Human Ecology: a Perspective for Biology Education

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ED 260 336 SE 045 976 AUTHOR Bybee, Rodger W. TITLE Human Ecology: A Perspective for Biology Education. Monograph Series II. INSTITUTION National. Association of Biology Teachers, Washington, D.C. REPORT NO ISBN-0-941212-04-1 PUS DATE 84 NOTE 64p. AVAILABLE FROMNational Association of Biology Teachers, 11250Roger Bacon Dr. #19, Reston, VA 22090 ($10.00 members, $12.00 non-members). PUB TYPE Reports - Descriptive (141) -- Guides General (050) EDRS PRICE MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS. DESCRIPTORS *Biology; Curriculum Development; *Ecology; *Environmental Education; Program Descriptions; *Science Activities; Science Education; Science Instruction; *Science Programs; Secondary Education; *Secondary School Science; Surveys; Teaching Methods IDENTIFIERS *Human Ecology; Science Education Research ABSTRACT This monograph provides a framework for biology teachers who are rethinking and redesigning theirprograms. The major focus is on the human ecology perspective in biologyprograms. The first chapter attempts to define and clarifyhuman ecology through historical review. The second chapter providessupport, based on a survey of citizens (scientists, engineers, general public, and students), for including human ecology in biologyeducation. Policies for programs and practices are outlined in the thirdchapter. A conceptual framework for a human ecological perspective inbiology education is included. The framework provides (intable format) a list of topics with related concepts and teachingexamples. The fourth and fifth chapters are both the major portioa andthe most practical components of the monograph. An exclusive revieuof curriculum materials is provided in the fourthchapter. These materials, from 16 publishers, include suchprograms as "The Human Sciences Program," "Energy, Resources, and Environment,"and "Health Activities Project (HAP)." Each curriculum reviewincludes the following: (1) program director/publisher; (2)program objectives and a description; (3) methods of instruction; (4) specific subjecti, grade, age, and ability levels; (5) materials offered; (6)program implementation; and (7) teacher preparation. Thefifth chapter consists of seven teaching/learning activities focusingcn population growth, age structure of population, air qualityand automobiles, thermal pollution, vegetations and soils, supplyand &nand of resources, and a tragedy of the commons (communal pasture). Each activity includes background information, objectives/concepts fostered, and recommended instructional strategies. (JN) Human Ecology: A Perspective For Biology Education

Monograph Series II

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'PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS MATERIAL IN MICROFICHE ONLY HAS BEEN GRANTED BY 8T cr -Mytco. z" Wert11 TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOI'RCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) Rodger W. Bybee Human Ecology: A Perspective for Biology Education Monograph Series II

Rodger W. Bybee Carleton College Northfield, Minnesota

National Association of Biology Teachers 1984 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Bybee, Rodger. W. Human ecology.

(Monograph series ; 2) Bibliography: p. 1. Human ecologyStudy and teachingUnited States. I. Title.II. Series: Monograph series (National Association of Biology Teachers) ; 2. GF27.B91984 304.2'07'1 84-29595 ISBN 0-941212-04-1

Copyright © 1984 by the National Association of Biology Teachers. No part of this book may be reproduced by any mechanical, photographic, or electronic process, or in the form of a photographic recording, nor may it be stored in a retrieval system, transmitted, or otherwise copied for public or private use, without written permission of the publisher (11250 Roger Bacon Dr. #19, Reston, VA 22090).

Printed in the United States of America Human Ecology: A Perspective for Biology Education

Monograph Series II

5 Contents

Preface 6 A Personal Perspective 7 A Survey of Global Problems and Public Education 13 Policies for Biology Education 20 A Curriculum Review . Acti% sties for biology T.tachers 42 About the Author 63

6 5 Preface

Reports have been written and recommendations have been made for the reform of American education. The last decades of this century promise to be .1 period of substantial change in education. While there have been suggestions that ultimately influence every aspect of the educational system, they have been broad more time on task, improved programs, effective instruction, and the goal of excellence. In the midst of the rhetoric there is a need for some concrete suggestions. Human Ecology. A Perspective for Biology Educationis a concrete contribution for biology teachers who are rethinking and redesigning their programs. There are many perspectives that might be taken in the dev elopmeni. of new biology education programs. Human ecology is one. It is, I believe, a very crucial perspective congruent with long standing aims vi education and especially important at this time in history. This monograph moves from awareness to action relative to a human ecology perspective in biology programs. The first chapter attempts to define and clarify human ecology through ,,istorical revie' v. The second chapter provides support, based on a survey of citizens, for including human eccogy in biology education. Policies for programs and practices are outlined in the third chapter T1-e r,nal chapters are both the major portion and the most practical components of the book. One chapter is an exclusive review of curriculum materials and the ether is a set of activities for biology teachers. Human Ecology. A Perspective for Biology Education grew out of interest in the September 1984issue of the American Biology Teacher The theme for this issue was human ecology, and it is recommended as a complement to this monograph. I wish to acknowledge Carleton College's Science, Technology and Public Policy Program, the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, and the National Association of Biology Teachers for support of this project. There are several individuals who desene special recognition for their work on various aspects of this publication. Nancy Gustafson, Eric Johnson, Vicki Miller, Cyndy Rosso and all the students in courses on "Science, Technology and Public Education."

Rodger W. Bybee October, 1984

6 7 A Personal Perspective

!his essas is a personal perspectise ot human hip that is biota rather than cultural This biotic ecologyI have tried to answer three basic ques- social order comes into existence and is maintained by competitionIn plant and animal societies com- tionsWhat is human ecology' Is human ecology petition is unrestricted by an institutional or moral important' .Nnd, assuming that Itis important, sshs order Human society is a consequence and effect set is it important at this tome in histors' this limitation of the 51, mbloth. social older by the sal rural Different social sciences are concerned with the Early Perspectives in Human E«,logv forms %shah this Imitation of the natural or ecological social order assumes on (1) the economic, (2) the Charles Darwin (1809-1882) and es olutionars biol- political, and (3) the moral les el (p 1) ogy provided the intellectual origins 01 Isunsan ecol- The summary reveals Park's biological and so- ogy. The appearance of On the Orrgni c t Species ciological orientation. [he central organizing concept established the relationship between organisms and is competition, a restatement of Darwin's idea of environments 'n their natural selection of trams hat "the struggle for existence For Park, human soci- enhance the o.eanisms' ability to sums,: and r t,ro- eta' was organized on two levels. the biotic, based on duce 1111. ins are included in this ongoing biolog- competitive cooperation, and the cultural. based on ical dyt.aaa.c Also, during the late 1800s the Gor- commun. -anon and consensus. The biotic level in- man bisaicgist, Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919), t,rst identi- fluenced human adjustments and spatial distribu- fied ecology as a separate held of study in his 1869 tions of populations. Human ecology studied the text, General :,,lorphdloNu of OrganismsI suggest that processes that maintained and ch-nged the biotic Darwin's theory and the emergence 01 ecology as a balance and social equilibrium. held 01 study in late 19th and early 20th century R.D. Mckenzie broadened the scope of human established the mita! perspectives 'or human ecolo- c.raogy tc, be even more distinctly sociological. For gy While the biologists were developing the basic McKenzie, human ecology was concerned with the concepts or ecology they Usti Illy implicit's included spatial grouping and sustenance relations of humans hum.-.r.:a ssitho,ut evils:ads developing a human occupying a geographical area. The interaction of sa.ology'molos,sts, bound by their discipline, hate humans around space and sustenance resulted in been :osx to recognize humans in their study (ex- sociological changes in the population, such as mo- cept perhaps in genetics, anatomy, and physiology) bility, employment, segregation, and dispersion. I Tne primary contribution of biology was the intellec- quote a summary from one ot McKenzie's early arti- tual birth of ecology and the early developmeo and cles on "The Scope of Human Ecology." synthesis of a conceptual foundation (Young 1974) The early developers o, human esologv as a disci- Human ecology concerns the process of spatial pline were pnwanly sociologists Robert F Park, Er- grouping of interacting human beings of interrelated human institutions. Ecological distribution is tho re nest Burgess, and Roderick McKenzie are usually sultant of competing forces and changes in distribu- recognized as the tounding lathers of human eLolo tion are measurable by the rate of mobility, of change gyPark and Burgess first used the term "human of residen.e, of employment ur of any utility Many ecology" in their 1921 book, Introdiudum to the Stoke factors of general or local significance affect ecological of Sociology These men drew heavily on the work of organization and may be classed as geographical, economic, cults,ral and technical and political(p biologists such as C R Darwin, F F Clements and C.S. Elton. It may be instructive to briefly review some early writings in human ecology. For readers McKenzie continues sLith a discussion of special interested na more somprehensis e collections ot forms of groups and institutions and the reasons for writings in human ea.ologs ,i rotor you to George their formation. One should note the distinctly so- Theodorson s ,t it alias in Human EcoLisii (196 1 ) and oological tone of the definition and the lack of any Gerald Young's Origins of thonan 1 coloo (1983). suggested problems for study In a 193h article entitled[Email Ecology, Other social science disciplines also adopted the Robert Park elaborated the classical positron of hu- c.ologiaal perspectix eFor example, early papers man ecologyPark s is (ark had a t ologisol base is oh with a human ecological perspectixe were published sociological applicationsI quote Park s summon in geography (Barrow 1923, Thornthwaite 1940), an- statement. thropology (Sayce 1938), and psychology (Lewin 1944) More recently the social science literature has Human ecology is an attempt to apply to the interre- included the human ecological perspective in eco- lations of human beings a type of analysis prectouslc applied to the interrelation s ot plants and animals nomics (Boulding 1950, 1966), political scionce The term symbiosis liV ribt'd a type ot social rola- (Pfaltzgraft 1968, Rodman 1980), cultural anthropolo-

8 gy (Or line 1980) and em ironmental psychology onditions of their respectwe physical encironments (Crack 1973). (p 404) Three points emerge from this historical review I conclude this discussion with a final quotation in One, early development ot human ecology was pri- which Hawley describes problems ot human ecologi- marily in the social sciences Two, there was a con- cal study In the following quotation, Hawley points spicuous absence of biological ecologists contribut- out how problems of human ecology are basically ing to the emerging study ot human ecology And population problems, and broadly how the popula- third, while the social scientists were using the term tion adjusts to resource shortages and other physical human ecology, there was a great deal ot conflict changes in the environment. Hawley continues to over academic territory and little study of significant describe human ecological problems. problems. By the late 1930s human ecology was being criti- This (population adjustment to resources and environment) resolves itself into a number of related cized. Milla Alihan's 1938 book,Social Ecology A problems, such as (I) the succession of changes by Critical Approach,was central to the reassessment which an aggregate passes from a mere polyp -like She criacited the sociologists' use ot the term en- formation into a community of inteidependencies, (2) % ironment as too elastic, the o% er extension of bio- the ways in which the developing community is of logical concepts to social situation, too much accre- tected by the size, composition, and rate ot growth or decline of the population; (3) the significance of mi- tion ot social concepts with ecological concepts, and gration for both the development of the community the inappropriate use of competition as the central and the maintenance ot communal structure, to- process in human relationships She also had diffi- gether with the factors which male for change in the culty with an apparent incomplete understanding of emsting equilibrium and the was in which such uniquely human qualities, such as purpose and de- change occurs (p 405) sire, and the role these may play on interactions Amos Hawley's discussion of population, re- with the environment. source and environment interactions anticipated I was particularly impressed with a 1944 criticism very well the 1960s, when human ecology became by Amos H. Hawley entitled "Ecology and Human an important field of study. Ecology." Hawley lists the "aberrant intellectual ten- dencies" which have dominated human ecology. Contemporary Perspectives in Human Ecology The most dominant of these may De described as (I) the tailure to maintain a close working relationship There have always been some individuals who between human ecology and genciai or bioecologc, understood the relevance of ecology and its relation (2) an undue preoccupation with the concept cow to the human condition. But it was not until the petition, and (3) the persistence in definitions of the 1960s that ecology became a science with personal subject of a misplaced emphasis on "spatial rela- meaning for the general population. Why did this tions " 399) occur? My contention is that population, environ- Hawley then elaborated on these deficiencies, a ment, and resource problems became important task we need riot pursue here. Later in the article enough to demand attention. These were human ec- Hawley makes a particularly insightful statement. ological problems, and they were thrust into social He is discussing the matter of dcfinitionsof adisci prominence not by academics arguing the discipline pline w hen he suggests the following but by individuals describing the problems. In the Probably few will deny, however, the problem with next paragraphs I review some of the people and which study is to be concerned must not only be sig- works that brought human ecology to the forefront ndtcant but must also be a problem that is not already as a relevant science. preempted by other disciplinesIt is no easier to de It one person and publication were used to identi- fend a needless duplication of effort than it is a prem. ty the recent significance of human ecology, It cupation with irrelevant issues Unless human ecolo- would have to be Rachel Carson's pub- gy has a problem of its own, then, it is nothing and Silent Spring, may well be forgotten (p. 402) lished in 1962.Silent Springwas a book that immediately drew national attention. Simply, clearly, and I think Hawley's 1944 assessment was correct forcefully written, it carried the message that the use And, indeed, It was not until the 1969s when pupu of chemicals, particularly chlorinated hydrocarbons, !anon, resource, and environmental problems be- had grave consequences. Chapters provide the sci- came dominant and not preempted by other disci entific background and examples of chemical effects Ones that human ecology became an important on soil, on plants, to birds and fish, and on humans. area of studyI shall return to this point Hawley In the opening paragraph ofSilent Spring,Rachel later describes human ecology. Carson provides the human ecology context. In simplest terms, human ecology is the descripto, e The history of life on earth has been a history of in- study of the adjustment of human populations to the teraction between lasing things and their surround-

8 ings 10 a Itrge extent, the physical tom and the en' ironmental accountabilitkOf course, the habits of the earth's %egetation and itanimal life herdsman adds an animal. He will reterte all Etc hate been molded by the en% ironment Considering profit from the extra animal, but the effect of oxer- the whole span of earthly tune, the opposite effect, in which hie actually modifies its sum undings, has grazing will be shared by all herdsmen. Hardin also been relatively .,light Only within the moment of confronts the difficult problem of avoiding the trag- time represented by the present centurx has one +pc- edy . He concludes that "mutual coercion mutually CICSman----acq,ared signiticant puss et to alter the agreed upon by the malority of the people affected" nature of his world (p 16) is the only reasonable solution. This position clearly The message of Silent SuringN,as hotly debated is not a strictly biological one Hardin is suggesting But time has provided support for most of Rachel changes in things such as takes to avoid exceeding Carson's arguments. More importantly, environ- the carrying capacity of air, land, and water mental problems came to the public s attention, and The list of significant contributors to human ecolo- a human ecological perspective was presented gy has to include Barry Commoner As early as 1963 Tice Po/ill/atm?, Bonn', written in 1968 by Paul he published Science and Siirzwal as warning of envi- Ehrlich, is another significant book in the recent de- ronmental problems. Probably his most notable con- velopment of human ecology. Elulich's book, Ilco tribution was The Closing Circle published in 1971 powerfully cc ritten, demonstrated how population Where Ehrlich focused on population and Hardin on growth was related to numerous otner problems carrying capacity, Commoner directed his attention such as food shortages, environmental degradation, to the environmental crisis In a chapter on "Man in and economic growth Ehrlich summarizes the pop- the Ecosphere" he confronts the interrelationship of ulation problem. humans and the environment. In summary, the worlds population will continue to En%Ironmental deterioration is caused by human grow as long as the birth rate exceeds the death raft, thin and exerts painful effects on the human condi- its as simple as that. When it stops growing or starts tion The ens ironmental crisis is therefore not onl% an to shrink, it will mean that either the birth rate has ecological problem, but also a social one ibis adds to gone down or the death rate has gone up or a combi- the intrinsic complexity of the ecosphere the turther nation of the two. (p 16.17) complications of human activities the number of people supported by the earth's natural system, the so- He continues by making the point that we must en.es that tell us what cc.: knots about nature, the find ways to implement the "birth rate solution,or technolog% that comerts this knowledge to practical the traditional "death rate solutions," such as action, the resultant industrial and agricultural production that extracts new wealth from the earth's pestilence, famine, and war may previal. This hook skin, the economic systems that govern the distribu- was one of the first of several that Paul Ehrlich has tion and uses of wealth, the social, cultural, and polit- written. He and his wife, Anne Ehrlich, who is a IN ical processes that shape all the rest (pp 109-110) ologist, have written other books, such as The End of Affluence (1974) and Extinction (1981) that present Here is the holistic understanding required of hu- global problems in a human ecological perspective man ecology. While it is not easy, it is essential Bar- Garrett Hardin's 1968 essay, "The Tragedy of the ry Commoner's other works include The Poverty of Commons," is a classic statement in human ecology Power (1976) and The Politic; of Energy (1979) This article continues to be insightful and infor- Ten years atter Silent Suring, a Club of Rome re- mative about the relationship among populations, port entitled The Emits to Growth (1972) was pub- the physical environment, and cultural issues relat- lishedI quote the conclusions of the study. ed to carrying capacity. 1- le argues using an analogy It the present grow th trends in v. urld population, in to a New England town commons, summarizing. dustrialization, pollution, food production and re source depletion continue unchanged, the limits to The tragedy of the commons develop in this wax' growth on this planet will be reached sometime with- Picture a pasture open to allIt is to be expected that in the next one hundred years. Me most probable re- each herdsman will try to keep as many cattle as pus sult will he a rather sudden and uncontrollable de sable on the commons Such an arrangement mat tine in both population and industrial capacit% work reasonably satisfactorily for centuries because tribal wars, poaching, and disease keep the numbers It is possible loaner these growth trends and to es- of both man and beast well below the carrying capaci- tablish a condition of ecological and economic sta- ty of the land Finally, however, comes the day of bility that is sustainable far into the future 1 he state reckoning, that is, the day when the long desired of global equilibrium could he designed so that the goal of social stability becomes a reality At this point, basic material needs of each person on earth are satis- the inherent logic of the commons remorselessly gen- fied and each person has an equal opportunity to re- erates tragedy (p. 1245) alize his individual human potential. (p 29) The tragedy occurs because herdsmen askWhat The Limits to Growth was innovative in its ap- is the utility to me of adding one more animal?a proach, using computer modeling, and tar reaching question of personal gain, not social responsibility or in its conclusions. A great debate around N. anous as

9 10 pects of the study immediately emerged While the conflicts are to be pre. cluedI here arc no quit criteria found faults with aspects of the studs, the fivesthe kInIi solutions to the protil.nis of popula- symbolic value ot the title and the fundamental find- tion rest. lutes and ens ironment arc loMplu and ings of the study remain significant in the develop- long-termthese problems are in linked to some ot the most perplexing and persistent problems ment of human ecology. in the worldpoverty, injustice, and social konthit The Global 2000 Report to the PresidentEntering the (p 4) Twenty-First Century(Barney 1980) was published I have referred to HieGlobal 2000 Reportat some eight years afterThe Limits to Growth,during the ad- length because the conclusions generally support mimstrahon ot jimmy Carter.The Global2000 Report the positions of others, such as the authors and pub- was a massive undertaking by several United States lications reviewed here One must also note government agencies to assess probable changes in with the world's population, natural resources, and en- some concern that the Reagan Administration has paid little attention to the essential message ot vironment through the end of the century. President The Global 2000 Report. Carter's intention was to use the result in long-term This review would be incomplete without refer- planning and policy development. Some of the find...- ence to the work of Lester Brown and the World- ings from this study include: watch Institute. One of Lester Brown's first impor- Rapid growth in world population will hardly hate tant iv orks wasThe Twenty-Ninth Day,published in altered by 2000 The world's population will grow 1978, The book begins with the dimensions and con- from 4 billion in 1975 to 6 35 billion in 2000, an increase of more than 50 percent sequences of ecok'gical stress. Brown then expertly The large existing gap between the rich and pour presents the biological and social means of accom- nations will continue to widen modating human needs and numbers to the earth's World food production is projected to increase 90 resinuces. 1 behesi Lester Brown's most significant percent between 1970 and 2000 Most of the in- conceptualcontribution is in his 1981 book, Building crease will go to countries with an already high per A capita food consumption, St:tamable Society.!'he concept of sustainable society Arable land will increase only 4 percent by 2000, so is an idea and a. r ion that other authors had but increased output will be from higher yields did not articulc.t.:Bross n has discussed sus- ----World oil production will approach geological esti tamability in a recent book entitledState' of the 1Norld mates of maximum production capacity in the (1984), the first in a series of yearly reviews of prog- 1990s. Potential prcblems surround the world's finite tuel ress toward a suz.tainable society. resourcescoal, oil, gas, oil shale, tar sands, and Sustamability is ar. ecological concept with economic uraniumsince they are ones t nly distributed, impb awns. It recognizes that economic growth and pose difficult economic and environmental prob- human well-being depend on the natural resources lems and vary greatly in their amenability to explui base that supports ell living systems. technology has tation and use greatly expanded the earth's human carrying capaci- The quarter of the world's population in industnal ty, most obviously with advances in agriculture, But countries will continue to use three fourths of the while the human uigenurty embodied in advancing world's mineral production technology can raise the natural limits on human eco- Regional water shortages will become severe by the nomic activity, it cannot entuely remove them (pI) year 2000 there well be significant losses of world forests doe Brown continues with a definition of sustainable so- to use for forest products and fuelwood. ciety, Agricultur./ soils will deteriorate due to erosion, loss of organic matter, desertification, sahnization, A sustainable society is one that shapes its economic alkalinization, and waterlogging. and social systems so that natural resources and life Atmospheric changes due to carbon dioxide and support systems are maintained (p 2) ozone-depleting chemicals could alter the world's climate and upper atmosphere by the year 2050 Extinctions of plant and animal species will in- Observations and Reflections on Human crease by the year 2000 Ecology The Global 2000 Reportgenerally confirmed what I developed this essay as a personal exploration ot many had been saying for years. There is an urgent three questions. What is human ecology' Is human need to recognize the earth s carry ing capacity while ecology important? And, assuming it is important, maini,rining a decent quality of life for humanity . why is it important at this time in historyActually, There are still many global challenges One conelod these questions are r elated to a larger and more Jag statement summarizes well the human ecological important question concerning biology education view. What is the place of human ecology as a perspective Vigorous, determined new initiatives are needed it in biology education? worsening poverty and human suffering, environ- What is human ecology' As 1 wrote the essay, I mental degradation, and international tensions and included various defintions offered by different au-

10 thors to develop a general conception of human ing the problems Indeed, necessity as the mother of ecology. rery broadly, human ecology considers the invention seems a good, brief answer to the ques- interrelationship of human beings and their environ- tionWhy is human ecology important now' ments One observation was that authors tended to There is a second reason that human ecology has slant their definition of human ecology toward their become important, especially in the last quarter cen- disciplineI concluded that human ecology s!'iould tury. There were people like Rachel Carson. Paul not be set apart from the general discipline of ecolo- and Anne Ehrlich, Garrett Hardin, Barry Commoner gy. This point was also recently made by Edward and Lester Brown wino had the courage to step out Kormandy (1984). of strict discipline boundaries and address problems The noted ecologist Eugene Odum has suggested that threatened the human future that ecology may emergeasa new integrative discipline. He summarizes. Conclusion The new ecoloby, tnen, is nut an interchscipline, but I now turn to the question of human ecology as a a new intcgratice discipline that deals with the su perspective in biology education. The first, and per - praindicidual levels of organization, an arena that is hips tnost important, conclusion is that human ecol- little touched by other disciplines as currently bound- edthat is, by disciplines with boundaries estab- ogy does Indeed have a place in biology education. hshet1 and strongly reinforced by protessional so- All of the reasons reviewed for human ecology's im- cieties and departments or curriculums of portance Justify including human ecology as a part universities Among academic sub)ects, ecology of the biological educationoffuture citizens- stands out as being one of the feu dedicated to ho- Throughout the essay, several points have arisen lism (p 1291) that begin forming the educational framework for human ecology. The human ecological perspective Odom st-esses the ecosystem level of study and uses a holistic methodology. Humans are as much a in biology education would include: part of the integrato e approach as other organisms. study of significant problems such as population In tact, Odum (1975) points out that the new ecology growth, ens ironmental degradation, and resource links the natural and social sciences. This position, use using an ecosystem level of study the integrative !ink between natural and social sci- balancing holistic and reductive methods of study ences, seems to me an excellentas to think of ecol using an integrative approach that presents human ogy, and it clearly includes human aspects of ecolo- ecological study as the linkage between natural and gy without positing humanecologyas anew or semi sciences unique discipline The term human ecology suggests Human ecology is too important to be left out of that both the human sciences and the natural sci- biology education. The courage demonstrated by in- ences are important in the study of local to global dividuals who developed the field of human ecology problems now has to be shown by biology educators. As biol- Is human ecology important' The reading and ogy educators we can and must do something, even thought that went into this essay only served to con- if it is a small step toward including human ecology firm what I suspected.Yes, human ecology is impor- in biology education. tantAt this time in history it is more than important; it is vital that citizens have a fundamental understanding of human ecology. If one thinks for a References moment about any of the major global problems, Alihan, M (1939)Social ELologio ACritical Approach New they are almost without exception human and eco- York Columbia University Press Barney, G. (1980).The Global 2000 Report to the President logical. Washington, D.C. U.S Government Printing Office Why is human ecology important at this time in Barrows, H.H (1923). Geography as Human EcologyAs- history' For millennia humans lived in a benign rela- ,00ation of Anzeritan Geographers, 1,1-14. tionship with their environment. Their numbers and Boulding, K (1950) An Ecological Irdrodualon ARecon technologies had little effect on the air, land, and struction of Economics.New York Wiley and Sons Boulding, K (1966) Economics and Ecology In Dorling, water In the 20th century this changed, The many F , and Milton, J(Ecis )insureLiwironmentsof North problems of population, environment, and resources AmericaNew York. Doubleday, are warnings that ice are reaching the limits to Brown, L.(1981).ButhioINASustainalne &met,'Nei%York growth on planet Earth. Since the problems are so W W, Norton closely interconnected with the growth and develop- Brown, L. (1984) Stateof the World 1984New York W W Norton ment of populations and the natural environment, Brown, L. (1978).The Twenty Ninth DayNew York, W W. the emergence of human ecology seems like a natu- Norton ral outgrowth of the preser,t global situtaion if we Carson, R (1962)SilentsprinN Greenwich, CT Fawcett are to begin understanding and subsequently solv- Crest Books

11 i2 Commoner, B (1971) The Closing Cif-de Nei, Nod. Ban- Odom, E (1975), Lio/osy The I n, Between the Naomi! and tam Books the Social Scienie. New York Holt, Rinehart and Commoner, B (1979). The Polishes of Energy New York Al- Winston fred A. Knopf. Odum, E.P (1977, March 25) 1 he Emergence of Ecology Commoner, B (1976) The Povertv of Power Nei York Al- As A New Integrative Discipline Silo:L, 195, (4284). fred A Knopf. Orlove, B (1980). Ecological Anthropology Annual Review Commoner, B (1963) Sucnce and Survival New York. Vi- of Anthropology 9, 235-273 king Press Park, R (1936), Human Ecology. American Journal of So- Craik, K. (1973). Environmental Psychology Annual Re- ciology, 42, 1-15 view of Psgliottvy 21, 403-422 Park, R and Burgess, E (1921) Introduction to the Science of Darwin, C (1850) On flu Origin of Seaes Neu York Ap- SA:ow:0 Chicago. University of Chicago Pres. pleton Plaltzgraff, R (1968)Ecology and the PoliticI System. Ehrlich, P. (1968). The Population Bomb New fork Ballan- American Behavioral Science, 11, 3-6. tine Books. (Revised Edition 1978) Rodman, J(1980) Paradigm Change in Political Science. Ehrlich, P and Ehrlich, A (1974)The End of Aff fume An Ecological Perspective. Amerika Behavioral Sc m, 24, New York Ballantine Books 49.51, 64-74. Ehrlich, P and Ehrlich, A (1981) Extoktion New York Sayce, R.V. (1938, May). The Ecological Study of Culture. Ballantine Books Scientia, EMI, 279-285. Hardin, G. (1968, December) The Tragedy of the Com- Theodorson, G. (Ed.) (1961) Studies in Human Ecology mons Science, 162, 1243-1248. New York Harper and Row Hawley, A (1944) Ecology and Human EcologySoua1 Thornthnalte, C W. (1940). The Relation of Geography to Forces, 22, 398-405 Human Ecology, Ecology Monographs, 10, 343, 347-348. Kormandy, E J(1984, September) Human Ecology An Vay da, A and Rappaport, R (1968). Ecology, Cultural In, Auction for Biology Teachers The Amman Biology and Non Cultural In Clifton, J. (Ed.), buteductwil fe Cul- Teacher 46(6) 325-329. tural Anthropology Boston Houghton Mifflin Lewin, K (1944). Constructs in Psychology and Psycho ming, G (1974) Human Ecology As An Interdisciplinary logical Ecology. In Lewin et al Authority and Frustration Concept A Critical Inquiry. Ativanio nn Liologual Re- Iowa City University of Iowa Press search, 8, 1-40. McKenzie, R.D (1926) The Scope of Human Ecology Pa Young, G (Ed ) (1983)Origins of Human E,ologY, pers and Proteeding! .4meruan Sotiologikal Society, 20th An- Strouclsburg, PA Hutchinson Ross Publishing Co nual Meeting Washington, D.0 Meadows, Lt al. (1972). The Limits to Growth New %'ork Univer,,e Books. Rodger W. Bybee

12 13 A Survey of Global Problems and Public Education

Does human ecology have a place in public educa- school programs, how much emphasis should be tion? Specifically, to what degree does the public given to these issues at different grade levels, how identify human ecological problems as important as- the issues should be taught, and who should take pects of study for students in K-12 science pro- the courses in which global problems were present- grams? To the first question I would respond yes. ed. And to the second I would say that the public dues The survey was conducted during late 1983 and think the study of human ecology related problems early 1984. Several different groups were included in is important and would support such programs, the survey. scientists and engineers, general public, with an increasing emphasis from elementary and students. One hundred (100) scientists were through high school. While these are my responses, surveyed, including 84 men and 16 w omen of ages I thought it may be best to find out how the public ranging from 20 to 81, with the majority between the would respond. ages of 30 and 50. Ninety-seven percent had com- In tall 1983, students and colleagues in the Sci- pleted graduate work. The remaining 3 percent were ence, Technology and Public Policy Program* at engineers w ho had not completed work bey ond Carleton College designed and conducted a survey their initial undergraduate educate m The sample of citizens on the content and emphasis of public eu- included 24 engineers and 76 scientists Of the total ucdtion programs. The survey was directed toward sample, the majority (62) were in higher education specific global problems related to science and tech- Fifty-five percent of respondents were from the Mid- nology and their place in school programs. This west with 13 percent, 16 percent and 8 percent from chapter reports the results for all respondents 18 the East, West and South respectively The remain- years of age and older. My purpose is to clarify the ing 3 percent were from other countries (See Bybee place of human ecology topics in biology education 1984). through answers to general questions posed by sci- One hundred and three adults from the general ence teachers. These questions concern priorities, public were surveyed, 49 were men and 54 were importance, support, and emphasis relative to teach- women. The ages ranged from 20 to 90, with the ing about global problems related to population, re- majority between 24 and 30. However, 22 resources, and environment. spondents were over 60. Most (45.6 percent) had completed some college, with 37.6 percent having The Survey done some work beyond their undergraduate degree. Just over 16 percent had completed only high The project aimed to identify and rate important school. The majority, 77 percent, were from the global problems and to establish a linkage of these Midwest with 2 percent, 15 percent and 3 percent issues to education. Twelve broad categories of from the East, West and South respectively. Most of problems were used in the survey (See Table 1) The the general public surveyed were in business ur pro- first survey item had responuents rank the 12 prob- fessional occupations (53 percent), and clerical or lems from most to least important Following the ini- sales positions (15 percent). The remaining re- tial ranking we asked how people thought the global spondents were in the noniabor force (mostly re- problems would change by the year 2000, how much tired). In general, the population represented a bias they knew about the problems, and what are their toward middle class, the Midwest, and above aver- typic.: sources of information concerning the global age education. problems. Two hundred college students were surveyed on The next series of questions was directed toward five different college and university campuses. The teaching about the global problems Specifically, we sample of college students represents a typical stu- wanted to know about the importance of studying dent population .elative to age (18-23), sex (103 the problems at different levels of education, hov women and 97 men) and distribution of majors. much schools were already teaching about the prob Both public and private schools were represented. lems, the support for including global problems in There were 48 high school students included in the survey. These students were selected from a larger sample of pre-college students included as a The Science, rechnology and Public Policy Program at Carle- part of the study. The basis of selection for this re- ton is partly supported by funds from The Alfred P. Sloan Foun- dation. I would like to acknowledge the contnbutions of the fol- view was age In all cases the survey was admin- k,:ving individuals tut their work un this pruje.t Enc Johnson. istered directly, either as an interview or part of a Kann Brakke, Katherine Mac Millen, Ten Mau, Mary McMillan, class. The number of nonrespondents was negligi- Vicki Miller, Kevin Najaf'', Mike O'Connell, Alejandro Riera, Andy Smith and James White ble.

13 14 Which Global Problems are Most Important? otherglobalproblems This ev aluation hasimpor- tanteducational implications; namely, that under- Individuals ranked 12 global problems from must standintr, the dynamic causesand consequences of important to least important Table 1 presents the fi- population growth should be central to biology pro- nal rankings and the mean scores for each item. grams including human ecology topics. War technology', air quality, world hunger, water For the items ranked from 6 to 12 there are, I be- resources, and population grow th are the top fie lie% e, understandable explanations. Those ranked concerns Notice that sun iv al and basic human highesthazardous substances and energy snort- needs are the value systems underlying the ranking ages hay e been covered by the media and have an Most citizens agree that war technology, particularly immediacy for the public. Other problems such as nuclear war, threatens human survival on earth. Re- land use, extinction of plants and animals and min- cent scientific reports also support these perceptions eral resources have not been in the news or topics of (Turco et al. 1983, Ehrlich et al 1983) The next three special programs. Likewise, they are not perceived itemsair, food, and waterare essentials to long- by tne average person as having any immediate rela- term human existence. tionship to his or her life or living. As you will see in Population growth was ranked fifth. But there the next table, all citizens perceive human health were differences in rankings by different group". and disease as improving by the yea' 2000. Ad- Scientists ranked population grow th first, other vances in medical technology do receive significant groups ranked the item much lower. While there media coverage. This may explain the low ranking. was agreement between scientists and other groups Finally,` suggest that nuclear reactors received a on most items, population grow th represented the low r inking because they are perceived as a greatly greatest disagreement There are a couple of impor- diminished issue for one of two reasons. rhere have tant points to be made al:Jut this disparity One ,s be n no new reactors ordered since 1976, and almost that population growth has received very little me- 90 reactor orders have been cancelled (Brown 1984). dia coverage This seems to be a plausible account Caio.ersely, the public may think that all problems for the low ranking by groups other than scientists have been eliminated in the nuclear energy indus- and engineers The second point s probably more try, and they, along with the present administration, important for biology educators. The high ranking support development in this areathus, a lower by scientists and engineers reveals their understand- ranking With either explanation nuclear reactors are ing of population grow th as fundamental to many nut perceived as significant problems.

TABLE1. Citizens Ranking of Twelve Science Relate.1Global Problems (N 451)

Problem Rank Mean

WAR TECHNOLOGY (nerve gas, nuclear developments, nuclear arms threat) 1 4.94 AIR QUALITY AND ATMOSPHERE (acid rain, CO,,, depletion of ozone, global warming) 2 4.95 WORLD HUNGER AND FOOD RESOURCES (food production, agriculture, cropland 3 523 conservation) WATER RESOURCES (waste disposal, estuaries, supply, distribution, ground water 4 5 88 contamination, fertilizer contamination) POPULATION GROWTH (world population, immigration, carrying capacity, foresight 5 601 capability) HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES (waste dumps, toxic chemicals, lead paints) 6 6.21 ENERGY SHORTAGES (syntheticfuels, solarpower, fossil fuels, conservation, oil 7 6.34 production) LAND USF (sod erosion, reclamation, urban development, wildlife habitat loss, 8 649 deforestation, desertification)

HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE (infectious and noninfectious disease, stress, diet and 9 7.45 nutrition, exercise, mental health)

NUCLEAR REACTORS(nuclearwaste management, breeder reactors, cost of construction, 10 792 safety)

EXTINCTION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS (reducing genetic diversity) 11 8 07 MINERAL RESOURCES (non fuel minerals, metallic and nun metallic minerals, mining, 12 9.06 technology, low-grade deposits, recycling, reuse)

14 15 I would note that the rankint,s of problems ri this me," "worse," "much worse," and "don't know survey are somewhat paralleled by those reported Table 2 summarizes the results Over 50 percent of by George Gallup Jr. In Foraast 2000 (1984). He too the respondents thought war technology, air quali- included "the voice of the people,' expert opinion, ty, water resources, population growth, hazardous and youth. The Gallup report included a broader substances, energy shortages, and extinction of range of topics than the survey reported here. I was plant., and animals IA ould be worse or much worse mainly interested in human ecology or science and by the y ear 2000 The parallel to the initial ranking of technology related problems. Still, here are the prob- problems is quite consistent The only exception lems reported by Gallup: Wars, Terrorism and the IA 'thin the top five is IA orld hunger and food re- Nuclear Threat, Overpopulation, Economic Pres- sources, almost halt (48 9 percent) of the re- sure, Technological Progress, Environmental spondents Viought it would he worse by the year Emergencies, Crime, Family, Health and Politics. 2000. The parallel between the science and technology re- When one realizes that the next highest ranking lated items of the two o surveys provides some sup- on all items, except the one which a majority port for the items and rankings of the survey re- thought would improve, was "about the same," ported here. there is certainly some cause for concern. In all, cit- Virtually all respondents revealed difficulty in izens do not have a very optimistic view of the fu- ranking the twelve problems. In part, this may have ture if this ranking represents their true opinions been a methodological problem related to the Hur..an health and disease stands out as the one number of items. I think, however, methodology area where a majority (62 8 percent) of respondents was secondary. Individuals consistently indicated thought there would he improvement As men- the difficulty was due to the importance and interre- tioned earlier I would attribute this high rating to lated nature of the problems. Awareness of the wren media coverage of recent advances and new techaol- plexity and interrelatedness of the global problems, ogies in the health professions Clearl-, the majority particularly by nonscientists, is an important obser- of people surveyed think that most gi ibal problems vation not recorded on the survey. It also suggests will get worse, not better, by the ye- r 2000 The task another important theme for educational pro- of education is central to understanding the nature gramsthe interrelated and interdependent nature and dynamics of these global problems Education of human and natural systems. Based on these ob- can contribute to the actual improvement ofglobal servations, I would suggest human ecology as an problems, and it can contribute to correcting any important unifying conceptual organization for biol- misperceptions of science and technology as they ogy education. are related to the global problems. Biology educators must act on the essential message of Paul Ehrlich's aphorism that "pessimism has no survival value." How Will Global Problems Change By 2000? To understand global problems and learn about Will the global problems get better or worse by the ways and means of reducing the problems could he year 2000? Respondents were asked toindicate a powerful antidote to the prevailing public pessi- changes toward "much better," "better," "about the mism.

TABLE2. Citizens' Indication of Change for Global Problems by Year 2000 (N =451)

Better About Worse Global Problems (Includes Much the (Include; Worse Don't (Listed ut Pank Order from Better and Better) Saute and Much Worse) Know Most to Least Important) el( e/(

WAR TECHNOLOGY 17 7 184 54 8 9.1 AIR QUALITY AND ATMOSPHERE 19 3 21 9 56 0 2.8 WORLD HUNGER AND FOOD RESOURCES 16 8 30 6 48 9 3.7 WATER RESOURCES 12 2 25 5 574 4.9 POPULATION GROWTH 16 6 24 5 54,0 4.9 LAND USE 19.3 38.7 364 5.6 HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES 17.7 27.4 51.6 3.2 ENERGY SHORTAGES 17 8 27 9 51 3 3.0 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE 62 8 26.0 90 2.2 NUCLEAR REACTORS 29.3 31 9 30 7 81 EXTINCTION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 88 33 0 C 5.4 MINERAL RESOURCES 9.8 34.8 48 1

15 16 TABLE 3. Citizens' Indication of Their Knowledge about Global Problems (N =451)

Global Problems Quite Very Little (Listed ni Rank Order from A Lot Some Or Nothing Most to Least Important) %

WAR TECHNOLOGY 20.9 50.4 28.7 AIR QUALITY AND ATMOSPHERE 16.5 60.3 23.2 WORLD HUNGER AND FOOD RESOURCES 18.9 59.7 21.4 WATER RESOURCES 15.7 51.8 32.5 POPULATION GROWTH 24.9 54.0 21.1 HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES 16.4 52.7 30.9 ENERGY SHORTAGES 21.9 67.4 10.7 LAND USE 15.2 47.3 37.5 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE 24.7 51.2 24.1 NUCLEAR REACTORS 19.9 48.5 31.6 EXTINCTION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 14.6 45.1 40.3 MINERAL RESOURCES 7.2 38.9 53.9

What Do Citizens Know About Global listed highest by scientists. For example, scientists Problems? and engineers ranked professional journals and books above newspapers and weekly magazines. Respondents were asked to indicate whether they They also ranked personal expenence among the top knew "quite a lot," "some," "very little," or "noth- five. Also, as science educators we simply must rec- ing at all" about the global problems. Citizens indi- ognize that individuals learn about topics such as cated knowing most about population growth, hu- global problems from the media. Inclusion of teach- man health and disease, and war technology. ers/schools in the top five is a result of including stu- Population growth ranked very high probably due dents in the survey. A similar ranking for only scien- to the high ranking by scientists and engineers. This tists and the general public did not include teachers/ question provides a general estimation of how much schools. Finally, if it is necessary to educate citizens people think they know, but it does not help much in systematic examination and critical analysis of hu- to know that people generally know "some" about man ecological issues such as these, then school pro- global problems. Perhaps a more fundamental ques- grams, and particularly biology classes, would be a tion is-What about the quality of their knowledge? good time and place for such education. Recogni- The survey included a question designed to evalu- tion, inclusion and evaluation of various media as ate the sources, and subsequently quality, of knowl- sources of information during pre-college education edge about the problems. The results of the question could contribute to a continued, lifelong science ed- displayed in Table 4 should be of interest to science uca don. teachers. The public gains information about science related global problems by reading-in newspapers, weekly magazines, and books. Television is the sec- Global Problems and Public Education ond most important source .if information. For pre- A connection between global problems and educa- college students, television waz, ranked number one, tion is developed in this section. Questions on the but second were teachers and schools. There was a survey included the importance of studying global qualitative difference between the scientists' and problems and support for teaching about global other citizens' sources of information. There is a problems. greater depth and breadth of information in sources On the question of how important the study of global problems is at different educational levels there was a consensus supporting its inclusion at all TABLE 4. Citizens' Sources of Information Concerning Global Problems (N=451) educational levels. The importance of studying global problems at different levels increased across Rank Source of Information grade levels. For the elementary level, 64.5 percent thought it important. At middle/junior high school, 1 NEWSPAPERS 87.7 percent rated it important. At the high school 2 TELEVISION level, 78.2 percent thought study of global problems 3 WEEKLY MAGAZINES 4 BOOKS very important, while another 19.6 percent thought 5 TEACHERS/SCHOOLS it fairly important. Respondents were asked to indicate how much

16 17 TABLE 5. Citizens' Indication of Importance of Studying Global Problems at Educational Levels (N = 451)

Very Fairly Not Too Don't Important Important Important Know Level % % %

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 28.6 35.9 33.9 1.6 MIDDLE SCHOOL/JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 42.5 45.2 11 1 1.2 HIGH SCHOOL 78.2 19 6 2.0 2 COLLEGE 82.4 14.7 2.7 2 their local schools actually teach about global prob- A remarkable 79.6 percent indicated they would lems. The dominant response for elementary school vote to increase taxes fur textbooks and curriculum was very little ur nothing (45.3 percent). At the mid- matenals. The maturity (41 6 percent) would favor a dlequmor high school about;3indicted some (32.8 yearly tax increase up to $20, the response being percent) and anotheri3indicated very little ur noth- even higher (32.1 percent) among only the scientists ing (33.0 percent). Fur high school, the prominent and general public. I think it is understandable that response was some (46.6 percent). In general there high school and college students would not contrib- is an increase from very little to some across the ute as much of their money, but still the support for K-12 continuum. the issue and their agreement to contribute some This question had another revealing and impor money is clear. cant response for teachers. Notice that significant In review, citizens do think it is important to numbers of individuals indicated that they dun t study global problems in education, the schools are know how much their schools are teaching about lo- apparently teaching very little about global prob- cal problems. I suspect the results would have been lems, and citizens clearly support the inclusion of similar for any topic except the basics." More im- topics such as these in school programs. We also portantly, the results shown in Table 6 are inflated found that citizens generally do not know what is by inclusion of high school students and college stu- being taught about science topics like global prob- dents in the survey. As part of the data analysis, I lems. This Implies a need for communication and ran the statistics for this item with only scientists public relations between school personnel and cit and the general public. The number indicating izens. "don't know" was above 50 percent for all pre-college levels. Based on these data, one can reasonably Teaching aboi: Global Problems conclude that citizens generally do not know what is being taught in science programs. There is an im- Information Was gathered about some fairly con- plied public relations mission fur science teachers crete aspects of science teaching relative to global and school administrations. problems. How much time should be devoted to While it appears there is support for teaching global problems? Who should take classes which in- about global problems in public education, we asked clude global problems? Now should the classes be an even more probing question. The question was taught? posed as support for a tax increase for textbooks and Table 8 displays results of the survey question on curriculum matenals to teach about global problems. how much time should be spent un global problems Even though this is still a -free ride- questiu and it At the elementary level over half (57.6 percent) indi- was recognized that taxes are not increased for spe- cated that 10 percent or less time should be spent on afic school programs, the question did reveal public the study of global problems In actual time per support for education in global problems. week this percent is quite small. At the K-3 level the

TABLE 6. Citizens lndiLatton of How Much Their Luca! St.houls are Teaching About Global Problems (N = 451)

Quite A Very Little Don't Level Lot Sonic or Nothing Know

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 1.4 17.8 45.3 35.5 MIDDLE SCHOOL/JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 3.2 32.8 33.0 31.5 HIGH SCHOOL 8.4 46.6 19.1 25.2 COLLEGE 30.6 41.2 6.6 21 6 1011111110MININIMMEMOIIM

18 TABLE 7 Citizens' Indication of Their Willingness to Vote an ln.rease in Taxes to 5,.pport Edutatiun in Global Problems (N=451)

$5.00 510.00 515.00 520.00 %

PERCENT FAVORING YEARLY TAX INCREASE 79.6 8.0 18.3 11.7 41.6 PERCENT OPPOSED TO A TAX INCREASE 98 PERCENT INDICATING THEY DID NOT KNOW 10.5 average time per week on science is less than 100 social aspects of these problems be presented?" Un- minutes (in 1978, Weiss reported 95 minutes per fortunately, the response gives little direction for ed- week), so the recommended emphasis at this grade ucators. Just over 40 percent (41.2 percent) indicated level is about 10 minutes per week. In grades 4-6 the that science and social studies should be taught sep- average number of minutes per week is 175 (Weiss arately. Just over 45 percent (45.7 percent) recom- 1978), so the recommended time spent on global mended incorporating the science and social studies problems is about 18 minutes per week. Especially it into one course. The difference was not significant. incksion of global problems were combined with so- Another 13.1 percent did not know how the courses cial studies lessons, the recommended emphasis should be taught. On this item the survey results are would be easily achievable. At the middle,juniur of little help. Perhaps this is as it should be since the high school the recommended amount of time is practicality and specificity of different instructional around 20 percent. This translates to the equivalent approaches should be a function of professional of one class period per week or about 10 minutes per judgment by school personnel. day for 50-minute classes. The amount of time for high school classes is slightly more. A review of Summary and Discussion Table 8 indicates about 25 percent of instructional time is the minimum recommendation for high Results of this survey provide support for a hu- schools. So slightly more than one class a week or 15 man ecology approach in education. In addition, the minutes per day is recommended for 60-minute article presents information concerning the views of classes. citizens on topics and issues of specific interest to The question was asked, Who should take cours- science teachers. This study was intended as a pre- es in which the glubal problems are presented?" A liminary survey, and other similar studies are rec- clear majority (70.3 percent) said the courses should ommended Based on the present data we can state be required of all students, while about a quarter the following: (25 7 percent) indicated they should be electives -Global problems can be prioritized for study. Based Only three percent indicated cullebe bound students on citizens ranking the most to least important top- should take the courses, and only one percent ics for study are listed below It should be noted, thought students planning to major in science and however, that respondents consistently indicated that all problems listed were important. engineering should be requi.:d to take the courses. Many global problems are related to current politi- -war technology -air quality and atmosphere cal, economic, and social policies. Such situations -world hunger and food resources present the problem posed in one of the survey -water resources questions-"How do you suggest the scientific and -population growth

111=ralmMI., OMIN111.1.111. TABLE 8. Citizens' Indication of How Much Stnools Should be Teaching About Global Problems (N=451)

Reported as Percent Indicating Minimum Instructwnal Time in a Science or Social Studies Class Level 0-5% 6-10% 11-15% 16-20% 21.25% 26-30% 31% or more

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 26.9 30.7 17 4 12.6 8.0 3.0 1.4 MIDDLE SCHOOL/ JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 4.3 18.8 22.0 24.5 17.2 9.8 3.4 HIGH SCHOOL 1.3 7.3 12.6 20.6 22.9 22.0 13.3 --...--.. 1111M1111.11.11

13 19 hazardous substances Citizens indicate that courses which include global energy shortages problems should be required of all students, land use --human health and disease There is widespread interest in and support for nuclear reactors teaching about science and technology related global extinction of plants and animals problems. Many important decisions are still left for mineral resources science teachers and school personnel, but the con- Citizens indicate these probli.ms is dl be i Last.: or nection between human ecology and biology educa- about the same by the year 2000 The exception to tion has been made and it is time to beg:n strength- this statement is human health and disease, which they thought would be better ening the connection through curriculum programs Citizens indicate they know -some' about these and instructional practices in the schools problems. These sources of information are newspapers, television, weekly magazines, books and teachers. References Citizens indicate that global problems should be studied at all educational levels There is, however, Brim n, L. et al(1984), State of the world 1984 New York indication of increasing importance across grades W W Norton K-12. Bybee. R Global problems and science education policy From K-12 there are increasing amounts of instruc- (1984)In Bybee, R., Carlson. J& McCormack, A tion concerning global problems However, the in- (Eds ) Redesigning teme and technology ednuition1984 dication varies trom very little or nothing to some NSTA Yearbook Washington, D C National Science at higher grade levels. Teachers Association, Citizens said they do not know what is being Lhrlich, P et at (1983, December 23) Long term biological taught about global problems in local schools consequences of nuclear war Some, 222 (4630) Citizens do support teaching about global problems Gallup, G , Jr(1984) Forecast 2000 New York William in schools. Morrow Recommendations for the minimum amount of in- Turco. R et al(1983, December 23) Nuclear winter structional time devoted to global problems in sci- Global consequences of multiple nuclear explosions So- ence and technology education programs increases ewe. 222 (4630) from 10 percent in elementary school, 20 percent in middielumor high school to 23 percent in high school Rodger W. Bybee

20 19 Policies for Biology Education

My purpose in this chapter is to establish a frame- Emphasis on Human Ecology work for a human ecological perspective in biology education. Earlier discussions in this monograph Human ecology should be included at all grade and elsewhere serve as background for these pol- levels, kindergarten through college Developmental icies (See, e.g., Bybee 1979; Bybee et al. 1981; Bybee characteristics of students provide a guide for the 1982, 1983, 1984). Here my aim is to provide brief amount of time and orientation on human ecological guidelines, recommendations, a conceptual frame- issues Here are my recommendations for the mini- work, and resources for biology teachers who are re- mum amount of instructional time: designing their programs. Elementary School 10% of the time spent on science instruction. According Educational Goals of Human Ecology to national averages of 100 Biology education programs and teaching should minutes per week at the include appropriate objectives to meet the general K-3 level and 180 minutes airn of: at 4-6 level, this means 10 to 18 minutes per week (1) fulfilling basic human needs and facilitating across the K-6 continuum. personal development; Emphasis should be to- (2) maintaining and improving the physical and ward the child as a curious human environment; naturalist. (3)conserving and efficiently using natural re- Middle School 20% of the time in life sci- sources; and ence. This equates to one (4) developing community at the local, regional, seven-week unit, one national, and global levels. class a week or 10 minutes This aim includes the fundamental relationship of a day (50-minute classes). individuals to the environment and to each other in Emphasis should be to- communities. Additionally, the gcal can be applied ward the student as an in- concretely to students. That is, as a result of biology quiring adolescent. education they should be able to fulfill their basic High School 25% of the time in biology needs, maintain and improve their environment, class. Again, this is about conserve and use their resources wisely, and contrib- one nine-week unit, one ute to their community. More abstractly, this goal class a week or 15 minutes provides an orientation for the knowledge, skills, a day (60-minute classes). and understandings as they relate to the broader Emphasis should be to- picture of humanity. ward the student as a con- On a slightly more specific level, a human ecologi- cerned citizen. cal perspective should contribute to a functional scientific literacy of students in the following ways: Courses, units or lessons with an emphasis on human ecology should be required of all students. Nei- (1)through the use of the knowledge, values ther a,e these advanced placement, accelerated, or and skills of ecological science and tech second level programs, nor are these programs ex- nology in their personal lives; clusively for slow learners, low track, or vocational (2)through an understanding of ecological sci- students. ence and technology related to social issues; (3)through an understanding and appreciation for ecological science and technology as a Curriculum Perspective for Human Ecology human endeavor with both limits and pos The orientation of curriculum and instruction with sibilities for imprcving the quality of life, a human ecological perspective would include the (4) through an introduction, in the context of following approaches: human ecological problems, to the ways Problem Centered. The program should include they can participate in the democratic process important problems of a human ecological nature. 20 21 Based on my earlier work, 1 would suggest the fol- future orientation will wry with the deYelopmental lowing problems (listed here in alphabetical ordei) ley el of students, so av l)SS the elementary grades perspectives may be extended trom today to tomor- AIR QUALITY AND ATMOSPHERE (acid ram, row, this week to next week, this year to next year, CO2, depletion of ozone, global Y.-arming) and the next 5-10 y ears. At the middle junior high ENERGY SHORTAGES (sy nt het iv Wets, solar school les el, the students' litetime could be ex- power, tossil tuels, Lonstry anon, 1)11 produv tended to their children's lifetime and to natal: gen- tion) erations. Similarly, students' perspectives of space EXTINCTION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS (re- can be expanded from self, family, Ind neigh- ducing genetic diversity) borhood in the elementary years and to state, re- HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES (waste dumps, toxic gion, and nation in middle,' junior high ,chool At chemicals, lead paints) the high school level students should develop a global perspective for the tuture ot humanity HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE (infectious and noninfectious disease, stress, diet and nutrition, Hunan Inquiry Biology education has traditionally exercise, mental health) held the development of, and ability to use, the methods of scientitic investigation as an important LAND USE (soil erosion, reclamation, urban de- goal. An orientation toward human ecology would velopment, wildlife habitat loss, deforestation, extend this traditional goal to include decision mak- desertification) ing. For example, there would be problem identifica- MINERAL RESOURCES (nontuel minerals, metal- tion, observation, collection, analysis and evaluation lic and nonmetallic minerals, mining, tech- ot data, and a decision made about the problem. En- nology, low grade deposits, recycling, reuse) vironmental impacts and technology assessments NUCLEAR REACTORS (nuclear waste manage- are examples ot this idea. Of vuurse, students at pre- ment, breeder reactors, Lost of construction, vollege levels would not Lomplete such detailed re- safety) views, but they could develop the idea that the ac- POPULATION GROWTH (world population, im- tivity of suentifiv inquity can lead to action While migration, carry ing Lapacity, toresight ca- the early part of the inquiry includes scientific pro- pability) cesses such as observing, measuring, describing, in- WAR TECHNOLOGY (nerve gas, nuclear devel- ferring, desig.ling investigations, forming hypoth- opments, nuclear arms threat) eses, and synthesizing knowledge, the latter part of WATER RESOURCES (waste disposal, estuaries, the inquiry would include human processes such as supply, distribution, ground water contamina- decision making, ethical discussions based on cost, tion, fertilizer contamination) risk, and benefits to present and future generations and environments. WORLD HUNGER AND FOOD RESOURCES Developmental Perspective The actual structure and (food production, agriculture, cropland conser- teaching of human ecology should reflect an under- vation) standing and appreciation of the students' develop- Integrative Approach Human ecology would be mental level. I have tried to 'how this in the various presented as a link between the natural, social and policies outlined so far Obviously, a global perspec- health sciences. Rather than a multidiscipline or in- tive is too large for elementary students, but local terdisciplinary approach, the program would inte- problems related to larger problems are not too grate any discipline appropriate to understanding large This policy applies to the next section on a and resolving global problems. conceptual framework Recognition must be given to Holistic Approach. Holistic methods develop the the level of students' development in iII dimensions ability to recognize various interacting parts ot a sys- (cognitive, motor, emotional, social, physical) in the tem (subsystems) and understand the behavior ot teaching of human ecology After all, this is an ap- the whole system. Ecological science has shown plication of human ecology to the study of human there is a synergy of system, that the whole system ecology! characteristics are greater than the sum of the parts A holistic perspective is an important complement to Conceptual Framework for Understanding the reductive methods usually presented in science Human Ecology programs. Broad Perspectives of Spike and Tone. Biology educa- In this seLtion I hine outlined some key concepts tion should enlarge the students' perspectives of for human ecology programs Anyone who has space and time. Across the grades a human eLolugi- dune this realizes the enormity andifficulty of the cal emphasis should extend the students' perspeL- task. Trying to include Lncepts and examples for live of time trom past to present to the tuture The K 12 and the spectrum of natural, health, and social

21 22 sciences only makes the task more difficult. in the to various problems, the structure generally empha- end, however, I elected to make the frameworkas sizes bask. staentifit. concepts. Third, human ecology broad and general as possibleI make no claim that isiewed as an applied dimension of ecology, so this is a complete list of concepts, but I do belieLe it eLosy stems are the primary level of investigation is a good beginning for any biology teacher imple- and humans serve as the primary examples. Several menting a human ecology approach human dimensions are presented early. I decided Several points are worthy of note concerning the this was the best way to set the human context for outline in Table 1. As I worked on the concepts, a ecological study. logic to the sequence developed First, I think that Without question there are other concepts or a dif- understanding the general concept of systems Lan ferent organization that could be suggested. With provide students at ..nv level with a world view and the understanding and background established by vocabulary that is essential for human ecological this basic conceptual framework, students should be study Second, since I believe that one should unable to pursue further inquiry into local issues and derstand basic scientific concepts as they are applied global problems related to science and technology.

TABLE 1. A Conceptual Framework for a Human Ecological PerspectneIn Biology Education

Teuluns Example. for Outline and Topics Human Ecology

CONCEPTS Introduction to Systems System A group of related objects that form a whole Ele- Human body ments of a system often are interrelated, interdepen- Car dent and interactive A system also is a collection of Person material isolated for the purpose of study Earth Subsys.em A system that is entirely within another system Person in family Class in school Circulatory system Engines of cars Interact:on The ways systems act on one another. There is usu- Students talking ally evidence of the interaction Characteristics of Family life patterns systems are a function of the ways components in- School system teract Athletic games Characteristics of Systems Boundaries That which encloses a system's component parts Boundaries help to identify the system from the en- raCIrsist,Yclub,"our group" vironment and to differentiate the system from other "Closed discussions" systems Boundaries vary along a continuum from Cell wall being open (permeable) to being closed (impermea- Town/Community ble) Boundaries are regions of great activity for sys- State/Nation tems Planet Earth Components Parts of the system existing within the boundaries Members of family which Interact with one another in a mutually inter- Parts of a cell dependent manner. Administration, teachers, custo- dians, students, etc., in school Flow of Resources The movement of matter, energy, information, or Food in family other resources among the system components, be- Community tween systems and between the system and its en- Movement of material through vironment The latter depends on the permeability all membranes of the system's boundaries Feedback Signals sent back to a self-regulating sy stem. Feed- Grades on schoolwork back may be positive which tends to amplify In- Thermostat ferences, or negative which tends to nullify errors Automobile odometer and speed and establish equilibrium. limit Body's response to heat (sweating) and (shivering) Open System A system in which matter, energy, information, etc., Living organisms can flow between the system and other systems and Humans as biological beings or the environment

22 23 TABLE 1 Continued Teaching Examples for Outline and Topics Human Ecology

Closed System A system in which some things do nut flow between Earth the system and other systems and or the en iron- Need for recycling matter in ment Energy bui not matter or information may closed systems tlow between a s) stem and the environment or Humans who are not literate other systems Humans who have "closed minds" on certain topics

Diversity The complexity of a phyqcal, biological, or human Cell vs. human system. Diversity can result in stability. Pond vs. hydrosphere Bicycle vs. car System of Organization Levels of Organization All matter can be viessed as organized in identifiable Atoms, molecules patterns, as a hierarchy of organization from sub- Cells, tissue, organs, organ sys- atomic particles to galaxies. tems Earth, planets, stars, galaxies

Organism A single living thing A person A deer An elephant Population A group or collection of organisms of the same spe- All humans cies. All deer All elephants Community Populations of plants, animals, and humans living People, plants and animals in and interacting in an identifiable locality. your town, state, nation Ecosystem A biotic community Interacting with its abiotic School yard (physical and chemical) environment. This is also Pond known as an ecological system. Ecosystem is the The planet basic level of study in ecology (and human ecology). Ocean Atmosphere The realm of air surrounding the earth. Air local to global levels Hydrosphere The realm of water (including vapor in air) on earth. Water, local to global levels Rocks, local to global levels Lithosphere The realm of rock and soil on the earth's crust Ecosphere The total of all ecosystems and their interactions un Life support systems of earth earth This is the largest unit of life on earth. It is oxygen/carbon cycles, H2O cycle sometimes referred to as the biosphere. Ethosphere The systems that mauita Ji and change the human Interrelated systems created by cultural ethos (dispositions, attitudes, beliefs, val- humanslibraries, schools, laws ues) Change in Systems Immediate The direct, undelaved change in a system. Beginning of school day Balloon exploding

Delayed or Displayed When new material is inserted a change in systems DDT in organisms is sometimes not immediately apparent. Systems Development of automobile and change slowly to the accumulation of new material. life style Pollution Smoking and cancer Acid rain and pond ecosystem

Cycles Systems that change in a regular sequence in time Seasons and/or space Lifetime of organisms Water cycle Rock cycle Life cycles of plants, animals, humans (or subcultures)

Linear Growth A growth rate that changes by a constant amount Addition (or subtraction) of over a time interval years, miles, people, money, etc. Adding the number 2 is an example. 2+2=4+2=6+2=8+2 =10 24 23 TABLE 1 Continued

Teaching Examples for Outline and Topics Human Ecolok,

Exponential Growth A geometric grow th rate. The growth incurs by an Multiplication (or division) of increasing rate at a constant percentage for identifia- years, miles, people, money, etc. ble periods of time. Continually multiplying by the number 2 is an example 2 x 2 41x2=8x2=16x2=3' Limits Built-in bounds that constrain the behavior of sys- Rules in classroom, school tems Systems show resthences and accommoda- Human physical structure tionwithin their limits. At limits, a system is less Body temperature range between capable of sustaining itself or restonng itself to nor- 89 -107 mal functioning. Systems can change within limits Pollution of pond and still maintain the structure and function. When the limits to change are exceeded the system is destroyed. Basic Scientific Concepts

Matter Anything that has mass and occupies space. Rock of coal Wood Energy The ability to do work or bring about change in mat- Food/Digestion ter There are two types of energyKinetic energyis Falling rock the result of movement of matter. Mass and velocity Burning coal of matter determine the kinetic energy of matter.Po- Sun tential energyis energy due to the position, condi- burning wood tion, or composition of matter. Potential energy is Electrical "stored." Nuclear Car (gasoline) Battery Conservation of Matter Matter is neither created nor destroyed in common Burning coal physical and chemical changes. Matter is simply Eating peanuts changed from one form to another. Burning wood or gasoline We don't consume matter We don't throw waste and gar- bage "away" Recycling matter is possible Conservation of Energy Energy is neither created nor destroyed. It is only Falling ball changed from one form t" another. For example, the Burning coal energy lost by a system is equal to the energy gained Eating by the environment. All systems, living and nonliv- Burning wood ing, are subject to this law. This is also known as the It takes energy to get energy first law of thermodynamics. oil, coal, etc. Degra .ation of Energy Considered as a whole, any system and its sur- Burning coal roundings will tend toward an increase in disorder Eating or randomness For example, in conversions of ener- High to loiv quality (concentra- gy to work, some energy is dispersed to less useful tion) of matenal for energy forms. This is also known as the second law of ther- Conversion of energy in car en- modynamics. gine Conversion of solar energy in photosynthesis, eating plants and converting chemical energy to mechanical energy Recycling energy is not possible Equilibrium Cunper.ids of a system acting with "ne another in Natural cycles of water ways that maintain a balance of the system. This is CO2 and 02 exchange between sometimes referred to as aynamic equilibnum. plants and animals Seasons Changing positions of players on sports teams Ideal balance of executive, legis- lative, and judicial branches of government 24 25 TABLE 1. Continued

Teaching Eramples for Outline and Topics Human Ecology

Structure of Ecosystems Abiotic The nonliving parts of an ecosystem. This includes Energy, soil, wind, heat an energy source (sun), physical factors, e g., wind, moisture, heat, and chemical factors, e.g., carbon dioxide, nitrogen. Biotic The living parts of an ecosystem. This includes food P ants- animals - human - producers and food consumers, (including decom- r ucro-organisms posers) Limiting Factors An organism has a certain degree of tolerance to var- C imate and soil limits for organ- iations in physical and chemical factors. Too much isms or too little of a factor can limit or destroy growth Chemical factors-availability of and distribution. CO2, 02, etc. Human range Growth of plants and nitrogen Range of animals on earth

Function of Ecosystems Energy Flow The transfer of energy through an ecosystem This Students' energy sources Includes the conversion and loss of energy at differ- Flow of matter and energy in ent levels of the ecosystem. person (breathing, eating, drinking) Ecosystems as closed require recycling of matter SSTs Fertilizer Fluorocarbons

Food Chain The senes of energy transfers in the form of food be- Plant - animal - human - tween trophic levels of an ecosystem. This occurs decomposers when organisms eat or decompose each other There Produces herbivores (primary is a grazing food chain and a decomposer food consumers) carnivores (second- chain. ary consumers) decomposers Apply second law of thermodynamics to food chains

Blogeochenucal Cycles The process by which carbon, oxygen, phosphorus, Carbon nitrogen, and water move through the ecosphere. Oxygen Nitrogen Phosphorus Hydrogen Sulfur Water Problems of synthetic chemicals

Succession Change in the structure and function of an eco- Vacant lot systam. Coral reef Tropical forest Community development Changes in Planet Earth

Steady State The state of an open system where flow of energy and Mature ecosystems cycling (recycling) of chemicals within the system Earth maintains a balanced system. Sustainable society Simplification of ecosystems by eliminating or introducing species Synergy The interaction of system components in which the Some causes of cancer (particu- total effect is greater than or less than the sum of in- lates and chemicals such as SO2) dividual effects. Biological Magmficatfon The increase in concentration of certain substances, DDT in food chain at successively higher trophic levels in the food Hazardous substances in soils, chain. organisms, humans

25 26 TABLE 1. Continued

Teaching Examples frr Outline and Topics Human Ecology

Carrying Capacity The maximum population an e osystem can support Tragedy of commons indefinitely uncier a certain set of environmental Limits to growth for Earth conditions Adaptations in Human Systems Human Adaptation Changes due to interactions with the environment Clothing, buildngs and other people so humans can improve their con- New rules, policies, standards, dition. Changes in thinking, valuing, and behaving or laws are attributes of human adaptations Critical prob- Changes in behavior in different lem solving, assessments of cost nsk benefit, and, fi- situations, e.g., school, home nally, decision-making underlie human adaptation. All of this is done in response to cultural or environmental modifications. Economic Adaptation Market and prices adjust the demand to the supply. Increasing price for scarce mate- Adaptation comes from changes in price, and price rial variance is a function of whether goods and services Pnce increases are negative feed- are available and needed. back resulting in using less and substituting Political Adaptation Policies, standards, and laws are enacted to provide School rules, policies broad frameworks of individual and organizational Local laws concerning driving, behaviors and decisions. As perceptions of problems drinking and issues change, the political system adapts. Legislation about environmental problems EPA standards FDA standards Social Adaptation Social institutions such as family, school, peer Family rules group, church, media, and work develop individual Codes of dress, behavior beliefs, attitudes, and va:aes that influence decisions Religious values and shape human behavior. Collectively, social ad- Work ethic aptations can occur through changes in world views, American dream consciousness, or ways of perceiving the world. Technological Adaptation The application of existing knowledge to solving Medical technologies for life sup- problems. New inventions and techniques contril- port systems ute to changing boundanes, flow or resources, com- Computers ponents, and feedback relative to systems. TV and information Appropriate (soft) technology High technology Biological Adaptation Living systems have processes for adjustment in re- Sweating and shivenng sponse to environmental changes. Evolution is the Mutation long-term adaptation by populations to environmen- Extinction tal change. Use of fossil fuels Use of DDT and survival of some organisms, elimination of others, and deleterious effects on others Sustainable Society A group of people at local, national, or global level that share the same biological and cultural systems. A sustainable society has adapted its economic and social systems so that natural resources and ecosystems are maintained.

Investigating Global Problems and Human this book. In some caF.,' e curriculum programs Ecology cover a number of different topics. 1 have tried to identify the major topics related to the global prob- Table 2 lists the 12 global problems related to hu- lems listed. Please note that some of the curriculum man ecology Additionally, these are listed as a programs and activities provide a broad background background resource for the teacher and a reference or synthesis of topics so they are not listed with the to curriculum materials, which are reviewed in the specific problems. next chapter, and to lessons in tine Anal chapter of The teacher interested in teaching from a human

26 27 TABLE 2. Specific Resource Bibliography

Global Problems Related to Human Ecology Background Resource's Curriculum Materwls

AIR QUALITY AND ATMOSPHERE Committee Report. Atmosphere Acid Preopitation Awareness (see Biosphere Interactions. Wash- ABT, April/May, 1983) mgton, D.C.: National Academy Investigating Your Environment Press, 1481. (BSCS) The American Biel Ivy T eacher Ap &/ The Class Project (NWF) May, 1983. Global 2000 Countdown (ZPG) Project "Air Quality and Automobiles" Investzgatmg Our Ecosystem ENERGY SHORTAGES T. Energy at d Enotronment. Energy & Society (BSCS) 2nd, Belmont, California: Energy Resources & Environment Wadsworth, 198n. The Class Project (NWF) Barbour, I. et al. Lnergy and Amery Global 2000 Countdown (ZPG) can Values. New York: Praeger, 1982. EXTINCTION OF PLANTS AND Ehrlich, P. & Ehrlich, A. Extinc- Genes & Surroundulgs (BSCS) ANIMALS tion New York: Random The Class Project (NWP) House, 1981. C!obal 2000 Countdown (ZPG) Project Wild HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES Brown, M. Laying Waste The Poi- The Class Project (NWF) wrung of America by Toxic Wastes. New York: Pantheon, 1979 Purcell, A. The Waste Watchers: A Citizens Handbook for Conserving Energy and Resources. New York: Anchor I'ress, 1980. HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE Eckholm, E. The Picture of Health. Human &tours Program (BSCS) Environmental Sources of Disease. Health Activities Project (HAP) New York: W.W. Norton, 1977. Basic Genetics. A Human Approach Eisendud, Merril. Environment (BSCS) Technology and Health: Human Ecology tit Historical Perspective. New York: NYU Press, 1979. Carter, M. Dynamics of Health and Disease. New York: Appleton- Century-Croft, 1972. LAND USE Eckholm, E. Losing Ground. New Land Use (BSCS) York: W.W. Norton, 1976. Investigating Your Environment Ward, B. The Home of Man New (BSCS) York: W.W. Norton, 1976. The Class Project (NWF) Global 2000 Countdown (ZPG) Project Learning Tree Outdoor Biology Instructor Strategies "Vegetation and Soil" (this volume) Investigating Our Ecosystem MINERAL RESOURCES Abelson, P. & Hammond, A. Ma- Energy Resources & Environment terials. Renewable and Non-Re- i:lobal 2000 Countdown (ZPG) newable Resources. Washington, Project Learning Tree D.C.: AAAS, 1976. Project Wild Barnet, R. The Lean Years: Politics m An Age of Scarcity. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1980. NUCLEAR REACTORS Inglis, D. Nuclear Energy. Its Phys- Global 2000 Countdown (ZPG) ics and Social Challenge. Reading, "Thermal Pollution" (this volume) Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1973. Investigating Our Ecosystem Hayes, D. Nuclear Power: The Fifth Horseman Washington: World Watch Institute, 1976. Hoyle, F & Houle, G. Common- sense in Nuclear Erergy San Francisco: W H. Freeman, 1980 27 28 TABLE 2 Continued

Global Problems Related to Human Ecology Background Resources Curriculum Material::

POPULATION GROWTH Salk, Jonas dt Salk, Jonathan Energy Resources and Er:aro:urgent World Population and Human Val- I nvest :gat ing Your Environment liesNew York: Harper do Row, (BSCS) 1981 Global 2000 Countdown(ZPG) Reining, 1dt Tinker, I. (Ed.).Pop- ZPG Education Materials elation Dynamics, Ethics and Pal- "Population Growth" (this volume) icy Washington, D.0 AAAS, "Age Structure of Populations" (this 1975 volume) WAR TECHNOLOGY Ehrlich, P , Sagan, C., Kennedy, D. and Roberts, WThe Cold and the DarkNew York W W. Nor. ton, 1984. Schell, J.The Fate of Earth.New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1982. WAFER RESOURCLS Hunt, C. and Garrets, R. Water Investigating Your Environment TheWebb of Life NewYork (BSCS) W.W. Norton, 1972. The Class Project(NWF) McCa ul I,J. and Crossland, J. Global 2000 Countdown(ZPG) Water Pollution. New York: Har- Project Learning Tree court, Brace, Jovanovich, 1974. Project Wild Investigating Our Ecosystem WORLD HUNGER AND FOOD Lappe, Frances and Collins, Global 2000 Countdown(ZPG) RESOURCES Joseph.Food FiritBoston Houghton Mifflin, 1977. Scientific American.Food and Agri- culture.San Francisco: W.H. Freeman, 1976.

ecological perspective will also need set eral general the perspective that seems to be appropriate. To the resources These are provided in Table 3 degree this assertion is true, education programs, particularly biology education, should reflect the hu- Conclusion man ecological perspective. In this chapter I have Contemporary problems require a new social per- outlined policies that wil. provide a framework for spective if they are to be resolved. Human ecology is those biology teachers wishing to teach using a human ecology perspective. The next chapters review curriculum programs and provide some introductory TABLE 3. General Resource Bibliography activities dealing with population, resources, and environment. Gerald 0 Barney.The Global2000 Report tothePresident. Vol. 1, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1980. References Lester Blown.Building A Sustainable Society.New York: W W. Norton, 1981. Bybee, R. (1979). Science education for an ecological soci- Lester Brown, et al. Stateof the World 1984New York. ety.The American Biology Teacher,41(3). W W. Norton, 1984. Bybee, R., Hurd, P., Kahle, J. dt Yager, R. (1981). Human Rodger W Bybee (Ed )The American Biolc:::y Teacher,46(6), ecology. An approach to the science laboratory.The September. 1984. This is a theme issue on human ecolo- American BiologyTeacher, 43(6). gy. Bybee, R. (1982). Citizenship and science education.The Erik Fckholm.Down to Earth.New York. W.W. Norton, American Biology Teacher,44(6). 1982. Bybee, R. (1983). Human ecology: Acid rain and public Paul Ehrlich, et alEcoscienceSan Francisco, CA W.H. policy. The AmericanBiologyTeacher, 45(4). Freeman, 1977 Bybee, R. (1984). Global problems and science education Eugene OdumEcology One Link Between the Natural and policy In Bybee, R., Carlson, J. dt McCormack, A. the Social Science,:New York Holt, Rinehart and (Eds.).RedesigningJ(rueand technology education,1984 Winston, 1975 NSTA Yearbook. Washington, D.C.: National Science G. Tyler Miller.Living in the EnvironmentBelmont, CA. Teachers Association. Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1982 Rodger W. Bybee

28 29 Curriculum Review

This review answers the biology teacher's ques- b) appreciation of the scientific method of gain- tion,1/chat can I use to teach about human ecolo- ing knowledge about the natural and social en- gy? As it turns out, this question is appropriate, vironment, and understanding of these worlds, but nevertheless difficult to answer. Biology teachers c) science process skills and logical thinking, as who ask this question have a unique set of criteria well as basic skills of reading and foilowing writ- by which to judge their answer. There is not one ten instructions, communicating orally and in balanced, thorough, or complete human ecology writing, and gathering, displaying, and inter- program. There are materials that can be used in preting quantitative da a, varying degrees and in different ways. Biology d) (realm e thinking and decision making skills, teachers will have to decide exactly what they need, including responsibility for their own learning how much they wish to implement a human ecology and classroom resource management, program, and also which concepts, instructional ap- e) knowledge and acceptaace of themselves proaches, and curriculum designs they will use their bodies, minds, feelings, aptitudes, interests, These are decisions that they will have to make. and values; Each program reviewed represents one aspect or a f) knowledge and acceptance of and empathy portion of the human ecology theme. All programs for others. other students, teachers, parents, and are available commercially Finally, each program those older and younger than themselves, was evaluated as excellent, given the focus and ori- g) self-esteem, dem ed through success in the entation of the materials. Any weaknesses were neg- program, in addition to general affective and ligible and often associated with factors beyond the cognitive development. control of curriculum developers and publishers Description of Program: The life, physical, earth, Authors of the reviews were participants in the and behavioral sciences serve as the sources for, in- Science, Technology and Public Policy program at stead of the structure of, the curnculum. Students Carleton College, Northfield, MN 55057 Reviews choose and perform activities which draw from at were developed as part of a course entitled "Science, least two of the aforementioned disciplines. Stu- Technology and Public Education" taught by Rodger Bybee. The following individuals contributed reviews: Ket;n Najafi, Mike O'Connell, Ten Mau, Liz QUICK REFERENCE Gronen, Mark Hibbs, Karen Brakke, Mary GUIDE McMillan, Andrew Smith, Kate MacMillen, Jane Woodwell, Ben McLuckie, James White and Stuart Reviews for the following programs are included: Grubb. TITLE PAGE The Human Sciences Program 29 Energy, Resources and Environment 30 The Human SciencesProgram Health Activities Project (HAP) 31 Program Director/Publisher: Biological Sciences Investigating Your Environment 32 Curriculum Study, The Colorado College, Colorado Energy and Society 33 Brings, CO 80903. National Science Programs, Genes and Surroundings 33 P.O. Box 41, 908 W. Wilson St., Batavia, IL 60510. Basic Genetics. A Human Approach 34 The Conservation Learning Activities Program Support: Funding: The National Science for Science and Social Studies Project 35 Foundation. Science and Society Teaching Was 36 Program Objectives: Global 2370 Countdown Kit 37 1. Overall Program Purpose: Through a modular, Project Learning Tree 37 activity centered, personalized, interdisciplinary and Projec! Wild 38 flexible approach, to tailor science curriculum mate- Outdoor Biology Instructional rials more closely than other such materials to the Strategies (OBIS) 38 developmental characteristics of the emerging ado- Zero Population Growth. Population lescent. Education Program 39 2. Specific Objectives. The program is designed to Investigating Our Ecosystem 40 provide the means to help students enhance their: Investigating the Human a) curiosity about and motivation to explore the Environment: Land Use 41 natural and social worlds around them,

29 30 dents learn tc observe, describe, record and Frogram Implementation: The flexibility ot this organize data, compare, interpret, and infer, while program allows teachers to experiment v ith specific practicing the three R's. Rather than a purely con- activities or clusters of aLtl\Itles before, or rather ceptual orientation, this program stresses hands-on than, whole modules. It is necessary to procure the experience with phenomena In thiE context, stu- appropriate curriculum components, have standard dents learn other personal skills, such as phy sical material and equipment found in most schools or construction and manipulation, detnsion making, homes, and handle administrative and parental ar- creative thinking, aesthetic appreciation, and mak- rangements for out of classroom activity. ing vale', judgments. The teacher is more facilitator Teacher Preparation: The teacher, or interdiscipli- than lechirer. nary ream of teachers, should possess general knowl- Methods of Instruction: Students pertorm acas ties edge of the scientiic disuplines pre\ iously men- either individually, in small groups, in large groups, tioned, and make use of the helpful Teacher's or as a class. Completion of a particular Guide that accompanies each module. In addition, may require .sod either in the classroom, some- a may be advantageous to devise a system of formal where else on school grounds, or elsewhere in the el. aluation The orientation manual is a good em- community. Methods include discussion, lecture, barking point for preparation. presentation, use of audiovisual equipment or cas- Financial Requirements: Besides the necessary cur- sette recorders, construction projects, plus work with ncuIum materials, there are a number ot consuma- various plants and animals. ble paper forms that must be copied in sufficient Specific Subjects, Grade, Age and Ability Levels: quantities, and there are additional materials not This program is composed ot 15 six to nine week provided with a given module (each module modules designed for 10- to 14-year-olds. Each Teacher's Guide contains a list of these items) that module contains 30 to 30 activities, which take from are required for completion of the activities. Ar- one to three hours apiece (some require a small rangements should be made with the school or amount of hme each day for several weeks), and community library to house the supplementary lit- modules are grouped into three levels according to erature suggested in tne Teacher's Guide. Modules difficulty. Because students choose their own activi- requiring out of class activity may incur transpora- ties, some of which are harder than others, many On cow, ability levels are accommodated within a single age group or classroom. Energy, Resources and Environment Materials Produced: Program Director/Publisher: John W. Christensen, IModuleslevel 1 is easiest and level 3 is hardest. Teacher of Resources Sciences, Cherry Creek High a) Level 1. Learning, sense... or Nonsense?, School, Englew-oad, CO. Kendall-Hunt Publishing Motion, Surroundings, Growing, Behavior Company, Dubuque, IA. b) Level 2: Perception, Rules, Survival, Re- Program Funding and Support: Colorado section of production, What Fits Where? the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and c) Level 3- Knowing, Invention, Change, Feel- Petroleum Engineers; United States Department of ing Fit. Energy; The Colorado Institute on Population Prob- 2. Accessories. lems; (Harvard) Project Physics, Inc. a) Teaching Human Sciences, orientation manual, paper. Program Objectives: b) Extra Teacher's Guides, one per module, pa- 1 Overall Program Purpose. To introduce human per. ecology through study of energy, resources, and en- c) H.S.P. Cart, to display and house printed vironment. materials and accessories for one complete mod- 2Specific Objectives. The materials are designed ule. to: d) H.S.P. Display Rack, to display printed mate- a) give the student a fur damental kifowlidge of rials for twenty-five activities. the engineering, economic, and environmental e) Detailed construction drawings for H.S.P aspects of resources and energy. Cart, to be made in school shop or by a local b) show how these principles relate to global is- tradesman. sues. c) enable students to use this knowledge to de- Materials Purchasable. There are four purchase op cade which problems are the must vital and for- tions. individual activities, clusters of activities (relat mulate ideas about the solution e,t these ideas. ed problem areas), complete modules, and tio.esso d) demonstrate basic. suentific prinuples and ries their relationships through laboratory activities.

30 Description of Program: The eurneulum consists of enee, University of California, Berkeley, CA Hub a textbook and accompanying :ab manual. Students bard,1' 0 Box 104, Northbrook, IL 60062 read chapters in the textbook and are given ques- Program Support: Funding Agency: Robert Wood tions at the end of each chapter The questions are Johnson Foundation through the Association of Sci- comprehensive and encourage students to reflect on ence Technology Centers. the material presented. The program begins with basic concepts of the Program Objectives: earth and biosphere as well as energy and resources 1. Overall Program Purpose To create a positive at Succeeding chapter:, incorporate these principles titude toward health by providing students with a into study of specific world problems. The text also sense of control over their own bodies and impart- contains appendices on conversion factors, suentthe ing specific understanding about their potential for notation and International System units The lab change manual presents 33 activities including classroom ex- 2. Specific ObjectivesThrough HAP, students ercises, individual student activities, and demonstra- learn: tions. The activities correspond to sections of the a) how the body works and changes, text. b) how the body can be controlled to increase performance, improve skills,and develop Methods of Instruction: This program is fairly strength; standard in its format of readings, questions, and c) how one can make decisions that result in a laboratory activities. However, there remains much healthier, higher quality of life; opportunity for class discussions, as well as flexibility d) how technological devices are used to evalu- for an individual instructor's knowledge and teach- ate health; ing style. e) how to look at the preventative aspects of Specific Subjects, Grade and Ability Levels: health. This science course presents scientific principles in re- Description of Program: HAI' consists of 64 student- lation to social studies concepts concerning compli- centered activities grouped into 13 modules and cated world problems. The text is ideal for a nine- covers important areas of health, safety, and nutri- week schedule, with an excess of lab activities for tion. Students become involved with their own such a period Laboratory activities could be se- health and safety thr nigh discovery activities. They lected according to student or instructor preference perform tests as well as collect, analyze, and com- Materials are designe,i for high school students with pare data with other students. By investigating their average or above average abilities own bodies, the students learn firsthand how their Materials Produced and Purchasable: bodies function. Most importantly, the students dis- 1. Energy Resources and Environment, student and cover that they can make changes in the way their teacher editions (paper). bodies perform and their overall health. 2. Energy, Resources and Environment, lab manual Methods of Instruction: HAP uses hands-on investi- (spiral bound). gations as opposed in style to the passive instruction Program Implementation: In addition to the text of many health education programs The teacher and lab manual, the instructor %vill need standard introduces the activity, demonstrates any special laboratory equipment available in most schools, and procedures and equipment, and presents the stu- some materials which can be brought from home. dent with the activity. From then, the teacher has One activity requires transportation to and from the the opportunity to work with individuals or study site. groups. The majority of time is allotted for active and productive student activity. Teacher Preparation: The instructor should have knowledge of basic geological, chemical, economic, Specific Subjects, Grade, Age, and Ability Levels: and ecological principles. In addition, familiarity HAP is a modular curncelum program designed for with global issues is important. Knowledge of labo- fourth through eighth grade students that supple- ratory technique is also essential. ments current health, science, and physical education programs, or can be the entire program. Each Financial Requirements. A well equipped but basic module represents .approximately six to eight weeks classroom laboratory is vital to the program. of classroom activity. Materials Produced: 1. Modules: Eadi module contains teacher mate- Health Activities Project (I-1AP) nals, charts, and the apparatus and supplies neces- Program Director/Publisher: Lawrence Hall of So- sary to conduct the activities

31 32 a)Breathing Fitnessh) Flexibility and Strength Program Objecti, es: b)Skin Temperature i)Personal Health 1. Overall purpose. To provide the students with c)Sight and Sound Decisions an opportunity to investigate important questions d)Heart Fitness j) Consumer Health about their environment. e)Action/Reaction Decisions 2. Specific objectives: The materials will help stu- f)Balance in k) Nutrition/Dental dents: Movement Health a) familiarize themselves with and discuss goals, g)Growth Trends I)Your Heart in Action responsibilities about investigating their environ- m) Environmental Health and Safety ment, 2. Teacher Materials. The Teacher's Guide is in- b) identify those things which they believe to be tended to be a source book and reference for valuable and essential for a meaningful and de- teachers using the HAP activities and equipment. sired lifestyle, The guidt includes a i overview of the program, c) use their list of "valued things" to identify the HAP pnilosophy, helptul teaching strategies, potential questions for an environmental studies ways to manage and maintain HAP equipment, project; grade lev, I sequencing, articulation scheme with d) choose a question for investigation, othe, .ommercially available health curricula, and e) plan projects and then conduct research, a hi.,tory of HAP. f)analyze and interpret data; 3. Charts and Labellue Supplies. Large, durable, re- g) choose an audience to which they present re- usable, plastic etarts with 'pedal "write on-wipe sults; off" surfaces to record c ass at tivitie- tt ,ults. h) evaluate their personal experience of conduct- 4. Apparatus and Gam?s. Specially designed app ing an independent investigation. ratus such as grip testers, breath cc,ntr11 devices, Description of Program: Investigating Your Environ- IL:Aber gauges, etc, are included in t modules ment is an instructional module which requires stu- The apparatus is simple, functional, vet has a de- dents to choose an aspect of the environment which gree of sophisticatior ana reliabili:v factor that is important to them and to formulate and to com- students and teachers respf ct plete an investigation relativeto their topic. Program Implementation: The teachertII: need to Human problems, populations, water and air quail have the aforementioned materials. ty, noise, and land use are examples of research topics. Teacher Preparation: -The instructor should possess a general knowledge of health, safety, and nutrition. Methods of Instruction. Teacher acts as a "fellow Each module comes with an activity folio written investigator" and facilitator. Discussion sessions, concisely so that teachers can quickly introduce the problem identification, survey methods, field work, activity. All topics represent an assumed awareness and laboratory investigations all form part of in- level for adults so additional training is avoided. struction. However, workshops are held which provide inser- Specific Subjects, Grade and Ability Levels: This vice and preservice teacher training for the entire module emphasizes "learning how to learn," in- HAP program. quiry, and personal experience in making decisions. Financial Requirements. The only financial re- The level of sophistication of an investigation is a quirement is the purchase of the modules Each one function of the student's background, interest, and contains sufficient materials for a class i tstudents. Lognitive development. The materials are appropn- For the most part, the HAP materials are noncon- ate for a wide spectrum of students, ranging from sumable. Therefore, a 27 student kit of any HAP 9th grade to college. module can be shared by more than one class and The module requires a minimum of six weeks, an rotated with other modules, thus reducing the lost optimum of nine. It could be adapted for a 12- per student. wick semester. The module is adaptable to situations such as individual investigation projects, mini investigating Your Environment courses, and summer programs. Program DirectorPublishen Biological Sciences Materials Produced and Purchasable. Curriculum Study, The Colorado College, Colorado 1. Investigating Your Environment (Student hand- Springs, CO 80903/Addison-Wesley Publishing Com- book). pany. Menlo Park, CA!Reading, MA. 2. investigating Your Environment (Teachers hand- Program Support: United States Office of Educa- book). tion, Department of Health, Education and Wel Project Implementations. Little is needed bey ond fare, and the National Institute of Education. the student workbook. Few special facilities or ma-

32 33 tenals are required beyond those tound in must su- sok ing skills Students observe, estimate, predict, ence classrooms. The biggest problem for teaLhers hypothesize,question,design tools,collect, will be an adjustment in teaching style. organize, interpret, and analyze data Students learn to recognize multiple alternative conclusions Teacher Preparation: 1 be teacher's role is different and to check the validity and reliability of conclu- from that of the typical program. The teacher acts sions. The student is also encouraged to recognize as a facilitator and fellow investigator For the mod- and respond to questions where values must be ule to be successful, it requires a thorough under- chosen on principles arising from sources other than standing of goals and objectives of the curriculum science and where decisions must be made and and an ability to work closely with and to under- based on these value criteria. stand a variety of students who have different interests and cognitive abilities. Methods of Instruction: Discussion sessions, inde- Financial Requirements: The cost is minimal as pendent investigations, and varied activities includ- there are few financial requirements beyond pur- ing a simulation game, and an activity in which the student traces direct and indirect use energy. chase of the books. Specific Subjects, Grade, Age and Ability Leiels: This program is a nine-week instructional module Energy and Society: Investigations in Decision designed for high school, college, or adult students. Making The program could be used as a supplement to ei- Program Director/Publisher: Biological Sciences ther a science or social studies course Curriculum Study, Colorado College, Colorado Materials Produced: Spnngs, CO- Hubbard, P.O. Box 104, Northbrook, 1. Energy and Soirety. Investigations in DecisionNlak- IL 60062. nig,Student Edition (paper). Program Support: Funding Agency: U.S. Office ot 2Energy and Society: Investigations in Decision Mak- Education, Department ot Health, Education, and ing,Teacher's Edition (paper) Welfare. 3. Man and the Biosphere. Energy Uses and Re- serves, set of Daylight Blackboard ProjectionSlides. Program Objectives: 4 Energy: Back to the Source, film loop (silent, 1. Overall Program Purpose: To develop skills in Super 8mm). self-direction, questioning, problem solving, and de- 5. Alternative Energy Sources card set. cision making, while the student examines contem- 6. Energy Management Game. porary energy questions. 2. Specific Objectives. The program is designed to, Program Implementation: The teacher will need to a) reflect the interdisciplinary nature of energy have the aforementioned materials, standard mate- questions, and promote an understanding of the rial and equipment available in most schools or complexity of energy problems and the trade-offs homes, and will need to have made the necessary associated with various solutions. arrangements with parents and the administration, b) encourage the development of skills and abili- to facilitate student access to school and community ties needed to separate relevant from irrelevant resources. information, recognize bias in interpretations of Teacher Preparation: An understanding of the sci- information, and judge the validityofdata; entitic principles pertaining to energy is essential. c) develop the understanding and use of prob- 1 he teacher should also possess general knowledge lem solving models and techniques, and foster of energy issues and related disciplines. development of skills in data gathering; d) encourage autonomous and competent deu- Financial Requirements; In addition to the curricu- sion making, balanced with an understandingof lum components previously mentioned, a classroom the interdependence of living things in both en- library composed of good reference materials is es- vironmental and social contexts, sential to the success of many activities, especially e) recognize and capitalize on the diversity ot the independent investigationsWhile many mate- student backgrounds, interests, talents, experi- rials may be obtained from the school or public li- ences, and abilities in classroom-related activities, brary, several books aie recommended and would and require additional funds. f)promote development in both cognitive and affective realms of activity. Genes and Surroundings Description of Program: In their study of energy problems, students are encouraged by the activities Project Director/Publisher: The Center for Educa- to become active in inqqiry and the use of problem tion in the Human and Medical Genetics Study, 33

34 The Colorado College, Colorado Springs, CO above mentioned materials and equipmentcom- 80903/Kendall-Hunt Publishing Company, Du- mon') found in the classroom. Parentalpermission buque, IA 52001. slips must be distributed for out-of-classroom activi- Project Support: Health ServiLes Administration, ties Tearsheets of some of the activities, provided in Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health the teacher's manual, will have to be photocopied and Human Services. and distributed. Project Objectives: Teacher Preparation: Familiarity with the basic 1. Overall Program Purpose. To provide informa- principles of genetics and how heredity interacts tion about human genetics that is absent or inade- with the environment are Important. quate in existing curriculums for emerging adoles- Financial Requirements. Other than the manuals cents. themselves, only a few materials must be specially 2 Specific Objectives This program will enable stu- purchased for the activities. Most materials can be (.4 -its to: used repeatedly. a).., ,,ly their knowledge of genetics to personal and societal aspects of their lives and the world. b) understand the interdisciplinary nature ofge- Basic Genetics: A Human Approach netics and many activities that relate genetics to the environment. Program Director/Publisher: The Center for Educa- tion in the Human and Medical Genetics, A Con- Description of Project: Genes and Surroundings in- tinuing ProgramoftheBiologicalSciences cludes 25 activities, each of which stresses at least Curriculum Study. (BSC.5),The Colorado College, one of the five following themes. individuality, Colorado Springs, CO 80903,Kendall-Hunt Publish- continuity, variability in relation to others, vari- ing Company, Dubuque, IA 52001. ability in time, and adaptation Some activities pro- Program Support: National Science Foundation vide case histories as illustrations; in others, students Program for Development in Science Education, have the opportunity to examine and measure and the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation, Rockville, MD. characteristics of themselves and others The activities require only the published materials or equip- Program Objectives: ment, which are commonly found in the science 1 Overall Program Purpose. To develop students' classroom. awareness of how genetic conditions may affect them as individuals and as members of society. Methods of Instruction: Each lesson consists of a 2. Specific Objectives. The materials are designed main activity in which the students participate ei- to: ther in teams or individually Discussion questions a) replace traditional genetics units, and include with each lesson stimulate thought and relate genet moral and ethical questions in a study of basic ics to the world of the student. A class discussion human genetics; follows each activity and students are asked to take b) strengthen the links between facts and their a short self quiz at the completion of each less( applications, by providing concrete and relevant The program has activities for students to do1 n examples to the students; their own. c) facilitate an understanding of mathematical Specific Subject, Grade, Age and Ability Levels: probability, and encourage the ability to analyze Genes and Surroundings is designed for middle school situations in which probability and statistics are or junor high students (11 -14- year - olds). It should used; be taught either as part of a science or a social stud- dl increase a student's familiarity with technical ies class. Most of the lessons are designed to occupy terms which are used frequently; one class period. The curriculum may be presented e) encourage students to express their own opin in its entirety or certain sections may be taught ions, and recognize the possible implications of alone. Activities are designed for average-ability stu- many commonly-held attitudes. dents, and "Going Further" sections are intended Description of Program: for advanced students. The students begin by reading a case study about Materials Produced: cystic fibrosis which is presented in a magazine for- 1. Genes and Surroundings, student edition (paper, mat Topics to be studied are highlighted and ex- 147 pages). plained in boxed-in sections of text (e.g., proba- 2. Genes and Surroundinz,s, teacher edition (paper, bility, i,echgree charts) This format helps to prevent 107 pages). students from skipping over new words andun- familiar contexts. The unit is designed to bevery Project Implementation: The projectrequires the flexible, so that after the first section, students and 34 35 teachers may select parts of the text as they wish The Conservation Learning Activities Although concepts between sections are linked, for Science and Social Studies Project. they need not be studied sequentially. Emphasis (The Class Project) upon human genetics is maintained throughout the book. The authors have covered the usual genetic Publisher: National Wildlife Federation, 1412 Six- theory, but placing it in a human context may teenth St., N.W., Washington, DC 20036. help to make it more meaningful for the students. Methods of Instruction: The pnmary method is dis- Program Support: National Science Foundation cussion, supplemented by a simulation game, work- sheets, crossword puzzles, questions, a pedigree Program Objectives: chart, and calculations of probability. The teacher's 1. Overall Program Purpose. To help students de- edition includes guidelines for discussion, outlines velop an environmental ethic and to help them use for particular lessons, and instructions for planning their acquired skills and concepts in taking the unit as a whole. Flexibility in this course is cer- thoughtful, positive action to protect and enhance tainly possible because certain concepts are treated the natural environment. in several different sections of the book. One could, 2. Specific Objectives: The materials are designed however, use tne entire book without any lesson to. a) help students achieve understanding of envi- becomingrepetitive. ronmental concepts and skills; Specific Subjects, Grade, Age, and Ability Levels: b) help students develop and practice the skills This book was designee to be used by ninth and of observing, measuring, data collecting, classify- tenth graders in an introductory biology courseIt ing, hypothesizing, predicting, making value is a replacement for traditional chapters on genetics, judgments, communicating, and problem solv- not merely a supplement. It would also be interest- ing; ing for students in second-year biology courses,be- c) aid in the development and use of student cause some of the later "articles" are morechalleng- skills in investigating and solving environmental ing. Book reviews and reference lists will also make problems; this a good starling place for juniors and seniors d) invulve students in community action projects, who may want to do independent projects and e) give students experience in observation,classi- reading. fication, data collection, record-keeping, predic- Materials Produced: tion, communication, and decision-making. (student edi- 1.Basic Genetics. A Human Approach Description of Program: There are nine sections in tion). The Class Project. The first section is an introduction (teacher's edi- 2.Basic Genetics A Human Approach and overview. Then there are six content sections tion). which are: Energy Use; Environmental Issues; Forest/ Program Implementation. This program Lontains in- Watershed Management, Hazardous Substances, teresting Information on cystic fibrosis which Lould Wetlands, and Wildlife Habitat There is a unique supplement any general biology course. Although section :raffled, "You Can Make It Happen " This the program was designed to replace the genetics section describes class projects that have been com- curriculum in already existing classes, it could sere pleted by other teachers. The addresses and phone equally well as a separate genetics course, a source numbers of the teachers are listed, and they have of one- and two-day activities, or as part of a agreed to act as consultants The last section, en- health education class. titled "Digging Deeper/Glossary," is a resource bibliography. Teacher Preparation: Background information on Each content area begins with an introduction the topics is provided in the teacher's edition, as are that provides background information. Then there reference lists and addresses of many organizations are four or five activities. Content and processob- which provide supplies for basic genetics labs and jectives are provided for each activity. Among the additional information. suggestions for each content area is a list of commu- Financial Requirements: Because the texts are pa- nity action projects. These can become a classroom's per-bound and there is only one volume in the community action project, which is an important unit, expense should be minimal. Purchase of ped- goal of The Class Project. igree charts, some reference books, and blood-typ- The Class Project activities are designed to be used ing kits is recommended. This program would still as supplementary to an existing programThere is be of value even if some of the additional resources not a prescribed order for the content areas or the could not be purchased. activities within te areas. 35 36 Methods of Instruction: A variety of approaches quences of a tew of the decisions they might are used Methods of instruction used in The Class make in the future regarding energy consump- Project include surveys, experiments, simula dons, tion, environment, and other problems related discussions, debates, field trips, and library research. to science and society. Specific Subject, Grade, Age and Ability Levels: Description of Program. In completing one of The subjr cts are interdisciplinary including biology, these units, students will learn that they can under- earth science, chemistry, and physics There,re also stand vanous complex problems such as energy use, parts that Include social studies They may be used pollution, and variables influencing the growth and in either science or social studies classes The mate- development of plants. Students will learn to take rials are designed for use in grades 6 through 9, social as well as environmental values into consid- though they could be easily adapted to higher eration before making a decision on problems that grades. will affect their lives in the future. Furthermore, It The Class Project materials will work with a wide show s the students the importance these decisions range of ability levels. may have on their quality of life. Materials Produced: Methods of Instruction: Discussion sessions, simple, 1 The Class Project binder (containing Activities but effective laboratory experiments, role-playing. and Poster Packet). Specific Subjects, Grade, Age and Ability Levels: Program Implementation: Workshops are provided Each of these units is designed to takeapprox- by the National Wildlife Federation. Materials are imately twenty 40-minute periods to complete. Al- provided through a grant from the National Sci- though the modules are designed for middle and ence Foundation Names avid addresses of teachers junior high school students, they would also be ef- who have used The Class Project are provided in fective for use with advanced elementary school the reference section Nothing more than standard students. These units would be most effective when science facilities and equipment are required taught as supplements to an existingscience course. Teacher Preparation: The materials do not require With some work they could he used as a totalcur- specialized background. Science teachers should feel riculum. comfortable with the content areas. There may be Materials Produced: some adjustment to new instructional methods such I.Force and Energy: A Teacher's Manual jor General as simulation activities, and incorporating social Level Program Development,Grade 8. studies concepts. Background information is pro- 2. Separation of Substances A Teacher's Manual for vided with each activity. General Level Program Development,Grade 9. Financial Requirements: The first 10,000 sets of ma- 3 Green Plants. A Teacher's Manual jor General Level terials will be distributed free through National Program Development,Grade 9. Wildlife Federation workshops. 4. Heat. A Teacher's ManualforGeneral Level 1 rogram Development,Grade 9. Science and Society Teaching Units Program Implementation. Some of the units re- Program Director/Publisher: Douglas A. Roberts, quire extra equipment The Heat and Force and The University of Calgary/The Ontano Institute for Energy units require little, if any, extra material be- Studies in Education, 252 Bloor St W., Toronto, sides the teacher's general knowledge of the subject Ontario, M55 1V6. material. The Green Plants unit requires "basic" gardening supplies plus a small amount of chemistry Program Support: The Ontario Institute for Studies equipment. The required materials are generally in Education. within those found in the average science class- Program Objectives: room. Advanced planning is advised to assure that 1. Overall Program Purpose. To provide materials the plant growing segment of the program runs with a curriculum emphasis on science and society. smoothly The Separation of Substances unitre- 2. Specific Objectives. The materials are designed quires that the students have access to a fully to: equipped chemistry laboratory. The teacher may a) introduce an understanding of the rela- also wish to have on hand reference materialson tionship between scientific knowledge and the water purification and water quality. decision making processes used by society in deal- Teacher Preparation: The teacher should be famil- ing with practical affairs; iar with the subject matter of the unit before start- b) teach students that they can us: science in ing the class. However, the units require little un- certain aspects of their lives; usual knowledge. Excellent resources are listed for c) enable students to discuss the social conse- updating one's background.

36 37 Financial Requirements. Besides the materials men view by the teacher. Occasionally, ordinal) school honed for each at the units, no additional materials materials such as rulers, yarn, scissors, photocopy ing are required. accessibility, a die, etc. are needed. Teacher Preparation: The Kit is designed to allow Global 2000 Countdown Kit students to use it with minimum teacher supervi- sion Each introduction gives necessary information Program Director/Publisher: Zero Population to students and teachers alike; teachers may wish to Growth, 1346 Connecticut Ave N W ,Suite 603, research certain, topics further to be able to answer Washington, DC 20036 probing questions. The Global 2000 Report would be Program Support: Not specified a valuable resource for this. Program Objectives: Financial Evaluation: The Kit itself is inexpensive- 1. Overall Program Purpose To demonstrate the 515, prices at related materials me not listed, but interrelationships and interdependence among pop addresses at the companies that would hav e the ulation, resource, and env ironmental concerns prices are Ordinary school matenals and library ac- 2. Specific Objectives. the materials are designed to cess should fall within the school's budget. a) help students understand ecology on a world scale. Project Learning Tree b) take a global approach to decision-making. c) prepare themselves to be socially and scien- Program Director:Publisher: American Forest In- tifically informed, politically effective citizens. stitute, Inc. Program Support: Western Regional Environmental Description of Program: The Global 2000 Countdown Education Council and American Forest Institute, Ktt consists of 14 units (atter the 14 issues addressed 1619 Massachusetts Ave N.W , Washington, DC by the Global 2000 Report) designed to be used individually or in sequence. Each unit includes: a brief 20036. introduction to the major findings on that issue as Program Objectives: published in the Global 2000 Report, a main ac- 1 Overall Program Purpose. For the student to de- tivity incorporating the views of different sectors at velop an awareness, concern, knowledge, and skill the public or difterent cultures in making decisions with respect to his or her environment and discussing their possible consequences, sug- 2 Specific Objectives: gestions for ways to become involved in the local a) for the student toexplore the interre- community's actions in that area or to increase com- lationships between living and nonliving things; munity awareness, and tinally, a list of related b) to involve the student in engaging his or her printed and audio/visual matenal available with ad- primary senses; dresses of their publishing companies. c) to display the diversity of natural re5oui:.es in the immediate environment; Methods of Instruction: The program uses a variety d) to display how human life is dependent upon of methods, including research papers; simulations; the existence of renewable and nonrenewable re- board and classroom games (one of which is student sources; created); calculations, charting and graphing, de- e) to help the student develop skills in evaluat- bates; mapping; experiments; home investigations; ing information and in making thoughtful deci- and always a culminating class discussion. sions. Specific Subjects, Age and Ability Levels: The Description of Program: This program is interdisci- Global 2000 Coutztdoun Kit addresses 14 subjects pop- plinary and emphasizes student interaction with the ulation; income; food; fisheries; forests; water; non- natural and social environment. The outdoors, par- fuel minerals; energy; species extinctions; and the ticularly trees, are used in vanous activities to exer- impacts of agriculture, water resources, forest losses, cise the student's senses and to encourage a self-ex- world's atmosphere and climate, and of nuclear en- amination of emotions along with the development ergyIt is a teaching supplement applicable to both of personal attitudes. The program aims to increase science and social studies courses taught from the environmental awareness with respect to both aes- 8th through 12th grade levels. Its basic information thetic values and concern for resources. and activities can easily be simplified or expanded The lessons, therefore, are based on activity and to apply to both younger and older age ranges discussion which require the student to go out into Materials Produced and Purchasable: the environment and observe, use his or her senses, 1. The Global 2000 Countdown Kit describe, analyze, and conclude. Hence, the stu- Project Implementation: Each activity can be im- dent gains personal experience with the environ- plemented almost immediately with a 10-minute re- ment Each lesson lists principles, concepts and skills

38 37 gained so the teacher can easily skim through and f) consequences and alternatives to current wild- choose an apnropriate activity. life issues and trends; Methods of Instruction: Laboratory investigation, g) responsible human actions towards wildlife outdoor observations, and inquiry. and their systems. Specific Subjects, Grade, Age, and Ability Levels: Description of Program: The curriculum unit con- The program is interdisciplinary. Activiaes range sists of activities designed for integration into exist- nom grades K-12, and it a specific subject, grade, ing courses of study, or the entire program can be or ability level is required, it is stated before each used as the basis for a course of study. Activities are activity. arranged in a thematic order to assist the students in Materials Produced: their development from awareness and appreciation to responsible actions concerning wildlife. 1. Two textbooks with activities for grades K-7 and 7-12. Each activity includes: a statement of the instructional objective; backgrourd information for the in- Materials Purchasable: structor; a list of materials needed, procedures, sub- 1. Two paperback textbooks. jects from which concepts are drawn; skills, Program Implementation. No outside reading or duration, and other information Also included are workshops necessary. Books contain background in- specific suggestions for extending the curnetiluin as formation. Materials for activities are simple and a whole. easily obtained from the outdoors or schoolroom The appendices include a useful glossary of terms, environment. an outline of the curriculum's conceptual framework, and cross-references by subject area, skills, Teacher Preparation: Some activities require pre- and topics for use in creating instructional units vious preparation but preparation is tast and simple as activities are geared towards personal observation Methods of Instruction: The teacher takes full re- and conclusion. sponsibility in presenting, trading, and concluding the activity. The activities for the most part are an Financial Requirement: Teacher's activity guide is active experience for students (observing, coloring, the only book necessary Students do not need individual books. pasting, etc.) followed by a teacher directed class- roomdiscussion. Specific Subjects, Grade, Age, and Ability Level: Project Wild The unit is most suited for the average elementary Earth is Home For Us All student and can easily be integrated into most Program Director/Publisher: Dr. Cheryl Charles, school subjects, especially science, social studies, lan- Project Wild. Salina Star Route, Boulder, CO guage arts, mathematics, and art. 80302. Western Regional Environmental Education A unit geared for grades 7-12 is also available and Courcil. uses the same format and curriculum framework. Program Support: Western Association of Fish and Materials Purchasable: Wildlife Agencies; Western Regional Environmental 1 Project Wild Elementary (K-6) Guide Education Council. 2. Project Wild Secondary (7-12) Guide Program Objectives: Teacher Preparation: The teacher needs to collect 1. Overall Program Purpose. To develop awareness, the materials for the activity and have a working knowledge, skills, and commitment that produces knowledge of the background information and informed decisions, responsible behavior, and con- procedure given in the unit guide structive actions towards wildlife and the env iron- Financial Requirements: The project guide and ment miscellaneous supplies that are commonly stocked in 2. Specific objectives: Project Wild helps students the school. learn: a) an awareness that humans and wildlife have Outdoor Biology Instructional Strategies some things in common; OBIS b) that wildlife is a valuable resource; c) the dynamic processes in ecological scstems Program Developer'Publisher: Outdoor Biology In- and their importance for wildlife. structional Project, Lawrence Hall of Science, Uni- d) about wildlife conservation and what it re- versity of California, Berkeley, CA. Delta Education, quires of humans; Box M, Nashua, NH 03061. e) the past and present effects of cultural and so- Program Support: National Science Foundation cial interaction with wildlife; Grant No. SED72-05823.

38 39 Program Objectives: Any outdoors education program could adoptOBIS I. Overall Program Purpose. To provide a base set as a supplement or total curriculumIn addition to of expenences in the knowledge of outdoor biology gro..11.,a such as scouts, nature centers, famii.es, and and to foster a positive outlook on science and schools will findOBISuseful. learning in general. Materials Produced: OBISModules: 2. Specific Objectives: OBIS Sampler Games and Simulations a) by better understanding the biological world, Adaptations Human Impact children can better understand the interrelated, Animal Behavior Lawns and Fields complex world they live in; Aquatic Animal Behavior Neighborhood Woods b) in realizing dependence and interrelation Backyard Nighttime with the biological world, children can make in- Bio-crafts Outdoor Study telligent decisions on environmental issues; Breakwaters and Bays Techniques c) to make learning more enjoyable; Campsite Pavement and Parks d) to encourage discovery by the student Child's Play Ponds and Lakes through exploration ar.d experience. Desert Schoolyard Description of Program: This program is based on a Forest Seashore theory that experience and exploration are valid For Eight- to Streams and Rivers and preferable educating forces to other forms of Eleven-year-olds Trail learning. Therefore all of the lessons inOBIShave For Large Groups Wintertime students playing an active role in investigating the For Small Groups environment. As a result, the students' input deter- and Families mines the outcome and success of the lesson. Materials Purchasable: The program is made up of 27 independent I. The modules above and most of the equipment modules covering a gamut of topics Within each listed in the matenals list can be purchased through module is from five to ten folios (lesson plans). In OBIS,Delta Publishing, Nashua, NH. each folio there is: 2. The remainder of the materials needed could be 1) Overview. A one sentence overview describing purchased inexpensively in lok..11 stores or acquired what the students do and what the students will get from home. from the activity; Program Implementation: The leader of an activity 2) Background: Information for the instructor :n necd tne materials listed in the material list order to run the activity; gathered and a site appropriate to the activity pick- 3) Challenge: A sentence setting forth the assign- ed out and cleared for use. The time necessary for ment for the students; each folio varies from 40 to 60 minutes. 4) Materials: A list of equipment that an instructor will need to get ready for the activity, Teacher Preparation: No other preparation needed 5) Preparation. This lists any preparation needed by other than gathering materials. the instructor, the type of site needed and the best Financial Requirements: Along with the cost of the group size This section also gives an estimation of modules used, there may be additional costs for ma- time required; terials used in the activities. This will vary with 6) Action: A procedure list for carrying out the ac- modules used. tivity; 7) What Do You Think? A set of questions to spawn discussion and g;...e added insight into the Zero Population Growth Action; Population Education Program 8) Branching Out: Additional ideas for other activities and actions which are related to the topic. at Program Director. Publisher. Zero Population hand. Growth, 1346 Connecticut Ave., N.W , Wash- Methods of Instruction: Go through the action. ington, DC. This may involve an exploiation of a specific hab Program Support: TheZPGpopulation education tat, playing a game, performing an experiment, or project began in 1975 with funding from the U S building a creature ( which simulates what une finds Office of Environmental Education and private in the natural world on the topic of the folio). Dis- foundations. cussion should be generated. All actions involve an Program Objectives: outdoor setting. I. The overall program purposes of ZPC are: to ed- Specific Subjects, Grade, Age and AbilityLevel. ucate teachers and students about the dynamics of OBISis designed for students ten to 15 years of age. population growth. 39

t 40 2. Specific objectives the student matenals are de- thored by Irma Greisel and Peter lensch, Houghton sign:3d to: Mifflin Company/Boston, MA. a) introduce population growth a id associated Program Objectives: problems; 1) Overall Program Purpose: To introduce students b) study depleted natural resources to the complex interactions of humans and eco- c) evaluate the impacts of popul; tion on land, systems. water, and air; 2) Specific Objectives: The program is designed to: d) study species extinction; 0 provide relevant and useful science experi- e) examine human social problems. ences for students who do not wish to pursue Program Description: ZPG's Population Education one of the cony entional science courses in senior Program will help educators and, ultimately, stu- high school. dents understand the relationships between popula- b) introduce students who are nut scientifically tion growth and a wide range of scientific and so- oriented to the scientific method, and its use in cial issues. The Population Education. Program the identification and solutiun of environmental provides training and classroom materials for teach- problems. ers of grades K-12 who are interested in introducing c) provide a course of study in which scientific population studies to their classrooms. and technical concepts are realistically integrated Methods of Instruction: Activities simulating real with social and economic concerns. world problems sometimes prefaced by short text d) develop in students an "environmental con- and followed by discussion. science," and to equip students with the means to translate their concern into practical action. Materials Produced: e) enable students to generalize from local condi- I. Elementary Population Activities Kit, 515.00. tions to global problems by identifying and inves- 2. Global 2000 Countdown Kit. 515.00. tigating local fauna, flora, and other environmen- 3. Population Education Resource Kit. S4.00. tal factors. 4. Population Education Leaders Kit. 55.00. 0 enable students to identify the natural eco- 5. ZPG Population Education Program: Description and system and to assess the effects of human de- Evaluation. 55.00. mands on the total ecosystem. Materials Purchasable: From Population Education g) permit students to evaluate environmental de- Resources, Zero Population Growth, 1346 Connecti terioration and to formulate practical solution,. for cut Ave., N.W., Washington, DC 20036. environmental problems. Specific Subjects, Grade, and Ability Levels: Ele- Characteristics of this Program: The program fosters mentary Population Activities Kit is designed to the student's curiosity about the environment. Be- teach all students in grades K-6 about basic popula- cause it is intended for nonscience-oriented stu- tion dynamics and environmental concepts Global dents, it deals v ith qualitative ideas and a minimum 2000 Countdown Kit is designed to teach all students of specialized vocabulary. in secondary classrooms about 14 multidisciplinary topics dealing with the earth's population, environ- Specific Subjects, Grade, Age, and Ability Levels: ment, and resources. Investigating Our Ecosystem is designed for students in grades 10-12 who have little or no science back- Teacher Preparation: ZPG sponsors workshops rang- ground. However, those who have had other high ing from one hour to several days. These are usu- school science courses may use the program. ally presented at major teacher's meetings including The program is designed as a 32-week course the National Association of Biology Teachers and based on 10 char ers of one to six weeks each. Ex- National Science Teacher's Association annual concept for the first three introductory chapters, any of ventions. Careful examination and study of the the chapters may be deleted or others may be added Population Educatior Resources Kit will probably to adjust for time limitations. Study includes: the be sufficient introduction to teach the program ecosystem, human ecosystem, field survey, water, Financial Requirements: Besides the original invest soil, the earth's crust, nuclear energy, interre- ment for students' kits, the lesson plans generally re lationships, and environmental conscience. quire no extra equipment. A few lessons may use Materials Produced: common it, ms found in science classrooms or easily 1) Investigating Our Ecosystem, Student Edition, purchased materials. Houghton Mifflin Company/Boston, MA S4.75 2) Investigating Our Ecosystem, Teacher's Manual, Investigating Our Ecosystem Houghton Mifflin Company/Boston, MA 55.25 Program Director:Publisher: The matenals were au Program Implementation: There are three areas

40 41 which are frequently visited for collecting lab sam- of food webs and organism-environment rela ples and therefore should be near the classroom: tions. 1) A pond or other body of water. e) obtain exposure to situations in which initsgra- 2) A small area relatively unchanged by humans. tions of the economics, sociology, political sci- 3) An area of high human impati, such as a busy ence, biology and geology they have learned are street corner in a city. utilized to solve a particular problem through Teacher Preparation: The teacher needs no special case studies. training unique to this course but should have basic f)write a research report/Environmental Impact Statement at the end of the program, testing their knowledge of biology (in particular ecology), chemistry, and physics. Laboratory experiments require comprehension of the above exercises and allow- handling of chemicals and maintaining small biolog- ing them practical experience in research gathering and report writing. ical specimens. Financial Requirements: This program requires only Description of Program: The program is not a com- basic science supplies, instruments, and equipment. prehensive study in any one traditional fieid of sci- Each student or small group of students must be ence; rather, the instruction provided for all disci- equipped with items such as beakers, test tubes, plines is kept at an introductory level. The emphasis thermometers, and ring stands. A supply of about for this program lies in the integration of the several 50 simple chemical compounds is required. Most of disciplines for the purpose of decision-making rela- these use less than 200g of the substance for a year. tive to land use. Topics include: public opinion, A list of matenals, supplies, and equipment neces- looking at land use, factors influencing land use, In- sary for the program is listed in the Teacher's Man- dependent investigation. ual. Methods of Instruction: Students participate in small group discussions and debates, reference and record searches, data table/graph reading and con- Investigating the Human Environment. Land struction, map reading and possible construction, Use some data collection/observation at home and within Project Director/Publisher: Biological Sciences Cur- the local community. riculum Study, The Colorado College, Colorado Specific Subjects, Grade, Age, and Ability Levels: Springs, CO 80903, Kendall-Hunt Publishing Com- Little science background is necessary, yet, strong pany, Dubuque, IA 52001. analytical skills are required. The program is best for Program Support: United States ()flux of Education, grades 8 10, the material usable either as supple- Department of Health, Education and Welfare. mental study in a political science:social studies class Program Objectives: or a one-term (10-15 week) elective study. 1) Overall Program Purpose: To introduce the stu- Materials Produced: dent to the complexity of deusion making, bringing 1. Investigating the Human Environment. Land Use about an understanding of the issues and considera- Student Manual. tions involved. 2. Investigating the Human Environment: Land Use 2) Specific Objectives: The students will: Teacher's Manual. a) receive an introduction to the science of pol- Teacher Preparation: Appendix A of the manual itics and public opinion. Thzy will learn how facts supplies titles of contacts necessary for student in- may be separated from value statements and quines, yet addresses of specific offices in the com- learn to recognize biases and their origin as well munity or state must be located by student or teach- as determine the pros and cons of a case. er. Other appendices supply library research b) obtain a brief introduction to biological com- information and guidelines for report writing. If de- munities, studying population and growth rate sired, the teacher could supplement science over- and the principle of carrying capacity. views in the text with additional lc.isons. c) learn the basics of economics, studying concepts of supply and demand, productivity, and Financial Requirements: There is little required be- budget planning. yond purchase of books and standard clasiroom d) investigate ecosystems, learning the concepts supplies, facilities, and equipment

42 41 Eric Johnson Activities for Science Teachers Kevin Najafi Teri Mau Mike O'Connell Mary McMillan Rodger Bybee James White

This chapter represents the concepts basic to the dynamics of a week allowance. If that person most practical aspects of a human population growth. puts the money away on the day ecological perspective. We have of receipt, then the amount will developed seven activities that Science Background and Societal increase by a constant amount serve as examples and first activi- Implications (two dollars) for a certain time in- ties for science teachers who wish Exponential growth is an interval (one week). to include human ecology in their Here is an illustration: programs. While we tried to increase by a constant percentage clude lessons for grades 7-12, for identifiable intervals of time. week 1 2 some activities are conceptually The increase over a certain time increase 2+2=4+2= and methodologically difficult. interval is directly related to the Science teachers will have to re- amount with which the interval week 3 4 view the activities and decide on started. An exponential curve has increase 6+2=8+2= the appropriateness of the lessons been described as a J curve. In the for their students. Activities are same way that the letter "J" starts week 5 6 organized to introduce -oncepts low on the bottom and then sud- increase 10+2 =12+2= of population, environment, and denly becomes vertical at the resources in the context of human bend, an exponential growth week 7 ecological problems. starts slowly but quickly turns to- increase 14+2 =16 The activities are: ward infinity. It should be noted that when one is doubling, the in- Many natural phenomena con- 1) Population Growth crease in one doubling is greater form to exponential and zrith- 2) Age Structure of Populations than total previous increases. metic growth. A major social is- 3) Air Quality and Automobiles Investment of money is a sim- sue confronting the world today 4) Thermal Pollution ple and good example of expo- is the fact that population growth 5) Vegetations and Soil nential growth. If you could dou- is exponential. And the increase 6) The Supply and Demand of ble your money in one week, in population is the origin of Resources: A Simulation then, starting with two dollars, many human ecological problems 7) The Tragedy of he Com- you will have four dollars after ranging from depletion of finite mons: An Invitation to In- one week. But in the next week, resources to use (and misuse) of quiry in Human Ecology the four dollar investment will be- land, air, and water. Additionally, Each activity begins with an come eight dollars, and so on. human health and disease are di- Here is an illustration: rectly related to population overview, followed by scientific growth. background and societal implica- week total tions. Major concepts, objectives, Concepts 1 1*2=2 and vocabulary are next. Then Exponential growth is an in- there are materials needed and 2 *2 = 4 crease in number propor- suggested procedures. Finally, 3 2=8 tional to a number already there are questions, discussions, 4 *2=16 present. and extensions for the activity. 5 *2=32 Present human birth rate in many countries is an example Activity 1: 6 2=64 of exponential growth. Population Growth 7 *2=128 Various factors affect the rate total after 7 weeks: $128.00 of increase, such as death Overview rate or medical technology, In this activity students investi- Arithmetic is an increase by a but the only variable which gate exponential and arithmetic constant amount over a time in- changes is the -number of growth with the use of cal- terval. Allowance is an example. generations needed to reach a culators. The activity introduces Let a person be given two dollars large population. 42 43 Objectives For example: large number when the point is made that there are many more 1 4 5 At the completion of this ac- trial 2 3 people who will have children 23 45 6 tivity, students should be able to: findings than simply this class. recognize an arithmetic 4. Have each group do the 5. In the next section of the ac- growth curve and describe its same five trials using tivity, tell the students to think properties. about the birth rate curve as it recognize an exponential relates to population increase. growth curve and describe its Ask them if they think it is an properties. 5. Have each graph their find- accurate graph of the popula- relate the growth curve to hu- ings either on graph paper or tion, and if not, what are some man birth rate and the effects on a chalk board, the trial of the things not taken into con- that different factors have on number being the x-axis and sideration by the graph. Some the curve. the data findings being the of these are: death rate, medical extend their knowledge to a y-axis. technology, immigration, and realization of the implications war. Ask the students what ef- that an exponentially increas- Part II fects they think each of these ing population has on the 1. Tell the class that a graph of would have on their curve. To earth. birth rate over successive gener- illustrate an example of medical analyze examples of natural ations is going to be made, technology or death rate, have growth and determine if they starting with the class as the half the class make another folloW an exponential or total population of generation I. graph, this time with a 10 per- arithmetic growth curve. Have them consider for a mo- cent death rate per generation ment, and then record how subtracted from the numbers already estimated. The other half Vocabulary many children they wish to have in their family. Add the should construct a graph with a arithmetic curverate of increase 15 percent "health care for sick birth rate total number of children, and exponential curve call this Generation II. Record babies" increase per generation. growth death rate this number on the chalkboard. Each generation on the new 2. Have the students repeat graphs should be 10 percent step 1, but this time have them less or 15 percent more. What is Materials important for the students to The materials needed for this estimate how many offspring each of their own children will realize in comparing the graphs activity are: have (i.e. the class' grand- is that the same number of a straight edge ruler children). Call this Generation births will always be reached; a pencil III. Again, record the total on the only factor which changes is standard graph paper the board. Repeat this proce- the number of generations it calculators dure at least two more times, takes to reach that total. until five generations have been estimated. These will be the Exte,tsion Procedures total theoretical descendants Part I Now that the class has a notion from this one class. of the escalating effects of birth 1. Divide the class into six 3. Have each student graph the rate, it is possible to consider groups of five students each results, with the horizontal axis some of the implications on the (number the groups). Distribute as the number of generations, earth. Some effects to consider calculators to each group. and the vertical axis as the are: 2. Begin by having everyone in number of children per genera- the class (or if you have only tion. At this point, you should 1) Finite resources. What hap- one calculator per group, then make sure that the students re- pens to the world oil supply one person in each group) alize that this is an exponential when all these children begin punch the number "1" into curve because birth increase is driving cars? 2) Food production. their calculators. proportional to the population How can we produce enough 3. Have group one punch in already present. food to feed all the new chil- "+ 1 =" and have them record 4. Emphasize that what has dren when we have such a lim- their findings in a chart. Then been created is an actual birth ited area to do it in? 3) Disease, repeat "+ 1 =" and recording rate increase as estimated by health and overcrowding. What for five trials. the class. This becomes a very about the spread of a disease 43 44 through a large crowded popu- percentage of persons below age tions as well as age groups are of lation' Or the effects of a large 29, and particularly below age 15. roughly equal size in a stable age population on available living That is, even when, on the aver- structure. Therefore, there are space? The class should discuss age, women tear fewer ciuldren, about as many persons of age 10 these and other questions the number of births can still in- as there are of age 20, 40, or 60. A Evaluation crease in a population if there is declining population, finally, is an increasing number of women characterized by a small base. Have the class group some of capable of bearing children. In People of ages 20 to 65, the these common growths 1977, about 36 percent of the peo- work force, must support children 1) The amount of water in a ple on earth were below age 15 and retired people in addition to dish for every drip from the Unless death rates rise sharply, themselves. The "dependency leaky faucet. the present world age structure load" is the ratio of old and 2) The spreading of a rumor (it foretells continued population young dependents (the top and A tells two friends and they tell growth for 50 to 100 years. The base of the graph) to the work two friends, and so on, and so Global 2000 Report to the President force. Because about 43 million on). predicts an increase in world pop- babies, or approximately one- 3) The time of day for every ulation from 4.1 billion people in sixth of the present U.S. popula- minute that goes by. 1975 to 6.35 billion in 2000, a 55 tion, were born between 1947 and 4) If for every quarter you lend percent increase. 1957, a problem of the 1960s was to a friend he gives you back Jumps in population growth, that a relatively small work force thirty cnets. such as the U.S. "baby boom," had a large dependency load. Ex- 5) The amount of interest you tend to affect the future grolvth trapolating present U.S. trends, get in a five percent interest and structure of society for 20 to this problem will likely reoccur by bank account for every year 40 years, as the population bulge 2030, when a relatively small that goes by. passes through a whole genera- work force born in the 196Js, 70s, 6) Population growth. tion. Thus, although American and 80s will shoulder a large de- couples in the recent past have pendency load of retired people. opted for smaller families, the The dependency load should de- Activity 2: greater number of women able to crease, in comparison, during the Age Structure and Population bear children will likely result in a period from 1975 to 200D, as the consistent increase in births baby boom generation moves Overview throughout the 1970s and 1980s. through the work force. Students investigate the topic of The basic age structure diagram While the 1980s and early 1970s age structure, one of the four ma- for the world, a certain country or in the U.S. marked the youth gen- jor factors in human population region, includes the percentages eration, the years 1975 to 2005 will dynamics. After an introduction of the total population in three be the period of young adults. As- to the four major types of age age categories: preproductive suming no increase in death rates, structure diagrams, students com- (ages 0 to 14), reproductive older persons should arrive at pare the graphs of three differ- (15-29), and post productive (45 to their highest proportion of the ent countries and examine the 75) (See Figure 1). population in U.S. history from changes in the graph of a single The distinctive shape of the age '000 to 2030 or so Hence the term country over a period of time. structure graph indicates whether "aging population." In sum, a a population will increase, de- bulge or indentation in the age Science Background and Societal crease, or remain about the same structure graph of a population Implications in number. A rapidly expanding represents a potentially potent The number of persons in a cer- population characteristically has a force for social, political, and eco- tain population at each age level very broad base, which means a nomic changes during a span of is the age structure, or age dis- relatively high percentage of per- some 70 years. tribution, of the population. An sons in the reproductive category important force in population and a still higher proportion in Concepts growth is the number of women the preproductive years soon to The shape of the age struc- in childbearing age (15 to 44), es- replace them during the next 15 ture diagram suggests wheth- pecially those in the prime re- years. The shape of a stable popu- er a given population might productive years (20 to 29). There lation approaching a zero growth grow, con traLt, or stay the is a latent momentum to sustain rate (net death rate equals net same. population growth that exists in a birth rate) is closer in shape to a The dependency load of a population with a relatively large rectangle than a pyramid. Genera- population is the ratio of the 44

45 45.75 45.75

15-44 15-14 20-29 20.29 A G 0-14 0.14 E 60-75 60-75 C L. 45.59 45.59 A S 3044 S 30-14

15-29 15-29

0-14 :;:::.'-:.': 0.14 %MALE %FEMALE %MALE %FEMALE %MALE %FEMALE %MALE %FEMALE Rapid Population Moderate to Slow Very Slow Growth or Declining Population Growth Doubling Population Growth Stable Population tune: 20-40 yrs Doubling tune: 41.120 Doubling time: yrs 121-693 yrs

FIGURE 1. Four main types of age structure diagrams for human populationsCIAI represent preproductive years (0-14). CM represent reproductive years (15-44). 122 represent postproductive years (45-75). Dotted lines denote prime reproductive years (20-29) (Adapted from Miller, G. Tyler, Jr., Living in the Environment. Second edition, 1979, page 112.)

46 Very Fast Growth Slow Growth Very Slow Growth MEXICO UNITED STATES SWEDEN age class yearsof birth 85+ before1890 8044 1890-94 75.79 1895-99 70-74 1900-04 65-69 1905-09 60-64 1910-14 55.59 1915-19 SO-54 1920-24 45-59 1925-29 4044 1930-34 35.39 1935-39 30-34 1940-44 25-29 1945-49 20-24 1950-54 15-19 1955.59 10-14 1960-64 5-9 1965-69 0-4 1970-74 b.....--1---i__Ty.-JI---44 4 ii 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 %MALE %FEMALE %MALE %FEMALE %MALE %FEMALE

FIGURE' Age structure diagrams for Mexico, the United States, and Sweden. (Source. adapted from Miller, page 113.)

47 1960 1970 1990

85 +1 85+ as + 80-84 80-84 80-84 75.79 75-79 75.79 70-74 70-74 70-74 65-69 65-69 65-69 60-64 60-64 60-64 A 55-59 55.59 G55-59 E50-54 50-54 50-54 45.49 45-49 45-49 C40-44 4044 4044 L 35-39 35-39 35-39 A 30-34 30-34 Babies born1955-1959 S 30-34 S 25-29 25.29 25-29 20-24 20-24 20-24 15-19 15-19 15-19 10-14 10-14 Babies born 1955-1959 10-14 5.9 5.9 5-9 0-I Babies born1955-1959 0-4 0-4

6 4 2 0 2 4 6 6 4 2 2 4 6 4 2 0 2 4 %MALE %FEMALE %MALE %FEMALE %MALE %FEMALE FIGURE 3. The age structure of the U.S. population in 1960, 1970, and 1990 (projected) Follow the gradual upward movement of the population bulge of the bulnes born in 1955 to 1959. (Sauce: adapted from Miller, page 114.)

48 young and old dependents to ing, declining, or board. Then, do the the size of the work force. staying the same? same in reference to the (Ans.: Growing) Objectives relative sizes of the de- 2Do you think the pendency load. Next, At the completion of this ac- U.S. population is using the transparency tivity the student should be able growing, declining, so that all students can to: or staying the same? see all four diagrams, Define age structure and de- (Ans.: Growing) evaluate their conclu- pendency load. 3For a population to sions, emphasizing the Identify the four main kinds increase in number, importance of the per- of age structure diagrams for do you think it is centage of people below human populations. more important to age 29, especially below Interpret an age structure have more older peo- 15,to population graph. ple than younger growth. Compare different population people, or more (d) Hand out the sheet with diagrams. younger people than the more complex dia- Describe the basic effects of a older people? (Ans.: grams of Figure 2, and bulge or indentation in an More younger peo- allow a few minutes for age structure graph on the ple) the students to digest dependency load of a nation. (b) Utilizing a chalkboard il- the diagrams. Using the lustration of a simple transparency of Figure 2, Materials pyramidical structure discuss with the stu- Transparencies and trans- graph, define for the students how the concepts parency projector. dents the terms age just learned apply to real Chalkboard structure, dependency world situations. Before Consumable paper in suli- load, preproductive, re- comparing the three dia- dent quantities. prodLctive and postpro- grams, explain the axes, ductive. Hint at the im- and the way the age Vocabulary portance of the shape of class percentages sum to Age structure, or distribution the diagram and clearly 100 percent. Mexico is an Preproductive explain the axes. Com- example of rapid popula- Reproductive pare the relative sizes of tion growth, the U.S. is Dependency load the pre-, re-, and post- slowly growing, while Baby boom productive age groups in Sweden is growing very Postproductive the four graphs. Take slowly and is approach- time to let the students ing ZPG. As of 1977, Procedures become acquainted v, ith Mexico's population of 1. Preparation for the lesson and ask questions about 66.9 million was growing (a) Reproduce on a trans- this unusual graphic at a rate of 3.4 percent parency Figure 1 and form. per year, with a dou- make four paper hand- (c) Divide the students into bling time of 20 years, outs corresponding to four equal groups with a and will continue in this the four graph types one to one sex ratio in regard due to its very therein. each group if possible. broad base. The U.S. (b) Reproduce four copies of Then, distribute one set had 218 million people in Figure 2 below, giving of handouts to each 1977, growing at .6 per- one copy to each group. group, so that each cent yearly, for a dou- (c) Reproduce on a trans- group has just one of the bling time of 116 years. parency Figure 3 below. four diagrams in Figure Sweden, with only 8.3 2. In the classroom. 1. After a few minutes to million, was growing at (a) Introduce the activity by examine their graph, the a .1 percent yearly rate, asking the student to an- groups should in turn re- doubling itself in 693 swer the following ques- port to the class whether years. tions, then discuss them the population might ex- (e) Finally, using the trans- briefly. pand, decline, or stay parency of Figure 3, 1Do you think world the same. Write these demonstrate the slow population is grow- conclusions on the chalk- movement of a given age 48 49 class up through the and Environment Dubuque, IA Kendall/ Periodic alterations in the com- Hunt. Chapter 4. position of the atmosphere are various age levels. Ex- Council on Environmental Quality and the plain what is meant by Department of State. The Global 2000 Re- normal. However, pollutants add- the "baby boom," then port to the President. Volume 1, p 9 ed to the atmosphere as a result Miller, G T , Jr (1979) Living in the En- of human activity can drastically show how the bulge, vironment. 2nd edition. Belmont, CA: once it reaches the 30-34 Wadsworth. Chapter 7. change the atmospheric composi- age class, has helped in- tion. An altered world climate stigate another such (through increased CO2 in the at- bulge. Compare the de- Activity 3: mosphere) and detrimental effects pendency loads in each on life (including human) would case, and how it de- Air Quality and Automobiles result. creases while the baby Overview The automobile is the major boom adults move Students are introduced to the source of air pollution. Many through the work force. effects of automobile exhaust on types of pollutants are found in Explain that the popula- air quality. Students collect, ana- automobile exhaust. The major tion might rise even lyze, and describe particles in au- ones are carboy monoxide (CO), when the average num- tomobile emissions. They test and hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides ber of children per fami- compare pH levels for the atmos- (N0x), particulate matter, and ly decreases, simply be- phere and automobile emissions. sulfur oxides (SO,c). Of these, car- cause there is an increas- bon monoxide is the number one ing number of fertile Scientific Background and Societal air pollutant. It is produced by the women. Implications: incomplete burning of carbon- It is generally assumed that the containing substances. Extension world possesses an unlimited There are two categories of air Divide the students into groups supply of air. Unfortunately, this pollution: visible and invisible of three to four. Ask that each is not the case. The atmosphere is Because some exhaust gases are group provide a list of direct or a gaseous envelope, consisting ofinvisible doesn't mean they are indirect effects on the ale struc- several layers, that surrounds the harmless. For example, carbon ture of a population, and what earth. Five to seven miles above monoxide is dangerous because it these effects might have on the the earth's surface is the tro-is an invisible, tasteless, and age distributions. Direct effects in- posphere. This layer contains 95 odorless grs. The effects of carbon clude changing death, birth, or percent of the earth's air. Themonoxide cn humans are: re- fertility (average number of chil- stratosphere extends above the duced oxygen carrying capacity of dren born yearly per woman aged troposphere to about 30 milesblood; impaired judgment; ag- 15 to 44) rates, or change in the above the earth. From there, the gravation of heart and respiratory average age of first marriage. In- mesosphere exists until 53 miles diseases; headaches and fatigue at direct effects, which work above earth. After that, the re- moderate concentrations; and through the direct effects, include maining air in the atmosphere is death Ly asphyxiation at pro- war, famine, disease, sanitation, referred to as the thermosphere. longed high concentrations. nutrition, and medicine. Alter- Any pollutants added to the at- natively, this might be a home- mosphere mix with each other or Concepts: work exercise. with the natural components and Automobile exhaust pollutes often result in chemical reactions. the atmosphere. Evaluation The formation of acid rain is an Emissions affect various Ask or give a quiz containing a example. Eventually, most of forms of life. few factual questions about the these pollutants and the chem- --Ways exist to improve air age structure diagrams. For exam- icals that they form are returned quality through technology ple, how much greater is the to the land or water through pre- and life style changes. 30-34 age group projected for the cipitation or fallout. While all U.S. in 1990 than that of 1970? such pollutants may not have a Objectives: Also, encourage students to re- negative effect on ecosystems, At the completion of this ac- veal any dissenting opinions in certainly many do, especially procedures 2. (d) and 2. (e). Final- tivity the students should be able when one also considers the typ- to: ly, ask that students define orally ical rate of deposition and the the vocabulary terms listed above ability of ecosystems to absorb Describe the various products and degrade the material through of automobile exhaust. Resources/References Explain the various effects of Christensen, ).W. (1981). Energy, Resources natural processes. 49 50 pollutants on our environ- gine size, year, and type of fuel Possible responses: ment. used. Also explain that a com- Input approaches Identify solutions to the car parison will be made between 1. Reduce automobile use. pollution problem. the pH level of the atmosphere How? and of the emissions. Place a Materials: a) place taxes on gas- strip of pH paper outside on a oline, engine size, and Every group of students should flat surface for 24 hours to accu- car weight. have each one of the following mulate dust particles. In the b) banning cars in down- materials: laboratory moisten with a few town areas. dean, white handkerchief drops of recently boiled dis- c) modifying life-styles tilled water. rubber band and the design of cities dean, glass slides 2. Have students make obser- to require less auto- magnifying lens or micro- vations about the density of mobile use. scope particles on their handkerchief. 7.. Develop mass transit (rail- litmus paper Scrape off the particles onto dif- road, subway, bus) which ferent slides. Have the students moves large groups of Vocabulary: examine the particles under a people and paratransit magnifying lens or a micro- (carpools) which moves carbon monoxide scope. Describe the color, size, small groups of people. hydrocarbons and shape of the particles. Who should pay for this? nitrogen oxide 3. Allow the students individu- Federal, state, local taxes? particulate matter ally to determine the pH of the 3. Develop less polluting sulfur oxide exhaust gases. Rinse exposed and more energy efficient emissions (exhaust) portions of handkerchiefs with engines. 10 ml. of distilled water. Place a Procedures: 4. Use a cleaner fuel for the few drops of this rinse on a internal combustion en- 1. Introduce the activity by strip of pH paper. Make a com- gine. i.e. natiral gas, bat- showing the class contrasting parison between the atmo- teries. Note: gasohol may pictures of air quality found in spheric value and that for each or may not be cleaner. Its magazines (heavily polluted car. development is in re- city vs. clean one). Explain to 4. Lead a discussion on the sponse to the energy the students that they will be problem of air pollution. crisis not atmospheric studying the products found in What accounts for the dif- pollution. automobile exhaust. In order to ference, if there is any, in 5. Improve fuel efficiency. visually observe the products, it the pH levels? This can be accomplished is necessary to collect some Recognizing that we are by reducing the size, emissions. Have the students only measuring a few cars weight, wind resistance, do this as an experiment. Talk for a short period of time, and power of cars and by about the varying charac- what are the implications improving the energy effi- teristics of cars and assign each when all the cars in the ciency of transmissions, individual student or group of world are accounted for? air conditioning and other students to measure a represen- Why are measured particle accessories. tative sample. Distribute hand- levels different for differ- 6. Modify the internal com- kerchief and rubber band to ent cars? bustion engine to control each with instructions that they Point out environmental emissions and improve are to be used to cover the ex- implications for living be- gas mileage. Such modifi- haust pipe of a car. Tell them to ings (acid rain, health con- cations include carburetor put this over the pipe opening, sequences) as well as the adjustments, fuel injec- warning them to keep their face detrimental aesthetic ef- tion, and diesel and strat- away from exhaust fumes and fects (accumulated filth). ified-charge engines. not to touch the pipe of an al- Explain also the ethical Output Approaches ready idling car. Leave it on for choices involved in forcing 1. Control emissions from five minutes while the car is changes. the internal combustion running. Remove fixture and Now ask students to think engine more strictly, i.e. place in a bag to bring back to of methods for controlling afterburners and catalytic school the next day. Have the emissions from automo- converters. students record the model, en- biles. 2. Treat urban air with 50, 51 chemicals in order to re- perature in rivers, lakes, and heated portions of the plant. This duce the formation of ocean coast lines. warmed water is often released smog. Possible effects resulting from back into its natural source. The warming waters are: effects of the hot water depends Discuss the feasibility of each. on the amount of heat added and Then ask the students: Detrimental the quantity or flow of the natural What actually has been done? a)Initial death of aquatic life body of water. Discuss emission standards in thatcannotadapt to rapid It was estimated by Murray and particular. Then ask: changes in temperature. Reeves in 1977 that close to 38 Did it make a difference based This can happen when a percent of all water used in the on observations? power plant first opens and United States was for cooling elec- Extension again when it closes for re- tric power plants. The National pairs. Water Commission reported in Have the students consider the b) Many aquatic species are 1973 that it takes 1.23 billion gal- long term effect of pollution cycle less resistant to disease and lons of cooling water per day to and implications for living organ- other forms of pollution in operate a 1,000 megawatt nuclear isms (including humans). warm waters. power plant. Most predict that Evaluation c) Less oxygen remains dis- the demand for electricity will in- solved in warm water. crease by the turn of the century. Comparing all the different data d) Aquatic life in general If present trends persist, then, a of each student, have the stu- needs more oxygen to live proportional amount of cool water dents write a statement explain- in warm water. will be needed. ing the differences in emissions e) A lowering of species diver- Many alternatives to the ther- from various cars and the desired sity due to the lack of heat mal dumping have been present- policies to follow. sensitive species. ed. Many suggest using the heat- Resources /References: f)A change in type of species ed water to heat homes and of- Biological Sciences Curriculum Study present.(Example: increase fices. To do this it would benec- (1975). Investigating Your Environment in blue-green algae). essaryto place the power plants i'alo Alto, CA: Addison-Wesley Publish- Due to a lowering in key close proximity of dense ing Company. g) in very Greisel, I. and Jensch, P. (1976). Invest:gat species, the food chain may population regions. In this way tug Our Ecosystem Boston. Houghton be disrupted. transportation of the heat would Mifflin Company, Miller, G.T., Jr. (1979). Living to the En- h) A change in time of lake be minimal in heat loss and cost. vironment. (2nd ed.) Belmont, CA. turnover. But this would put the public in Wadsworth. close proximity to additional air Beneficial pollution and possible radioactive i) In some areas a bolstering leakage. A commonly used alter- Activity 4: of fishing and aquatic agri- native is large cooling reservoirs, Thermal Pollution culture industry. This may either in the form of large towers, result due to introductions Overview lakes or canals. of warmer water species to The students are told a story of the area. (Example: catfish, Concepts drastic changes in a lake eco- carp, lobsters,oysters, Changes in the temperature system. The students identify shrimp.) of water can change eco- possible causes for the changes. cov- systems. 1) Decrease in winterice The activity ends with the teacher er. Thermal changes may have explaining thermal pollution as k)Increase potential for recrea both negative and positive ef- one possible cause. tional uses. fects on a community. There are costs, risks and Science Background and Societal I) Increase use for irrigation. benefits related to the loca- Imp lications m) Possible use for heating buildings and industrial tion and operation of power Though it is clear that tem- processes. plants. perature rises in a water environment can change associated plant Electrical power plants, run on Objectives: and animal communities, contro- fossil fuels or nuclear reactions, After completing this activity versyarisesaround the conse- release large quantities of excess students should be able to: quences of the changes. There are heat. A typical cooling method in- both beneficial and detrimental ef- volves piping cold water from Describe causes of thermal fects of a rise in water tem- rivers, lakes, or oceans to the pollution

52 Describe beneficial and detri- it had closed down. I asked Example: mental effects of thermal pol- some people about it, they said It BENEFICIAL - swimming lution on ecosystems. closed about eight years ago. They claimed that there was no UNDESIRABLE - algae and Use inductive skills to ana- demand for a bait shop, and that slime, bad fishing lyze a change in environ- it was losing too much money. I BOTI -I- new industries, ment. thought this was crazy. It had power plant, more people, been the best shop in town, water warmed Vocabulary every fisherman went there. But the people I talked to said that 5. Turn to the first two catego- Thermal Pollution all the bait shops in town closed, ries and ask the class what Nuclear reactor and that nobody in their right changes in the community mind fishes in that river any- could produce this effect. Materials more. I thought ar this point that Example: Chalkboard they were really stupid, for I remembered clearly how great the The students may say that fishing was in the lake. due to the increase in popula- Procedures I went to the city hall, bought tion of the area, a recreation 1. Introduce the students to the my fishing license, and went out facility became necessary. day's activitya story. Ask the to the lake To my dismay, in- Then you could add that stead of finding the lake spar- students to make a list of all kling clear I found it dark and al- wouldn't the warming of the changes that take place in the gae filled. I tasted and waited in water also have an effect story. expectation. After a few minutes since it would have been im- 2. Read or tell the story to the without luck I moved to a new practical to have a swimming students. (If you are a good sto- spot Cast after cast, hour after area due to the water tem- hour went by without a single ry teller then telling the story is nibble. perature previously? Then far preferable to reading it.) Finally I moved out on a little ask where the warming My name is James D. White. I jetty of stones to cast from. might come from. left my home ten years ago to Though I was very careful I Each change leads to pollution search for fame and fortune and slipped on what turned out to be of some sort from the new indus- to get an education in college. some kind of green slime. As I tries or power plant, in particular, My home town was built along a started to fall I had flashbacks of lake. I remembered fondly how I how cold the water was when I the warning from the thermal pol- .ised to fish in the lake. The old was a child. But crashed Into the lution of the power plant. men that fished always laughed chest-deep water, I found that it 6. Explain that great amounts at me as they came running to wasn't cold at all. In fact it was of heat are byproducts of power help me with my line, for they very comfortable as lakes go. plants, and that thermal dump- always feared that the fish As I headed back to town to would pull my pole and me with change my clothes, I thought of ing is a common method of dis- it right into the lake. I was al- all the changes that my home posal. ways very glad that they helped town had gone through. I won- for I feared that if I did fall in dered what happened that made Extension that I would freeze right up like these changes. Ask the students if they can an ice cube and never be able to think of any other beneficial or get out. I loved fishing in that 3. On a chalkboard make a list lake over any other lake because of what the students wrote as detrimental effects of thermal I could often see all the way to dumping in other situations. Go the rocky bed as the fish nibbled changes that occurred. Exam- ples: through some ideas listed in the on my line. background material. Use the I returned to my home town a) new industries, new Reader's Guide to Periodical Liter- last fall for the first time to find stores many changes. Many new in- ature to find current information dustries, a new power plant, b) new power plant on uses for thermal wastes. new stores and many more peo- c) more people ple had come to the town. The d) public swimming area Evaluation town even built a large public e) bait shop closed, fishing Have students complete a half- swimming area beside the lake turned bad which I thought was crazy re- page rPper assignment on ways membering h'w cold the water f) blue-green algae rather to d;spose of or use the heat with- was. than clear water out dumping it into waterways. I decided that I would go fish- g)water warmed ing while I was there. But Ifirst Resource; References: had to get a state fishing license. 4. Go through the list of changes and ask the students to Andrews, W (1972)Environmental Pol- walked to where I remembered lution Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey my favorite small bait shop was classify the changes as "bene- Prentice-Hall. but when I got there I found that ficial," "undesirable," or both. Cairns, J. Jr. (1971). 'Thermal Pollution. A 52 53 Cause tor Concern,Journal of the Vater conservation practices, both on Stir ring rods or wooden Pollution Control Federation,43 55.66 farms and in urban areas. sticks Cairns, JJr. (1970)"Ecological Manage- Water ment Problems Caused by Heated Concepts Waste Water Discha,6e into the Aquatic Graduated cylinders Environment,"Water Resources Bis Ilein, Litter from vegetation slows Balances 6868.878. the rate of evaporation from a Coutant, C.0 (1970). "Thermal Pollution. Graph paper Biological Effects,"Journal of the Water soil. Various types of vegetation- Pollution Control Federation 421025- The a, ,ount of water lost to based litterleaves of trees, 1027 evaporation can be measured Miller, G T Jr. (1979)Living in the Environ- twigs, grasses mentBelmont Wadsworth Publishing by systematically weighing Company. samples before and after Vocabulary water has been added. water content bar graph saturation Activity 5: Soil is a resource which needs water erosion to be preserved. evaporation rate soil Vegetation and Soil Objectim Procedures Overview At the completion of this ac- Before classdetermine how Students predict, observe and tivity a student should be able to. many milliliters are needed to sat- discuss laboratory results. Over a urate 200 f of the local soil. Use period of days, they weight two weigh samples quickly and this amount in Step 3 of the stu- accurately, and record the different soil samples, and plot dent procedure. the results on graphs. For each data on a bar graph; Before beginning the laboratory student, one container has bare explain the role of vegetation activity, the teacher can present soil and one has soil covered with in maintaining soil moisture; students with an idea exploration: litter. Discussion questions focus discuss several causes for var- on the importance of vegetation iations in the rate of evapora- 1 What do the students al- to soils. tion (e.g., various types or ready know about vegeta- depths of litter). tion? (Types, places it grows) Scientific Background and Societal 2. How might different types of Implications Materials vegetation affect the soil dif- Vegetation shades soil and Two 250 ml. beakers for each ferently? (e.g., soils under holds moisture and nutrients in a student grasslands are often very fer- network of roots. When vegeta- Grease pencil or marking pen tile, but soils are less fertile tion prevents a soil from becom- Local soil (a clay-rich type under forests, because more ing dried out, it inhibits wind ero- is bestit holds waterin nutrients are stored within sion because moist soil particles water-tight containers to be the trees themselves.) adhere to each other. When clay- used when soil is returned to 3. If we simulate vegetation by rich soil is dried out by the sun, it the collection site) shading soil, what other var. becomes even more difficult for new plants to take root because a hard crust forms at the surface. FIGURE ISHADED AND UNSHADED SOILS This hard crust can be softened by rain, but the bare soil is more like- Beaker #1 shaded Beaker #2 unshaded ly to erode. Raindrops falling on bare soil can loosen particles Weight of empty beaker: whereas soils with vegetation and #1 #2 litter (dead leaves, twigs Of stems) Weight of beaker and dry soil: slows the speed of falling rain and #1 #2 protects soil from water erosion. Volume of water in graduated cylinder: Soil loss has both environmental and economic consequences. Weight of beaker + water + soil. Because vegetation can fertilize Day 1 and stabilize soil, it is important Day 1 that students understand the fun- Day 2 Day 2 damental connection between Day 3 Day 3 plants and soils. If students grasp Day 4 Day 4 this idea, they may gain a greater Day 5 Day 5 appreciation of the need for soil yEINP.1.1,0

53 54 iables are we leaving out? the same scale, so that they daily as it applies to agricultural (No roots) can compare their graphs land. 4. Decomposing plant material, more easily. Leave weekend whether leaves in fcrests or days numbered but without Resources/References stems and leaves in prairies, measurements. Brown, Lester. (1981). Building A Sustaina- aids in protecting soils from ble Society. New York W W Norton lc Post-Laboratory Questions: Company. (See Chapter 1 ) wind and water erosion. Soil Conservation Service, U S Depart- ment of Aviculture Preparation of Soil Samples: 1. Does litter reduce soil drying? Which type seems most 1. Have each student weigh effective? Actin ity 6: two empty beakers, record 2.Before measuring after a The Supply and Demand of the weights, label one beaker weekend, mark on each "shaded" and the other "un- graph where you expect the Resources shaded" and write his or her new data to appear. Test Overview same on each beaker. your hypothesis with meas- 2. Ask each student to add 200 Students are introduced to the urements. concept of supply and demand g. of soil to each beaker. Be- 3. What places around us have through a simulation about re- fore measuring, students no vegetation? (parking lots, should try to approximate. source allocation. S' _dents play streets, fields during winter) the role of rt.gulatory commission 3. Have each student add 4. Which ones have vegetation enough water just to saturate members in charge of the alloca- during some part of the .ion of a specific nonrenewable re- the soil in each beaker. year? (farms) sourcesoil----and the role of rep- 4. Form groups of 4. Choose 5. At what time of year might one type of litter and within resentatives of societies that erosion and drying be worst? require oil to survive and to de- each group decide which (during dry months, when velop. Students learn that re- student will test these litter there is no vegetation, wind sources are finite and, conse- depths. 1 cm., 2 cm., 3 cm., erosion may be the worst) quently, societies must share 4 cm. 6. What are some of the rea- 5. Identify the bare soil con- them. Resource constraints are sons that vegetation is cut? part of the reason why various tainer for each student as the 7. If we were to use vertation control, each littered con- populations, far from being inde- more effectively and not cut pend nt, are interdependent. tainer as the experimental as much, how might that af- one. fect the soil? Scientific Background and Societal 6. Have students weigh and re- 8. If soils need to be quite dry Implications: cord control and experimen- (and sandy, for wind erosion The amount of a commodity, tal containers. to have much of an effect, e.g., oil, that individuals (coun- 7. Place containers in a window then how might vegetation tries) wish to purchase is called exposed to the drying effects be important? the quantity demanded. This quan- of the sun. 9. Litter in home gardens is tity is determined by the com- 8. Weigh both containers daily. called mulch. How might a modity's own price, the prices of vegetable garden benefit Preparation of Graph: related commodities, average in- ?repare an overhead or draw from straw or leaf mulches? come, personal tastes, income dis- on the board: tribution and the size of the popu- Extension lation. The fundamental law of 1 A sample of what should be Students may experiment with demand states that the lower the recorded in the st'.dent's lab different types of soils, e.g. very price of a commodity, the larger notebook, like the one in Fig- sandy or clay-rich ones, to see the quantity that will be de- ure 1. which ones can absorb more wa- manded. The relationship be- 2 A sample of a bar graph, ter, beginning with equal weights tween quantity demanded and with beaker + soil + water of soil. price is represented graphically by weight on the vertical scale The teacher may show pho- a downward sloping demand and day 1, day 2 ... on thetographs of areas where severe curve that shows how much will horizontal scale. Students wind erosion has taken place, e.g. be demanded at each market price should prepare two graphs, the Dust Bowl of the 1930's, or (See Figure 1). one with the data for shaded areas which are becoming deserts The amount of a commodity soil, and one for the un- today. Desertification may also be that firms (countries) wish to sell shaded Ask students to use an appropriate paper topic, espe- is called the quantity supplied. This

54 55 Figure 1 Demand equilibrium there will be excess tributed? On what criteria should demand. Graphically, equilibrium this decision be based? Who 5 occurs where demand and supply should decide? One solution to curves intersect. these policy-related problems of ethics is to let the marketplace al- 4 .6 Figure 3 Equilibrium locate, eventually reaching an O 3 equilibrium between supply and l'I 5 demand. If the free market dis- .z tribution is for some reason con- a.2 sidered unequitable, however, an alternative is to oversee the alloca- 1 15 3 tion of the resource via a regulato- I I I i ry commission. This commission 50 100 150 200 250 works toward the goal of an op- Quantity of oil timal allocation in not only an 1 economic sense, but also in a social sense, taking into account jus- quantity depends on the com- tice as well as economic power. modity's own price, the prices of 50 100 150 200 250 other commodities, the costs of Quantity of oil production factors, the goals of Concepts: the firm, and the state of tech- Resource constraints add to Price is assumed to rise when the interdependence of na- nology. In the case of a finite re- there is a shortage and to fall source the supply is fixed. The tions. when there is a surplus. Thus the basic law of supply states that the The demand of a resource is higher the price of the com- actual market price will be pushed greater than its supply. modity, the larger the quantity toward the equilibrium price, and Resource allocation is an eth- that will be supplied. The rela- when it is reached, there will be ical, and thus political, prob- neither a shortage nor surplus. tionship etween quantity sup- Natural resources are com- lem. plied and price is representedmodities. Actually, the com- graphically by an upward sloping Objectives: supply curve (See Figure 2). Inmodity is the "reserves" or the total amount of a given resource After this activity students this simulation of a natural re-in known sites that is profitably source, the supply curve will be should be able to: extractable at present prices and vertical, illustrating fixed supply technology. For nonrenewable re- Describe the relationship be- at any price. sources, such as metals and min- tween the supply of and de- erals, which may be used up or at mand for a resource. Figure 2 Supply least depleted until further recov- Discuss some factors that influence resource allocation. ery is technologically and/or fi- Distinguish between the 5 nancially unfeasible, the term reserves connotes limitation. All amount of a resource needed for the nation's survival, and =4 nations face resource constraints; 0 none can boat of self-sufficency. the amount necessary for de- O 3 Subsequently, countries, far from velopment. 8 being independent in their con- a. 2 sumption of many renewable as Materials: well as nonrenewable resources, 40 3" x 5" notecards with the 1 are made more interdependent by words "25 units of oil" the natural limitations imposed printed on them. r 1 1 I 1 on them. If one country, with suf- Eight different handouts as 50 100 150 200 250 ficient power, sees fit to consume described below. Quantity of oil a relatively high proportion of available oil, for example, others Vocabulary The equilibrium price is the one may be unable to develop as they at which the quantity demanded wish, or, at the extreme, to sur- Supply Reserves equals the quantity supplied (See vive in their present state. Demand Interdependence Figure 3). At any price below the How should a resource be dis- Resource Equilibrium

55 56 Procedures: groups. Designate one as the mand" greater than "supply" Prior to class: regulatory commission, with and that ethical problems re- the other four as different coun- sult, i.e. who gets to develop. 1. Prepare four different paper tries. Distribute the different Tell the commission that it has handouts in the following man- handouts to the four groups, come to the attention of the ner. On the first, for Group 1, asking that each group's hand- analyst through scientific inves- print, "You are the chosen rep- out remain confidential. State tigation that the countries In- resentatives of a country that that your role will not be as the volved have one of two prob- needs 100 units of oil resources teacher but rather as an eco- lems. Hand out to each group to survive, and 500 additional nomic consultant to the reg- their respective cards on pollu- units to develop your economy ulatory commission and this tion and population providing to a more advanced state. There means periodic reports to better the commission with the infor- are 1,000 available units to be inform the commission on vari- mation at the same time. The allocated amongst various ous problems. consultant should advise the countries by a commission. You 2. Announce the first report of commission to reevaluate its are to petition the commission the consultant. As the commis- secondary findings and carry on behalf of your country." Do sion members are entrusted out a reallocation of oil, taking the same for the remaining with the notecards, tell them advantage of the opportunity to groups but with these figures. that they are to decide how to alleviate the population and For Group 2, use 0 units for allocate 1,000 units of oil pollution problems. survival (perhaps indicate that amongst these four countries. they burn wood for fuel) and 6. In a confidential meeting Tell them to distribute the note- with the commission, the ad- 400 unite to develop. Group 3 cards with a brief explanation of needs 400 units to survive and visor suggests, for instance, their reasons. (They will proba- that Group 4 might be asked to 100 more to develop. Group 4 bly give 10 notecards to each needs 200 units to survive but clean up their pollution if they group). In order for the consult- want all of the necessary sur- none to develop. Do not inform ant to gather data for research the students of the entire total vival units. Also, Group 1 ask the commission members to might be awarded their share demanded. request pertinent information Total survival units required: only if population growth is the country might have on oil controlled through policies. The 700 Total development units demand. key is to realize the increased 3. After careful consideration of needed: 1000 complexity associated with real- how the initial allocation meets locating the oil. Let the commis- Total oil units available for al- their demands (needs and sion reconvene. location: 1000 2. Print or type four different wants), have each group, in 7. After the commission has turn, present to the commission notecards with the following: announced their new realloca- Group 1: "Your country is the information on their hand- tion decisions and reasons, let overpopulated and rapidly out. The other groups as well as the groups take turns respond- growing. You have no pollu- the commission should record ing to the new policies of the the demands of their neighbors. tion." commission. Group 2: "Your country has 4. Let the commission recon- 8. The teacher, in the role of moderate population growth sider its initial distribution and consultant, summarizes the and overpopulation but no make an oral report suggesting events. Point out that countries pollution." changes to the group. Imple- do not consume resources with- Group 3: "Your country has ment their decisions by re- out having some effect on other stable population and moder- distributing the notecards. countries, i.e. nonrenewable re- ate pollution." 5. Announce the consultant's sources are finite and must be Group 4: "Your country has second appointment with the shared. Define interdependence stable population but is pol- commission. Ask the commis- in the context of the activity luting heavily. Pollution lev- sion why they reallocated as done and describe how re- els are hazardous to health." they did especially if one group source constraints snake coun- does not have enough survival tries more interdependent. Ask In class: units. Then the consultant the groups why this might be 1. After briefly introducing the should expaain that the main true? The reason is that the pro- topic of the day's activity (simu- problem is how to allocate the gression from groups 1 to 4 lation game on resource policy), 300 nonsurvival units. Point out constitutes a transition from divide the class into five the underlying problem of "de- less to more advanced societies.

56 57 That is why Group 1 needs so Activity 7: the herdsmen, the negative util- much to develop and Group 4 ity for any particular decision- A Tragedy of the Commons: making herdsman is only a frac- none. Explain the fact that An Invitation to Inquiry tion of 1. some coutries, like Group 3 and in Human Ecology Adding together the compo- 4, might have more buying nent partial utilities, the rational power than others. Note that Overview herdsman concludes that the this buying power ofter, works only sensible course for him to against the commission's aim to Through art invitation to in- pursue is to add another animal quiry, students are presented con- to his herd. And another; and allocate oil in an equitable man- cepts from the tragedy of the another. But this is the conclu- n er. sion reached by each and every 9. On the blackboard, repre- commons. Being applicable to rational herdsman sharing a sent graphically, using the re- current local, national and global commons. Therein is the trag- source units for the X-axis, how situations, the entire activity pro- edy. Each man is locked into a supply was fixed in this case. vides a good interdisciplinary in- system that compels him to introduction to human ecology. crease his herd without limitin Then, on a separate graph, a world that is limited. Ruin is show how the demand would Scientific Backgrounds and Societal the destination toward which all look if price was included. Implications: men rush, each pursuing his Combine the two graphs into own best interest in a society This activity is based on Garret that believes in the freedom of one, stressing the intersection the commons. Freedom in a as an equilibrium point. Show Hardin's classic article The Tragedy of the Commons (Hardin 1968). The commons brings ruin to all. how excess demand in this case (Hardin 1968, p. 1243-44) necessitated the commiss'on to following quotation from this ration supply, since price was work summarizes the essential Notice the assumption within implicitly held constant. material of this lesson. the body of this synopsis which The tragedy of the commons de- points to a tragic conclusion. Extension: velops in this way. Picture a pas- Hardin assumes uniform, ra- ture open to all. It is to be ex- As a homework exercise, ask pected that each herdsman will tional, profit maximizing behavior each group, including the com- try to ke..:p as many cattle as pos- by each individual, All herdsmen mission, to prepare a written sible on the commons. Such an seek to keep as many cattle as summary of its actions and how arrangement may work reasona- possible in order to maximize bly satisfactorily for centuries be- their personal gain. This is con- the allocations changed during cause tribal wars, poaching, and the course of the activity. Include disease keep the numbers of sidered rational behavior. any suggestions as to a better fi- both man and beast well below There are many scientific con- nal distribution. the carrying capacity of the land. cepts included in the tragedy. Finally, however, comes the day Commons is defined as a natural of reckoning, that is, the day resource which has no acknowl- Evaluation: when the long desired goal of To make sure that the groups social stability becomes a reality. edged ownership. This may be are paying attention to each At this point, the inherent logic pasturelands, woodlands, the ocean, space, water, or the air. In other, ask specific group members of the commons remorselessly generates tragedy. this case, the commons refers to at various times if they can de- As a rational being, each scribe the present situation of an- an open pasture. Another impor- herdsman seeks to maximize his tant topic concerns carrying ca- other group. Conversely, ask gain. Explicitly or implicitly, what are the possible conse- more or less consciously, he pacity. The maximum population quences of not getting all the de- asks, "What is the utility to me size that a given ecosystem can sired development units (distribu- of adding one more animal to support indefinitely under a given my herd?" This utility has one set of environmental conditions is tion is not necessarily an all or negative and one positive com- nothing process). Also, in step 9 called the ecosystem's carrying ca- ponent. pacity. Here the ecosystem refers pick out specific points on the de- 1) The positive component is a mand/supply graphs and ask function of the increment of one to the commons and the popula- what they represent. animal. Since the herdsman re- tion is represented by the cattle. ceives all the proceeds from the The limiting factors that tend to sale of the additional animal, the regulate the maximum allowable Resources/References: positive utility is nearly + 1. Lipsey & Steiner. (1981). Economics. (6th size of a population (carrying ca- 2) The negative component is a pacity) are collectively called the ed.) New York: Harper and Row Pub- function of the additional over- lishers, 190492. population's environmental re- Miller, G.T. Jr. (1979). Living in the Environ- grazing created by one more ani- ment. (2nd ed.) Belmont, CA: Wads- mal. Since, however, the effects sistance. If the cattle continually worth. Chapters 12, 14 and 19. of overgrazing are shared by all remove more palatable vegetation

57 58 in a year than the commons can use The commons can remain as tion out of the territory provided. regenerate, either unpalatable such only with low density of the This response is similar to the weeds take over or all vegetation cattle population. "Green Revolution." But, sup- slowly disappears, leaving se- These concepts can be applied pose that hybrid grasses increase verely eroded land that can be- to real world conditions. Consider production. In a short time period come barren In either case, over- the case of human population. the herdsmen will reach the carry- grazing causes the carrying The projected world population is ing capacity limit by adding more capacity of the commonsthe estimated to be 6.35 billion in the cattle to the extra grass. They are amount of grazing that can be year 2000 A decision might be back where they started. The supported on a sustained basis made as to whether the personal problem has been merely to decrease. freedom to decide our family size postponed, not solved. In addi- Externalities, effects on parties should be left to each family unit tion, benet lc diversity is reduced, not directly involved in the pro- or regulated through government meaning that exchanging all dif- duction or use of a commodity, policies. Even if the birth rate is ferent vanehes of grass for a more and the associated problems are stable in a country, as in the U.S productive strain increases vul- also important. When one immigration, if greater than em- nerability to plant disease and cli- herdsman raises one too many migration, causes the population mate extremes. Even with good cows, he affects every other to increase. Legal and illegal im- weather, these strains tend to re- herdsman's herd Yet this effect migrants total about one million quire much more water and fertil- a cost to someone elsedoes not people per year and comprise a izer which is costly. play a role in the herdsman's pri- large fraction of the total employ- Another solution might be vate calculation of the cost of rais- ment in the U.S. hybrid cattle. The same number ing that cow. He accrues the en- Pollution, even if population .s of cattle exist but provide more tire gain from the additional cow stable, can generate the tragedy food than previously. Again the while all the herdsmen bear a but in a reverse way. Instead of problem of a reduction in genetic fraction of the overgrazing cost depleting the commons, negative diversity arises. As the biggc, With these conditions, it becomes wastes are added. It is cheaper to cows use more food it is the same desirable for every herdsman to pollute the free resource rather as adding more cows. raise as many cattle as possible. than purify the discharges. As Several options pertaining to re- We exist in a finite world with long as everyone behaves in this ducing demand are available. One limited land and resources. A manner, destruction of the com- has to do with educating the finite world can support only a mon results. herdsmen about the conse- finite population Eventually pop- There are two types of solutions quences of overpopulating the ulation growth must equal zero. If to the problem. increase supply or commons. This can be accom- this doesn't occur, the demanddecrease demand. Reducing de- plished thr Hugh the media, for resources exceeds the supply mand will require a reassessment schools, or a town meeting. The and a deterioration in living con- of values and, namely, the subor- goal is to persuade the herdsmen ditions, quality of life, results dination of personal freedom to to act differently, changing their Quality of life, like beauty, is insocial necessity. In other words, values. Merely appealing to the the eye of the beholder, meaning the commons can no longer exist herdsmens' consciences will not many different things to different as such. remedy the problem. Those that people Consider the case of Various alternatives exist to in- do comply end up paying for bank-robbing The robber acts as crease supply. The most obvious those who don't, losing sales. The if the bank was a commons, From answer is to increase the size of noncomplying herdsmen are not his viewpoint, his quality of life the commons. Understand that in paying the full cost of their con- increases; however that of all theorder to do so, other uses of land tinual overgrazing, shifting part customers decreases. are foregone, i.e. parks, farmland. of the cost to the socially con- Additional issues from this Assuming that the herdsmen con- scious citizens. quotation arise later. One impor- tinue to act rationally, in a few Laws could be enacted control- tant concept to understand is that years the cattle population once ling the cattle population. This is this problem does not have a again meets environmental re- the solution Hardin suggested, technical solution (supply), but sistance. The soil and carrying ca- "mutual coercion, mutually rather concerns values (demand). pacity are again exceeded. Now agreed upon." Coercion is more In order to remedy the situation, the town is faced with the same powerful than an appeal to con- social stability (sustainability) problem. science and would force the cit- must be given higher priority Another possible solution is to izens to take responsibility for than personal freedom in land try to get more palatable vegeta- their actions. If they refuse to

58 59 obey the law, they are punished. Vocabulary: Note that the remarks about At this juncture, the commons footprints and manure were in- supply hybrid cluded to challenge the stu- cease to be free to all. The land demand tragedy dents to sift through the infor- could be divided up and parceled commons mation they were given. List on out as private property or a cattle carrying capacity limit may be specified. population density the chalkboard the suggestions The optimal solution is to tax environmental resistence made by the students. Possible the individual herdsman. A spe- externality responses included: cific tax per cow above a certain quality of life 1. The cattle were losing number, increasing in cost the weight because they weren't Procedures: more cattle added, would shift getting enough food. the cost on to the shoulders of I. Provide the students with 2. Less milk and meat is evi- that herdsman. This maintains essential preliminary informa- dence of not enough food. personal freedom, the herdsmen tion through the following sto- 3. Too many cattle eating at cart decide what is best for them, ry: once caused a reduction of but it tends to favor those with Imagine a designated area of lush pasture. money. The tax should be set up prairie land adjacent to a colonial 4. Too many cattle were eat- so that the carrying capacity is al- town where the townspeople al- ing the good vegetation faster most exceeded, the tax on another low cattle to graze. This area was called a commons. The commons than it could grow back. cow would be higher than the was of a fixed size, about as big 5. Overgrazing was causing profit it might generate. as several city blocks, and was weed replacement and soil used freely by anyone. Gradu- erosion. Concepts ally, herdsmen, the townmem- Exceeding land's carrying ca- bers who worked in the com- Confirm the correct responses mons, added more and more as being plausiP0. pacity results in the tragedy cattle to the commons. For a of the commons. time everything was fine. 3. If available, show the film on To avert crisis and possible Adding more cattle brought ex- the Tragedy of the Commons. Af- ruin, social and/or technical tra money to the herdsmen be- terwards, compare the answers cause they sold more beef and in this film to those listed on solutions are needed. dairy products. There seemed to The relationship between in- the board. be no problems, only profit, by 4. Continue the story again by dividual freedom and social adding more cattle. stability must be balanced in But, after a while the towns- telling the students that the any sustainable solution. people started to observe townspeople decided to form a changes in the cattle and in the group to suggest some ways to commons. They found out that reduce the problem of the com- Objectives: less milk and meat was being produced per cow and collec- mons. They feel that unless After this activity students they act, the situation will get should be able to: tively than previously. They noticed many more hoof prints only worse and there may be a Describe the problem of car- on the soil, and a greater amount crisis. rying capacity in the com- of dung than before. Moreover, 5. Stop and ask the students: they saw that the grass didn't mons in terms of supply and appear as tall, full-grown, and If you were a member of that demand. lush as before. In fact, some of group, what are the options Define carrying capacity and the edible vegetation was being that should be considered? environmental resistance. replaced by indigestible weeds. Explain how the problem of Also, in some areas of the com- What could be changed? mons, but by no means every- carrying capacity requires so- where, vegetation was slowly List student suggestions on cial, not technical, solutions. disappearing. They observed the chalkboard next to the pre- Propose and justify possible that land erosion had started to vious list. occur, leaving behind some bar- solutions to the commons 1. Make the commons big- problem. ren soil patches. The cattle didn't Apply the problem of carry- weigh as much as before either. gerenclose another parcel ing capacity in the commons 2. At this point stop the story line of land to increase its area. 2. Grow better grass to suffi- to the real world. to ask the students some questions. ciently feed the cattle. What is happening in the 3. Limit the number of cattle. Materials: commons? chalkboard Is something wrong? 6. Incorporate the students' film If so, what are the problems? ideas into the story. Start with 59 60 the solution to increase the land 2. Prohibit by force from hav- tamlimit, with possibly a :ugh- area. Say that the committee ing too many cattle. er tax as mere cattle are added. decided to try that first so they 3. Charge the herdsmen The tax may be high enough so annexed enough land to make money if they add too many that adding another head the commons 50% larger. But cattle. would cost more than it would after a few years the same prob- sell for. Herdsmen are still able lem cropped up. This was be- This first answer implies public to add cattle, but they pay the cause the herdsmen took ad- education Develop with the price for exceeding their limit. vantage of the extra land to add group this line of thought. Edu- Conclude the exploratory part more cattle and make more cation may occur on several lev- of this activity by emphasizing money. elsschools, media (town ga- that at last the committee had Address the suggestion to zette), public lectures, town found a viable and rather per- use better grass. Suppose the meetings, or peer pressure. manent solution. The goal, committee decides to try this Which measures should be however, is to get all townspeo- soiution next. They planted a taken? ple to understand and desire a type of grass that grows higher, Is it enough to educate the limit on cattle so that law- is more compact, and has better young, future herdsman? breakers and tax evaders are nutritional value. The Should there be a compre- minimized. herdsmen, adhering to the hensive effort? 8. Stop at this point. principle of freedom in the Shift the explanation of the commons, added more cattle to Indicate the possible problems tragedy of the commons from eat the mo e plentiful grass. with this approach. Those who an intuitive, qualitative ap- Within a few years, the same are conscientious may find their proach to one based on scien- problem arose again. reduced cattle numbers refilled tific concepts. Now present two The final alternative was to by those who are more immune ways to view the problem. limit the number of cattle. At- to guilt, causing the same prob- First, start by defining carrying tempts to leave the commons as lem to exist all over again. This capacity and describe how the a free area were not working. time, however, the ones who problem of overgrazing, caused They concluded that, instead of are conscientious are paying the by overpopulation, meant that trying to change the land, they price for those who aren't, in the carrying capacity was ex- would change the people's be- both lost sales and soil erosion. ceeded. Stress that sus- havior. The committee realized The second answer is to enact tainability is a major objective they needed to act in social and a law. Again, develop the solu- for the commons. Explain how political arenas. tion of the group with them, the cattle population met envi- 7. Stop here and pose the question: recognizing that the law may ronmental resistance by defin- How could the committee take various forms: a specified ing the term. Use the first list limit the herdsmen's use of the limit on the number of cattle; put on the board to relate these commons? To answer this ques- the division of the commons concepts to the story. Define tion, divide the students into into private property, or limit what supply and demand refer groups of 4 or 5, giving them 15 on the number of cattle divided to in the context of this activity. minutes or so to do two things: equally between the total Add that the committee was discuss possible answers to the number of herdsmen. The point necessary to bring the two in question and choose one of is that penalties result for those equilibrium. This was accom- them to report to the class, in- who break the law in the form plished by decreasing demand cluding the pros and cons of of a fine, prison sentence, or re-.tbecause increasing supply cre- their choice. Visit each group to voking of cattle grazing priv- ated a vicious circle. increased facilitate the quality of life dis- ileges. In the case of private supply always led to increased cussion. Reconvene the class, property, personal injury demand. Looking at the second and list the various suggestions would fall on the culprit, with- list on the board, explain why on the chalkboard. Possible out direct harm to others since each supply side solution was a group responses inclt de: the lot is fenced in. technical solution. Yet, the The final response is to tax problem at hand was not per- 1. Informally persuade both herdsmen for use of the com- manently soluable by tech- the herdsmen and townspeo- mons. This method doesn't nology. ple that the cattle population prohibit, it just gives biased op- Now refer to the third board must be maintained below tions. Perhaps the tax will be list, talking about each sug- carrying capacity. per additional cattle over a cer- gestion in turn. Explain that the

61 solution had to be made by lim- important point that the above the analysis immigration to the iting demand which means a discussion applies to the real U.S. value change. Explain how the wort,;. Describe the analogy be- Ask the students What do you herdsmen received all the sales tween the cattle and humans, propose to do? but paid only a fraction of the and the commons and the cost to the environment until earth. Show how the concepts Evaluation: public sanctions were taken. learned can apply to the global In order to evaluate the stu- Elaborate on the conflict of cvmmons for the case of pollu- dents' understanding of the ideas values; add the subordination tion, human population, etc. brought out in the story of The of individual liberty to use he Concerning human population, Tragedy of the Commons, ask the commons to social necessity, the issue is: the freedom to following question as a written well being, and stability. Thep breed versus birth control pol- homework °xercise or quiz. exists a loss but also a big social izies. Furthermore, taxes, education, laws, and technology The seas and ocean may be con- gain. Give the bank robber ex- sidered a commons just like ample to clarify this concept. are all solutions to real world land. Fishermen trying to catch Propose that some freedoms problems. tuna thought so. Unfortunately, may not be desirable. Introduce as time has passed, the numbers the quality of life concept in re- of fishermen have increased yet lation to the story and the ex- Extension: they have less and less tuna to catch even though technological ample just given. Introduce a new variable into solutions have been sought to in- 9. Challenge the students with the analysis: pollution Describe crease the tuna supply. What is this question: how this might generate the trag- happening here? Why? edy even if population is stable. Is there any way in which the Explain the effect of excessive pol- Resources/References commons could have been lution, caused by population, on left as it wasfree to all? Enthoven, A.0 & Freeman, A.M., Ill. the carrying capacity. Do this in (1973). Pollution, resources, and the en- What had to be true for this the context of the real world so vironment. New York. W.W. Norton & to occur? that current problems are dis- Company, Inc. After a few minutes, define Hardin, G. (1968). "The Tragedy of the cussed. Optional: Note the weak- Commons," Science, 62:1243-1248. population density and ex- ness of the private property solu- Mayer, W.V. (1978). Biology !cockers' hand- plain how a low population tion in this context and the book. New York: John Wiley and Sons density averts the tragedy. Miller, CT., Jr. (1979). Living in the en- resulting externalities. vironment. (2nd ed.) Belmont, CA. 10. Finish the activity with the Introduce another variable to Wadsworth

61 62 About the Author

Rodger W. Bybee recently served as guest editor of a special issue of theAmerican Biology Teacher journal that focused on human ecology. An associateprofessor of education, he is chair of the Education Department at Carleton College in North- field, Minnesota. He holds a Ph.D. in science education from New York University and B.A. and M.A. degrees from the University of Northern Colorado.Bybee has taught at the elementary, high school, and college levels and has written three books on science teaching, including, must recently, Violence, Valises and Justice inthe Schools, (Allyn and Bacon, 1982), and Piaget for Educators, (Charles E. Merrill, 1982). He was a coauthor of New Directions in Biology Teaching, (NABT, 1982). Bybee serves on the Ethics in Biology Committee and theEditorial Board for the American Biology Teacher for the National Association of Biology Teachers.

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