Geography of World and India

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GEOGRAPHY OF WORLD AND INDIA

CONTENT WORLD GEOGRAPHY ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖

INDIAN GEOGRAPHY ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖

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GEOGRAPHY WORLD 1. UNIVERSE

INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY • The word ‘Geography’ is a combination of two Greek words "geo" means Earth and "graphy" means write about. • Geography as a subject not only deals with the features and patterns of surface of Earth, it also tries to scientifically explain the inter-relationship between man and nature. • In the second century, Greek scholar Eratosthenes (Father of Geography) adopted the term 'Geography'. BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY Physical Geography Human Geography Bio - Geography Cultural Geography Climatology Economic Geography Geomorphology Historical Geography Glaciology Political Geography Oceanography Population Geography Biogeography Social Geography Pedology Settlement Geography

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY It deals with the physical environment and various processes that bring about changes in the physical environment on the Earth's surface. It includes: 1. Bio-Geography: The study of the geographic distribution of organisms. 2. Climatology: The study of climate or weather conditions averaged over a period of time. 3. Geomorphology or Physiographic: The scientific study of landforms and processes that shape them. 4. Glaciology: The study of glaciers and ice sheets. 5. Oceanography: The study of all aspects of the ocean including temperature, ocean current, salinity, fauna and flora, etc. 6. Pedology: The study of various types of Soils.

HUMAN GEOGRAPHY Human geography deals with the perspective of human and its functions as well as its interaction with the environment. It studies people, communities and cultures with an emphasis on relations of land across space. It includes: 1. Cultural Geography: The study of the spatial variations among cultural groups and spatial functioning of the society. 2. Economic Geography : It studies the distribution and utilization of resources of the Earth. 3. Historical Geography: The study of the past like the reconstruction of past environment and the study of sequences of changes with the passage of time at a place. 4. Political Geography: It is the study of the political phenomenon like national interests, nations and international relations. 5. Population Geography: The study of the characteristics of people living in an area such as sex-ratio, literacy, migration, etc. 6. Social Geography: The study of the spatial arrangement of social phenomena like caste, religion, racial groups and their social implications. 7. Settlement Geography: It deals with the: nature of human shelter. UNIVERSE • Universe is the whole of existence, including planets, stars, galaxies, the contents of intergalactic space, all matter and energy. The size of the universe is unknown and infinite. • The study of universe is called as Cosmology. The age of universe is approximately 13.8 million years (13.8 x 109years).

COMPOSITION OF UNIVERSE • The Universe is believed to be composed of dark energy, dark matter, hydrogen and helium.

THEORIES of Evolution of the Universe • Aristotle propounded geocentric theory where the Earth was the centre of the universe and the sun, the moon and the other planets are orbiting the Earth. • In 140 AD, Claudius Ptolemy propounded the theory that the Earth was the centre of the universe and the sun and other heavenly bodies revolved around it. • In 1543, Nicholas Copernicus argued that the sun, and not the Earth, was the centre of the universe. Johannes Kepler supported Copernicus but said that the sun was the centre of the solar system and not the universe. • In 1805, Hershel made it clear that the solar system was a part of the much larger system of stars called galaxy.

The three main theories put forward to explain the origin and evolution of the universe are: The Big Bang Theory • The 'Big Bang theory' is related to the origin of the Universe, Milky Way and Solar system. • It explains the origin of the universe from the earliest known period through its subsequent large- scale evolution. • The measurement of the expansion rate of the universe places this moment approximately 13.7 billion years ago, which is thus considered the age of the universe. • This theory was propounded by Georges Lemaitre and George Gamow in 1894-96. Later in 1967, Robert Wagner explained this theory. • According to this theory, whole universe was concentrated on a hot and dense point some 13.7 bn years ago. Due to high concentration, there was a sudden explosion which was termed as Big-Bang. • Due to primordial explosion, the matter was broken into pieces, which were thrown out with high speed in all directions forming stars and galaxies which are still moving away from one another. Pulsating (Oscillating) Universe Theory • It states that universe periodically expands from the explosion of the primordial body, then contracts back and explodes again, over immensely long cycles, ad infinitum. At present, the universe is expanding. Steady State Theory • This Theory was developed in 1948 by Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold and Hermann Bondi. It states that the universe is always expanding though it maintains a constant average density. GALAXY • A galaxy is a huge congregation of stars held together by the forces of gravity. • Infinite group of these swirling galaxies are visible to us collectively in the form of Universe. • Every Galaxy is estimated to contain 100 billion stars. • Milky Way: Our galaxy is Milky Way Galaxy (or the Akash Ganga) which contains our Solar System. • It is spiral in shape. It consists of over a 100 billion stars rotating and revolving about its centre. The nearest spiral galaxy to ours is Andromeda. • In 1924, Edwin Hubble first demonstrated existence of galaxies beyond Milky Way. • There are three main types of galaxies: 1. Elliptical Galaxies shaped like a "Spheriod" or "Elongated Sphere"; 2. Spiral Galaxies have three main components and 3. Irregular Galaxies have no regular or symmetrical structure. • Spitzer space telescope in 2005, produced clear proof that the shape of our Milky Way is Barred spiral.

STAR • Stars are self-luminous and heavenly bodies that are extremely hot and have own light. Star forming matter is richer in hydrogen and helium. • A star's color indicates the temperature of its surface. Blue color denotes maximum temperature. • The nearest star to Earth is the Sun. The oldest star HE 1523-0901, is an estimated 13.2 billion years old. The most massive star known is "Eta Carinae" having with 100-150 times as much mass as the Sun. • "VY Canis Majoris" is one of the largest known stars by radius and the most luminous. • The smallest star in the universe is a Red Dwarf known as "Gilese 623b". Its mass is one tenth the mass of the sun.

STAGES OF STAR • Universe is a group of infinite galaxies and each galaxy contains billions of stars. Stars are the most fundamental building blocks of galaxies. Whole lifecycle of stars is divided into 5 stages:

1. Stage 1 : These stars are formed by nebulae having ingredient Hydrogen and Helium present in galaxies. These are born within the clouds of dust scattered throughout most galaxies. During the first life-cycle phase of a high-mass star, the hydrogen in the core burns until only helium is left.

2. Turbulence deep within these clouds gives rise to knots with sufficient mass that the gas and dust can bring to collapse under its own gravitational attraction. In the initial stage of their development, stars are known as Protostar. Subsequently, a star enters the next phase of development which describes the stars as 'main sequence star'. The stages a star will go through and how long it will last in each stage depends on the mass. Heavy stars evolve quicker than light stars. Heavy stars live shorter lives than the common stars because even though they have a larger amount of hydrogen for nuclear reactions, their rate of consuming their fuel is much greater. 3. Once a star has burnt through all its fuel i.e. hydrogen fuel in its' core, nuclear reactions can no longer continue. So, the core begin to contract within it's own gravity. This brings additional hydrogen into a zone where temperature and pressure are adequate to cause fusion to resume in a shell around the core. In this stage a star is termed as 'Red Giant'. 4. In the Second (maturing) process, a star takes millions of year from the beginning of the collapse to adulthood. A star of the size of our Sun requires about 50 million years to mature and will stay in this mature phase for approximately 10 billion years. The smallest stars, known as red dwarfs, may contain as little as 10% the mass of the Sun, while the most massive stars, known as hypergiants may be 100 or more times more massive than the Sun. In the stage of red giant or hyper giant a burst of nuclear fusion occurs by which dwarf may become Nova or Super Nova.

5. After this the stars, according to their size reaches to one of the three stages: Black dwarf, Neutron star or Black hole, of death. o Small stars like Sun — If after Novae explosion the remaining Mass is within 1.44 times of solar masses, the star will become white dwarf and shall reach to death in the form Black dwarf. A solar mass is the standard way to describe mass in astronomy (One solar mass is equal to the mass of the Sun, or about 1.98892 ×10^30 kg) o Stars of Medium size—If after Supernovae explosion the remaining mass of star is within the limit of 1.44 times to 3 times of solar masses it will become Neutron star. o Stars of Large size — If after Supernovae explosion the remaining mass is more than 3 times of the Solar masses, star will become Black Hole. • Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar was an Indianastrophysicist who described the "Chandrasekhar limit". This limit describes the maximum mass of a white dwarf star or the mass limit above which a star will ultimately collapse into a Neutron star or a black hole. He revealed that this mass was approximately 1.44 of the solar masses. • In 1983 Chandra Shekhar was awarded with the Noble Prize in Physics for his work on evolution of stars. Black Hole • After Supernovae explosion, if the remaining mass of a star is more than 3 times of the Solar masses, star will become Black Hole. It is not possible to observe a black hole directly with the help of telescope. • Intense gravitational field of Black hole due to the high density, does not allow any type of radiation. • Even light rays cannot escape from this. The presence of black hole is ascertained by the behavior of stars, gases and masses near it with the help of space telescope Chandrashekhar Limit • Subramanyam Chandra Sekhar was a great scientist and Noble Prize winner who first gave details on Black Hole theory. • On 11 January 1935 he presented a research paper in Royal Astronomical society of London and propounded that a white dwarf star turns into a Black Hole after attaining certain mass. The value of this limit is about 1.44 times of solar Mass which was derived by Chandrasekhar in 1930. • He was awarded Noble Prize jointly with W.A. Fowler in Physics in 1983.

COLOR OF A STAR The colour of a star indicates its temperature. The temperature of stars of different colors is as follows Colour Temperature range 8

• Blue 50,000-28,000 K • Blue-white 28,000-10,000 K • White 10,000-7500 K • White Yellow 7500-6000 K • Yellow 6000-4900 K • Orange 4900-3500 K • Red 3500-2000 K NOTE: Sun is a Yellow Dwarf with Surface Temperature 5500-6000 degree Celsius

CONSTELLATIONS • The stars forming a group that has a recognizable shape is called a constellation. For example- URSA Major, Orion, Cassiopeia, etc. • A constellation does not have only 5-10 stars. It has a large number of stars. We can see only the bright stars in a constellation with our naked eye. • According to International Astronomical Union there are 88 constellations in the sky. • Astronomers officially recognize 88 constellations covering the entire sky in the northern and southern hemispheres. • Most of these imaginary patterns can be seen from the southern hemisphere. It will take a full year to get a glimpse of all the constellations.

URSA Major • Also known as the Big Dipper, the Great Bear or the Saptarishi. This famous constellation is seen during summer time in the early part of the night. • There are seven prominent stars in this constellation. It appears like a big ladle or a question mark. There are three stars in the handle of the ladle and four in its bowl. • We can locate the Pole Star with the help of Ursa Major (Saptarishi). Pole star always shines in the North direction.

Orion • Orion is also called the Hunter. Magnificent constellation seen during winter in the late evenings. • It also has seven or eight bright stars. The three middle stars represent the belt of the hunter. The four bright stars appear to be arranged in the form of a quadrilateral. • Sirius which is the brightest star in the sky, is located close to Orion. • Betelgeuse is second-brightest star in the Constellation of Orion. It is at a distance of 427 light year from the Earth. It was first seen by Sir John Herschel in 1836, but in 1995, Hubble Space Telescope captured its images. It was the second star after Sun, whose image had been captured.

Cassiopeia • Another prominent constellation in the northern sky. It is visible during winter in the early part of the night. It looks like a distorted letter W or M. SOLAR SYSTEM • The solar system comprises of the Sun, 8 planets, their moons and other non stellar objects that orbit the sun. The centre of the solar system is the Sun. • The size of the solar system has been estimated about 105 Astronomical Unit.

Components of The Solar System • Sun • 8 Planets, • 5 Dwarf planets • Satellites • Asteroids • Meteoroids • Comets • Plasma (the electrically charged particles), • Interplanetary dust and • Small Solar System Body (SSSB).

Theories to Explain the Origin of Solar System Various theories have been given by different persons to explain the origin of solar System:

THEORY GIVEN BY Gaseous Hypothesis Kant Nebular Hypothesis Laplace Planetesimal Hypothesis Chamberlin and Moulton Tidal Hypothesis James Jeans & Harold Jeffrey Binary Star Hypothesis H.N. Russel Nova Hypothesis Hoyle & Lyttleton Electromagnetic Hypothesis H.Alfven Interstellar Dust Hypothesis Schmidt Nebular Cloud Hypothesis Dr. Von Weizsacker Protoplanet Hypothesis G. Kutiper

DISTANCE BETWEEN STAR Light Year • Light year is most often used in measuring the distance between the stars. • The distance covered by light in one year in vacuum with a speed of 3 x 105Km/sec is known as 'Light Year '. Therefore, Light years is the distance which light can travel in vacuum in one year.

Astronomical Unit • An Astronomical Unit (AU) is the average distance between Earth and the Sun, which is about 93 million miles or 150 million kilometers. Astronomical units are usually used to measure distances within our Solar System. • A light year is the distance light travels in one year, while an AU, otherwise known as an astronomical unit, is the distance between the Sun and the Earth.

GEOGRAPHY WORLD 2. SOLAR SYSTEM

SUN • Sun is a star and is the major source of energy of the solar system. • Sun rotates from west to east. It takes 224 million years to complete one circle (revolution) around the galactic circle (called cosmic year).

Sun’s Composition • Sun consists of hot plasma interwoven with magnetic fields. • It is primarily composed of the two gases: (i) Hydrogen and (ii) Helium. • The huge amount of energy produced by the Sun is created in its core by a process known as nuclear fusion.

Sun’s Atmosphere Suns atmosphere is composed of three layers. They are : 1. Photosphere: The part of the Sun that we see is the layer of its atmosphere known as the photosphere. Sunspots are related to photosphere. 2. Chromosphere:Above the photosphere, a red colored layer called as Chromosphere is present. 3. Corona: Beyond chromosphere is the corona which is visible during eclipses. Solar winds are ejections of plasma that originate in the layer of the Sun known as the corona.

Sunspots (Photosphere) • The surface of the sun changes continuously. • Sunspots are temporary phenomena on the Sun's photosphere that appear as spots darker than the surrounding areas. • They are regions of reduced surface temperature caused by concentrations of magnetic field flux that inhibit convection. Sunspots appear dark because they are cooler, that is, they have a temperature of about 1500°C. Sunspots have a periodicity of 11 years. • The photosphere has a temperature of 5,800 degrees Kelvin. Sunspots have temperatures of about 3,800 degrees K. They look dark only in comparison with the brighter and hotter regions of the photosphere around them. Faculae (Photosphere) • Faculae are bright areas that are usually most easily seen near the limb, or edge, of the solar disk. These are also magnetic areas but the magnetic field is concentrated in much smaller bundles than in sunspots. While the sunspots tend to make the Sun look darker, the faculae make it look brighter.

Plage (Chromoshpere) • A plage is a bright region in the chromosphere of the Sun, typically found in regions of the chromosphere near sunspots Corona Hole(Corona) • A coronal hole is a large region in the corona which is less dense and is cooler than its surrounds. • Such holes may appear at any time of the solar cycle but they are most common during the declining phase of the cycle. • Coronal holes occur when the Sun's magnetic field is open to interplanetary space. Solar Winds (Corona) • A persistent stream of protons and electrons is blowing out of the corona and sweeping over the whole solar system. This stream is called Solar Wind. Prominences • The sun is constantly emitting streams of its substance (mainly hydrogen) as protons in all directions. Such emissions are called Prominences.

Solar Flares • Emissions that roll out of the atmosphere of the sun for thousands and thousands of miles. They are called as Solar Flares.

Auroral displays • The particles of solar wind sometimes pierce the magnetic shield of the Earth and enter the upper atmosphere where the solar flares like cause auroral displays. In the Arctic region, they are called Aurora Borealis and in the Antarctic region, they are known as Aurora Australis.

Fraunhofer lines • Superimposed on sun's white light are hundreds of dark lines called Fraunhofer lines. Each line indicates some element present in the solar atmosphere.

SUN : FAST FACTS

Age 5 billion years (approx) Expected life 10 billion years (approx) Distance from the earth 14,95,98,900 km (149.8 million km) Diameter 13,84,000 km Mass 2×1027 tonnes Surface temperature (photosphere) 6000o C Temperature at core 1,50,00,000o C (15 million degree) 13

Rotation period 25 days (at equator) Revolution period 250 million years Hydrogen – 71%, Helium-26.5%, Chemical composition Others-2.5% Time taken by light to reach from 8 min 16.6 sec. Sun to earth Gravitational pull 28 times than that of Earth Size of the sun 109 times the earth

THE PLANETS • 'Planet' word comes from Greek (aster planets), which means wandering star. • Planets are solid heavenly opaque bodies which continuously revolve around the sun in an elliptical path. • The International Astronomical Union (IAU) states that a planet is a celestial body that is orbiting around the Sun which has enough mass so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape and has cleared the neighborhood around its orbit. • Number of Stars :1 (Sun) • Number of Planet :8 (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune) • Number of known Dwarf Planets: 5 (Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Make make, Eris) • Distance of Kuiper Belt: 50 AU (Astronomical Unit)

PLANETS FAST FACTS

Planet Distance Diameter Period of Period of Average No. of from Sun (in (in km) Revolution Rotation Density Moon million km) Mercury 58 4868 88 d 59 d 5.10 0 Venus 108 12,112 225 d 243 d 5.30 0 Earth 150 12,742 365.25 d 23 h 56 m 5.51 1 Mars 228 6,800 687 d 24 h 37 m 3.94 2 Jupiter 178 1,43000 12 yr 9 h 50 m 1.34 67 Saturn 1427 1,21,000 29.5 yr 10 h 25 m 0.70 62 Uranus 2869 47,000 84 yr 10 h 45 m 1.55 27 Neptune 4498 45,000 165 yr 16 h 7 m 2.27 14

Classification of Planets Inner Planets/Terrestrial Planets • Include Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.

Outer Planets/Jovian Planets • Include Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.

Inner Planet Outer Planet

These planets are solid and are made up to These planets are not solid and are made up to rock and metals. So, called as Terrestrial gases. So, Calles as Jovian or Gaseous planets. or Rock planets

They are nearer to the Sun. They are far away from the Sun.

They have very few natural satellites They have a large number of natural satellite (or (or moons) or no satellite moons).

They have greater density They have smaller density

They spin slowly but orbit the Sun quickly They spin quickly but orbit the Sun slowly.

Mercury • The innermost planet has the fastest orbital motion and the shortest period of revolution. • It has Maximum diurnal range of temperature. Its days are scorching hot and nights are frigid.

Venus (The Veiled Planet) • Also called Earth's Twin, because of its similar size, density and mass. Slowest rotation in the Solar system. • The planet is considered as the hottest planet. The night and day temperatures are almost the same.

Mars (The Red Planet) • It has a thin atmosphere comprising of nitrogen and argon. • It is marked with dormant volcanoes and deep chasms here once water flowed. Recent explorations have thrown light on the possibilities of existence of life here. • The highest mountain is named 'Nix Olympia', which is three times higher than Mount Everest. • It has two satellites — Phobos and Deimos.

Jupiter (The Giant Planet) • Called as Lord of the Heavens. Largest of all planets. Its atmosphere contains hydrogen, helium, methane and ammonia. • It has 67 satellites (Prominent are Lo, Europa, Gannymede and Callisto). • Gannymede is the largest satellite of Solar System. • A great red spot is detected on it which represents a tinge storm (a super hurricane), existing for hundreds of years, without abating. This storm is probably powered by Jupiter's internal heat. 15

Saturn (The Ringed Planet) • Unique feature is its System of rings (3 well defined). • These are separate particles that move independently in circular Orbits. • Least density of all (30 times less dense than Earth). • 62 satellites (Prominent is Titan.). • The space probe, Cassini, is on Saturn.

Uranus (The Green Planet or the Methane Planet) • Identified as a planet in 1781 by William Hershel. It seems to rotate from north to south. • It has the coldest atmosphere in the solar system. It has 27 satellites (Prominent are Miranda, Aril etc) • Surrounded by a system of 5 faint rings. (e.g.-Alpha, Beta, Gama etc.)

Neptune • Uranus and Neptune can be considered twins because of similar size, color (pale-greenish), attributable to the methane in their atmospheres. • Discovered by JG Galle of Berlin in 1846.14 satellites (Prominent are Triton and Nereid). • Neptune's atmosphere contains an earth-sized blemish called the Great Dark Spot.

Trans-Neptunian region - Kuiper belt • The Kuiper belt, occasionally called the Edgeworth–Kuiper belt, is a circumstellar disc in the outer Solar System, extending from the orbit of Neptune to approximately 50 AU from the Sun. It is similar to the asteroid belt but is far larger—20 times as wide and 20 to 200 times as massive.

DWARF PLANET • It is a planetary-mass object that is neither a planet nor a satellite but orbit around the sun. For examples: Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake and Eris. • Most of them are located in the Kuiper Belt, a region of icy objects beyond the orbit of Neptune. Dwarf planet Ceres is in the main asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. • Since its discovery by Clyde Tombaugh in 1930, Pluto was considered the ninth planet from the sun. In August 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) redefined the term planet and classified Pluto as. Dwarf Planets. Now, Pluto has been given the number 134340 and is about 5.9 billion km or 39.48 AU away from the sun.

Solar System: Fast Facts Biggest Planet Jupiter

Smallest Planet Hottest Planet Coldest Planet Neptune Nearest Planet to Sun Mercury Farthest Planet from Sun Neptune Fastest Rotating Planet Jupiter Slowest Rotating Planet Venus Heaviest Planet Jupiter Lightest Planet Mercury High Dense Planet Earth Least Dense Planet Saturn Brightest Planet Venus Green Planet Neptune Blue Planet Earth Red Planet Mars Ringed Planet Saturn Planet with maximum satellite Jupiter Biggest Satellite Ganymede Smallest Satellite Deimos Smallest Dwarf Planet Ceres Morning/Evening Star Venus Planet with a big red spot Jupiter Greatest Diurnal Temperature Mercury The eight planets in order of increasing Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, distance from the Sun are Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Planets according to their size in Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Earth, decreasing order: Venus, Mars and Mercury.

SATELLITES • A satellite is a celestial body that orbits around 'Planet.

• There are two types of satellites. These are— (i) Natural satellites and (ii) Artificial satellites.

Natural Satellites • Natural satellites are objects which are formed by nature such as the moon. There are 173 known natural satellites orbiting planets in the Solar System.

Artificial Satellites • Artificial satellites are manufactured objects that continuously go around the Earth or some other body in space. The first artificial satellite was Sputnik. ASTEROIDS AND PLANETOIDS • Asteroids are a series of very small planets or fragments of planets lying between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. They revolve around the sun in the same way as the planets. Asteroids are also known as minor planets. For examples: Apophis, Ceres, Pallas, Vesta, Ida, Eros, Gaspra, etc. • The largest asteroids are called planetoids. • Composed of rock, dust and metal, the early asteroids were formed when the heavy metal within them sunk to the center of the rock, forming a metal core. Asteroids become darker and redder with age due to space weathering. • 99942 Apophis is near-Earth asteroid having diameter about 325 meters. The probability of an impact of Apophis on Earth on April 13, 2036 has eliminated.

METEOROID • A meteor is usually a small object that occasionally enters the Earth's atmosphere. At that time, it has a very high speed. The friction due to the atmosphere heats it up. It glows and evaporates quickly. The bright streaks of light in the sky are commonly known as shooting stars, although they are not stars. They are called meteors • Some meteors are large so that they can reach the Earth before they evaporate completely. The body that reaches the Earth is called a meteorite.

Meteor Showers • When the Earth crosses the tail of a comet, swarms of meteors are seen. • These are known as meteor showers. Some meteor showers occur at regular intervals each year.

COMET • Comets are made of ice, dust and small rocky particles. • Comets may originate in a huge cloud called the oort cloud that is thought to surround the Solar System. It has a head and a tail. Its tail originates only when it gets closer to the sun. • Examples of some comets are: Swift-Tuttle, Hyakutake, Halley, Shoemaker Levy 9, etc.

• Hailey's comet: It is known as a periodic comet. It can be seen with the naked eye from Earth every 76 years. It had appeared in 1986 and will return in 2061. • Comet Smith Tuttle: Can collide'-with Earth on Aug 17, 2116. Will create an impact of about 16 million times that of Hiroshima bomb.

MOON • The Moon (or Luna) is the Earth's only natural satellite. Its orbit around Earth is elliptical. Moon has no atmosphere, no twilight and no sound. • The study of moon is called Selenology. • The Moon is in synchronous rotation with Earth meaning the same side is always facing the Earth. Moon seems to have bright and dark patches. The bright parts are the mountains and highlands, while the darker patches are low-lying planes. • The highest mountain on moon is Leibnitz Mountain, which is 10,660 m high. It is situated at moon's South Pole.

The first unmanned space craft to reach the Moon was Luna 1 in 1959. Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin reached moon on July 20, 1969 on Apollo XI and set the foot on July 21, 1969 (landing spot is called Sea of Tranquility).

MOON : Some Facts Circumference 11,000 km Diameter 3,475 km Maximum distance from Earth (Apogee) 4,06000 km Minimum distance from Earth (Perigee) 3,64000 km Revolution period 27d, 7h, 43m and 11.47 sec Rotation period 27d, 7h, 43m, and 11.47sec Speed of revolution around Earth 3,680 km/hr Part of Moon not visible from Earth 41% Mass (with respect to Earth) 1 : 8.1 Ratio of Gravitational Pull of Moon and 1 : 6 Earth Highest mountain Leibnitz Mountain

GEOGRAPHY WORLD 3. EARTH

EARTH • Earth is the only planet where life exists. • Also called as Blue Planet. It is the densest of all planets. • The shape of the Earth is oblate spheroid or oblate ellipsoid (i.e., almost spherical, flattened a little at the poles with a slight bulge at the center).

Earth: Some Facts

Shape Geoid Age 4.54 billion years Mass 5.97 × 1024 kg Volume 10.83 × 1011kg3 Total surface area 51,00,666,000 sq. km. Total Land area 14,84,29,000 sq. km Total Water area 38,26,72000 sq. km Equatorial circumstance 40, 077 km Polar circumstance 40,009 km Highest Land point Mount Everest Nepal (8,850) Deepest Land Point Dead Sea Mariana Trench in Pacific Deepest Ocean Point Ocean Rotation time 23 hrs. 56 min 40.91 sec Satellite 1 (Moon) Tilt of axis from Orbital Plane 23 1/2o Minimum distance from Sun (At Perihelion) 147 million km (approx.) Maximum distance from Sun (At Aphelion) 152 million km (approx.)

EARTH MOVEMENT There are two types of movement of Earth: 1. Earth's Rotation 2. Earth's Revolution

Definition Time and Speed Causes

Earth’s Rotation 1 day Day and Night; Earth rotates on its own axis (23 h, 56 m, 40.91s) Rise and fall of tides every day; from West to East 1670 km Change in the direction of wind and ocean currents

Earth’s Revolution: 1 yr Change of seasons; Earth revolves around the (365 d, 5h, 48 m, 45.51 s) Variation in the lengths of Sun in an orbit 29.8 km/s days and nights; Shifting of wind belts.

Inclined Axis • The axis is an imaginary line running, from north to south and passing through the center of the Earth. • It always remains inclined at an angle of 661/2° to the plane of the Earth's orbit and is tilted 231/2° from a line perpendicular to this plane.

Seasons

Seasons • Seasons are periods into which the year can be divided because of the climatic conditions, largely due to the changes in the duration and intensity of solar radiation. • The four seasons are:

Spring • On March 21, the sun is directly overhead the Equator. This is the season of spring in the Northern Hemisphere.

Summer • On June 21, the sun is directly overhead the Tropic of Cancer. Thus, the Northern Hemisphere experiences summer.

Autumn • On September 23, the sun returns to the equator, and the Northern Hemisphere experiences autumn.

Winter • On December 22, the sun is at the Tropic of Capricorn, and the Northern Hemisphere experiences winter.

Equinoxes • These are days when days and nights are equal. During these days, the sun shines directly over the equator. • They are:

(i) Vernal Equinox: March 21 (ii) Autumnal Equinox: September 23.

Solstice • During these days, the sun shines directly over the tropics. • The time of the year when the difference between the length of days and the length of nights is the largest. They are:

(i) Summer Solstice: June 21 (ii) Winter Solstice: December 22.

LATITUDE • Imaginary lines drawn parallel to the equator. • Some important parallels are: o 0° Latitude — Equator. o 231/2° North Latitude — Tropic of Cancer. o 231/2° South Latitude — Tropic of Capricorn. o 661/2° North Latitude — Arctic Circle. o 661/2° South Latitude — Antarctic Circle. o North Pole experiences day from 21st March to 23rd September. o South Pole experiences day from 23rd September to 21st March • The equator represents 0° latitude, while the North Pole is 90° North and the South Pole is 90° South. • The distance between any two parallels of latitude is always equal. • One-degree Latitude= Approx. 111 km • There are total 181 latitudes including the Equator. • The latitude becomes smaller towards the poles and the longest at the Equator

Important Facts on Longitudes and Latitudes The Equator (0° Latitude) Passes through countries: Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Sao Tome and Principe, Gabon, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Kenya, Somalia, Maldives, Indonesia and Kiribati

The Equator (0° Latitude) Passes through Physical Features: Andes, Mouth of Amazon, Congo basin, Lake Victoria, Mouth of River Juba (Somalia), Sumatra, Borneo.

Tropic of Cancer (231/2° North) passes through countries: Bahamas, Mexico, Mauritania, Mali, Western Sahara, Algeria, Niger, Libya, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Abu Dhabi, Oman,India,Bangladesh, Myanmar, China and Taiwan.

Tropic of Cancer (23 1/2° North) passes through physical features: Gulf of Mexico, Mexican plateau, Saharan desert, River Nile, Red Sea, Arabian Peninsula, Arabian Sea, Ganga–Brahmaputra- Meghna confluence, Indo-China peninsula and Red river in China.

The Tropic of Capricorn (231/2°- South) passes through countries: Chile, Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil, Namibia, Botswana, South Africa, Mozambique, Madagascar and Australia.

The Tropic of Capricorn (23 1/2°- South) passes through physical features: Andes, Gran Chaco, Brazilian highland, Namib desert, Kalahari Desert, Mozambique Channel, Great Dividing Range etc.

The Arctic Circle (66 ½ ° North) Passes through countries: Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Alaska, Canada, Denmark and Iceland.

Antarctic Circle (66 ½ o South) Passes through countries Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Alaska, Canada, Denmark and Iceland.

Prime Meridian Passes through countries United Kingdom, France, Spain, Algeria, Mali, Burkina Faso, Togo and Ghana.

LONGITUDE • It is the angular distance measured from the center of the Earth. • On the globe, the lines of longitude are drawn as a series of semicircles that extend from the North Pole to the South Pole through the equator. They are also called Meridians. • There are 360 meridians of longitude. • Prime Meridian (0° longitude) passing through the Royal Observatory at Greenwich near London. • Prime Meridian is taken to divide the Earth into the Eastern and the Western hemispheres. • International Date Line(180o meridian) lies exactly opposite to 0o Meridian. Such points are called Antipodal Points. • The Earth is divided into 24 longitudinal zones, each being 1 hour apart in time (4 min/degree). • The distance between any two meridians is not equal and its goes on decreasing towards poles. o At Equator, 1 degree = 111 km o At 30° North or South = 96.5 km. o At poles = zero • Larger countries like Russia Canada USA etc. have greater east west extension so they adopt • several times zones. • Russia has 11 times zones while USA and Canada have 5 times zones.

Longitude and Time • Places that are on the same meridian have the same local time. The Earth rotates from west to east; hence places east of Greenwich see the sun earlier and gain time whereas places west of Greenwich see the sun later and lose time. • To avoid confusion about having many local times within one country, a particular meridian is chosen for the whole country whose time is known as Standard Time. India, whose longitudinal extent is approx. 30°, has adopted only one time zone, selecting the 82.5° East for the standard time which is 5 hrs and 30 mins ahead of GMT (Greenwich Mean Time).

Daylight Saving Time (DST) • Daylight Saving Time begins in the Northern hemisphere between March and ends between September and November Daylight Saving Time begins in the Southern hemisphere between September and November and ends between March and April. • Although, an early goal of DST was to reduce evening usage of incandescent lighting, formerly a primary use of electricity.

• In summer time in several countries, there is a practice of advancing clocks so that, evenings have more daylight and mornings have less. Typically, clocks are adjusted forward 1 hour near the start of spring and are adjusted backward in autumn.

International Date Line • International Date Line is the 180° meridian running over the Pacific Ocean, deviating at Aleutian Islands, Fiji, Samoa and Gilbert Islands. • Travelers crossing the International Date Line from west to east (i.e., from Japan to USA) repeat a day and travelers crossing it from east to west (i.e., from USA to Japan) lose a day.

ECLIPSES • An eclipse is the total or partial obscuring of one celestial body by another. • There are two types of eclipses:

(i) Lunar Eclipses (ii) Solar Eclipses. • Normally, a total of 7 eclipses take place in a year.

Lunar Eclipses

Position Earth lies between the Sun and Moon Duration A few hours (up to 1 h, 40 m) Visibility Moon completely obscured, visible partially Occurrence At night Health risk Safe to look at moon during eclipse

Solar Eclipses Position Moon lies between Sun and Earth Duration Usually a few minutes Visibility Sun gets blocked by moon eclipse visible only in some areas Occurrence During day time Health risk Retina gets damaged if Sun seen directly

GEOGRAPHY WORLD 4. EARTH's STRUCTURE

STRUCTURE OF EARTH The interior structure of the Earth is divided into three parts:

1. Crust 2. Mantle 3. Core

Discontinuities of Earth’s Inner Structure

Layer Lies between

Conard Upper Crust and Lower Crust

Mohorovic Crust and Mantle

Repetti Upper Mantle and Lower Mantle

Gutenburg Mantle and Core

Lehman Upper Core and Lower Core

CRUST • It is the outermost and the thinnest layer of the Earth's surface. • The crust varies greatly in thickness and composition with the range of ocean depth and mountain ranges. • There are two different types of crust: 1. Thin oceanic crust that underlies the ocean basins and 2. Thicker continental crust that underlies the continents. • The crust is made up of two layers where an upper lighter layer is called the SIAL (Silicate + Aluminum), and a lower denser layer is called the SIMA (Silicate + Magnesium). • The line of separation between the crust and the mantle is known as Mohorovicic Discontinuity.

THE MANTLE • Earth's mantle is composed mainly of olivine-rich rock. • It extends up to a depth of 2900 kms., making it the thickest layer of Earth. • The line of separation between the mantle and the core is called Gutenberg Discontinuity. • Made up of two parts: 1. Upper Mantle or Asthenosphere (up to the depth of 700 km) and 2. Lower Mantle (700-2900 km). • Asthenosphere is in a semi-molten plastic state, and this enables the lithosphere to move about it.

THE CORE • Earth’s Core is composed mainly of an Iron and Nickel. • The outer core is 2100 km thick and is in molten form due to excessive heat. • The temperature of the outer core is about 4400o C. • The inner core is 1370 km thick and is in plastic form due to the combined factors of excessive heat and pressure. The temperature of this inner core is about 5700 o C.

Internal Structure

Internal Depth State Fraction of Density Composition Structure (km) Earth (gm/cm3)

Crust 0-40 Broken <1% of mass 2.7 SiO2 Rock

Mantle 40-2900 Plastic -70% 3.5-5.5 (Fe, Mg) SiO4

Core 2900-6370 Semi-liquid -30% 10-12 Fe, Ni

Composition of Whole Earth

S.No. Elements Quantity (%) 1. Iron 35 2. Oxygen 30 3. Silicon 15 4. Magnesium 13 5. Nickel 2.4 6. Sulphur 1.9 7. Calcium 1.1 8. Aluminum 1.1 9. Other less than 1.0

Composition of Earth’s Crust

S.No. Element Quantity (%) 1. Oxygen 46 2. Silicon 28 3. Aluminium 8 4. Iron 6 5. Magnesium 4 6. Calcium 2.4 7. Potassium 2.3 8. Sodium 2.1 9. Other less than 1.0

ORIGIN OF CONTINENTS AND OCEAN

Continental Drift Theory • This theory was given by Alfred Wegener, in 1915 which explains the origin and evolutionof continents and oceans. • According to this theory, about 280 million years ago, the entire landmass formed one supercontinent, called Pangea, the entire water mass has been given the name Panthalassa. • First, it splits into two, i.e., first Northern part into Laurasia and second Southern part into Gondwanaland, divided by a shallow sea called Tethys. Afterward, further division of continents happened. • SIAL was considered to be limited to the continental masses alone, whereas the ocean crust was represented by the upper part of SIMA. • Continents were floating on SIMA without any resistance.

Sea Floor Spreading Theory • The theory was formulated by Harry Hess in 1960. • According to this theory, seafloor spreading is a process that occurs at mid-ocean ridges, where new oceanic crust is formed through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the ridge. • The ocean crust moves in opposite directions from mid-oceanic ridges.

Plate Tectonics Theory • The whole tectonics comes from the Greek word meaning builder. • Plate tectonics theory deals with the movement of rock structures in the form of plates, and it is not only the continents that are in motion but the oceans as well. • These plates have an average thickness of 100 km and float on the Asthenosphere, carrying the continents and oceans on their back. • Due to convection currents originating in the interior of the Earth, this movement of plates has been responsible for the present distribution of continents and oceans. • Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain building, and oceanic trench formation can occur along with these plate boundaries. • 7 major and 20 minor plates have been identified so far.

7 major plates are: 1. Eurasian Plate 2. Indian-Australia Plate 3. North American Plate 4. South American Plate 5. Pacific Plate, 6. African Plate and 7. Antarctica Plate.

FORCES AND PROCESSES AFFECTING THE EARTH’S CRUST The forces that affect the Earth’s crust can be classified into the following two categories based on their origin. a) Internal forces that originate inside the Earth, such as volcanic forces and the diastrophic forces. b) External forces that originate outside the Earth such as weathering and erosion.

THE ROCK • Rock is a naturally formed, non-living firm and coherent aggregate mass of solid matter. All rocks are made up of minerals. • Rocks are classified into three main types depending on the process of their formation 1. Igneous Rocks 2. Sedimentary Rocks and 3. Metamorphic Rocks Igneous Rocks (Primary Rock or Parent Rock) • Most abundant of the three types of rocks (65%). Formed by the solidification of molten magma from the interior of the Earth • They do not occur in layers. Most of them are crystalline and do not contain fossils • All other types of rock originate from these rocks, thus called Primary rocks. • Based on the mode of occurrence, igneous rocks are classified into two major groups as follows:

Intrusive Igneous Rocks • They are formed by the solidification of beneath the Earth’s surface. • They are further divided into 1. Plutonic igneous rocks (Plutonic rocks cool deep beneath the Earth, e.g., Granite.) and 2. Hypabyssal igneous rocks (Hypabyssal rocks cool just beneath the Earth’s surface. E.g., Batholith, laccolith, phacolith, sills, dykes, etc.)

Extrusive Igneous Rock • They are formed due to cooling and solidification of hot and molten lava at the Earth’s surface e.g. Basalt, Gabbro, etc. • Based on silica content/chemical composition, igneous rocks can be divided into the following types: a) Acidic igneous rocks having more silica. They are dark, relatively light rocks, e.g., Granite. b) Basic igneous rocks having les silica. They are dark color. E.g., Gabbro, basalt, etc.

Sedimentary Rocks • Comprise only about 5% of the Earth’s crust but cover about 75% of the total land surface. Made up of weathered remains of igneous rocks. • Also contains fossils of plants and animals. • Also known as stratified rocks because of the layers. The layer of sedimentary rocks holds all reserve of coal, oil and natural gas.

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks Mechanically Formed or Clastic Rocks: • Rocks formed by water action: e.g., Sandstone, Conglomerate, Clay, Shale, etc.; • Rocks formed by wind action: e.g., Loess and • Rocks formed by glacial action: e.g., Boulder Clay.

Organically Formed Sedimentary Rocks • Limestone, Dolomite, Coal and Peat.

Chemically Formed Sedimentary Rocks • Gypsum, Salt rock. Metamorphic Rocks • In Greek language, the word metamorphic means change the form. • Sometimes igneous or sedimentary rocks metamorphize or change due to great pressure, intense temperature or the action of water and chemical activity.

Metamorphosed Form of Some Rocks

Igneous Meta Sedimentary Meta Meta Metamorphosed

Granite Geneiss Sandstone Quartzite Slate Schist

Basalt Amphibolite Limestone Marble Schist Phyllite

Gabbro Serpentine Shale Slate

Coal Graphite Diamond

Meta = Metamorphic rock

VOLCANOES • A volcano is a vent or opening usually circular in form through which heated materials consisting of gases. • Water, liquid lava and fragments or rocks are ejected from the highly heated interiors to the surface of the Earth. • Hot Spots are the mantle plumes of hot material whose location is stationary.

Volcanic Topography • When the magma solidifies below the Earth's surface, then intrusive volcanic topography such as Batholith, Phacolith, Still, Dyke, etc. are formed. • Crater and Caldera: A funnel-shaped depression formed at the mouth of a volcanic vent is called a crater. Enlarged form of a crater, is generally called Caldera. • Geyser and Hot Springs: Geysers are a special type of hot springs from which a column of hot water and stream is explosively discharged at intervals. The difference between hot springs and geyser is that there is continuous spouting of hot water from the former, while there is intermittent spouting of water from the latter. Yellow Stone National Park of USA is famous for its geyser. • Fumaroles: These are vents through which there is intermittent emission of gases, smokes and water vapour. Fumaroles are found in groups near the Katmai Volcano of Alaska (Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes).

Classification of Volcanoes Classification based on Periodicity of Eruptions: a) Active Volcanoes— Volcanoes which continuously ejects lava, gases and fragmental materials are referred as Active Volcanoes. For example: Mauna Loa in Hawaii, Etna in Sicily, Vesuvius in Italy, Stromboli in Mediterranean Sea (Light House of Mediterranean), etc. About 80% of world's active volcanoes are situated along the perimeter of the Pacific Ocean. b) Dormant Volcanoes— Volcanoes which had been quiescent for a long time but in which there is a possibility of eruption is known as Dormant Volcanoes. For example: Fujiyama in Japan, Krakatoa in Indonesia, etc. c) Extinct Volcanoes— Volcanoes in which the eruption had stopped entirely and it not likely to recur are referred to as Extinct volcanoes. For example Mt. Popa of Myanmar, Mt. Kilimanjaro of Africa, Mt. Demvand and Koh-Sultan of Iran, etc.

Classification based on Mode of Eruption: a) Central Eruption Type or Explosive Type: Lava, steam, gas, dust, smoke, stone fragments are ejected from a narrow pipe from under the ground which gives rise to conical or dome-shaped hills. This type of eruption is explosive. For example: Hawaiian type, Strombolian type, Volcanian type, Pelean type, Vesuvius type, etc. b) Fissure Eruption Type or Quiet Eruption Type: Large quantities of lava quietly flow up from fissures and spread out over the surrounding areas. This type of eruption is known as a fissure. Successive lava flow results in the growth of a lava plateau. For example Deccan Plateau, etc.

Distribution of Volcanoes About 15% of the world's active volcanoes are found along the constructive or divergent plate margins, whereas 80% volcanoes are associated with the destructive or convergent plate boundaries. They are:

The Circum Pacific Belt or the Ring of Fire • This zone includes more than 60 percent of the world's volcanoes. This is the volcanic zone of the convergent plate boundary and consists of the volcanoes of the eastern and western coastal areas. • The zone begins form the Frebus mountain of Antarctica and runs northwards through the Andes and the Rockies and then to volcanoes of the island arcs (e.g. Sakhalin Kamchatka, Japan, Philippines etc.

The Mid-continent Belt • This is the Volcanic zone of convergent continental plate boundary that includes the volcanoes of Alpine mountain Chains, the Mediterranean Sea and the fault zone of Eastern India • The Himalayas form the most striking exception because none of the mountains are volcanic in the entire range.

The Mid-Atlantic Belt • This zone represents the divergent boundary or splitting zone of plates located along the Mid- Atlantic Ridges; Iceland located on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, is the most active volcanic area. • Other examples are: St. Helena, Azores Islands, etc.

The Intra-Plate Volcanoes • Some volcanoes are also found in the inner parts of continental or oceanic plates, contrary to the general trend, e.g., Hawaiian Volcanic Chain Re-Union island, Rhine Graben, etc, which life beyond convergent or divergent boundary this volcanism is the result of the activity of Hot Spots in the Mantle.

EARTHOUAKES • Earthquake are tremors or vibrations of Earth's surface produced by internal forces. • Seismograph is an instrument that records the waves generated by an earthquake. • The point of origin of an earthquake is called the seismic Focus of Hypocenter. • The point on the Earth's surface vertically above the focus is called Epicenter. It is the most affected area. • Isoseismal line is the line joining places that experience equal seismic intensity. • The magnitude of waves is measured on Richter's scale (base of 10). • For measurement of the intensity (damage caused by the earthquake), the Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) Scale is used (Base of 12).

Type of Seismic Waves or Earthquake Waves Primary Waves (P-Waves (P-Waves): 1. This type of waves compress and expand the ground like a accordion. 2. They pass through solids, liquids and gases; 3. Travel fast and the first waves to be recorded by a seismograph.

Secondary Waves (S-Waves) 4. This type of wave vibrates from side to side as well as up to down. 5. They are also known as secondary waves, shear waves or shaking waves, or transverse waves. 6. Travel slower than P-waves. 7. Travels through solids only.

Surface Waves • This type of wave makes the ground role. • Travel on the Earth's surface and cause the maximum destruction. • Two types of surface waves occur o (i) Love Waves (L-Waves); They are recorded after the Primary waves and Secondary waves.

Causes of Earthquakes 1. Volcanic Eruptions 2. Faulting 3. Plate Tectonics 4. Anthropogenic Factors

Distribution of Earthquakes • Around the Pacific Ocean along a belt of volcanoes known as the Ring of Fire where more than 60% of the earthquakes are experienced. • From the middle of Asia (Himalayas, Caspian Sea) through the Mediterranean Sea to West Indies where 21% earthquakes are experienced in the region. • Mid-Atlantic ridge belt which accounts for 11% of the earthquakes. • Rest occurs at intraplate Earthquakes. it occurs not along the plate boundaries but in the continental platforms. The earthquakes occurring in peninsular India is a noted example of this class. WEATHERING AND EROSION

Weathering • Weathering refers to the disintegration and decomposition of rocks where no transportation of the broken materials occurs.

Types of Weathering Mechanical or Physical Weathering • In this, the rocks are broken down into progressively smaller segments and the chemical composition of the rocks remains unchanged. It is prominent in hot and dry climatic regions because of high diurnal range of temperature. • This type of weathering takes place in different ways: 1. Frost Action 2. Thermal Expansion and contraction and 3. Exfoliation and Biotic Action. Chemical Weathering • In chemical weathering, rocks decompose and disintegrate due to chemical reaction. • Principal processes of chemical weathering are:

(i) Solution; (ii) Oxidation; (iii) Hydration; (iv) Carbonation and 41

(v) Hydrolysis. Erosion • Erosion means wearing down of the Earth's surface. It involves removal of rock material from higher areas. It involves transportation of rocks, erosion is performed by mobile agents such as streams, glaciers, winds, waves and the underground water. • Each agent of erosion tends to erode rocks from the higher areas and tends to deposit the eroded and transported matter elsewhere, usually in the lower areas, thus transforming the uneven surface of the Earth into an even surface. • The erosional and depositional activity results in the formation of a variety of landform features.

GEOGRAPHY WORLD 5. LANDFORMS

LANDFORMS of the EARTH Landforms are natural features of the landscape or the natural physical characteristics of the Earth's surface. E.g., Valleys, Plateaus, Mountains, Plains, Hills, Loess and Glaciers.

MOUNTAINS • The uplifted portion of the Earth's surface is called Mountain. • It is generally steeper than a hill, either as a single eminence or in a range or chain. • Mountains are formed through tectonic forces or volcanism. • Mountains erode slowly through the action of rivers, weather conditions, and glaciers. • The highest mountain on Earth is Mt Everest in the Himalayas of Asia. • Pamir is known as 'Roof of the World.'

Types of Mountains

Fold Mountains They are formed when the rocks of the crust of the Earth folded under stress, mainly by forces of compression. e.g., all big mountain systems: • Himalayas • Alps (Europe) • Andes (longest mountain range, South America) • Rockies • Atlas (African continent) etc.

Based on age, fold mountains are grouped into: Young/New Fold Mountains • Came into existence after the continental drift. • E.g., Himalayas, Andes, Rockies, Alps, etc. • Himalayas are regarded as the youngest mountains in the world.

Old Mountains • Belong to pre-drift era, then subjected to denudation and uplift • Many faults were formed which occur as relict mountains today. • E.g., Pennines (Europe), Appalachians (US), Aravallis (India), etc. b. Block Mountains • These are formed when great blocks of Earth's crust may be raised or lowered. e.g., o Nilgiri Hills of India o Vosges and Black forest Mountains(Germany), o Sierra Nevada of California (USA), etc. • When rocks on one side of a fault rise relative to the other, it can form a mountain. • The uplifted blocks are block mountains or Horsts.

• The intervening dropped blocks are termed Graben: these can be small or form extensive rift valley systems. c. Volcanic Mountains (Mountains of Accumulation) • These are formed as a result of volcanic eruption and the outflow of lava. • They have a gentle slope. • e.g., Cotopaxi in the Andes, Vesuvius and Etna in Italy, Fujiyama in Japan, Mauna Loa and Kilauea (Most active volcano) in Hawaii, Ojos del Salado in Argentina/Chile (Highest active volcano), Cotopaxi in Ecuador, Rainier of Washington, Merapi and Krakatoa in Indonesia, etc. d. Relict Mountains • The mountains are carved out because of erosion of plateaus and high planes by various agents of erosion. • Example : Highlands of Scotland, Sierras of Spain, Catskill mountains of New York and Nilgiri, Parasnath, Girnar Rajmahal of India, etc.

Major Mountain Range of the World

Range Peak Elevation Country Continent Himalaya Mount Everest 8,848 m Nepal Asia Andes Aconcagua 6,961 m Argentina S. America Alaska Range Mount McKinley 6,194 m United States N. America Eastern Rift Mt. Kilimanjaro 5,895 m Tanzania Africa Caucasus Mt. Mount Elbrus 5,642 m Russia Europe Sentinel Range Mount Vinson 4,892 m Antarctica Antarctica Sudirman Range Puncak Jaya 4,884 m Indonesia Australia Great Dividing Range Mount 2,228 m Australia Australia Kosciuszko

PLATEAUS • Plateaus are an elevated tract of relatively flat land, usually limited on at least one side by a steep slope falling abruptly to lower land. • It covers about 33% of the land surface of the globe. • Plateaus are classified according to their surrounding environment:

• Continental Plateaus are bordered on all sides by the plains or seas, forming away from mountains. e.g., Arabian Plateau, Australian Plateau, Mexican Plateau, etc. • Dissected plateaus are highly eroded plateaus cut by rivers and broken by deep narrow valleys. • Intermontane plateaus are the highest in the world which are bordered by mountains. The Tibetan Plateau is one such plateau. • Piedmont plateaus are bordered on one side by mountains and on the other by a plain or sea. for example. Piedmont plateau of the Appalachian mountain range, Patagonian Plateau of Andes, etc. • Volcanic plateaus are produced by volcanic activity—for example, Deccan Plateau, Colombia Plateau, etc.

HILLS • Hills are elevations of the Earth's surface that have distinct summits but are lower elevation than mountains. They are formed by a buildup of rock debris or sand deposited by glaciers and wind. It may be created by faults. • The most famous hills in the world are the Losses hills, the Black Hills, etc. PLAINS • Plains are an extensive tract of flat land or a gently undulating terrain without prominent hills or depressions. Plains are significant centers of population concentration in the world. They are categorized as: a. Diastrophic Plains • Plains are seldom formed by a single process. Diastrophic force has played a dominant role in the evolution of the Great Plains of the USA. Hence, they are called diastrophic plains. b. Erosional Plains 1. Glaciated Plains: Plains of the northern part of North America and Western Europe are dominated by the imprints of glacial features. 2. Karsts Plains: Plains of Yugoslavia (Karst region), Chitrakoot (India). 3. River Eroded Plains: Peneplains are regarded as the end producer of the normal cycle of erosion (Fluvial cycle erosion). 4. Wind Eroded Plain: Wind eroded plains of Sahara (Africa). c. Depositional Plains 1. River-Deposited Plains: Flood plains formed due to deposition of fine sediments in the flood affected areas and Delta plains at the end of the river course (e.g. Ganga-Brahmaputra delta). These include the Piedmont Alluvial Plains formed in the foothill zones (e.g. Bhabar and Terai of Ganga Yamuna plain) 2. Lacustrine Plains: Formed by the filling up of lakes with sediments, e.g. Kashmir valley and Imphal Basin. 45

3. Lava Plains: Formed of thin sheets of lava coming through fissure eruption, e.g., lava plains of Iceland, Argentina, New Zealand, etc. 4. Wind-Deposited Plains: Includes sandy desert plains and loess plains, e.g., the Thar desert plain, Sahara desert, Loess plains of China. 5. Glacially-Deposited Plains: Plains of North Germany, Russia, etc.

FLUVIAL LANDFORMS (RIVER ACTION) Erosion by the river involves the process of: (i) Attrition: Rock fragments carried by the river strike and roll against each other. (ii) Corrosion/Abrasion: River, along which the bed, wears its bed and banks, (iii) Corrosion: The river water dissolves the minerals, insoluble rocks. (iv) Hydraulic Action: The sheer weight of the water itself wears away the bed and banks of river.

Landform in The Upper Course of The River

1. V-shaped Valley: It is formed as the swift-flowing river erodes its bed faster than the sides. An open V-Shape valley due to valley widening caused by reduced river gradient and velocity. 2. Potholes: The grinding action of the pebbles caused by the swirling motion of water, deepens the circular depressions in the river bed, forming potholes. 3. Interlocking Spurs: It is caused by vertical river erosion where spurs alternate on each side of the river as if they are interweaving. 4. Waterfalls and Rapids: They are formed when the erosion caused by the river steepens its valley suddenly forcing the water to jump or fall over the steep slope or when river water plunges down the edge of a plateau, e.g., the Angel Falls on River Rio, Caroni Falls in Venezuela (highest in the world), the Niagara Falls (USA), etc. 5. Gorges and Canyons: These are deep, narrow I-shaped valleys having very steep sides, formed due to vertical corrosion in the Upper- course of the river, Canyons are usually found in arid areas, and are narrower and deeper than gorges, e.g., Grand Canyon of USA cut by River Colorado. 6. River Capture or River Piracy: The more powerful river captures the headwaters of a weaker river by headword erosion, towards its source.

Features in The Middle Course of The River

1. Alluvial Fans: When river descends from the mountains to the plains, steep fall in river gradient forces the river to deposit its sediment in a fan shape, called alluvial fans. 2. Meanders: In the middle course, due to reduced slope and increased volume of water, the river resorts to pronounced meanders. 3. Ox-bow Lakes: It is a crescent-shaped lake, once been part of river-meander cut through by lateral erosion of the banks at the meander neck. 46

4. Floodplains: A flat tract of land, mainly in the middle and lower courses, consists of alluvium deposited by the river. 5. Natural Levee: In times of flood, sediment is deposited along the banks and in the channels, elevating the channel and the bank. These raised banks are known as natural levees.

Features in The Lower Courses 1. Braided Rivers: Due to reduced gradient and sediment carrying capacity, large amount of deposited material on the river bed causes the river to divide and move around these barriers, resulting in braiding. 2. Delta: It is a deposit of sediments formed at the mouth of the river where it enters a lake or sea. 3. Types of Delta : o Arcuate Delta: Fan shaped, convex towards sea, e.g., Nile, Ganga, Hwang-Ho, Rhine, Mekong, Niger etc. o Digitate/Bird's Foot Delta: Finger-like pattern reflecting the number of distributaries streams, e.g. Mississippi river delta. o Estuarine Delta: Develops at the mouth of a submerged river. e.g., deltas of Amazon, Congo, Ob, Vistula, etc. o Cuspate Delta: Tooth shaped symmetrical delta, generally formed over a straight coastline, e.g., the delta of Ebro (Spain), Tiber (Italy), etc.

GLACIAL LANDFORMS

Erosional Processes 1. Abrasion: It is the glacier scratches, scours, and polishes the valley floor through its debris. 2. Plucking: Detaching or tearing away of large particles of rocks by the moving glaciers.

EROSIONAL LANDFORMS 1. Cirque/Corrie : An armchair-shaped depression surrounded by steep headwall and sidewalls. 2. Aretes and Horns: Sharpened peaks resembling saw-teeth and formed due to the recession of cirques on both sides called Aretes. A pyramidal or triangular-faceted peak formed due to the recession of three or more cirques is called Horn. 3. Nunatak : Higher peaks and mounts surrounded by ice from all sides. 4. Roches Montane (Sheep rocks) : Asymmetrical hillocks having onset side smoothly moulded with gentle slope and steeper, rougher lee side (Steepened due to plucking). 5. Crag and Tail: A hill having vertical eroded steep up glacial side and tail like down glacial side. 6. Glacial Stairways: Glaciated benches, separated by nearly vertical cliffs. Smaller depressions at the base of a cliff are called paternoster lakes when filled with water.

7. Hanging Valley: These are valleys of tributary glaciers which join the main glacial valley of much greater depth.

DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS 1. Moraine: A ridge-like accumulation of material which has been transported and deposited by ice. 2. Drumlin : Whaleback hillock of glacial drift looking like an inverted boat or spoon having steeper up glacial slope, also known as 'basket of egg' topography. 3. Eskers : Long, low, narrow ridges composed of stratified sand, silt and gravel. 4. Kame : A steep-sided alluvial cone deposited against an ice front. 5. Erratic : Large rock fragments transported away from its place of origin and deposited in an area of dissimilar rock type. 6. Outwash Plain: Formed from glaciofluvial material carried out from the front of an ice sheet by melt stream, appear as extensive accumulation of gravel, sand and slit.

AEOLIAN LANDFORMS (WIND ACTION)

Erosional Process 1. Abrasion: Air currents armed with sand grains scrap, polish or etches away rock surfaces. 2. Attrition: Mutual wear and tear of rock and sand particles. 3. Deflation: Lifting and blowing away of loose materials from the ground.

LANDFORMS OF WIND EROSION 1. Rock Pedestals or Mushroom Rocks: Mushroom-shaped rock pillars which have been eroded near their bases. 2. Zeugen: Ridge and furrow landscape formed in horizonal layers or hard and soft rocks. 3. Yardang: Here, the vertically arranged hard and soft rocks, softer rocks are eroded giving rise to long, narrow corridors, separating the steep sided over hanging ridges called Yardangs. 4. Mesas and Buttes: In rocks composed of horizontal layers of hard and soft rocks, hard stratum forms a flat tabula hill of resistant rock called Mesas. Mesas reduced in area after long period of denudation are called butte. 5. Deflation Hollow: Wind erosion excavates the hollow by blowing away the loose material from the surface.

6. Inselbergs: An isolated hill rising abruptly from the level ground having steep sides and rounded summits.

LANDFORMS OF WIND DEPOSITION 1. Sand Dunes: They are formed by the deflation action of wind that deposit sand in ridges. 2. Barchan is a famous dune which is of crescentic shape or moon shape and a special type of transverse dune. 3. Sief: Sief is a longitudinal dune. 4. Loess: The find dust blown beyond the desert limit is deposited on neighboring land as loess. it is a yellow, friable material and is usually very fertile. Noted examples are found in North-west China and parts of the Mid-west USA. 5. Bajada: It is a depositional feature made up of alluvial material laid down by the intermittent streams in an arid environment. An erosional plain formed at the base of the surrounding mountains scarps is called the pediment.

KARST LANDFORMS (UNDERGROUND WATER) • The word Karst is a comprehensive term applied to limestone, chalk or dolomite areas. • Karst Landforms are produced by underground water the diversion of surface waters to underground routes.

EROSIONAL LANDFORMS Lapies (Karren) • Highly corrugated and rough surface of limestone rocks, characterized by low ridges and pinnacles and numerous solution holes.

Solution Holes • Sink holes or shallow holes are small depressions carved out by solution where chemically active rainwater sinks into the limestone at a point of weakness.

Polje • It is a very large depression with steep sides and flat floor, believed to be formed due to the downfaulting of strata.

Ponor • A ponor is a natural surface opening in the karst regions. They are found directly underneath the sinkholes. A ponor is kind of a portal where a surface stream or lake flows either partially or completely underground into a karst groundwater system.

Blind Valley • The valley of that surface stream which disappears in limestone formation through a swallow hole and the valley look dry.

Caverns • Caverns are voids of large dimension below the ground surface.

Natural Bridge • These are chiefly formed due to collapse of the roofs of the caves.

DEPOSITIONAL FEATURES Stalactites • A tapering pendant of concretionary material descending from a cave ceiling, formed due to deposition of calcareous solutes which are carried by water dripping through ceiling.

Stalagmites • The solution that drops on the cave floor also precipitated and crystallized and forms a columnar concretion ascending from the floor of a cave.

Pillars • Stalagmites may eventually combine with stalactites to form pillars.

GEOGRAPHY WORLD 6 ATMOSPHERE

ATMOSPHERE • The atmosphere is a thick gaseous envelope which surrounds the Earth from all sides and is attached to the Earth's surface by gravitational force. • It is composed of : o Gases o Vapor o Particulate Matter • It provides all necessary gases for the sustenance of all life forms in the biosphere, filters the incoming solar radiation and acts as a blanket by protecting the Earth from becoming too hot or too cold. • The height of the atmosphere is estimated up to 29,000 kilometers from the sea level. Gases • Nitrogen and Oxygen are major gases which constitute 99% of the total gaseous composition of the atmospherethe remaining one per cent is represented by other gases. • Oxygen is the most important gas from the standpoint of living organisms because they inhale it for their survival. • Nitrogen acts as diluents and is generally chemically inactive. • Carbon Dioxide is used by green plants for photosynthesis. It absorbs most of radiant energy from the Earth and re-radiates it back to the Earth. Thus, carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, increases the temperature of the lower atmosphere and the Earth's surface.

Permanent Gases of the Atmosphere Gas Volume (in %) Nitrogen (N) 78.08 Oxygen (O2) 20.95 Argon (Ar) 0.93 Carbon Dioxide 0.36 (CO2) Neon (Ne) 0.002 Helium (He) 0.0005 Krypton (Kr) 0.0001 Xenon (Xe) 0.00009 Hydrogen (H2) 0.00005

Vapor • The atmospheric vapour is received through the evaporation of moisture and water from the water bodies, vegetation and soil covers. • The vapour content in the atmosphere ranges between 0-5% by volume. • The content of vapour decreases upward from the surface of the Earth. • More than 90% of the total atmospheric vapor is found upto the height of 5 km.

Particulate matter • Includes dust particles, salt particles, solid particles which are kept in suspension in the atmosphere. These particulates help in the scattering of solar radiation which adds varied charming color of red and orange at sunrise and sunset. • The sky appearsblue in color due to selectivescattering of solar radiation by dust particles. • Salt particles become hygroscopic nuclei and thus help in the formation of water drops and clouds.

LAYERS OF ATMOSPHERE Based on the characteristic of temperature and air pressure there are four layers from the Earth's surface upward : 1. Troposphere 2. Stratosphere 3. Mesosphere 4. Thermosphere

Troposphere • The lowermost layer of the atmosphere and almost all the weather phenomena (e.g., fog, cloud, dew, frost, rainfall, hailstorm, storms, cloud-thunder, lighting, etc.) occur in this layer. • Temperature decreases with increasing height at the rate of 6.5°C per 1000 m. This rate of decrease of temperature is called normal lapse rate. • The average height of the troposphere is about 16 km over the equator and 6 km over the poles. The upper limit of the troposphere is called tropopause which is about 1.5 km thick. The height of tropopause is 17 km over the equator and 9 to 10 km over the poles.

Stratosphere • The layer just above the troposphere is called stratosphere. There is circulation of feeble winds and cirrus clouds in the lower stratosphere. On an average the upper limit of the stratosphere is taken to be 50 km. The upper limit of the stratosphere is known as stratopause. • There is concentration of ozone layer between the height of 15-30 km. It acts as a protective cover, it absorbs almost all the ultraviolet rays of solar radiation and thus protects the Earth's surface from becoming too hot.

Mesosphere • Mesosphere extends between 50 km and 80 km. Temperature again decreases with increasing height. • At the uppermost limit of mesosphere (80 km) temperature becomes 80°C. This limit is called mesopause.

Thermosphere • Part of the atmosphere beyond mesopause is known as thermosphere wherein temperature increases rapidly with increasing height. The temperature at its upper limit becomes 1700°C. • Thermosphere is divided into two layers viz. o Ionosphere o Exosphere

Ionosphere • It contains electrically charged particles known as ions, and hence, it is known as ionosphere. • Radio waves transmitted from the Earth are reflected to the Earth by this layer. • Extends from 80 km to 400 km. • There are several ionic layers (with increasing heights) in this sphere e.g. D layer, E layer, F layer and G layer. • D Layer (between the height of 60 km799 km) reflects the signals of low frequency radio waves. This, layer disappears with the sunset because it is associated with solar radiation. • E Layer, also known as Kennelly — Heaviside layer, is confined in the height between 99 km —130 km. This layer reflects the medium and height frequency radio waves back to the Earth. It also disappears with the sunset. Sporadic E Layer reflects very high frequency radio waves. E2 layer is generally found at the height of 150 km. Layer also disappears during nights. • F Layer consists of two sub layers e.g. f/ and F2 layers (150-380 km) and are collectively called Appleton Layer. These layers reflect medium and high frequency radio waves back to the earth. • G Layer (400 km above) most probably persists day and night.

Exosphere • Represents the uppermost layer of the atmosphere. • The density becomes extremely low and the atmosphere resembles a nebula. The temperature becomes 5568°C at its outer limit.

Based on chemical composition, the atmosphere is divided into two broad zones viz. a) Homosphere Layer b) Heterosphere Layer

Homosphere Layer • Represents the lower portion of the atmosphere and extends up to the height of 90 km from sea level. The main constituent gases are oxygen, nitrogen and other gases. This zone is called homosphere because of the homogeneity of the proportion of various gases. • Based on thermal conditions, the homosphere has been divided into three layers viz. a) Troposphere b) Stratosphere c) Mesosphere 54

Heterosphere Layer • Extends from 90 km to 10,000 km. Different layers of this sphere vary in their chemical and physical properties. • There are four distinct layers of gases in this sphere. o Molecular nitrogen layer extends upward up to the height of 200 km (90 to 200 km). o Atomic oxygen layer extends from 200 to 1100 km. o Helium layer which extends up to the height of 3500 km. o Atomic hydrogen layer is the topmost layer of the atmosphere and extends up to the outermost limit of the atmosphere.

INSOLATION AND HEAT BUDGET • Insolation is the energy received on the earth's surface from the sun. It is the most important single source of atmospheric heat. • The earth's surface does not absorb all the energy that it receives. The proportion of the solar radiation reflected from the surface is called Albedo. • The atmosphere loses an amount of heat equal to the gain through insolation. This mechanism of maintaining the same temperature by the atmosphere is called the Heat Budget or Heat Balance.

• Assuming 100 units of energy: o 14 units are absorbed directly by the atmosphere o 35 units are lost to space through reflection. o The remaining 51 units reach the earth's surface and are absorbed by the earth due to which the surface gets heated.

• The heated surface of the earth starts radiating energy in the form of long waves and this process is called Terrestrial Radiation.

Out of the total 51 units given up by the surface in the form of terrestrial radiation, • the atmosphere (mainly carbon dioxide and water vapor) absorbs about 34 units and • the remaining 17 units escape to space. • In this manner, the atmosphere receives a total of 14 + 34 = 48 units and this amount is radiated back to space by the atmosphere.

The total loss of energy to space thus amounts to 100 units: • 35 units reflected by the atmosphere, • 17 units lost as terrestrial radiation • 48 units from the atmosphere. • In this manner, no net gain or loss of energy occurs in the earth's surface. Within the Earth the heat/energy is transferred from the lower latitudes to the higher latitudes through winds and ocean currents.

ATMOSPHERIC AIR PRESSURE • Air moving in a direction is called wind. • The principal cause of winds is difference in pressure. • Air always moves from areas of high pressure to those with low pressure. • The slope of the pressure from high to low is known as Pressure Gradient. • The direction of winds is affected by the Coriolis Force which is caused by the rotation of the earth. So, winds are deflected to their right in the Northern Hemisphere and to their left in the Southern Hemisphere. This is referred to as Farrell’s Law.

Global Pressure Belts • Air is extremely compressible gas having its own weight. • The pressure exerted by air due to its weight is called atmospheric pressure on earth's surface. Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt (or Doldrums) • Latitudes: From 5° North to 5° South • It is a zone of low pressure caused thermally near the equator. This belt is known as Doldrums(Belt of Calm) because of calm winds prevailing here.

Tropical High-Pressure Belt or Horse Latitudes • Standing between 25° and 35° latitudes in both hemispheres, this high-pressure belt is dynamically induced by the rotation of the earth and sinking down of winds. • This zone is characterized by anticyclonic conditions.

Sub-Polar Low-Pressure Belt • Situated between 60° and 65° latitudes in both the hemispheres. • The area of contact between cold and warm air masses form a contact zone is known as Polar Front, near 60° latitude.

Polar High-Pressure Belt • Arctic and Antarctic Polar regions are the belts of high pressure characterized by permanent anticyclone. • Polar easterly winds spiral outward form this belt. WINDS TYPES Three broad categories are: 1. Regular Winds/Prevailing Winds/Planetary Wind: Trade winds/Westerlies 2. Periodical Winds (which blow seasonally): Monsoon 3. Variable Winds: Cyclones and other local winds

Regular Winds/Prevailing Winds/Planetary Wind Trade Winds • Trade in German means Track. To blow trade means to blow steadily in the one same direction and in a constant course. • They are regular winds. • These are steady currents of air blowing from the sub-tropical high pressure belts towards the equatorial low-pressure areas (doldrums).

• Under the influence of the Coriolis force they blow from the north-east in the northern hemisphere and from the south-east in the southern hemisphere. • Between the two trade winds systems is found the Inter Tropic Convergence Zone (ITCZ).

Westerlies • Blows from subtropical high pressure to sub-polar low-pressure belt. • In the northern hemisphere, land masses cause considerable disruption in the westerly wind belt. • In the southern hemisphere, between 40° and 60° South latitudes, lies the almost unbroken belt. Westerlies are strong and persistent here, giving rise to mariner's expressions: o Roaring Forties, o Furious Fifties and o Shrieking Sixties. Polar Easterlies • Move from high pressure poles to sub-polar low-pressure areas. • These are deflected by the Earth's rotation to become east winds, or the polar easterlies. Periodical Winds (which blow seasonally) Monsoon (Precipitation) • It refers to falling of water, snow or hail from the clouds and results when condensation is occurring rapidly within a cloud. • The most common form of precipitation is rain and it is formed when many cloud droplets coalesce into drops too large to remain suspended in the air. Rainfall occurs when the dew point of air is above the freezing point. Conditions for Precipitation There are three possible ways by which precipitation is produced. • Convectional Precipitation: It is caused by heating of moist air in the lower layers of atmosphere which rises, expands and is cooled adiabatically to its dew point. • It is accompanied by lightning and thunder. It occurs in regions near the equator in the afternoon because of the constant high temperature and high humidity. • Orographic Precipitation: In this, precipitation is caused by moisture-laden air being forced to rise over a relief barrier (mountain ranges). As the air rises in the windward side, is cooled at the adiabatic rate, if sufficiently cooled then precipitation results. • When the air descends on the leeward side, it gets warmed and dry, having no source from which to draw up moisture. A belt of dry climate, often called a rain shadow, may exist on the leeward side. • Cyclonic or Frontal Precipitation: When the air is caused to rise upwards due to cyclonic circulation, the resulting precipitation is said to be of the cyclonic type. 59

Variable Winds: Cyclones and other local winds

Cyclones It is a system of very low pressure in the center surrounded by increasingly high-pressure outwards. In this, the winds blow in a circular manner in - 1. Anticlockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere. 2. Clockwise direction in the Southern Hemisphere.

Cyclones are mainly of two types : 1. Tropical Cyclone 2. Temperate Cyclone

Different Names of Cyclones

Cyclone Region

Cyclone Indian Ocean

Hurricane Caribbean Islands

Typhoon China Sea, Philippines

Willy-Wilies North West Australia

Tornado Coastal US

Twister Mississippi Valley, USA

Different between Tropical Cyclones and Temperate Cyclones

Tropical Cyclones Temperate Cyclones • Found in the trade wind belt, between 8 • Found between 30 to 35 degree North to 20 degree North and South. But not and South in the sub polar frontal zone, found between 0 to 8 degree as there is where cold polar air mass meets the no coriolis force. warm tropical air mass. • Travels from east to West in the Easterly • Travels from West to East embedded in wind belt. the Westerly wind belt. • Form much smaller with a diameter of • Form over much larger area with the about 200 to 500 km. diameter 300 to 1500 km. • Tropical cyclones are non-frontal in • Temperate cyclones are frontal in nature nature. • They can be formed both the summer as • They are formed only over the oceans. well as in winter. • Tropical cyclone can form only in the • They can be formed both in summer as summer. well as in winter. • They do not have definite lifecycle and • They take more time to dissipate as it has weather forecasting is very difficult. a more definite lifecycle.

Anticyclones • They are opposite to cyclones in all respects. They are the centers of high pressure with gentle outward flow of air. The air circulation is clockwise in the northern hemisphere and anticlockwise in the southern hemisphere. • Weather associated with an anticyclone is fair weather.

Local Winds

Winds Nature Region Abrolhos Violent Southeastern coast of Brazil Alize Wet West Central Africa Maritime Bora Cold, Dry Hungary to the north of Italy (near Adriatic sea) Blizzard Very Cold Tundra region Brick fielder Hot Wind Australia Chinook Hot, Dry Rockies (Snow eater) Foehn Hot, Dry The Alps Fohn Dry Central Europe 62

Harmattan Hot, Dry West Africa (Guinea Doctor) Khamsin Hot, Dry Egypt Levanter Cold Spain Monsoon Seasonal South Asia Reversing Mistral Very Cold The Alps over France Norwester Hot New Zealand Punas Cold, Dry Andes Purga Cold Russian Tundra Rasha-ba Strong Iraq Sirocco Hot Sahara to Mediterranean Sea Solano Hot Sahara towards Iberian Peninsula Santa Ana Hot Southern California in USA

HUMIDITY • Humidity refers to the amount of water vapor present in the air. • Humidity is measured by an instrument called hygrometer. • Another instrument used for the same purpose is sling psychrometer.

Way of expressing Definition humidity

The actual quality of water vapour present in the air and it is Absolute Humidity defined as the weight of water vapour (grams) in a given volume of air (cubic meter).

The ratio of weight of water vapour to the weight of moist air Specific Humidity (including water vapour). It is stated as grams of water vapour per kilogram of moist air.

The ratio between the amount of water vapour actually present in the air mass and the maximum amount that the air mass can hold at that temperature. Relative Humidity It is expressed as a percentage. Relative Humidity = Absolute humidity Humidity capacity × 100.

The capacity of air of certain volume at certain temperature Humidity Capacity to retain maximum amount of moisture content

Condensation, Dew Point and Related Aspects • The physical process of transformation from the vapor to the liquid state is condensation. • This is the basis of all types of precipitation (fall of water from the atmosphere to the ground in any form).

Dew Point • Dew point is the temperature at which the air is fully saturated and below which condensation normally occurs.

Dew • Dew is the deposition of water droplets on the ground. It occurs when the temperature of the ground surface falls and the air in contact with it is cooled below its dew point. Dew is likely to occur on clear and calm nights.

Frost • Frost is a weather condition that occurs when the air temperature is at or below freezing point. Then the moisture on the ground surface and objects freezes to form an icy deposit. 64

Fog • Fog is made of the droplets of water suspended in the lower layers of the atmosphere, resulting from the condensation of water vapor around nuclei of floating dust or smoke particles. • A visibility of less than 1 km is the internationally recognised definition of fog. Fog is not considered as a form of precipitation.

Smog (Smoke + Fog) • Smog (Smoke + Fog) is a form of fog that occurs in areas where the air contains a large amount of smoke.

Mist • Mist is the term for reduction of visibility between 1-2 km, caused by condensation producing water droplets within the lower layers of atmosphere. Haze • Haze is formed by water particles that have condensed in the atmosphere and the visibility in this case is more than 1 km but less than 2 km. • Haze may also be produced by presence of dust and smoke, which reduce visibility.

Clouds • Clouds are masses of minute water droplets or ice crystals formed by the condensation of water vapour and held in suspension in the atmosphere. • Condensation usually takes place around nuclei such as dust, smoke particles and salt. Such particles are called condensation nuclei. • Clouds are of different types and they can be classified on the basis of their form and altitude. • On the basis of form, there are two major groups : 1. Stratiform or Layered types 2. Cumuliform or Massive types.

STRATIFORM CLOUDS • These clouds, which are fairly thin and blanket like, are sub-divided into three main categories on the basis of altitude. a) High Clouds (Height 6-20 km) 1. Cirrus : Indicates fair weather. 2. Cirrocumulus : Forms the mackerel sky. 3. Cirrostratus : Produces a halo around sun and moon.

b) Middle Clouds (Height 2.5-6 km) 1. Altocumulus : Indicates fine weather. 2. Alto-stratus : Associated with development of bad weather. c) Low Clouds (Height ground surface to 2.5 km) 1. Stratus : Brings dull weather, usually accompanied with a drizzle. 2. Nimbostratus : If rain or snow is falling from a stratus cloud, it is called nimbostratus. 3. Stratocumulus : Indicators of fair or clearing weather.

CUMULUS CLOUDS • They are massive clouds having a vertical extent from. 1,500 to 9,000 m. They resemble the head of a cauliflower. • When these clouds are sunlit, they are brilliantly white and are called 'wool-clouds'. • They occur mainly in summer and are produced by convection. • Under different weather conditions, a cumulus cloud may develop into cumulonimbus, the thunderstorm cloud mass of enormous size which brings heavy rainfall, thunder and lightning and dusty winds.

CLIMATE • The average weather conditions over a large area is called the climate of a place. • Weather conditions over a specific length of time, usually a period of 31 years, are taken into consideration. • Climate can be classified on the basis of temperature, rainfall, evaporation, transpiration and water balance.

Climate zones and Types

Climate Range Climate Type Feature Zone

In the regions between the equator Tropical Hot, Warm, dry and the tropics, the Solar radiation 0o-23o Tropical Monsoon, reaches the ground nearly vertically at Zone Heavy Rainfall noon time during almost the entire year.

In this zone, the solar radiation arrives at a smaller angle, and the average Temperate Spring, Summer temperatures are much cooler than in o o 23.5 -66.5 Warm/hot, Autumn the tropics. Zone and Winter, Cool/Cold The seasons and day length differ significantly in the course of a year.

Cold and Dry with Polar Zone is the coldest with Polar short cold summers, 66.5 o-90 o temperature almost always below Freezing Zone freezing. Temperature.

Isopleths • Lines Drawn on Map along which the value of a particular phenomenon is uniform. • Some important isopleths are :

Isopleth Reactions Isobars Equal pressure Isobaths Equal depth in sea Isobrants Thunder-storm of the same time Isohaline Salinity Isohels Sunshine Isohyets Rainfall Isohypse Elevation above sea-level Isodapan Equal transportation cost distance Isoneph snow Isotherms Temperature Isocline Slope GEOGRAPHY WORLD 7 HYDROSPHERE

HYDROSPHERE • Hydrosphere is the name given to the mass of water that covers about 71% of the earth's surface. • It includes the oceans, seas, lakes, ponds, rivers and streams. OCEANS There are 4 Oceans :

Pacific • It is the largest and deepest ocean.

• Separates Asia and Oceania From the America • Most of the islands of the ocean are volcanic or of coral origin. • Mariana Trench, the world's deepest trench with depth 11,033 m lies in Pacific ocean.

Atlantic • It has the longest coast line. • Separates the America from Eurasia and Africa • It is the busiest ocean of trade and commerce since its sea routes connect the two most industrialized regions, namely Western Europe and North-Eastern United States of America • Atlantic ocean is still widening.

Indian Ocean • Only ocean named after a country • Washes upon Southern Asia and separates Africa and Australia • It is deeper than the Atlantic ocean. • Here the number of continental islands is more, than that of volcanic islands.

Southern Ocean • An extension of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans, which encircles Antarctica

Arctic Oceans • It is the smallest ocean and lies within the Arctic circle. • The North Pole lies in the middle of the Arctic ocean. • Considered as a sea of the Atlantic, which covers much of the arctic and washes upon northern North America and Eurasia • Most of the part of the ocean is frozen and hence least saline and the shallowest among all the oceans. OCEAN: Facts

Ocean Water area (%) Deepest point Depth (metre)

Pacific Ocean 46 Mariana Trench 11,033

Atlantic Ocean 23 Puerto Rico Trench 9,200

Indian Ocean 20 Java trench 7,450

Southern Ocean 7 South Sandwich 7,236 Trench

Arctic Ocean 4 Eurasian basin 5,122

OCEAN BOTTOM RELIEF The study of the ocean bottom relief features has shed immense light on the origin and evolution of earth's crust and the theory of plate tectonics. It is very irregular than the surface of the continents. Four major units of ocean floor are: 1. Continental Shelf • It is the coastal part of the ocean which is not very deep and the slope of the bottom is very gentle. • They occupy about 7% of the total ocean area. • Extends to a depth of 100 fathoms. • In the region where the mountains extend along the coast, the shelf is narrower. • Around 90% petrol and gas found here. • They also provide the richest fishing ground in the world. • Marine life exists entirely here.

2. Continental Slope • Extends seawards from the Continental Shelf. • The continent blocks are supposed to end at the site of continental slope. • They cover about 8.5% of the total ocean area. • Depth is upto 2000 fathoms. • Average slope: 20° to 50°. • The boundary between shelf and slope is known as Andesite Line, named after the Andesite rock. 3. Continental Rise • At the foot of slope is found an area slightly rising due to the accumulation of debris transported over the slope. • Average slope 0.5°-1°. • Oil deposits occur here. 4. Abyssal or the Deep Sea Plains • It is the deepest and the most extensive part of the ocean floor • Accounts for about 75.9% of total oceanic area. • Parts of the abyssal plains are occupied by raised ridges or submarine mountains and by very deep trenches or canyons. • Ridges are the raised areas in sea. e.g., Mid-Atlantic ridge (S-shaped),Indian Ocean ridge (inverted Y-shaped). • Some parts of the ridge or volcanic peaks reach the surface of the oceans and form islands (e.g., Hawaii Islands). • A ridge rising more than 1000 m above the ocean floor is called Seamount. • Flat topped seamounts are called Guyots (maximum in Pacific Ocean).

• Submarine Canyons are the deep gorges on the ocean floor and are restricted to the continental shelves, slopes and rises. • Trenches are narrow and steep sided depressions. They occur where two plates of the earth's crust are moving together and one is being pushed down below the other. • Deepest is Challenger Deep, a part of Mariana Trench in Pacific Ocean, near Philippines, is more than 11 km deep. SALINITY • Salinity is defined as the total amount of salt particles in grams contained in one kg of sea water and is expressed as part per thousand. • pH of Seawater is limited to the range 7.5 - 8.4. • The proportion of dissolved salts to pure water is called salinity. 0 • The average salinity in the oceans seas is 35 ,that is, 35 grams of salt in one litre of water 00

Salt in the Sea Salt Percentage Sodium Chloride (NaCl) 77 Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2) 10.9 Magnesium Sulphate 9.7 (MgSO4) Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4) 3.6

• The most saline open sea is the Red Sea. 1 • Max salinity : Lake Van (Turkey) 333 00 • The main source of salinity is dissolution of the rocks of oceanic crust, which contains salts. • It is maximum at the tropics because temperature is high. • Equatorial regions come second because although they have high temperatures, they have high rainfall also. • Poles have minimum salinity because of addition of fresh water in the form of icebergs and excessive, snowfall.

OCEAN WAVES • Ocean Waves are the forward movement of the ocean's water due to the oscillation of water particles by the frictional drag of wind over the surface of ocean (Water Surface). • Waves have crests (the peak of the wave) and troughs (the lowest point on the wave). The maximum height of waves in most oceans is about 12 m but they may be as high as 15 m.) • Water from the breaking wave, runs up the shore as swash and back down the shore as backwash. 70

• Tsunamis is a Japanese word meaning harbourwave "Tsu:Harbour", "Nami: Wave". • Tsunamis are the waves caused earthquakes and volcaniceruptions in the sea bottom. • It is a series of waterwaves caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water, generally an ocean or a large lake. • e.g. The Tsunami which hit the coasts in the SE Asia on December 26, 2004, caused havoc in that region. OCEAN CURRENTS • Ocean currents are the vertical or horizontal movement of both surface and deep water throughout the world's oceans, that is, transportation of water from one part of ocean to another. • Currents circulate in clockwise direction in Northern hemisphere and in anti clockwise direction in Southern hemisphere. • It occurs due to differences in density, salinity, temperature of ocean waters, rotation of earth, shape of coastline and the prevailing winds. • Some of the more prominent currents include the California and Humboldt Currents in the Pacific, the Gulf Stream and Labrador Current in the Atlantic, and the Indian Monsoon Current in the Indian Ocean.

TYPES OF OCEAN CURRENTS Ocean currents are of two types which are as follows : Warm Currents 1. The ocean currents flowing from lower latitude to higher latitude are called as warm currents.

Cold Currents 2. The ocean currents flowing from higher latitude to lower latitude are called as cold currents.

Major Ocean Currents Ocean Current Ocean Type Canaries Current North Atlantic Cool Gulf Stream North Atlantic Warm Labrador Current North Atlantic Cool North Atlantic Drift North Atlantic Warm Benguela Current South Atlantic Warm, Cool Brazil Current South Atlantic Warm Kuroshio (Japan) Current North Pacific Warm Alaska Current North Pacific Warm California Current North Pacific Cool North Pacific Drift North Pacific Warm Oyashio (Kamchatka) North Pacific Cool

Equatorial Current Pacific Warm East Australian Current South Pacific Warm Humboldt (Peru) Current South Pacific Cool West Wind Drift South Pacific Cool Agulhas Current Indian Warm West Australian Current Indian Cool

TIDES • Refer to the phenomenon of regular rise and fall of the sea water. Though both sun and moon exert gravitational force on earth, resulting in the production of tides, the moon, by nature of its closeness to the earth, has greater control over the timings of the tidal rises and falls. • The interval between two tides is 12 hrs and 26 min. • There are two types of tides according to range variation :Spring tide and Neap tide.

Spring Tide • When the sun, moon and the earth are in a straight line (a condition known as syzygy), the gravitational force is at its greatest because tide producing forces of both sun and moon complement each other and they pull together. This produces, tides of unusually great range, called the spring tide. • These occur about twice a month : • At new moon when the sun and the moon are in conjugation and (ii) At full moon when they are in opposition.

Neap Tide • This happens during phases of first and third quarter, that is, at half moon, the sun's tide producing force tends to balance the tide producing force of the moon, resulting in tides of unusually small range known as neap tides. • Lowest magnitude as the tide producing forces of sun and moon act opposite to each other, as they form a triangle. Neaps result in less-extreme tidal conditions. Interval of Tides • The interval between two tides is 12 hrs and 26 min. There is about a seven-day interval between Spring Tide and Neaps Tide.

Semu-diurnal Tide vs Diurnal Tide • Semi-diurnal tide : locations experience two almost equal high tides and two low tides each day. • Diurnal tide : locations experience only one high and one low tide each day.

CORAL REEFS • Corals are a kind of calcareous rocks chiefly made of the skeletons of minute sea organisms called polyps. They are formed due to accumulation and compaction of skeletons of these lime secreting organisms. • Corals are found mainly in the tropical oceans, and seas because they require, high mean annual temperature ranging around 20°C. They cannot survive at a greater depth than 60-77 m below sea level. Muddy or very saline water is injurious for their growth. • The coral reefs are classified on the basis of nature, shape and mode of occurrence into the following three— • Fringing Reef : Coral reefs that develop along the Continental margins or along the' islands are called fringing reefs. The seaward slope is steep and vertical while the landward slope is gentle. Sometimes there is a lagoon or shallow channel between the fringing reef and the land. Such reefs are found near Rameshwaram in the Gulf of Mannar. • Barrier Reef : They are the largest, most extensive, highest and widest reefs of all. They are formed off the coastal platforms and parallel to them. There is an extensive but shallow lagoon between the coastal land and the barrier reef. The Great Barrier Reef of Australia is the largest barrier reef in the world. • Atoll : A reef of narrow growing corals of horse shoe shape and crowned with palm trees is called an atoll. It is generally formed around an island or in an elliptical form on a submarine platform. There is a lagoon in the middle of the coral ring. e.g., Fiji Atoll.

Important Coral Reefs • Great Barrier Reef : largest, comprising over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands stretching for over 2,600 kilometers of Queensland, Australia. • Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System : stretching 1,000 kilometers from Isla Contoy to the Bay Islands of Honduras. • The Red Sea : includes 6000-year-old fringing reefs located around a 2,000 km coastline. • Pulley Ridge : deepest photosynthetic coral reef, Florida. • The Philippines coral reef in Southeast Asia. • The Raja Ampat Islands in Indonesia's West Papua Province GEOGRAPHY WORLD 8. CONTINENTS OF THE WORLD

ASIA • It is the largest of the seven continents of the earth both area wise and population wise. • It is separated from Europe by Ural Mountains in the west. • The continent is bounded by the Arctic Ocean in the north, the Indian Ocean in the south, the Pacific Ocean in the east and the Mediterranean Sea in the south-west.

• Area is 44,936,000 sq km (29.9% of world's land area). • Population of Asia constitutes 62% of the world's population. • The Plateau of Tibet is the largest and highest in the world and is known as the Roof of the World. • Important mountain ranges are Himalayas, Karakoram, Hindukush, Elburz, Caucasus, Pamirs, Kunlun, Urals, etc. • Highest peaks are Mt. Everest (8,848 m), K2 (8,611 m), Kanchenjunga (8,598 m) etc.) • The highest point is Mt. Everest (8848 m) and the lowest point is Dead Sea (395 m below sea level). • Largest lakes are Aral Sea, Baikal, Balkhash, Caspian Sea, Dead Sea, etc. • Major rivers are Amur, Brahmaputra, Euphartes, Ganges, Hwang Ho, Indus, Irrawaddy, Lena, Mekong, Ob, Salween, Tigris, Yangtze, etc. • Asia is the birth place of major religions of the World—Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Judaism, etc.

IMPORTANT ASIAN NATIONS 1. China • It is the most populous country of the world, while in area it is on the third place. • Capital is Beijing • Currency is Yuan • Official Language is Mandarin. Mandarin is the largest spoken language of the world. • Quinling mountains divide China into North and South China. • Shanghai, Beijing, Tianjin and Nanjing are the major cities. • Yangtze, Hwang Ho and Xi Jiang are the principal rivers. • Amur River forms the boundary between Russia and. China. • Ground Canal is the world's longest artificial waterway from Beijing to Nanjing. • China is the leading producer of rice and wheat in the world.

2. Japan • Japan consists of a group of islands. • The four major islands in the descending order of size are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku. • Mount Fujiyama is the highest peak of Japan. • Tokyo is the capital which is located on HonshuIsland. • Currency is Yen. • Shintoism and Buddhism are the major religions while • Japanese is the official language.

• Japan is the world's leading producer of ships, cars, steel, electronic equipment and machine tools. • Tokyo, Osaka, Koba, Kawasaki, Yokohama, Kyoto, Fukuoka are the major cities of Japan. • Nagoya is the Detroit of Japan[Detroit is a city in US famous for automobiles] • Osaka is the Manchester of Japan. [Manchester is a city in UK famous for cotton textiles.] • The tropical 'cyclones' hitting the southern coast of Japan frequently are called Typhoons.

3. Indonesia • It is the largest archipelago of the world (group of more than 3,000 islands). • The main islands are Java, Sumatra, Bali, Timor, etc. • Java is the most populated island of the world. • Indonesian capital, Jakarta is located on Java Island. • Rupiah is the currency. • It exports liquefied natural gas, tin, bauxite, nickel, etc. • Islam, Christianity and Hinduism are the major religions. • In fact, Indonesia has the maximum number of Muslims in the world. • The climate is tropical with heavy rainfall. • Principal crops are rice, sugarcane, fruits, cassava and maize.

4. Malaysia • Malaysia is situated at the southern end of the Malaya peninsula in South-East Asia. • It's capital is Kuala Lampur • Currency is Malaysian Dollar or Ringgit. • Kuala Lumpur, Ipoh, Johor Baharu and Melaka are the major cities. • Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism are the chief religions. • Malaya, English, Chinese and Tamil are the major languages. • Malaysia is one of the major producer of rubber (Currently Thailand is the largest producer), tin, palm oil, timber etc. in the world.

5. East Timor • East Timor got independence after 425 year of colonial rule : 400 years under Portugal and 25 years under Indonesia. It became independent on August 30, 1999. • It is an island situated between Indonesia and Australia in the Timor Sea. • The capital is Dili and • Currency is Rupia. • The main language is Tetum and the major religions are Roman Catholics (Christianity) and Islam.

6. Pakistan • Capital of Pakistan is Islamabad • Currency is Rupee. • Islam is the official and major religion. • The four main geographic regions of Pakistan are : an arid plateau is the west, alluvial plains in the east, hills and semiarid valley in the north west and the high mountain ranges (Himalayas, Hindukush and Karakoram) in the north. • Islamabad, Rawalpindi, Lahore, Multan, Hyderabad, Karachi are the major cities of Pakistan. • Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej are the major rivers. AFRICA • It is the second largest continent of the world. • It is bounded by the Mediterranean Sea in north-west, Red Sea in the north, Indian ocean in the South, Arabian Sea in the east and Atlantic Ocean in the west. • Area is 30,221,532 sq km, which is about 20.4% of the world's total land area. • Population is more than 1 billion which is about 14.72% of the world's total population. • Many languages are spoken in Africa. Arabic is spoken by the maximum along with Swahili, Bantu, Zulu, English, etc. • Its northernmost point is Cape Blanc (in Tunisia) and the southernmost point is Cape Agulhas (in south Africa). • Highest point is Mt Kilimanjaro (5895m) in Tanzania • Lowest point is Lake Assal (156m below sea level) in Djibouti. • Important mountain ranges are Ahaggar, Atlas, Drakensberg, Tibesti etc. • Important deserts are the Sahara, the Kalahari and the Namib desert. Sahara is the largest desert of the world. • Important rivers are the Nile, the Zaire, the Niger and the Zambezi. • Important dams are the Aswan dam on Nile and the Kariba dam on Zambezi river. • Important waterfalls are the Victoria Falls on Zambezi riverandBoyoma falls on Zaire river. • Climate is predominantly equatorial type and tropical grassland type, as almost the entire Africa lies in the Torrid zone. • Important tribes are Bantus, Berbers, Hausas, Masais, Pygmies, Hottentots, Bushmen, Tuaregs, Kikuyus, etc. Other Facts: • The country having highest death rate and least life expectancy in the world is Sierra Leone, Africa. • Four largest countries in the decreasing order of areas are Sudan, Algeria, Zaire and Libya. • Four most populous countries in descending order are Nigeria, Egypt, Ethiopia and Zaire. • Largest lakes are Lake Victoria, Lake Tanganyika and Lake Nyasa. • From Victoria originates the river Nile. 76

• The three points where Africa almost touches Eurasia are Gibralter, Suez and Bab-el-Mandeb. NORTH AMERICA • It is the third largest continent of the world. • It is bounded by the Pacific Ocean on the west, Atlantic Oceanon the east, Arctic Ocean on the north and Caribbean Sea and Panama Canal in the south. • Area is 24,709,000 sq. km, which is about 16.3% of the world's total land area. • Important languages are English, Spanish and French. • Important mountain ranges are Alaska, Aleutian, Appalachians, Brooks, Cascade, Coast, Rockies, Sierra Nevada, Sierra Made, etc. • Highest peak is Mt. McKinley (6194 m). • Lowest Point is the Death Valley (86 m below sea level). • Largest lakes arranged from West to East are Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie and Ontario. • Out of these, only Michigan lies entirely in USA. Others are shared by USA with Canada. • Important rivers are Colorado, Columbia, Mackenzie, Mississippi/Missourie, St. Lawrence, etc. • Important dam is the Hoover dam on Colorado river.

IMPORTANT NORTH AMERICA'S NATIONS 1. United States of America • It is the fourth largest country area and third largest country in population in the world. • Capital is Washington DC(District of Columbia) which is located on the bank of River Potomac • USA is divided into 50 states. The states in descending order of area are Alaska, Texas, California, Montana, etc. • The rocket launching centre of USA is Cape Kennedy, Florida. • The smallest state is the Rhode Island. • The most populous state is California. • USA is the largest importer and consumer of oil. • The busiest airport of the USA is John F. Kennedy International Airport, New York • The driest and the hottest place in USA is Death Valley • Pittsburg in USA is the Iron and Steel capital of the world. • Detroit in USA is the Automobile capital of the world. • Grand Canyon :It is made by the Colorado river in Arizona.

3. Canada • It is the second largest country in area in the world. • 49th parallel forms the boundary between Canada and USA. It is the longest boundary between any two countries. • Canada has ten states and three federal territories. • The capital of Canada is Ottawa. English and French are the official languages of Canada. • Winnipeg, Great Bear, Great Slave and Reindeer are the important lakes of Canada. • The largest province of Canada is Quebec while the most populated one is Ontario Toronto is the largest city of Canada. • Canada is the largest producer of paper and pulp. • The Sudbury mines in Canada are famous for lead, zinc and silver. SOUTH AMERICA • It is the fourth largest continent of the Earth. It is situated west of Atlantic Ocean, east of Pacific Ocean, south of North America and North of Antarctica. • The longest mountain range of the world, Andes are located on the western coast of South America. • The highest peak of South America is Mt. Aconcagua (6960 m). • The largest river of the world, Amazon flows through South America. • The highest waterfall of the world, Angel Falls, are in Venezuela in South America. It is on Orinoco river. • The highest freshwater lake of the world, Titicaca is in Bolivia in South America. • Major deserts are Atacama in Chile and Patagonia in Argentina. Driest place on earth is Iqique in Atacama desert Chile. • Llanos and Campos are the Savanna grasslands in South America. • Selvas are the equatorial rainforests of Amazon basin. • Cinchona trees are found in South America which are used to make quinine, the medicine used to cure malaria. • Though the official language in most of the countries is Spanish, the official language of Brazil is Portuguese. • Countries in descending order of size are Brazil, Argentina, Peru, Colombia etc. • Countries in descending order of population are Brazil, Colombia, Argentina, Peru, etc. • Trans-Andean railways connect Buenos Aires and Valparaiso. • Kourou, the French satellite launching station, is in French Guyana is South America.

IMPORTANT SOUTH AMERICA'S NATIONS 1. Brazil • It is the fifth largest country in the world in terms of population and also in terms of area. • It is about 2.5 times the size of India. • Brasilia is its capital while Rio-de-Janeiro is the largest city. • Brazil is the only country through which both equator and one of the tropics (Tropic of Capricorn) passes. • Brazil is also known as the Coffee Pot of the World because it is the largest producer of coffee. • Brazil is the homeland of Rubber. • Brazil has the world's largest reserves of iron ore, in Serra dos Carajas hills in State of Para Brazil. • Most mineral rich state of Brazil is Minas Gerais.

2. Argentina • It is the second largest country of South America. • Buenos Aires is its capital. • Christianity and Judaism are the major religions while Spanish is the major language.

EUROPE • It is the second smallest continent after Australia (area-wise) • Population-wise, Europe is at the second spot after Asia. • Surrounded by the Arctic Ocean in the north, the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea the south, the Atlantic Ocean in the west and Ural Mountains in the east. • It is separated from Africa by the Strait of Gibraltar. • Important mountains are Alps, Apennines, Balkans, Carpathians, Caucasus, Pyrenees, Ural, etc. • Highest peak is Elbrus (5,642 m). • Major rivers are Danube, Dnieper, Don, Elbe, Po, Rhine, Rhone, Seine, Thames, Tiber, Volga, etc. • Major religions are Christianity, Islam and Judaism. • The climate is mild and generally humid in the West and. North-West, Mediterranean type in the South and cool Humid with cool summers in the east.

IMPORTANT EUROPE'S NATIONS 1. United Kingdom • United Kingdom is the name given to the combination of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. • Great Britain consists of England, Scotland and Wales. • Capital is London • Currency is Pound Sterling. • Major languages and religion are English and Christianity, respectively. • Climate is cool temperate oceanic, with mild conditions and rainfall evenly distributed over the year. • The most important fishingground is DoggerBank. • The United Kingdom is one of the most industrialized nations of the world, though it lacks the raw material. • It is self-sufficient in petroleum. • Major Cities are :London, Glasgow, Liverpool, Bradford, Manchester, Birmingham.

2. France • It is the third largest country in Europe. • Capital :Paris • Currency :Euro • The major language is French. • Paris, which is on Seine river, is the house of Fashion industry. • Major Religions are Christianity and Islam. • It has a mixture of moderate maritime, Mediterranean and continental climates. • It is one of the leading producers of wine in the world.

3. Germany • Capital :Berlin • Currency: Euro. • Major Rivers are :Rhine, Danube and Elbe. • Major Cities are Berlin, Munich, Frankfurt and Hamburg. • The economy is industry oriented. Industries include steel, ships, vehicles, machinery, electronic products, coal, and chemicals. • Busiest port of Germany is Hamburg. • Lufthansa is the national airline.

4. Russian Federation • It is the largest country in the world and the highest populated country of Europe • Capital: Moscow • Currency: Rouble • Russian is the principal language • Christianity, Islam, and Judaism are the principal religions. • Leading natural resources are iron ore, gold (second largest in the world), oil, platinum, copper, zinc, tin, etc. • Forests and fisheries lend support to the economic base.

5. Vatican City • Vatican City is a landlocked sovereign city-state located within the city of Rome in Italy. • The State of Vatican City is the headquarters of the Roman Catholic Church. Pope is the absolute ruler. • It is the world's smallest independent 'country' with a population of about 800 people and an area of 0.44 km² (0.17 sq mi). • Smallest country of the world both in terms of area and population. • Vatican City has its own currency, postage stamps, citizenship rights, flag, diplomatic corps, newspaper, railway station and broadcasting facilities.

AUSTRALIA • Australia was discovered by Captain James Cook, an English seaman, in 1770. • It is the smallest continent of the world. • It lies entirely in the Southern Hemisphere. • The Tropic of Capricorn runs almost through the middle of this continent. • Most of the Australia is dry. • The Eastern, North-Eastern and South-Western parts of the country come in the way of winds from sea and thus receive heavy rainfall.

• The Gibson, the Simpson, the Great Victorian and the Great Sandy deserts constitute the Great Australian lit. • The highest peak in Australia is Mt. Kosciusko. • The Australian States in decreasing order of population is New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, Western Australia. • The largest state of Australia is Western Australia. • Great Barrier Reef: It is the world's longest coral reef. It is in the North-East of Australia. • Largest lake of Australia is Lake Eyre. • Australia is mainly an agricultural country. • Wheat is the most important food crop. • A variety of fruits—both temperate and tropical, are also grown. • Australia makes several products from its agriculture and animal raw materials. • Australia has the largest number of sheep in the world. • Merino is the most important breed of wool producing sheep. • Australia has considerable mineral wealth. It has large reserves of coal, iron-ore, bauxite, manganese and tin. • Some petroleum and natural gas are also found. New Zealand • The first European to discover New Zealand was Abel Tasman. • Australasia stands for Australia and New Zealand. • The biggest city is Auckland • The capital is Wellington. • The highest peak is Mt. Cook. • The chief farming region is Canterbury Plain. • New Zealand generates 7% of its energy from geo-thermal springs. ANTARCTICA • Antarctica, almost 98% solid ice, was finally considered a continent in 1840, and not just a group of isolated islands. • Area: 14,000,000 km2 (5th in World Rank). • Population: Officially, governmental research stations are populated with small groups of scientists at all times. • Almost 98% of the continent is covered by ice with an average thickness of a least 1.6 km. • It is also the coldest, windiest, and the driest continent in the Earth. • Only cold-adaptedfloras and faunas can survive there. • Penguins, Seals, Tundra Vegetation and several types of Algae can be found.

• The length of continuous day or night increases southward from the Antarctic Circle, mounting to six months at the South Pole.

Indian Antarctica Program

Base Year Location Gangotri 1983 Dakshin Gangotri Glacier near Schirmacher Oasis

Maitri 1988 Schirmacher Oasis

Bharati 2015 Larsemann Hills

Research stations set up by India in Antarctica: Till now Under the environmental protocol of the Antarctic Treaty (1959), India has set up three research stations up till now. 1. Dakshin Gangotri (1983) • The first Indian scientific research base station was established in Antarctica as part of the third Antarctic Programme • Located at a distance of 2,500 kilometers from the South Pole, it was built in 1983-84. • This was the first time an Indian team spent a winter in Antarctica to carry out scientific work • In 1989, it was excavated and is being used again as a supply base and transit camp • January 26, 1984, India's Republic Day, was celebrated at the station along with Soviet and East German scientists

2. Maitri (1988) • In the year 1988 an ice-free, rocky area on the Schirmacher Oasis was selected to build the second research station named Maitri • Maitri is the gateway for Indian scientists to venture into interior Antarctic mountains and has been hosting summer and winter research teams every year

3. Bharati (2015) • Located beside Larsmann Hill, about 3000 km east of Maitri, Bharati was established in 2015. • It is located between Thala Fjord &Quilty bay, east of Stornes Peninsula in Antarctica

GEOGRAPHY WORLD 9. MISCELLANEOUS FACTS

Major Rivers of the World

River Origin Falls in Length (km.) Nile Victoria lake Mediterranean Sea 6,650 Amazon Andes (Peru) Atlantic Ocean 6,428 Yangtze Tibetan Kiang Plateau China Sea 6,300 Mississippi Itasca lake (USA) Gulf of Mexico (USA) 6,275 Yenisei Tannu-Ola Mts. Arctic Ocean 5,539 Huang Ho Kunlun Mts. Gulf of Chibli 5,464 Ob Altai Mts., Russia Gulf of Ob 5,410 Congo Lualaba &Luapula rivers Atlantic Ocean 4,700 Amur Northeast China Sea of Okhotsk 4,444 Lena Baikal Mts. Laptev Sea 4,400 Mekong Tibetan Highlands South China Sea 4,350 Mackenzie Great Slave Lake Beaufort Sea 4,241 Niger Guinea Gulf of Guinea 4,200 Major Shipping Canals Kiel Canal • Between London and Baltic ports • 98 km long • Links North Sea with the Baltic Sea. Panama Canal • Links the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean • 58 km long Erie Canal • Links the Atlantic Ocean to Great Lakes. Suez Canal • Connects the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea • Built in 1869 by the French engineer, Ferdinand de Lesseps • 169 km long, one of the greatest canals of the world and was nationalized by Col. Nasser (Egypt) on July 26, 1956. 84

Important Lakes of the World

Lake Location Area (sq km)

Caspian Russia and CIS 3,71,000

Superior Canada and USA 82,414

Victoria Tanzania (Africa) 69,485

Huron Canada and USA 59,596

Michigan USA 58,016

Tanganyika Africa 32,892

Baikal Russia (CIS) 31,502

Great Bear Canada 31,080

Malawi Malawi (Tanzania) 30,044

Great Slave Canada 28,438

Important Straits of the World

STRAIT WATER BODIES JOIN AREA

Bab-al-Mandeb Red Sea & Arabian Sea Arabia & Africa

Bering Arctic Ocean & Bering Sea Alaska & Asia

Bosphorus Black Sea & Marmara Sea Turkey

Dover North Sea & Atlantic Ocean England & Europe

Florida Gulf of Mexico & Atlantic Ocean Florida & Bahamas Islands

Gibraltar Mediterranean Sea & Atlantic Ocean Spain & Africa

Malacca Java Sea & Bay of Bengal India & Indonesia

Palk Bay of Bengal & Indian Ocean India & Sri Lanka

Magellan South Pacific & South Atlantic Ocean Chile

Sunda Java Sea & Indian Ocean Indonesia 85

Biggest Countries

Biggest Nations (Area-wise) Biggest Nations (Population-wise) Russia China Canada India China USA USA Indonesia Brazil Brazil Australia Pakistan India Bangladesh Argentina Niger Kazakhstan Russia Sudan Japan

Smallest Countries

Smallest Nations (Area-wise) Smallest Nations (Population-wise) Vatican City Vatican City Monaco Tuvalu Nauru Nauru Tuvalu Palau San Marino San Marino Liechtenstein Monaco Marshall Islands Liechtenstein Saint Kitts & Nevis Saint Kitts &Nevis Maldives Antigua &Barbados Malta Dominica

Important Cities on River Banks

CITY COUNTRY RIVER Adelaide Australia Torrens Amsterdam Netherlands Amstel Alexandria Egypt Nile Ankara Turkey Kizil (Red River) Bangkok Thailand Chao Phraya Basra Iraq Euphrates and Tigris Baghdad Iraq Tigris Berlin Germany Spree 86

Bonn Germany Rhine Budapest Hungary Danube Bristol UK Avon Buenos Aires Argentina Rio-de-la plata Chittagong Bangladesh Karnaphuli Guangzhou China Si-Kiang Cairo Egypt Nile Wuhan China Yangtze River Cologne Germany Rhine Dresden Germany Elbe Dublin Ireland Liffey Hamburg Germany Elbe Kabul Afghanistan Kabul Rotterdam Netherland New Maas Stalingrad Russia Volga Shanghai China Yangtze Sydney Australia Parramatta St Louis U.S.A Mississippi City Country River Karachi Pakistan Indus Confluence of Blue Khartoum Sudan and White Nile Lahore Pakistan Ravi Leningrad Russia Neva Lisbon Portugal Tagus Liverpool England Mersey London England Thames Moscow Russia Moskva Montreal Canada St. Lawrence Nanjing China Yangtze New Orleans U.S.A Mississippi New York U.S.A Hudson Ottawa Canada Ottawa Paris France Seine Philadelphia U.S.A Delaware Perth Australia Swan Czech Prague Vltava Republic Quebec Canada St. Lawrence Rome Italy Tiber Tokyo Japan Arakawa Vienna Austria Danube Warsaw Poland Vistula 87

Washington DC U.S.A Potomac Yangoon Myanmar Irrawaddy

Foreign Towns Associated with Industries

Town Country Associated Industry Baku Azerbaijan Petroleum Bangkok Thailand Shipbuilding Belfast Ireland Shipbuilding Buenos Aires Argentina Meat Cadiz Portugal Cork Agricultural Chicago U.S.A. implements Cotton and Cologne Germany woolen industries Dhaka Bangladesh Jute Detroit U.S.A Motor cars Optical and Dresden Germany photographic apparatus Glasgow Great Britain Machinery Havana Cuba Tobacco, Cigars Hollywood U.S.A. Film industry Johannesburg South Africa Gold mines Kimberley South Africa Diamond Mining Leeds England Woolen goods Lyons France Silk industries Manchester England Cotton industry Fishing, Shipping, Mauritius Indian Ocean Sugar Milan Italy Silk Morocco North Africa Leather Munich Germany Lenses New Orleans U.S.A Cotton industry Osaka Japan Cotton fabrics Pittsburgh U.S.A Iron and Steel Plymouth England Shipbuilding Sheffield England Cutlery Glass Venice Italy manufacturing Vienna Austria Glass 88

manufacturing Wellington New Zealand Dairy Product

World's Geographical Surnames

Surname Name Key to the Mediterranean Gibraltar Land of Cakes Scotland City of Sky-scrapers New York Land of Golden Fleece Australia City of Seven Hills Rome Land of Maple Leaf Canada City of Dreaming Spires Oxford Land of Morning Calm Korea Land of Midnight Sun Norway City of Golden Gate San Francisco Land of the Thousand Lakes Finland City of Magnificent Washington D.C. Buildings Land of the Thunderbolt Bhutan City of Eternal Springs Quito (S. America) Land of White Elephant Thailand China's Sorrow Hwang Ho Cockpit of Europe Belgium Land of Thousand Laos Elephants Dark continent Africa Land of Rising Sun Japan Emerald Island Ireland Loneliest Island Tristan Da Cunha (Mid-Atlantic) Eternal City Rome Manchester of Japan Osaka Empire city New York Pillars of Hercules Strait of Gibraltar Forbidden City Lhasa (Tibet) Pearl of the Antilles Cuba Garden City Chicago Playground of Europe Switzerland Gate of Tears Strait of Bab-el- Mandeb Quaker City Philadelphia Queen of the Adriatic Venice Gift of the Nile Egypt 89

Roof of the World The Pamirs, Central Asia Granite City Aberdeen (Scotland) Hermit Kingdom Korea Sugar bowl of the World Cuba Herring Pond Atlantic Ocean Venice of the North Stockholm Holy land Jerusalem Windy City Chicago Island Continent Australia Guinea Coast of Whiteman's grave Africa Island of Cloves Zanzibar Yellow River Huang Ho (China) Bahrein Island of Pearls (Persian Gulf)

Famous Tribes of the World

Abhors People of Mongolian blood living between Assam and Eastern tribes.

Afridis Tribes residing in the North-West Frontier (Pakistan)

Bantus Negroes living in the Central and South Africa.

Boers The Dutch settlers of south Africa .

Cossacks People living in the Southern and Eastern Frontiers of Russia.

Eskimos Inhabitants of Greenland and of Arctic regions.

Flemings A term used for the people of Belgium

Hamites Inhabitants of North-West Africa.

Khirgiz People living in Central Asia.

Kurds Tribes living in Kurdistan (Iraq).

Magyars Inhabitants of Hungary.

Maoris Inhabitants of New Zealand.

Negroes Mostly found in Africa.

Pygmies Short sized people found in Congo basin in Africa.

Red Indians Original inhabitants of North America.

Semites Caucasian people of ancient times.

Zulus People of South Africa living certain part of Natal. World Famous Sites

Site Location Bastille Prison Paris Brandenburg Gate Berlin Big Ben London Broadway New York Buckingham Palace London Colosseum Rome Downing Street London Eiffel Tower Paris Empire State Building New York Fleet Street London Grand Canyon Arizona (U.S.A) Harley Street London Hyde Park London India House London Jodrell Bank Manchester (U.K.) Kaaba Mecca (Saudi Arabia) Kremlin Moscow (Russia) Leaning Tower Pisa (Italy)

Site Location Louvre Paris Merdeka Palace Jakarta Oval London Pentagon Washington D.C. Porcelain Tower Nanking Potala Lhasa Red Square Moscow Pyramids Egypt Scotland Yard London Shwe Dragon Pagoda Yangoon Sphinx Egypt Statue of Liberty New York Vatican City Rome Wall Street New York 91

Wailing Wall Jerusalem Wembley London WhiteHall London White House Washington D.C.

Biggest, Highest, Largest, Longest in World

Largest Archipelago Indonesia

Danyang–Kunshan Grand Bridge (China) (25,500 Longest Railway Bridge m)

Tallest Building in the world Burj Khalifa, UAE

Longest Canal Grand Canal of China

Busiest Canal Kiel canal

Highest Capital La Paz (Balivia)

Largest City in population Tokyo

Highest City LaPaz (Bolivia) (4090 m)

Largest Continent Asia

Smallest Continent Australia

Biggest Country (area) Russia

Largest Country (population) China

Largest Country (electorate) India

Largest Creature Blue Whale

Largest Delta Sunderban Delta (Bangladesh & India)

Largest Desert (World) Sahara (Africa)

Largest Desert (Asia) Gobi (Mongolia)

Largest Electricity Generating Dam Three Gorges Dam (Yangtze River, China)

Highest Gravity Dam Grand Dixence Dam (Switzerland) (285 m)

Largest Diamond The Cullinan

Largest Epic Mahabharata

Largest Island Greenland

Largest Sea Mediterranean Sea

Deepest lake Baikal (Siberia)

Highest Lake Titicaca (Bolivia)

Largest Lake (Volume) Caspian Sea

Largest Lake (Artificial by area) Lake Volta

Largest Lake (Artificial by volume) Lake Kariba

1. Baikal Largest Lake (Fresh water by volume) 2. Tangyanika 3. Superior

Largest Lake (Fresh water by Area ) Superior

Largest Lake (Salt water) Caspian

Highest Mountain Peak Mt. Everest (Nepal)

Longest Mountain Range The Andes (South America)

Largest Museum British Museum, London

Largest Ocean Pacific Ocean

Smallest Ocean Arctic Ocean

Biggest Palace Vatican (Italy)

Largest Park Yellow Stone National Park (U.S.A.)

Largest Peninsula Arabian Peninsula

Coldest Place (Habitated) Verkhoyansk (Siberia)

Driest Place Iquique (Atacama Desert, Chile)

Hottest Place El Azizia (Libya, Africa)

Rainiest Place Mawsynram (Meghalaya, India)

Highest Plateau Tibet plateau

Longest Platform Gorakhpur (India)

Longest Railways China Europe Block Train

Largest Railway Station Grand Central Terminal, Chicago (U.S.A.)

Longest River Nile (Africa)

Largest River (volume) Amazon (South America)

Tallest statue Statue of Unity

Largest Telescope Radio New Mexico (U.S.A.)

World’s first Tramway New York

Longest Tunnel (Railway) Gotthard Base Tunnel(Switzerland)

Longest Tunnel (Road) Laerdal tunnel in Norway

Highest Volcano (Active) Ojos del Salado (Andes, Chile Argentina Border)

Most Active Volcano Mauna loa (Hawaii-U.S.A.)

Longest Wall Great Wall of China

Highest Waterfall Angel (Venezuela)

Lowest waterbody Dead Sea

Largest National Park Kruger National Park, South Africa

Agriculture: Major 5 Producers (2018)

Rice China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh and Vietnam Wheat China, India, Russa, USA and France Maize(Corn) USA, China, Brazil, Mexico and Argentina Groundnut China, India, Nigeria, USA and Indonesia Tea China, India, Kenya, Sri Lanka and Vietnam Cotton China, India, USA, Pakistan and Brazil Rubber Thailand ,Indonesia, Vietnam, India and China Coffee Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia, Indonesia and India Pulses India, Brazil, China, Myanmar and Mexico

Palm Oils Indonesia Jute India, Bangladesh, China, Uzbekistan , Nepal

USA: Largest Agricultural Exporter in World Although China is the largest agricultural producer overall, the USA exports the most produce. They are the largest corn producer and amongst the largest producers of oats, tomatoes, soybean and spices. Each year the USA agricultural exports are around $150 billion. Minerals and their Major 3 Producers Minerals: Major 3 Producers Iron Ore Australia Brazil and China Copper Ore Chile, China and Peru Tin China, Indonesia and Peru Lead China, Australia and USA Zinc China, Australia and Peru Manganese South Africa, China and USA Aluminium China, Russia and Canada Uranium (Producers) Kazakhstan, Canada, Australia Uranium (Largest Australia Reserves) Thorium Producers India, USA Cement China, India and USA Petroleum USA , Saudi Arabia, Russia Natural Gas USA,Russia and Canada Silver Mexico, China and Peru Coal China, USA and India Russia, Botswana and Congo (Democratic Diamond Republic Gold China, Australia and Russia Bauxite Australia, China Lithium Australia , Chile

Deserts

Sahara North Africa (Includes the Libyan and the Nubian Desert) Australia (Includes Gibson, Simpson, Victorian, Great Australia Sandy)

Arab Countries (Includes Rub’al Khali and Al Nafad of Arabia S. Arabia and Dast-e-Lut and Dast-e-Kavir of Iran) Kalahari Africa (Mainly in Botswana) Gobi Mongolia Atacama Central Chile Patagonian Argentina Namib Namibia Takla Sinkiang, China Makan Karakum Turkmenistan Sonoran Arizona and California (USA) Thar India Various Names of Grasslands

Prairies North America Pampas South America Veld South Africa Downs Australia Steppes Ukraine, Russia Canterbury New Zealand Postaz Hungary Manchurian Russia

Continents: Some Facts

Continent Biggest Highest Longest Country Peak River Asia China Mt. Everest (8848 m) Yangtze Africa Sudan Mt. Kilimanjaro (5895 m) Nile North Canada Mt. Mckinley (6194 m) Mississippi/ America Missouri South Brazil Mt. Acancagua (6960 m) Amazon America Europe Russia Mt. Elbrus (5642 m) Ob Australia Australia Mt. Coscuisco (2228 m) Darling Antarctica — Vinson Massif (5140 m) —

Important Boundaries

Durand Line Pakistan and Afghanistan

McMohan Line India and China

Radcliffe Line India and Pakistan, India and Bangladesh

Maginot Line France and Germany

Oder Niesse Line Germany and Poland

Hindenberg Line Poland and Germany (at the time of First World War)

38th Parallel North and South Korea

49th Parallel USA and Canada

MPPSCADDA

GEOGRAPHY INDIA 1. INDIA: FACT FILE

Continent Asia

South Asia, Indian Sub- Region continent

Latitude 8o4’ - 37o6’ N Latitude

Longitude 68o7’ - 97o25’ E longitude

32,87,263 km2 Area (Seventh in World)

1,21,01,93,422 Population (2011 census) (Second in World Rank)

Number of States 28

Number of Union Territories 8

North-South extent 3,214 km

East-West extent 2,933 km

Land Frontiers 15,200 km

Kanchenjunga Highest point 8,586 m (28,169 ft)

Lowest point Kuttanad, Kerala

The Ganges or Ganga Longest River (Length 2,525 km)

Chilika Lake, Odisha Largest Lake (64.3 km long)

East of Indira Col, Siachen Northernmost point Glacier , Ladakh

Indira Point, Great Nicobar Southernmost point (Andaman & Nicobar)

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Southernmost point Cape Comorin near Kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu) (Mainland)

Easternmost point Kibithu (Arunachal Pradesh)

Guhar Moti, Kutch Westernmost Point (Gujarat)

7,517 km encompassing the mainland, Lakshadweep Coastline Islands, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Afghanistan and Pakistan to the north-west; China, Bhutan and Nepal to the north, Myanmar to the east; and Border Countries Bangladesh to the east of West Bengal. Sri Lanka is separated from India in the south by a narrow channel of sea, formed by Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar.

The mainland comprises of four regions, namely the Terrain great mountain zone, plains of the Ganga and the Indus, the desert region, and the peninsula.

• India is positioned on the Indian sub-continent in South-Central Asia and is located in both the eastern and northern hemispheres. • India is the seventh largest country in the world in terms of area after Russia, Canada, USA, China, Brazil and Australia. • India is entirely contained on the Indian Plate, a major tectonic plate that was formed when it split off from the ancient continent Gondwanaland (ancient landmass, consisting of the southern part of the supercontinent of Pangea). • The Indo-Australian is subdivided into the Indian and Australian plates. The Indian Plate is moving northeast at 5 cm/year. India is thus referred to as the fastest continent. • Tropic of Cancer passes through 8 states: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura and Mizoram. • Indian Standard Meridian passes through 5 states: Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. This meridian helps in calculating the Indian Standard Time (IST) which is 5 hours 50 minutes ahead of the Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). • 9 states form the coast of India: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal. 2 Union Territories, viz. Daman and Diu and Puducherry are also on the coast.

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• Uttar Pradesh borders maximum number of states: 8 (Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Bihar). • Assam, which touches the border of 7 states. • Highest peak of Peninsular India is Anaimudi (2695 m) in Anaimalai Hills. • Highest peak of the Eastern Ghats is Mahendragiri (1501 m). • Nilgiris or The Blue Mountains: Meeting Place of the Western and the Eastern Ghats. Highest peaks is Doda Betta. • Cardamom hills is the southernmost mountain range of India. • Duncan Passage lies between South Andaman and Little Andaman. • Eight Degree Channel separates Minicoy Island (India) from Maldives. • Ten Degree Channel separates Andaman from Nicobar (Little Andaman from Car Nicobar).

India & Its Neighboring Countries

Country India

Number of Neighboring Countries 9

Length of Land Border 15,106.7 km

Coastline 7,516.6 km

Neighboring Countries and State/UT Border

Country No. of Indian States situated on the border States

Pakistan 4 Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat

Afghanistan 1 Ladakh (POK)

China 5 Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh

Nepal 5 Bihar, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Sikkim and West Bengal

Bangladesh 5 West Bengal, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Tripura and Assam

Bhutan 4 West Bengal, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and Assam

Myanmar 4 Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram

Srilanka It is separated from India by the Gulf of Mannar

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Maldives It lies in the south-west part of India Ocean below the Lakshadweep Island

Countries that share Borders with India • In total there are 7 countries that India shares its land borders with. • These countries from east to west are Myanmar, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, China, Afghanistan (only official claim, not on actual grounds) and Pakistan.

List of Indian States that lies on International Border • In general, there are total 17 Indian States that are located on the international border. • These Indian states in order from East to West are Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya in north east; Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Sikkim in northern planes; Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand in extreme north; Rajasthan and Gujarat in west.

Country that shares longest Border with India The length of the shared borders in decreasing order with different neighboring countries of India are as follows : • Length of India Bangladesh border – 4096 Km • Length of India-China border – 4057 Km • Length of border shared between India and Pakistan – 3323 Km (including line of control in J & K and international border) • Length of India Nepal border – 1751 Km • Length of India Myanmar border – 1643 Km • Length of India Bhutan border – 699 Km • Length of border shared between India and Afghanistan – 106 Km (as per India’s claim; the shared border with Afghanistan lies in Gilgit Baltistan which in Pakistan’s control) India now has 28 states and 8 UTs • According to the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019, the appointed day for the two Union Territories J&K and Ladakh was October 31. This is for the first time that a state is converted into two Union Territories. The total number of states in the country will now be 28, with effect from 26th January 2020, India has 8 union territories. • The Union Territories of Daman and Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli have become a single union territory since January 26 through a Bill passed by the Parliament in the winter session. With the merger of Daman and Diu, and Dadra and Nagar Haveli, the number of UT’s have come down to eight.

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Complete list of 28 States:

S.NO State Capital 1 Andhra Pradesh Amaravati 2 Arunachal Pradesh Itanagar 3 Assam Dispur 4 Bihar Patna 5 Chhattisgarh Raipur 6 Goa Panaji 7 Gujarat Gandhinagar 8 Haryana Chandigarh 9 Himachal Pradesh Shimla 10 Jharkhand Ranchi 11 Karnataka Bengaluru 12 Kerala Thiruvananthapuram 13 Madhya Pradesh Bhopal 14 Maharashtra Mumbai 15 Manipur Imphal 16 Meghalaya Shillong 17 Mizoram Aizawl 18 Nagaland Kohima 19 Odisha Bhubaneswar 20 Punjab Chandigarh 21 Rajasthan Jaipur 22 Sikkim Gangtok 23 Tamil Nadu Chennai 24 Telangana Hyderabad 25 Tripura Agartala 26 Uttar Pradesh Lucknow 27 Uttarakhand Dehradun 28 West Bengal Kolkata

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Complete list of 8 Union Territories:

S.No Union Territories Capital 1 Andaman and Nicobar Island Port Blair 2 Chandigarh Chandigarh 3 Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu Daman 4 Delhi Delhi 5 Ladakh NA 6 Lakshadweep Kavaratti 7 Jammu and Kashmir NA 8 Puducherry Pondicherry

FACTS ABOUT THE INDIAN OCEAN • The Indian Ocean has a total area of 73,440,000 square kilometers or 28,360,000 square miles. • Its size makes the Indian Ocean the third largest body of water in the world. It covers approximately a fifth of the Earth’s surface. • Recently, scientists have found a “lost continent” whose remains are thought to exist in the depths of the Indian Ocean. Scientists are now calling this undiscovered land mass “Mauritia.” • The Indian Ocean’s deepest point is the Sunda Deep, which is located in the Java Trench near the southern part of Java, Indonesia. It has a maximum depth of 25,344 ft. Its the world’s second longest, stretches past Sumatra and extends up to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. • Due to the melting of polar caps, the Indian Ocean actually grows wider by about 20 cm every year. • Some of the world’s most important and historical trading ports are in the Indian Ocean. These include the ports in Durban and Richards Bay in South Africa; Kolkata, Chennai, and Mumbai in India; Melbourne in Australia; Jakarta in Indonesia; and Colombo in Sri Lanka. • The Indian Ocean is known as the warmest ocean in the world. Its rate of warming is also the fastest among the tropical oceans, further exacerbated by greenhouse warming and climate change. • Indian Ocean water has the lowest oxygen content in the world. This can be attributed to the fast evaporation rate in the area. • While the rest of world refer to it as the “Indian Ocean,” ancient Sanskrit texts have named this body of water as Ratnakara (“mine of gems”) while Hindi tradition refers to it as Hind Mahasagar. • The Indian Ocean reaches and connects four continents (Asia, Australia, Africa, and Antarctica), 18 countries in Asia, 16 countries in Africa, and at least 57 island groups. • An underwater mountain ridge called the Ninety East Ridge acts as a divider between the eastern and western regions of the Indian Ocean. • When compared to other world oceans, the Indian Ocean is relatively closed. It is primarily landlocked by Asia to its north.

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• The widest points of the continental shelf in the Indian Ocean is located off Bombay on the western coast of India and off northwestern Australia. • Because of its highly complex ridge topography, the Indian Ocean became the site of many basins that range from a smallish-size of 200 miles up to large ones that measure 5600 miles. • The Indian Ocean has an abundant amount of seamounts (i.e. extinct submarine volcanoes). Most of them can be found in the Central Indian Basin near Seychelles and Reunion. • Scientists and researchers are in consensus that the Indian Ocean has the most complicated origin among the three largest world oceans. • It is believed that the Indian was formed during the breakup and subsequent collision of the ancient southern supercontinent Gondwana and Eurasia. • Scientists believe that the Indian Ocean took on its present configuration and formed around 36 million years ago. • Though it is dated to have formed nearly 140 million years ago, the majority of the Indian Ocean basin dates back only less than 80 million years. • Among geographers and scientists, there is no consensus regarding the southern boundary of the Indian Ocean. Some say that the Indian Ocean extends south to the coast of Antarctica, while people in Australia consider most of the waters near Antarctica (which includes parts of the Pacific and Atlantic) to be part of the Antarctic Ocean itself. • Among the world’s oceans, the Indian Ocean has the fewest marginal seas. These include the Great Australian Bight (near the south coast of Australia), the Arabian Sea, the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and the Andaman Sea. • The Indian Ocean’s waters touch those of the Pacific’s near its east and southwest regions. • One of the world’s most disastrous natural event happened in the Indian Ocean was the tsunami of 2004 which claimed about 200,000 lives

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GEOGRAPHY INDIA 2. PHYSIOGRAPHY

PHYSIOGRAPHIC UNITS India’s relief is marked by a great variety. India can be divided into five major physiographic units: 1. The Northern Mountains 2. The great Northern Plains 3. The Peninsular Plateau 4. The Indian Desert 5. The Islands

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1. NORTHERN MOUNTAINS The mountain ranges and plateaus of the North Kashmir, the Himalayas Assam, Manipur and Mizoram form a conspicuous mountain system bordering the country in the North.

Pass It is a natural gap or a route between a ridge, hill.

Range Large landmass consisting of mountains, ridges and peaks.

Peak Highest point or tip of a mountain range.

Valley A depression or a flat land between two elevated area.

Dun Longitudinal valleys existing between Himachal and Shiwaliks. (a) Indian Himalayas The Great Himalayas/Himadri/Inner Himalayas: • They comprise the northern most ranges having an average height of 6,000m with breadth ranging from 120 to 190 km. • Conforming to the underlying rocks, the syntaxial bend is an asymmetrical mountain throwing very few spurs southward. • Important peaks of this system include : o Mt. Everest (8,848 m) at Kathmandu in Nepal, o Kanchanjunga (8,586 m), o Dhaulagiri (8,172 m), o Nanda Devi (7,917 m) o Nanga Parbat (8,126 m). • Important passes are : o Bara Lacha La and Shipki La (Himachal Pradesh) o Thaga La, Niti Pass and Lipulekh (Uttarakhand) o Nathu La and Jelep La (Sikkim) o Burzil Pass and Zojila Pass(Kashmir) etc. The Lesser/Middle Himalayas: • They have an average height of about 3,500 to 5,000 metres and average width of 60 to 80 km. it extends in the north of Shiwalik Range. • Important ranges include the Dhauladhar, the PirPanjal and the Mussoorie range. • Hills and resorts are Shimla, Mussoorie, Nainital, Almora, Darjeeling, etc. The Outer Himalayas/Shiwaliks • Shiwalik or Outer Himalayas is a hogback structure formed of river born deposits in the latest phase of Himalayas uplift in Middle Miocene to lower Pleistocene age. • It descends northwards to flat-floored structured valleys called ‘Duns’. • It is covered with thick tropical wet deciduous forests in the East. • They are the foothills running parallel to the Himalayas. 108

• Average height is 1,000 to 1,500 metres. • It is a chain of low-lying hills formed through fluvial deposits like sand clay and pebbles. • Dehradun valley, Udhampur and Kotli valleys have developed into good human settlements.

(b) Trans-Himalayas • They comprise Karakoram and the Kailash mountain systems. Mt. K2 (Godwin Austin 8,611 m) which is now in Pakistan occupied Kashmir is located in the Karakoram. Another important peak is Hidden Peak (8,068 m). • The Siachen glacier (27 km) largest in India is situated in Nubra valley in this region. Other glaciers are Baltoro (60 m), Biafo (60 km) and Hispar (62 km).

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(c) Peninsular Mountains • While the Himalayas are Fold Mountains, they are not. • The Aravalli Mountains(Rajasthan): One of the World’s Oldest. • Guru Shikhar is the highest peak on which Mount Abu (1,722 m) is situated. • The Vindhya mountains, the Satpura mountains (Highest point at Dhupgarh, 1,350 m, near Pachmarhi) etc.

Longitudinal/Transverse/Regional Divisions of Himalayas Region-wise, the Himalayas are divided into: a) The Kashmir Himalayas b) The Punjab Himalayas c) The Kumaon Himalayas d) The Central Himalayas e) The Eastern Himalayas

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The Kashmir Himalayas: • Cover an area of 3,50,000 sq. km. • Main subdivisions are Karakoram range in north, Ladakh Plateau, the Valley of Kashmir and the PirPanjal range. • Banihal is an important pass.

The Punjab Himalayas • Have important passes like Zojila, Rohtang and Bara Lacha La, Kangra, Lahul and Spiti Valleys are known for their scenic beauty.

The Kumaon Himalayas: • Have important peaks like Nanda Devi, Badrinath Kedarnath, Gangotri and Yamnotri which are located here.

The Central Himalayas: • Extend from river Kali to river Tista. • Important peaks are Dhaulagiri, Annapurna, Mt. Everest and Kanchanjunga. • This range is known as the Sikkim Himalayas in Sikkim. • Darjeeling Himalaya in West Bengal, and Bhutan Himalaya in Bhutan. 111

Purvanchal or Eastern Himalayas: • After crossing the Dihanggorge in the east, the Himalayasbend towards South forming a series of hills with a north-south direction, convex side facing the west. • These hills are made up of sedimentary rocks and are highly dissected. Their heights vary from 500 m to 3,000 m. • The Patkai Bum forms the boundary between India (Arunachal Pradesh) and Burma. • Further South is the Naga Hills, boundary between Nagaland and Myanmar. • Saramati (3,826 m) is the highest peak. • Garo, Khasi, Jaintia, Mikir, Dapha, Mini and Abor are other important hills of the north-eastern region. • Mawsynram with maximum rainfall in the world is located on the Khasi hills in Meghalaya.

2. THE GREAT NORTHERN PLAINS • To the south of the Himalayas and to the north of the Peninsula lies the great plains of North India. They are formed by the depositional works of three major river systems.

Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra

• The vastplains of north India are alluvial in nature and the westernmostportion is occupied by the TharDesert. • The plains consist of four divisions: o Bhabar: Along the foothills of Shiwaliks. Highly porous.

o Tarai: Re-emergence of streams. Zone of excessive dampness.

o Bhangar: Older alluvium of the plains. Studded with calcareous formations called kankar.

o Khaddar: New alluvium forms the flood plains along the river banks.

o The thickness of the alluvium is maximum in the Gangaplains and minimum in the westernplains.

• In the Kerala, plains are called as the Backwaters or ‘Kayals’, which are the shallow lagoons or inlets of the sea, lying parallel to the coastline. • The largest among these is the Vembanad Lake.

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3. PENINSULAR PLATEAU • Spreads south of the Indo-Gangetic plains flanked by sea on three sides. • The plateau is shaped like a triangle with its base in the north. • The Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats constitute its eastern and western boundaries respectively. • Most of the rocks are of the Igneous Type. • Narmada, which flows through a Rift Valley, divides the region into two parts. • Malwa Plateau in the north and the Deccan Plateau in the south. • Vindhya Plateau is situated south of Malwa Plateau. • Deccan Plateau is the largest plateau in India. • It is made up of lava that flowed in the Cretaceous-Eocene era through the fissure eruptions.

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4. THE INDIAN DESERT • To the northwest of the Aravali Hillslies the Great Indian Desert. • It is a land of undulating topography dotted with longitudinal dunes and barchans. • This regionreceiveslowrainfallbelow150 mm per year; hence, it has arid climate with low vegetation cover. It is because of these characteristic features that this is also known as Marusthali. • During the Mesozoic Era, this region was under the sea. This can be corroborated by the evidence available at Wood fossils part at Akal and Marine deposits around Brahmsar, near Jaisalmer (The approximate age of the wood fossils is estimated to be 180 million years).Akal Wood Fossil Park is a National Geological Monument of India located in Jaisalmer district • On the basis of the orientation, the desert can be divided into two parts: a) the northern part is sloping towards Sindh and b) the southern towards the Rann of Kachchh. • Rivers in this region are ephemeral. Luni is the only large river in this region. • The Luni river flowing in the southern part of the desert is of some significance. Low precipitation and high evaporation makes it a water deficit region. • There are some streams which disappear after flowing for some distance and present a typical case of inland drainage by joining a lake or playa. • The lakes and the playas have brackish water which is the main source of obtaining salt.

5. ISLANDS OF INDIA Indian territorial limits include 248 islands. The major groups of Islands are:

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The Andaman and Nicobar Group • The Andamans are believed to be extensions of mountains system in the North-East port of the country. • Andamans is a group of 204 islands of which the largest is Middle Andaman. Saddle Peak (737 m) in North Andaman is the highest peak. • The Nicobars is group of 19 islands of which the largest is Great Nicobar. Most of them are volcanic in nature. • Great Nicobar is the southernmost island and is only147 km away from Sumatra Island of Indonesia.

The Arabian Sea Group • All the islands in the Arabian Sea (total 25) are Coral Islandsand are surrounded by Fringing Reefs (North: Lakshadweep, south: Minicoy). • Minicoy is separated from rest of the Lakshadweep by Nine Degree Channel. Eight DegreeChannel separates Lakshadweep group from Maldives. • Minicoy is the second largest and Southernmost island and Nott island is the largest island of the group.

• Volcanic Islands: Barren and Narcondam Islands. • Barren is in the process of eruption, these days, after lying dormant for 200years.

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6. INDIAN GLACIERS

STATE GLACIERS

Jammu & Kashmir Siachen Glacier, Nubra, Chong Kumdan, Drang Drung

Bara Shigri, Chandra, Chandra Nahan Bhadal, Bhaga, Mukkila, Himachal Pradesh Sonapani, The Lady of Keylong, Gora, Perad, Beas Kund, Parbati and Dudhon.

Sikkim Zemu Glacier, Rathong, Lonak

Gangotri, Kalabaland, Meola, Milam, Namik, Panchachuli, Pindari, Uttarakhand Ralam, Sona, Kafni, Sunderdhunga

Assam & Nepal Chemayungdung (100 km) Khumbu

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7. MOUNTAIN PASSES of INDIA

HIMALAYAN PASSES REGION BETWEEN STATE

Banihal Pass Doda and Anantnag Jammu & Kashmir (Jawahar Tunnel)

Shipki La River Sutlej enters Himachal Pradesh India from Tibet

Bara Lacha La Keylong and Leh Himachal Pradesh

Rohtang Pass Kullu and Keylong Himachal Pradesh

Bomdila Pass Tezpur and Tawang Arunachal Pradesh

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GEOGRAPHY INDIA 3. EARTHQUAKES • Bureau of India Standards based on various scientific inputs from a number of agencies including earthquake data supplied by IMD, has grouped the country into four seismic zones: Zone-II, III, IV and V. • Of these, Zone V is rated as the most seismically prone region, while Zone II is the least. • The Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI), which measures the impact of the earthquakes on the surface of the earth, broadly associated with various zones, is as follows:

Seismic Zone % of total area

II (Low intensity zone) 43%

III (Moderate intensity zone) 27%

IV (Severe intensity zone) 18%

V (Very severe intensity zone) 12%

Important Earthquakes in India

Location Magnitude Year

West coast northern Sumatra, India, SriLanka, Maldives 9.3 2004

Nepal 8.7 1934

Arunachal Pradesh 8.5 1950

Gujarat 8.2 1819

Andaman Islands 8.1 1941

Shilong 8.1 1897

Himachal Pradesh 7.8 1905

Andaman Islands 7.7 2009

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GEOGRAPHY INDIA 4. RIVERS

Drainage • Drainage basins are those areas, in which water is concentrated and flows into the drainage network. • The streams within a drainage basin form certain patterns, depending on the slope of land, underlying rock structure as well as the climatic conditions of the area. • These are dendritic, trellis, rectangular, and radial patterns. • The dendritic pattern develops where the river channel follows the slope of the terrain. The stream with its tributaries resembles the branches of a tree, thus the name dendritic. A river joined by its tributaries, at approximately right angles, develops a trellis pattern. • A trellis drainage pattern develops where hard and soft rocks exist parallel to each other. • A rectangular drainage pattern develops on a strongly jointed rocky terrain. • The radial pattern develops when streams flow in different directions from a central peak or dome like structure. A combination of several patterns may be found in the same drainage basin.

Drainage System in India The drainage system of India may be divided into (i) Himalayan drainage system and (ii) Peninsular drainage.

Himalayan Drainages System • Most of the rivers, which rise in the Himalayas are antecedent in nature. • These antecedent rivers existed and flowed before the Himalayas were formed. • The Himalayan drainage system comprises the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. • Most of these rivers and their major tributaries are perennial in character, obtaining their water from the glaciers, springs and rains. • The regimes of these rivers exhibit wide seasonal fluctuations, causing devastating floods, especially during the season of general rains

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PENINSULAR DRAINAGE SYSTEM • The drainage of the Peninsular India is much older than that of the Himalayan drainage system. • They are mostly seasonal. • Their erosional and carrying capacity is low. • Their channels are more defined and are close to the base level. • The Peninsular drainage system comprises Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri and numerous west flowing rivers

HIMALAYAN DRAINAGE SYSTEM

INDUS SYSTEM • It has total length of 2880 km (709 km in India). • Rises in Tibet (China) near Mansarovar Lake. • In Jammu & Kashmir, its Himalayan tributaries are: Zanskar, Dras, Gartang, Shyok, Shigar, Nubra, Gilgit, etc. • Its most important tributaries, which join Indus at various Places, are: Jhelum (725 km), Beas (470 km) and Sutlej (1050 km). • According to the Indus Water Treaty signed between India and Pakistan in 1960, India can utilize only 20 per cent of the total discharge of Indus, Jhelum and Chenab.

River Sources

Jhelum from Verinag (SE Kashmir)

Chenab Bara Lacha Pass (Lahaul-Spiti, Himachal Pradesh)

Ravi Kullu Hills near Rohtang Pass (Himachal Pradesh)

Beas Placenear Rohtang Pass (Himachal Pradesh)

Sutlej Mansarovar-Rakastal lakes Tibet.

THE GANGA SYSTEM Ganga and its Tributaries • The Ganga formed by two head streams Alaknanda and Bhagirathi which join at Devprayag.

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• Rises in Gangotri glacier of the great Himalaya. Above Devaprayag it is called as Bhagirathi and below it is referred to as the Ganga. • Left Bank tributaries: Ramganga, Gomati, Ghaghara, Gandak, Burhi Gandak and Kosi. • Right Bank tributaries: Yamuna, Son. • The Bhagirathi-Hooghly is the westernmost distributary of the river. • Beyond Farakka it bifurcates itself into Bhagirathi-Hooghly in West Bengal and Padma-Meghana in Bangladesh. • Total length of 2525 km (1450 km in Uttar Pradesh, 445 km in Bihar and 520 km in West Bengal).

Yamuna • The Yamuna (Largest and the most important tributary of Ganga). • Rises in Yamunotri glacier (West of Ganga source) • Important tributaries: Chambal (rises in Mhow in the Vindhya), Son, Betwa and Ken. • 1300 km from its source to Allahabad where it joins Ganga.

Son • Right bank tributary of Ganga • Rises from the Amarkantak plateau • It joins Ganga near Patna. • Length is 780 km

Ramganga • Rises in the Kumaun Himalaya near Nainital. • It joins the left bank of Ganga below Farukkhabad. • Length is 696 km

Ghaghara • Rises from East of Gangotri • It joins the left bank of Ganga near Chapra (Bihar). • Length is 1080 km

Gandak • Rises near the Nepal-China border at an altitude of 7600 m • It flows through central part of Nepal, enters Bihar in Champaran district and turns South-East to join the left bank of Ganga near Sonepur. • Length is 425 km (in India)

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Kosi • Formed by the confluence of the Son Kosi, the Arun Kosi and the Tamur Kosi). • Rises from the peak of Nepal-Tibet. • It flows through Eastern Nepal, enters Bihar in Saharsa district and joins the left bank of Ganga below Bhagalpur (Bihar). It is also known as Sorrow of Bihar. • Length is 730 km (in India)

Damodar • Rises in Chhotanagpur plateau in the Palamau district (Jharkhand). • It joins the Bhagirathi-Hooghly in West Bengal. • It is also known as Sorrow of Bengal. • Length is 541 km

Rivers Source Information Total Length (km)

Left Bank tributaries: Ramganga, Gomati, Ghaghara, Gandak, BurhiGandak and Kosi. Ganga Rises in Gangotri Right Bank tributaries: Yamuna, The Ganga glacier of the great Son. formed by two Himalaya. Above The Bhagirathi-Hooghly is the Total length of 2525 head streams devaprayag it is km (1450 km in Uttar westernmost distributary of Pradesh, 445 km in Alaknanda and called as Bhagirathi the Bihar and 520 km in Bhagirathi and below it is river. West Bengal). which join at referred to as the Beyond Farakka it bifurcates Devprayag. Ganga. itself into Bhagirathi-Hooghly in West Bengal and Padma- Meghana in Bangladesh.

Rises in Yamunotri Important tributaries: Chambal 1300 km from its source to Allahabad Yamuna glacier (West of (rises in Mhow in the Vindhya), (Largest and where it joins Ganga

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the most Ganga source) Son, Betwa and Ken. important tributary of Ganga).

Son (Right bank Rises from the It joins Ganga near Patna. 780 km tributary of Amarkantak plateau Ganga)

Rises in the Kumaun It joins the left bank of Ganga Ramganga Himalaya near 696 km below Farukkhabad. Nainital.

It joins the left bank of Ganga Rises from East of Ghaghara near 1080 km Gangotri Chapra (Bihar).

It flows through central part of Nepal, enters Bihar in Rises near the Champaran Nepal- Gandak district and turns South-East to 425 km (in India) China border at an join altitude of 7600 m the left bank of Ganga near Sonepur.

It flows through Eastern Nepal, Kosi enters Bihar in Saharsa district (formed by the and confluence of Rises from the peak joins the left bank of Ganga 730 km (in India) the Son Kosi, of Nepal-Tibet. below the Arun Kosi Bhagalpur (Bihar). It is also known and the Tamur Kosi). as Sorrow of Bihar.

Rises in It joins the Bhagirathi-Hooghly Chhotanagpur in Damodar 541 km plateau in the West Bengal. It is also known as Palamau district Sorrow of Bengal.

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(Jharkhand).

THE BRAHMAPUTRA SYSTEM Brahmaputra and its Tributaries • Brahmaputra (Tsangpo in Tibet) one of the longest river of the world • Rises in the Chemayungdung glaciers in the Kailash range and Mariam La pass separates it from Mansarovar Lake. • Important tributaries: Subansiri, Kameng, Dhansiri, Dihag, Lohit, Tista, Torsa, Manas, Burhi Dihang, etc. • It flows through Tibet, India and Bangladesh and forms the Sunderban Delta. • Length is 2960 km

Rivers Source Information Total Length (km)

Important tributaries: Subansiri, Rises in the Brahmaputra Kameng, Dhansiri, Dihag, Lohit, Chemayungdung (Tsangpo in Tista, Torsa, Manas, BurhiDihing, Tibet) one of glaciers in the Kailash etc. It flows through Tibet, India 2960 km the longest range and Mariam La river of the and pass separates it from world Bangladesh and forms the Mansarovar Lake. Sunderban Delta.

THE PENINSULAR RIVER SYSTEM Godavari (Dakshina Ganga) • Rises in Nasik district of Maharashtra • Main tributaries: Penganga, Wainganga, Indravati, Pranhitra and the Manjra • Length is 1465 km

Krishna • Rises in Mahabaleshwar in Sahyadri • Main tributaries: Koyna, Tungabhadra, Bhima, Musi, Malprabha, Ghatprabha, etc. • Length is 1401 km

Mahanadi • Rises in Raipur in Chhattisgarh • Main tributaries: Ib, Seonath, Hasdo, Mand, Jonk, etc. 127

• Length 851 km Kaveri • Rises in Brahmagiri hills Kodagu district in Karnataka • Main tributaries: Hemavati, Shimsa, Kabini, Bhavani and Amravati, etc. • Length is 800 km Sabarmati • Mewar hills in Aravalli range. • Important tributaries: Hathmati, Sedhi and Wekul, etc. • Length: 320 km Narmada • Largest West flowing Peninsular river. • Rises in Naramada Kund, Amarkantak in Madhya Pradesh • It flows through MP, Maharashtra & Gujarat in a rift valley between Vindhya and Satpura range (mnemonic: VeNuS). It finally drains into Gulf of Khambat in the Bharuch district of Gujarat. • Important left tributaries of Narmada are: Banjar, Kaveri, Tawa, Burhner, Sher, Shakkar • Important right tributaries of Narmada are: Uri, Hiran, Orsang, Kolar • Dhuandhar or Cloud of Mist Falls is located on Naramada near Jabalpur. • Length is 1312 km(from its source to its estuary in the Gulf of Khambhat).

Tapi or Tapti • Second largest of West flowing river of Peninsula. • Rises near Multai on the Satpura Range in Betul District. Madhya Pradesh • Left bank tributaries: Purna, Vaghar, Girna, Bari and the Panjhara. • Right bank tributaries: Betul, Arunavati, Ganjal and Gomal, Suki, Aner • It is also known as the ‘twin’ or ‘hand maid’ of the Narmada. • Length 740 • Projects on Tapti River • Hathnur Dam of Upper Tapi Project (Maharashtra) • Kakrapar weir and Ukai Dam of Ukai Project (Gujarat) • Girna Dam and Dahigam Weir of Girna Project (Maharashtra)

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Peninsular Rivers Source Information Length (km) Main tributaries: Penganga, Godavari Nasik district of Wainganga, Indravati, 1465 km (Dakshina Ganga) Maharashtra Pranhitra and the Manjra Main tributaries: Koyna, Mahabaleshwar in Krishna Tungabhadra, Bhima, Musi, 1401 km Sahyadri Malprabha, Ghatprabha, etc. Rises in Raipur in Main tributaries: Ib, Seonath, Mahanadi 851 km Chhattisgarh Hasdo, Mand, Jonk, Tel, etc. Brahmagiri hills Main tributaries: Hemavati, Kaveri Kodagu district in Shimsa, Kabini, Bhavani and 800 km Karnataka Amravati, etc. Important tributaries: Mewar hills in Aravalli Sabarmati Hathmati, 320 km range. Sedhi and Wekul, etc. Left bank tributaries: Tawa, Burhner, etc. 1312 km Narmada (largest Rises in Amarkantak Right bank tributaries: Hiran, (from its source to West flowing in Madhya Pradesh Dhuan Dhar or Cloud of Mist its estuary in the Peninsular river). Falls is located on this river Gulf of Khambhat). near Jabalpur. Left bank tributaries: Puma, Veghar, Girna, Bari and the Tapi or Tapti Rises near Multai on Panjhara. (Second largest of the Satpura Range in Right bank tributaries: Betul, 740 West flowing river Betul District Arunavati, Ganjal and Gomal. of Peninsula). (Madhya Pradesh) It is also known as the ‘twin’ or ‘handmaid’ of the Narmada.

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WATERFALLS IN INDIA Talakona Falls Andhra Pradesh (Tirupati) Tirathgarh Falls Chhattisgarh (Mugabahar river) Bundla Falls Himachal Pradesh (Byndla stream) Chulia Falls Rajasthan (Chambal river) Hundru Falls Jharkhand (Subernarekha river) Lodh Falls Jharkhand (Budha river) Dasam Falls Jharkhand (Subernarekha river) Dudhsagar Falls Goa (Mandovi river) Barkana Falls Karnataka (Sita river) Unchalli Falls Karnataka (Aghanashini river) Gokak Falls Karnataka (Ghataprabha river) Gersoppa (Jog) Falls (Highest) Karnataka (Sharavathi river) Shivasamudram Falls Karnataka (Kaveri river) Palaruvi Falls Kerala Chechai Falls Madhya Pradesh (Bihan river) Rajat Prapat Falls Madhya Pradesh (Pachmarhi) Dhuandhar Falls Madhya Pradesh (Narmada river) Hune Falls Maharashtra Nokhalikai Falls Meghalaya Elephant Falls Meghalaya Barehipani Falls Odisha (Budhabalanga river) Khandadhar Falls Odisha (Kaprani stream) Castherine Falls Tamil Nadu Kutralam Falls Tamil Nadu (River Siruvani) Thalaiyar Falls Tamil Nadu (Near Kodaikanal) Birthi Falls Uttarakhand (Panchooli peak) Vasudhara Falls Uttarakhand (near Badrinath) Kapildhara Falls Madhya Pradesh (Narmada river)

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INLAND DRAINAGE • Some rivers of India are not able to reach the sea and constitute inland drainage. • Ghaggar (494 km) is the most important of such drainage. It is a seasonal stream which rises on the lower slopes of the Himalayas and gets lost in the dry sands of Rajasthan near Hanumangarh. It is considered the old Saraswati of the Vedic times. • Sabarmati (371 km): Rises from Aravallis in Rajasthan. • Mahi (583 km): Rises from Vindhyas in Madhya Pradesh. • Luni (450 km): Rises from Aravallis. Also called Salt River. It is finally lost in the marshy grounds at the head of the Rann of Kuchchh. • Sharavati is a west flowing river of the Sahyadris. It forms the famous Jog or Gersoppa or Mahatma Gandhi Falls (289 m), which is the highest waterfall in India.

Lakes • The largest man-made lake in India is Indira Sagar Lake (which is the reservoir or Sardar Sarovar Project), Omkareshwar Project and Maheshwar Project in Gujarat Madhya Pradesh. • Chilka Lake (Orissa) is the largest brackish water lake of India. It is also the largest lake of India. • Wular Lake (Jammu and Kashmir) is the largest fresh water lake of India. Dul lake is also there. • Sambhar and Didwana Lake (Rajasthan), from where salt is produced. • Other important lakes are Vembanad in Kerala and Kolleru and Pulicat in Andhra Pradesh.

Gulfs The three important Gulfs in the Indian territory are: • Gulf of Kuchchh (west of Gujarat): Region with highest potential of tidal energy generation. • Gulf of Cambay or Gulf of Khambat (Gujarat): Narmada, Tapti, Mahi and Sabarmati drain into it. • Gulf of Mannar (south east of Tamil Nadu): Asia’s first marine biosphere reserve. Important Towns of the River Bank

River Town

Indus Leh

Jhelum Srinagar

Gilgit Gilgit

Ravi Chamba

Beas Mandi

Sutlej Nainadevi, Ferozpur

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Ganga Haridwar, Kannauj, Kanpur, Allahabad, Varanasi, Buxar, Patna, Bhagalpur

Hugli Kolkata, Howrah

Yamuna Delhi, Mathura, Agra

Ganga & Yamuna Allahabad

Chambal Kota, Rawatbhata

Hindan Gaziabad

Alaknanda Badrinath

Ramganga Moradabad, Bareilly

Ghaghara Faizabad

Gomati Jaunpur, Lucknow

Rapti Shrawasti, Gorakhpur

Brahmaputra Dibrugarh, Majuli, Guwahati, Dhubri

Manas Manas

Saryu Ayodhya

Mahanadi Sambalpur, Cuttack

Sabarmati Gandhinagar, Ahmedabad

Narmada Jabalpur, Hoshangabad, Bharuch

Tapi (Tapti) Surat

Shipra Ujjain

Betwa Sanchi, Vidisha

Barakar TilaiyaMaithon

Godavari Nasik, Nanded

Gandak Hajipur

Hasdo Korba

Damodar Panchet, Sindri

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Subarnrekha Jamsedpur

Musi Hyderabad

Kaveri Mysore, Mettur, Erode, Tiruchirapalli, Tanjavur, Srirangapatnam

Vaigai Madurai, Ramanathapuram

Falgu Gaya

Dhaleshwari Aizawl

Tungbhadra Kurnool

Penner Nellore

Kirshna Vijayawada

Mandovi Panaji

Kalinadi Karwar

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GEOGRAPHY INDIA 5. CLIMATE

• The climate of India is described as the ‘Monsoon’ type. • In Asia, this type of climate is found mainly in the south and the southeast. Despite an overall unity in the general pattern, there are perceptible regional variations in climatic conditions within the country. • India has tropical monsoon type of climate. It is greatly influenced by the presence of the Himalayas in the north as they block the cold air masses from Central Asia. • The Tropic of Cancer divides India into two almost equal climatic zones, namely, the northern zone and the southern zone. • The warm temperate or the subtropical climate of the northern zone gives it cold winter seasons and the hot summer seasons. • The southern tropical climatic zone is warmer than the north and does not have a clear-cut winter season. • The northern zone does not have the midday sun vertically overhead during any part of the year; the southern zone has the midday sun almost vertically overhead at least twice every year. SEASONS IN INDIA • In India, the year can be divided into four seasons, resulting from the monsoons which occur mainly due to the differential heating of land and movement of the sun’s vertical rays.

March to May • The vertical rays of the sun advance towards Tropic of Cancer from mid-March, due to which hot and dry weather arrives. • As temperatures rise over the most of northern and Central India, a vast through of low pressure is created. • The highest temperature experienced in South is in April while in North it is in May and June. • This part of the year is marked by a dry spell and the north-western parts of the country experience hot, dry winds, called loo. In this period, the country also experience storms/dust storms and rainfall at various places. • Tornado like dust storms in Punjab and Haryana, called Andhis in Uttar Pradesh and Kalbaisakhis in West Bengal. They involve strong convectional movements causing some precipitation. • The Norwesters originate over the Chhotanagpur Plateau and blow in the north-east direction which brings about 50 cm of rainfall in Assam and about 10 cm rainfall in West Bengal and Odisha. This rainfall is very useful for Assam tea and spring rice crops of West Bengal.

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• Similarly, Cherry Blossoms are there in Karnataka, beneficial to coffee plantation and Mango Showers in South India, which are beneficial to mango crops.

June to September • This weather is followed by hot, wet weather from June to September. • In May, the south-west monsoon sets in. • The normal dates of onset of the monsoon are May 20 in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, June 3 in the Konkan, June 15 in Kolkata and June 29 in Delhi. • The south-west monsoon enters the country in two currents, one blowing over the Bay of Bengal and the other over the Arabian Sea. • This monsoon causes rainfall over most of the country (except Tamil Nadu and Thar Desert area). The South-Western monsoon entering from Western Ghats causes heavy rainfall over Kerala coast, but Tamil Nadu falls on the leeward side. • In the Thar area, the winds blow parallel to the Aravallis and do not cause rain. • The Bay of Bengal current causes heavy rainfall in the north-east parts of the country and a part of it turns west along the Himalayas over the Indo-Gangetic plains causing rainfall in this region. • But the Bay of Bengal current, by the time it reaches West Rajasthan, runs out of moisture. • The Bay of Bengal branch after crossing the deltaic region, enters the Khasi valley in Meghalaya and gets entrapped in it due to funnel shape of the region. • It strikes Cherrapunji in perpendicular direction causing heavy rainfall in Mawsynram 135

Mid-September to mid-December • From mid-September to mid-December, the monsoon retreats. • As the sun’s vertical rays start shifting towards the Tropic of Capricorn, the low-pressure area starts moving south and winds finally start blowing from land to sea. • This is called North-East monsoon. • The withdrawal of monsoon is a much more gradual process itson set. • It causes rainfall in Tamil Nadu as the winds pick some moisture from Bay of Bengal. • This explains the phenomenon why Tamil Nadu remains dry when the entire country receives rain and why it gets rain when practically the entire country is dry.

Mid December to February • The cold and dry weather starts in early December. • In this, the average temperature in south is 24o-25oC, and while in the north is 10o-15oC. • In the latter part of December and in January, the dry spell is broken by the westerly depressions (temperate cyclones) from Mediterranean Sea, which causes some rain in north-west India. • Almost all the precipitation in India is caused by the monsoons and it is primarily orographic in nature. • Cyclonic storms provide only a little rain, mainly in the north.

TRADITIONAL INDIAN SEASONS • In the Indian tradition, a year is divided into six two- monthly seasons. • This cycle of seasons, which the common people in north and central India follow is based on their practical experience and age-old perception of weather phenomena. • However, this system does not match with the seasons of south India where there is little variation in the seasons.

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Climatic Regions of India

Tropical Rain Forests • Found in the west coastal plains, the Western Ghats and parts of Assam. • Characterized by high temperatures throughout the year. • Rainfall, though seasonal, is heavy-about 200 cm annually during May-November.

Tropical Savanna Climate • In most of the peninsula region except the semi-arid zone in the leeward side of the Western Ghats. • It is characterized by long dry weather throughout winter and early summer and high temperature (above 18.2oC) annual rainfall varies from 76 cm in the west to 150 cm in the east.

Tropical Semi-Arid Steppe Climate: • It prevails in the rain-shadow belt running southward from Central Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu in the leeward side of the Western Ghats and the Cardamom Hills. • It is characterized by low rainfall which varies from 38 cm to 80 cm, high temperature between 20o and 3oC.

Tropical and Subtropical Steppes • Large areas in Punjab, Haryana and Kutch region. • Temperature varies from 12-35oC. • The maximum temperature reaches up to 49oC. • The annual rainfall, varying from 30.5-63.5 cm, is also highly erratic.

Tropical Desert • This climate extends over the western parts of Barmer, Jaisalmer and Bikaner districts of Rajasthan and parts of Kutch. • It is characterized by scanty rainfall (30.5 cm), which is highly erratic. • Rains are mostly in the form of cloud-burst. Mean monthly temperature is uniformly high (about 35oC).

Humid Subtropical Climate with Dry Winters • This area includes south of the Himalayas, east of the tropical savannah. • Winters are mild to severe while summers are extremely hot.

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• The annual rainfall varies from 63.5 cm to more than 254 cm, most of it received during the south- west monsoon season.

Mountain Climate: • Such type of climate is seen in mountainous regions which rise above 6,000 m or more such as the Himalayas and the Karakoram Range..

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GEOGRAPHY INDIA 6. SOIL VEGETATION

SOILS IN INDIA Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has divided Indian soils into eight major groups :

ALLUVIAL SOIL • Occupy the plains (from Punjab to Assam) and also occur in the valleys of Narmada and Tapti in Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat, Mahanadi in the Madhya Pradesh or Orissa, Godavari in Andhra Pradesh and Kaveri in Tamil Nadu. • They are the largest and the most important soil group of India. • They are composed of sediments deposited by rivers and the waves. • Their chemical composition makes them one of the most fertile in the world. usually deficient in nitrogen and humus (thus fertilizers are needed). • They can be divided into Khadar (new) and Bhangar (older, more clayey and kankery) alluvium.

BLACK SOIL

• Also called Regur and is ideal for cotton crop. • These soils have been formed due to solidification of lava spread over large areas during volcanic activity in the Deccan Plateau, thousands of years ago. • Mainly found in Deccan Plateau — Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. • They are black due to compounds of iron and aluminium (also because of titaniferous magnetite). • Lack in phosphorus, nitrogen and organic matter. They have high moisture retention level. • Apart from cotton cultivation, these fertile soils are suitable for growing cereals, oilseeds, citrus fruits and vegetables, tobacco and sugarcane.

RED SOIL

• Cover almost the whole of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, South East Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, parts of Orissa, Jharkhand and Bundelkhand. • They are mainly formed due to the decomposition of ancient crystalline rocks like granites and gneisses and from rock types rich in minerals such as iron and magnesium. The term red soil is due to the wide diffusion of iron oxides through the materials of the soil. Generally deficient in nitrogen, humus and phosphorus; but rich in potash.

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• Suitable for rice,, millets tobacco and vegetables (also groundnuts and potatoes at higher elevations).

LATERITE SOIL

• Found in parts of Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Rajmahal hills, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa, West Bengal, Assam, Tamil Nadu, etc. • Found in typical monsoon conditions–under conditions of high temperature and heavy rainfall with alternate wet and dry periods. The alterations of wet and dry season leads to the leaching away of siliceous matter and lime of the rocks and a soil rich in oxides of iron and aluminium compounds is left behind. Poor in nitrogen and minerals. • Best for tea, coffee, rubber, cinchona, coconut and suitable for rice and millet cultivation if manured.

FOREST AND MOUNTAIN SOILS

• In the Himalayan region, such soils are mainly found in valley basins, depressions and less steeply inclined slopes. Apart from the Himalayan region, the forest soils occur in higher hills in south and the peninsular region. • The formation of these soils is mainly governed by the characteristic deposition of organic matter derived from forest growth. • Very rich in humus but are deficient in potash, phosphorous and lime and needs fertilizers. Plantation of tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits.

ARID AND DESERT SOILS

• A Large part of the arid and semi-arid region in Rajasthan and adjoining areas of Punjab and Haryana lying between the Indus and the Aravallis receiving less than 50 cm of annual rainfall is affected by desert conditions. • This area is covered by a mantle of sand which inhibits soil growth. • The phosphate content of these soils is as high as in normal alluvial soils, Nitrogen is originally low but its deficiency is made up to some extent by the availability of nitrogen in the form of nitrates. Thus, the presence of phosphates and nitrates make them fertile soils wherever moisture is available. • The changes in the cropping pattern in the Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area are a living example of the utility of the desert soils.

SALINE AND ALKALINE SOILS

• In the drier parts of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Maharashtra, are the salt-impregnated or alkaline soils, known by different names: Reh, kallar, usar, etc. 140

• The accumulation of salts makes the soil infertile and renders it unfit for agriculture. Some of the salts are transported in solution by the rivers and canals, which percolates in the sub-soils of the plains.

PEATY AND MARSHY SOILS

• Originate in the humid regions as a result of accumulation of large amount of organic matter in the soil. They contain considerable amount of soluble salts and 10-40% of organic matter. • Peaty soils are found in Kottayam and Alappuzha districts of Kerala, where it is called Kari. • Marshy soils, high in vegetable matter, are found in northern Bihar, coastal parts of Orissa, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal and parts of UP. NATURAL VEGETATION IN INDIA

TROPICAL WET EVERGREEN FORESTS

• In areas over 200 cm rainfall. • Found in Western Ghats, hilly areas in North-East and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. • Trees are rosewood, shisham, ebony, ironwood, etc.

TROPICAL MOIST DECIDUOUS FORESTS

• In Areas having rainfall between 100-200 cm. • Found in the peninsular region and along the foothills of Himalayas in Shivaliks, Bhabhar and Tarai. • The trees of these forests drop their leaves for about 6-8 weeks during the spring and early summer when sufficient moisture isn’t available. • Trees are teak, sal, bamboo, sandalwood, rosewood, etc.

THORN FORESTS

• In areas having rainfall between 25 and 80 cm. • Found in arid regions of Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and Gujarat. • Trees are palm, acacia, etc.

HILL FORESTS

• Found in hills of South India and the Himalayas. • The type of trees depends upon the height of the mountain: (a) sal and bamboo below 1000 m; (b) oaks, chestnuts and other fruit trees, and chir forests between 1000 and 2000 m; (c) pine, deodar, silver fern and spruce between 1500 and 3500 m; (d) above 3600 m alpine forests with trees like silver firs, pines, birches, etc. Alpine forests give way to Alpine grasslands and scrubs as we move up further. 141

TIDAL OR MANGROVE FORESTS • Also known as Littoral or Swamp Forests. • Most important tree is Sundari. It provides hard and durable timber which is used for construction and building purposes as well as for making boats. • Currently Mangrove cover in India is 4975 sq km as per FSI report 2019. • Sundarbans in West Bengal accounts for almost half of the total area. • India State of Forest Report 2019 said that Mangroves have also increased in coastal areas. It has increased in Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Odisha. • The Great Sundarbans is the largest Mangroves region in the world and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Sundarbans region is densely covered by mangroves, its a National Park, Tiger Reserve and a Biosphere Reserve Park of India. STATE OF THE FOREST REPORT 2019

STATE OF THE FOREST REPORT 2019

• It is the 16th biennial assessment of India’s forests by Forest Survey of India, an organisation under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC). • FSI undertakes National Forest Inventory to assess the growing stock in forests and TOF (Tree Outside Forest), bamboo resource, carbon stock and to assess the dependence of the people living in Forest Fringe Villages for fuelwood, fodder, small timber and bamboo. • In the current ISFR, a new chapter ‘Forest Types and Biodiversity’ has been added which presents findings of the forest type mapping based on Champion & Seth classification (1968) and the results of the first ever rapid biodiversity assessment of plant species in the 16 Forest Type Groups. Key Findings

• The Total Forest and Tree cover is 24.56% of the geographical area of the country. • The Total Forest cover is 7,12,249 sq km which is 21.67% of the geographical area of the country. • The Tree cover is 2.89% of the geographical area of the country. • As compared to ISFR 2017 the current assessment shows an increase of o 0.65% of forest and tree cover put together, at the national level o 0.56% of forest cover o 1.29% of tree cover

• Change in Recorded forest Area/Green Wash (RFA/GW) as compared to previous assessment of 2017. o Forest cover within the RFA/GW: a slight decrease of 330 sq km (0.05%) o Forest cover outside the RFA/GW: there is an increase of 4,306 sq km.

• The top five States (UT) in terms of increase in forest cover: Karnataka>Andhra Pradesh>Kerala>Jammu & Kashmir>Himachal Pradesh. 142

• Forest cover in the hill districts is 40.30% of the total geographical area of these districts. An increase of 544 sq km (0.19%) in 140 hill districts of the country.

• The total forest cover in the tribal districts is 37.54% of the geographical area of these districts.

• Total forest cover in the North Eastern region is 65.05% of its geographical area. The current assessment shows a decrease of forest cover to the extent of 765 sq km (0.45%) in the region. Except Assam and Tripura, all the States in the region show decrease in forest cover.

• Mangrove cover in the country has increased by 1.10% as compared to the previous assessment.

• Wetlands cover 3.83% of the area within the RFA/GW of the country. Amongst the States, Gujarat has the largest area of wetlands within RFA in the country followed by West Bengal.

• Dependence of fuelwood on forests is highest in the State of Maharashtra, whereas, for fodder, small timber and bamboo, dependence is highest in Madhya Pradesh.

• It has been assessed that the annual removal of the small timber by the people living in forest fringe villages is nearly 7% of the average annual yield of forests in the country. Forest Cover • The forest canopy area covered on the ground irrespective of the legal status of land. It includes all tree patches which have canopy density more than 10% and area of 1 ha or more in size. Canopy Density • It is defined as the proportion of an area in the field/ground, that is covered by the crown of trees. Recorded Forest Area (RFA): • Forest Area (or recorded forest area) refers to all the geographic areas recorded as forest in government records.

• Recorded forest areas comprises Reserved Forests (RF) and Protected Forests (PF), which have been constituted under the provisions of Indian Forest Act, 1927.

• Besides RFs and PFs, the recorded forest area may include all such areas, which have been recorded as forests under any State Act or local laws or any revenue records. TOF (Trees Outside Forest) • Trees found outside the recorded forest areas. TOF refers to all trees growing outside RFA irrespective of patch size which could also be larger than 1 ha. Tree cover • All patches of trees occurring outside RFA which are of size less than 1 ha including the scattered trees. Tree cover forms an important part of the trees outside forests (TOF). Therefore, tree cover can be considered as a subset of TOF.

• According to the Global Forest Resource Assessment (FRA) done by Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) once every five years, India has 2% of the Global forest area, standing at 10th position

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among the top ten countries in respect of forest area. Russia Federation tops the list with 20% of the global forest cover.

Madhya Pradesh: • Madhya Pradesh is a forest rich State and is ranked first among the States in terms of the RFA.

• Major rivers: Narmada, Tapti, Son, Betwa, Shipra and Chambal.

• Madhya Pradesh State Minor Forest Produce (Trading & Development) Co-operative Federation, formed in 1984, collects, processes and markets Tendu leaves, Sal Seed, Kullu Gum and other NTFPs

• The State with a population of 526 Tigers, is recognized as Tiger State of India, as per the 'All India Tiger Estimation 2018'.

• Total Forest cover: 25.14%

NATIONAL PARKS AND WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES

• At present, there are 104 existing National Parks in India covering an area of 40501.13 km2, which is 1.23% of the geographical area of the country . • There are 551 existing Wildlife Sanctuaries in India covering an area of 119775.80 km2, which is 3.64 % of the geographical area of the country • Madhya Pradesh has 11 National Parks (Maximum) and Andaman and Nicobar Islands has 9 National Parks • Andaman and Nicobar Islands has 96 Wildlife Sanctuaries (Maximum) and Maharashtra State has 46 Wildlife Sanctuaries.

Important National Parks & Wildlife Sanctuaries

S.No. NATIONAL PARK LOCATION

1 Anshi National Park 2 Bandipur National Park Karnataka 3 Banner ghatta National Park 4 Kudremukh National Park 5 Balphakram National Park Meghalaya 6 Bandhavgarh National Park

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7 Mandla Plant Fossils National Park Madhya 8 Madhav National Park Pradesh 9 Kanha National Park

10 Betla National Park Jharkhand 11 Hazaribagh National Park 12 Bhitarkanika National Park Odisha 13 Blackbuck National Park (Velavadar) 14 Gir Forest National Park Gujarat 15 Marine National Park, Gulf of Kutch 16 Buxa Tiger Reserve 17 Gorumara National Park West Bengal 18 Jaldapara National Park

19 Campbell Bay National Park Andaman and Nicobar 20 Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park Islands 21 Galathea National Park 22 Chandoli National Park Maharashtra 23 Gugamal National Park 24 Dachigam National Park Jammu and Kashmir 25 Kishtwar National Park

26 Hemis National Park Ladakh

27 Darrah National Park

28 Desert National Park Rajasthan

29 Keoladeo National Park

30 Dibru–Saikhowa National Park

31 Kaziranga National Park Assam

32 Manas National Park 33 Dudhwa National Park Uttar Pradesh

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34 Eravikulam National Park Kerala 35 Mathikettan Shola National Park

36 Gangotri National Park

37 Govind Pashu Vihar Wildlife Sanctuary Uttarakhand

38 Jim Corbett National Park 39 Great Himalayan National Park Himachal Pradesh

40 Guindy National Park

41 Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park Tamil Nadu

42 Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park

43 Harike Wetland Punjab 44 Indravati National Park Chhattisgarh 45 Kanger Ghati National Park 46 Kalesar National Park Haryana

47 Kasu Brahmananda Reddy National Park Telangana 48 Mahavir Harina Vanasthali National Park

49 Keibul Lamjao National Park Manipur

50 Khangchendzonga National Park Sikkim

National Parks in MP-11 (PT-Project Tiger)

NAME, YEAR OF NOTIFICATION DISTRICT

1. Kanha Kisli 1955 (PT) Mandla

2. Madhav 1958 Shivpuri

3. Bandhavgarh 1968 (PT) Umaria

4. Pench (Indira Priya- darshini Park) 1975 (PT) Seoni

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5. Van Vihar 1979 Bhopal

6. Sanjay 1981 (PT) Sidhi

7. Panna 1981 (PT) Panna - Chhattarpur

8. Fossil NP 1983 (Wood Fossil) Dindori

9. Satpura 1983 (PT) Hoshangabad

10. Omkareshwar 2004 Khandwa

11. Bagh Fossil Park 2010 Dhar

BIOSPHERE RESERVES IN INDIA

• The biosphere reserve progarmme was launched by the UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) in 1971 under the aegis of its Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme to provide a global network of protected areas for conserving natural communities.

• In India, there are 18 biosphere reserves have been set up in the country.

RESERVE STATE

1. Nilgiri Tamil Nadu 2. Nanda Devi Uttarakhand 3. Nokrek Meghalaya 4. Manas Assam 5. Sunderbans West Bengal 6. Gulf of Mannar Tamil Nadu 7. Great Nicobar Andaman and Nicobar 8. Simlipal Odisha 9. Dibru-Saikhowa Assam 10. Dehang Debanng Arunachal Pradesh 11. Pachmarhi Madhya Pradesh 12. Kanchanjunga Sikkim 13. Agastyamalai Kerala

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14. Achanakmar-Amarkantak Madhya Pradesh 15. Kachchh Gujarat 16. Cold Desert Himachal Pradesh 17. Seshachalam Andhra Pradesh 18. Panna Madhya Pradesh

There are total 11 biosphere reserves of India which have been recognized internationally under Man and Biosphere Reserve program:

a. Nilgiri (First to be included) b. Gulf of Mannar c. Sunderban d. Nanda Devi e. Nokrek f. Pachmarhi g. Similipal h. Achanakmar - Amarkantak i. Great Nicobar j. Agasthyamala k. Khangchendzonga (Added under Man and Biosphere Reserve Program in 2018)

PROJECT TIGER

• It was launched on April 1, 1973 to ensure maintenance of viable population of the tigers in India. • Nagarjuna sagar Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh is the largest, while Amangarh in Uttar Pradesh is the smallest. Bandipur in Karnataka was the first (1973-74). • There are 50 tiger reserves in the country. • According to results of the Tiger Census 2018, the total count of tigers has risen to 2,967 from 2,226 in 2014 — an increase of 741 individuals (aged more than one year), or 33%, in four years. • India has achieved the target of doubling the tiger count four years ahead of the deadline of 2022.

Top Performers • Madhya Pradesh saw the highest number of tigers (526) followed by Karnataka (524) and Uttarakhand (442).

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• Increase in Tiger population: Madhya Pradesh (71%) > Maharashtra (64%) > Karnataka (29%).

Tigers in India • India accounts for majority of the 3,500-odd tigers that are scattered among Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Laos PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Russian Federation, Thailand and Vietnam. • India’s five tiger landscapes are: Shivalik Hills and Gangetic Plains, Central Indian Landscape and Eastern Ghats, Western Ghats, North-East Hills and Brahmaputra Plains, and the Sundarbans.

S.No. Name of Tiger Reserve State Total area(In Sq.Kms.) 1 Nagarjunsagar Srisailam Andhra Pradesh 3296.31 2 Namdapha Arunachal Pradesh 2052.82 3 Kamlang Tiger Reserve Arunachal Pradesh 783 4 Pakke Arunachal Pradesh 1198.45 5 Manas Assam 3150.92 6 Nameri Assam 344 7 Orang Tiger Reserve Assam 492.46 8 Kaziranga Assam 1173.58 9 Valmiki Bihar 899.38 10 Udanti-Sitanadi Chattisgarh 1842.54 11 Achanakmar Chattisgarh 914.01 12 Indravati Chhattisgarh 2799.07 13 Palamau Jharkhand 1129.93 14 Bandipur Karnataka 1456.3 15 Bhadra Karnataka 1064.29 16 Dandeli-Anshi Karnataka 1097.51 17 Nagarahole Karnataka 1205.76 18 Biligiri Ranganatha Temple Karnataka 574.82 19 Periyar Kerala 925 20 Parambikulam Kerala 643.662 21 Kanha Madhya Pradesh 2051.791 22 Pench Madhya Pradesh 1179.63 23 Bandhavgarh Madhya Pradesh 1598.1 24 Panna Madhya Pradesh 1578.55 25 Satpura Madhya Pradesh 2133.30 26 Sanjay-Dubri Madhya Pradesh 1674.502 27 Melghat Maharashtra 2768.52

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28 Tadoba-Andhari Maharashtra 1727.59 29 Pench Maharashtra 741.22 30 Sahyadri Maharashtra 1165.57 31 Nawegaon-Nagzira Maharashtra 653.67 32 Bor Maharashtra 138.12 33 Dampa Mizoram 988 34 Similipal Odisha 2750 35 Satkosia Odisha 963.87 36 Ranthambore Rajasthan 1411.29 37 Sariska Rajasthan 1213.34 38 Mukandra Hills Rajasthan 759.99 39 Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tamil Nadu 1601.54 40 Anamalai Tamil Nadu 1479.87 41 Mudumalai Tamil Nadu 688.59 42 Sathyamangalam Tamil Nadu 1408.4 43 Kawal Telangana 2019.12 44 Amrabad Telangana 2611.39* 45 Dudhwa Uttar Pradesh 2201.77 46 Pilibhit Uttar Pradesh 730.24 47 Amangarh (buffer of Corbett TR) Uttar Pradesh 80.6 Corbett Uttarakhand 1288.31 48 Rajaji TR Uttarakhand 1075.17 49 Sunderbans West Bengal 2584.89 50 Buxa West Bengal 757.90 List of Wildlife Conservation Projects

Project Hangul 1970 Project Gir 1972 Project Tiger 1973 Project Crocodile 1975 Project Olive Ridley Turtles 1975 Project Manipur Thamin 1977 Project Rhino 1987 Project Elephant 1992 Project Red Panda 1996 Project Vulture 2006 Project Snow Leopard 2009

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MPPSCADDA

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Human Geography

Human Geography • Human geography is a very important branch of geography which studies the distribution of human race on the earth and activities of mankind. • Geography is divided into two broad branches, viz 1. Systematic geography 2. Regional geography • Human geography is a branch of systematic geography.

World Population Distribution, Density and Growth

Population Distribution • It refers to the way the people are spaced of the earth's surface. • The world's population had crossed 7 billion on October 31, 2011. • Ten most populous countries : Nearly 60 per cent of the world's population. • Three most populous countries: China, India and the U.S.A. account for 40% of world population.

Population Density • Population density is an important measure to analyze population distribution.

Total Population Density of Population = TotalArea

• It is a simple man-land ratio and is defined as number of persons living on a unit area of land. • It is expressed in the following form: 12102 Density of Population in India (2011) = = 382 persons per sq. km 31.7 WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION DENSITY • Around 90% of the world's population is concentrated in 10% of its land area and the remaining 10% population is scattered over 90% of the area.

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Areas of High Density • Areas having a population density of over 100 persons per square kilometre are known as areas of high density.

(a) Monsoon Asia or East Asia and South and South East Asia (b) Europe (c) Eastern Coastal Region of North America Areas of Low Density • Areas having a population density of 1 to 2 persons per square kilometre are known as areas of low density.

Hot Deserts • Sahara, Kalahari, Atacama, West Australia, Arab, Thar etc. are hot deserts having very little rainfall. There is acute shortage of water and hence low density of population.

Extremely Cold Areas • These are Polar Regions which include northern part of Canada, Greenland, northern part of Siberia and the vast Antarctic continent surrounding the South Pole. Low temperature limits the growing season to a very short duration and most of the areas remain ice covered for most of the year.

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Therefore, these areas support low density of population. Antarctic continent is totally uninhabited.

Cold Deserts • These include dry areas of Central Asia. They are located in rain shadow zone away from sea and receive very little rainfall. Gobi desert is one of such area.

Equatorial Region • Amazon basin of South America and Zaire basin of Africa are the main areas of equatorial region. These areas experience both high heat and high humidity which is harmful to human health. Diseases like malaria, jaundice, dysentery etc. are very common. This also leads to very dense growth of forests which leaves very little scope for human settlements.

Areas of Medium Density • Between the areas of very low and very high population density, there are areas of medium population density. • Some of the areas of medium density are described below: 1. Asia • South India, Western part of China, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and plains of Tigris-Euphrates. 2. Europe • Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and adjoining parts of Russia. 3. United States of America and Australia • The central and western parts of these countries have medium density of population. 4. Africa, South America and Australia • Several areas of three southern continents have medium population density. These include north- east Brazil, Venezuela, and Central Chile, Mediterranean coastal part of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Nigeria and South Africa. Coastal areas and Murray-Darling basin of Australia also have medium density of population.

FACTORS INFLUENCING POPULATION DISTRIBUTION The factors which influence the population distribution in the world are classified as physical, cultural, economic and political factors. A brief description of each class of factors is given below: 156

Physical factors Two main physical factors which play a dominant role in the distribution and density of population are relief and climate. Besides soil, vegetation and availability of minerals influence the concentration of population. 1. Relief 2. Climate 3. Soil

Cultural Factors • Cultural factors have their own significant role to play in influencing the distribution of population.

Economic Factors Two major forces known as push factors and pull factors. • Push factors: Push factors are those which push the population to other areas due to unfavourable geographical factors. Some of the important push factors are difficult economic conditions, unemployment, religions, ethnic or political intolerance, conflicts, wars, etc.

• Pull factors: Pull factors, on the other hand are those which pull the population to a particular place from the other places. The major pull factors are improved economic conditions, employ-ment opportunities, religious and ethnic tolerance and political stability. • The combined effect of pull and push factors is evident from the settlement patterns that have emerged in different parts of the present day world.

Political Factors • Today, political factors influence the concentration and growth of population more than ever before.

POPULATION GROWTH • Population growth is the change in the number of inhabitants of a territory during a specific period of time.

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• Positive Growth of Population If the population of a given area increases in a specific period of time, it is called positive change.This happens when the birth rate is more than the death rate between two points of time or when people from other countries migrate permanently to a region. • Negative Growth of Population: If, on the other hand, population decreases, the area is said to have negative change. .It occurs when the birth rate falls below the death rate or people migrate to other countries.At present, in most parts of the world, especially the developing countries of the world, the population change is almost invariably positive.

Population Change • Population change is often calculated for a period of ten years which is normally the time gap between two successive Census.

• It is the natural rate of growth of population which is used for population studies. • As a general rule only births and deaths are taken into account while calculating the natural growth rate. But actual growth rate is different from the natural growth rate. • While calculating the actual growth rate, a factor of migration is also taken into account.

Growth Rate of Population This is the change of population expressed in percentage.

Natural Growth of Population This is thepopulation increased by difference between birthsand deaths in a particular region between twopoints of time.

Natural Growth of Population = Births — Deaths

Actual Growth: This is Births — Deaths + InMigration — Out Migration.

Components of Population Change Three components of population change are recognised all over the world. These are 1. Fertility (Births), 2. Mortality (Deaths) 3. Migration.

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1. Fertility or Birth Rate • Fertility refers to the occurrence of birth. Various measures of fertility have been coined. But crude birth rate (CBR) is the simplest and the most widely used measure of fertility. • It is expressed in terms of number of births in a year per thousand of the mid-year population. It may be pointed out that only live births during a year are to be taken into account. It is calculated as under:

B CBR = X 100 P where o CBR = Crude Birth Rate o B = Live births during a year o P = Estimated mid-year population

2. Mortality or Death Rate • According to United Nations (1953), mortality is defined as permanent disappearance of all evidences of life at any time after birth has taken place. • Like fertility, mortality is the basic component of population change. • Various indices have been used for measuring incidence of mortality. However crude death rate is the simplest and most widely used measure of mortality. • It indicates the number of deaths in a particular year per thousand of population and is expressed as under :

D CDR = X 100 P Where, o CDR = Crude Death Rate o D = Number of deaths in a year o P = Estimated mid-year population for the year

• The annual rate of natural increase or decrease of population is determined by the difference in number of births and deaths during a year. If births exceed deaths, there will be increase in population. On the contrary, the population decreases if deaths exceed births.

3. Migration

• Migration is the third major determinant of population change. It involves the movement of population from one place to another. • When people leave a place and migrate to some other place, it is called out-migration. • When people come from other places, and settle down at a particular place, it is called in-migration.

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• On the basis of source of origin and destination of migrant population. a) rural to rural b) rural to urban c) urban to urban d) urban to rural • On a time scale, migration may be temporary or permanent. • Temporary migration may take place in the form of seasonal migration. Agricultural labourers move to their place of work in the fields during labour intensive agricultural seasons. • This type of migration also includes periodic migration of workers going away from their permanent homes for some years, during which they send home remittances.

DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION THEORY o The Demographic Transition Theory is based upon the trends in fertility (birth-rate), mortality (death-rate) and the consequent natural increase in population. o In its original form, it was given by W.S. Thompson in 1929 and revised by Frank W. Notestein in 1945. o This theory postulates a particular pattern of demographic change from high birth and death rate to low birth and death rate when people progress from a largely rural, agrarian and illiterate society to a dominantly urban, industrial and literate society. o This theory is characterised by conspicuous stages which are collectively known as demographic cycle.

1. First Stage. The first stage is marked by high fertility and high mortality because people produce more children to compensate for the deaths due to epidemics and variable food supply-. The population growth is slow and most of the people are engaged in agriculture where large families are an asset. Life expectancy is low, people are mostly illiterate and have low levels of technology. Two hundred years ago all the countries of the world were in this stage. 2. Second Stage. In the beginning of the second stage, fertility remains high but it declines with the passage of time. Mortality rate also declines as the time passes. Mortality rate declines due to

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inprovements in sanitation and health conditions. There is a wide gap between fertility rate and mortality rate as a result of which net addition of population is high. 3. Third Stage. This is the last stage in which both fertility and mortality decline considerably. The population is either stable or grows slowly. The population becomes urbanised, literate and has high technical knowledge and deliberately controls the family size. 4. This shows that human beings are extremely flexible and are able to adjust their fertility.

DEMOGRAPHIC STRUCTURE

Introduction and Definition • Population composition is also known as the demographic structure.

• Components of population composition, age, sex, literacy, place of residence (rural or urban) and occupation are helpful in setting future agenda for development.

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SEX COMPOSITION • Sex composition is studied with the help of an index called Sex Ratio which reflects the balance between males and females.

Sex Ratio

• In some countries it is calculated by the number of males per thousand females. • In India, sex ratio is measured in terms of females per thousand males and is worked out using the formula:

(Female Population/Male Population) x 1000

• Sex-ratio in India according to 2011 census is 940, it implies that there are 940 females per 1000 males in India.

AGE STRUCTURE • Age structure is an important component of demographic structure.

• It refers to the number of people belonging to different age groups. • Generally, the population is categorised into three broad age groups: 1. Children (0-14) 2. Adults (15-59) 3. Aged (60 years and above) • Although there are no standardized break points, yet the breaks at 15 and 60 years are the most commonly used • The social, economic and political implications of these age groups are: 1. A large proportion of children in the age group of 0-14 years indicates high dependency ratio. 2. If, on the other hand, the number of people in the age group of 15-59 is high then the working population is more. 3. Increasing proportion of population in the age group of 60 years and more means a greater expenditure on the care and well being of the elderly people. 4. Countries having low life expectancy have less people in the old age-group. 5. Countries having low birth rate and high life expectancy have less people in lower age- group but more people in old age-group.

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• Most of the advanced countries of Europe, the USA, Canada and Japan have large proportion of elderly people because of low birth rate and high longevity. • Most countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America have high birth rate and they have large size of population in the lower-age group.

AGE-SEX PYRAMID • It is a specially designed diagram to study the age and sex composition of population. This is the most effective diagram to show age and sex structure of population.

• This diagram resembles the shape of a pyramid and is termed as pyramid diagram.

• The bars are arranged in the form of a pyramid having longer bars at the base and shorter bars at the apex.

• The bars show different age groups, males on the left and females on the right.

• The base and the apex represent the youngest and the oldest age groups respectively.

• The age groups are arranged in ascending order in a vertical column. • People belonging to each age group both males and females are shown by horizontal bars placed at equal intervals. • Age groups of 5 or 10 years are normally used to draw this diagram. • The shape of the pyramid throws light on the history and characteristics of the population.

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Expanding Population • Expanding populations are shown by an age-sex pyramid which is more or less triangular in shape having broad base and narrow apex. • The broad base shows larger proportion of population in lower age group which is an indication of high birth rate and also high death rate in old age group.

• This is a typical pyramid of a less developed country like Nigeria in Africa. • The age-sex pyramids of other less developed countries like Bangladesh and Mexico would look the same.

Constant Population

• A bell shaped pyramid which is tapered towards the top shows that the birth rate is almost equal to death rate which leads to a near constant population. • Figure shows the age-sex pyramid of Australia where the percentage of males and females is almost the same and remains constant in younger age group. Therefore, the population of Australia is almost constant.

Declining Population

• A pyramid having a narrow base and tapered top with bulging in the middle shows low birth and death rates. • This type of pyramid depicts declining population.

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• It is an indication of developed countries. Figure 3.3 shows age-sex pyramid of Japan. In countries having this type of pyramid, there is zero or negative growth of population.

Ageing Population • Ageing of population is the process by which the share of elder population increases and that of younger population decreases. • As the birth rate comes down, the proportion of children in the population declines.

RURAL-URBAN COMPOSITION • The population of any country is divided into urban and rural depending upon the place of residence. The population in towns and cities is called urban population whereas that living in villages is known as rural population. • Division of population in rural and urban categories is necessary because the occupational structure, density of population, and level of social and economic growth vary between the two groups.

• Rural: People living in villages are mainly engaged in primary activities such as agriculture, fishing, hunting, gathering, lumbering, mining etc. and are categorised as `rural'. • Urban: People of towns and cities are engaged in secondary and tertiary activities such as industry, trade, transport, services etc. and are called 'urban'. There has been a rapid growth of urban population as a result of natural growth as well as due to migration of people from the rural areas.

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LITERACY • Literacy rate is the number of literate persons for each hundred people and is expressed in percentages of people age-group 15 AND ABOVE. • Major factors affecting this rate are levels of economic development, urbanization and standard of living, social status of females, availability of educational facilities and the policies of the government. Level of economic development is both a cause and a consequence of literacy.

OCCUPATION • Occupation is specifically concerned with the economically active population. It is the part of the population which is engaged in gainful employment. • Children below working age, old people, retired persons, housewives and students, who are not engaged in economic pursuits for their livelihood are excluded from the 'active' population. • Men and women in the age group of 15 to 59 years are considered as working population. • The proportional distribution of this active population under specific economic activities is known as occupational structure. • The United Nations has identified the following categories of occupations: agriculture, forestry, hunting and fishing; mining and quarrying; manufacturing industry; construction; electricity, gas, water and health services; commerce; transport, storage and communication services; unclassified occupations.

A simple classification reducing the above-mentioned categories to only four is given as follows:

1. Primary activities including agriculture, forestry, hunting and fishing. 2. Secondary activities which are mainly concerned with manufacturing and power generation. 3. Tertiary activities which are concerned with transport, communication and other services. 4. Quaternary activities include more intellectual occupations, whose task is to think, research and develop ideas. • There are large variations in the proportion of population engaged in these activities from one country to the other. These variations primarily depend upon the stage of economic growth which the concerned country has achieved. o In a less developed economy, the proportion of working population in primary activities is very high.

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o As the economy develops, the proportion of working population engaged in secondary and then in tertiary activities increases gradually. o In highly industrialized countries, the proportion of people employed in tertiary sector is more than 40-45 per cent. In the USA, it is more than 70 per cent. o Quaternary sector employs a small percentage of the working force which is characterised by the highest in-come and high degree of mobility.

4. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Growth and Development • Growth is quantitative and value natural which may have a positive or a negative sign. This means that the change may be either positive (increase) or negative (decrease).

• Development on the other hand is qualitative change which is always value positive. This means that development cannot take place unless there is an increment or addition to the existing conditions.

• Development occurs when positive growth takes place. Yet, positive growth does not always lead to development.

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• Development occurs when there is a positive change in quality.

Growth vs Development If the population of a city grows from five lakhs to ten lakhs over a period of time, we say the city has grown. But if the basic facilities of life such as housing, water, power, transport, severage etc. remain the same or do not grow in proportion to population growth, then the growth has not been accompanied by development. Human Development Index • The ideas such as the quality of life of the people, the opportunities they have and the freedom they enjoy are important aspects of developmentwere clearly spelt out for the first time in the late 1980s and early 1990s by two great economists Dr. Mahbub-ul-Haq of Pakistan and the Nobel Laureate Dr. Amartya Sen of India.

• Dr. Mahbub-ul-Haq created the Human Development Index (HDI) in 1990. According to him, o People are central to all development. o Development is all about enlarging people's choices in order to lead long, healthy lives with dignity. o The choices of the people are not fixed but keep on changing. o The chief objective of development is to create conditions in which people can live meaningful lives. o A meaningful life is not just a long one. It must be a life with some purpose. This means that people must be healthy, be able to develop their talents, participate in society and be free to achieve their goals. • Dr. Amartya Sen expressed the opinion that an increase in freedom (or decrease in unfreedom) is the main objective of development. Increasing freedom is one of the most effective ways of bringing about development. He laid much emphasis on the role of social and political institutions and processes of increasing freedom. • Following three are the most important aspects of human development: a. Leading long and healthy life b. Attaining ability to gain knowledge. c. Having enough means to be able to live a decent life.

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THE FOUR PILLARS OF HUMAN .DEVELOPMENT The idea of human development is supported by the concepts of equity, sustainability, productivity and empowerment.

1. Equity. Equity means making equal access to opportunities available to everybody. The opportunities available to people must be equal irrespective of their gender, race, income and in the Indian case, caste. Yet this is very often not the case and happens in almost every society. Normally, the poor and persons belonging to socially and economically backward groups fail to have access to equity. 2. Sustainability. Sustainability refers to continuity in the availability of opportu-nities. This means that each generation must have the same opportunities. Therefore, we must use our environmental, financial and human resources in such a way that our future generations are not deprived of these opportunities. 3. Productivity. Productivity means human labour productivity or productivity in terms of human work. It must be enriched by building capabilities in people. In fact, people of a country are its real wealth. As such sincere effort should be made to increase their knowledge and provide better facilities of health and education so that they can attain better work efficiency. 4. Empowerment. It refers to have power to make choices. Such power comes from increasing freedom and capability. Good governance and people-oriented policies are required to empower people. The empowerment of socially and economically disadvantaged groups is of special importance.

APPROACHES TO HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Four important approaches to human development are:

1. The income approach 2. The welfare approach 3. Minimum needs approach 4. Capabilities approach

Approaches to Human Development

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1. Income This is one of the oldest approaches to human development. Human Approach development is seen as being linked to income. The idea is that the level of

income reflects the level of freedom an individual enjoys. Higher the level of income, the higher is the level of human development

2. Welfare This approach looks at human beings as beneficiaries or targets of all Approach development activities. The approach argues for higher government expenditure on education, health, social secondary and amenities. People are not participants in development but only passive recipients. The government is responsible for increasing levels of human development by maximising expenditure on welfare.

3. Basic Needs This approach was initially proposed by the International Labour Organisation Approach (ILO). Six basic needs i.e., health, education, food, water supply, sanitation and housing were identified. The question of human choices is ignored and the emphasis is on the provision of basic needs of defined sections.

4. Capability This approach is associated with Prof. Amartya Sen. Building human capabilities Approach in the areas of health, education and access to resources is the key to increasing human development.

MEASURING HUMAN DEVELOPMENT • Human Development is measured in terms of Human Development Index (HDI). It measures average achievements in basic human development in one simple composite index and produces a ranking of countries on the basis of their performance in key areas of health, education and access to resources.

• These rankings are based on a score between 0 & 1 that a country earns from its record in key areas of health, education and access to resources.

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1. Health (life expectancy at birth) -. The indicator chosen to assess health is life expectancy at birth. It means that people have a better choice to lead longer and healthier life. Higher the life expectancy at birth,higher is the human development index. 2. Education (adult literacy rate and gross enrolment ratio) Education here involves adult literacy rate and gross enrolment ratio. It means that a country should have larger number of adults who are able to read and write and larger number of children enrolled in schools to be placed higher in human development index. 3. Access to resources (purchasing power) Access to resources is measured in terms of purchasing power (in U.S. dollars). • To construct the Index, fixed minimum and maximum values have been established for each of the indicators:

• Life expectancy at birth. 25 years and 85 years;

• General literacy rate. 0 per cent and 100 per cent.

• Real GDP per capita PPP$ 100 and PPP$ 40,000.

• Each of these dimensions is given a weightage of 1/3. The human development index is a sum total of the weights assigned to all these dimensions.

• The closer a score is to one, the greater is the level of human development. Therefore, a score of 0.983 would be considered very high while 0.268 would mean a very low level of human development.

Human Development Report • The Human Development Report was first published in 1990 by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Since then it is published every year. • This report gives an interesting rank wise list of the member countries according to the level of human development. • The Human Development index and the Human Poverty index are two important indices to measure human development used by the UNDP.

Unique country— Bhutan

• Bhutan is the only country in the world to officially proclaim the Gross National Happiness (GNH) as the measure of the country's progress.

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• Care is taken to see that material progress and technological developments do not cause any harm to the environment or the other aspects of cultural and spiritual life of the Bhutanese. • It implies that material progress cannot be achieved at the cost of happiness. GNH encourages us to think of the spiritual, non material and qualitative aspects of development.

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5. ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES Introduction • Human activities which generate income are known as economic activities. Following are the main activities: o Primary o Secondary o Tertiary o Quaternary

Primary Activities • Primary activities are those activities through which man fulfils his needs and desires by using resources which are gifted to man by nature. • These activities are directly connected with nature. • Gathering, hunting and lumbering in forested areas; animal herding and cattle rearing in the grasslands; fishing in water bodies, obtaining milk, meat and hides and skins from animals, growing agricultural crops in fertile lands; and obtaining minerals from the mines are some of the outstanding examples of primary activities. • Primary activities are carried on in almost all parts of the world but such activities have special significance in Asia, Africa, South America and the north Polar Regions. • Most of the primary activities are simple and conventional and reflect primitive economic and social structure.

Secondary Activities • The occupations which produce finished goods by using the products of primary activities as raw materials are included in secondary activity. • Manufacturing of cloth from cotton, sugar from sugarcane and steel from iron ore are important examples of secondary activity. • Thus, all manufacturing industries are included in secondary activities.

Tertiary Activities • Tertiary activities consist of all service occupations. • Such activities are also called 'service activities'. • Transport, communications, trade, health, education, administration etc. are important examples of tertiary activities. • People engaged in tertiary activities do not produce anything directly but provide services to the society by dint of their efficiency and technolosgical advancement.

Quaternary Activities • Research, teaching, leadership, administration etc. are to be treated as quaternary activities.

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• Thus, the occupations of scientists, doctors, lawyers, teachers, leaders, administrators, policemen, writers, artists, musicians etc. are included in quaternary activities.

6. PRIMARY ACTIVITES HUNTING AND GATHERING

• Hunting and gathering are some of the most primitive activities of man. Early man lived in forests and sustained his life by hunting animals. He has also been gathering various products from the forests to satisfy his needs in early days. Thus, early men sustained on (i) animals which they hunted and; (ii) edible plants which they gathered from the forests.

Hunting • Primitive societies used to obtain food by hunting wild animals. It is still practised in some of the very cold areas and extremely hot areas. • Some people living in coastal areas still live by catching fish although fishing has become a modern and commercial occupation due to technological achievements. • Primitive tools made of stones, twigs or arrows were used for hunting and only limited number of animals were killed. • At present, however, there is large scale illegal hunting of animals as a result of which many animals have become endangered or extinct. • That is why hunting has been banned in several countries including India.

Gathering • Gathering involves extraction of plants and animal products which are capable of satisfying man's basic needs of food, clothing and shelter. • It is practised by primitive communities who live in forests. This activity requires small capital investment and operates at very low level of technology. • The yield per person is very low and there is hardly any surplus production. • Following are two major areas of gathering:

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o High latitude zones which include northern Canada, northern Eurasia and southern Chile. o Low latitude zones which include Amazon Basin in South America, Zaire Basin in Central Africa, Northern fringe of Australia and the interior parts of Southeast Asia Pastoralism • Man learnt domesticating animals after he learnt gathering, collecting and hunting. • He started grazing and rearing different types of animals such as cattle, sheep, goats etc. in an organised manner to obtain milk, meat, wool, skins and hides etc. • Livestock herding and rearing have become important economic activities of grasslands. Different types of animals are grazed in different areas. • For example cattle rearing are more important in areas of comparatively higher rainfall. Low rainfall areas with short grasses are more suitable for sheep. • Still drier areas are devoted to goats and camels. Reindeer is the chief animal of the Tundra region while ilama and yak are found in the high altitudes of the Andes and the Himalayas respectively. • The animal rearing can be primitive which is carried on by nomads or highly scientific on a commercial scale. Consequently, animal grazing and rearing can be divided into two broad categories: 1. Nomadic Herding 2. Commercial Livestock Rearing

1. Nomadic Herding or Pastoral Nomadism • Pastoral nomadism is characterised by subsistence type of economy in which animals are grazed to meet the basic necessities of life such as food, clothing and shelter in the form of milk, meat, skin etc. People engaged in pastoral nomadism do not lead a settled life but keep on moving from place to place and are called nomads. Each nomadic community occupies a well-defined territory. • Cattle are reared in grasslands receiving more rain and having soft and long grasses. Sheep are reared in low rainfall areas with short grasses. Goats are common in the rugged terrain with scanty

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grasses. There are six widely distributed species reared by pastoral nomads: sheep, goats, camels, cattle, horses and donkeys. • The main characteristic of nomadic herding is total dependence of animals on natural grass. Nomads are constantly on the move from one place to another in search of two vital necessities, fodder and water. In certain areas, the nomads migrate according to season. • The seasonal migration of nomads is known as transhumance. For example, the Lapps of Tundra regions migrate towards the north in the summer season and towards southern coniferous forests belt in winter. In India, the nomadic grazers of Jammu and Kashmir and those of Himachal Pradesh migrate from the plains to mountains in summers and from the mountains to plains in winter. Gujjars, Bakarwals, Gaddis and Bhotiyas are the main tribes involved in this type of migration. World Distribution of Pastoral Nomadism • Postoral nomadism is associated with the following three distinct regions: o (i) The first is the core region which extends from the Atlantic shores of North Africa eastwards across the Arabian peninsula into Mongolia and Central China. o (ii) The second is the tundra region of Eurasia. o (iii) The third is in the southern hemisphere where it extends over small areas of South-West Africa and on the island of Madagascar • Following two factors have resulted in decrease of areas of nomadic herding and the number of postoral nomads. o (i) Imposition of political boundaries. o (ii) New settlement plans by different governments.

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2. Commercial Livestock Rearing • Commercial livestock rearing came into being about two centuries ago when demand for animal products such as milk, meat, wool and skin increased all over the world. • It is a system in which animals are reared on extensive grasslands with modern scientific methods. Animals do not move from place to place in search of fodder, rather they are reared on fixed holdings and permanent ranch houses. Animal products are traded at national and international level to earn money. o (i) Vast prairies extending from north to south in western Canada, Western U.S.A. and Central Mexico. o (ii) Pampas of Brazilian Plateau and Argentina. o (iii) Llanoes of Venezuela. o (iv) Velds region of South Africa. o (v) Temperate grasslands of Australia and New Zealand. o (vi) Areas lying east of the Caspian Sea and north of Aral Sea i.e. steppes of Eurasia. • Most modern technology is used for commercial grazing. • Great emphasis is laid on breeding, genetic improvement, disease control and health of the animals.

• Animals are grazed over large areas which are known as 'ranches' in Prairies and 'estancia' in Pampas. Ranches are divided into a number of parcels, which are fenced to regulate the grazing. When the grass of one parcel is grazed, animals are moved to another parcel. The number of animals in a pasture is kept according to the carrying capacity of the pasture.

• This is a specialised activity in which only one type of animal is reared. • Important animals include sheep, cattle, goats and horses. The large scale livestock rearing (ranching) on a commercial scale is typical in developed countries. Instead of depending upon natural grasslands, fodder crops and grasses are cultivated over extensive areas, and special breeds of animals are reared to give maximum yields of milk or meat. • Cultivation of fodder crops, processing of milk, meat, and packaging of animal products is carried out mechanically and on scientific lines.

Difference in Pastoral Nomadism and Commercial Livestock Rearing Pastoral Nomadism and Commercial Livestock Rearing differ remarkably from each other 177

Pastoral Nomadism Commercial Livestock Rearing

1. Pastoral nomadism is confined chiefly to Commercial livestock rearing is the characteristic areas of the old world. The main areas of the New World. Chief areas of commercial of pastoral nomadism are Sahara, areas livestock rearing are the Prairies of North of East Africa, south-west and central America, Llanos of Central America, Pampas Asia, Tundra in Eurasia and south-west of South America, Veldt of South Africa, Africa and western part of Malaghasy Downs of Australia and grasslands of New Zealand.

2. Nomadic herders keep on moving from Fixed land holdings and permanent ranch houses place to place in search of fodder and characterize commercial grazing. water.

3. Animals grow in their natural way and Animals are brought up on scientfic basis and they are not much looked after. they are properly looked after.

4. Nomadic herders may tend several The commercial rancher specialises on the different kinds of animals. animal and the products for which the region is best suited.

5. Pastoral nomadism is a subsistence Commercial livestock rearing chiefly consists of economy which is carried on almost the production of milk, meat, wool, hides and entirely to produce food, clothing, skins for sale outside the grazing region. shelter and artifacts for local consumption.

6. No fodder is grown in pastoral nomadism In commercial livestock rearing, natural grass is and animals graze entirely on the often supplemented by fodder crops. natural grass.

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Agriculture

• Agriculture is the most important of all the primary activities of man. It provides food and other necessities of life to almost entire mankind on the earth.

• About half of the world population still depends upon agriculture. In developing countries, over 65 per cent people depend upon agriculture. • Based on methods of farming, different types of crops are grown and livestock raised. The following are the main agricultural systems.

Subsistence Agriculture Subsistence agriculture is one in which the farming areas consume all, or nearly so, of the products locally grown. It can be grouped in two categories—Primitive Subsistence Agri-culture and Intensive Subsistence Agriculture.

1. Primitive Subsistence Agriculture

• This is popularly known as shifting agriculture. • This is the most primitive form of agriculture which is still practised in some parts of the world, especially in the tropical forests. • It represents man's first attempts to grow food for his subsistence. A small piece of forest land is cleared by felling the trees and cutting the bushes and grasses. These are then burnt as a result of which it is also known as 'slash and burn' agriculture. The ash obtained by burning is mixed with soil which increases its fertility. • The crops are grown for a few years and the cultivator shifts to a new site when the fertility of soil is drastically reduced due to leaching, lack of organic matter and adverse effects of burning the vegetation. That is why it is known as shifting agriculture. • It is practised in a two to three years cycle. Sometimes the farmers come back to the abandoned piece of land after 10-15 years and grow crops. This is known as 'bush fallow' agriculture.

Areas of Shifting Agriculture

Shifting agriculture is mainly practised in three areas:

1) The largest area of shifting agriculture is in central Africa on both sides of Equator.

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2) North-eastern part of India comprising the states of Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Tripura, Nagaland and Mizoram and South-East Asia 3) Central America and South America

Shifting agriculture is known by different names in different areas

Name of the area Name of shifting agriculture

1. North-East India Jhuming

2. Malaysia Ladang

3. Philippines Chengin

4. Central Americaand Mexico Milpa

5. Venezuela Konuko

6. Brazil Roka

7. CongoMasole Masole

8. Vietnam Ray

• Maize, cassava, banana and sweet potato are grown in shifting agriculture.

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• Most of the production is consumed locally and there is hardly any surplus for sale to other areas. • The carrying capacity of land is low and the population density is also low.

There are two main drawbacks of this agriculture

1. It is responsible for deforestation and environmental degradation. 2. It leads to soil erosion and soil loss.

2. Intensive Subsistence Agriculture

• This agriculture is mainly practised in the densely populated regions of monsoon Asia.

• These areas include China, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Countries of South East Asia and Japan. • It is of following two types:

(i) Intensive Subsistence agriculture dominated by wet paddy cultivation. In this type of agriculture, rice is the most dominant crop. Its chief characteristics are as under:

(a) Land holdings are very small due to high density of population.

(b) Land is intensively used.

(d) Most of the agricultural operations are done manually by human and very little machinery is used.

(e) Fertility of soil is maintained by using farm manure.

(f) Yield per unit area is high but per labour productivity is low.

(ii) Intensive subsistence agriculture dominated by crops other than paddy in this type of agriculture rice is not the dominant crop and in its place other crops like wheat, soyabean, barley and sorghum are grown.

• This agriculture is practised in those areas where rainfall is not sufficient to encourage the cultivation of rice. Other factors like relief and soil are also not suitable for rice crop. • Northern China, northern and western parts of India, Manchuria, North Korea, North Japan etc. are the main areas of this cultivation.

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• Most of the characteristics of this type of agriculture are similar to those dominated by wet paddy except that irrigation is often used.

Plantation Agriculture

• The main areas of plantation agriculture are tropical and sub-tropical parts of Asia, Africa, South America and Central America. • It is a commercial agriculture in which crops like tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, cotton, oil palm, sugarcane, bananas and pine apples are grown to be sold in the market. • Following are the chief characteristic features of this agriculture. 1. It was introduced in the tropical lands by Europeans and North Americans primarily in the colonies ruled by them. 2. Estates or plantations are of very large size, sometimes running into thousands of hectares. 3. It requires large capital investment, managerial and technical support and scientific methods of cultivation. 4. Cheap unskilled labour is supplied by the local people while technical and skilled assistance comes from temperate lands. 5. Cheap transport is required to link the estates with factories and markets for export of products.

Contribution of Europeans and Americans for the development of plantation agriculture can be judged to by the following facts:

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(i) The French set up cocoa and coffee plantations in West Africa

(ii) The British established large tea gardens in India and Sri Lanka, rubber plantations in Malaysia and sugarcane and banana plantations in West Indies. (iii) Spanish and American set up coconut and sugarcane plantations in Philippines. (iv) The Dutch established sugarcane plantation in Indonesia. Some coffee fazendas (large plantations) in Brazil are still managed by Europeans. Today, ownership of the majority of plantations has passed into the hands of the government or the nationals of the countries concerned. Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation Commercial grain cultivation is practised in the interior parts of semi-arid lands of the mid-altitudes. Following are the chief characteristic features of this agriculture. 1. Wheat is the principal crop, though other crops like corn, barley, oats and rye are also grown. 2. The size of the farm is very large and often run into hundreds of hectares. 3. This is highly mechanised agriculture in which all operations from ploughing to harvesting are done by machines. 4. Since the farms are mechanised and population is sparse, yield per acre is low but yield per person is high.

The areas of extensive commercial grain farming include the Eurasian steppes, the Canadian and American Prairies, the Pampas of Argentina, the Velds of South Africa, the Australian Downs and the Canterbury Plains of New Zealand.

Mixed Farming

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• This is the type of agriculture in which cultivation of crops and rearing of animals is done at the same time. • Major crops grown in this type of agriculture are wheat, barley, oats, ragi, maize, fodder and root crops. • Fodder crops comprise an important component of mixed farming. Animals like cattle, sheep, pigs, poultry are the main sources of income along with crops. • Soil fertility is maintained by crop rotation and intercropping. • Mixed farming requires high capital investment on important items like farm machinery and building, extensive use of chemical fertilisers and green manure and also on the skill and expertise of the farmers. • This type of agriculture is practised in the highly developed parts of the world, e.g., North-Western Europe, Eastern North America, parts of Eurasia and the temperate latitudes of Southern continents.

Dairy Farming

• This is a special type of farming in which animals are reared for milk and main emphasis is laid on cattle breeding, health care and veterinary services.

• Following are its chief characteristic features :

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o It is one of the most advanced types of farming which is centered on efficient rearing of milch animals. o Heavy capital investment is required for animal sheds, storage facilities for fodder, feeding and milching machines. o It is highly labour intensive agriculture because it involves rigorous care in feeding and milching. o There is no off season because animals require proper care throughout the year. o It is mainly practised near the ubran and industrial centres where there is ready market for fresh milk and dairy products. o The scope of dairy farming has increased 0,01,3%iitte r ably due to develop-nut:tit a transportation, refrigeration, pasteuri-sation and other preservation processes.

Dairy farming is not prevalent in the following three areas :

1. North-Western Europe 2. Canada 3. S. Australia, New Zealand and Tasmania.

Mediterranean Agriculture

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• As its name indicates, this agriculture is practised in the mediterranean lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea in Europe and in North Africa from Tunisia to Atlantic coast, southern California, central Chile,south western parts of South Africa and south and south western parts of Australia. This is a highly specialised commercial agriculture in which citrus fruits are mainly grown.

• Viticulture or grape cultivation is the greatest speciality of this agriculture. Grapes are used for preparing wine and best quality wines are produced in different countries of this region. The inferior grapes are dried into raisins and currants. • This region also produces olives and figs. • The advantage of Mediterranean agriculture is that more valuable crops such as fruits and vegetables are grown in winters when there is great demand in European and North American markets.

Market Gardening and Horticulture

• This is a special type of agriculture in which the main emphasis is laid on the cultivation of high value crops such as vegetables, fruits and flowers. • These items are sold in the nearby urban markets. These crops are grown on small farms which are well connected to the urban centres by cheap and efficient means of transportation. • It is both labour and capital intensive and lays emphasis on the use of irrigation, HYV seeds, fertilisers, insecticides, greenhouses and artificial heating in colder regions. • The main areas of this agriculture are north-west Europe, north-eastern United States of America and the Mediterranean regions. • The Netherlands specialises in growing flowers and horticultural crops especially tulips, which are flown to all major cities of Europe.

• The regions where farmers specialise in vegetables only, the farming is known as truck farming. The distance of truck farms from the market is governed by the distance that a truck can cover overnight, hence the name truck farming.

Factory Farming

• This is another type of farming in which livestock, especielly poultry and cattle rearing, is done in stalls and pens; fed on manufactured foodstuff and carefully supervised against diseases.

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• Like other forms of commercial farming, it requires heavy capital investment for building, machinery, vaterinary services as well as for heating and lighting. • Breed selection and scientific breeding are two important features of this agriculture.

TYPES OF FARMING ACCORDING TO FARMING ORGANISATION Types of farming can also be categorised on the basis of farming organisation. It depends upon the way in which farmers own their farms and the policies of the government.

1. Co-operative Farming a. Co-operative farming is a system of farming in which a group of farmers voluntarily pool their land and resources and form co-operative society. b. Co-operative societies help the farmers in procuring important inputs, sell the farm products at the most profitable rates and processing the quality products at cheaper rates. c. Co-operative farming is being successfully practised in some of the European countries like Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, Italy etc. d. In Denmark, the movement has been so successful that practically every farmer is a member of a co-operative. 2. Collective Farming a. Collective farming is based on social ownership of the means of production and collective labour. It was adopted in the erstwhile U.S.S.R. after the 1917 revolution. b. A special model of Kolkhoz was introduced to improve upon the inefficiency of the previous methods of agriculture and to boost agricultural production. c. A collective farm or Kolkhoz is a voluntary productive co-operative union based on social ownership of means of production and on collective labour which excludes exploitation of man by man. d. Thus, the farmers pool all their resources like land, livestock and labour in collective farming. e. Howerver, they are allowed to retain a small piece of land to grow crops for their daily needs.

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MINING

• Mining refers to extraction of minerals. It is one of the oldest occupations of man. • The importance of minerals in human civilisation is reflected from the fact that many stages in the history of economic development are named after minerals used in those days.

• The first mineral used by man was stone to make tools and weapons. This is known as Stone Age. • Soon, man learnt the art of smelting metals and the first mineral smelted was bronze. • This brought about Bronze Age or Copper Age. Then came the Iron Age. This was followed by coal, petroleum and nuclear age. These are major sources of energy in the present day world.

Factors Affecting Mining Activity Following two factors affect mining activity:

1. Physical Factors. The physical factors which affect mining are the size, grade and mode of occurrence of the mineral deposits. 2. Economic Factors. These include the demand for national level of technology, availability of capital as well as labour and transport cost.

Methods of Mining

• Broadly speaking, following two methods are used depending on the mode of occurrence and the nature of the ore. 1. Surface Mining a. Also known as open-cast mining, this is the cheapest and the easiest method of mining and is used for mining those minerals which occur close to the susface. The overhead

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cost such as safety precautions and equipments is relatively low in this method. The output is both large and rapid.

2. Underground Mining a. This is also known as shaft mining and is used for those minerals which occur deep below the surface of the earth. b. In this method, vertical shafts have to be sunk, from where underground galleries radiate to reach the minerals. c. Minerals are extracted and transported to the surface through these passages. d. It requires specially designed lifts, drills, haulage vehicles, ventilation system for safety and efficient movement of people and material. e. This method is risky. f. Poisonous gases, fires, floods and caving-in lead to fatal accidents. g. There have been several incidents of fires, flooding and caving-in of coal mines in Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, and Madhya Pradesh and in some other states.

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6. SECONDARY ACTIVITIES Introduction • Secondary activities are those activities which convert primary products into more useful commodities. • From this point of view, all manufacturing industries are included in secondary activities. • It will be appropriate to distinguish between `industry' and 'manufacturing'. • The term industry is usually used to describe those activities which are concerned with processing, fabricating and manufacturing of primary products obtained from agriculture, forestry, fishing and mining. Film industry, fishing industry, steel industry, tourism industry, each representing different types of economic activity. Thus, all industries are termed as secondary activities. • The literal meaning of manufacturing is 'to make by hand, but it has attained a wide meaning in the present day context. "The conversion of raw material into more useful and valuable fabricated articles with the help of machines is called manufacturing. For example, conversion of iron ore into iron and steel and cotton into cloth changes the nature of raw material and it becomes more useful and valuable. • One of the fundamental principles of manufacturing industries is that, 'the more a material is changed in its form, greater will be its value and utility'. • The United Nations defines manufacturing as the mechanical and chemical transformation of inorganic or organic substance into new products, whether the work is performed howeY-driven machinery or by hand, whether it is done in a factory or in the worker's home, and whether the products are sold wholesale or in retail.' This is, however, a very broad definition. • Usually modern manufacturing industry is characterised by complex organisation, specialised labour, use of machinery and inanimate power and mass production. Characteristics of Modern LARGE-SCALE Manufacturing 1. Specialisation of Skills/Methods of Production • Under the 'craft' method, factories produce only a small number of pieces which are made-to- order. This involves high cost of manufacturing.

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• Mass production, on the other hand, involves production of large quantities of standardised parts by each worker performing only one task repeatedly.

2. Mechanisation • Mechanisation involves making large scale use of machines in place of human hands to accomplish task of manufacturing goods. • Automation (without aid of human thinking during the manufacturing process) is the advanced stage of mechanisation. Automatic factories with feedback and closed-loop computer control systems where machines are developed to 'think', have sprung up all over the world.

3. Technical Innovation • Technical innovations involve research and development. • These innovations comprise a very important aspect of modern manufacturing for quality control, eliminating waste and inefficiency, and combating pollution.

4. Organisational Structure and Stratification Modern manufacturing is characterised by: • a complex machine technology • extreme specialisation and division of labour for producing more goods with less effort, and low costs • vast capital • large organisations • Executive bureaucracy.

5. Uneven Geographic Distribution • The most outstanding feature of modern industry is that it is very unevenly distributed over a globe. • In some selected areas there is overcrowding of industries while on the other hand, there are vast areas where there is practically no development of industries. Only a few places have major concentration of modern industries. • Such areas cover less than 10 per cent of the world's total land area. Industrialised nations have become very strong both economically and politically. • However, area covered by industries is much smaller as compared to that occupied by agriculture. • This is due to greater intensity of processes in industries than in agriculture. For example, 2.5 sq km of the American corn belt usually includes about four large farms employing about 10-20 workers supporting 50-100 persons. • But this same area could contain several large integrated factories and employ thousands of workers. Location of Industry • The location of industry at a particular place is governed by a large number of geographical and non-geographical factors. • The main geographical factors are relief, climate and availability of raw materials, energy resources, labour, market, transportation, etc. 191

• The non-geographical factors include govern-ment policies, capital, market, management, banking, insurance, environmental conditions, industrial inertia, etc. • Location cannot be explained in absolute terms. The factors affecting location of industries do not operate in isolation, but in a complex system of inter-relationships. • The relative importance of these factors varies with time, space, type of industry and also the economy. Industries tend to be located at places where favourable factors have outweighed the unfavourable factors.

Following factors influence the location of industry at a particular place: Geographical Factors (i) Distance • Distance is a dominant factor which affects the location of industries at a given place. • Distance can either be physical i.e. distance in kilometres or it can be economic distance measured in terms of cost of transportation. • Although physical distance is important, it is not a very effective factor in determining the location of industries. • As compared to this, economic distance is more important. It is determined by the mode of transport, the type of commodity and freight rates. • The prime concern of a manufacturer is to reduce the economic distance and hence, transport plays a crucial role in location of industries.

(ii) Raw Materials • Most industries tend to be located near the source of raw materials and as such they are attracted by mines, forests, farms and seas. • Industries based on heavy materials such as coal and iron ore are always located near coal mines or iron ore mines, otherwise transport costs are very high. • Industries based on perishable commodities such as fruits, vegetables, fish and milk are also located near the sources of raw materials. • Some raw materials lose weight during processing. For example, it requires 10 tonnes of sugarcane to produce 1 tonne of sugar. Hence, sugar mills are located near the sugarcane producing areas. • There are certain industries which are not wedded to any particular raw material. Such industries are known as `foot-loose' industries. Watch industry of Switzerland uses very little raw materials and the source of raw materials does not play any significant role in this industry. Readymade garments and electronic goods also do not depend much on the raw materials.

(iii) Energy Sources • Energy is most essential to run machines in industries. • The main power resources are coal, petroleum, hydroelectricity, natural gas and nuclear energy. • Iron and steel industry uses coal as source of energy and tends to be located near the coal mines. • Large scale production and transmission of hydroelectricity has reduced the attractive power of energy resources considerably. • The importance of energy as an attractive force for industries has declined in the recent past due to improvement in fuel efficiency.

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• Some energy intensive industries such as aluminiumindustry, are still located near the energy sources. Petroleum and natural gas can be easily transported through pipelines and do not attract industries at the source of their occurrence.

(iv) Water • Water is an important factor in industrial location. • It is required in large quantities in cotton textile industry for bleaching, and in iron and steel industry for cooling. Water requirement of industries varies considerably. • While some need more such as iron and steel industry (200,000 litres to produce one tonne of steel), others like electronics need less. • Yet, shortage of water in an area can be a serious deterrent for locating an industry.

(v) Access to Labour Market • Access to labour market plays an important role even in the modern age of automation and computerisation. • For successful growth of industry, labour should be abundant, cheap and skilled. • Sometimes skill of the labour compensates even higher wages. • The diamond cutting and polishing industry at Surat has flourished largely due to availability of skilled labour.

Non-Geographical Factors Apart from geographical factors, following non-geographical factors also influence the location of industry. (i) Access to Good Management • The present day industry has assumed complex form and needs good management. • In fact, access to good management has become a very important factor in the choice of site for industries. • It is essential to know whether the selected site will be able to attract good managers.

(ii) Capital • Capital investment is most essential for the successful growth of indust-ries. Large sums of money are required for setting the factory, purchasing machinery and raw material and for paying wages to the workers. • Plenty of capital is available in rich countries of Europe and North America and there has been a phenomenal growth of industries in these countries. • Contrary to this, rnosl countries of Asia, Africa and South America are poor and cannot make much capital investment. • Consequently, industries are in a backward state in these countries. However, with the development of banking services and Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) money capital has become more mobile.

(iii) Government Policies • Government policy of any country can greatly affect its industrial growth.

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• If the government of a country nationalises industries then the foreign companies do not set up industries there. • On the contrary, if the government encourages industries by giving tax rebates, subsidies and other incentives, then the industries are bound to grow. Many countries impose import taxes to encourage domestic industries. • Economic and social considerations are important factors influencing the government's decision. It is the duty of a government to ensure that the country's resources are used to the best advantage and that there are no great inequalities in the distribution of wealth. • Similarly, political and strategic considerations also have strong influence on industrial location. In order to reduce regional imbalances, many countries and regions demarcate certain areas for location of industries.

(iv) Environment • Congenial environment is very essential for location of industries. • Industries do not grow in unfavourable environment and sometimes they tend to shift to more favourable environments. • For example, in the USA, the aircraft industry has moved to the southwestern part of the country because of climatic advantage. • Due to warm climate, hangar heating costs are less in this region.

(v) Industrial Inertia • Many industries remain at a particular location even after the disappearance of initial advantages. • Availability of infrastructure facilities such as transport and services, and immobile physical capital such as building encourage inertia and new industries are attracted. • Some industries are location leaders, either because they provide raw materials for other industries, or because they require specialist firms to supply parts.

(vi) Human Factor • Human factor is of paramount importance of all the factors of industrial location because the ultimate decision is taken by the humans. Their personal choices thus, influence locational decisions.

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Classification of Manufacturing Industries Industries can be classified on the basis of their size, nature of products, raw materials and ownership.

On the Basis of the Size The size of an industry is determined by the capital input, number of labour employed and the quantity of production. Accordingly, industries are divided into following three classes: (i) Household or Cottage Industries • These are the smallest manufacturing units. In cottage industry, the craftsman manufactures the goods by using locally available raw material. He works at home where his family members help him in making goods. • The skills of production are passed on from one generation to the other. There is practically no use of machines and tools are simple. • The goods produced are usually consumed by the craftsman and his family members. However, surplus is sold in the local market. • Capital and transport do not affect cottage industries. Potters, carpenters, black-smiths, weavers and boatmakers earn their livelihood from cottage industries. Farmers also make ropes, baskets, clothes, etc. during their slack period between sowing and harvesting. • Cottage industries are still very important in many countries of Asia and Africa. Some of the handicraft items are in great demand in the developed countries.

(ii) Small Scale Industry • Small scale industry is an extended form of cottage industry in which manufacturing is done by machines in addition to manpower. • It requires small machines driven by power, small capital investment and less human labour. Raw material is obtained from outside if not available in the local market. Its products are sold in the outside market through traders. • These industries provide employment to large population in developing countries like China and India. • Clothes, paper goods, toys, earthenwares, furniture, electrical goods, electronics, metallic utensils, edible oil and leather industry are examples of small scale industries.

(iii) Large Scale Industry • Large scale industry uses heavy machinery which is driven by power. • This type of industry has developed during the last 200 years. • It has following characteristics: (a) A large variety of raw materials is used and is procured from far off places. (b) A lot of energy is required to drive heavy machines. (c) Large amount of capital is invested in establishing such industries. 195

(d) Abundant, cheap and efficient labour is required. In some factories thousands of labourers are employed. (e) Better quality goods are produced in large scale industry. Special measures are taken for quality control. (f) Management of large scale industries is complex because it is hierarchically divided amongst owners, managers and labour. (g) Production specialisation is an important feature of large scale industry. The products are sent to far off distances and even exported. • Large scale industry is better developed in advanced countries of North America, West Europe, Russia and Japan. Modern iron and steel industry, aviation and ship-building industry, textiles and petrochemical industries are some of the examples of large scale industries.

Difference between Cottage Industries and SMALL-SCALE Industries.

Small Scale Industries Cottage Industries

1. Most of the work is done by craftsman 1. Production process is done by power driven and his family members. machines and employed labour.

2. Most of the goods produced are used by 2. All the goods produced are meant for sale. . the producer and only small surplus is Raw materials are obtained locally. sold.

3. Raw materials are obtained locally. 3. Raw materials are obtained from outside markets if not available locally.

4. Finished products are sold in local market. 4. Finished products are sold in outside markets.

Difference between Small Scale Industries and Large-Scale Industries

Small Scale Industries Large Scale Industries

1. It is on a small scale. 1. It is on a large scale

2. Highly sophisticated and specialised power- 2. It requires simple power-driven machines. driven machines are used.

3. Less amount of capital and labour is involved. 3. It requires large capital investment and cheap, skilled abundant labour. In some

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factories, thousands of workers are employed

4. Raw materials are obtained from outside 4. Raw materials are purchased from far off markets if not available locally. distances and even imported from abroad.

5. Much care is not taken about quality. 5. Special care is taken for quality control.

6. Management is simple. 6. Management is complex.

7. Finished products are sold in far off areas and 7. Finished products are sold in outside markets. are also exported.

On the Basis of Size of Operation and Nature of Products Two typesofindustries are recognised depend-ing upon their size and nature of products. (i) Heavy Industries • These industries deal in bulky products and are heavily dependent on the raw materials and hence, tend to be located near the source of raw material e.g. iron and steel industry.

(ii) Light Industries • These are usually small-scale in operation. They deal in lighter and compact products. For them, accessibility is the most important factor. The electronics is one example of this kind.

Classification by Outputs Industrial outputs are of two types and conse-quently there are two types of industries. (i) Basic Industries • These industries produce raw materials for other industries. For example, products of iron and steel industry are used in manufacturing machines and tools, which in turn, are used to produce other products. Thus, iron and steel industry is a basic industry. Some basic industries produce machines which are used to produce other goods.

(ii) Consumer Goods Industry • The industries which produce goods for final consumption are known as consumer goods industry. Edible oil, tea, coffee, soap, bread, biscuits, radio, television etc. are examples of consumer goods industry.

On the basis of Inputs • The nature of industrial products depends upon the nature of raw materials used by them. Therefore, raw material is also a good basis for industrial classification. Following types of industries are recognized depending upon the nature of raw material.

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(i) Agro-based Industries • The indus-tries, using agricultural products as their raw materials are known as agro-based industries. Tea, sugar, cotton and jute textiles and vegetable oil are important examples of agro- based industries.

(ii) Forest-based Industries • The industries which use forest products as their raw materials are called forest based industries. Paper, pulp, rayon, turpentine oil and furniture industry are important examples of forest-based industries.

(iii) Metallic Industries • These industries use different types of metals as their raw material. These are further divided into non-ferrous and ferrous industries.

(a) Non-Ferrous Industries: These indus-tries use those metals which do not have iron contents e.g., copper, aluminium etc. (b) Ferrous Industries: The industries, which use metals having iron content, are called ferrous industries. Iron and steel, machines and tools, motor cars, railway engines, agricultural tools are some outstanding examples of ferrous industries. (iv) Chemical Industries • Industries based on chemicals are known as chemical industries. • Chemicals are widely used in different industries such as chemical fertilizers, metallic industry, textiles, leather, paper, glass, ceramics, soap and food pro-cessing industries. Petrochemical industry is based on petroleum as raw material of which chemical fertilizers, paints, varnishes, plastic and some medicines are the main products.

On the basis of Ownership Industries are divided in the following three classes depending upon the nature of ownership. (i) Public Sector Industry. When the ownership and management of an industry is in the hands of the state, it is called a public sector industry. The state establishes and runs these units. (ii) Private Sector Industry. Industries owned and managed by an individual or a corporate body belong to the private sector. Individuals invest their own capital to establish these industries and they manage them as private enterprise. (iii) Joint Sector Industry. An industry owned and managed jointly by the state and private initiatives falls in the joint sector.

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Large-Scale Industrial Regions • These regions are based on heavy industries. Such industries are often located near the source of coal because it is an important source of energy. • It is a heavy commodity and cannot be transported over long distances. As such coal acts as a magnet for heavy industries. • Such industries are engaged in metal smelting, heavy engineering, chemical manufacture or textile production. These industries are now known as smokestack industries. • Traditional industrial regions can be recognised by the following features: o High proportion of employment in manufacturing industry. o High-density housing often of inferior type, and poor services. o Unattractive environment, for example, pollution, waste heaps, and so on. o Problems of unemployment, emigration and derelict land areas caused by closure of factories because of a worldwide fall in demand.

The Ruhr Coal-field of Germany • This is one of the most important industrial regions for a pretty long times. • Coal as well as iron and steel comprised the backbone of economy of this region. However, industry started shrinking, as its demand for coal declined. Even after the iron ore reserves were exhausted, the industry survived by using imported coal brought by waterways to the Ruhr. • The significance of Ruhr region can be judged from the fact that it accounts for about 80% of Germany's total steel production. However, there had been some outstanding changes in the industrial structure of this region which have led to the decay of some areas. Problems of industrial waste and environmental pollution have assumed alarming proportions. • Future prosperity of this region depends more on new industries like Opel car assembly plant, new chemical plants, universities etc. rather than on coal and steel for which it remained famous for a long time.

HIGH TECHNOLOGY INDUSTRY • High technology or high-tech, is the latest generation of industries which has grown at a rapid pace during the last few decades. • These industries require great deal of scientific research and development (R and D) and produce highly sophisticated products. • Such industries improve their products very fast to meet the growing market demands. Since their products are highly sophisticated, they employ highly skilled labour.

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• Professional (white collar) workers comprise the major part of work force and always outnumber the actual production (blue collar) workers. • Robotics on the assembly line, computer-aided design (CAD) and manu-facturing, electronic controls of smelting and refining processes, and the constant development of new chemical and pharma-ceutical products are notable examples of a high-tech industry. • Neatly spaced, low, modern, dispersed, office-plant-lab buildings rather than massive assembly structures, factories and storage areas mark the high-tech industrial landscape. Planned business parks for high-tech start-ups have become part of regional and local development schemes.

TECHNOPOLES • A technopole is a planned development within a concentrated area for technology innova-tive, industry related production. • Technopoles include science or technology parks, science cities and other high-tech industrial com- plexes.

High-tech Industrial-States and Technology Parks • Footloose industries tend to be attracted to purpose—built industrial estates or technology parks on the edge of towns and cities as is the case with London or Tokyo. • These places offer following advantages over inner city locations: (a) Sufficient space for single-storey factories and future expansion. (b) Much cheaper land is available on edge-of-city as compared to inner city locations. (c) Better accessibility to main roads and motorways. (d) There is open and pleasant environment (often located on a greenfield site). (e) Labour supply from nearby residential areas and commuter village is easily available.

Silicon Valley—A Technopolis The credit for development of Silicon Valley goes to the work of Frederick Terman. It is located near San Francisco. Silicon Forest near Seattle is another example in the USA. Such technopoles have also emerged in other countries. But except Germany, most of them are centredaround big metropolitan cities such as London, Paris, Milan Tokyo, Shanghai, Taipei, Moscow, Singapore and Sao Paulo.

MAJOR INDUSTRIES OF THE WORLD • Industries are not evenly distributed in the world. • More than fifty per cent of the world's total manufactured goods is shared by the USA, Japan and Germany. • Iron and steel, textiles, automobiles, petrochemicals and electronics are some of the world's most important manufacturing industries. 200

Iron and Steel Industry • Iron and Steel industry is the backbone of modern civilisation. It provides base for all the industries and is known as the basic industry. • It is the measuring rod of industrial progress of a country. • Iron is the most widely distributed metal on the earth but is rarely found as a free metal. It is generally extracted from the mines in the form of iron ore and iron is obtained by smelting the ore with carbon (coke) and limestone in a blast furnace. • The molten iron, after being separated from the ore, is either cooled and moulded to form pig iron or is used for making steel. Iron, in its pure form is soft and generally not useful as an engineering material. • By adding small amount of carbon (upto 2 per cent) and other strengthening elements such as nickel or manganese, it is converted into steel, which is very strong and malleable. It enhances its utility, making it the most widely used material for building the world's infrastructure and industries. • It is used to fabricate everything from sewing needles to rail sheets, tubes, wires, huge machines and tankers. • The world iron and steel industry made rapid progress after the industrial revolution. Iron and steel became products of universal use due to their low cost, strength, durability and the ease with whicMey can be cast and worked into any desired shape. • The industry developed mainly in and around mining areas because it mainly depended upon heavy and bulky raw materials like coal, iron ore, manganese and limestone. Later on it tended to grow at places where such materials could be easily transported.

Distribution • The iron and steel industry is widely distributed in the world. Its main concentration is found in advanced countries of North America, Europe and Asia. • In the U.S.A. most of the production comes from the north Appalachian region (Pittsburgh), Great Lake region (Chicago-Gary, Erie, Cleveland, Lorain, Buffalo and Duluth) and the Atlantic Coast (Sparrows Point and Morisville). • The industry has also moved towards the southern state of Alabama. Pittsburg area is now losing ground. • It has now become the "rust bowl" of U.S.A. In Europe, U.K., Germany, France, Belgium, Luxembourgh, the Netherlands and Russia are the leading producers. • Following are the important centres of iron and steel industry outside the U.S.A.: • U.K: Birmingham and Sheffield. • Germany: Duisburg, Dortmund, Dusseldorf and Essen France: Le Creusot and St. Ettienne • Russia: Moscow, St. Pittsbourgh, Lipetsk and Tula • Ukraine: Krivoi Rog and Donetsk • Japan: Nagasaki and Tokyo-Yokohama 201

• China: Shanghai, Tienstin and Wuhan • India: Jamshedpur, Kulti-Burnpur, Durgapur, Rourkela, Bhilai, Bokaro, Salem, Vishakha-patnam and Bhadravati.

Cotton Textile Industry This industry has the following three sub-sectors: Handloom • This is labour intensive sub-sector of cotton textile industry and provides employment to a large number of skilled and semi-skilled workers. It requires small capital investment. It is by virtue of its employment P9, PI2tize Rid small capital investment that Mahatma Gandhi propagated khadi as part of the independence movement. • This sector involves spinning, weaving and finishing of the fabrics.

Powerloom • In this sector, looms are run by power and is much less labour intensive as compared to handloom sector. The volume of production increases in this sector.

Mill Sector • It involves setting of big mill for spinning and weaving. This sector is highly capital intensive and produces fine clothes in bulk.

Distribution of cotton textile industries • Development and growth of cotton textile industry depends on the availability of good quality cotton in sufficient quantity. • Six countries of the world, namely India, China, the U.S.A., Pakistan, Uzbekistan and Egypt, produce over half of the world's cotton and have developed cotton textile industry. • U.K. and other north-west European countries as well as Japan depend on imported cotton to feed this industry. Europe accounts for about half of the world's cotton imports. During the last few decades, synthetic fibres have been offering stiff competition as a result of which there has been declining trend in the cotton textile industry in several countries of the world. • Labour cost, scientific advancement and technological improvement are also very important factors in this industry. For example, Germany recorded constant growth in cotton textile industry since Second World War till the seventies but now it has declined. • It has shifted to less developed countries where labour costs are low.

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7. TERTIARY AND QUATERNARY ACTIVITIES Introduction • Tertiary activities are concerned with intangible outputs. These include a large diversity of services ranging from that of a technician or a plumber to that of a lawyer, a teacher or a computer operator. Tertiary activities are not involved in material production. • They stand in contrast to manufacturing industries which produce goods of different varieties. It is not easy to measure the output- of these activities. They can be measured only indirectly in terms of wages and salaries. However, some services such as, a fast-food franchise are concerned with tangible output. • The basic difference between manufacturing and service products is that the expertise provided by services relies much more directly on work-force skills, experience and knowledge than on physical techniques embodied in machinery or process of production.

TYPES OF TERTIARY ACTIVITIES Trade, transport, communication and services are the main types of tertiary activities.

Trade and Commerce • Buying and selling of goods is known as trade. • Places like towns and cities where trade is carried on are known as trading centres. • Trading centres can be rural as well as urban.

(i) Rural Marketing Centres • These centres provide trading services to the nearby settlements. • These are most rudientarycentres where personal and professional services are not well developed. • Such places act as collecting and distributing centres at the local level. Most of these centres have mandis (wholesale markets) and also retail areas. • Rural marketing centres make available goods and services to the rural folk living in its near vicinity.

(ii) Periodic Markets • In certain rural areas where there is no regular market, rural markets are organised at different intervals of time.

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• These are usually weekly or bi-weekly markets which cater to the needs of the surrounding rural people. • These markets are held on specific days and move from one place to another. Thus, the shopkeepers serve a much larger area and remain busy on all the days.

(iii) Urban Marketing Centres • These are set up in urban areas and provide goods and services to the urban people. • Goods provided are generally from the secondary activity i.e. manufactured goods while the services made available are those of professionals such as teachers, lawyers, doctors, consultants etc.

Retail Trading Services This is a type of business in which goods are sold directly to the consumers. It is generally done in fixed establishments and stores which are solely devoted to sale of goods. Some retail trading is done by move-stores or mobile stores. Street peddling, handcarts, trucks, door-to-door, mail-order, telephone, automatic vending machines and internet are examples of non-store retail selling.

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Consumer Cooperatives, Departmental Stores and Chain Stores 1. Consumer cooperatives are concerned with will consumer goods. These were the first of the large scale innovations in retailing. 2. Departmental stores are bigger in size. Such stores delegate the responsibility and authority to departmental heads for purchasing of commodities and for overseeing the sale in different sections of the stores. 3. Chain of stores as the name indicates, big establishments set up a chain of stores which are capable of purchasing merchandise at the most economical rates often going so far as to direct the goods to be manufactured to their specification. They employ highly skilled specialists in many executive tasks. They have the ability to experiment in one store and apply the results to many.

Transport

• Transport is a system in which goods and passengers are carried from one place to another. • This is a very important segment of economy and the economic growth largely depends on the availability of transport facilities. • Cheap and efficient transport helps in production, distribution and consumption of goods. • Value of material is significantly enhanced if sufficient transport facility is available.

Transport distance is measured in the following three forms: (i) Kilometre distance is the actual distance of route length in kilometres. (ii) Time distance is the time taken to travel on a particular route. (iii) Cost distance is the cost involved in travelling on a route. • While selecting the mode of transport, distance in terms of time or cost is taken into consideration. Isochrone lines are drawn on a map to join places equal in terms of the time taken to reach them.

Factors Affecting Transport Services

NETWORK AND ACCESSIBILITY As transport systems develop, different places are linked together to form a network. Networks are made up of nodes and links. A node or vertex is the meeting point of two or more routes, a point of origin, a point of destination or any sizeable town along a route. Every road that joins two nodes is called a link or edge. A developed network has many links, which means that places are well- connected.

Demand and routes are two major factors which affect transport services. (i) Demand: Demand for transport depends on the size of population and the standard of living of the people. Larger the size of population and higher the standard of living of its people greater is the demand for transport.

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(ii) Routes: Transport is always done on specific routes which depend on location of cities, towns, villages, industrial centres and raw materials, pattern of trade between them, nature of the landscape between them, type of climate, and funds available for overcoming obstacles along the length of the route.

Communication Services Communication services are concerned with the transmission of words and messages, facts and ideas. In early days communication was dependent on transport. Written messages were carried. These were actually carried by hand, animals, boat, road, rail and air. That is why all forms of transport are also referred to as lines of communication. Communication is easy and convenient in areas where efficient network of transport exists. Modern techno-logical advancements such as telephony and satellites have made communication independent of transport. However, even today, transport provides valuable support to comm-unication. This is the reason that large volumes of mail still continues to be handled by post offices all over the world. Some of the important communication services are described as under:

Telecommunications • Telecommunica-tions are dependent on the development of electrical technology. It has greatly enhanced the speed with which messages can be sent and has brought about a great revolution in communications. • The time taken to communicate massages and ideas has been reduced from weeks to minutes. The recent advancements in telephony have made it possible to communicate directly and instantaneously at any time from anywhere in the world. • The most important thing is that mobile telephone has come within the reach of the common man. • Radio and television have become very strong medium of broadcasting and telecasting news, pictures, to vast audiences around the world and hence they are termed as mass media. • They are vital for advertising and entertainment. • Newspapers comprise a strong print medium as they are able to cover events happening anywhere in the world. • Satellite communication relays information of the earth from space. • Internet has really revolutionised the global communication system.

Services • There are different levels at which services are provided and availed. Some services are meant for industry, some for people; and some for both industry and people i.e. transport. • Every service has its cost and services are provided only to those individuals who have the means to pay for them. • Low-order services, such as grocery shops and laundries, are more common and widespread than high-order services or more specialised ones like those of accountants, consultants and physicians. • Services involve physical or mental labour. 206

• For example the gardener, the launderers and the barber do primarily physical labour. Teachers, lawyers, physicians, musicians and others perform mental labour. • A large number of services have been regulated. • Making and maintaining highways and bridges, maintaining fire fighting departments and supplying or supervising education and customer-care are some important examples of regulated services. These services are often supervised or performed by governments or companies. • Corporations constituted by Central and State governments to supervise and control the marketing of services like transport, telecommunication, energy and water supply. Primary health care, engineering, law and management are professional services. • Availability of market influences the location of recreational and entertainment services. Multiplexes and restaurants are generally located in or near the Central Business District (CBD). • Other activities like golf course are located away from CBD where land prices are comparatively lower.

People Engaged In Tertiary Activities Though services are provided in all societies, yet more people are engaged in the service sector in developed countries than in developing countries. Whereas only 10 percent of the people are engaged in service sector in developing countries, as much as 75% people in U.S.A. are engaged in this sector. The percentage of people engaged in service sector increases as the economy grows.

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8. QUATERNARY AND QUINARY ACTIVITIES QUATERNARY ACTIVITIES • This is a new category of activities which has come into use only recently. • This is a specialised and complex category of activities which is mainly concerned with knowledge such as education, information, research and development (R&D). • The term quaternary basically refers to 'the more intellectual occupations, whose task is to think, research and develop ideas'. • As such, this sector is especially concerned with research and development. • In most of the advanced countries, the quaternary activities engage a small but growing proportion of population. • This small proportion of population is characterised by the highest incomes and a higher degree of mobility in the process of career advancement.

The Quaternary sector The quaternary and tertiary activities are fast replacing primary and secondary activities and the economy grows. More than half the workers in developed economies are in 'Knowledge Sector' and demand for such services is increasing very fast. Such information based services vary from mutual fund managers to tax consultants, software developers and statisticians. Personnel working in office buildings, elementary schools and university classrooms, hospitals and doctors' offices, theatres, accounting and brokerage firms all belong to this category of services. Quaternary and tertiary factors can be outsourced because they are not tied to resources, affected by environment or necessarily localised by market.

Quinary Activities • People engaged in highest level decision making or policy making perform quinary activities. These activities are subtly different from quaternary activities.

Quinary activities Quinary activities are those activities which are concerned with creation, re-arrangement and interpretation ofnew and existingideas, data interpretation and use as well as evaluation of new technologies. People engaged in these activities are often called `gold collar' professionals. Such professionals represent another subdivision of the tertiary sector representing special and highly paid skills of senior business executives, government officials, research scientists, financial and legal consultants, etc. Their importance in the structure of advanced economies far outweighs their numbers.

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Outsourcing Outsourcing is a new trend in economic activities which is concerned with giving work to an outside agency. Such agencies are better equipped with latest techniques and trained personnels and consequently help in improving efficiency and reducing costs. When the work is transferred to overseas locations, itis termed as off-shoring. The activities which are generally outsourced are information technology (IT), human resources, customer support and call centre services and at times also manufacturing and engineering.

Medical tourism is combining tourism activity with medical treatment.

Economic Activities and Colour of the Collar Different types of activities are identified with different colours of collar as is indicated in the box:

Colour of the collar Nature of work

Gold Quinary activities

White Highly skilled specialists in high technology industries

Blue Actual production workers in industry.

Red Primary activities

Digital Divide • There is uneven distribution of opportunities emerging from Information and Communication Technology (ITC). • Wide ranging gaps exist in economic and political situation prevailing in different countries of the world. • While developed countries have moved far ahead, developing countries are lagging far behind. This gap between developed and developing countries regarding ITC is known as digital divide. • Digital divides exist within the countries also. • For example, in large countries like India and Russia, metropolitan centres have better connectivity and access to digital world than the surrounding rural areas.

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9. TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION Inroduction • Transport involves the carriage of goods and passengers from one place to the other using humans, animals and various types of vehicles. • Communication refers to conveyance of information from the place of origin to the place of destination through a channel. Postal services, telephone, telegraph and fax services, internet and satellites are some of the major means of communication.

MODES OF TRANSPORT • Goods and passengers can be transported through land, water and air. Consequently three main modes of transport viz. land transport, water transport and air transport are generally recognised. Another mode of transport, known as pipeline transport, is becoming popular now a days. Roads and railways form part of the land transport. Waterways and airways are the other two modes. Pipelines are used to carry liquids like water and petroleum and natural gas.

Choice of Transportation • The choice of transportation depends on the type of goods and services to be transported, transportation cost and the means of transport available. • Waterways however, restrict transshipment of goods from ports to inland destination and they are slow. • Road transport is cheaper for small distances and is faster too. It renders door to door service. But if one has to move large volume of bulky materials over long distances especially within a country, railways are most suited. • Perishable light and precious goods, on the other hand, can be best moved by air. In a well managed transport system, the various modes supplement and complement each other.

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LAND TRANSPORT • Land transport is the most important of all the modes of transport because most of the movement of goods and services takes place over land. In early days man himself used to carry goods and acted as an important mode of transport. • Human portage is still important in some parts of the world. These include thickly-forested regions or areas of extremely rugged terrain of mountains where it is very difficult to construct roads. Man started using animals for transportation about 3000 years ago. • The first break-through in mechanisation of transport was achieved with the invention of steam engine in the late eighteenth century. • The application of steam engine to railways brought about a revolution in land transport. • Railways increased accessibility and connectivity and opened continental interiors for commercial, mining, manufacturing and agriculture. • Among the latest developments in land transportation are ropeways, cableways and pipelines. Ropeways and cableways have been developed in rough and difficult terrain especially the

Pack animals • Horses are used as a draught animal even in the Western countries. • Dogs and reindeer are used in North America, North Europe and Siberia to draw sledges over snow-covered ground. • Mules are preferred in the mountainous regions; while • Camels are used for caravan movement in deserts in India,bullocks are used for pulling carts.

mountainous regions. Liquids like mineral oil, water, sludge and sewers are transported through pipelines.

Roads and Highways

Road • Road is a major medium of land transport. • It varies from pathways and unmetalled roads to national and international highways. • It is the quickest medium of transportation for shorter distances. • The roads link the fields and farms to factories, factories to markets, and the goods can be delivered right at the doorsteps of the consumers.

Broadly, roads are of two types vizunmetalled and metalled roads. • Unmetalled roads are simple to construct but are not effective and serviceable for all seasons. Developed countries have more roads of better quality than the developing countries. • Metalled roads, on the other hand, are of better quality and are capable of being used throughout the year. But even these roads are seriously handicapped during heavy rains and floods. 211

Railways • Railways are comparatively cheaper and more convenient mode of transport than roadways in moving goods in bulk over a long distance. Railways developed much after the develop-ment of roadways. • The first public railway was opened between Stockton and Darlington in northern England in 1825, and railways became the fastest and most popular form of transport for both passengers and goods in the nineteenth century. • Two interrelated factors led to the growth of railways: (i) Steam engine was developed, which was used not only for industries but for transport also; (ii) Rapid rise in industry made it necessary to improve existing transport systems. • Transportation has become much easier with the introduction of railways. Railways provide quick means of transportation and can handle more load as compared to roadways.

Gauges of Railways • Railways run on different gauges. Different countries have different gauges. However, at the international level, three gauges are recognised. They are o broad (more than 1.5 m), o standard (1.44 m), o metre gauge (1 m) and o smaller gauges.

Commuter Trains • Commuter trains are short distance trains which carry large number of passengers to big urban centres from the surrounding areas in the morning and back in the evening. Commuter trains are very popular in U.K. U.S.A., Japan and India. These carry millions of passengers daily to and fro in the city.

Trans-Continental Railways • Trans-continental railways are those railway lines which run across the continent and join its two ends. • Most of these railways are built to strengthen economic and political ties. Trans-Siberian railway line was constructed to integrate European and Asian parts of Russia. • The Canadian-Pacific railway line was constructed to satisfy British Columbia because it had agreed to join the Federation of States on the condition that it will be joined to eastern port by railway. • The Australian Trans-Continental Railway was constructed to save the Western Territory from going out of the Federation of States.

1. Trans-Siberian Railway • Trans-Siberian is the world's longest railway line which joins St. Petersburg (Leningrad) in the west to Vladivostok in the east. 212

• It covers a total distance of 9,332 km. Its construction started in 1891 and was completed in 1905 after 14 years. • The main stations on this route are Moscow, Ryazan, Ufa, Chelyabinsk, Kurgan, Petropavlovsk, Omsk, Novosibirsk, Kransnoyarsk, Tayshet, Irkutsk, Chita and Khabarovsk • Many branch lines have been constructed to meet the growing needs of the neighbouring areas. • It has connecting links to the south to Odesa in the Ukraine, Baku the Caspean Sea, Tashkent in Uzbekistan, Ulan Bator in Mongolia, Shenyang (Mukden) in Manchuria and Beijing in China. • Importance:This railway line was constructed for administrative and military purposes but it has assumed much economical • importance with passage of time. The whole of Russia, especially Siberia has benefited a lot from this railway line. Siberia is very rich in mineral, forest, agricultural and animal resources and is known as the storehouse of resources.

2. Canadian Pacific Railway • This is the most important railway route of Canada. It was constructed in 1886. The total length of the constructed and the proposed track is 7,050 km. It connects Saint John on the Atlantic coast in the east to Vancouver on the Pacific coast in the west. Important stations on this route are Montreal, Sudbury, Fort William, Winnepeg, Regina, Medicine Hat and Calgary • Importance. Although this railway line was constructed to connect British Columbia with other eastern states of Canada to make it join the Federation of States, it assumed economic importance later on. It links the industrial region of Quebec-Montreal with soft-wood forest region and wheat region of prairies. Thus, each region became complementary to the other. • This railway line carries wheat from the prairy regions to the eastern parts from where it is exported to European countries. Industries in the east and agriculture in the west of Canada have progressed a lot as a result of this railway line. • It has assumed strategic importance from defence point of view also. A loop line from Winnipeg to Thunder Bay (Lake Superior) connects this rail line with one of the important waterways of the world. 213

• This line is the economic artery of Canada.

3. The Union and Pacific Railway This rail-line connects New York on the Atlantic Coast to San Francisco on the Pacific Coast via Cleveland, Chicago, Omaha, Evans, Ogdan and Sacramanto. Ores, grain, paper, chemcials and machinery are the main items transported on this line. 4. Australian Trans-Continental Railways • This is the most important railway route of Australia which connects Sydney in the east with Perth in the west. Main stations on this route are Broken Hill, Peterborough, Port Pirie, Port Auguste, Forrest and Kalgoorlie. • This railway route has different gauges which results in loss of time and increase in cost of transport. • It takes about fifteen days for goods to reach from Sydney to Perth which can be covered in less than five days on a single gauge. Rail Standardisation Committee has been set up to overcome this difficulty. • Another major north-south line connects Adelaide and Alice Spring and to be joined further to the Darwin-Birdum line.

5. The Orient Express • This line runs from Paris to Istanbul passing through Strasbourg, Munich, Vienna, Budapest and Belgrade. The journey time from London to Istanbul by this Express is now reduced to 96 hours as against 10 days by the sea-route. The chief exports on this rail-route are cheese, bacon, oats, wine, fruits, and machinery. • There is a proposal to build a trans-Asiatic railway linking Istanbul in Turkey with. Bangkok in Thailand via Iran, Pakistan, India, Saudi Arabia, Bangladesh and Myanmar.

WATER TRANSPORT

• Water transport is one of the oldest modes of transport. • Man has been navigating in oceans, rivers and lakes since ancient times.

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• This is the cheapest mode of transportation and is especially useful to transportation of heavy cargo. • Water transport is cheaper because the friction of water is far less than the friction of land or air and the energy cost of transportation is much lower. • Water transport can be divided into two groups: 1. Ocean Routes. 2. Inland Waterways

Ocean Routes Following are some important ocean routes : 1. The North Atlantic Route 2. The Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean Route 3. The Suez Canal 4. The Cape of Good Hope Route 5. The South Atlantic Route 6. The North Pacific Route 7. The South Pacific Route 8. The Panama Canal

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Inland Waterways Rivers, canals and lakes are the main medium of inland waterways. These were very important means of transport in old days, but they have lost much of their significance with the advent of roadways and railways. Necessary Conditions for Development of Inland Waterways 1. Rivers should have sufficient water throughout the year. Seasonal rivers are not much suitable for inland waterways. 2. Rivers must be free from rapids, gorges, cataracts, and waterfalls so that navigation could be easy. 3. River meandering should be minimum so that boats and ships can have straight passage. 4. A good river mouth connects inland waterways to ocean routes. 5. Freezing of rivers during winter in cold areas hinders inland waterways.

Advantages of Inland Waterways 1. This is the cheapest mode of transport and is especially useful for carrying heavy commodities like coal, iron ore, wood etc. 2. There is neither any need of laying of track nor has to be metalled like the highways. 3. Rivers are the only means of transport in dense forests.

Disadvantages of Inland Waterways 1. It is a slow mode of transportation and takes longer time. Thus, it is not suitable for perishable goods and passengers. 2. Most of the rivers are away from the areas of demand for transport and are not properly used. 3. A large amount of capital is required for construction of canals, desilting and maintaining inland waterways. 4. Water level in the river varies with seasons and its navigability is adversely affected.

Important Inland Waterways of the World The navigable water bodies are confined to the following areas: North America (i) The Great Lakes—St. Lawrence Waterway

(ii) The Mississippi River System

Europe The Rhine The Danube Waterway The Volga

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Asia Inland waterways are comparatively better developed in China and India than other parts of the continent.

AIR TRANSPORT

Modern age is known as the Air Age. The air transport was developed in the early twentieth century. World Wars accelerated the pace of development of air transport. There has been a phenomenal growth of air transport during the last fifty years. The manufacturing of aircrafts and their operation require elaborate arrangements—hanger, landing, fueling and maintaining facilities. As such air transport is used only for high value goods and passengers. Chief Characteristics of Air Transport

1. This is the fastest and the costliest mode of transportation. 2. Heavy commodities of low specific value cannot be transported by air. 3. This is most suited for transporting light, costly and perishable commodities. 4. Air transport is widely used for supplying food and medicines to people hit by natural calamities such as flood, famine, earthquake, etc., 5. Air transport is the main strength of a country in the event of a war. 217

6. It is a very useful method of transport in mountainous areas where roads and railways cannot be easily constructed.

Disadvantages of Air Transport 1. It is a very costly mode of transport and only rich people can afford it. 2. Flights cannot be operated in bad weather. 3. Accidents and hijacking of planes have become a serious problem these days.

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PIPELINES • Except for transporting drinking water pipelines are the most recent modes of transport. Pipelines are mostly used for the transportation of mineral oil, natural gas and water. Advantages of Pipeline Transport 1. Pipelines can be laid through difficult terrain as well as under water. 2. Initial cost of laying pipeline in high but subsequent cost of maintenance and operation is low. 3. Pipelines ensure steady supply. 4. It minimisedtranship losses and delays. 5. Pipeline operation involves very low consumption of energy. 6. It is quick, cheap, efficient and environ-ment friendly mode of transportation. Disadvantages of Pipeline Transport 1. There is no elasticity in pipeline transport. 2. Once laid, the capacity of pipelines can neither be increased nor it can be decreased. 3. Security of pipelines in certain areas is a difficult task. 4. It is difficult to detect leakages. 5. In the event of damage, pipelines cannot be easily repaired.

COMMUNICATION • Just as means of transport are used to carry passengers and goods, similarly means of communication are used to send messages and ideas from one place to another. • Till mid-nineteenth century communication was mainly done by man himself using animals. • Development of telegraph by Samuel Morse in 1844 revolutionised the communication through newspapers and magazines. • Invention of telephone by Graham Bell and radio by Marconi further added to the process of communication. Telephone is the most commonly used form of communication even today. • Radio, television, fax and internet make communication more accessible to more people cutting across all barriers of time and space. Modern communication system more than the transport system, has converted the world into a global village. • The contemporary social and economic space is closely tied to modern communication system. • Due to tough competition, telephone companies have upgraded their copper cable systems to include fibre-optic lines. These allow large quantities of data to be transmitted rapidly, securely and free from errors.

Satellite Communication • Modern technology has enabled man to use satellites for communication purposes. Many advanced and developing countries are busy in developing satellite communication. • United States of America and Russia are pioneers in the field of space research. • The satellite communication system deployed since the early 1970s have rendered the unit cost and time of communication invariant with respect to distance. • It costs the same to communicate over 500 km as it does over 5,000 km via satellite. India has also made many efforts to develop satellite communication.

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• The first attempt was in the form of Aryabhatt launched on 19th April, 1975. Bhaskar-I was sent into the space on 7th June, 1979. Rohini was launched on 18th July, 1980. • On 19th June, 1981 APPLE (Arian Passenger Payload Experiment) satellite was launched. Bhaskar- 2 was sent into the space on 20th November, 1981. INSAT-1A was launched on 10th April, 1982 but in September the same year it stopped working. • Consequently, INSAT-2B was sent to space on 30th August, 1983 through space shuttle, Challenger. INSAT-1B has made radio, television, and long distance communication very efficient and effective. Now forecasting about storm etc. is done more effectively. • INSAT-3B launched in March, 2000 made communication more effective. India's first full-fledged meteorological satellite METSAT launched on 11th Sept. 2002 is giving valuable information about weather conditions.

Remote Sensing • Remote sensing is the act of acquiring information about a phenomenon which is not in intimate contact with the information gathering device. Remote sensing is done with the help of satellites and covers large areas. • The best satellite images are provided by Landsat satellites of National Aeronautical and Space Administration (NASA) of the USA. A major step in remote sensing was taken by NASA in July 1972 when Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERST-1) was launched. • Its name was changed to LANDSAT-1 in 1975. The launch of Landsat, which will be operated jointly by NASA and the US Geological Survey, took place in April 1999. The satellites have provided a wealth of information about the earth to scientists as well as to map makers.

Cyberspace - Internet • With the digitisation of information in the late twentieth century, telecommunication steadily merged with computers to form integrated networks through the internet. Today internet is the largest electronic net-work on the planet. • Popular access systems of the internet allow any individual with a micro-computer and modem to plug into cyberspace, the world of electronic computerised spaces encompassed by the internet and related technologies such as the World Wide Web (WWW). Cyberspace may exist in an office, a sail-boat, or virtually anywhere. • As millions of new users log on to the internet each year, cyberspace has expanded rapidly in size and in use and importance, including e-mail and electronic commerce. Thus, cyberspace exists 'everywhere'. In short, telecommunication revolution has expanded. • This electronic network has progrec3ed at an unprecedent speed in the human history. There were less than 50 million Internet users in 1995, about 400 million in 2000 A.D. and over one billion in 2005. The next billion users are to be added by 2010. • In the last five years there has been a shift among global users from U.S.A. to the developing countries. The percentage share of U.S.A. has dropped from 66 in 1995 to only 25 in 2005. Now the majority of the world's users are in U.S.A., U.K., Germany, Japan, China and India. • As millions of new users log on to the internet each year, cyberspace has expanded rapidly in size and in use and importance, including e-mail and electronic commerce. Thus, cyberspace exists `everywhere'. In short, telecommunication revolution has expanded the human, social and economic space to a great extent.

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Geographical Information Systems (GPS) • Defined in simple words GIS is a computer system capable of assembling, storing, manuplating and displaying of geographically referred information. • Geographical Information Systems (GPS)was first developed in early 1960s in the U.S.A. • At that time they were no more than set of innovative computer based applications for map data processing that were used in small numbers of government agencies and universities only. • Today, GIS has become an important field of academic study, one of the fastest growing sectors of the computer industry and most importantly, an essential component of information technology. • It has wide range of applications. The major fields in which GIS plays an important role are forestry and agriculture, geology, hydrology, human settlements, industry, transport, marketing, business, government departments and military operations apart from its increasing popularity in the academic field. • GPS provides unequalled accuracy and flexibility of positioning for navigation, surveying and GIS data capture. • It provides continuous three dimensional positioning 24 hours a day throughout the world. • GIS has tremendous amount of applications in GIS data collection, surveying and mapping. It is world's first satellite navigation system developed by the U.S. Government Department of Defence. • The present day GPS has 24 artificial satellites that orbit the Earth at altitude of 20300 kilometers, transmitting radio signals. • Their orbits are so designed that a GPS receiver anywhere on the earth surface is always visible and receives signals from atleast 4 satellite.

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10. INTERNATIONAL TRADE Introduction • Voluntary exchange of goods and services is known as trade. • Trade is conducted at two levels, viz. national trade and international trade. • National Trade is the exchange of goods and services from one part of a country to the other. • International trade is the exchange of goods and services among different countries across the national boundaries.

Barter System • The exchange of goods without involving currency is known as barter system. • For example a potter can avail the services of a plumber in exchange of pots. • Barter system still exists in many tribal areas of the world. In India also, there are some places where barter system still works very well.

International Trade • International trade depends upon several factors. Some important factors are discussed as under:

Difference in Natural Resources • The fundamental base of international trade is the difference in natural resources of different countries. • There are variations in relief, structure, geology, climate and soil from one country to the other. • These variations lead to variations in natural resources. Some countries produce certain things more than their requirement and export them while some other countries may be lacking them and import those commodities. 1. Geological Structure. Geological structure is the most important factor as it determines the relief, mineral resources, crops, animals etc. Agriculture flourishes well in the plain areas whereas mountain areas attract a large number of tourists. 2. Mineral Resources. One of the most outstanding features of mineral resources is that these resources are very unevenly distributed over the globe. Mineral resources provide a solid base to industries. Climate. Climate influences the plant and vegetation life of an area and has a deep impact on the normal life of the people. Variations in the climatic conditions lead to diversity of commodities produced in different areas. For example rice, rubber bananas etc can grow in hot climate of the tropical lands whereas wheat and wool are produced in cool areas of the temperate region.

Population Factors Following two population factors influence trade between the countries: 222

1. Cultural factors. In certain areas of the world, distinctive forms of culture are developed which lead to special type of art and craft. These have great value in the international market and are traded all over the world. 2. Size of population. Densely popu-lated countries have large volume of trade at the national level that have little exportable surplus due to huge domestic consumption.

Stage of Economic Development • Stage of economic development has a great impact on trade. There are disparities in the economic growth in different parts of the world. Some countries are still engaged in primary activities such as agriculture, mining, etc. • These countries mainly export minerals and agricultural raw materials. Most countries of Africa, Asia and South America belong to this category. • For example, Mauritania, Zambia and Rwanda earn more than 95 per cent of their foreign exchange from a few primary products. In a few countries, a single product dominates export earning e.g. copper in Zambia and coffee in Uganda provides over 90 per cent of their foreign exchange. • On the other hand, there are some advanced countries like United States of America, Britain, Japan and Germany which have developed large scale industries. • These countries mainly export finished goods. Britain and Japan import raw m/aterials and export finished goods thus doubling the trade.

Extent of Foreign Investment • Most of the developing countries lack capital resources and depend on foreign investment for their economic development. • With foreign investment coming forward, these countries are able to set up industries and improve their agriculture and mining. • The investing countries normally invest in those items which are required in their countries and thus create market for a variety of goods. This process increases the volume of trade between nations.

Transport and Communication • Trade involves exchange of goods which requires proper arrangement for trans-portation and communication. Land, water and air transport have helped international trade to a great extent. • Heavy commodities like coal and iron ore as well as light and perishable commodities like milk and milk products, meat, fruits and vegetables etc. can be sent to all parts of the world by efficient means of transport. • Countries with poor transport system have not been able to develop international trade.

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Important Aspects of International Trade Volume, composition and direction are three main aspects of international trade. (i) Volume of Trade • The volume of trade may be measured in terms of the actual tonnage of goods traded. But this is not a good indicator of value of trade. • Therefore, the trade of a country is usually measured by the total volume and the value of goods exchanged. • Sometimes, the volume of trade is measured in terms of per capita trade. This indicates the volume of trade (by value) carried on per head of the population. • The world trade has been increasing regularly with the exception of a few recessional periods. The volume of trade between countries differs markedly depending upon the nature of goods and services produced, bilateral agreements and trade restrictions.

(ii) Composition of Trade • Composition of trade, which includes exchange of goods and services, has been ever changing. • The importance of manufactured goods has increased tremendously, particularly in the second half of the twentieth century due to large scale industrialisation in large parts of the world. • Reduction in tariff barriers especially under General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT) and now under the World Trade Organisation (WTO) has further changed the composition of trade. • A number of primary products such as coal, cotton, rubber and wool have lost importance in recent years. • Petroleum occupies one of the most important places in the world trade now.

(iii) Direction of Trade • Until the eighteenth century, the present-day developing countries were exporting manufactured and high value sophisticated goods to Europe. • This trend was changed in the nineteenth century when manufactured goods from Europe were exported to three southern continents (Australia, Africa and South America) and in turn foodstuffs and raw materials were imported by Europe from these continents. • In the first half of the twentieth century, much of the trade in manufactured goods was mainly between the USA and Western Europe. • Japan became another important trading country during that period. • The old pattern started changing in the second half of the twentieth century. • The developing countries have developed their industries and are in a position to compete with the developed countries in exporting manufactured goods. • Currently, main emphasis is laid on the trade in technology.

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Types of International Trade International trade is of the following two types: (i) Bilateral Trade • Bilateral trade is the exchange of commodities between two countries. • This type of trade develops in special circumstances when the economies of the concerned countries are complementary to each other. • This is possible only to a limited extent for certain commodities.

(ii) Multilateral Trade • This type of trade involves exchange of goods and services among a number of countries.

Balance of Trade • All the countries of the world are importers as well as exporters of certain goods or services. • The difference between the value of a nation's exports and imports of all goods and services over a given period of time is called balance of trade. • If the value of the total export is more than the value of the total import in a country, it has a positive balance of trade. • If the value of the exports is lower than the value of imports, the country has a negative balance of trade. • Balance of trade and balance of payments have serious implications for a country's economy. • A negative balance would mean that the country spends more on buying goods than it can earn by selling its goods. • This would ultimately lead to exhaustion of its financial reserves.

Dumping The practice of selling a commodity in two countries at a price that differs for reasons not related to costs is called dumping.

PORTS AS GATEWAYS OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE • The word 'port' is derived from the Latin word 'porta' which means door or gateway. Thus, a port is essentially a connecting link between land and water or rather, a gateway from land to sea or from sea to land. • It is a place on the coast where ships start or end their voyage.A port, thus, acts as the gateway of international trade. • In fact, the main function of a port is to provide facilities to a country's foreign trade including export trade and import trade. • The ports have arrangements for docking as well as for loading and unloading of cargo. • It also provides storage facilities for cargo and haulting facilities for passengers.

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• A good port is well-connected to its hinterland by a good network of railways and roadways. • The significance of a port is judged by the size of cargo and the number of ships handled by it. • The importance of ports for international trade can be judged from the fact that over 90 per cent of the world's international trade is done through ports.

TYPES OF PORTS Ports are classified according to their location and the type of traffic handled by them. There are certain ports which handle cargo while other ports perform some specialised functions. Types of Ports according to Cargo Handled 1. Industrial Ports. These ports specialise in bulk cargo-like grain, sugar, ore, oil, chemicals and similar materials. 2. Commercial Ports. These ports are basically meant for imports and exports of goods. Some passenger liners and fishing ships also use such ports. 3. Comprehensive Ports. Such ports handle large volumes of bulk and general cargo. Most of the world's great ports belong to this category.

Types of Ports on the Basis of Location (i) Inland Ports: • These are located away from the sea coast towards the interior but are linked with the sea by a river or a canal. • Manchester in England and Kolkata on Hugli are good examples of such ports.

(ii) Out Ports: • These ports are built in deep water away from the actual port. Such ports receive those ships which are bigger in size and cannot reach the parent port. • Avon-mouth is the out port of Bristol, St. Nazaire for Nantes and Bremenhaven for Bremen. • Classic combination, for example, is Athens and its out port Piraeus in Greece.

Type of Ports on the Basis of Specialised Functions 1. Oil Ports a. These ports are of recent origin and have gained much importance with increase in the international trade of oil. b. These ports have shipping and refining facilities. Some of these are tanker ports while others are refinery ports. c. Maracaibo in Venezuela, Esskhira in Tunisia, Tripoli in Lebanon are tanker ports while Abadan on the Gulf of Persia is a refinery port. 2. Ports of Call a. Such ports were originally developed as calling points where ships used to anchor for refuelling, watering and taking food.

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b. Later on, they developed into commercial ports. Aden, Honolulu and Singapore are good examples of ports of call. 3. Packet Stations a. They are also known as ferry ports. Such ports are used for carrying passengers and mail over short distances. b. Packet stations are located in pairs across the sea facing each other. For example, Dover in England face Calais in France across the English Channel. c. These stations derive their names from the small ships known as `Packets' used to carry mail and passengers over short distances. 4. Entrepot Ports a. These are collection centres where the goods are brought from different countries to be sent to others besides their own country. b. Since the destination of cargo is another country, it is stored in large godowns and transported to its proper destination. c. Singapore, Rotterdam, Copenhagen, Hong Kong etc. are examples of entrepot ports. 5. Naval Ports a. These are ports of strategic importance and serve as base for ships of war. b. They also have workshops for the repairs of war ships. c. Kochi and Karwar are examples of naval ports in India.

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11. HUMAN SETTLEMENTS Introduction • Shelter is the third basic need of man after food and clothing. The size of shelter may vary from a smalltobig . • Development of shelter leads to the growth of a setllement. • Settlement is defined as an organised colony of human beings together with buildings in which they live or use and the paths and streets over which they travel. • In simple words, human settlement may be defined as a place inhabited more or less permanently. • Human settlements may consist of only a few dwelling units (hamlets), or they may be as large as megalopolis with a big cluster of buildings accommodating millions of people. • The houses may be designed or redesigned, buildings may be altered, functions may change but settlement continues in time and space. • There may be some settlements which are temporary and are occupied for short periods, may be a season.

Site and Situation of Settlements Site • It refers to the actual place of ground on which the settlement is built. • The site of settlement may be studied with reference to the physical environment and cultural heritage. For example, a village may be sited on a hill or a river bank. Such a site will determine its access to water and the likely inundation in rainy season. • The form of settlement in any particular region also reflects human perception of the natural environment.

Situation • It is also called the position of a settlement. • Situation of a settlement is defined as its location in relation to surrounding areas.

CLASSIFICATION OF SETTLEMENTS Rural Urban Dichotomy Generally, rural and urban settlements are distinguished from each other on the basis of occupation of its people and the population size. (i) Occupation • The basic criteria for distinguishing rural and urban settlements are the occupation of the inhabitants. • People of rural settlements are mainly engaged in primary activities such as agriculture, fishing, mining, forestry etc.

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• On the other hand, urban people are engaged in secondary, tertiary and quaternary activities such as manufacturing, trade, transport, services, research and development.

(ii) Population Size • Population size is another important criteria for differentiating rural from urban. But this criteria also has large variations and different countries have adopted different population size for differentiating rural from urban settlements. • In some of the densely populated countries like China and India, some of the villages have population exceeding that of some towns of Western Europe and the USA.

Sub Urbanisation • Normally people migrate from rural to urban areas in search of jobs and better amenities of life. But a new trend has emerged in the recent past according to which people move away from the congested city centres to open and cleaner areas outside the city in search of better quality of life. • In this way, suburbs develop around major cities from where thousands of people commute daily to their work places in the city.

RURAL SETTLEMENTS Rural settlements are closely related to land and have direct contact with natural envi-ronment. These settlements may be studied in terms of form, internal structure and functions.

Two distinct forms of rural settlements are (i) Compact Settlements These settle-ments are found in fertile areas. The houses are built in close vicinity along narrow streets. Initially a rural settlement may begin as a small hamlet at the intersection of two footpaths or near a water body. The hamlet grows in size as new houses are built nearby. The size of compact settlements depend upon the fertility of the soil. It varies from a few huts in arid and semiarid areas to settlement of 500 to 1,000 persons in Ganga plain. People work in the fields during the day and come back to the village in the evening. They live in a closely knit society. Most of the river plains of monsoon Asia have compact settlements. In the plains of India, China and Thailand, large nucleated village is the common sight. In the Ayeyarwadi (Irrawaday) delta of Myanmar, there are linear settlements along with nucleated small villages. The Kwanto plain of Japan has the largest concentration of compact settlements. In southern Arabia, human settlements are concentrated close to the coast. This is due to the availability of water and good soil. (ii) Scattered or Dispersed Settlements These settlements are formed of one or two dwelling units which are knitted together in a common bond by a cultural feature such as a church, a mosque or a temple. Such settlements are found in sparsely populated areas. The size of fields is large and the farmer constructs his house in the field itself. Such settlements are found in the wheat-growing areas of U.S.A., Canada and Australia.

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Scattered settlements are also seen in the areas of plantation agriculture in Asia and Africa. Elsewhere they are found in hills, plateaus and highlands. In India, such settlements are found in northern Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim and hilly areas of northern part of West Bengal.

Difference between Compact Settlements and Dispersed Settlements

Compact Settlements Dispersed Settlements

1. Compact settlements are mainly found in fertile plains and river valleys Scattered settlements are mainly found in hills, plateaus, highlands, and arid and semiarid lands

2. The main occupation is agriculture Animal grazing and lumbering are the main occupations

3. Houses are built in close vicinity to each Houses are isolated and scattered over the other land and have lesser living space.They provide more living space.

4. Size of the fields is small. Fields are large.

5. Streets are dirty due to lack of These settlements are quite neat and clean properdrainage

6. The inhabitants of compact People of dispersed settlements lead isolated settlementswork and defend themselves life. collectively

Factors Affecting Location of Settlements Following are some of the important factors which influence the location of setlements. Water Supply Water is most essential for life and human settlements tend to be located near water bodies such as rivers, lakes, springs etc from where water is easily available. Water from such water bodies is used for drinking, cooking, bathing, cleaning, irrigation, fishing etc. Sometimes the need for water drives people to settle in otherwise disadvantaged sites such as islands surrounded by swamps or low lying river banks. Land People prefer fertile land for setting up settlements, because fertile land facilitates agriculture. All early settlements were set up on fertile soil of plain areas. In Europe villages grew up near rolling

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country avoiding swampy and low lying areas. On the other hand, people of Asia prefer low lying river valleys and coastal areas where rice could be easily grown. Upland In low lying river basins, people prefer to settle on an uplands such as terraces and levels which are not prone to flooding so that there is no loss to life and property during floods. In tropical countries people build their houses on stilts near marshy lands to protect themselves from flood, insects and animal pests. Building Material Usually only those building materials are used which are locally available. Such materials include stone, wood, soil, reed etc. In forest areas wood is the main building material which is available in plenty. In loess areas of China, cave dwellings were important and African Savanna's building materials were mud bricks and the Eskimos, in polar regions, use ice blocks to construct igloos. Defence Defence is a very important aspect which determines the site of a settlement. Often defensive sites such as hills and islands are chosen during times of political instability, war, hostility etc. In India most forts are built on higher grounds or hills. In Nigeria upstanding inselbergs are good defensive sites. Planned Settlements These settlements are not chosen by villagers themselves but are planned and constructed by governments. Proper arrangements for shelter, water and other infrastructures are provided to the villagers. The scheme of villagisation in Ethiopia and the canal colonies in Indira Gandhi canal command area in India are some good examples. Rural Settlement Patterns The arrangement of the streets, houses and other functions in rural settlements is related to its form, environment and culture. As such the rural settlements present varied patterns. Rural settlements may be classified on the basis of a number of criteria: (i) On the basis of setting. The main types are plain villages, plateau villages, coastal villages, forest villages and desert villages. (ii) On the basis of functions. These may include farming villages, fisherman's villages, lumberjack villages, pastoral villages etc. (iii) On the basis of forms or shapes of the settlements. The villages assume a number of geometrical forms and shapes such as linear, rectangular, circular star like, T-shaped village, double village, cross-shaped village etc. Following patterns of rural settlements are generally recognised on the basis of their forms and shapes (Fig. 10.2). 1. Linear Pattern. Such villages develop along some road, railway, river or a canal. The main streets run parallel to road, rail or river and main shops are also in the main street. Linear pattern is also found along the sea coast. The flood plains of rivers in the hilly terrains are also occupied by linear settlements. In the low-lying areas of western Europe, villages are often positioned on dykes and

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levees forming linear patterns. In India, such pat erns are found all along the major roads anal rivers. 2. Cross Shape Pattern. This pattern is found at a place where two routes cross each other at right angles. The houses are built along the routes in all the four directions. 3. Star-like Pattern. Sometimes many routes converge at or diverge from a parti-cular point. Houses are built along all the routes and star-like pattern emerges. 4. T-Shape Pattern. Sometimes the routes meet in such a way that they make a `T' junction. People start making their houses along the routes extending in all the three directions and T-shape pattern develops. 5. Circular Pattern. This pattern develops either in flat lands or around a pond, tank or a crater. In such cases people prefer to build their houses near the source of water. Streets radiate from the centre in all the directions. Such villages are found in large number in West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh. 6. Double Pattern. When a road crosses a canal or a river through a bridge, houses are built both along the road as well as canal or river. This is known as double pattern.

URBAN SETTLEMENTS • Urban settlements have grown at a rapid pace during the recent past. • London was the first city to reach one million mark in A.D. 1810 and there were as many as 175 cities in the world which had crossed one million mark by 1982. • The urban population increased from a mere 3 per cent in 1800 to staggering 48 per cent in 2001. 232

Classification of Urban Settlements Urban settlements are classified on the basis of size of population, occupational structure and administrative setup.

1. Population Size. In almost all the countries, size of the population is taken as basic criteria for designating a settlement as urban. But the number of people that a settlement should have to qualify as urban settlement differ from country to country. For example, any place in Denmark, Sweden and Finland having more than 250 persons will be called urban. In Iceland, it has to be more than 300 persons. In Canada and Venezuela, any settlement with 1,000 persons qualifies to be called as urban. In Colombia, the lower limit is 1,500 persons, in U.S.A. and Thailand 2,500 persons, in India 5,000 persons and 30,000 persons in Japan. In India, besides the size of population, its density is an additional condition, which is 400 persons per sq. km 2. Occupational Structure. In certain countries, urban settlements are defined on the economic base. For example, in India, a settlement is designated as urban when it has more than 75% of its work force engaged in non-agricultural activities. In Italy, a settlement is called an urban, if more than 50 per cent of the economically productive population are engaged in non-agricultural pursuits. 3. Administrative Decision. Urban settlements are also identified according to the way it is administered. In India, all those settlements having a municipality, cantonment board or a notified area are termed as urban settlements. In some countries, any administrative centre is called an urban centre, even though it may be very small in size. In Central American countries, Brazil and Bolivia, even a small administrative centre is designated as an urban settlement.

Functional Classification Of Towns • Towns perform several functions simultan-eously and it is difficult to label a particular function to any town. However, some towns perform certain functions more prominently than the others and they are known by those functions. • Following types of towns can be identified on the basis of their functions:

Administrative Towns These towns are the headquarters of the administrative departments of Central or State governments. District headquarters are also termed as administrative towns. Such towns have a large number of government buildings of various heads of departments in addition to parliament house and assembly halls. They are mainly inhabited by government employees. The national capitals such as New Delhi, Canberra, Moscow, Beijing, Tokyo, Washington D.C., Paris, London etc. and state capitals in India such as Jaipur, Bhopal, Patna, Thiruvanantha-puram, Chandigarh, Hyderabad, Bangalore etc. are administrative cities. 233

Defence Towns Defence towns are important for defence purposes. These are of three types:

(a) Fort Towns. These towns were built as a defence measure against the invading armies. A large number of fort towns have been built in India. Many towns have the word `garb' (fort) tagged with their names. Chattisgarh, Aligarh etc. are such names. However, there are other fort towns where `garh' is not tagged with their names. Allahabad, Hyderabad and Jodhpur are such towns. (b) Garrison Towns. Garrison towns are those where army contingents are posted. MHOW in Madhya Pradesh near Indore is an important example of a garrison town. It is the abbreviation of Military Headquarter of War. (c) Naval Bases. These towns provide facilities to the navy. Kochi and Karwar are examples of naval bases.

Cultural Towns

There are different types of cultural towns. They are categorised as follows: (a) Educational Towns. Many towns assume importance due to their educational facilities. They have universities, colleges, schools, libraries etc. Oxford and Cambridge in England and Aligarh, Roorkee, Pantnagar, Shanti Niketan, Varanasi, Pilani in India are important examples of educational towns. (b) Religious Towns. These towns have become famous due to their religious importance. Vatican City, Lhasa, Ayodhya, Haridwar, Varanasi, Allahabad, Amritsar, Vaishno Devi, Mathura, Mecca, Ajmer are important religious towns.

Collection Centres

These are of the following types : (a) Mining Towns. Towns which have developed in mineral-rich areas are known as mining towns. Johannesburg in Africa, Coolgardie and Kalgoorlie in Australia and Digboi, Jharia, Raniganj, Dhanbad, Khetri in India are important examples of mining towns. (b) Fishing Towns. Such towns have fishing as their main function. Calicut, Kochi, Pondicherry are important fishing towns in India. (c) Lumbering Towns. The main function of lumbering towns is to collect and partly process the wood. Grand Falls and Corner Brooks in Canada and Nepa Nagar, Kathgodam and Haldwani in India are important lumbering towns.

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Industrial Towns

• They owe their development to industrial growth. Jamshedpur, Bhilai, Rourkela, Ahmedabad, Faridabad, Surat, Kanpur, Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, Pittsburgh and Youngstown are the best examples of industrial towns.

Distribution Centres

Their main function is distribution. These are of the following three types:

(a) Trade Centres. Most of the older towns were centres of exchange of goods which are known as trade centres. Dusseldorf of Germany, Winnipeg of Canada, Lahore of Pakistan, Baghdad of Iraq and Agra in India have been important trade centres. (b) Port Towns. Port towns are located on the sea coast and are centres of imports and exports, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, Thiruvananthapuram, Vishakhapatnam and Kandla are important ports on Indian coast. Out of India, Tokyo, Hong Kong, Singapore, London, New York, Liverpool, Rotterdam are important ports.

Recreational Towns

• Some towns are beautiful, attractive, health-giving and cater to the recreational needs of the surrounding areas. Srinagar, Shimla, Darjeeling, Nainital, Mussoorie, Ooty etc. are recreational towns.

New Towns

• These towns are built by the government in a planned way. Chandigarh in India, Islamabad in Pakistan and Brasilia in Brazil are important examples of new towns. These are mostly national or state capitals.

CLASSIFICATION OF TOWNS ON THE BASIS OF FORMS • Urban settlements have a large variety of forms of which linear, square, crescent shapes are more important. The form, architecture and style of buildings and other structures of an urban settlement are an outcome of its historical and cultural traditions.

TYPES OF URBAN SETTLEMENTS • Urban settlements are classified according to their size, services available and functions rendered. As such urban centres are designated as town, city, conurbation, megalopolis and million city in ascending order of their size.

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o Town. A town is a compact settlement larger than a village with community pursuing urban

Important points regarding Urbanisation 1. Urbanisation is the increase in urban population in proportion to the total population of a country. 2. Rural-urban migration is the most dominant cause of urbanisation. Rural people migrate to urban areas in search of jobs and better amenities of life. During the late 1990s some 20 to 30 million people were leaving the countryside every year and moving into towns and cities. 3. In the 19th century, developed countries experienced rapid urbanisation. 4. During the second half of the 20th century, developing countries experienced rapid urbanisation.

way of life. Generally a town has a municipality and it performs some specific functions like manufacturing, retail and wholesale trade. Professional services also exit ill towns. o City. A city is leading town which has outstripped its local or regional rurals. According to Lewis Mumford "The city is in fact the physical form of the highest and most complex type of associative life." The size of a city is much larger than the size of a town and it performs larger number of economic functions. Most cities have transport terminals, major financial institutions and regional offices. o Conurbation. The term conurbation was first coined by Patrick Geddes in 1915. This term is applied to a large area of urban development that resulted from the merging of originally separate towns or cities. Greater London, Manchester, Chicago and Tokyo are examples. In India, Kolkata conurbation extends from Budgbudge to Bansberia and Delhi conurbation from Panipat to Meerut are good examples. o Megalopolis. It is a Greek word which means "great city". Popularised by Jean Gottman in 1957, it signifies "super-metro-politian region extending as union of conurbations". The urban landscape stretching from Boston in the north to south of Washington in U.S.A. is the best known example of a megalopolis. o Million City. A city with a population of one million or more is known as million city. The number of million cities has grown at an unprecedented rate in the recent past. London was the first city to reach one million mark in 1800. This was followed by Paris in 1850 and New York in 1860. While in 1920s, there were only 24 million plus cities in the world, the number of such cities rose to 198 in 1980s. In 1950, there were 84 million cities in the world which rose to 438 in mid

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2000 i.e. there has been over five fold increase in the number of million cities within a short span of 50 years. Table 10.2 shows the continent-wise distribution of million cities.

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MPPSCADDA

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AGRICULTURE - INDIA

Following topics will be covered today.. 1. Economic Activities: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary 2. Farming Systems : Subsistence and Commercial 3. Agriculture In India 4. Cropping Pattern in India : Rabi, Kharif, Zaid 5. Major Crops: Food Crops, Cash crops , Horticultural Crops 6. Key Agricultural Facts

Primitive Subsistence Farming/ Shifting Agriculture In India, Shifting type of cultivation practiced in the hill slopes of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram and Nagaland. In this, the trees are felled and set on fire. The ash of the burnt trees and the other vegetation adds to the fertility of soil. This land is used for 2-3 years till the soil gets exhausted and the jhum is abandoned. The cultivators then move on to the other patch of forest land.

NAMES in INDIA States Jhumming Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland Pamlou Manipur Dipa Bastar CG, Andaman and Nicobar Islands Bewar or Dahiya Madhya Pradesh Podu or Penda Andhra Pradesh Pama Dabi / Koman/ /Bringa Orissa Kumari Western Ghats Valre South Eastern Rajasthan Khil Himalaya Belt Kuruwa Jharkhand

NAMES COUNTRIES Ladang Indonesia Landing Malaysia Changin Philippines Milpa Mexico Conuco Venezuela Masole Central Africa Zaire Basin Chena Sri Lanka Taungya Myanmar Roca Brazil

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Tamrai Thailand Ray Vietnam AGRICULTURE IN INDIA • Agriculture plays a vital role in Indian economy. • Around 54.6% of the population is engaged in agriculture and allied activities (Census 2011) and it contributes 17.1% to the country’s Gross Value Added for the year 2017-18 (at current prices). • The major research institute for agricultural research is Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR). • India has the 10thlargest arable land resources in the world. • With 20 Agro-climatic regions, all 15 major climates in the world exist in India • Subsistence agriculture:Most parts of India have subsistence agriculture. The farmer owns a small piece of land, grows crops with the help of his family members and consumes almost the entire farm produce with little surplus to sell in the market. • Dependent upon monsoon:Indian agriculture is mainly dependent upon monsoon which is uncertain, unreliable and irregular. Nearly 60% area is rainfed. • Variety of crops:India is a vast country with varied types of relief, climate and soil conditions. Therefore, there is a large variety of crops grown in India. Both the tropical and temperate crops are successfully grown in India. • Predominance of food crops:Since Indian agriculture has to feed a large population, production of food crops is the first priority of the farmers almost everywhere in the country. More than two- thirds of the total cropped area is devoted to the cultivation of food crops. More than 85 per cent of the net sown area is already under foodgrains. Only four per cent of the reporting area is devoted to permanent pastures and other grazing lands. • Mixed Cropping:Mixed cropping is one of the chief characteristics of Indian agriculture particularly in the rain-fed areas. The popular crops are millets, maize and pulses in the kharif season and wheat, gram and barley in the Rabi season. • Labour intensive: In large part of India, agriculture is labour intensive as most of agricultural operations like ploughing, levelling, sowing, weeding, pruning, sprinkling, spraying, harvesting, threshing, etc. are done by the farmers and their animals. • India ranks second in agricultural output and India is in top ﬁve positions for about 80 percent of products produced from farm.

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CROPPING PATTERN in INDIA India has three cropping seasons — rabi, kharif and zaid.

Rabi • Rabi crops are sown in winter from October to December and harvested in summer from April to June. Some of the important rabi crops are wheat, barley, peas, gram and mustard. • Though, these crops are grown in large parts of India, states from the north and northwestern parts such as Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh are important for the production of wheat and other rabi crops. • Availability of precipitation during winter months due to the western temperate cyclones helps in the success of these crops. • However, the success of the green revolution in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan has also been an important factor in the growth of the abovementioned rabi crops.

Kharif • Kharif crops are grown with the onset of monsoon in different parts of the country and these are harvested in September-October. • Important crops grown during this season are paddy, maize, jowar, bajra, tur (arhar), moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut and soyabean. • Some of the most important rice-growing regions are Assam, West Bengal, coastal regions of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Maharashtra, particularly the (Konkan coast) along with Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. • Recently, paddy has also become an important crop of Punjab and Haryana. In states like Assam, West Bengal and Orissa, three crops of paddy are grown in a year. These are Aus, Aman and Boro.

Zaid • In between the rabi and the kharif seasons, there is a short season during the summer months known as the Zaid season. • Some of the crops produced during ‘zaid’ are watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, vegetables and fodder crops. Sugarcane takes almost a year to grow.

Cropping Season and Crops Cropping Sown Harvest Example Season Kharif June- September - Rice (paddy), maize, ragi, jowar, bajra, tur September October (arhar), moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut and soyabean. Rabi October - March April - June Wheat, barley, oilseeds, gram, potatoes etc. Zaid April-June June Watermelon, Muskmelon, Cucumber, Vegetables and Fodder Crops 241

Soil and Crops

Soils Crops 1. Alluvial soils Wheat, maize, barley, gram, oilseeds, pulses, sugarcane. 2. Clayey loams, fine and heavy soils Rice, Jute 3. Volcanic black soils or regur Cotton, Wheat, oilseeds Jawar, bajra,groundnut, guar, pulses (green gram, red gram, 4. Sandy loams and sandy soils black gram etc.) 5. Red and yellow soils Jawar, groundnut, sugarcane. Food Crops • More than two-thirds of the total cropped area is devoted to the cultivation of food crops. • Foodgrains are dominant crops in all parts of the country whether they have subsistence or commercial agricultural economy.

Rice (Kharif) Temperature: 22-30 degree celcius Rainfall: 150-300 cm Soil: Deep Clayey and Loamy Soil It occupies 1/4th of total cultivated land, and 1/3rd of area devoted to food grains. The main food grain of India is Rice. India is the second largest producer of rice after China, in the world. West Bengal is the top state in rice production Major Producing State: West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, and Bihar. Yield wise, Tamil Nadu ranks ﬁrst in rice production. Important varieties: Hansa, Annapurna, 1R-8, Ratna, Jammuna, Krishna, Kaveri, Padma, etc. Central rice research institute is located in Cuttack, Odisha.

Wheat • Temperature: 10-15 degree celcius (Sowing Time), 21-26 degree C during Harvesting • Rainfall: 75-100 cm • Soil: Well drained fertile loamy and clayey • Wheat is the second most important cereal after Rice. • Wheat is primarily a crop of temperate zone. • Wheat Production: India ranks second in wheat production. (China>India>Russia>USA>France) • Major Producing State: Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana. • Important varieties: Sona, Sonalika, Kalyan, Sona, etc.

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Jowar • Temperature: 25-32 degree celcius • Rainfall: 30-100 cm • Soil: Can be grown in inferior alluvial or loamy soil. • Jowar is the third most important food crop. • Its a rainfed crop mostly grown in the moist areas which hardly needs irrigation. • Jowar Production: India is the largest producer of Jowar in the world. • Major Producing State: Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh. • Important varieties: CSH-1, CSH-5, CSH-9, CSH-10, etc.

Bajra • Temperature: 25-30 degree celcius • Rainfall: 40-60 cm • Soil: Grows well on sandy soil and shallow black soil. • Bajra is mainly cultivated west of the 80o East latitude in the low fertile land. • Major Producing State: Rajasthan, Maharastra, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat. • Important varieties: Pusa-23, HHB-67, ICMS-7703, ICTP-8203, etc.

Maize • Temperature: 22-27 degree celcius • Rainfall: 50-100 cm • Soil: Can be grown in inferior alluvial or loamy soil. • It is grown in May-July and harvested in August-November. • It is grown in semi-arid climatic conditions. • Major Producing State: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh (6.1 %), Madhya Pradesh(Chambal region), Himachal Pradesh. • Important varieties: Ganga-101, Ranjit, Deccan, Himalaya, Jawahar, Sartaj, Dhawal, Vijay, Navjot, Shaktimaan, etc.

Millets • Temperature:27-32 degree Celsius • Rainfall:50-75 cm • Soil:Can be grown in inferior alluvial or loamy soil • Rain fed and dry region • Drought resistant crop, high in nutrient • “Millets are grown in about 21 States. There is a major impetus in Rajasthan, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala. • The crop is grown for a dual purpose - as food for consumption and fodder for livestock

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Pulses • Both in Kharif and Rabiseason • Rainfall: 50-75 cm • Soil: Can be grown in inferior alluvial or loamy soil. • India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the world. • Pulsesare leguminous crops andoccupy about 11 per cent of the total cropped ares in the country. • They are the main source of protein in Indian diet. • Largely concentrated in the dry lands of Deccan and central plateaus and north western parts of the country • Major Producing State: Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh • Madhya Pradesh is India's largest pulse producing state, which accounts for 23% of total pulse production in the country. • Important varieties: Tur, Urad, Moong and Moth are major Kharif crops and garm, peas, masoor are rabi crops. • The main pulses grown in India include chickpea or Bengal gram, pigeon pea or red gram or Tur or arhar, lentil (masur in Hindi), urdbean or black gram, mungbean or green gram • Gram and turarethe main pulses cultivated in India.

Gram • Gram is cultivated in subtropical areas. • It is mostly a rainfed crop cultivated during rabiseason in central, western and northwestern partsof the country. • Just one or two light showers orirrigations are required to grow this cropsuccessfully. • It has been displaced from the cropping pattern by wheat in Haryana, Punjab and northern Rajasthan following the greenrevolution. • At present, gram covers only about2.8 per cent of the total cropped area in thecountry. • Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Rajasthan are the main producers of this pulsecrop. • The yield of this crop continues to be low and fluctuates from year to year even in irrigated areas.

Tur (Arhar) • Tur is the second important pulse crop in the country. • It is also known as red gram or pigeonpea. It is cultivated over marginal lands andunder rainfed conditions in the dry areas ofcentral and southern states of the country. • This crop occupies only about 2 per cent of totalcropped area of India. Maharashtra alone contributes about one-third of the total production of Tur. 244

• Other leading producer states are Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat andMadhya Pradesh. Cash Crops

Sugarcane • Temperature:22-28 degree Celsius • Rainfall: 75-110 cm • Soil:Sugarcane does not require any specific type of soil as it can be successfully raised on diverse soil types ranging from sandy soils to clay loams & heavy clays • India is the largest producer of both sugarcane and sugar in the world. • Major Producing State: Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka. • Uttar Pradesh has the largest area almost 50 per cent of the cane area in the country, • Important varieties: Co 421, Co 427, Co 116, Co 313, etc. • Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research is located in Lucknow.

Cotton • Temperature: 15-28 degree Celsius • Rainfall: 150-250 cm • Soil:Well drained deep loamy sandy soil. The best soil to growth cotton are Black soils of Deccan and Malwa plateau; however, cotton also grows well in alluvial soils of the Satluj-Ganga plain and red and laterite soils of the peninsular region. • India is the largest cotton producing country in the world followed by USA and China. • Cotton is produced in more than 12 states in India and among all states, Gujarat is the largest cotton producing state in India. • Major Producing State:Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, Haryana • Important varieties: American, Bengal, Malwi, Jarina, Sujata, MCU-4, DHG-105, etc.

Jute & Mesta (Golden fibre) • Temperature:25-35 degree Celsius • Rainfall: 150-200 cm • Soil:Well drained alluvial soils in the flood plains • India is the world's largest producer of raw jute and jute goods , contributing to over 50 percent and 40 percent respectively of global productionMore than half of the world’s jute production comes from India. • Leading world's jute producing countries are India , Bangladesh , China and Thailand. • Major Producing State: West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Andhra Pradesh. • Important varieties: Tossa Jute (JRO-66, JRO-632, etc.), White Jute (Padma), JRC-698, etc.

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Tea • Temperature:20-30 degree Celsius • Rainfall: 150-300 cm • Soil:Tea is grown in a variety of soils. The best, however, is a light friable loam with porous sub-soil which permits a free percolation of water, because tea is highly intolerant to stagnant water. In general the most suitable soils are slightly acidic and without calcium. The presence of iron in sub- soil is desirable. • India is the 2nd largest producerof tea in the world (China> India> Kenya > Srilanka) • Assam is the highest tea producing state.Assam produces almost 50% of country’s production • Major Producing State: Assam (Assam Tea), West Bengal(Darjeeling Tea) and Himachal Pradesh(Kangra Tea), Kerala (Munnar), Karnataka ( Coorg) • Important varieties: Yannam, Keemun, Darjeeling, etc.

Coffee • Temperature:15-30 degree Celsius • Rainfall: 150-250 cm • Soil: Coffee can be grown on lots of soils but the ideal types are fertile volcanic red earth or deep sandy loam. For coffee trees to grow it is important that the soil is well draining which makes heavy clay or heavy sandy soils inadequate. • India produces only 4 per cent of the world coffee, but the Indian coffee regarded very high in quality. (Brazil is the world's largest coffee producer. Brazil > Vietnam>Colombia>Indonesia) • Major Producing State: Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. • Coffee production in India is dominated in the hill tracts of South Indian states, with Karnataka accounting for 71% of the total production. The coffee plantation takes place in the district of Chikkamagaluru, Hassan, and Kodagu in Karnataka. • Important varieties: Robusta and Arabica. • The main variety of coffee grown in Karnataka is Robusta, but the state also produces a small quantity of Arabica.

Rubber • Temperature: 25-35 degree Celsius • Rainfall: 150-250 cm Well distributed throughout the year • Soil: Coffee can be grown on lots of soils but the ideal types are fertile volcanic red earth or deep sandy loam. For coffee trees to grow it is important that the soil is well draining which makes heavy clay or heavy sandy soils inadequate. • India stands at fifth largest producer and second largest consumer of natural rubber in the world. Asia is the largest hub for natural rubber production in the world (90 percent of the total global production).

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• The top five producer countries are Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia, Vietnam and India, which together account for about 70 percent of the total natural rubber production globally. • Major Producing State: Kerala, Tamil Nadu, North Eastern States, Karnataka. • Kerala accounts for more than 90 percent of the total rubber production in the country. The total area under rubber cultivation in the state is 5.45 lakh hectares. Rest of the natural rubber is produced in Tamil Nadu and North East states. • Important varieties: Tjir, RRIM 703, RRII 5, PCK-1, etc.

Silk • It is an agro-based industry. • It involves rearing of silkworms for the production of raw silk, which is the yarn obtained out of cocoons spun by certain species of insects. • India is the second largest producer of silk in the world after China. • In India all 4 varieties of silk are available. Mulberry is the main variety while tussar is mainly found in Bihar. • About 97% of the raw silk comes from five Indian states, namely, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Jammu & Kashmir, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. "Silk City" Ramanagara and Mysore in Karnataka, contribute to a majority of silk production in India. Karnataka is the largest producer of silk in India. It produces an average of around 8,200 metric tonnes of silk every year, which is about one-third of the total silk production in India. South India is the leading silk producing area of the country and is also known for its famous silk weaving enclaves like Kancheepuram, Dharmavaram, Arni, etc. • Major Producing State: Karnataka, Jammu and Kashmir and Andhra Pradesh • Important varieties: Mulberry, Tasar, Eri and Muga. • Except for mulberry, other non-mulberry varieties of silks are wild silks, known as vanya silks. • India has the unique distinction of producing all these commercial varieties of silk.

Tobacco • Temperature:15-20 degree Celsius • Rainfall: 50-100 cm. • Soil: Different types of soil are required for tobacco. Bidi tobacco is grown as a rainfed crop mostly in alluvial soils, black clayey or loamy soils. • India is the third largest producer of Tabacco in the world after China and Brazil. • Major Producing State: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat.. • Important varieties: Flue-cured, Burley, Maryland, Dark air-cured, etc.

Oil Seeds • Temperature: 20-30 degree Celsius • Rainfall: 50-100 cm • Soil: Well drained light sandy loams, red yellow and black soils 247

• Dry lands of Malwa plateau, Marathwada, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Telangana and Rayaiseema region of Andhya Pradesh and Kamataka plateau

Oil Seeds Major Producing States

Groundnut Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.

Rapeseed and Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana. Mustard

Soyabean Madhya Pradesh,Maharashtra, and Rajasthan

Sunflower Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra

Horticulture Crops

• India is the largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world. • India is a producer of tropical as well as temperate fruits. • Mangoes of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal • Oranges of Nagpur and Cherrapunjee (Meghalaya), • Bananas of Kerala, Mizoram, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, • Lichi and guava of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar • Pineapples of Meghalaya, • Grapes of Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra, • Apples, Pears, Apricots and Walnuts of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh are famous.

Key Agricultural Facts

• India has the largest population of livestock in the world; • India is the second largest fruit producer in the world. • Production of horticulture crops is estimated at record 314.7 million tonnes (mt) in 2018-19 as per third advance estimates. • India is also the largest producer, consumer and exporter of spices and spice products. • India is the largest producer of Millet in the world and second largest producer of Wheat and Rice/Paddy. • India is the largest producer of Chickpea and Pulses in the world. • India is the largest producer of Ginger in the world and second for Dry Bean, Onion, Cabbage and other brassicas.

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• India is third largest producer of Cauliflowers and Broccoli and Lettuce and chicory. • India is the largest producer of Wood fuel and forest products. • India is the largest producer of Buffalo Milk and Cow Milk in the world. • Maharashtra is the largest producer of Sugar in India as well as Cashew Nuts, grapes and onion. • Tamil Nadu is the largest producer of cassava in India • Tamil Nadu is the largest producer of Bananas. • Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer of Potato. (Followed by Westbengal and Bihar) • Maharshtra is the largest producer of Onion. (Followed by Madhya Pradesh and karnataka) • 40% of today’s global population works in agriculture sector making it the single largest employer in the world. Nearly 80% of world cultivated area is rainfed.

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RESOURCES

• Anything which has a utility and value is called a resource. • Resources are generally classified into natural, human made and human.

Natural Resources • Resources that are drawn from Nature and used without much modification are called natural resources. • The air we breathe, the water in our rivers and lakes, the soils, minerals are all natural resources. • Many of these resources are directly derived from nature and can be used directly. In some cases tools and technology may be needed to use a natural resource in the best possible way.

Natural resources are classified into different groupsdepending upon: • Level of development and use; • origin; • stock and distribution.

On the basis of their development and use resourcescan be classified into two groups, actual resources andpotential resources. • Actual resources are those resources whose quantity is known. These resources are being used in the present. The rich deposits of coal in Ruhr region of Germany and petroleum in the West Asia, the dark soils of the Deccan plateau in Maharashtra are all actual resources. • Potential resources are those whose entire quantity may not be known and these are not being used at present. These resources could be used in the future. The level of technology we have at present may not be advanced enough to easily utilise these resources. • The uranium found in Ladakh is an example of potential resource that could be used in the future. High speed winds were a potential resource two hundred years ago.

Based on their origin, resources can be abiotic or biotic. • Abiotic resources are non-living while biotic resources are living. • Soils, rocks and minerals are abiotic but plants and animals are biotic resources.

Natural resources can be broadly categorised into renewable and non-renewable resources. • Renewable resources are those which get renewed or replenished quickly. Some of these are unlimited and are not affected by human activities, such as solar and wind energy. Yet careless use of certain renewable resources like water, soil and forest can affect their stock. Water seems to be an

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unlimited renewable resource. But shortage and drying up of natural water sources is a major problem in many parts of the world today. • Non-renewable resources are those which have a limited stock. Once the stocks are exhausted it may take thousands of years to be renewed or replenished. Since this period is much more than human life spans, such resources are considered non-renewable. Coal, petroleum and natural gas are some examples.

Based on their distribution, resources can beubiquitous or localised. • Resources that are found everywhere like the air we breathe, are ubiquitous. • But those which are found only in certain places are localised, like copper and iron ore. • The distribution of natural resources depends upon number of physical factors like terrain, climate and altitude. The distribution of resources is unequal because these factors differ so much over the earth.

HUMAN MADE RESOURCES • Natural substances become resources only when their original form has been changed. Iron ore was not a resource until people learnt to extract iron from it. People use natural resources to make buildings, bridges, roads, machinery and vehicles, which are known as human made resources. • Technology is also a human made resource.

HUMAN RESOURCES • People can make the best use of nature to create more resources when they have the knowledge, skill and the technology to do so. That is why human beings are a special resource. People are human resources. • Education and health help in making people a valuable resource. Improving the quality of people’s skills so that they are able to create more resources is known as human resource development.

CONSERVING RESOURCES • Using resources carefully and giving them time to get renewed is called resource conservation. • Balancing the need to use resources and also conserve them for the future is called sustainable development. There are many ways of conserving resources by reducing consumption, recycling and reusing thing.

MINERALS • A naturally occurring substance that has a definite chemical composition is a mineral. • Minerals are not evenly distributed over space. They are concentrated in a particular area or rock formations. • Some minerals are found in areas which are not easily accessible such as the Arctic ocean bed and Antarctica. 251

• Minerals are formed in different types of geological environments, under varying conditions. • They are created by natural processes without any human interference. • They can be identified on the basis of their physical properties such as colour, density, hardness and chemical property such as solubility.

Types of Minerals On the basis of composition, minerals are classified mainly as metallic and non-metallic minerals Metallic minerals • Metallic minerals contain metal in raw form. Metals are hard substances that conduct heat and electricity and have a characteristic lustre or shine. Iron ore, bauxite, manganese ore are some examples. Metallic minerals may be ferrous or non-ferrous. • Ferrous minerals like iron ore, manganese and chromites contain iron. • A non-ferrous mineral does not contain iron but may contain some other metal such as gold, silver, copper or lead.

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Non-metallic minerals • Non-metallic minerals do not contain metals. Limestone, mica and gypsum are examples of such minerals. • The mineral fuels like coal and petroleum are also non-metallic minerals.

Mineral Extraction • Minerals can be extracted by mining, drilling or quarrying • The process of taking out minerals from rocks buried under the earth’s surface is called mining. • Minerals that lie at shallow depths are taken out by removing the surface layer; this is known as open-cast mining. • Deep bores, called shafts, have to be made to reach mineral deposits that lie at great depths. This is called shaft mining. • Petroleum and natural gas occur far below the earth’s surface. eep wells are bored to take them out, this is called drilling. • Minerals that lie near the surface are simply dug out, by the process known as quarrying.

MINERAL DISTRIBUTION IN INDIA Iron Ore • India possesses Haematite, a very high-grade iron ore. • Madhya Pradesh (Jabalpur) • Chhatisgarh (Bailadila) 253

• Goa (North Goa) • Karnataka(Chikmagalur, • Hospet, Bababudan hills), • Orisha, • Jharkhand (Singhbhum, Naomundi), • Andhra Pradesh.

Bauxite • Chief ore for producing aluminium. • Odissa (Kalahandi, Koraput, Sundargarh, Bolangir, Sambalpur) • Jharkhand (Lohardaga, Gumla) • Madhya Pradesh (Jabalpur, Mandla, Shahdol, Katni, Balaghat). • Maharashtra • Andhra Pradesh, • Gujarat • Tamil Nadu

Copper • Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat), • Rajasthan (Khetri), • Jharkhand (Singhbhum, Mosobani, • Surda), • Karnataka (Chitradurg, Hassan).

Mica • Jharkhand (Hazaribagh, Giridih, Kodarma), • Bihar (Gaya, Bhagalpur), • Andhra Pradesh (Guntur, Vizag, Kurnool), • Rajasthan (Bhilwara, Udaipur, Jaipur).

Manganese • Maharashtra (Nagpur, Bhandara, Ratnagiri), • Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat, Chhindawara), • Karnataka (Keonjhar, Bonai, Kalahandi), • Orissa, • Andhra Pradesh (Kadur, Garibadi). • Chhatisgarh

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Limestone • Bihar • Jharkhand, • Odisha, • Madhya Pradesh, • Chhattisgarh, • Rajasthan, • Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.

Gold • Karnataka (Kolar, Hutti, Raichur), • Andhra Pradesh (Ramgiri and Yeppamanna mine in Chittoor and Anantapur districts).

Silver, Zinc & Lead • Rajasthan (Zawar mines near Udaipur), • Andhra Pradesh • Karnataka (Mysore, Chitradurga, Kolar mines)

Salt • It is obtained from seas, lakes and rocks. • India is one of the world’s leading producers and exporters of salt.

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ENERGY RESOURCES IN INDIA Power resources may be broadly categorised as conventional and non-conventional resources

CONVENTIONAL SOURCES • Conventional sources of energy are those which have been in common use for a long time. Firewood and fossil fuels are the two main conventional energy sources. Firewood • It is widely used for cooking and heating. In our country more than fifty per cent of the energy used by villagers comes fromfire wood. • Remains of plants and animals which were buried under the earth for millions of years got converted by the heat and pressure into fossil fuels.

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• Fossil fuel such as coal, petroleum and natural gas are the main sources of conventional energy. The reserves of these minerals are limited. • The rate at which the growing world population is consuming them is far greater than the rate of their formation. So, these are likely to be exhausted soon. Coal • This is the most abundantly found fossil fuel. It is used as a domestic fuel, in industries such as iron and steel, steam engines and to generate electricity. • Electricity from coal is called thermal power. • The coal which we are using today was formed millions of years ago when giant ferns and swamps got buried under the layers of earth. • Coal is therefore referred to as Buried Sunshine. • The leading coal producers of the world are China, USA, Germany, Russia, South Africa and France.

Coal producing areas: • West Bengal (Raniganj, Burdwan, Bankura, Purulia, Birbhum, Jalpaigudi, Darjeeling), • Jharkhand (Jharia, Giridih, Kharhawadi, Bokaro, Hazaribagh, Karnapura, Rampur, Palamu), • Orissa (Talcher, Sambalpur), • Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh (Rewa, Pench valley, Umaria, Korba, Sohagpur, Mand river area, Kanha Valley, Betul) etc.

MAJOR THERMAL POWER PLANTS POWER PLANT STATE

Neyveli Tamil Nadu

Obra Uttar Pradesh

Rihand Uttar Pradesh

Parichha Uttar Pradesh

Farakka West Bengal

Ramagundam Andhra Pradesh

Korba Chhattisgarh

Harduaganj Uttar Pradesh

Singrauli Uttar Pradesh

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Talcher Orissa

Satpura Madhya Pradesh

Vindhyanchal Madhya Pradesh

PETROLEUM

• A thick black liquid called Petroleumis found between the layers of rocks and is drilled from oil fields located in off-shore and coastal areas. • This is then sent to refineries which process the crude oil and produce a variety of products like diesel, petrol, kerosene, wax, plastics and lubricants. • Petroleum and its derivatives are called Black Gold as they are very valuable. • The chief petroleum producing countries are Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Qatar. The other major producers are USA, Russia, Venezuela, and Algeria.

The petroleum producing areas in India:

• Assam (Digboi, Naharkatiya, Badarpur, Masinpur and Pallharia), • Gujarat (Ankleshwar, Khambat, Kalol), • Mumbai High Bassein (South of Mumbai High) etc. • Recently oil has been discovered in Kaveri basin, Krishna and Godavari basin, Khambatbasin etc.

OIL REFINERIES

• India has total 23 Oil Refineries , 18 public sector refineries and five refineries in the private sector/or as a joint venture. • Public sector refineries are located at Digboi, Guwahati, Bongaigaon, Barauni, Haldia, Koyali, Mathura, Kochi, Chennai, Vishakhapatnam, Mumbai, Panipat, Narimanam, Numanigarh and Tatipaka. • Digboi : First oil refinery in India was set up in Digboi a town in Tinsukia district of Assam state. Digboi is also known as oil city. • The largest refineries being RIL Jamnagar (Gujarat), NEL Vadinar (Gujarat) and IOC Panipat (Haryana).

PSU Refineries 259

1 Digboi, Assam

2 Guwahati, Assam

3 Barauni, Bihar

4 Kovali, Gujarat

5 Bongaigaon, Assam Indian Oil Corporation Limited 6 Haldia, West Bengal

7 Mathura, U.P

8 Panipat, Haryana

9 Paradip, Odisha

10 Mumbai, Maharashtra Hindustan Petroleum 11 Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh Corporation Limited

12 Mumbai, Maharashtra Bharat Petroleum 13 Kochi, Kerala Corporation Limited

14 Manali, Tamil Nadu Chennai Petroleum 15 Nagapattinam Corporation Limited

16 Numaligarh, Assam Numaligarh Refinery Ltd.

17 Mangalore, Karnataka MRPL

18 Tatipaka, AP ONGC

JV Refineries 19 Bina, MP Bharat Oman Refinery Ltd

20 Bathinda, Punjab HPCL Mittal Energy Ltd.

Private Sector Refineries

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21 DTA-Jamnagar Reliance Industries

22 SEZ, Jamnagar, Gujarat Limited

23 Vadinar, Gujarat Essar Oil Limited

Natural Gas • Natural gas is found with petroleum deposits and is released when crude oil is brought to the surface. • It can be used as a domestic and industrial fuel. • Russia, Norway, UK and the Netherlands are the major producers of natural gas. • In India Jaisalmer, Krishna Godavari delta, Tripura and some areas off shore in Mumbai have natural gas resources.

Hydel Power • Rain water or river water stored in dams is made tofall from heights. The falling water flows through pipesinside the dam over turbine blades placed at the bottomof the dam. • The moving blades then turn the generatorto produce electricity. This is called hydro electricity. • The water discharged after the generation of electricity isused for irrigation. • One fourth of the world’s electricity isproduced by hydel power. The leading producers of hydelpower in the world are Paraguay, Norway, Brazil, andChina. • Some important hydel power stations in India are Bhakra Nangal, Gandhi Sagar, Nagarjunsagar and Damodar valley projects

Major River Valley Projects

Name of Project River State Nagarjuna Sagar Krishna Andhra Pradesh Sriram Sagar Project Godavari Andhra Pradesh (Pochampad Project) Lower Sileru Project Sileru Andhra Pradesh Kakarapara Project Tapi Gujarat Kosi Project Kosi Bihar Gandak Project Gandak Uttar Pradesh, Bihar Sabarigiri Project Pamba-Kakki Kerala 261

Idduki Project Periyar Kerala Tawa Project Tawa Madhya Pradesh Chambal Project Chambal Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh Koyna Project Koyna Maharashtra Tungabhadra Tungabhadra Karnataka and Multipurpose Project Telangana Upper Krishna Krishna Karnataka Project Sharavati Project Sharavati Karnataka Hirakud Mahanadi Odisha Multipurpose Project Mahanadi Delta Project Mahanadi Odisha Bhakra-Nangal Sutlej Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana Rajasthan Canal Project Sutlej Rajasthan Kundah Project Kundah (Nilgiris) Tamil Nadu Neyveli Power Neyveli Tamil Nadu Station Ramganga Chui Sot River Uttarakhand Multipurpose Project (near Kalagarh) Matatila Betwa Uttar Pradesh, Multipurpose Project Madhya Pradesh Rihand Project Rihand Uttar Pradesh Damodar Valley Damodar Jharkhand shared with Project West Bengal Ukai Project Tapi Gujarat Mahi Project Mahi Gujarat Ghataprabha Project Ghataprabha Karnataka Bhima Project Bhima Maharashtra Sardar Sarovar Project Narmada Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh Bana Sagar Project Son Madhya Pradesh Dulhasti Project Chenab Jammu & Kashmir Salal Project Chenab Jammu & Kashmir Malaprabha Project Malaprabha Karnataka Jayakwadi Project Godavari Maharashtra Beas Project Beas Punjab and Haryana Sharda Sahayak Ghaghra Uttar Pradesh Mayurakshi Project Mayurakshi West Bengal Rana Pratap Sagar Chambal Rajasthan Mettur Cauvery Tamil Nadu Papanasam Project Thamirabarani Tamil Nadu Loktak Project Lake Loktak Manipur Tehri Project Bhagirathi Uttarakhand 262

(Ganga) Farakka Project Ganga West Bengal NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY • The increasing use of fossil fuels is leading to its shortage. • It is estimated that if the present rate of consumption continues, the reserves of these fuel will get exhausted. Moreover, their use also causes environmental pollution. • Therefore, there is need for using non-conventional sources such as solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy which are renewable.

Solar energy • Sun’s heat and light energy can be used insolar cells to produce electricity. • Many of these cells are joined into solar panels to generate power for heating and lighting purpose. • The technology of utilising solar energy benefits a lot of tropical countries with abundant sun shine. • Solar energy is also used in solar heaters, solar cookers, solar dryers besides being used for community lighting and traffic signals.

Wind Energy • Wind is an inexhaustible source of energy. • Wind mills have been used for grinding grain and lifting water since times immemorial. • In modern time wind mills, the high speed winds rotate the wind mill which is connected to a generator to produce electricity. • Wind farms having clusters of such wind mills are located in coastal regions and in mountain passes where strong and steady winds blow. • Windfarms are found in Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, UK, USA and Spain are noted for their wind energy production.

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Nuclear Power • Nuclear power is obtained from energy stored in the nuclei of atoms of naturally occurring radio active elements like uranium and thorium. • These fuels undergo nuclear fission in nuclear reactors and emit power. • The greatest producers of nuclear power are USA and Europe.

Nuclear Fuel Uranium • Rajasthan(Ajmer), • Jharkhand(Jadugoda), • Andhra Pradesh (Nellore, Nalgonda), • Karnataka (Gulbarga).

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Nuclear Fuel Thorium • Monozite sands of Kerala. • Rocks of Aravallis in Rajasthan. Nuclear Power Stations

PLANT STATE

Tarapur Maharashtra

Tamil Nadu, called Indira Gandhi Nuclear Kalpakkam Power Station

Narora Uttar Pradesh

Rawatbhata Kota, Rajasthan

Kaiga Karnataka

Kakrapara Gujarat

Kundankulam Tiruvelveli, Tamil Nadu

Geothermal Energy • Heat energy obtained from the earth is called geothermal energy. • The temperature in the interior of the earth rises steadily as we go deeper. Some times this heat energy may surface itself in the form of hot springs. • This heat energy can be used to generate power. Geothermal energy in the form of hot springs has been used for cooking, heating and bathing for several years. • USA has the world’s largest geothermal power plants followed by New Zealand, Iceland, Philippines and Central America. • In India, geothermal plants are located in Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh and Puga Valley in Ladakh.

Tidal Energy • Energy generated from tides is called tidal energy. • Tidal energy can be harnessed by building dams at narrow openings of the sea. • During high tide the energy of the tides is used to turn the turbine installed in the dam to produce electricity.

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• Russia, France and the Gulf of Kachchh in India have huge tidal mill farms.

Biogas • Organic waste such as dead plant and animal material, animal dung and kitchen waste can be converted intoa gaseous fuel called biogas. • The organic waste is decomposed by bacteria in biogas digesters to emit biogas which is essentially a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide. • Biogas is an excellent fuel for cooking and lighting and produces huge amount of organic manure each year.

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INDUSTRIES 1. Major Industries in India • Iron and Steel Industry • Cotton Textile Inustry • Jute Textiles • Silk Textiles • Woolen Textiles • Sugar Industry • Fertiliser Industry • Cement Industry • Alumium Smelting • Information Technology (IT) and Electronics • Other important Industries 2. Industrial Regions in India

Major Industries in India

THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY • The raw materials besides iron ore and coking coal, essential for iron and steel industry are limestone, dolomite, manganese and fire clay. • All these raw materials are gross (weight losing), therefore, the best location for the iron and steel plants is near the source of raw materials. • In India, there is a crescent shaped region comprising parts of Chhattisgarh, Northern Odisha, Jharkhand and western West Bengal, which is extremely rich in high grade iron ore, good quality coking coal and other supplementing raw materials. • Iron and Steel Plants are located at : o Jamshedpur (Jharkhand) o Durgapur, Burnpur (West Bengal) o Bhadravati (Karnataka) o Rourkela (Orissa) o Bhilai (Chhattisgarh) o Bokaro (Jharkhand) o Salem (Tamil Nadu) o Vishakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh).

TISCO (Jamshedpur) • The Tata Iron and Steel plant lies very close to the Mumbai-Kolkata railway line and about 240 km away from Kolkata, which is the nearest port for the export of steel.

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• The rivers Subarnarekha and Kharkai provide water to the plant. • The iron ore for the plant is obtained from Noamundi and Badam Pahar and coal is brought from mines in Odisha. Coking coal comes from Jharia and west Bokaro Coalfields. • Before 1947, there was only one iron and steel plant in the country - Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited (TISCO). It was privately owned. After Independence, the government took the initiative and set up several iron and steel plants. • TISCO was started in 1907 at Sakchi, near the confluence of the rivers Subanarekha and Kharkai in Jharkhand. • Later on Sakchi was renamed as Jamshedpur. Geographically, Jamshedpur is the most conveniently situated iron and steel centre in the country. • Sakchi was chosen to set up the steel plant for several reasons. This place was only 32 km away from Kalimati station on the Bengal-Nagpur railway line. • It was close to the iron ore, coal and manganese deposits as well as to Kolkata, which provided a large market.

IISCO • The Indian Iron and Steel Company (IISCO) set up its first factory at Hirapur and later on another at Kulti.

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• In 1937, the Steel corporation of Bengal was constituted in association with IISCO and set up another iron and steel producing unit at Burnpur (West Bengal). • All the three plants under IISCO are located very close to Damodar valley coal fields (Raniganj, and Ramgarh). • Iron ore comes from Singhbhum in Jharkhand. Water is obtained from the Barakar River, a tributary of the Damodar. • All the plants are located along the Kolkata-Asansol railway line. • Unfortunately, steel production from IISCO fell considerably in 1972-73 and the plants were taken over by the government.

Visvesvaraiya Iron and Steel Works Ltd. (VISL) • The third integrated steel plant, the Visvesvaraiya Iron and Steel Works, initially. called the Mysore Iron and Steel Works, is located close to an iron ore producing area of Kemangundi in the Bababudan hills. • Limestone and manganese are also locally available. But this region has no coal. At the beginning, charcoal obtained by burnig wood from nearby forests was used as fuel till 1951. • Afterwards, electric furnaces were installed which use hydroelectricity from the Jog Falls hydel power project. • The Bhadravati river supplies water to the plant. This plant produces specialised steels and alloys.

After independence, during the Second Five Year Plan (1956-61), three new integrated steel plants were set up with foreign collaboration: o Rourkela in Odisha, o Bhilai in Chhattisgarh and o Durgapur in West Bengal. • These were public sector plants under Hindustan Steel Limited (HSL). • In 1973, the Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) was created to manage these plants.

Rourkela Steel Plant (Collaboration with Germany) ➢ The Rourkela Steel plant was set up in 1959 in the Sundargarh district of Odisha in collaboration with Germany. ➢ The plant was located on the basis of proximity to raw materials, thus, minimising the cost of transporting weight losing raw material. ➢ This plant has a unique locational advantage, as it receives coal from Maria (Jharkhand) and iron ore from Sundargarh and Kendujhar. ➢ The Hirakud project supplies power for the electric furnaces and water is obtained from the Koel and Sankh rivers.

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Bhilai Steel Plant (Collaboration with Russian) ➢ The Bhilai Steel Plant was established with Russian collaboration in Durg District of Chhattisgarh and staled production in 1959. ➢ The iron ore comes from Dalli-Rajhara mine, coal comes from Korba and Kargali coal fields. ➢ The water comes from the Tandula dam and the power from the Korba Themal, Power Station. ➢ This plant also lies on the Kolkata-Mumbai railway route. ➢ The bulk of the steel produced goes to the Hindustan Shipyard at Vishakhapatnam.

Durgapur Steel Plant (Collaboration with Britain) ➢ Durgapur Steel Plant, in West Bengal, was set up in collaboration with the government of the United Kingdom and started production in 1962. ➢ This plant lies in Raniganj and Jharia coal belt and gets iron ore from Noamundi. ➢ Durgapur lies on the main Kolkata-Delhi railway route. ➢ Hydel power and water is obtained from the Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC).

Bokaro Steel Plant (Collaboration with Russia) ➢ This steel plant was set up in 1964 at Bokaro with Russian collaboration. ➢ This plant was set up on the principle of transportation cost minimisation by creating Bokaro- Rourkela combine. ➢ It receives iron ore from the Rourkela region and the wagons on return take coal to Rourkela. ➢ Other raw materials come to Bokaro from within a radius of about 350 km. ➢ Water and Hydel power is supplied by the Damodar Valley Corporation.

Other Steel Plants ➢ New steel plants which were set up in the Fourth Plan period are away from the main raw material sources. All the three plants are located in South India. Vizag Steel Plant ➢ The Vizag Steel Plant, in Visbakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh is the first port based plant which started operating in 1992. Its port location is of advantage. Vizag Steel Plant ➢ The Vijaynagar Steel Plant at Hospet in Karnataka was developed using indigenous technology. This uses local iron ore and limestone. Salem Steel Plant ➢ The Salem Steel Plant in Tamil Nadu was commissioned in 1982.

Steel Plants Established/Sector Collaborating Location Country

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IISCO 1870-1913 Nationalised in 1972 Kulti and Burnpur (Private initially) (W.B.)

TISCO 1907 Jamshedji Tata Jamshedpur (Private ownership) (Jharkhand)

VISL 1923 Nationalised later Bhadravati (Karnataka) (Private as MISCO)

Bhilai 1959 Soviet Union Bhilai (Public Sector) (Chhattisgarh)

Bokaro 1972 Soviet Union Bokaro (Public Sector) (Jharkhand)

Durgapur 1959 U.K. Durgapur (Public Sector) (W.B.)

Rourkela (Public Sector) Germany Rourkela (Odisha)

Vishakhapatnam (Public Sector) Vishakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh)

Salem (Public Sector) Salem (Tamil Nadu)

Vijay Nagar (Public Sector) Hospet, Karnataka

THE COTTON TEXTILE INDUSTRY • The cotton textile industry is one of the traditional industries of India. • Most important industry in terms of employment and production of export goods. • Cotton is a "pure" raw material which does not lose weight in the manufacturing process. so other factors, like, power to drive the looms, labour, capital or market may determine the location of the industry. • India was famous worldwide for the production of muslin, a very fine variety of cotton cloth calicos and other different varieties of fine cotton cloth.

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Conditions required for development of Cotton industry: • Tropical country and cotton is the most comfortable fabric for a hot and humid climate. • Large quantity of cotton was grown in India. • Abundant skilled labour required for this industry was available

Pre Independence • Initially, the British did not encourage the development of the indigenous cotton textile industry. They exported raw cotton to their mills in Manchester and Liverpool and brought back the finished products to be sold in India. This cloth was cheaper because it was produced at mass scale in factories in U.K. as compared to the cottage based industries of India. • In 1854, the first modern cotton mill was established in Mumbai. • Subsequently, two more mills, the Shahpur Mill and the Calico Mill were established in Ahmedabad.

The cotton textile industry in India can be broadly divided into two sectors, the organised sector and the unorganised sector. • The decentralised sector includes cloth produced in handlooms (including Khadi) and powerlooms. • The Swadeshi movement gave a major impetus to the industry as there was a call for boycotting all British made goods in favour of Indian goods.

COTTON TEXTILE Centres • Presently, the major centres of the cotton textile industry are Ahmedabad, Bhiwandi, Solapur, Kolhapur, Nagpur, lndore and Ujjain. • Maharashtra : Mumbai, Nagpur, Sholapur, Pune, Kolhapur, Satara, Wardha, Hajipur. • Gujarat : Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Rajkot, Surat, Bhavnagar • Madhya Pradesh : Indore Ujjain • Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore-Manchestor of South India). o Tamil Nadu has the largest number of cotton textile mills in India and most of them produce yarn rather than cloth. o After 1921, with the development of the railway network other cotton textile centres expanded rapidly, in southern India, mills were set up at Coimbatore, Madurai and Bengaluru. Coimbatore has emerged as the most important centre with nearly half the mills located there. o The rapid development of this industry in Tamil Nadu is the result of the abundant "availability of hydel power for the mills. Uttar Pradesh • In Uttar Pradesh, Kanpur is the largest centre. Cotton textile mills were set up at Kanpur based on local investment.

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JUTE TEXTILES • India is the largest producer of raw jute and jute goods and stands at second place as an exporter after Bangladesh. • The first jute mill was set up near Kolkata in 1859 at Rishra. • After Partition in 1947, the jute mills remained in India but three-fourth of the jute producing area went to Bangladesh (erstwhile East Pakistan). • Currently, Jute Mills are located in West Bengal, followed by Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh. • The growing global concern for environment friendly, biodegradable materials, has once again opened the opportunity for jute products.

SILK TEXTILE • Karnataka is the leading producser, followed by West Bengal, Bihar, etc.

Woolen Textile • Punjab :(Dhariwal, Amritsar, Ludhiana, Ferozpur, • Maharashtra: Mumbai • Uttar Pradesh : Kanpur, Mirzapur, Agra, Tanakpur etc.

SUGAR INDUSTRY • The sugar industry is the second most important agro-based industry in the country. • India is the largest producer of both sugarcane and cane sugar. • Sugar industry is a seasonal industry because of the seasonality of raw materials. • In 1903, first sugar mill was started in Bihar. Subsequently, sugar mills were started in other parts of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. • Sugarcane is a weight-losing crop. The ratio of sugar to sugarcane varies between 9 to 12 per cent depending on its variety.

Location • Its sucrose content begins to dry during haulage after it has been harvested from the field. • Better recovery of sugar is dependent upon its being crushed within 24 hours of its harvesting. Sugar factories hence, are located within the cane producing regions. • Maharashtra has emerged as a leading sugar producer in the country and produces more than one-third of the total production of the sugar in the country. • Uttar Pradesh is the second largest producer of sugar.

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FERTILISER INDUSTRY • The fertiliser industry is centred around the production of nitrogenous fertilisers (mainly urea), phosphatic fertilisers and ammonium phosphate and complex fertilisers which have a combination of Nitrogen (N), Phosphate (P), and Potash (K) • The third, i.e. potash is entirely imported as the country does not have any reserves of commercially usable potash or potassium compounds in any form. • About 70% of the plants producing nitrogenous fertilizers use Naphtha as raw material. Naphtha is a by-product of oil refineries. • Phosphate plants are dependent on mineral phosphate found in Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. • India is the third largest producer of nitrogenous fertilisers. • Fertilizer Corporation of India (FCI) was set up in 1961. • National Fertilizer Limited (NFL) was set up in 1974. • At present, there are 10 public sector undertakings and one in cooperative sector at Hazira in Gujarat under the Fertiliser Corporation of India. • In Sindri (Jharkhand), Nangal, Trambay, Gorakhpur, Durgapur, Namrup, Cochin, Rourkela, Neyveli, Varanasi, Vadodara, Vishakhapatnam, Kota and Kanpur.

CEMENT INDUSTRY • Cement is essential for construction activity such as building houses, factories, bridges, roads, airports, dams and for other commercial establishments. This industry requires bulky and heavy raw materials like limestone, silica, alumina and gypsum. Coal and electric power are needed apart from rail transportation. • The first cement plant was set up in Chennai in 1904.

ALUMINIUM SMELTING • Aluminium smelting is the second most important metallurgical industry in India. • It is light, resistant to corrosion, a good conductor of heat, malleable and becomes strong when it is mixed with other metals. • It is used to manufacture aircraft, utensils and wires. It has gained popularity as a substitute of steel, copper, zinc and lead in a number of industries. • Located mainly near the sources of raw materials, means of transport and cheap electricity. o Hirakund, Koraput (Odissa) o Renukoot (Uttar Pradesh) o Korba (Madhya Pradesh) o Ratnagiri (Maharashtra) o Mettur (Tamil Nadu) o Alwaye (Kerala)

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INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND ELECTRONICS INDUSTRY

• The electronics industry covers a wide range of products from transistor sets to television, telephones, cellular telecom, pagers, telephone exchange, radars, computers and many other equipments required by the telecommunication industry. • Bangalore has emerged as the electronic capital of India. • Other important centres for electronic goods are Mumbai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Pune, Chennai, Kolkata, Lucknow and Coimbatore. • The information technology industry deals in the storage, processing and distribution of information. The main factors guiding the location of these industries are resource availability, cost and infrastructure. • The major hubs of the IT industry are the Silicon Valley, California and Bangalore, India. • 18 software technology parks provide single window service and high data communication facility to software experts. A major impact of this industry has been on employment generation

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Other Important Industries

Copper Smelting Khetri, Alwar, Jhunjhunu (Rajasthan), Singhbhum (Jharkhand), Agnigundala,Guntur distt (Andhra Pradesh).

Heavy Machinery Ranchi Vishakhapatnam Durgapur Tiruchirapalli Mumbai Naini

Machine Tools Industry It forms the basis for the manufacturing of industrial, defence equipments, automobiles, railway engines and electrical machinery. In Bengaluru, Pinjore (Haryana), Kalamassery (Kerala), Hyderabad, Secunderabad, Srinagar, Ajmer.

Heavy Electrical In Bhopal, Tiruchirapalli, Jammu, Equipment Rachandrapuram (Hyderabad), Haridwar, Bengaluru, and Jagdishpur (Uttar Pradesh).

Railway Equipment Chittaranjan (West Bengal), (Locomotives) Varanasi (UP) Jamshedpur Bhopal (MP)

Railways Perambur (Tamil Nadu), (Coaches) Kapurthala (Punjab), Bengaluru and Kolkata.

Ship Building Hindustan Shipyard of Vishakhapatnam, Cochin Shipyard, Mumbai (MazgaonDock) and Kolkata (Garden Reach Workshop).

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For Indian Navy, only at Mazgaon.

Cycles Mumbai, Asansol, Sonepat, Delhi, Chennai, Jalandhar and Ludhiana.

Tractors Faridabad, Pinjore, Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai.

Pharma and The Indian Drugs and Pharmaceuticals Limited has 5 Drugs plants at Hyderabad, Rishikesh, Chennai, Gurugaon and Muzaffarpur. A number of other units are concentrated in Mumbai, Baroda, Delhi, Kolkata and Kanpur. Antibiotics are prepared at Pimpri and Rishikesh.

Pesticides Delhi and Alwaye

Aircraft Hindustan Aeronautics India Ltd. was formed by merging two aircraft factories of Bengaluru and Kanpur. Four other factories are at Nasik, Hyderabad, Koraput and Lucknow.

Synthetic Bareilly (Uttar Pradesh), Rubber Units Baroda (Gujarat)

Reclaimed Rubber Units Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Amritsar.

Industrial Regions in India Industries are not evenly distributed in the country. They tend to concentrate on certain locations because of the favourable locational factors. Several indices are used to identify the clustering of industries, important among them are : 1. the number of industrial units, 2. number of industrial workers, 3. quantum of power used for industrial purposes, 4. total industrial output, and 5. value added by manufacturing, etc.

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Major industrial regions of the country are:

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TRANSPORT RAILWAYS Indian railway system is the largest in Asia and the fourth largest in the world. It is the biggest departmental public undertaking in the country. The total number of railway stations in India is around 7,100. The total route covered is approx. 63,000 km. Northern Railway (NR) is the largest railway zone having length of 10,995 km. North-East Frontier (NEF) is the smallest railway zone having just 3,860 km route length. The headquarters of Indian Railway is in New Delhi. The first train ran in India between Bombay and Thane, a stretch of 34 km.on April 16, 1853. The second train ran between Howrah and Hooghly in 1854. Indian Railway has the second biggest electrified system in the world after Russia. The first electric train in India was Deccan Queen. It was introduced in 1929 between Bombay and Pune.

RAILWAY ZONES Railway Zones Headquarters Central Mumbai CST Western Mumbai Churchgate Eastern Kolkata East Coast Bhubaneshwar Northern New Delhi East Central Hajipur North Eastern Gorakhpur North Central Allahabad N.E. Frontier Maligaon-Guwahati North Western Jaipur Southern Chennai South Western Bengaluru (Hubli) South Central Secunderabad West Central Jabalpur South Eastern Kolkata S.E. Central Bilaspur

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Kolkata Metro Kolkata Indian railways is divided into 17 zones.

UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India There are two UNESCO World Heritage Sites on Indian Railways viz. the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus and the Mountain Railways of India. Mountain railways of India is not contiguous, but consists of three separate railway lines located in different parts of the country viz.

(i) The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, a narrow gauge railway in West Bengal (ii) The Nilgiri Mountain Railway, a metre gauge railway in the Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu and The Kalka-Shimla Railway, a narrow gauge railway in the Shivalik mountains in Himachal Pradesh.

Bullet Train • First bullet train will run in India in 2023. Estimated to cost about Rs. 97.636 crore, 81 per cent of the funding for the project will come by way of the loan from Japan. • The bullet train is expected to cover 508 km between Mumbai and Ahmedabad in about two hours, running at a maximum speed of 350 kmph and operating speed of 320 kmph.

• The first Metro Rail was introduced in Kolkata (West Bengal) on October 24, 1984. The two stations connected were Dumdum and Belgachhia. • The longest railway platform in India is at Gorakhpur (Uttar Pradesh). • Mumbai is the destination where maximum number of trains in India head for. • The current fastest train in India is the Gatiman Express whose maximum speed is 160 km/hr that runs between Delhi and Agra. • The longest train route is of Vivek Express from Dibrugarh to Kanyakumari. It covers a distance of 4,286 kms. • Konkan Railways: It is a project to shorten the distance between Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka. The total route length is 786 km between Apta (Maharashtra) and Mangalore (Karnataka). • The Indian Railways operate in three different gauges: 281

1. Broad Gauge (Distance between rails is 1.67 m.) 2. Metre Gauge (Distance between rails is 1.00 m.) 3. Narrow Gauge (Distance between rails is 0.762 or 0.610 m.) • The board gauge accounts for nearly 50% route followed by metre gauge (43%) and the remaining by narrow gauge.

RAILWAY MANUFACTURING UNITS

Manufacturing Unit Location

Chittaranjan Locomotive Works Chittaranjan (West Bengal) (Manufactures electric engines)

Diesel Locomotive Works Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh) (Manufactures diesel engines)

Integral Coach Factory Perambur (Tamil Nadu)

Wheel and Axle Plant Yelahanka (Bengaluru, Karnataka)

Diesel Component Works Patiala (Punjab)

Rail Coach Factory Kapurthala (Punjab)

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ROAD TRANSPORT

• India has the second largest road network in the world. The total length of roads is more than 33 lakh km. • For the purpose of maintenance and construction, roads are classified into National Highways, State Highways, District Highways, Village Roads, Border Roads etc. • The national highways consume only 1.8% of all Indian roads. Yet they control 40% of road traffic in the country.

LATEST NATIONAL HIGHWAY SYSTEM: FACTS As per the new numbering system: • All north-south oriented highways will have even numbers increasing from the east to the west • All east-west oriented highways will have odd numbers increasing from the north to the south • All major Highways will be single digit or double digit in number

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• Three-digit numbered highways are secondary routes or branches of a main highway. The secondary route number is prefixed to the number of the main highway. For example, 144, 244, 344 etc. will be the branches of the main NH44 • Suffixes A, B, C, D etc. are added to the three-digit sub highways to indicate very small spin-offs or stretches of sub-highways

For example: • 144 number highway is a secondary branch of highway number 44. These are further broken into sub-divisions and named with a suffixed alphabet, like 144A, 244A, etc.

Colors in National Highways: • Yellow and white color is for National highways. • Green and white for State highways • Black and white is for City highway

Longest Highway In India • The NH 44 is the longest National Highway In India. National Highway 44 (NH 44) was previously known as National Highway 7. • NH 44 is 3,745 km long and covers the North-South Corridor of NHDP. • It starts from Srinagar in the north and ends in Kanyakumari in the south. • The NH 44 highway has come into being by merging seven major national highways of old numbers that include NH 1A, NH 1, NH 2, NH 3, NH 75, NH 26 and NH 7. Top 10 longest National Highways NEW Numbering of National Highways

S. No National Highway Distance (in Route km)

1 NH 44 (old NH 7) 3,745 Srinagar to Kanyakumari

2 NH 27 3,507 Porbandar in Gujarat to Silchar in Assam

3 NH 48 (old NH 8) 2,807 Delhi to Chennai

4 NH 52 2,317 Sangrur, Punjab to Ankola, Karnataka

5 NH 30 (old NH 221) 2,040 Sitarganj in Uttarakhand to Ibrahimpatnam in Andhra Pradesh.

6 NH 6 1,873 Jorabat in Meghalaya and terminates at Selling in Mizoram

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7 NH 53 1,781 Hajira in Gujarat and Paradip port in Odisha.

8 NH 16 (old NH 5) 1,711 East coast of West Bengal to Chennai in Tamil Nadu.

9 NH 66 (old NH 17) 1,622 Panvel and terminates at Kanyakumari

10 NH 19 (old NH 2) 1,435 Delhi to Kolkata

11 NH 34 1,426 Gangotri Dham in Uttarakhand to Lakhnadon in Madhya Pradesh

Shortest National Highways • NH 118 along with NH 548 are the shortest national highway in India. NH 118 connects the towns Asanbani and Jamshedpur in the state of Jharkhand, running for a distance of only about 5 km. The NH 548 traverses the state of Maharashtra for about 5 km of length. • Leh-Manali Highway is the world’s second highest-altitude motor highway which connects Shimla in Himachal Pradesh to Leh in Jammu and Kashmir

Other Facts: • National highways are maintained by the Central Government, State highways by the respective state government while District highways by the respective District Board. Border roads and International highways are also the responsibility of Central Government (BRO). • Maharashtra has the maximumlength of surfacedroads in India. • NHDP First Phase: The Golden Quadrilateral Project connecting the four Metropolitan cities of Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata covering a total distance of 5846 km is currently being processed. It is the first phase of the National Highways Development Project (NHDP) • NHDP Second Phase: The North South-East West Corridor (NS-EW) is the largest ongoing expressway project in India. It is the second phase of the National Highways Development Project (NHDP), and consists of building 7300 kilometers of four/six lane expressways connecting Srinagar, Kanyakumari, Porbandar and Silchar.

Industrial Corridors:India started its journey on industrial corridors with the establishment of the Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC) in 2005. Besides DMIC, the government plans the development of 1. Amritsar-Kolkata Industrial Corridor (AKIC), 2. Bengaluru-Mumbai Economic Corridor (BMEC), 3. Chennai-Bengaluru Industrial Corridor (CBIC), 4. Visakhapatnam-Chennai Industrial Corridor (VCIC) and 285

5. Chennai-Kolkata Industrial Corridor.

AIR TRANSPORT J.R.D. Tata was the first person to make a solo flight from Mumbai to Karachi in 1931. In 1935, the ‘Tata Air Lines’ started its operation between Mumbai and Thiruvananthapuram and in 1937 between Mumbai and Delhi. Important International Airports in India

Important International Airports in India • Rajiv Gandhi International Airport, Hyderabad; • Calicut International Airport, Calicut; • Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport, Mumbai; • Chennai International Airport, Chennai; • HAL Airport, Bengaluru; • Goa Airport in Vasco da Gama city, Goa; • Lokpriya Gopinath Bordolio International Airport, Guwahati;

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• Indira Gandhi International Airport, Delhi • Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport, Kolkata; • Raja Sansi International Airport, Amritsar; • Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport, Ahmedabad; • Thiruvananthapuram International Airport, Thiruvananthapuram.

• In 1953, all the private Airline companies were nationalized and Indian Airlines and Air India came into existence. Air India administers international flights while Indian Airlines caters to the domestic circuit. • A number ofprivate airlines also operates in India. They are Jet Airways, Jetlite, Indigo, Go Air, etc. • Vayudoot Limited started in 1981 as a private air carrier and later on it merged with Indian Airlines. • Pawan Hans Limited operate helicopter support services to oil sector, hill stations and remote areas. • The Indira Gandhi International Airport and the Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport handle more than half of the air traffic in South Asia. • Regional connectivity scheme: 18 underserved cities are set to figure on India’s aviation map from January, with the government expecting airlines to submit proposals to fly on various routes to and from these cities under the Regional Connectivity Scheme (RCS), also known as UDAN (UdeDesh Ka Aam Nagrik).

WATER TRANSPORT • Most efficient, least costly and environment friendly means of transportation. • The total length of navigable waterways in Indian comprising river, canals, blackwaters, etc. is around 14,500 km out of which 3,700 km is navigable by mechanized boats. • At present, the government has recognized 111 National Waterways (NW) of India. The major are: • India has 14,500 km of navigable waterways, contributing about 1%to the country’s transportation. • It comprisesrivers, canals, backwaters, creeks, etc. • Atpresent, 5,685 km of major rivers are navigableby mechanised flat bottom vessels. • For the development, maintenance andregulation of national waterways in the country,the Inland Waterways Authority was set up in1986.

The following waterways have beendeclared as the National Waterways by theGovernment NW 1 Allahabad to Haldia 1,620 km

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(on Ganga river)

NW 2 Sadia to Dhubari 891 km (on Brahmaputra river)

NW 3 Kollam to Kottapuram 205 km

NW 4 Kakinada to Puducherry 1078 km (along Godavari and Krishna river)

NW 5 East Coastal Canal 588 km (Brahmani river and Mahanadi delta)

PORTS IN INDIA The Waterways Authority in India divides Indian ports into three categories, • (i) Major Ports, • (ii) Minor Ports and • (iii) International Ports.

India has about 190 ports in all, with 12 major and the rest intermediate and minor. • The 12 Major Ports are— 1. Kolkata Port including Haldia (West Bengal): Kolkata is a riverine port, located about 128 km from the Bay of Bengal on the banks of river Hooghly. Haldia was developed because excessive silting prevented entry of large marine vessels in Kolkata. 2. Paradip Port (Orissa): Located on the Orissa coast along the Bay of Bengal. India exports raw iron to Japan from this port. 3. Vishakhapatnam Port (Andhra Pradesh): The deepest port, located in Andhra Pradesh. It serves the Bhilai and Rourkela steel plants. 4. Chennai Port (Tamil Nadu): It is the oldest artificial harbour. This port ranks only second after Mumbai in terms of the traffic handling capacity. 5. Ennore Port (Tamil Nadu): Declared a major port in 2001. It is the port with corporate participation. It is provided with all the modern facilities for handling the thermal coal required for Tamil Nadu Electricity Board Power Station. 6. Tuticorin Port (Tamil Nadu): It came into existence during the reign of Pandya Kings. It has an artificial deep sea harbour. 7. Cochin Port (Kerala): A fine natural harbour located on Kerala coast. It handles the export of tea, coffee and spices and import of petroleum and fertilizers.

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8. New Mangalore Port (Karnataka): It is referred as the Gateway of Karnataka. It handles the export of iron-ore of Kudremukh. 9. Marmugao Port (Goa): It has a naval base. India’s leading iron-ore port. 10. Mumbai Port (Maharashtra): A natural port, and India’s busiest port. Nhava Sheva (Jawaharlal Nehru Port, New port) is being developed near Mumbai Port. 11. Jawaharlal Nehru Port (Maharashtra): Occupies the 5th position in the world’s faster growing ports. 12. Kandla Port (Gujarat): Called the offspring of partition as it was developed after the partition as a substitute of Karachi port. It is tidal port and a free trade zone located in the Rann of Kachchh.

Oceanic Routes • India has a vast coastline of approximate 7,517km, including islands. Twelve major and 185minor ports provide infrastructural support tothese routes. • Oceanic routes play an importantrole in the transport sector of India’s economy. • Approximately 95 per cent of India’s foreigntrade by volume and 70 per cent by value movesthrough ocean routes. Apart • from internationaltrade, these are also used for the purpose oftransportation between the islands and the restof the country.

Oil and Gas Pipelines • Pipelines are the most convenient and efficientmode of transporting liquids and gases overlong distances. • Even solids can also betransported by pipelines after converting theminto slurry. • Oil India Limited (OIL) under theadministrative set up of the Ministry ofPetroleum and Natural Gas is engaged in theexploration, production and transportation ofcrude oil and natural gas. • It was incorporatedin 1959 as a company. • Asia’s first cross countrypipeline covering a distance of 1,157 km wasconstructed by OIL from Naharkatiya oilfieldin Assam to Barauni refinery in Bihar. It wasfurther extended up to Kanpur in 1966. • Another extensive network of pipelines has beenconstructed in the western region of India ofwhich Ankleshwar-Koyali, Mumbai High-Koyali and Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur (HVJ)are most important. • Recently, a 1256 km longpipeline connecting Salaya (Gujarat) withMathura (U.P.) has been constructed. It suppliescrude oil from Gujarat to Punjab (Jalandhar)via Mathura. • OIL is in the process ofconstructing of 660 km long pipeline fromNumaligarh to Siliguri.

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POPULATION & MISCELLANEOUS

Population in India • The First population Census in India was conducted in 1872 but first complete Census was conducted only in 1881.

SOME IMPORTANT FACTS • Births are usually measured using the birth rate i.e. the number of live births per 1,000 people. • Deaths are usually measured using the death rate i.e. the number of deaths per 1,000 people. • Births and deaths are the natural causes of population change. The difference between the birth rate and the death rate of a country is called the natural growth rate. • Immigration : Migrants who move into a new place are called Immigrants. • Emigration : Migrants who move out of a place are called Emigrants. • Physiological density = total population/ net cultivated area • Agricultural density = a total agricultural population/net cultivable area • Agricultural population includes cultivators and agricultural labourers and their family members. • Main Worker is a person who works for at least 183 days (or six months) in a year. Marginal Worker is a person -who works l'or less than 183 days (or six months) in a year.

India's Sex Ratio 1901-2011 Census Year Sex ratio (Females per 1000 males) 1901 972 1911 964 1921 955 1931 950 1941 945 1951 946 1961 941 1971 930 1981 934 1991 927 2001 933 2011 940

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MISCELLANEOUS Important Terms

Revolution Product related Father/Person associated with

Protein Revolution Higher Production (Technology driven Coined by PM Narendra 2nd Green revolution). Modi and FM Arun Jaitely.

Yellow Revolution Oil seed Production (Especially Sam Pitroda Mustard and Sunflower).

Black Revolution Petroleum products.

Blue Revolution Fish Production Dr. Arun Krishnan.

Brown Revolution Leather / Cocoa / Non-Conventional Products.

Golden Fiber Revolution. Jute Production.

Golden Revolution Fruits / Honey Production / Nirpakh Tutej. Horticulture Development

Grey Revolution Fertilizers.

Pink Revolution Onion Production / Pharmaceuticals / Durgesh Patel. Prawn Production.

Evergreen Revolution Overall Production of Agriculture. Started in 11th 5 year Plan.

Silver Revolution Egg Production / Poultry Production Indira Gandhi.

Silver Fiber Revolution Cotton.

Red Revolution Meat Production / Tomato Production. Vishal Tewari.

Round Revolution Potato.

Green Revolution Food Grains. Norman Borlong

M.S. Swaminathan.

William Goud (UK).

White Revolution Milk Production. Verghese Kurien.

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(or, Operation Flood)

Distribution of Tribes in India

State Tribles

Andhra Pradesh Bhil, Chenchu, Gond, Kondas, Lambadis, Sugalis, etc.

Assam Boro, Kachari, Mikir (Karbi), Lalung, Rabha, Dimasa, Hmar, Hajong, etc.

Arunachal Pradesh Dafla, Khampti, Singpho, etc.

Andaman and Nicobar Jarawa, Nicobarese, Onges, Sentinelese, Shompens. Islands Great Andamanese

Bihar and Jharkhand Asur, Banjara, Birhor, Korwa, Munda, Oraon, Santhal, etc.

Daman & Diu; Dadra & Dholi, Mikkada, Varti, etc. Nagar Haveli

Gujarat Dhodia, Gond, Siddi, Bordia, etc.

Goa Dhodi, Siddi (Nayaka).

Himachal Pradesh Gaddi, Gujjar, Lahuala, Swangla, etc.

Jammu and Kashmir Changpa, Garra, Gujjar, Gaddi, Brokpa, Batic, etc.

Karnataka Chenchu, Gond, Kuruba, Kammara, Kolis, Koya, Mayaka, Toda, etc.

Kerala Adiyam, Kammrar, Kondkappus, Malais, Palliyar etc.

Madhya Pradesh and Bhil, Birhor, Damar, Gond, Chhattisgarh Kharia, Majhi, Munda, Oraon,

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Parahi, etc.

Maharashtra Bhil, Bhunjia, Chodhara, Dhodia, Gond, Kharia, Nayaka, Oraon, Pardhi, Rathwa, etc.

Meghalaya Garo, Khasi, Jayantia, etc.

Mizoram Lusai, Kuki, Garo, Khasi, Jayantia, Mikir, etc.

Nagaland Naga, Kuki, Mikir, Garo, etc.

Odisha Birhor, Gond, Juang, Khond, Korua, Mundari, Oraon, Santhal, Tharua, etc.

Rajasthan Bhil, Damor, Garasta, Meena, Salariya, etc.

Sikkim Bhutia, Lepcha

Tamil Nadu Irular, Kammara, Kondakapus, Kota, Mahamalasar, Palleyan, Toda, etc.

Tripura Chakma, Garo, Khasi, Kuki, Lusai, Liang, Santhal, etc.

Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand Bhoti, Buxa, Jaunsari, Tharu, Raji, etc.

West Bengal Asur, Birhor, Korwa, Lepcha, Munda, Santhal, etc.

Ethnic Groups

Tribes Race Islands

Onge Negroid Little Nicobar

Sentinelese Negroid Sentinel Island

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Jarawa Negroid Middle & South Andaman

Andamanese Negroid Strait Island

Shompen Mongloid Great Nicobar

Nicobarese Mongloid Great Nicobar CITIES AND ASSOCIATED INDUSTRIES

S.No. City/Town Industry 1 Ahmedabad(Gujarat) Cotton Textiles 2 Agra (U.P.) Marble, leather, carpets, stoneware 3 Aligarh (U.P.) Locks, cutlery and dairy industry 4 Ambernath (Maharashtra) Machine Tools Prototype Factory 5 Ambala( Haryana) Scientific Goods 6 Amritsar (Panjab) Woollen Goods, Shawls 7 Anand(Gujarat) Dairy products (AMUL) 8 Ankleshwar (Gujarat) Oil fields 9 Baku (Russia)The largest Mosque Petroleum 10 Bangaluru (Karnataka) Hindustan Aircraft, Telephone and Machine tools,Cotton textiles, toys, carpets, motors 11 Bareilly (U.P.) Resin industry, Bamboo wood work, Match Factory 12 Batanagar(West Bengal) Shoes 13 Bhilai (Chhattisgarh) Steel Plant 14 Bokaro (Jharkhand) Steel plant 15 Bangkok (Thailand) Ship-building, teak and wood 16 Bhagalpur (Bihar) Silk 17 Buenos Aires (Argentina) Dairy products,meat 18 Bhadravati(Karnataka) Iron And Steel 19 Bhadoi(UtterPradesh) Iron And Steel 20 Chennai (Tamil Nadu) Leather, Integral Coach Factory 21 Chitranjan (West Bengal) Locomotive 22 Chhindwara (M. P.) Coal, Lime-stone 23 Churk (U.P.) Cement 24 Cochin (Kerala) Ship-building, coffee, coconut, oil, coirmat rubber

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25 Cyberabad (Andhra Pradesh) Electronics Computer etc. Information Technology 26 Cadiz (Portugal) Cork 27 Chicago (USA) Agricultural equipments, automobiles 28 Coimbatore(Tamilnadu) Cotton Industries 29 Dalmianagar (Jharkhand) cement 30 Dhariwal (Punjab) Woollen goods 31 Digboi Petroleum 32 Durgapur (West Bengal) Steel 33 Darjeeling (West Bengal) Tea 34 Delhi D.D.T., Textiles and Housing 35 Dindigul (Tamilnadu) Cigar,Tobacco 36 Detroil (USA) Motor Car 37 Dhaka (Bangladesh) Jute 38 Firozabad (U.P.) Glass refinery,Bangles 39 Guntur (Andhra Pradesh) Tobacco 40 Gwalior (M.P.) Pottery 41 Havana (Cuba) Sugar, Tobacco ,cigars 42 Haridwar(Uttarkhand) Heavy Electricals 43 Hatia(Jharkhand) Heavy Engineering Corporation 44 Haldia(West Bengal) Chemical Fertilizer 45 Hazira(Gujarat) Artificial Rayon ) 46 Jamshedpur (Jharkhand) Iron &Steel,Locomotives,Coaches 47 Jullundur (Punjab) Surgical Goods & Sports Articles 48 Jaipur (Rajasthan) Embroidery, pottery, brassware 49 Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh) Bidi Industry 50 Japla(Jharkhand) Cement 51 Jharia (Jharkhand) Coal mines 52 Johannesberg (South Africa) Gold mines 53 Kolkata (West Bengal) Jute,Leather,Electric Goods 54 Kochi(Kerala ) Ship Building,CoconutOil,Rubber 55 Kanpur (UtterPradesh) Cotton &WoollenMills,Leather,Sugar 56 Koyna (Maharashtra ) Aluminium Factory

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57 Katni (Madhya Pradesh) Cement 58 Korba (Chhattisgarh) Aluminium Factory,Thermal Plant 59 Koyali (Gujarat ) Petrochemical Industries 60 Kolar (Karnataka) Gold Mining Centre 61 Kota(Rajasthan) Atomic Power Plant 62 Kanchipuram (Tamilnadu) Silk Clothes 63 Karnal (Haryana) Dairy Products 64 Kandla ( Gujarat ) Chemical Fertilizers,Famous Port 65 Khetri (Rajasthan) Copper Industries 66 Kolkata (West Bengal) Jute, Paper, Leather works 67 Kalamassery (Kerala) Hindustan Machine Tools 68 Ludhiana (Punjab) Hosiery 69 Lucknow (UtterPradesh) Embroidery Works 70 Lyons (France) Silk industry 71 Moradabad (UtterPradesh) Brassware, Cutlery 72 Madurai(Tamilnadu) Cotton And Silk Weaving 73 Mirzapur(UtterPradesh) Carpet,Pottery,Brass Industries 74 Mumbai (Maharashtra) Film Industries, atomic reactor 75 Mathura (UtterPradesh) Oil Refinery 76 Mysore (Karnataka) Sandalwood Oil,Silk Goods 77 Meerut (UtterPradesh) Scissors Making,Publication Work 78 Moorie (Jharkhand) Aluminium 79 Majhagaon(Maharashtra) Ship Building 81 Anand(Gujarat) Dairy products (AMUL) 82 Nagpur (Maharashtra) Cotton Mills,Oranges 83 Nepanagar(Madhya Pradesh) Newsprint 84 Nasik(Maharashtra) Security Printing Press 85 Neyveli(Tamilnadu) Lignite Industries 86 Nunmati (Asom) Oil Refineries 87 Narora(UtterPradesh) Atomic Power Plant 88 Nangal (Panjab) Fertilizers 89 Panna(Madhya Pradesh) Diamond Mining

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90 Pinjore (Haryana) Hindustan Machine Tools 91 Perambur (Tamilnadu) Integral Coach Factory 92 Pimpri (Maharashtra) Pencillin Factory 93 Pittsberg (USA) Iron and Steel, Coal, Petroleum 94 Raniganj (West Bengal) Coal Mining 95 Rourkela (Orissa) Steel Plant,Chemical Fertilizer 96 Ranapratap Sagar (Rajasthan) Hydro Power Plant 97 Renukoote (Utta r Pradesh) Hindustan Aluminium works 98 Roopnarayanpur (West bengal) Cables 99 Rishikesh (Uttarkhand) Antibiotic Plant 100 Saharanpur (UtterPradesh) Mangoes, Cigarette factory, Paper mill 101 Sindri (Jharkhand) Chemical Fertilizers 102 Singareni (Andhra Pradesh) Coal Mining 103 Singhbhum (Jharkhand) Copper 104 Srinagar (Kashmir) Woollen Shawls, silks, wood work embroidery 105 Surajpur (Haryana) Cement factory 106 Surat (Gujarat) Cotton Textiles,Diamond Cutting 107 Sholapur (Maharashtra) Cotton textiles 108 Suratgarh (Rajasthan) Agricultural Implements 109 Samastipur (Bihar) Jute,Paper,Tobacco,Sugar 110 Sheffield (UK) Cutlery 111 Sialkot (Pakistan) Sports Goods 112 Tarapur (Maharashtra) Atomic Power Plant 113 Titagarh (West Bengal)) Paper and Jute 114 Trombay (Maharashtra) Atomic Reactors, Fertilizers, oil refineries, Uranium Thorium Factory 115 Tiruchirapalli (Tamil Nadu)) Cigar 116 Trivandrum (Kerala) Coir Matting 117 Thumba (Kerala) Rocket Launching Station 118 Vijaypur (Madhya Pradesh) Fertilizers 119 Vishakhapatnam (Andhra Ship building, Iron and Steel and Oil refinery Pradesh) 120 Varanasi- (UtterPradesh) Rail Engines And Sari Industries

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121 Venice (Italy) Ship-building 122 Zainkot (Jammu and Kashmir) Hindustan Machine Tools (Watches)

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