De Verbeelding Van Concentratiekampen in Speelfilms

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De Verbeelding Van Concentratiekampen in Speelfilms De verbeelding van concentratiekampen in speelfilms Een onderzoek naar de representatie van concentratiekampen in speelfilms Masterscriptie Daniël de Jong S4493567 Faculteit der Letteren Master Geschiedenis & Actualiteit Begeleider: Dr. R. Ensel Datum: 15 augustus 2019 Radboud Universiteit Inhoud Hoofdstuk 1: Inleiding .......................................................................................................................... 3 1.1 Onderwerp ................................................................................................................................... 3 1.2 Status Quaestionis ....................................................................................................................... 4 1.2.A. De Holocaust ....................................................................................................................... 4 1.2.B. Concentratiekampen .......................................................................................................... 5 1.2.C. De visuele verbeeldingen van concentratiekampen ......................................................... 9 1.3 Bronnen, hypothese en methoden ............................................................................................ 13 1.3.A. Bronnen ............................................................................................................................. 13 1.3.B. Hypothese .......................................................................................................................... 15 1.3.C. Methoden ........................................................................................................................... 15 Hoofdstuk 2: Een beknopte geschiedenis van de visuele verbeelding van concentratiekampen .. 18 Hoofdstuk 3: De verbeelding van concentratiekampen ................................................................... 21 3.1 Het kamp als ruimtelijk systeem .............................................................................................. 21 3.2 Het kamp als sociaal systeem ................................................................................................... 27 3.3 Het kamp als leefwereld ............................................................................................................ 33 3.4 Het kamp als genocidale instelling ........................................................................................... 38 Hoofdstuk 4: Conclusie ....................................................................................................................... 45 Primaire bronnen ............................................................................................................................ 48 Literatuur ......................................................................................................................................... 48 2 Hoofdstuk 1: Inleiding 1.1 Onderwerp In 2018 sprak Frank van Vree, historicus en directeur van het Nederlands Instituut voor Oorlogs-, Holocaust- en Genocidestudies, de Hoflandlezing uit. Deze lezing wordt ieder jaar gehouden ter herdenking van het bombardement op Rotterdam. Van Vree ging tijdens zijn lezing in op de relatie tussen films en de herinneringen van mensen. Volgens hem hebben films een grote invloed op hoe mensen zich het verleden voorstellen.1 Deze relatie zou volgens Van Vree nog verder onderzocht moeten worden. Een aparte plek in de filmische representatie van de Tweede Wereldoorlog is de Holocaust en dan met name het concentratiekamp, als symbool van het ultieme kwaad.2 Authentieke foto’s en filmbeelden en latere fictiefilms over de kampen hebben voor veel mensen de voorstellingen van concentratiekampen ingevuld.3 De beelden die dit oplevert zijn problematisch. Volgens de Britse historicus David Cesarani is de kennis over concentratiekampen waarover mensen beschikken vaak gering. Het gevolg daarvan is een te eendimensionaal beeld. De belangrijkste oorzaak is dat fictiefilms in veel gevallen niet overeenkomen met de wetenschappelijke literatuur over de kampen. De films zijn echter beeldbepalend voor het grote publiek dat deze fictieve visuele weergaven van de kampen bekijkt. In aansluiting op de woorden van Vree wordt er in deze scriptie gepoogd de representatie van concentratiekampen in speelfilms te onderzoeken. In deze scriptie wordt ervan uitgegaan dat films een essentiële bijdrage leveren aan hoe mensen zich bepaalde historische periodes herinneren.4 Daarom is het noodzakelijk om de filmische representatie van de Holocaust nader te onderzoeken. In dit onderzoek zal dit worden gedaan door specifiek te kijken naar de representatie van concentratiekampen. Hierbij zal niet de vraag centraal staan of het al dan niet correct is om kampen te verbeelden, maar hoe dit is gedaan in verschillende speelfilms gedurende een langere periode. Er zijn verschillende benaderingen geweest binnen onderzoek naar de Holocaust en de concentratiekampen. 1 Frank van Vree, Hoflandlezing 2018: Film, geschiedenis en herinnering (Rotterdam, 2018), 16. 2 Nicolaus Wachsmann, KL: een geschiedenis van de concentratiekampen (Amsterdam, 2016), 41. 3 Wachsmann, Kl, 22. 4 Geoffrey Pingree, ‘Visual Evidence Reconsidered: Reflections on Film and History’, The Public Historian 21:2 (1999), 99-107, alhier 100. 3 1.2 Status Quaestionis 1.2.A. De Holocaust De Holocaust kan op verschillende manieren worden benaderd. Zo wordt de Holocaust in het Westen gezien als genocide die voornamelijk plaatsvond in kampen en gaskamers. Terwijl in Oost-Europa genocide door kogels, die buiten de kampen plaatsvond, het belangrijkste referentiepunt is voor nabestaanden.5 Een belangrijk punt in het debat over de Holocaust is welke oorlog centraal stond voor de nazi’s. Was dit de reguliere oorlog tegen de geallieerde mogendheden of waren de nazi’s enkel gericht op de vernietiging van het Europese Jodendom? Volgens de Britse historicus Dan Stone waren de nazi’s primair gericht op een ideologische en raciale oorlog tegen de Joden. De oorlog tegen de geallieerden was daarbij ondergeschikt. De oorlogseconomie was secundair aan de Endlösung, zo werden er meer treinen ingezet voor het transport van gevangenen dan voor oorlogsmateriaal en soldaten.6 Dit leidde in sommige gevallen tot conflicten tussen SS’ers in de kampen en de Wehrmacht buiten de kampen omdat ze andere belangen hadden. De Franse historicus Saul Friedländer benoemde dat Hitlers haat ten opzichte van Joden doorslaggevend was voor het doorzetten van de Endlösung, ten koste van alles.7 De Amerikaanse historicus Raul Hilberg schreef daarentegen dat de conventionele oorlog tegen de geallieerden het voornaamste focuspunt voor de nazi’s was. Het meeste materiaal en de meeste mankracht gingen naar het front toe.8 Praktisch betekende dit dus dat de kampbewakers verhoudingsgewijs in de minderheid waren. Cesarani sloot zich bij dit standpunt aan. De Endlösung was volgens hem voornamelijk het gevolg van een mislukte oorlogsvoering. De oorlogsvoering dreef dus de anti-Joodse maatregelen en niet andersom.9 Net als dat de Holocaust geen overzichtelijk onderwerp is, zijn de kampen ook niet eenduidig geïnterpreteerd in de wetenschappelijke literatuur. Een belangrijke vraag daarbij is hoe concentratiekampen zijn geïnterpreteerd in wetenschappelijk onderzoek. De Duitse historicus Nikolaus Wachsmann bracht in 2015 een groot standaardwerk uit over concentratiekampen. Volgens hem is het eendimensionale beeld over concentratiekampen ontstaan door een overvloed aan onderzoeken naar de Holocaust. Hierdoor was er geen helder 5 Nicolaus Wachsmann, KL: een geschiedenis van de concentratiekampen (Amsterdam, 2016), 33. 6 Dan Stone, Histories of the Holocaust (New York, 2010), 2. 7 Saul Friedländer, The Years of Extermination: Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939–1945 (New York, 2007), 15. 8 Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews, 3 (New Heaven, 2003), III: 1129. 9 David Cesarani, Endlösung: Het lot van de joden 1933-1949 (Amsterdam, 2018), 27. 4 overzicht meer mogelijk op alle studies.10 Een belangrijk gevolg is dat Auschwitz bij het grote publiek als hét enige concentratiekamp gezien wordt, terwijl er in werkelijkheid een netwerk van kampen was verspreid over heel Europa. Dit netwerk bestond uit hoofd- en sub-kampen en kleinere satellietkampen. Het is dus belangrijk om te erkennen dat hét archetypisch concentratiekamp niet bestaat. Er waren verschillende soorten kampen zowel qua functie, bestaansperiode en omvang.11 Zo waren er vernietigingskampen, interneringskampen, doorvoerkampen en werkkampen. Meerdere benaderingswijzen zijn mogelijk wat betreft de verschillende kampen. Bijvoorbeeld door er alleen naar te kijken als fysieke ruimte. Een concentratiekamp kan ook worden gezien als een moordmachine of als een gevangenis. Dit geldt eveneens voor de actoren binnen de kampen zoals de daders, de slachtoffers en de omstanders. Voordat er naar de filmische representatie van concentratiekampen gekeken kan worden, is het essentieel om de verschillende benaderingen te onderzoeken. 1.2.B. Concentratiekampen Het concentratiekamp was volgens Anne Kelly Knowles, geograaf gespecialiseerd in historische geografische informatie systemen (GIS), een macro- en micro geografisch systeem. Daarbij is het vooral belangrijk om in te zien dat de ruimtelijke en fysieke indelingen binnen de kampen bepalend waren voor hoe slachtoffers en daders naar de onderlinge machtsrelaties keken. De fysieke elementen binnen de kampen waren constant in beweging. Zo werd er steeds van alles opgebouwd en afgebroken. Het betrof
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