“HOW TO USE SPORT AS A TOOL TO PROMOTE GENDER EQUITY IN BOTSWANA” By Meagan Keaney Bachelor of Arts, Honours A thesis submitted to: The Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Arts Department of Geography and Environmental Studies Carleton University © Meagan Keaney September 2006 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 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ABSTRACT Sport has the capacity to touch the lives of all people, regardless of gender, age, language, economic and social strata, geographic location, or cultural differences. The culture of sport has intersected with the women’s movement to create an empowering environment for change. This particular research project is designed to examine and analyze what the international women’s feminist sporting movement, in correlation with the Botswana national feminist sporting movement, has done in order to improve gender equity in Botswana through policy change and implementation. Secondly, this research project will recommend methods based on field research and study that can continue to improve gender equity through further policy change and implementation from the national level down to the grassroots level in Botswana by using sport as a tool. Although legislative and policy changes of the last three decades have effectively addressed some of the longstanding problems of gender inequity, many practices within female sport and recreation continue to mirror and entrench women’s subordinate position in society. Discrimination on the basis of gender, race, culture and social class continues to persist in Botswana. There are and cannot be any short-term solutions. Sport is not the answer to reaching gender equity, but the strides being made at the policy and grassroots level are contributing to positive action. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract ii Table o f Contents Hi List o f Tables vi List o f Appendices vii List of Acronyms and Abbreviations viii Acknowledgements ix PART I: INTRODUCTION 1 1.0 Introduction 1 1.1 Outline of Thesis 5 PART II: THEORY AND PRACTICE 2.0 Sport and National Identities: A Geographical 9 Analysis 2.1 The Geography of Sport 11 2.2 Culture 14 2.3 Sport and National Identity 15 2.4 Barriers to Participation 17 2.5 A Space and Place for Sport 21 3.0 Conceptualizing Development, Women, and Sports 23 3.1 Theoretical Background: Feminist Post-Structuralism 24 3.2 Incorporating Gender 27 3.3 Relations to Power 29 3.4 Empowerment 30 3.5 Gender and Sport 32 3.6 Women’s Experiences in Sport 34 3.6.1 Cultural Barriers 34 4.0 Methodology 38 4.1 Formulating an Appropriate Cross-Cultural 39 Research Methodology 4.1.1 Shifting Multiple Identities 41 4.1.2 Relations of Power 44 4.2 Highlighting Reflexivity in Research Relationships 45 4.3 The Research Journey 46 4.3.1 The Pre-Fieldwork Process 47 4.3.2 The Fieldwork Process 48 4.3.3 The Post-Fieldwork Process 53 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4.4 Reflections on Research as a Dynamic Political Process 55 4.4.1 Acknowledging the Unintended Effects 55 of Dilemmas in Research Encounters 4.4.2 Vulnerability 57 4.5 Research as Political Action 59 PART III: BOTSWANA: A CASE STUDY 5.0 Botswana: A Country Review 61 5.1 History 64 5.2 The Transition of Botswana 65 5.3 Botswana on the International Stage 67 6.0 Women in Botswana 71 6.1 Economics and Employment of Batswana Women 72 6.2 Poverty 75 6.3 The Formation of Women’s Groups 77 6.4 Turning the Tides: Citizenship Law 81 6.5 Women Empowerment: The Struggle Continues 83 PART IV: USING SPORT AS A DEVELOPMENT TOOL 7.0 Using Sport as a Development Tool 88 7.1 History of the Women in Sport Movement 89 7.2 Benefits of Sports 91 7.3 Obstacles to Sports Participation for Women 95 7.4 Cultural Influences 98 7.5 Conclusion 100 8.0 Women And Sport Botswana Organization 103 8.1 The History of WASBO 104 8.2 The Re-emergence of WASBO 107 8.3 Probable Reasons for WASBO Inactivity 112 9.0 Female Athletes in Botswana: Personal Stories 115 9.1 Athlete Stories 117 9.2 Existing Pre-conceived Gender Roles in Botswana 131 Culture 9.3 Existing Pre-conceived Gender Roles in Botswana 134 Sport 9.4 Changing Culture 135 9.5 The Benefits of Sport 136 9.6 Encouraging Girls to Participate in Sport 139 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PART V: CONCLUSION: A WAY FORWARD 10.0 Suggestions for Using Sport as a Tool to Promote 141 Gender Equity 10.1 Changing Policy 142 10.1.1 Changing the Mindset of the Political Sector 143 10.2 Changing Culture 146 10.2.1 Rural Areas 148 10.3 Education Campaigns/Awareness/Spokespersons 150 10.4 Creating Role Models 152 10.5 Using the Media 154 10.6 Solicit Funding 157 10.7 Forming Effective Strategic Partnerships 157 10.8 Providing Resources and Resource Organization 158 10.8.1 Commonwealth Games Canada Involvement 159 10.9 Creating Programs 162 10.9.1 Dedication Solely to the Cause 164 10.10 Women Taking Ownership 164 11.0 Conclusion 166 Bibliography 174 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1 The Fieldwork Process: Methods Employed by Phase 49 Table 8.1 WASBO Aims and Objectives 106 Table 8.2 The WASBO Executive Committee 113 Table 9.1 Elite Female Athletes in Botswana 115 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF APPENDICES APPENDIX A Officials Interview Guide 183 APPENDIX B Athletes Interview Guide 184 APPENDIX C Questionnaire for Female Athletes 186 APPENDIX D List of Interviewees 190 APPENDIX E Proposed WASBO Structure 191 APPENDIX F WASBO Roll-Out Program 192 vii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACRONYMS AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome ASRH Adult Sexual Reproductive Health through Sport BDP Botswana Democratic Party BISA Botswana Institutions Sports Association BNOC Botswana National Olympic Committee BNSC Botswana National Sports Council CGC Commonwealth Games Canada CIDA Canadian International Development Agency COSASA Confederation of Southern African Schools Association DAWN Development Alternatives with Women for a New Era DSR Department of Sport and Recreation GAD Gender and Development HIV Human immunodeficiency virus IOC International Olympic Committee IWG International Women’s Working Group IYSPE International Year for Sport and Physical Education MDGs Millennium Development Goals OAU Organization of African Unity SACU Southern African Customs Union SADC Southern African Development Community SVM Sports Volunteer Movement UB University of Botswana UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Program WASBO Women and Sport Botswana Organization WID Women in Development WIS Women in Sport WLSA Women and Law Project of Southern Africa WSD Women, Sport, and Development WUSC World University Service of Canada viii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many people have been a part of my graduate education, as friends, teachers, and colleagues. Firstly I would like to thank my academic supervisor Iain Wallace, who helped me during the formative stages of my thesis, and drastically helped me to polish up my thesis at the end. Additionally, Fiona MacKenzie was instrumental in helping me to understand feminist post-modernism, and taught me how to write an appropriate research methodology. Without the help of these two Professors, my thesis would not have had the required academic proficiency required of a Graduate paper. In addition to the academic help provided by my Professors, I would like to deeply thank two individuals who helped me finish this thesis.