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Mineralogy and Geochemistry of the Sediments in Rivers Along the East Coast of India: Inferences on Weathering and Provenance

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Mineralogy and Geochemistry of the Sediments in Rivers Along the East Coast of India: Inferences on Weathering and Provenance J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021) 130:60 Ó Indian Academy of Sciences https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-020-01551-5 (0123456789().,-volV)(0123456789().,-volV) Mineralogy and geochemistry of the sediments in rivers along the east coast of India: Inferences on weathering and provenance 1 1, 1 SHAIK SAI BABU ,VENIGALLA PURNACHANDRA RAO *, NANNAPANENI SATYASREE , 1 2 2 RAVIPATI VENKATA RAMANA ,MEKALA RAM MOHAN and SARIPOOT SAWANT 1Vignan’s Foundation for Science, Technology and Research (VFSTR), Deemed to be Vignan’s University, Vadlamudi, Guntur 522 213, India. 2CSIR-National Geophysical Research Institute, Uppal Road, Hyderabad 500 007, India. *Corresponding author. e-mail: [email protected] MS received 25 July 2020; revised 19 November 2020; accepted 25 November 2020 The clay fraction of sediments in the lower reaches of 15 rivers along the east coast of India showed high kaolinite followed by illite and smectite for the rivers dominantly draining the Archaean–Precambrian Terrain (APT), high smectite followed by illite and kaolinite for those draining the Deccan Trap Volcanic Terrain (DVT) and, high illite followed by kaolinite, smectite or chlorite for those draining through Mixed-Lithology Terrain (MLT). The CIA (Chemical Index of Alteration) and PIA (Plagioclase Index of Alteration) values, depletion of Ca, K, Na and Sr and enrichment of Al, Fe and Ti, high Rb/Sr and Th/U ratios of sediments relative to the Upper Continental Crust indicate moderate to intense chemical weathering on source rocks. The average composition of clays exhibits slight enrichment of Fe, Mg, Sc, V, Co, Cr and Ni and depletion of Nb, Zr, Hf, Y and Ta relative to the Post-Archaean average Australian Shale. The Cu, Zn and Pb contents were in the range ‘significantly polluted to moderately polluted’ in APT- and DVT-sediments. The plots of TiO2 vs. Fe2O3+MgO, Th/Sc vs. Sc and La–Th–Sc showed sediment composition intermediate between granite and basalt, while the plots of TiO2 vs. Zr, Th vs. Sc and V–Ni–Th indicate intermediate provenance between maBc and felsic sources. The mineralogy of the sediments indicates mixed sources, but their chemical composition is aAected by weathering and the provenance is intermediate between maBc and felsic sources. Keywords. Clay minerals; trace metals; river sediments; provenance; chemical weathering; maBc/felsic sources. 1. Introduction Therefore, the composition of river sediments depends on several factors such as the lithology, Rivers are the primary agents to transport the relief, climate, weathering type, transportation, eroded materials from continents to oceans. The and diagenesis (Pettijohn et al. 1972; McLennan sediments transported and deposited by the rivers et al. 1993; Cox et al. 1995). By investigating the are from diverse sources, which comprise of differ- sediment geochemistry, one can gain knowledge ent geological formations that weather under dif- about the net inCuence of provenance, weathering, ferent physiographic settings and climatic regimes. tectonic and Cuvial processes involved in making 60 Page 2 of 24 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021) 130:60 up the composition of the sediments (Nesbitt and predominant on source rocks of the Himalayan Young 1982; Taylor and McLennan 1985; Cullers rivers. Contrastingly, the peninsular rivers of India 1988; Tripathi and Rajamani 1999; Singh and weather source rocks under humid, tropical con- France-Lanord 2002; Borges et al. 2008; Rahaman ditions, wherein chemical weathering is predomi- et al. 2009; Garzanti et al. 2010, 2011; Lupker et al. nant (Nesbitt and Young 1989). The sediments 2012; Armstrong-Altrin et al. 2013; Sharma et al. from a few peninsular rivers of India have been 2013; Hossain et al. 2017; Madhavaraju et al. investigated for their geochemistry (Singh and 2017, 2019, 2020; Nagarajan et al. 2017; Maharana Rajamani 2001; Madhavaraju et al. 2002, 2015; et al. 2018; Chaudhuri et al. 2020). In addition, Sensarma et al. 2008; Rajamani et al. 2009; Sharma human activity can sometimes strongly inCuence et al. 2013), and sediments from more rivers have the trace element chemistry of the Cuvial to be investigated to better understand the controls sediments. on provenance, weathering and other sedimentary The chemical/physical weathering acting on processes. Moreover, it has been established that source rocks inCuences the texture, mineralogy and the Bne-grained fraction of sediment is a better geochemistry of the sediments transported by the representative to provide clues regarding prove- rivers (Chamley 1989). For example, chemical nance and composition of the upper crust (Cullers weathering produces abundant Bne-grained sedi- et al. 1979; McLennan et al. 1993; McLennan 2001; ments, while physical weathering produces more Fralick and Kronberg 1997; Weltje and Eynatten silts and sands. Variable degree of chemical 2004; Condie 2005; Chakrabarti et al. 2007). Sai- weathering produces clay minerals such as smectite babu et al. (2020, 2021) reported the composition and kaolinite, while intense chemical weathering of the peninsular India rivers average clay produces kaolinite and gibbsite-dominated sedi- (PIRAC) and REE, but these papers do not discuss ments. Physical weathering produces illite and weathering and provenance of the sediments. In chlorite-dominated sediments. Intense chemical this study, the clay fraction of sediments in the weathering selectively leaches cations such as Ca, lower reaches of 15 rivers and a freshwater lake Na and Sr from the weathering proBle, and Bxes (Kolleru Lake) along the east coast of India were cations such as Cs, Ba and Rb to the weathering investigated for their mineralogy and major and proBle and by adsorbing onto clays (Nesbitt and trace element geochemistry with an aim to deter- Young 1989; Roddaz et al. 2006). Trace elements mine the inCuence of weathering and their are enriched in heavy minerals and clays, compared provenance. to silts and sands (He et al. 2015). Trace elements are also aAected by precipitation and co-precipi- tation as well as adsorption on Fe, Mn oxides and 2. Geology of the drainage basins Al-hydroxides (gibbsite), kaolinite and organic of the rivers matter surfaces and anthropogenic processes (Ma- harana et al. 2018). The sediments from diverse The rivers of the east coast of India (Bgure 1) drain source areas are admixed during transportation through three dominant geological formations: and sedimentation. The textural and mineralogical (a) the Archaean–Precambrian Terrain (APT) modiBcations associated with weathering, frac- drained by the Cauvery, Ponnaiyar, Palar, Pennar, tionation and other sedimentary processes result in Nagavali and Vamsadhara rivers. The Cauvery geochemical heterogeneity of Cuvial sediments and river comprises of the Dharwar system, peninsular as a consequence their original signature is largely granite gneiss, charnockite and closepet granite obscured. It thus becomes a challenge in utilizing (Krishnan 1982) with Cretaceous sedimentary sediment chemistry for the provenance, weathering formations (phosphatic limestones, sandstones, and crustal evolution. clays) in the coastal tract. The Ponnaiyar river Studies on the sediments of large rivers origi- comprises of Archaean rocks with Cretaceous for- nated from the Himalayan mountain ranges have mations (calcareous sandstones, claystones, Cud- highlighted the role of tectonics, lithology, weath- dalore sandstone and recent alluvium) in the ering and Cuvial processes on clastic sediment coastal region (Krishnan 1982). The Pennar river composition (Yang et al. 2004; Roddaz et al. 2006; comprises of granitoid gneisses (hornblende-biotite Liu et al. 2007, 2011; Borges et al. 2008; Garzanti gneiss, migmatitic gneiss and intrusive granites) et al. 2011; Singh 2010; Shao et al. 2012; Chetelat and supracrustal rocks of tholeiitic and komatiitic et al. 2013;Heet al. 2015). Physical weathering is aDnity in the upper reaches (Balakrishnan and J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021) 130:60 Page 3 of 24 60 Figure 1. Sample locations in the river sediments along the east coast of India. Geology of the area is also shown. Rajamani 1987) and charnockites in the middle the lower reaches. Ore deposits such as iron, reaches followed by Gondwana deposits, granulites copper, coal, bauxite, chromite and mica are found and recent coastal alluvium. The pre-Cambrian in its basin (Giri et al. 2013). Similarly, the Hoogly Khondalites in the Eastern Ghats are the primary and Haldia rivers are tributaries of the Ganges source rocks for the Nagavali and Vamsadhara River, which drains and weather pre-Cambrian rivers. They consist of sillimanite, garnet-rich formations under glacial conditions in the Hima- schists and gneisses with quartz, K-feldspars and layas and deltaic sediments in the lower reaches plagioclases as major constituents (Das et al. 2005). (Biswas 1985). Ferro-manganese deposits are also reported in the Eastern Ghats. (b) The Deccan Trap Volcanic Terrain (DVT) is drained by the Krishna and 3. Materials and methods Godavari rivers. They also drain pre-Cambrian rocks and deltaic sediments in the lower reaches Sediment samples were collected in the lower (Jha et al. 2009). (c) The mixed-lithology terrain reaches of 15 major and medium rivers and a (MLT) is drained by the Mahanadi, Brahmani, freshwater lake (Kolleru) along the east coast of Baitarani and Subarnarekha rivers. The Mahanadi India (Bgure 1), using Peterson Grab and mecha- and Brahmani rivers drain through igneous rocks nised boat. The top portion of the sediments was and Late Archaean, the ore deposits
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