads and States work with their locomotive crews report near misses. comunf.ties through established com- Train crews who observe drivers who municat+-onchannels. narrowly escape collision with the train, can record the license plate Arlotherpositive side effect of number or a commercial vehicle’s Operation Lifesaver is that, while owning company or identifying number, the program’s message is primarily and provide the Operation Lifesaver directed toward motorists, it alsc committee, the State or local police, pertains to pedestrians and trespass- or the railroad safety department ers as wel1. School children are a with this informatlon. Action can be major safety concern around railroad taken to station police officers at tracks. Many children are inquisi- crossings where near misses most tive about the railroad and daring often occur, to conduct an educa- enough to play on the tracks. Edu- tional campaign in the community, or cating children, as well as adults, to visit the company owning the about crossing safety assists them in trucks whose drivers are observed to obtaining a respect for rai~rOad, have unsafe driving practices. operations in general. Operation Lifesaver programs While Operation Lifesaver pro- sometimes assist in the engineeri~ grams are usually directed toward aspects of crossing safety and.opera- motortst behavior at public crOss- tions. A combined effort of conduct- ings, the same behavior is needed and ing educational capaigns in a corn. desired at private crossings as well. munity, while making engineering im- People reached through Operatiou. provements at crossings, has proven Lifesa\rer may be the same people whc, to be most effective in improving use pr?ivatecrossings. safety. The Operation Lifesaver com- mittee can assist by making the appropriate State and railroad engt- B. Research and Development neers aware of crossings that may need engineering improvements. The U.S. Department of Transpor- tation has been active fn conducting Another area of concern for crossing research. Specifically, the Operation Lifesaver programs is eval- Federal Highway Administrateion (FHWA) Chapter X Supporting Programs and the Federal Railroad Ahinistra- T. Newton, R.L. Lytton, and R.M. tion (FRA) are sponsors of crossing Olson; Texas Transportation Insti- research and development efforts. tute, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX,.January 1976. This Texas A s-ry of the studies under- HPR study investigated the structural way or completed during the past 10 and geometric design of crossings. years by the FHWA or by the States The study findings indicated that through the Highway Planning and mny of the crossings studied war- Research (HPR ) program is presented ranted more permanent type surfaces. below. Some of the research re~rts Although, initial costs are higher, are available from the National Tech- longer life and smoother, safer rides ~ical Information Service (NTIS), as are often offsetting factors. Several indicated by the listing of the order relatively inexpensive maintenance nwber identified by the letters functions were identified that would “PB”. To detemine the availability extend cTOSSing ltfe and improve of these reports, contact the NTIS at ridability. 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161. Development of an Improved Rail- ~~hw=i Grade Cr~s~~F= Analysis of Driver Reaction to by Donald Scheck, Ohio University, Warning Devices at a High-Accident Athens, OH, November 1981. This HPR Rural Grade Crossing,-— by Dr. Eugene study updated the Amour Index factor Russell, Purdue University, Lafay- used~ by Ohio to discriminate between ette, IN, Joint Highway- Resear~h high and low risk crossings. The Project, Report JHRP-74-16, August study was performed by Ohio Universi- 1974. This Indiana HPR study in- ty and concluded that the New Hamp- cluded testing and evaluation of shire formula would be simpler and alternative active trafftc control less costly to update and would be as devices at a high-accident crOssing. effective. Strobe lights on gate ams were in- vestigated with favorable results. .—Prioritization Of Rail-Highway—-—— —______Grade Crossing Surfaces, by Florida Development of Techniques to Department of Transportation, 1982. Evalua~e New and Exis~ing Railroad This HPR study developed cr~.teriato —_Passive Protection—DE, by ‘—I.N. assist the Florida DOT and railroads Domasch, R.L. Hollinger, and E.F. in selecting and evaluating crossing Reilly, New Jersey Department of surface materials. Transportation, Division of Research and Development, Trenton, NJ, Decem- Railroad Grade Crossing Passive ber, 1975. This HPR study was com- ————Signing Study, J . KOZ1OI and P: pleted in New Jersey to evaluate Mengert, Transportation Systems Cen- existing and experimental passive ter, Cmbridge, MA, August 1978, signs. Driver looking behavior was FHWA-RD-78-34, PB/} 286-528/AS. A found to be very variable and there study funded by FHWA, FRA and 25 were very few cases observed during Stat~s investiga~ed new at-crossing field testing where drivers were and advance Warning signs. The use looking down the tracks for an ap- of the new signs resulted in an 8 proaching train. to 10 % increase in driver looking behavior. Structural and Geometric——— Design of Highway-Rail Grade Crossings,-— by Chapter X Supporting PrOgras Railroad Passive Sign Experiment—— proximately 25 percent of all cross- Design, Dr. Willism Berg, University ings have some fom of active de- of Wisconsin, lg78. Following the vices. The track circuit is used for above mentioned study, FHWA funded a train detection in all fores of ac- study to develop an experimental plan tive warning devices. Previous work to evaluate the safety benefits due by TSC indicated that off-track train to the use of a red and yellow cross- detection may be feasible but further ing advance warning sign. The study work was needed. Various concepts for findings indicated that very large off-track train detection were ana- samples would be needed to detect a lyzed. The most promising concept was significant reduction in accidents. field tested. The results of the lim- The costs of undertaking the field ited field testing were not promising testing to detemine the accident re- and no follow-on work is planned in duction would, under some conditiom, this area. equal the costs of replaci~ all existing advance warning signs with Activated ~dvance Warning for the new advance warning signs. ~ilroad Crossi~s; R.J. Ruden, A. Berg, and J.P. McGuire, J.G.M. Asso- Grade Crossi~ Resource Alloca- ciates, Palo Alto, CA, FHWA/RD-80/ ——tion Procedure and Institutional 003, PB{)83-16186Y, March 1980. The Studies, Transportation-= objectives of this study ‘were to ter (TSC), Csmbridge, MA. k crossing identl-fycrossing environments where hazard index model and a resource active advance warning simals are allocation model were developed by needed, to evaluate the effactiveness TSC for use by States and railroads of such devices, and to develop, to assist them in identifying cross- test, and evaluate prototype active ings for improvement. advance warning devices. This effort was funded by FHWA and FRA. This The issue of liability was ana- study analyzed drivers’ uders tandi~ lyzed by TSC to detemine if the use of act!.ve advance warni~ signals, of innovative warning devices at studfed driver behavior data and crossings increased a railroacl’sli- speed profile data, analyzed costs of ability in the event of a cr,ossi~ providing active advance warning sig- accident. No evidence was found dur- nals, and field tested and evaluated ing this effort to support the pre- various actlve advance warning sig- mise that the use of innovative de- nals. No single active advance warn- vices would increase a railroad’s i~ signal was shown to be signifi- liability. Alternative methods to cantly better than the others, but manage crossing liability were an- all signals tested proved affective alyzed in a study performed by TSC. in alerting drivers and preparing them for the at-crossi~ si~al acti- Identification and Evaluation of vation. Off-T~ack——Train Detecti=n—Systems——— for Grade Crossing Applications, E.E. Rail-Highway Crossing Accident Nylund and P.C. Holtermann, Gard Causation Study, K. Knoblauch, W. Inc., FRA/ORD-80-32, PB/180-1186430, Hucke, and W. Berg, Input-Output Com- April 1980. This study was fuded by puter Services, Washington, DC, FRWA/ FHWA and FRA. The objectives were to RD-81/083, PBII83-158733, April 1981. investigate the feasibility of off- This study analyzed the human factors track train detection and to develop causes of crossing accidents. State and field test prototype devices. Ap- ace+.dent reports were reviewed and 227 Chapter X Supporting Programs crossing accident locations were vis- Study involves a field demonstration ited. Based on the accidents inves- of active advance warning devices. tigated, the study findings indicate The contractor will analyze and eval- that the main cause of accidents at uate the alternative devices, deter- cro”asbuckcrossings involved recogni- mine the most effective active ad- tion errors by drfvers. At crossings vance warning device ~ and develop with flashing lights, the main cause guidelines for its use. or accidents involved driver decision errors. Resource Allocation Procedure. The available crossing accident and ——__Constant Warning Time Concept inventory data are being analyzed to Development for Motorist————Warning_,_ a~ detemine the feasibility of expand- m—C=ings, ——- R.L. Monroe, D.K. ing the number of categories of warn- Munsell, and T.J. Rudd, Systems Tech- ing devices in the resource alloca- nology Laboratory Inc., Arlington VA, tion procedure. Accident severity FRA/ORD-&l/07, PBII 81-205684, May prediction equations were developed 1981. This study was jointly funded and will be added to the resource by FHWA and FBA. The objectives were allocation procedwe. to improve crossing safety through the effect~.veuse of constant warning Innovative Railroad - Highway time devices, to improve the relia- ——Cross=g ——ACtive —— Warning De= bility Of such devices, and to lower This studv involves the development their Costs. The constant warning and testing of innovative devices at time device provides a uniform warn- controlled test sites. Tbe innova- ing ttme for all trains regardless of tive COnCepts were identified and speeds. High costs and high power ratied by representatives of FHWA, requirements currently l.imtt the in- FRA, the railroad industry, the rail- creased installation of these de- road signal suppliers, and non-rail- ~i~es. Ragnetic and acoustic detec- road signal suppliers. The candidate tors were identified as the more innovative devices to be evaluated promising concepts to use in the con- during the controlled testing in- stant t~arning time devices. Limited cluded four-quadrant gates with and fteld testing was mdertaken at Fort without skirts~ standard highway Eustis, Virginia. traffiC signals with bar strobes in the red signal heads, and existing ———_Railroad-Highway Crossi~s and flashing light signals on both sides Route Selection for Transpor-a~——-— of the roadway supplemented by canti- ———k=dous Naterf-;ls___ 7 Janet A. Coleman, levered strobes. ——Public Roads,—— Vol. 48, No. 2, Septem- ber 1934. This study involved the de- Alternative Ways to Improve the velopment of a methodology to analyze Visib-~ Railroad-Highway——Cross- alternative routes for transporting ——~S~aX. The objective of this hazardous materials over raSlroad- studv iS tO develOD.L.DrototypeA.——–. si~al highway grade crossings. hard;are components and assemblies of alternate approaches for improving crossing signal visibility aS well as —.—Current Studies reliability and Unifomity of the signal display. Cost Effectiveness———Analysis of Using Railroad—— Highway Crossing Ac- Consequences——— of Mandatory Stops tive Advance———.Warning Devices. This for_——____,Certain Classes of Vehicles at 228 C!mpter X Supporting PrOgrsms Railroad-Highway Crossings. :rheob- pared by TSC for FRA, Report DOT- jectives of this study are to inves- TSC-71-3, June 1971, PB 4/201624. tigate the safety, operational, envi- ronmental and economic consequences 0 Enhancement of Train Visibility. of: maintaining the current Federal Prepared by TSC for FRA, Report regulation requiring certain t>lasses FRA-ORD&D-74-l5, September 1973, of vehicles to stop at all crossings; PB /1223899. modifying the requirement to l.equfre stopping only at passive crossings 0 Grade Crossing Protec~ion In High- and at active crossings only when the Speed, High - DensityL Passenger- devices are activated; and, el:~minat- Service Rail Corridors. Prepared ing special pullout lanes at cross- by TSC for FRA, ReDOrt FRA-ORD&D- ings with active warning devices with 7i-14, September “ 1973, PB {/ and without the requirement that cer- 223738. tain classes of vehicles are required to stop. 0 State Grade CrOsSing prOgr~s: A —-——Case Study. Prepared for FRA/TSC Effectiveness of Warning Devices by CONSAD Research Corp., Report at Rail - Highway Grade Crossings. FRA-ORD&D-75-8, Septemb~r”1974; PB This HPR study involves the modifica- {/24~4175. tion Of the DOT accident pred?.ction fomula by adding additional varia- 0 Field Evaluation of Locomotive bles. Among the variables being in- -—Conspicuity Lights. Prepared by vestigated are train speed differ- TSC for FRA, Report FRA-ORD&D-75- ence, train speed ratios, and cross- 54, lqay1975, PB ~b244532. ing mgles. 0 ——Guidelines for Enhancement of—— Vis-.— The FRA is also active in spon- ual-———————Conspicuit~of Trains at Grade soring research pertaining to cross- Crossings. Prepared by TSC for ings. It jointly sponsored many of FRA, Report FRA-ORD&D-75-71, May the research projects mentioned above 1975, PB {/244551. with the FHWA. Other research proj- ects udertaken by FRA are listed 0 A Communication-Link Approach to below. ~uation of Grade CrOssing—.-.Motor-— ist-~arning Systems. Prepared by 0 A Progra Definition Study for TSC for FRA, Rep~t FRA-ORD&D-75- ——Rail-Highway Grade Crossing— ..—Im- 80, JUIY 1975, PB /}244584. provement...— Prepared by Alan M. Voorhees and Associates, Inc., for 0 A Methodology for Determination——— of FRA, Report FRA-RP-70-2, October Grade Crossi~ Resource Allocation 1969, PB //190401. —._Guidelines. Prepared by TSC for FRA, Report FRA - ORD&D - 76-04, 0 The Visibility and Audibility———— of August 1975, PB 1}259005. Trains Approaching Rail-Highway Grade Crossings. Prepared by Sys- 0 Loco)notiveto Automobile Baseline tems Consultants, Inc.. for FRA, Crash Tests. Prepared by Ultra Report FRA-RP-71jl, May”1971, PB ii Systems for FRA, Report FRA-ORD&D- 202668. 76-03, August IY75, PB ~1250564. 0 Technological Innovation in Grade 0 Lightning and Its Effects on Rail- Crossing Protective Systems. Pre- road Signal Circuits. Prepared by 229 Chapter X Supporting Programs University of Lowell, Lowell, MA, 0 Legal Effects of Use of Innovative for FRA/TSC, Report FRA-ORD&D-76- Equipment at Railroad - Highway 129, December lg75, PB //250621. Grade Crossings on Railroad’s Ac- cident Liability. Prepared by TSC 0 Standby Power for Railroad-Highway for FRA, Report FRA-RRS-80-01, Grade Crossing Warning Systems. October 1979, PB //80-137888. Prepared by University of Lowell, Lowell, MA, for FRA/TSC, Report 0 Rail-Highway Crossing Hazard Pre- FRA-ORD&D-76-286, September 1976, diction Research Results. Prepared PB {I2635g2. by TSC for FRA, Report FRA-RRS-80- 02, March 1980, PB /}80-170749. o Improvement of the Effectiveness of Motorist Warnings at Railroad- 0 Operational Testing of Locomotive- Highway Grade Crossings. Prepared ~unted Strobe Lights. Prepared by TSC for FRA. ReDort FRA/ORD- by TSC for FRA, Report DOT-TSC- 7~107, February’ 1977; PB {1266784. FRA/oRD-80-48, Jme lg80, PB /}80- 224348. 0 Potential Means at Cost-— Reduction in Grade Crossing Automatic Gate 0 Grade Crossing Accident Injury Systems. Prepared by ~ Assoc., ——Minimization- Study. Prepared by et.al. for TSC/FRA, ReDOrts FRA/ HH Aerospace Des~gn Company, Inc., ORD 77-06.1 and 77-06.11; February for FRA, Report No. FRA/oRD-80-87, 1977, PB {/26572Q and 265725. December 1980, PB //81-155236. 0 Innovative Concepts and Technology 0 Freight Car Reflectortzation. Pre- for Railroad-Highway Grade Cross- pared by TSC for~— ReDOrt No. ing Motorist Warning Systems. Pre- FRA-RRS~83-l, December 19~2, PB // ~red by Cincinnati Electronics 84-131283. et.al. for TSC/FRA, Reports FRA/ 0RD-77/37.I and 77/37.11, Septem- In addition to conducting re- ber 1977, PB 1}273354 and 273355. search, the FRA annually publishes a document that contains statistical 0 Potential Means of Cost Reduction lnfomation on crossings and crossi~ in Grade Crossing Motorist-Warning accldenta. These data are generated Control Equipment. Prepared by from the U.S. DOT/AAR National Rail- Storch Engineers et.al. for TSC/ Highway Crossing Inventory, of which FRA Reports FRA/ORD-77/45.I and FRA serves as custodian, and from the 77/45.11, December 1977, PB {/ Railroad Acctdent/Incident Reporti~ 277946 and 277947. System. 0 Analysis of NPRM Strobe Lights on Tne National Cooperative Highway Locomotives. Prepared by IOCS~ Research Program (NCHRP) is adminis- “Inc., for FRA, Report FRA-OPPD-79- tered by the Transportation Research 4, May 1978, PB ~1293483. Board (TRB). One NCHRP project per- taining to railroad - highway grade 0 A Study of State Programs for crossings is currently mderway. The Rail-Highway Grade Crossing Im- study is titled “Guidelines for Eval- ——provements. Prepared by~f~ uating Alternatives for Replacing a FRA, Report FRA-OPPD-78-7, June Grade-Separated Rail/Highway Cross- lg78, PB {/279774. ing.” Its objective is to provide a 23o Chapter X Supporting PrOgr~s comprehensive fraework for use In Individual railroads and cross- evaluating alternatives and develop- ing equipment suppliers often conduct ing recommendations regarding grade special studies or research and separation reconstruction, replace- development activities. For exmple, ment, or removal. The framework is to railroads often monitor the perfor- he applicable for determining the mance of a particular crossing sur- begt alternative for new crossings face or test the use of special and for changes to existing at-grade lightfn.g devices. Supplie]?s often crossings. conduct tn-house research to identify tiprovements of existing products and The TRB also assists in dissai- to develop new products. natfng research results through pres- entations made at its annual meeting in January. The TRB comittee re- C. Refermces sponsible for crossings, CO]mittee A3A05, sponsors one or two sessions 1. National Safety Council, Operation on crossings. The comittee is also Lifesaver Progrm Guide, Chicago, IL: active in identifying areas of needed National Safety Council. research and in encouraging an appro- priate agency and/or organization to 2. Rogers, Willim Charles, The Ef- undertake the research. Two versions fectiveness of Operation Lifesaver in of a bibliography, Railroad-~Jighway Reducing Railroad - H>ghwajr Grade Grade Croasi~s, Bibliography 57 and Crossing Accidents, College Station, 58, are available from TRB. TX: Texas A & M University, December 1980. The Association of A]nerican Railroads (AAR) often conducts infOr- mal research and sometimes s]?onsors research by a contractor. For exam- ple, tt participated in the funding Of the compilation of State laws. The American Railway Engineering As- sOciatiOn’s Comittee 9 on crnssings is often active in informal research by its members’ employers. This com- mittee also Ldentifies are:>s of needed research and encoura{;esthe most appropriate agency or Organiza- tion to conduct the research. The Nattonal Transpol.tation Safety Board conducts special studies on the safety aspects of a particular area pertaining to crossings. For exaple, it conducted a st~ldy on trucks carrying hazardous materials at crOssings. The report til;le is Railroad/Highway Grade Crossin~$Acci- dents Involving Trucks Trans~)orting Bulk Hazardous Materials. APPE~IX A Separate State Fwdlmg Pro~~ for Crossing Improvements Following is a list of States Nebraska - $360,000 per year for ac- which have established separate fund- tive traffic control devices and ing progr=s for railroad - highway crossing closures and $1.6 million grade crossing Improvements. This from the train/mile tax for grade list was developed from information separations obtained in a Federal Highway Atiin- istration survey through its region North Dakota - $100,000 bienrlim for and division offices in 1981+. The the 10 % match for Federal finds content of this list may change as for active traffic control devices the States enact new legf!31ation pertaining to crossings. Ohio - $1.2 million per year for ac- tive ‘krafficcontrol devices California - $15 million per year for grade separations Oklahoma - Funds provided from the Railroad Revolving Fund for the 10% Colorado - $240,000 per year for ac- match for Federal funds tive traffic control devices Oregon - $600,000 per year for active Florida - $800,000 per year for traffic control devices, wade sep- crossing Mprovements on Amtrak arations, crossing closures, and routes and $8I0,000 per year for some site improvements crossing surfaces South Dakota - $200,000 per year for Idaho - $100,000 per year for traffic traffic cOntrOl devices) grade sep- control devices and crossing clo- arations, crossing closures, and sures sight distance improvements Illinois - $6 million per year for Texas - $5.5 mil~iOn per year for traffic control devices, crossing traffic control devices and sur- closures, grade separations and faces, and $10.0 million per year other types of improvements for gl-adeseparations Iowa - $900,000 per year for crossing Wash!ng’ton- $500,000 per year to surfaces provide the 10 $ match for Federal funds for active traffic control Kanaas - $5.5 mfllion per year for devices and crossing”closures active traffic control devices and crossbucks Wisconsin - $500,000 per year for traffic control devices and Minnesota - $600,000 per yeai. for $100,000 per year for crossing traffic control devices, cl”ossing surfaces closures, grade separations, and sight distance tiprovements Wyoming - $120,000 per year for ac- tive traffic control devices Missouri - $600,000 per year for ac- tive traffic control devices 233 MP~IX B States Havfq3 Wintensnce Fund- Programs Seventeen States have passed specified crossings. Costs are legislation that authorizes ?~heex- based on an agreement. penditure of funds for mainten:inceof railroad-highway grade crossing traf- Massachusetts - Contributes 100 % to fic control systems and/or c]?ossing the maintenance of crossbLlcks and surfaces. Following is a list of surfaces. these States and a brief descl”iption of their maintenance programs,. This Michiga]n - Contributes $10.00 per information was obtained in 1!)84and month to the maintenance of flash- is subject to change. ing lights. Contributes 50 % to the maintenance of crossbucks. Alaska - Contributes 100% to the maintenance of traffic control de- Montana - Contributes to the repair vices and surfaces. OP replacement of damaged traffic control devices. California - Contributes 100$ I!ornew street crossings requested by pub- North Carolina - Contributes 50 % to lic agencies and 50% for e:cisting tilemaintenance of flashing lights crossings upgraded with either Fed- and ,gates. Costs are based on eral or State funds. on an agreement. Delaware - Contributes 100 I to the Nevada - Contributes 50$ to the main- maintenance of active traffic cOn- tenance of active traffic control trol devices and surfaces at new devices. NO funds have been spent. crossings and 50% to the mainte- nance of active traffic contl-olde- South Dakota - Contributes variable vices at existing crossings. costs Smouts to the maintenance of sur- are based on an agreement. faces. FlOrida - Contributes 50 % to the Tennessee - Contributes to the main- maintenance of flashfng lights and tenance of crossbucks. automatic gates. Costs are based on an agreement. Texas - Contributes 40% to the main- tenance of active control devices Iowa - Contributes up to 75 % to the on the State highway system. maintenance of active traff:Lccon- trOl devices. Costs are based on Virginia - Contributes 50 % to the AAR signal units. maintenance of active traffic cOn- trol devices. Costs are based on an Kentucky - Contributes 100 % to the agreement. maintenance of flashing lights and gates at specified crossings,,Costs Wisconsin - Contributes 50 % to the are based on an agreement. maintenance of active traffic cOn- trol devices. Contributes 85 % to Louisiana - Contributes up to 50 % to the maintenance of surfaces. Costs the maintenance of active traffic are based on AAR signal units and control devices and surfa(?es at agreement. APPE~IX C Class I ad II Railroads Railroad companies are classi- CSX Corporation fied by the Interstate Cowerce Com- Chessie System mission (ICC) on the basis of gross Baltimore and Ohio Railroad revenue. Effective January 1, 1982, Chesapeake and Ohio Railway the ICC adopted a procedure to adjust Seaboard System Railroad the Class I threshold for inflation by restating current revenues in 1978 Denver and Rio Grande Western Rail- constant dollars. A Class I railroad road company has an annual gross operating revenue in excess of $50 million in Duluth, Missabe and Iron Range Rail- 1978 dollars which equates to about way $83 million tn 1983 dollars. A class II railroad has an annual groa,soper- Elgin, JoI.Setand Eastern R~llway ating revenue of between $10 and $50 million in 1978 dollars. Class III Florida East Coast Ra!lway railroads include all switching and terminal companies and all railroads Grand Trunk Corporation with annual gross operating revenues Grand Trunk Western Railroad Of less than $10 million i]~ 1978 dollars. Guilford Industries Boston and Ma!ne Corporation Following is a l!st of Class I Delaware and Hudson Railway railroads as of 1984. Several of these Class I Railroads have merged Illinois Central.Gulf Railroad their operations; however, they still report as i~diVidual railroad CO~pa- Kansas City Southern Railway nies. Missouri-Kansas-Texaa Railroad Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe IRailway National Railroad Passenger Corpora- Company tion (Amtrak) Bessemer and Lake Erie Railroad Com- Norfolk Southern Corporation pany Norfolk and Western Railwasr Southern Railway System Burlington Northern Railroad COmpany Pittsburg and Lake Erie Railroad Chicago and North Western Transportat- ion Company Soo Line Railroad Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul, and Southern Pacif!c Transportation Com- paCific Railroad pany St. Louis Southwestern Railway Consolidated Rail Corporation (Con- Southern Pacific rail) Appendix C Union Pacific System Missouri Pacific Railroad Company Union Pacific RailrOad Company The following companies were classified as Class II railroads in lg84. Bangor and Aroostook Railroad Company Canadian Pacific Lines in Maine Carolina and Northwestern Railway Central Vermont Railway Inc. ChicagO and Illinois Midland Ratlway Company Chicago South Shore and South Bend Railroad Duluth, Winnipeg and Pacific Railway Company Georgia Southern and Florida Ra!lway Green Bay and Western Railroad Maine Central Railroad Company Michigan Interstate Railroad, Ann Arbor Monogahela Railway Northwestern Pacific Railroad Providence and Worcester Railroad Company Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad Company Spokane Internatl.onalRailroad Texas and Northern Railway Company Texas Mexican Railway Company 238 MPERDIX D Emple of a Di~osttc Tasm Cross- Evaluation Report Used by Nel~raska DIAGNOSTIC TEAM ~..r+,.(>T.0. :.,!,, ,>, “,. <,.”,,,. ,,, V,!. W: CROSSIN8 EVAIUAITION REPORT ‘ ,. .,.. RAIL* ...: 1?,, .,, ,.”.., ”: ‘c!,”: r,,, ,,, ,,,,,,, .,,..,”, s, O.: ~,,,e.ET,”oA.N#ME: t“”’””””-””””””-““““””” i I .,...s, .,., T, M, TA..E, TKT, ON: :6t:.:MTL,ms7, !...... NAME I ,.. . ,N,T,A,ED BY ➤ ~ATE ,N,T,ATEO [] ‘AILROAD~:]STATE ~~ LOCAL ,.. 1 0,H6n I NME I A, FIL,AT, OM I ___ :. ?2 . .._ ,..,, . f 3 ..1..,,.. ..-. ~~’~; : . 7 239 Appendix D ~o,mo.: ...... YESI NO [OT~ TYPE OF WARNING DEVICE TYPE OF WARNING DEVICE MA,, .“,,.. s. FI.ASHING LIGHT, I STOPSIGNS /’-’’.’-”’ I : “”,.,,.,,,..,..u,.,.”l....~- ~ OPEN SPACE ~ RES, DE NT!AL NEW .,”,,O,.,., s THA7 COULD AFFECT ADT, ~-1(NDUSTRIAL ,- ,N,T,,”T,ONAL = cOMMERclAL k~~”ri.=”==-----““’ “’:J”””=”UN .- — . . ..- .0,.710. OF .,... ” Sc.oou:’ r“-””””-”””””-”””-”””””I ‘-””””---”””” .,. .0 DOT NO. I STREET/ROADNAME I WARNINGDEVICE I ADT 1~...... , CA. ROAOWA, .“i.L,.iMENTBE ACCOMPLIiHLb TO AL LOW CO. SO L, OAT ION OF CROSSINGS? IF “,,, PRO” IDE SKETCH. IMPACT <>, ..0, ”.: 240 Appendix D ~-.-...,.,.0,..,,.: .“., ,,, ,.., “ !, S, G “, D,S,AWE STOPPED VEHICLE SIGHT DISTaNCE TYPICAL T..,. I m,,STOPPED SCHOOL B“s (13 s) ,TBA,N SPEED) ;_FTANt~- -, _EOulR,D ~(,TANcE .,A. I f:l:p’~;~Hw:+------;It ------STOpPED SEMI .THAILER:------=----–= (17.5) (TRAIN SPEED] = NORTHWEST .“.0..., NO.,..,,, 0..0..., .“, ..,,. ”.,, O.: s,.,!, O.s,. ”.,,0., ,, ...... AC, ”,. O,s, . . . . .~. . ft. ,,A,,= i,, So”T”w,,, Q“.O. ANT SO”, ”..*T ...... ,.., O.s,. ”.,,0. s!.., OSSTR” CT,..: ,., . . . ., s,...,: AC,... .!s, . . . . ,x, ,. ,,K,~ ...... 17. f,, R Form 153, APr 83 {,,.,? .,} 3700 2U1 Appendix D ARE IMPROVEMENTS TO THE CROSING n RECOMMENDED? H 1,M,Ro”EMEN- ,, ,,s, , ,, ES No ,. OF IMP...,. q ,- CROSSING SIGNALS ,.. !LLUMINA, IO” ,.,,.. OT., R m :, ADr 83 ,),,,,. !) 242 Appendix D .-*. . ...0. . , PR-ED FUN08W WORK To BE “Es~No TYPE OF IMPROVEMENT PERFORMED BY ,,0. STAT . Lo.., . .. . O.*E. t SIGHT IMPROVEMENT -+” HIGHWAY TRAFFIC SIGNS ;1 —— I CROSSING SI{NALS I ! I CROSSING CLOSURE ~~ ! ,— ,LL” MI NAT ,ON I 1 ~ OTHER I .-*. . . STATE .EPR.SE. T. T!VE: ,1.,,.: DATE, 243 Appendix E State Agencies SstiW Authority to Close Crossiqs According to the Compilation of Missouri Public Service Comission State Laws and Regulations on Matters Affecting Rail-Highway Crossin@ the Nevada Public Service Comission following State agencies have :~uthor- ity to ciose cros~ings. New Hampshire Public Utilities Com- mission Alaska Public Service Cmission New Jersery Department of Transporta- Arkansas Comerce C~lssion tion Arizona Corporation Comission New Mexico State Corporation Comis- sion California Public Utilities Comis- sion New York Department of Transportation Colorado Public Utilities Comi.ssion North Carolina Department of Trans- portation and North Carolina Utili- Connecticut Department of Transportat- ties C~issiOn ion North Dakota Public Service Comis- Delaware Department of Transportation Sion Florida Department of Transportation Oklahma Corporation Comission Idaho Public Utilities Comiss~.on Oregon Public Utility C~isstoner Illinois Comerce Comission PennsyllTaniaPublic Utility Co~is- sion Indiana Public Services Comisslion Rhode Island Department of Transpor- Louisiana Department of Transporta- tation tion and Development South Dakota Public Utilities Cowis- Maryland Department of Transportation sion Massachusetts Department of Public Tennessee Public Service Commission Works Utah Department of Transportation Michigan Public Utilities Comi,ssion Vemont Public Service Board Minnesota Public Service Comission Virginia State Corporation COmissiOn Mississippi Highway Department (only State mintained ) Washington State Utillties and Trans- portationC-isslon West Virginia Department of Hi/3hways Wisconsin Office of Commissto]ler of Transportation Wyoming Public Service Commission APP~DIX F Crossing Smfaces Used By States Trial Basis or Adopted for General Use, 1984 R“bbe,, Concrete Polyethyl,”e Steel Good- SkF8 Red FAB-RA Per.. steel state Park.. DR1 Hawk @“i $tr.il CAST Other Oneida Cobra Plank ***.************R***** ******************>,*****************************:EE*** ******"****"**""**************** .,. —. Adopt AdoPt AOOPt Adopt Adopt Adopt Adopt Trial Adopt Adopt Trial Adopt Delaware Adopt Trial Trial Trial Trial D.C. Adopt AdoPt Florida Adopt Adopt Trial Trial AdoPt Trial Georgia Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Hawaii Idaho Adopt AdoPt Adapt Trial Trial Illinois Adopt AdoPt Adopt Adopt Trial Trial Adopt Trial J.ndi,.. AdoPt AdoPt AdoPt Trial Trial 1... Trial Adopt Adopt Triel Trial K,”,,, Trial Trial Trial Ke”t”cky Adapt Adopt Adopt Adopt Adopt Trial Adopt Trial Louisia”. AdoBt Adopt Ad”pt Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial &i”, Trial Trial Trial tiryl..d Adopt Adopt Triel Trial Massa.h”set),s Adopt Adopt Trial Adopt Michigan AdoPt Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Plin”esota AdaPt Adopt Adopt Trial Trial Adopt Mississippi Adopt Adopt Adopt Trial Trial Missouri Trial Trial Trial Trial Montana Trial Trial Nebraska Adopt Trial Adopt Trial Adopt Nevada Adopt Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Adopt N.” Hampshire Trial Trial Trial New Jersey Trial Trial Trial N.. Mexic” Adopt Trial Trial New York Adopt Trial Trial Adopt North Carolina Trial Trial North Dakota Ohio Adopt Trial Oklahow Adopt Trial Trial Oregon Pen”sylv.nia Adopt Adopt Trial r,i.1Trial Trial Puerto Rico Rhode leland AdoPt Adopt South Carolina South Dak”ta Adopt Adopt Adopt hd.~rTrialTrial Te”oessee Texas Adopt Trial Trial Adopt Trial Trial Utah T.i.l Trial Vermont Adopt AdoPt Virginia Adopt ~d.~t Trial Washington Adopt AdoPt Adopt Adopt West Virginia Adopt Trial Trial Trial Trial Wi.c.”si” Adopt AdoPt Adopt Trial Wyo.i.g Trial Trial GLOSSARY Abandonment - The relinquishment of ment and elevation; it consists of interest (public or private) in hard particles that are stable, easi- right-of-way or activity thereon with ly tamped, permeable and resistant to no intention to reclaim or use again plant growth. for highway or railroad purposes. Benefit-Cost Ratio - The economic Accident Rate - 1) The number of value of the reduction in fatalities, accidents, fatalities, or injuries injuries, and property damage divided divided by a measure of vehicle ac- by the cost of the accident reducing tivity to provide a means of compar- measure. ing accident trends through time. 2) The number of accidents per crossing Branch Line - A secondary line of per year. railroad usually handling light vol- umes of traffic. Allotment - An action by administra- tive authority making funds available Cab - The space in a locomotive unit for obligations and expenditures for or !t~!!car containing the operating specified purposes and for certain controls and providing shelter and periods. seats for the engine crew. Anchors - Rail fastening devices used Catenary System - A system that con- to resist the longitudinal movement sists of overhead supporting cables of rail under traffic and to main- and a conductor (trolley wire) that tain proper expansion allowance at supplies electricity to power rolling joint gaps for temperature changes. stock through contact with a panto- graph or trolley current-collecting Apportionment - An administrative device (trolley pole). assignment of funds based on a pre- scribed formula by a governmental Centralized Traffic Control (CTC) - A unit to another governmental unit for traffic control system whereby train specific purposes and for certain movements are directed thrm~gh the periods. remote operation of switches and signals from a central control point. Appropriation - An act of a legisla- tive body which makes funds available Comparative Negligence - A legal doc- for expenditures with specific limi- trine applicable in negligence suits, tations as to amount, purpose, and according to which the negligence of period. the plaintiff as well as that of the defendant is taken into account. At-Grade Intersection (Crossing) - An Damages are based upon the outcome of intersection (crossing) where road- a comparison of the two and are thus ways (and railroads) join or cross at proportioned. the same level. Consist - 1) The makeup or composi- Ballast - Material placed on a track tion (number and specific identity) roadbed to hold the track in align- of a train of vehicles. 2) Contents. ,,. Glossary Construction - The actual physical Culvert - Any structure mder the accomplishment of building, improv- roadway with a clear opening of twen- ing, or changing a railroad-highway ty feet or less measured along the grade crossing or other finite facil- center of the roadway. ity. Diagnostic Team - A group of knowl- Contract - The mitten agreement be- edgeable representatives of the par- tween the contracting agency and the ties of interest in a railroad-high- contractor setting forth the obliga- way crossing or a group of crossings. tions of the parties theremder for the performance of the prescribed Do-Nothing Alternative - An altern?- work. The contract includes the invi- tive which refers to the existing tation for bids, proposal, contract state of the system. form and contract bond, specifica- tions, supplemental specifications, Easement - A right to use or control special provisions, general and de- the property of another for desig- tailed plans, and notice to proceed. nated purposes. The contract also includes any change orders and agreements that are re- Drainage Easement - An easement for quired to complete the construction directing the flow of water. of the work in an acceptable manner, including authorized extensions Planting Easement - An easement for thereof, all of which constitute one reshaping roadside areas and estab- instrument. lishing, maintaining, and control- ling plant growth thereon. Contractor - The individual, partner- ship, firm corporation, or any ac- Sight Line Easement - An easement ceptable combination thereof, or for maintaining or improving the joint venture, contracting with an sight distance. agency for performance of prescribed work. Slops Easement - An easement for cuts or fills. Corridor - A strip of land between two termini within which traffic, Economic Analysis - Determination of topography, environment and other the cost-effectiveness of a project characteristics are evaluated for by comparing the benefits derived and transportation purposes. the costs incurred in a project. Cross Section - A vertical section of Cost/Benefit Analysis - A form of the gromd and facilities thereon at economic evaluation in which input right angles to the center line. is measured in terms of dollar costs and output is measured in Crossing Angle - The angle of 90 de- terms of economic benefit of a grees or less at which a railroad and project as compared to the incurred a highway intersect. cost of the project. Crosstie - The wooden or concrete Cost/Effectiveness Analysis - A support upon which track rails rest comparison study between the cost and which holds them to gauge and of an improvement (initial plus transfers their load through the maintenance) and the benefits it ballast to the subgrade. provides. The latter may be de- 250 Glossary rived from accidents reduced, trav- Guardrails - Traffic barriers used to el time reduced, or increased vol- shield hazardous areas from errant ume of usage, and translated into vehicles. equivalent dollars saved. Highway, Street, or Road - A general Encroachment - Unauthorized use of term denoting a public way for pur- highway or railroad right-of-way or poses of vehicular travel, including easements as for signs, fences, the entire area within the right-of- buildings, etc. way. Equipment Rental Rate - Equipment Lading - Freight or cargo making up a usage charges usually established on shipment.. a time or mileage use basis, includ- ing direct costs, indirect costs and Lane - A strip of roadway used for a depreciation. single line of vehicles. E~enditures - A term applicable to Auxiliary Lane - The portion of the accrual accowting, meaning total roadway adjoining the through trav- charges incurred, including expenses, eled way for parking, speed change, provision for retirement of debt, and turning, storage for turning, weav- capital outlays. The making of a pay- ing, truck climbing or for other ment is a disbursement. purposes supplementary to through traffic movement. E~osme Index - A method of meas- ~ing the conflict of highway traffic Pullout Lane - An amiliary lane with train traffic at railroad-high- provided for removal from the way grade crossings for the purpose through traffic lane those vehi- of developing accident rates. The cles required to stop at all rail- exposure index is the product of road-highway grade crossings. annual train miles and vehicle miles divided by 10 to the 18th power for Speed-Change Lane - An auiliary convenience. lane, including tapered areas, pri- marily for the acceleration or de- Force Accomt Work - Prescribed work celeration of vehicles entering or paid for on the basis of actual costs leaving the through traveled way. and appropriate additives. Traffic Lane - The portion of the Fmctional Classification - Division traveled way for the movement of a of a transportation network into single line of vehicles. classes, or systems, according to the nature of the service they are to Line Hau~l- The movement of freight provide. over the tracks of a railroad from one town or city to another tow or Grade - The rate of ascent or descent city. of a roadway, expressed as a percent; the change in roadway elevation per Local Freight Train - A train with an wit of horizontal length. assigned. crew that works between predesignated points. These trains Grade Separation - A crossing of two handle the switching outside the highways, or a highway and a rail- jurisdiction of a yard switcher. road, at different levels. 251 Glossary Locomotive - A self-propelled unit of ding, traffic abrasion, and the on-track equipment designed for mov- disintegrating effects of climate. ing other rail freight and passenger The top layer sometimes called equipment on rail tracks. ‘rWearingCourse!f. Main Line - The principle line or Subbase - The layer or layers of lines of a railway. specified or selected material of designed thickness placed on a Main Track - A track extending subgrade to support a base course. through yards and between stations, upon which trains are operated by Subgrade - The top surface of a timetable or train order or both, or roadbed upon which the pavement the use of which is governed by block structure and shoulders including signals or by centralized traffic curbs are constructed. control. Plaintiff - The person who begins an Materials - Any substances specified action at law; the complaining party for use in the construction of a in an action. project and its appurtenances. Plans - The contract drawings which Measure of Effectiveness (MOE) - A show the location, character, and measurable unit or set of units as- dimensions of the prescribed work, signed to each evaluation objective. including layouts, profiles, cross The data collected in the units of sections and other details. the MOE will allow for a determina- tion of the degree of achievement for Precedent - An adjudged case or judi- that objective. cial decision that furnishes a rule or model for deciding a subsequent Pavement Makings - Markings set into case that presents the same or simi- the surface of, applied upon, or lar legal problems. attached to the pavement for the purpose of regulating, warning, or Preliminary Engineering - The work guiding traffic. necessary to produce construction plans, specifications, and estimates Pavement Structure - The combination to the degree of completeness re- of subbase, base course, and surface quired for undertaking construction course placed on a subgrade to sup- thereunder, including locating, sur- port the traffic load and distribute veying~ designing, and related work. it to the roadbed. Rail Joint - A fastening designed to Base Course - The layer or layers unite abutting ends of rail. of specified or selected material of desigued thickness placed on a Railroad Line Miles - The aggregate subbase or subgrade to support a length of road of linehaul railroads. surface course. It excludes yard tracks, sidings, and parallel lines. Jointly-used track Surface Course - One or more layers is counted only once. of a pavement structure designed to accommodate the traffic load, the Railroad Track Miles - Total miles of top layer of which resists skid- railroad track including multiple 252 Glossary main tracks, yard tracks and sidings, Shoulder - The portion of the roadway owed by both line-haul and swi-tching contiguous with the traveled way pri- and terminal companies. marily for accommodation of stopped vehicles for emergency use, and for Railroad-Highway Grade Crossing - The lateral support of base and surface general area where a highway and a courses. railroad cross at the same ;Level, within which are included the rail- Sidewalk - That portion of the road- roadg roadway, and roadside facili- way primarily constructed for the use ties for traffic traversing that of pedestrians. area. Sovereign Immmity - The immunity of Pedestrian Crossing - A railroad- a government from being sued in its highway grade crossing that is used Om courts except with its consent, by pedestrians but not by vehicles. or other exception. Private Crossin< - A railroad.-high- Statute of Limitations - A statute way grade crossing that is on a that imposes time limits upon the privately owned roadway utilized right to sue in certain cases. only by the ower 1s licensees and invitees. Stopping Sight Distance - The length of highway required to safsly stop a Public Crossing - A railroad-high- vehicle traveling at a given speed. way grade crossing that is on a roadway under the jurisdiction of, Superelevation Rate - The rate of and maintained by, a public al~thor- rise in cross section of the finished ity and open to the traveling pub- surface of a roadway on a curve~ lic. measured from the lowest or inside edge to the highest or outsids edge. Right-of-Way - A general term denot- ing land, property, or interest Tie Plate - A flanged plate between a therein, usually in a strip, acquired rail and a crosstie that distributes for or devoted to transportation the rail load over a larger 2rea and purposes. helps hold track gauge. Roadway - The portion of a highway, Timetable - 1) The authority for tine including shoulders, for vehicular movement of regular trains subject to use. A divided highway has two or the rules; it contains classified more roadways. schedules with special instructions relating to the movement of trains Salvage Value - Estimated residual and engines. 2) A listing of the worth of program or project compo- times at which vehicles are due at nents at the end of their expected specified time points (colloquial). service lives. Tort - Any private or civil wrong by Service Life - The period of time, in act or omission, but not including years, in which the components of a breach of contract. Some torts may program or project can be expected to also be crimes. actively affect accident experience. 253 Glossary Track - 1) An asssmbly of railss cate the presence of a crossing but ties, and fastenings over which cars, which do not change aspect upon the locomotives and tr~ins are moved. 2j approach or presence of a train. the width of a whesled vehicle from wheel to whsel and usually from the Traffic Control Signal - Any device outside of the rims. whether manually, electrically, or mechanically operated by which Double or Multiple - Two or more traffic is alternately directed to main tracks over which trains may stop or permitted to proceed. travel in both directions. Traffic Markings - All lines, pat- -- I) The main track on a terns, words, colors, or other roadbed having one main track upon devices, except signs, set into the which trains are operated in both surface of, applied upon, or at- directions. 2) In multiple track tached to the pavement or curbing territory, the process of running or to the”objects within or adja- all trains, regardless of direction cent to the roadway, officially on one track while the other placed for the purpose of regula- track(s) is (are) temporarily out ting, warning, or guiding traffic,. of service. Traffic Operation Plan - A program of Track Gauge - The distance between action designed to improve the utili- the inside face of the heads of the zation of a highway, a street, or two rails of a track measured perpen- highway and street network, through dicular to the center line. (Standard the application of the principles of guage in U.S. is 4’-8.5”. ) traffic engineering. Traffic Control Device - A sign, sig- Traffic Sign - A device momted on a nal, marking or other device placed fixed or portable support whereby a on or adjscent to a street or highway specific message is conveyed by means by authority of a public body or of words or symbols, officially official having jurisdiction to regu- erected for the purpose of regula- late, warn, or guide traffic. ting, warning, or guiding traffic. Active Traffic Control Device – Traffic Si~al - A power-operated Those traffic control devices acti- traffic control device by which traf- vated by the approach or presence fic is regulated, warned, or altern- of a train, such as flashing light ately directed to take specific ac- signals, automatic gates and simi- tions. lar devices, as well as manually operated devices and crossing Cycle Time - The time required for watchmen, all of which display to one complete sequence of signal motorists positive warning of the indications. apprOach or presence of a train. Detectors - Mechanical or electron- Passive Traffic Control Device - ic devices that sense and signal Those types of traffic control the presence or passage of vehicu- devices, including signs, markings lar or railroad traffic at one or and other devices, located at or in more points in the roadway or advance of grade crossings to indi- track. 254 Glossary Phase - Those right-of-way and Passenger Car - A motor vehicle, clearance intervals in a cycle as- except motorcycles, designed for signsd to any independent move- carrying 10 passengers or less and ment(s) of vehicular traffic. used for the transportation of persons. Train - 1) One or more locomotive wits with or without connected.cars. Semi-trailer - A vehicle with or 2) Two or more vehicles physically without motive power, designed for connected and operated as a unit. carrying persons or property and for being dram by a motor vehicle Through - A freight train operating and so constructed that some part between major classifications yards of its weight and that of its load and serving non-local traffic. rests upon or is carried by another vehic:Le. Unit - A freight train moving great tomage of single bulk products Special Vehicle - A vehicle whose between two points coupled \rith a driver is required by law to stop system of efficient, rapid loading in advance cf all railroad-highway and unloading facilities. grade crossings. Typically, spe- cial vehicles include: vehicles Train Orders - Authorization to move transporting passengers for hire; a train as given by a train dispatch- trucks carrying hazardous mate- er either in writing or verbally. rials; and school buses. Traveled Way - The portion of the Truck Tractor - A motor vehicle roadway for the movement of vek[icles, designed for drawing other vehicles exclusive of shoulders. but not for a load other than a part of the weight of the vehicle Vehicle - A means of carrying or and load dram. transporting something. Volume - The number of vehicles pass- Bicycle - A vehicle having tkrotan- ing a given point during a specified dem wheels, propelled solely by period of time. human power, upon which any person or persons may ride. Average Daily Traffic - The average 24-hour volume, being the total Bus - A self-propelled rubber-tired volume during a stated period di- =icle designed to accommodate 15 vided by the number of days in that or more passengers and to operate period. Unless otherwise stated, on streets and roads. the period is a year. The term is commonly abbreviated as ADT. Design Vehicle - A selected motor vehicle, the weight, dimensions and Design Volume - A volume determined operating characteristics of which for use in design, representing are used in highway design. traffic expected ~o”use ~he high: way. Unless otherwise stated, it Motorcycle - A two-wheeled motor- is an hourly volume. ized vehicle having one or two saddles and sometimes a sidecar Warrants - The minimum conditions with a third supporting wheel. which would justify the establishment Glossary of a particular traffic control regu- lation or device, usually including such items as traffic volumes, geo- metric, traffic characteristics, accident experience, etc. Y~d - A system of tracks within defined limits that is provided for making up trains, storing cars, and other purposes. INDEX Abandonment: bl, 89, 94-96, 166-167, American Short Line Railroad Associa- 216, 249 tion: 19, 21, 216, 223 Accident Prediction Formulae: 38, 63, American Trucking Association: 19, 66-?8, 8?, 1?7-180, 228-230 22, 223 Accidents: 3-8, 14-16, 18-19, 27-28, Annual Average Daily Traffic: 36-39, 34, 36-40, 42-43, 45-46, 48-52, 56- 51-52, 54, 66-?2, 77, 79, 84, 93, 62-78, 84, 87, 89-90, 101, 104, 98, 165-166, 180, 255 107, 109, 126, 140, 143-144, 165, 167-169, 171-181, 206, 209-214, Approach Zones: 31, 80, 82-83 217, 219, 221, 223, 226-228, 231, 249, 251, 253, 256 Association of American Railroads: 13-15, 19, 2a, 50, 185, 207-208, Accident Costs: 171-176 221, 223, 231, 235 Active Advance Warning Signs: 81, 83, Audible Traffic Control Devices: 31 , 103, 114-115, 169, 227-228 43, 110 Active Traffic Control Devices: 7, Automatic Gates: 12, 29-31, 66-72,, 11-13, 21, 29, 33, 43, 48, 66-72, 78, 92, 94, 96, 98, 102-104, 107, 77-78, 80, 84-86, 89, 93, 96, 99, 116, 125, 143, 169, 173, 177-?79,, 101-125, 141-143, 768, ‘177-179, 181, 184, 207, 214, 217, 224, 226, 183-186, 189, 191, 205, 213-215, 228, 230, 235, 254 217-218, 226-230, 233, 235, 254 Ballast: 47, 127, 130-131, 136-138, Advance Warning Signs: 12, 29, 31, 143-145, 147-150, 159, 164.,249-250 80-81, 83, 94, 96-103, 114-115, 186, 194, 209, 212, 219-220, 226- Barricades: 94, 194, 198-199, 201-202 227 Benefit-COst Analysis: 43, 91, 173,, Advisory Speed Plates: 97, 100 175-177, 211, 249-250 Agreements: 13, 42, 86-87, 95-96, Bicycles: 4, 56, 63, 78, 85, 110, 183, 186-189, 207, 213, 250 213, 218-220, 255 American Association of State High- Blocked Crossings: a, 14, 42, 140, way and Transportation Officials: 142 19, 21, 35, 50, 88, 138, 168-169, 185, 223 Bridge Rehabilitation and Replace-. ment: 12, 184-185 American Railway Engineering Associa- tion: 14, 19, 21, 25, 136, 168, 231 Bureau Of MOtor Carrier Safety: 56, 61-62 American Road and Transportation Builders Association: 199 22 257 Index Buses: L, 34-36, 38, 56, 63, 66, 78, Economic Analysis: 43, 93, 171-1al, 84-85, 90, 95, 109, 116, 139, 143, 250 214, 218-219, 255 Elimination: 2, 9-12, 15, a6, 89-96, Cantilevered Flashing Lights: 39, 166, 183-1a4 103, 105-107, 110, 113-115, 207 Engineering Studies: 51, 55, 79-85, Channelizing Devices: 193-199 87-88, 93, 9a-102, 107, 115, 135, 140, 143, 167, 175, 211, 221 Closure: 11, 13, 54, 84-a7, 89-94, 136, 140, 142, 166, 181, 183-184, Evaluation: 26, 51, 79-85, 166-167, 191-192, 194-196, 233, 245-246 171-181, 209-212, 215, 224-225, 227, 231, 239-243, 250, 252 Commmity Relations: 1-2, 13, 41-42, 85-86, 91-93, 142, 225 Exempt Crossing/Signs: 96-97, 101, 205 COst-Effectiveness Analysis: 172-175, 177, 211, 228, 250 Exposure Index: 3-5, 7, 70-72, 91, 106, 109, 251 Cross Sections: 84, 135, 137-140, 150, 153-164, 250, 252-253 Federal Highway Administration: 10, 12-13, 16-19, 28, 50-52, 56, 79, Crossbucks: 12, 29-30, 33, 52, 66, a5, 87-a9, 116, 141, 168-169, 181, 69, 94, 96-lo2, 106, 184, 205, 214- 184-la5, 187-188, 190-191, 203, 215, 22a, 233, 235 20a-209, 212, 221, 225-229, 233 Crossties: 47, 137, 143, 145, 147- Federal Railroad Administration: 4, 151, 153-165, 250, 253-254 10, 12, 17-18, 27-2a, 43, 45, 49- 50, 52, 54-57, 87-8a, 95, 148, 16a- Delineators: 143, 193, 196, 198 169, 181, 221, 226-230 Diagnostic Teams: 78-84, 86, 177, Flagging: 30-31, 78, 96, 98, 131, 179, 239-243, 250 142, 193-195, 198-203, 214, 254 DO Not Stop on Tracks Signs: 97, 101, Flangeway: 144, 148, 150, 152-165, 106, 205 219 Drainage: 39, 47, 84, 92-93, 110, Flashing Lights: 12, 29-30, 52, 66- 136-139, 143-145, 147-150, 153, 72, 92, 94, 96, 102-116, 123, 125- ~64, 205, 250 126, 169, 173, 177-179, Ial, 184, 206-207, 214, 224, 228, 235, 254 Driver Characteristics: 29-33, 41, 80-83, 90, 126, 131-134, 168; 211, Freight Cars: 41-45, 47-48, 125, 254- 223, 226-227 256 Miver Education: 10, 12, 15, 40, Freight Car Reflectors: U, 50, 230 212, 217-218, 221, 223-225 Finding: 7-11, 13, 15-18, 27, 41, 85- Driver Enforcement: 13, 19, 40, 135, 87, 91, 92, 171, 175, 177-178, 183- 212, 218, 221, 223-225 187-la8, 190-191, 206-207, 213, 215-216, 233, 235, 249 258 Index Gate (see Automatic Gate) Islands, Traffic: 143, 1b9 GeOmetrics: 35-36, 38, 78, 83, 87-88, Liabili-by: 14-lb, 23-27, 190-191, 98, 100, 115-116, 131, 135-140, 227, 230 143, 169, 192-193, 217, 226, 256 Locomotives: 42-45, 50, 125, 229-230, Grade Separations: 1, 3, 7, 9, 11-12, 249, 252, 254-255 15, 17, 40, 52, 86, 89-93, 166-167, 183-185, 217, 220, 230-231, 233, ~intenance: 3, 9, 12-13, 15, 17-18, 251 21-23, 27-28, 33, 39, 47, 86, 90- 91, 93, 96, 107, 135-137, 143-144, Hazard Zones: 31-33 149, 153-156, 159, Ibl, 165, 171- 17b, 178-181, 185-187, 191-194, Hazardous Materials: 7, 19, 33, 36, 19b, 200, 20b-208, 213, 21b, 220, 56, 63, 6b , 68, 78-79, 84-85, 87- 235, 250, 253 90, 92, 95, 109, 116, 139, 143, 180, 218-219, 221, 228, 231, 255 Materials Transportation Bureau: 5b , b3-65 High Speed Railroads: 9, 85, 91, 109, 126, 141-142, 180, 213, 217-218, Motorcycles: 4, 33-34, 5b, 213-2~4, 229 218-220, 255 Highway Relocation: 11, 90-92, 183- National Highway Traffic Safety 184 Adminj.stration: 17-18, 56, 59-bO, 171, 175, 209 Highway Safety Improvement Program: 10, 17, 28, 51, 171-172, 181, 209 National Safety Comeil: 13-15, 19, 21-22, 171, 175, 223, 23I Horizontal Alignment: 3b, 38-39, bb, 68, %1, 84, 134-136, 138, 140, lb7 National Transportation Safety Board: 14, 17, 19, 3b, 88, 168, 218, 221, Illumination: 11, 3b, 40, 84, 97-98, 223, 231 131, 140-141, lb8-lb9, 177, 183- 184, 205, 212 Nearby Highway Intersections: 3b-37, 40, 66, 80-81, 94, 99-loo, 102, Improvement Costs: 9-12, 15-17, 33, 107, 115-125, 135, 139, 181, 183, 51, 5b, 63, 87, 89-91, 140, 165- 205, 218 167, 171-180, 183-190, 205, 228, 250 Net Amual Benefit: 175-177 Information Handling Zones: 31-33 Nonrecovery Zones: 31-32, 82 Institute of Transportation Engi- Operation Lifesaver: 12-13, 19, 21- neers: 19, 22-23 22, 217-218, 223-225, 231 Insurance: 27, 171, 187, 190-191 Passive Traffic Control Devices: 29, 33, 66-72, 78, 80, 84, 87, 89, 90, Interstate Commerce Commission: 9, 94, 9b-lo4, 134, 137, 141-142, 177, lb, 28, 40, 43, 95, 172, 215-21b, 181, 183-184, 186, 2ob, 213-214, 237 217-220, 226-229, 233, 235, 254 259 Index Pavement Markings: 10-12, 29, 31, 80, Roadway Miles: 2-3, 10, 15 83-84, 94, 56, 101-103, 169,”186; 193-194, 196-198, 200, 206, 220, Safety Barriers: 109-110, 131, 141- 252, 254 142, 168, 196, 198-199, 220, 251 Pedestrians: 3-4, 29, 40, 56, 63, 78, School Buses: 7, 33-34, 36, 63, 66, 85, 96-97, 107, 110, 125, 142, 148, 68, ?8, 84, 89-90, 95, 109, 116, 192-193, 196, 213-214, 218, 220- 139, 143, 180, 214, 218-219, 224, 221, 225, 253 255 Preemption of Highway Traffic Sig- Short Line Railroads: 41, 95, 213, nals: 40, 66, 80-81, 94, 102, 215-217, 221 115-125, 181, 183, 205 Sight Distance: 13, 31, 33, 35-39, ?riority (Hazard) Index/Schedule: 55, 56, 66, 68-69, 77-78, 80-84, 97-98, 63-69, 78-?9, 8?, 91, 106, 109, 100-101, 107, 109, 126, 131-136, 171, 185, 217, 226 141, 180-181, 206, 212, 217, 219, 233, 250, 253 Private Crossings: 3, 7, 10, 19, 52, 86, 95, 213-215, 217, 225, 253 Solar Energy: 125 Public Crossings: 3-5, 7, 9-11, 14- Special Vehicles: 7, 36, 85-86, 89- 15, 19, 29-30, 33-34, 37-40, 43, 90, 95-96, 139, 165, 213, 218-221, 45-&6, L8-49, 52, 63, 85-86, 95, 229, 255 140, 144, 166, 181, 213, 215, 225, 253 Stabilization Fabrics: 84, 139, 147, 150 P~llOut Lanes: 38-39, 139-140, 219, 229, 251 Stop Ahead Signs: 97 Raiiroad Line Miles: 1-3, 252 Stop Signs: 30, 40, 97, 100-101, 214- 215 Railroad Relocation: 11, 86, 89, 90- 92, 183-185 Stopping Distances: 31, 33, 35, 44, 77, 82, 107, 115, 131, 140-141, Railroad Track Miles: 1-2, 15, 252 211, 217, 219, 253 Railroad Train Miles: 1-3, 41, 251 Surfaces: 11-14, 36, 39, 66, 68, 81, 84, 86, 89-90, 94, 126, 136-137, Railway Progress Institute: 14, 19, ?43-166, 168-169, 177, 181, 183- 21, 169, 223 184, 186, 188, 191, 194, 205-207, 216, 219, 226, 231, 233, 235, 2L7 Research: 10, 13-14, 18, 21-22, 55, 226-231 Systems (Corridor) Approach: 51, 79, 85-87, 93, 115, 190, 217, 250 Resource Allocation Procedure: 88, 1?7-181, 227-229 Track characteristics: 39, 41, 43, ;;~~;56125-138, 147-165, 250, 252- Roadway Functional Classification: 3, 36, 66, 68, 71-?2, 165, 251 Inde>: Tr;fl;; co;~ol Devices: 7, 9,, 11-15, Wigwags: 30, 66, 104, 214 23, 27-31, 33, 41, 43, 48, ;0, ;2, 66-72, 77-81, 84-85, Work Zones: 191-202 87-90, 93-94, 95-125, 134, 137, 139-143, 166, 168-169, 172, I?7- 180, 183-184, 186-189, 191-193, 196-203, 205-208, 213-221, 223-224, 226-230, 233, 235, 254, 256 Train Characteristics: 41-45, 125- 134, 223, 249, 251-255 Train Detection Circuits: 12, 18, 21, 36, 48, 84-86, 102-104, 114-116, 124-131, 149, 157, 159, 177, 181, 183, 189, 205, 217, 227-229 Train HOrn/~istle: 43 Transportation Research Board: 14, 19, 22, 230-231 Trespassers: 40, 215, 221, 225 Trucks: 4, 7, 22, 33-36, 38-39, 56, 66, 84-85, 88-89, 93-94, 109, 116, 133, 136, 142, 168, 180, 214, 218- 219, 221, 224, 231, 251, 255 Turn Prohibition Signs: 102, 123 uniform Vehicle Code: 30-31, 50, 169 Us. DOT/AAR National Rail-Highway Crossing Inventory: 10, 18, 29, 40, 48, 50, 52-56, 70, 88, 95, 104, 144, 168, 206, 213 Vehicle Characteristics: 29, 33-36, 39, 80, 82, 132-134, 137, 219, 255 Vehicle Miles: 2-3, 34, 251 vertical Alignment: 36, 38-39, 66, 81, 84, 135-137, 140, 167, 219 Warning Bells: 30, 67, 103, 110, 114, 214 Warning Time: 14, 27, 31, 108-109, 116, 125-131, 133, 168, 217-219 *U.S. ~- ?RI- OFFICE: 1998-,38-203,90053 261