WINDSCALE AND NUCLEARTHE ARMS POST-WAR RACE

Windscale, 1956, with the impressive Piles on the right.

James Chadwick works with Major General as part of the . The Churchill had so carefully cultivated began to fracture after the war ended. Considering the new technology and information uncovered during the Manhattan Project to be a joint discovery, Britain had expected that the sharing of advancements And so, Attlee decided to independently pursue in the nuclear field would continue in peacetime. But the the research of nuclear science and creation of death of Roosevelt in 1945 would mark the end of wartime an atomic bomb. In 1945, he created the Gen collaboration between the two countries, as President 75 Committee, also known as the Atomic Bomb eascale is a small, sleepy village in Truman brought to a conclusion the agreements previously Committee, which established the government’s on the north-western coast of England, looking reached with Britain and Canada, going so far as to nuclear policy. He knew he would need some of Sout over the Irish Sea. The slow pace of family introduce the Atomic Energy Act in 1946 which classified Britain’s sharpest minds to successfully develop and farming life was interrupted in 1939 when Royal US atomic secrets. With this act, it became a federal Britain’s nuclear technology and brought some of Ordnance Factories were built just three miles away to offence to reveal such nuclear secrets, deeming it a matter the country’s most prominent scientists on board, help with the war effort. Along with the influx of work of national security; a decision spurred on by the discovery fresh from their time working on the Manhattan came a flood of people, and the village consequently raising awareness of the possibility of the creation that prominent scientist , a man introduced to Project. Although these scientists had gained key grew to accommodate the new workforce. Following of a powerful weapon being closely followed by the the project by the British, was a Soviet spy who had been experience in the States and returned home with the return to peace, Seascale found itself once again outbreak of World War II, Britain accelerated its feeding key information from the Manhattan Project back valuable knowledge, none of them had a complete without major industry and its citizens became the experimentation with nuclear science in an effort to to the . Many considered the initiation of this picture of how their research came together to consequential victims of post-war depression, so it develop a real atomic bomb. act as marking America’s return to isolationism, but the create a , having been limited in their was with open arms that the villagers welcomed decision was a devastating snub for Britain’s new Prime roles. Therefore, British nuclear development was the construction of the , Britain’s Long fascinated with science, one of Winston Minister, , who saw in it a threat to Britain’s divided into three key areas: armaments, research, first nuclear complex, in the late 1940s. Little Churchill’s priorities upon being elected Prime status and influence as a Great Power. Attlee now felt and engineering. did these unsuspecting people know that one Minister in the spring of 1940 was to create a under pressure to maintain the country’s position, knowing of these two new piles would create the worst uranium subcommittee, titled MAUD, which would that the British would need to develop an atomic bomb of A pioneer of nuclear science, was be responsible for advising his government on nuclear accident in British history. their own to convince the US that Britain was a natural, the immediate choice to lead the research team, how to proceed and succeed. Throughout the war, powerful ally and hopefully reinstate their collaborative establishing his station at Harwell. In charge British scientists worked with the United States and of Armaments was William Penney, a brilliant Britain was a prominent force in scientific and special relationship. Canada to further develop nuclear technology. As mathematician from a modest background who had research and the idea of an all-powerful this research continued, however, British scientists helped develop the Hiroshima bomb. No stranger to super-weapon had been presented in British noted America’s considerably advanced knowledge nuclear science, he had worked with the Americans literature and political rhetoric since the of this new science, with Michael Pernin noting at Los Alamos, witnessed the Nagasaki bombing, early 1900s, with many recognising the that the US would “completely outstrip us in ideas, and gained experience working on Operation potential influence of science, perhaps research and application of nuclear energy and that Crossroads. most cynically examined by HG Wells, then, quite rightly, they will see no reason for our who carefully studied the work of William butting in.” This sparked Churchill’s eagerness to Following his return to Britain, he faced the choice Ramsay, Frederick Soddy, and Ernest remain a close ally with the United States, nurturing of resuming a quiet life in academia, with an offer Rutherford – the first person to split the ‘special relationship’, keen to maintain Britain’s to be principal of an college, or to help the atom. Wells’ understanding of the reputation as a worthy partner, equal in knowledge to develop Britain’s first nuclear bomb. A little destructive power of nuclear science and power. Britain continued to work with America political persuasion convinced Penney to turn down on the Manhattan Project, providing valuable is perhaps best explored in his 1914 Oxford and join Attlee’s growing team of scientists. resources such as British uranium and lending novel, Penney’s previous achievements had all been made Britain’s best scientists to the project, including in collaboration with American nuclear scientists, so of MankindThe World Set Free: A Story , Klaus Fuchs, and William Penney. this would present the challenge for him to develop have rarely .deterred Warnings scientists in literature and Chadwick became the key representative for Britain something impressive on his own. Penney set up politicians, however. So, with Otto during the Manhattan Project, forging a close, base at where the weapons would Hahn and ’s strong partnership with the Americans to ensure eventually be made. discovery of Britain would stay suitably involved. America, however, recognised their own powerful status But to make the bomb, the scientists would require in developing this new technology and the British and a factory to produce it in. representatives found themselves increasingly pushed to the sidelines. William Penney and John Cockcroft stand with key scientists Otto Frisch and , having been awarded the Medal of Freedom by the US. THE WINDSCALE

Smoke, steam and spray: the aftermath of Britain’s first atomic weapon test during at Montebello. Christopher Hinton agreed to oversee the crucial engineering development, including the design, construction, and operation of such a building, drawing up the plans for Britain’s first FIRE nuclear reactors and plutonium processing facilities at The creation of this new industry brought great Windscale. Together, these men would oversee Britain’s first excitement to the people of Seascale, being dubbed nuclear endeavour. It was a tough challenge under plenty of “The Atomics” by the press. Bringing in young political pressure, but Attlee had faith in his scientists. academic minds from across the globe, the small seaside village was rejuvenated with a vibrant, A staggering 4,000 tons of graphite were used to build intelligent population with a passion for science, Windscale’s reactors, their walls seven feet thick, and eventually earning the town the nickname of “the chimneys towering 400 feet high. It was acknowledged that brainiest town in Britain.” It drew great media the core ran the risk of quickly losing control, and Hinton attention, with the new development being described and his team were aware that Britain was far too small as “science fiction intruding on our sober lives.” The to have an unstable reactor built anywhere in the country. introduction of a thriving new industry and injection Instead, they would have to focus their efforts on developing of life into Seascale gave people a sense of hope in cooling methods to keep the reactor under control, using air the post-war environment. Little did the people know from the chimney instead of water, creating enough airflow that this new factory was being constructed with the to cool the reactor under normal operating conditions. intention of building bombs.

Hinton found himself under incredible pressure from Windscale’s first pile was operational by October 1950, Attlee and his committee, with strict, trying deadlines and the second by June 1952. By this time, Churchill imposed upon him. Attlee believed Britain should had regained his position as Prime Minister. Once be a by 1952 – the same year it was again, scientists were given a challenging deadline for anticipated that the Soviet Union would have completed experimenting with such new science, rushed on by their bomb. There was little time to do development the prospect of a test ban agreement heralded by the work, which was terrible for such new and untried US and USSR which would take effect in 1958. Eager science, and construction was forced to begin before to impress the Prime Minister, Penney gathered his the site’s research was even complete, forcing team in Montebello in October 1952, where Britain’s first atomic device was tested. It was a great success Hinton to take shortcuts during construction. The for Windscale and for Penney, who returned to a potential dangers of rushing ahead with nuclear hero’s welcome and awarded a knighthood. Churchill science before concluding research reared its head regained hope that the UK could re-establish its one year into construction when Terence Price, a relationship with the US and reaffirm its position as scientist at Harwell, made a startling discovery: if a great power. He announced that a British atomic a cartridge containing a uranium rod was to burst, bomb would be deployed for military operational use the uranium would burn and radioactive dust in 1953. would be blown up the chimney, out into the open air. Price alerted the committee to this risk at a But Churchill’s confidence wouldn’t last long. meeting, but it was dismissed, with no record of the warning being noted in the meeting’s Just weeks after Britain’s triumph, he discovered the he Windscale Piles on the British coast of Cumbria were capable of minutes. Fortunately, Cockcroft was concerned US had tested a new device in the Pacific – a Tproducing plutonium, but not in enough by this to order that filters be fitted, bomb. This new device ushered in the thermonuclear large enough quantities to produce the Calder Hall, opened by Queen resulting in these additional elements being era, demonstrating that America was bounding ahead hydrogen bomb that Churchill had Elizabeth II on 17 October 1956. with nuclear technology. The hydrogen bomb could Thomas Tuohy, came up with an alternative built on the ground while the chimneys vowed to construct. A new material was deliver a blast with the force of a megaton – ten times solution: clipping the fins on the rods’ casing. This were still under construction, finally being required, but there wasn’t the time, larger than the blast created at Montebello. would allow the rods to heat further, but it also winched into position at the top once the money or resources to build another removed one of Windscale’s key safety features. chimneys’ concrete had set. Nevertheless, It started looking less likely that the UK would be able reactor to produce the necessary Under pressure, the scientists had little choice, and the team pressed on, and Windscale was to stand alongside the US and Soviet Russia in the – a material the reactor the fins were clipped. This furthering of Britain’s built just ten days behind schedule. . One American senator even went hadn’t been designed to create. As experimentation with nuclear weapons was so far as to remark that a scientific partnership with a result, scientists had to develop considered to be in the national interest, but many Britain would be like trading a horse for a rabbit. Not a way to produce this powerful workers were sceptical of the ‘make do and mend’ to be deterred, Churchill ordered Penney to develop a radioactive isotope by heating the approach they were forced to take. hydrogen bomb: a decision that would lead Windscale uranium further. The only way to nuclear disaster. to do this was to reduce the The experimentation with developing an H-bomb amount of aluminium casing also raised public concerns, adding to the pressure already weighing on the scientists’ shoulders. In that surrounded each rod. an effort to garner public support and put minds Windscale’s deputy manager, at rest, Calder Hall opened beside Windscale in 1956, advertised as the world’s first nuclear power station, built to generate electricity for the area. Receiving a royal unveiling, it was to become the risks in and of itself. Adding water to an already dangerous mix could create an explosive blend of water, gas and air, threatening to blow the Pile apart.

Hesitantly, the work proceeded and water began pouring in, while Tuohy watched anxiously to see if this would work. It was a disaster the world had never fire proved to threaten dealt with before, and he waited everything Macmillan had in a tense state of uncertainty. worked towards, and he With the water failing to dampen couldn’t bear the public the flames, Tuohy was left with embarrassment of the one last option – to turn off the accident, deciding it was to air coolers that had been left be covered up to maintain on to aid emergency workers. US relations. He ordered Tuohy ordered everyone out of that a closed inquiry was the building, leaving just himself to be conducted under Penney’s watch, leading to Prime Minister and the Fire Chief inside to public face of nuclear science – a positive propaganda the creation of the Penney Harold continue introducing water to stunt. But Calder Hall wasn’t made purely to generate vast the fire. If this didn’t work, Tuohy Report. Workers were called Macmillan meets amounts of electricity; inside, it was secretly working to would be left with no further in to meet with Penney, one produce some of the materials Windscale needed to meet with President options to stop the fire. The by one, over the course of a the demands of creating an H-bomb. Working conditions Dwight D. last of the flames finally died, nine-day investigation. The Tom Tuohy, Windscale’s deputy manager at discussions were deemed around Windscale became increasingly dangerous. High Eisenhower in and five hours after turning on the water, Tuohy returned the time of the accident. He was appointed to be so sensitive that the levels of radioactivity were recorded in the area, workers Bermuda, March home to his family, the water flowing inside the reactor were required to walk into the reactors and push rogue reactor was overheating, and so1957. activated a Wigner CBE in 1969. recorded tapes were only Release in an attempt to discharge any dangerous for a further 30 hours as a precaution, the villagers of released to the public in the cartridges into the cooling water system with brooms, and Seascale never aware of how close to devastation they increasingly experimental methods to heat the cartridges energy that might be stored in the core. This cooling early 2000s. Whilst Penney had come, or the dangers Tuohy and his men had faced caused concern as scientists advanced further into method had been used eight times previously, concluded the thinning of the to prevent radioactive release. unknown territory. New cartridges were designed to hold but this time energy remained in part of the core, new cartridges to upscale and magnesium which presented trapped inside channel 2053. Noticing that there a key catalyst in sparking theproduction disaster. Upon was readinga primary the risk of catching fire at high temperatures. was no change in temperature the next day, the When word of the accident did finally reach the press, Penney’s findings, Macmillanfactor, recalled he clearly all copies noted of the team initiated a second Wigner Release, causing the Windscale men were initially hailed as heroes, report and in an effort to savethat face, political instead pressure issued wasa In 1957, as Maurice became Prime temperatures to rise in all channels once again, but the public were awakened to the dangers such White Paper which withheld key information from the Minister, Britain tested its first hydrogen bomb, which including 2053. On 9 October, scientists noticed that nuclear technology could present. Whilst it was Penney Report. In an attempt to make it appear as proved to be a colossal failure. Macmillan was certain he the reactor still wasn’t acting properly, with areas of confidently stated that any radioactivity released nothing more than a minor accident, he leaned heavily could re-establish relationships with new US President the core heating yet again and high levels of radiation during the fire was blown out to sea, many on one crucial phrase: “error of judgement.” Passing escaping from the chimney. In response, the workers Eisenhower, but the test H-bomb blast was barely scientists confessed that they feared it had actually onus to the Windscale workers, junior staff members bigger than that of the atom bomb Britain launched at blew more air into the graphite core. Little did they with no real means of defending themselves, Macmillan know that a fire had broken out inside channel 2053. blown inland, spreading across Britain. There Montebello. Leading British scientist, William Penney had was deep concern that babies in the surrounding buried any account of political pressure. The press a back-up option up his sleeve, named Orange Herald. Introducing air to the mix allowed the fire to spread immediately began to target the workers, holding the through hundreds of channels until it was out of area would breathe in isotopes that would be This project would require mass quantities of plutonium stored in the body, eventually leading to thyroid operators accountable for the fire’s outbreak. The control and radioactive material began billowing out sense of post-war trust between leaders, scientists, and and tritium, and Windscale was consequently ordered to cancer, and farmers in the surrounding area of the chimney. the working man began to dissolve. increase its tritium production by 500%. New cartridges were forced to dilute and discard the milk from were created, with even more of the aluminium being On 10 October, worker Eddie Davis arrived at their cattle for a month after the accident, On the same day the White Paper was published, stripped away to make room for double the amount Windscale to find signs of fire rising from the top of fearing it may be contaminated. The workers of lithium magnesium, and core temperatures were Britain detonated its first successful hydrogen the reactor. No official emergency plan had been at Windscale were praised for keeping megaton bomb, a triumph Penney described as taking being increased. Once again, warnings of potential developed for such an event, leaving the workers to their chimneys well swept, preventing an “some of the sting out of Windscale” before returning dangers were ignored, leading Christopher Hinton, handle the situation on their own. Tuohy arrived from abundance of radioactive material being to the US to lead collaborative nuclear discussions. the engineer responsible for the design and his nearby home and rushed to the top of the Pile to blown into the atmosphere. But the construction of Windscale, to resign in frustration. better judge what was going on inside the reactor, possible impact of nuclear devastation in Windscale still looms tall, now known as . later describing the experience as if “[looking] down The suggested dangers were discounted following the surrounding area was to be the least The damaged reactor was sealed during the incident, onto a blazing inferno.” He quickly became aware the first successful production of tritium, kicking of the Windscale workers’ concerns and has remained closed since, with almost fifteen full-scale production into high gear. But by raising that the thick concrete shield he was standing tons of uranium fuel still trapped inside. Whilst the on, protecting himself and the world from intense as the incident caught Macmillan’s the temperatures, undetected hot spots began to attention. surrounding buildings are still in use, acting as a develop in the Piles. radiation, could collapse if the temperature was to nuclear fuel reprocessing site, the Piles are scheduled exceed 600°C. for final decommissioning in 2037. Fortunately, recent As Tuohy and his men fought the studies have shown initial fears of cancer and deaths On 10 October 1957, Macmillan wrote to Despite the blistering heat, workers entered the fire at Windscale, Macmillan met Eisenhower in effort to convince him to caused by radioactive release from the incident did reactor in an effort to dislodge some of the burning with Eisenhower in Washington, not come to pass. Nevertheless, the fire at Windscale consider the UK as a nuclear ally. As he fuel cartridges, desperately trying to push them finally achieving the momentous put his pen to paper, Tom Tuohy was being was a crucial turning point for Britain’s involvement in loose with nearby scaffolding poles, but the heat prize of announcing the US and nuclear science. A nuclear health and safety executive urgently called into Windscale: Pile One had proved too high and the workers couldn’t last more UK would be nuclear partners was created in the aftermath, headed by a Chief caught fire. than a couple of hours in the intense conditions. once again. The Windscale Nuclear Inspector, in an effort to moderate health and Discarding his personal radiation recording badge safety rules in nuclear workspaces. It also opened the On 7 October, Vic Goodwin and his team so he couldn’t be dismissed from the scene, Tuohy public’s eyes to the true dangers that come with great working on the control panels noticed the continued to periodically climb 80 feet into the air atomic power, with the people of Britain narrowly to monitor the growing blaze inside the reactor. He escaping the threat of nuclear disaster. led his team through the night, working to try and prevent the fire from growing. The next morning it was decided to add water to the Pile – a decision that carried serious