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P u~L\ GA--tt C)M NO. LateefO. Amusa., AbelL. Toriola & Ignatius U. Onyewadume

Physical Education and in

I Bi bliography PHYSICALEDUCATION 1. Physical Education - His tory i 2. Physical Education- Teaching and 3. Physical Education- Issues ! ' 4. Adapted Physical Education 5. Games and SPORTin AFRICA I 6. Anth ropometry/Kinanthropometry I 7. Biokinetics and Motor Learning

Editedby I ISBN 978-32467-5-5

Loteef0. Amuso,D.P.E. Development Editor: March L. Krotee Universityof Production Editor: Martin M. Mokgwathi ,Botswana Text Layout: I.U . Onyewadume Co ver Design: lise Roelofse Abell. Toriolo,Ph.D. Universityof the North ISBN 978-32467-5-5 Sovenga, Copyright © 1999 by Lateef 0 . Am usa, Abel L. Toriola & Ignatius U. Onyewadume IgnatiusU. Onyewodume,Ph.D. All rights reserved . Except for use in a review, the reproduction or Universityof Botswana util isation of this work in any form or by any ele ctronic, mechanical, or Gaborone,Botswana other mean s, now known or thereafter invented , including xerography. photo-copying, and recording, and in any information storage and retrieval system, is forbidden without the written permission of the publisher.

Printed by the Uni,•ersity of Stel lenbosch Printers, Stcllenbosch. South Africa. Distributor: Soccer ReOection Company. P. 0 . Box 277 , Lobatse , Botswana Tel: (267) 330485; Fax: (267) 332793

LAPPublicat ions Ltd lbadan, LAP Publications Limited U.l. P. 0 Box 19426 lbadan. Nigeria ,.

CONTENTS I CONTENTS I 61 5.4 Ivlkpok Eta 63 5.5 Nsa lkpe or !sip !song 66 5.6 "Oyo" 68 5.7 Ekak 70 Contents 5.8 lkara 70 Uduho- Traditional Wrestling 71 5.9 74 Contribu tors ix 5.10 Nyot 5.11 Isip 75 Summary 75 Forew ord xiii References 77 Preface X\' Traditional Games in Africa: East and Central Africa 6. Mmmgi P. Jl'cmdai Acknowledgemen ts xvii 77 Introduction 77 6.1 Play. Games and Dances in Traditional Culture 78 79 1. Historical l'erspcc tii'CS of Physical Education and Sports in Southern i 6.2 Warfare Skills Rdatcd Games Africa I 6.3 Non· Warfa re Skills Related Games 81 Floris .J.0. 1·un der Me1we 6.4 Traditional Dances 82 Sumn1al)' 82 Introduction References I . I Physical Educati on in South~rnAfrica I 85 1.2 Traditional Games F.ducational Dance in a Physical Education Curriculum 1.3 School Curriculum 5 7. 1.4 Sport in Southern Africa 9 Edith II. J.:at:enellenhogcn i 85 I Summary 14 Introduction 87 I Ref~r~nces 15 89 I 7. I Physical Education I 7.2 Educational Dance 89 2. Physical Education in from Past to Present to Future 21 7.3 Creat ive Dance 105 112 Nuhiluh ..Jh111ed ..Jhclelmhlllil/1 7.4 Social Dance I 7.5 Rhythmic Movement with/without Hand-Apparatus 113 lntrodu dion 21 Summa!)' II 5

2. I Anci~ntEg~ pt 21 Re ferences 2.2 Islamic l'~riod 17 \ \21 2.3 Ad1·anc~me111sin the Faculty of Physical EJucatiun 28 2.4 OhjL-ctii'CSll t' Physical Education at the time or the establishment of 8. Sport Pedagogy in Botsw ana I the Institute of Physical Education in Egypt 29 Martin M. Mokgwuthi I 2.5 Regulatitlns ,,f the Physical Education Facu lties 31 121 32 121 2.6 Brier Description of Physical Education in Primary Schools Introduction 8. I Economic Development in Botswana 122 Summary 33 8.2 The Education System in Botswana 124 References 33 8.3 Sport Pedagogy: Meaning and Scope

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CONTEi'\TS CONTENTS

172 8.4 The Status of Physical 125 11.3 The South African Association for Biokinetics 173 8.5 Research in Physical Education and Sport 133 11.4 The Scope of Biokinetics 178 8.6 Sport at the Tertiary Institutions 13-l 11.5 Training in Biokinetics 178 8.7 The Status of Sport and Community Recreation 134 11.6 Some Future Perspectil'eS 179 Summary 136 Summary 179 References 137 References

141 12. in 9. Perspect ives of Adapted Physical The Use and Interpretation of Anthropometry Physica l Education and Sports Science 183 I. U. Onye11·adume K. D. .\fonyeki Introduction 141 9.1 Adapted Physical Education :V ariations in Nomenclatures 142 Introduction 183 183 9.2 Historical Perspective of Adapt~dPhysical Educa tion 143 12.1 Anth ropometric M~asuremcntError 9.3 The Impac t of Litigation and Legislation 145 12.2 Use of Anthropometry in Nu tritio n 185 146 187 9.4 An Emerging Terminology 12.3 Use of Anthropom~tryin Hea lth Evaluation 9.5 The Scope of Adapted Physical Education 147 12.4 Use of Anthropomet ry in Sports Science 188 9.6 World-wide Trends in Adapted Physical Education 148 Sumnwry 189 9. 7 Problems Facing Adapted Physical Education in Africa !51 190 9.& Future Directions of Adapted Physical Lducation !52 R~fercnccs.

9.9 Adapted Physical Education Programm~sin African Schools !54 13. Motor Learning in Human Monment Science and Sport- Challenges Summary 155 from a Practical :111dRe sea rch point of \"icw 195 155 References Anita PieJww·

1.0. Adapted Physical Education and Sports in West Africa 157 Introduction 195 197 M.A. SIIU/"(/1/ 13. 1 Phases of Motor Dewlopm~nt :203 13.2 Sport Relat~d~1<1\"emcnt Pha se Introduction !57 13.3 Classi licati on of Physical and Motor ,\bilitics 206 20'l I 0.1 Brief History of Adapted Physical Lducation in West Africa !57 13.4 Growth and Ph, sic~!t\ctivity 159 21-l I 0.~ Values of Adapted Physical ~:Jucation 13.5 The Use of Apparatus 216 I 0.3 Adapt~d!'hysical Acti,·ity in West Africa 161 13.6 Jndividu~lDifference s in Motor Proficiency 10.4 Values of Competitive Sport to Disabled 163 Summary 227 163 Summary References 2:28 References 164 J.t. Kinanthropomctr y in Exercise and Sport 235

I I. Biokinetics- t\ l'rofcs.~ionalHealth Discipline from Physical J. Han.1· de Ridder 167 Education: A Broad Pcr.~pcctive Gat Strydum Introduction 235 14.1 Kinanthropometry "An Emerging Scientific Specialisation" 235 167 lntl\'duction 14.2 Anthropometry Equipment 237 11.1 Physical l:ducation in South Africa 170 14.3 The Anthropometric Profile 239 11.2 Negotiations with the South African Med ical and Dc·ntal Council 171 14.4 Anatomical Landmarks 2.. 4

II" v CONTENTS CONTENTS

297 Summa!)· Skin folds 248 14.5 298 14.6 Girths 252 References 254 14.7 Breadths 14.8 Data Management 257 Career Guidance in Physical Educa tion and Spo rt in Africa: / 18. 14.9 Somatotyping 258 The Pathway to the New Millennium 301 14.10 Sad and Sam's 261 A111osA . A lao and March L. Krotee References 262 Introduction 30 I 15. ' h:eep Poli tics and Wome n ou t of Sport ': A Sociologica l Enquiry into 18.1 The Nature of Guidance 30 I South African Sport 265 18.2 The Nature and Meaning of Career and Career Guidance 302 18.3 The Nature and Scope of Physical Education and in Cora Burnell general and Botswana in particular 303 in 305 265 18.4 Career Guidance Physical Education and Sport Introduct ion 18.5 Career Opportunities in Physical Education and Sport 311 15.1 Socio logical Enquiry into Sport and Society 265 18.6 Job Search Strategies 314 15.2 Sociological Enquiry 266 15.3 Politics and Sport 267 Summary 315 15.4 Gender and Sport 271 References 316 Summary 274 19. Gender Disparities in Part icipation in Spo rts in Afri ca: Case of t:..:enya 319 References 275 Paul P. IV. A chula and W II'.S. Njorvwi 16. Fac tors Mi litating against the Effective Pa rticipation of Girls and Women in Sports in Botswa na 279 Introduction 319 \ 19.1 The Female Problem in Sport 320 : e/we/ \fi Bomidele Adeyemi 19.2 The Theoretical Framework 321

19.3 The Status of Women in Sports in Keny3 3~4 Introduction 279 16.1 Brief Literature Review 279 Summary 330 16.2 Method 281 References 330 16.3 Results 281 16.4 Implications of the Findings on Girls and Women Sports 285 20. Pros pects and Challenges in Physical Education in Sport in Afri ca I 333 Summary 286 duri ng th e 21st Ce ntury References 286 Lutee(O. Anwsa 333 17. Leis ure St udies, Physica l Educa tion, and Rec rea tion : Prop ri ety and Introduction 3JJ" place in Africa 2000 and Beyond 289 20.1 Historical Development of Physical Education and Sport in Africa 20.2 Current Prac tices in Physical Education and Sport 335 C. 337 Jon Donlon 20.3 Problem s Facing Physical Education in Africa 339 20.4 Way Forward 341 Introd uction 289 20.5 Challenges in the Management of Africa Spon in the 21st Century 17.1 Terminologies 289 346 20.6 Role of Governme nts in Sport 17.2 Historical Context 292 I 17.-, Integra ting Leisure. Physical Education. and Recreation into Africa 2000 and Beyond 295 I vii vi J \._ L---- i...._ _ ---- '--

CONTEI'iTS

Summary 347 References 347 I FOREWORD I S·

Au th or Index 351

The two disciplines. Physical Educa tion and Sport are not new to Africa. Preci sely. the continent is very rich in traditional games, sports and dances. There is a lot of history Subject Index 357 behind these games and dances which only few Africans know very lillie about. let alone people from other continents. Africa's traditi onal and cultural heritage may be forgonen entirely if we do not revive them through our writings, teachings, research and professional practices.

Late ly. Africa has de monstrated that it is a force to be reckoned with in different games and compet itive spo rts as witnessed in world soccer cup. Olympic and commonwealth

gam~sand the All-Africa Games. In those countries with success stories about sports there are organisation and management structu res. programmes and histories that have not been well documented. More importantly Department of Physical Education and Human Movement Studies and sport Organisations in many African countries have largely been consumers of research. academic and spo rt information from the developed countries. whereas there are man y qualified and competent professionals in the two disciplines.

There is. therefore. a high demand for publications in Physical Education. Recre:~tion. sport Coaching and Administration. Rehabilitation and Human Movement for use at various educational levels and Sports Organisations in Africa.

Phys ical Education and Sport in Africa provides a C0mprehensivc resou rce anJ reference book to assist students and practitioners understanding of the many issues surrounding Physical Education and Sports in Afr ica . I am sure it will make a valuable

cont ributio n to improving a whole lot of ideas and pr:~cticesin the two disc iplines.

Lt. General S.K.l. Khama Vice-Pres iden t and Min iste r of Pres idential Affairs and Public Administration. Republic of Botswana

XIII VIII

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1!1.2 THE NATURE AND MEAN ING OF CAR.IEER AND CAR.IEER GUIDANCE

An individual who is engaged in an occupation may be viewed as someone who is Amos A. Ai:no andl Mardt IL. Kro~ee contributing mean ingful ly to the development of society. Weber ( 1958) noted that the Puritans viewed work as a moral obl igation as the concept of the Protestant work ethic was transnationalized to the "New World ". Macoby and Terzi (1981) enumerated several ITNTIRODUCTHON work ethics representative of the social and economic stages in the development of North American character as including: To fully understand the implications of career guidance in Physical Education and Sport in Africa, this chapter explores the nature of guidance and the meaning and value of a. The Protestant ethic: which views work as a religious calling career guidance. The chapter also delves into crucial factors in career guidance, with speci ftc reference to career pathways in Physical Education and Sport. Relevant b. The craft ethic: which describes work as a social obligation which also benefits the educational and occupational information and career planning with reference to Physical individual Education and Sport are also discussed. Career opportunities in Physical Education are highlighted as well as job strategies and other salient factors that may affect career c. The entrepreneur ethic: which represents an orientation toward ris k taking, striving to patterning for those interested in pursuing the mul tiple pathways that Physical Education get ahead and exploiting opportunities and Sport offers as we enter the 2ls1 century. d. The career ethic: which is an orientation toward ambition, financial success movement up the career ladder and loyalty to an organisation and DB .R lflHllE N A TUJ1R.lE 0 IF'G UW AN CJE e. The self-development ethic: or an orientation toward greater concern for self­ While there may be not be a consensus on the definition of guidance, simply defined, fulfillment; personal growth, enjoyment of work and a healthy lifestyle that provides guidance is the help or assistance provided by someone to another person. It is a process for more opportunities for leisure. of helping an individual to understand themself. their potential, and the society about T he Meaning of Career them.

Guidance is both a philosophical and an educational concept involving an anempt to It may be assumed that many individuals, who engage in careers today, do so, not only for foster the development of an individual's unique potential and the provision of financial reward but also for personal fulfillment and satisfaction, and growth experiences that will enable someone to understand not only themself but also the development. The term career usually refers to the succession of occupations, jobs and environment in whi ch the individual exists. The implementation of the philosophical and positions in which one engages during the life span (Zunker, 1994). Career is thus seen as educational dimensions of guidance takes the form of activities and services provided in the sequence of occupations in which one engages. Occupation is a definable work · schools. universities, and other critical settings. It could be in the form of appraisal, activity that occurs in many settings and stages. It ind icates a specific work role and informational. advising. counselling, mentoring, coaching, planning, placement as well as responsibility. g.uidance follow-up guidance services and evaluation. Meaning of Career Guidance inherent with the explanation of guidance as a process, is that guidance is continuous and connotes that the helper is in a position to provide a specialised service to smooth the Career guidance includes all the acttvtttes and services provided in educational transition along the professional pathway. The understanding of one's self means that the institutions, agencies and organisations, which include career couselling and career rela ted individua l who has benefi ted from guidance would be in position to perceive clearly their educational programmes. Career counselling may be performed one to one, or in small fullest potential. Given that guidance has been defined in many ways, some of the groups. Career counsell ing focuses on planning and mak ing deci sions about occupations common elements of guidance include the notion that guidance exists to enhance the and educational processes deemed appropriate to begi n and sustain an effective career choice making skills of the beneficiary. It is concerned with the individual and their pathway. needs and it exis ts to enhance personal. psycho social. affective, educational and vocational deve lopment (Kroth, 1973 ). Career education which may be conceived as part of career gui dance, is mainly an effort to prepare each individual for living and working in society. Career education is viewed essentially as an instructional strategy aimed at improving educational outcomes by /1 ./1 . r uuu Ut /'f'J . J...... J\. t VJ t.c. .._aretr u hystcat i:.ducauun & Sport w Ajrica ~ ~ relating teaching and learning activities to the concept of career devel opment (Jesser, contributes primarily through movement experience to the total growth and development 1976). of the child. Hansen ( 1977) defined school career guidance as a systematic programme involving Krotee in Bucker and Krotee (1998) presents the view that Physical Education and Sport counsellors and teac hers. It is that part of career education designed to increase a lies across the Physical Activity and Sport Continuum (PASC). The P ASC extends from student s' knowledge of self, occupations, training paths, lifestyle, labour market trend, and play through professional performing sport and dance. self marketing skil ls. The career deci sion making process, which helps the individual gain self directi on is critical to the programme. Recreational Private and public University and college Consequently, any exploration of career guidance in any discipline, including Physical Play and sector fitness varsity sports Education and Sport mu st begin with the understanding of important technologies that are community sport and sports clubs and sport clubs related to career guidance in general.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Hl.3 ll'IHJIE NA ll'QJJRIEA ND SCOI?JE:OJF IP.HVSHCAIT...:JEDUCATRON AN[)) SPOR.1!' llN A!FJR]CA ITNGJE:NJE:IRAIT... AND !BOTSWANA BN l?ARTBCll.JIT...AlR Leisure Physical education Amateur and Professional and pursuit and and sport Olympic sport performing sport and dance The overall status of Physical Education (PE) and Sport in any country, region, or games within the school (includes pseudosport e.g. continen! can affect career opportunities in that geographic domain. Hence, the career professional wrestling) opport unities in Physical Education and Sport in Africa will depend to a large extent, on the recognition and developmenl accorded to Physical Education and Sport in Africa as well as Africa's reputation in the sport global market place. The Scope of !?hysical Education and Sport in Africa in Genera~

The status accorded Physical Education and Sport in a society is likely to affect the level Nanure o~!Pfroy snc21n lE

of . A major submission after this workshop was that in order to Entry into any career at an intermediate or senior level will requ ire investment tn properl y fund, promote and develop sport in Botswana, Physical Education must be education. Careers in Physical Education and Sport are no exception. An individual effectively taught as a curriculum subject in its schools and colleges. The department seeking career opportunities in Physical Education and Sport must be willing to acqu ire noted that although there is a Goverrunent policy making the teaching of Physical the necessary education, certification, licensing and training that will qualify him/her for Education and Sport mandatory in schools, it has been largely ignored due to various their selected career pathway. constraints. Educational information includes information in educational or training opportunities and It appears however, that the Goverrunent of Botswana is sensitive to the development of requirements for entrance into such training. For individuals iAterested in careers in Physical Education and Sports. Rathedi ( 1997) remarked that the recognition of the Physical Education and Sport, information on where appropriate education can be importance of Physical Education and sport in the Revised National Policy on Education acquired, method of entry, requirements for entry into such instituti ons and the length of (RNPE) 1994 recommendation 32 (e) which reads; training will be useful. It will also be helpful to know, the courses or programm es that will lead to specific specialties in Physical Education and Sport. There is no doubt that "Each st11dent should also take at least a co-curricular activity in the form of sporting different entry requirements and different lengths of training will be required for different activity. a club or a hobby," specialties. Individuals with backgrounds in the humanities have the possibi lity of specializing in areas such as Sports administration, and management or . is an evidence of the interest of the government of Botswana in Physical Education and Individuals with interest and ability in the sciences may also find specialties, in sports Sports. The Government has initiated the training of Physical Education teachers at medicine, athletic training as well as the fitness industry as pathways to a successful Molepolole and Tonota Colleges of Education and have established the Oeparunent of career. Educational information is relevant in career guidance. as the individual through Physical Education at the University of Botswana (Rathedi, 1997). educational information, becomes aware of where to go for training, what is required for entry, the courses available, the skills needed and the length of training required for Masogo, Cooper and Molefe ( 1997) observed that despite the progress made in Botswana careers in Physical Education and Sport. with regards to the teaching of Physical Education in the colleges, lack of quantity and qual ity facilities and equipment are still. major constraints. Amusa. Toriola and Monyeki Occupations Information ( 1997) noted that Physical Education is a relatively new academic discipline in Botswana, and as a new discipline. the prospects of career options available may be elusive to Occupational information will usually include the nature of work to be done or duties to individuals who might be interested in this area. However, with career guidance, be performed. The requirements for entrance into the occupation and the conditions of individuals presently engaged in training in Physical Education and Sport or those who ' work are useful information that will be helpful in occupational choice in Physical may be interested in these areas in the future, can be assisted to discover and even create a variety of opportunities which will lead them to a successful career pathway. Education and Sport. Knowledge of duties to be performed is essential as this is what the individual would be doing in future. Consequently. before selecting Physical Education and Sport as an option, or any of its specialities the individual needs to know the nature of DBA C A R IE:lER C Q.JnDANC IE fiN IPIH!VS RCA R...lE D QJCAT WN AN D SPO RT the work or the "Job Description". Some individuals also consider the rewards offered by Career guidance in Physical Education and Sport entails the following : an occupation as a crucial factor in their occupational choice. It will be helpful to explore the financial rewards and the methods of advancement in the different specialties of I. Educational information Physical Education and Sport. Service and satisfaction level as a contribution to society may also be measured .

., Occup<~tionalinformation Awareness of the supply and the demand for workers and the typical places o J. Career plann ing employment for individuals in Physical Education and Sport occupations wil l also be helpful in determining the appropriateness of choice. While a certificate or a diplo ma 4. Care~rdecis ion making skills may be enough to enter some specialities in Physical Education and Spo rt, othe r specialities will require higher degrees of advanced training and certifications (Coaches, 5. Cureer opportun ities in Physical Educ

7 nrhPr r~rtnr~w h irh m ilv affect careers VU I U _ _ 1n rt ..r " '" '-"' l!du~uuun & ;)port in A)rica m instructi ons in the form of managing, orgamsmg, coaching, , sports J308J A.A. Alao & M L Kroree officiating and facilities management. Other workers are also involved in activities which happen off the field of play, on the side lines, cameras, and of course behind the scenes. and trammg programmes. Intellectual ability is a significant factor in educati onal and occupational choice. Entrance into some occupations seems to be contingent on the Catreu !P'!arul illlg possession of minimum abilities. While a certificate may be sufficient for some careers in Physical Education and Sports, a diploma degree or a higher degree may be required for Each person is unique and this uniqueness is a product of many factors which include others. Some careers in sportS require extensive training. personal and educational experiences, values, inleresls, abiliries, behavioural tendencies, genetic and socio-cultural factors to mention a few. The uniqueness of the individual Personality: Personality test could determine if the individual has the right temperament plays an important role in career planning. For effective career planning, an individual's for the work. Some occupations demand personality traits different from those demanded characteristics can be assessed through standardized assessment instruments as well as by other occupations. For instance, individuals with personality characteristics such as through personal interview and interaction. tolerance, self-confidence and the ability to make decisions under stress might make great sport officials. In essence, career life planning focuses on those factors that influence career choice. These fac!ors need to be evaluated and clarified to make sound career planning Values and Needs; One may also need to assess his/her values and needs as they relate determinations. Career planning .allows for change of direction whenever situational to career choice in Physical Education and Sport. This can be done by determining one's circumstances warrant or when an individual's need changes. Career planning is an needs in relation to different career options in Physical Education and Sports. An ongotng process. individual can also weigh their satisfaction or dissatisfaction level in the career option envisaged.

Snr~negies:mdl Tasks i!J]C21u-eer l?lannil!lg nnP~ysica! IEdlucation and Sport Making a Career Decision in Physical Education atr1dSJPOII"t B. St:mdlanhzedl llnstrMmeC'IGs An individual needs to be knowledgeable in career decision making skills in order to To reduce the possibilities of errors in selecting among the multitude of career paths and make a wise career choice. Many theories have been put forward to explain vocational alternatives, individuals must lake stock of their abilities, resources and motivations. The choices. The early vocational approaches perceived career decision making as a simple career goal s formulated must be in line with the factors which are important in the pursuit task. The trait and factor approach was employed to measure the individual's interest, of an individual's career goal. The use of standardized aptitude and achievements and matches the individuals' profile with traits necessary for certain occupations. instruments wi II be helpful to determine the effect of the following in the pursuit of careers in Physical Education and Sport. Career decision making was seen in a broader perspective as more sophisticated counselling approaches emerged. Some of the theories propounded to explain why an llnnerest Interest inventories can help an individual to discover what they like to do. We individual chose a particular occupation include: all have work interests that will give one pleasure, enjoyment and satisfaction. The interest profile of rhe individual should fit what the individual would be doing in Physical The developmental theories of Ginzberg, Ginzberg. Axerald and Herma ( 1951) which Educat ion and Sport. The individual needs to identify and evaluate their occupational suggested that occupational choice was a developmental process that included fantasy . interest in Physical Education and Sport and the various specialities. Individual interests tentative, and realistic stages. should also be related to potential occupation requirements. An individual who wants to be a teacher for instance should show interest in activities involved with teaching. Super (1972) considered self-concept as a vital force which establishes a career pattern which an individual follows throughout life. Super ( 1990) later provided vocational Ap tittude: Aptitude tests predict the potential for doing something. Some occupations developmental tasksthrough the life span. differ from one another with reference to specific competencies required and the amount of specialized abilities expected . Aptitude tests are designed to measure specific skills Tiedeman and Miller - Tiedeman ( 1984) suggested that carea decisions are reached and proftciencies or the ability to acquire certain proficiencies. Measures of aptitudes through a systematic problem-solving pattern which includes exploration. crystallization. provide a good frame of reference for evaluating potential career paths. choice clari tication, induction, reformation and integration.

Abil ity: Achieve ment tests may enable an individual to assess the present levels of Roe ( 1956) emphasized that early childhood experiences play an important role in finding developed abil ities. The basic academic skills {such as Mathemarics, reading and satisfaction in one's chosen field . Roe classified occupation into (i) pmon oriented and language usage) possessed by the individual will be heloful in olann in9 fo'T"eti®"l-io-t... 4 (ii) non-person oriented. J. A . , _ Jc M "-· _ .. ; tee · ~A 0 21 ~-· Career Guidance in Physical £d,:Cation & Sparrin Africa ~ Krotee illustrates the decision making process in the foll owing chart (Bucher and Krotee Holland ( 1985) suggested that career choice is an expression or extension of personality 1998). into the world of work. That is. an individual is attracted to a given career by their particular personality and the numerous variables that constitute their background. Pathway Capabilities Social Learning Theory: Mitchell and Krumbohz. ( 1990) viewed career development as Intelligence Situation (risk) involving (i) genetic endowments and special abilities. (ii) environmental conditions and Intuition Timin g events, (iii) learn ing experiences and (iv) task approach skills. Common sense Human relations Logical thought Socio-economic and The Psychoanalytic Theory viewed work as a method of satisfying impulses and Communication political providing outlets for sublimated wishes. (Osipow. 1983) Co-operative and Legal regulations and group dynamics Sociological approaches have emphasi:ted the interrelationship of psychological. procedure economic and sociological determinants of occupational choice and development. Perceiving and recognizing a The individual characteristics which are responsible for choice viewed by Blau. Gustard. career pathway lessor. Parnes and Wilcox ( 1956) include the biological. social conditions. social positions and social-role characteristics. I Defining career ] What is the critical factor?

llmp~icaCioli"llog-1f'flleories of Careu [llevenopmenQ Gathering and organizing Selection of appropriate career It is important to note that in the theories of career choice and development summarized relevant data materials and sources the unique traits of individuals and the characteristics of the society in which development occurs should not be ignored in career choice. Self-concept. one's personality orientation. I Analyzing the data I Usually a participatory process learning experiences. developmental tasks are also important factors in career choice. Career decision must also include the provision of assistance in making appropriate choices through decision making and problem solving skills. Identifying alternative Sometimes allows for a solutions/hypotheses "cooling off' period Krumbohz and Sorenson (1974) designed a decision making system which invol\'es the following steps: Arriving at a deci~ion-- j

Generation of activities to narrow the alternatives. the activities may include taking an [N?-;;-rin~m~~iv;~i~g___I inventory . studying occupational literature. and subjection to a variety of self assessment.

Collecting information which may indude o~cupationalinformation and opportunities. Monitoring and assessing

Sharing information and estimating consequences so that the individual can predict Both internal and external success based on information . Adjusting or modifying career path way Re-evaluation by going back to the previous steps in dt:cision making.

fi gure 18.1: Model for ca reer plllthway de~:is io n m:atking Making a tentativ.: decisiun which ht:lps tu narrow choi~.:cs.

So urce: Charles 1\. Bucher & March L. 1\.rotce. ( 1999). Munugt!nu~lllof Phy.1icul Educulion ng the whole lu jew ng as an 1 Recycli step which enables the individual ,· decision mak i onJ Spor/ ( 11' ' cd . ). p. 18. ongotng process . 3 \1 • • · - . . .. . ~ .... v \,.,&. ... ~.L-. 1\. f V ICC '312...

Consequent ly making a career choice in Physical Education and Sport will involve: Physical education instructor - who teaches physical education ski lls c. One's se lf-evalua tion, through appropriate standardized instruments, Sports Med icine Pro fessionals_- who assist athletes or players to avoid inj ury and cal

for athlete after injury, and restore them fo normal functioni ng through rehabilita~ An awareness that career development occurs in stages. Spans medicine personnel include other specia lists suc h as:

Q.(' Knowledge of educational and occupational information relevant to Physical Education Athletics Trainers - who prepare part1c1pants before the contest and provide oth and Sport and needed services after the sports contest.

Possession of skills in career planning and decision making. Physical Therapists- who work with athletes who have been disabled through accident birth defect or illness. Physical therapists improve mobility, relieve and pain and preve1 n~!.S CAIR!E!EIROPI?OIRT1!J NU1'n!ES fiN I?IHI'VSiCAJL !EDUCATION AN[) SPORT or limit the permanent physical disabilities of patients suffering from injuries or diseases. en The common characteristics of the many professional jobs in education make it Sports Dentists- who provide various dental care to athletes. Dentists work ..Q...... ; comparatively easy to move from one job to another. Careers in education in general can mouthpiece used by athletes. Face guards are also used to prevent injury. involve vert ical and horizontal moves with no fear of becoming stagnanl. A career in e... education was once exclusively a career in teaching usually in a primary or secondary Sports Vision Specialists - who provide services related to vision to enhanc school or in a college or university. but today. education is a much broader enterprise. as performance of athletes. many sub specialities have developed. !Exercise Physiologists - who employ psychological techn iques and procedures tc Physical Education as a branch of education can lead to careers not only in teaching but enhance performance in sports and the well being of athletes, Behaviour and menta also in sports and many other associated employment opportunities. in what is now a processes of atheletes are studied. with the goal to explain and change their behaviour. multi billion dollar sport industry. Coaches also seem to come from the ranks of Physical Sport Massage Therapists - who ensure blood circulation of athletes through massage. Education teachers. The urge to educate others on the importance of Physical Education. with the goal to reduce or remove stress and to promote the general wel l being of the' fitness. and sports in general has led to the increasing recognition of Physical Education. athletes. Physical educators are also undergoing training at different levels of education with various special izations. Jobs in sport now include those who prepare the events. the Sports !Podiatrists - who diagnose and treat disorders and injuries of the foot and lower competitors. the venue of competition. and the equipment and market strategies to support leg to keep this part of the body working properly. the eve nt. Those who manage. cover and report the competition are also career pathways to be explo red . Sports Orthot ists and Proth ctists who employ bracing to correct and support body part (orthot ists). and utilize artificial replacr::mc.:ntlimbs for handicaps interested in spons Occupational Outlook Handbook ( 1994). Dictionary of Occupational Titles ( 1991) and ( prosthetists ). Heitzman ( 1993) summarized the opportunities in sports careers as including but not limited to the fol lowing: Sports Nutrition ists/Dietitia ns - who plan nutnt1on programmes and supervise the preparation and serving of meals. Sports nutritionists are concerned with the nutr itional IP'rofessiona! Aahietes - who are involved in a wide range of sports needs of various athletes.

Coadlles - who prepare the athletes. tht: ~:ompetitorsat the school level and those involved Sports Phys icia n - who examine patients. ordcr. pt:rform and interpret diagnostic tests. in profes sional coaching. they also diagnisc illness and administer treatment. Stporls adlminislralors/managcrs - who manage and direct school. professional and Os teopathic phys icians or allopathic physicians - who place r::mphasis on the hody' s organisatio nal progran1mes and prov ide: expertise in organisation. budgeting. musculoskclctal systc:m. The orthoraedists treat injurics to thc skelt'tal systems and can communicat ion and human relat ions. serve as consultants to athletes on inj uries aflc:cting the backs. necks. arm s. legs. joi nts. and the body muscles. Spora offtci:~~ls-who supervise various sports

Chi ropractors or r hi rop ractir lloctor.~-diagnose and trc:at pat ients with pro blems with Spo rts journalis~s- who may be newspaper sports writer or sports caster. a television the body's muscular. nervous anJ skckl;,tl sys tem t:specially thc sr inc. Some: announcer or a radio news caster. ' L Ul e er O u u:;wr1Ce ih I ,._.sica/ '-''" " "a /ion .... v p Orl i •. "J ' .ca tUg l-' I"'T f __; ------A .r. ... _o & 1-..~.X rore. ·-~ ·----··· 3i ct-

' chiropractors specialize in athletic injuries and employ other treatments such as heat. COACHfNG OPPORTUNITIES SPORT MEDIA OPPORTUNITIES water. and nutritional supplement and massage therapy in treatment. Interscholastic Commercial sport programs Sports informa tion clubs Sport broadcasting ·o ther job opportunities in sports include: Intercollegiate Sport journalism Community spo rt and production pro rams Sport photography g programs Sport art Sporl !Pubiic !Relations Sjpecialisas who publicize sports. teams and athletes through Writing sport- Commercial sport Military sport Sport product press releases or interviews. oriented books camps programs advisor Sport publishing AAU and club sport Spor~sli:GJUii)lm ena dlevelopmeUlla:m dl s2lifs reprl!!sentztives- who develop the variety of camps programs now in existence used athletes. The marketing of these products can also serve a career path for others. FITNESS & HEALTH-RELATED OPPORTUNITIES SPORT-RELATED OPPORTU NITIES Scouts/AgeDiis/Sports represeU11~2lnive- who search for and evaluate potential players. Cardiac rehabilitation Some! athletes who are very successful havt: agents who negotiate on their behalf. some Space fitness Player personnel Sports medicine programs Sport officiating teams also have managers who plan sporting engagements for the team and handle Movement therapy and community Game/event Corporate fitness relat ions financial issues for the athlete or team. Health clubs entertainment programs Sport law Community fitness Sport statistician Sports nutrition Professiona l athlete IHJ~am1lllndl fi tness specizDiaies - who provide services for individuals who want to programs Athletic training Sport consulting achieve fitness. as found in health clubs and spas and so on. Personal fitness Entrepreneur Weight control spas Research Compliance director trainer Golf club and turf Military personnel Academic 1\.rotec and Bucher ( J9Q8) go much funher and provide a comprehensive Physical management programs counselling Education and Sport career opportunity list. Sport/educational Sport agent psychologist Source: J 21bne D!U i?frlysical a:ducanion and sport C:ili"li:er opjportuni~ies Bucher, C. A. & Krotee, M.L. ( 1988).

This list is crucial for those in Africa as the list serves as both a career pathway guide as TEACHING OPPORTUNITIES SPORT MANAGEMENT OPPORTUNtTIES well as to shape. Progression Physical Education and Sport curriculum for certificates. it School Sett ing Non-Schoo l Sett ing diplomas and advanced degrees such as those at the Univers y of Botswana and Kenyatt a University in Nairob i. . Career pathways in Physical Education and Sport are Elementary school Community recreation/ Athletic Sport organ ization requisite for a healthy and productive Africa. Teaching at the primary and seconda ry Junior high school sport programs administrat ion Administration levels are vital. HeaJth and fitness are more critical than ever as Africa faces challenges H igh school Corporate recreat ion Aquatic Health club Junior/comonuniry Programs administra tion management which require immediate urgency. The professional pathway here is clear and must be college Commercial sport Span facility Span infonnation integrated with emerging jobs in the public and pri vate sector sport, leisure and tourism College and university clubs management Sport retailing industry which are vital to Africa's development. Education institutions, sports councils Basic instructional Youth-serving agencies Commercial span Corporate recreation resourcesand associations. must work together for effective and efficient use of scarce hum an programs Pre-schools club management and wellness Professional Health clubs Community Resort sport preparation programs Military personnel recreation/sport management ntl.6 JOB SEARCH STRA T.IEGHES Adapted physical programs management Bowl organizations education Resort sport programs Recreat ional sport/ Sport conference After the completion of education or train ing. the next goal is to secure a job that will be Overseas school Geriatric programs campus recreation comm issioner programs Correctional U.S. Olympic Sport profess ional satisfying and rewarding. Since the indi vidual is likely to be competing with othe rs for Military school institution programs Committee associations the same position. it will be hel pful to have some ideas on how to compe te success fully programs Spor1 tourism organ izations To secure employment one needs to be aware of the importa nt steps in job search. International school State high school Sports governing programs leagues bodies Krannich and Krann ich ( 1993) remarked that learning how to find a job could be as

Sport ~uuncils important to career success as knowi ng how to pe rform a job Findi ng a job involves ski lls that can be learned . The indi vidual needs to deve lop skills in ~IS"

A.A Alao & M L Krotee How to write application cover letter. iffil

How to shape a curriculum vitae and seeking job in Physical Education and Spon needs to be aware of job search strategies How to handle job interviews. and must be willing to implement them. It is imponant, however, that those of us in higher education. teaching, coaching and spans management positions join hands to' There is need to transform the understanding of the skills mentioned earlier into action move Africa ahead so that all may develop to the ir fullest potential and join fully in the through implementation. Where necessary. professional advice could be sought during global community. the job search. This may vary from career counselling to contacting different employment agencies in various sellings. Someone seeking a job in Physical Education and Span. REFERENCES would need to conduct a search on the agencies or organisations within the community that could offer him or her JObs based on his or her skills. abilities and experience. Networking may also be employed to identify different job opponunities in Physical Adedeji, J.A. (1994). Functional Physical Education and Span Literacy: Resultani Education and Spans within the community. The investigative stages of exploring prospects on quality life in Africa. In L.O. Amusa (Ed.), Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport and Dance in Africa (I 0-27). Proceedings of the ! 11 Conference of possible agencies that could employ someone with background in Physical Education and AF AHPER-SD. Gaborone (Botswana): AF AHPER-SD. University of Botswana. Sports should be followed by the communication stage where the individual makes both written and personal contact with the appropriate or identified employer. Be assured the Adedeji, J.A. (1985). The Teaching of Physical Education. lbadan (Nigeria): West Book internet will soon come to Africa which will add another dimension to job search. Publisher.

Oqf!Ju G':lcaoll"SWlhioc ill M21y A~fecaCmrreetrs Amusa.. L.O .. Toriola. A.L., & Monyeki, K.D. (1997). Career opponunities in Physical Education and Spans: Implications for professional preparation in Physical Education in part from to in for A individual factors which may lead unemployment some cases a while. Botswana. In E.O. Owalabi , B. Kalui, & A.L. Toriola (Eds.). Physical Education in . many different factors can also affect the availability of jobs in different professions. Botswana Schools and Colleges (181-195). Gaborone (Botswana): Department of Some of these factors may be political. economic or social to mention a few . Awareness Physical Education and Recreation, University of Botswana. of these factors and what can possibly be done to cope with them. may enhance the possibility of empl oyment. Sometimes. an individual may not have control over some of Blau, P.M .. Gustard, J.W. . Jesser. R., Parnee, H.S., & Wilcox, R.S. ( 1956). Occupational these factors . For example. a governmental policy which promotes spans may mean the choices: A conceptual framework . Industrial Labour Relalions Review. 9: 531-543 . possibility of jobs for individuals with training in Physical Education and Span or negative governmental policy on sports may also denote danger or possible decline in job Bucher. C.A. & Krotee, M.L. ( 1998). Management of Physical Educ(Jfion and Sport. opportunities in this area. When an individual is faced with a factor he or she has no New York: McGraw-Hill. control over. it will be helpful to consider alternate jobs where one's skill. ability or Dictionary Occupational Tilles ( 1991 ). DC: US experience can be utilized. o( Washington Department of Labour. Employment and Training Administration. The individual needs to develop coping strategies to pass through any temporary stage of Ede!felt. R.A. ( 1993). Cururs in Education. Chigago. IL: NTC Publishing. unempl oyment that he or she may face . In some cases acquisition of more education and training could be: helpful in securing a job. Also voluntary work at agencies sport Ginzberg, E., Ginzberg, S. W., Axerald, S .. & Herma. J.L. ( 1951) Occupational choice. councils, NGO's and in the community will lead to valuable contacts networks and An approach to genera/theory. New York: Columbia University Press. expenence. Hansen. L.S. ( 1997). An examination of the defmition.r and concepts of career educalion. SQJMMARV Washington DC: National Advisory Council for Career Education.

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