Nuclear Arms Race

WINDSCALE AND THE POST-WAR NUCLEAR ARMS RACE Windscale, 1956, with the impressive James Chadwick works with Major General Leslie Groves And so, Attlee decided to independently pursue Piles on the right. as part of the Manhattan Project. the research of nuclear science and creation of an atomic bomb. In 1945, he created the Gen The special relationship Churchill had so carefully 75 Committee, also known as the Atomic Bomb cultivated began to fracture after the war ended. Committee, which established the government’s Considering the new technology and information uncovered nuclear policy. He knew he would need some of during the Manhattan Project to be a joint discovery, Britain’s sharpest minds to successfully develop Britain had expected that the sharing of advancements Britain’s nuclear technology and brought some of in the nuclear field would continue in peacetime. But the the country’s most prominent scientists on board, death of Roosevelt in 1945 would mark the end of wartime fresh from their time working on the Manhattan collaboration between the two countries, as President Project. Although these scientists had gained key Truman brought to a conclusion the agreements previously experience in the States and returned home with reached with Britain and Canada, going so far as to valuable knowledge, none of them had a complete introduce the Atomic Energy Act in 1946 which classified picture of how their research came together to US atomic secrets. With this act, it became a federal create a nuclear weapon, having been limited in their offence to reveal such nuclear secrets, deeming it a matter roles. Therefore, British nuclear development was of national security; a decision spurred on by the discovery divided into three key areas: armaments, research, that prominent scientist Klaus Fuchs, a man introduced to and engineering. the project by the British, was a Soviet spy who had been feeding key information from the Manhattan Project back A pioneer of nuclear science, John Cockcroft was to the Soviet Union. Many considered the initiation of this the immediate choice to lead the research team, act as marking America’s return to isolationism, but the establishing his station at Harwell. In charge decision was a devastating snub for Britain’s new Prime of Armaments was William Penney, a brilliant Minister, Clement Attlee, who saw in it a threat to Britain’s mathematician from a modest background who had status and influence as a Great Power. Attlee now felt helped develop the Hiroshima bomb. No stranger to eascale is a small, sleepy village in Cumbria raising awareness of the possibility of the creation under pressure to maintain the country’s position, knowing nuclear science, he had worked with the Americans on the north-western coast of England, looking of a powerful weapon being closely followed by the that the British would need to develop an atomic bomb of at Los Alamos, witnessed the Nagasaki bombing, Sout over the Irish Sea. The slow pace of family outbreak of World War II, Britain accelerated its their own to convince the US that Britain was a natural, and gained experience working on Operation and farming life was interrupted in 1939 when Royal experimentation with nuclear science in an effort to powerful ally and hopefully reinstate their collaborative Crossroads. Ordnance Factories were built just three miles away to develop a real atomic bomb. and special relationship. help with the war effort. Along with the influx of work Following his return to Britain, he faced the choice came a flood of people, and the village consequently Long fascinated with science, one of Winston of resuming a quiet life in academia, with an offer grew to accommodate the new workforce. Following Churchill’s priorities upon being elected Prime to be principal of an Oxford college, or to help the return to peace, Seascale found itself once again Minister in the spring of 1940 was to create a to develop Britain’s first nuclear bomb. A little without major industry and its citizens became the uranium subcommittee, titled MAUD, which would political persuasion convinced Penney to turn down consequential victims of post-war depression, so it be responsible for advising his government on Oxford and join Attlee’s growing team of scientists. was with open arms that the villagers welcomed how to proceed and succeed. Throughout the war, Penney’s previous achievements had all been made the construction of the Windscale Piles, Britain’s British scientists worked with the United States and in collaboration with American nuclear scientists, so first nuclear complex, in the late 1940s. Little Canada to further develop nuclear technology. As this would present the challenge for him to develop did these unsuspecting people know that one this research continued, however, British scientists something impressive on his own. Penney set up of these two new piles would create the worst noted America’s considerably advanced knowledge base at Aldermaston where the weapons would nuclear accident in British history. of this new science, with Michael Pernin noting eventually be made. that the US would “completely outstrip us in ideas, Britain was a prominent force in scientific research and application of nuclear energy and that But to make the bomb, the scientists would require research and the idea of an all-powerful then, quite rightly, they will see no reason for our plutonium and a factory to produce it in. super-weapon had been presented in British butting in.” This sparked Churchill’s eagerness to literature and political rhetoric since the remain a close ally with the United States, nurturing William Penney and John Cockcroft early 1900s, with many recognising the the ‘special relationship’, keen to maintain Britain’s stand with key scientists Otto Frisch and potential influence of science, perhaps reputation as a worthy partner, equal in knowledge Rudolf Peierls, having been awarded the most cynically examined by HG Wells, and power. Britain continued to work with America Medal of Freedom by the US. who carefully studied the work of William on the Manhattan Project, providing valuable Ramsay, Frederick Soddy, and Ernest resources such as British uranium and lending Rutherford – the first person to split Britain’s best scientists to the project, including the atom. Wells’ understanding of the James Chadwick, Klaus Fuchs, and William Penney. destructive power of nuclear science Chadwick became the key representative for Britain is perhaps best explored in his 1914 during the Manhattan Project, forging a close, novel, The World Set Free: A Story strong partnership with the Americans to ensure of Mankind. Warnings in literature Britain would stay suitably involved. America, have rarely deterred scientists and however, recognised their own powerful status politicians, however. So, with Otto in developing this new technology and the British Hahn and Fritz Strassmann’s representatives found themselves increasingly discovery of nuclear fission pushed to the sidelines. THE WINDSCALE FIRE Smoke, steam and spray: the aftermath of Britain’s The creation of this new industry brought great first atomic weapon test during Operation Hurricane at excitement to the people of Seascale, being dubbed Montebello. “The Atomics” by the press. Bringing in young Christopher Hinton agreed to oversee the crucial engineering academic minds from across the globe, the small development, including the design, construction, and operation seaside village was rejuvenated with a vibrant, of such a building, drawing up the plans for Britain’s first intelligent population with a passion for science, nuclear reactors and plutonium processing facilities at eventually earning the town the nickname of “the Windscale. Together, these men would oversee Britain’s first brainiest town in Britain.” It drew great media nuclear endeavour. It was a tough challenge under plenty of attention, with the new development being described political pressure, but Attlee had faith in his scientists. as “science fiction intruding on our sober lives.” The introduction of a thriving new industry and injection A staggering 4,000 tons of graphite were used to build of life into Seascale gave people a sense of hope in Windscale’s reactors, their walls seven feet thick, and the post-war environment. Little did the people know chimneys towering 400 feet high. It was acknowledged that that this new factory was being constructed with the the core ran the risk of quickly losing control, and Hinton intention of building bombs. and his team were aware that Britain was far too small to have an unstable reactor built anywhere in the country. Windscale’s first pile was operational by October 1950, Instead, they would have to focus their efforts on developing and the second by June 1952. By this time, Churchill cooling methods to keep the reactor under control, using air had regained his position as Prime Minister. Once from the chimney instead of water, creating enough airflow again, scientists were given a challenging deadline for to cool the reactor under normal operating conditions. experimenting with such new science, rushed on by the prospect of a test ban agreement heralded by the Hinton found himself under incredible pressure from US and USSR which would take effect in 1958. Eager Calder Hall, opened by Queen Attlee and his committee, with strict, trying deadlines to impress the Prime Minister, Penney gathered his Elizabeth II on 17 October 1956. imposed upon him. Attlee believed Britain should team in Montebello in October 1952, where Britain’s be a nuclear power by 1952 – the same year it was first atomic device was tested. It was a great success anticipated that the Soviet Union would have completed for Windscale and for Penney, who returned to a he Windscale Piles on the British Thomas Tuohy, came up with an alternative their bomb. There was little time to do development hero’s welcome and awarded a knighthood.

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