NOTES

Chapter 1

1. Martin Kramer, “Islam’s Sober Millennium” Jerusalem Post, 30 December 1999, http://msanews.mynet.net/Scholars/Kramer/. 2. Ali A. Mazrui, “Islam and the End of History,” Iranian Journal of International Relations, vol. 7 #1, 1995, p. 3. 3. Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel: The Fate of Nations, (New York: Norton, 1997), pp. 409–411. 4. Jeffrey Sachs, “Islam’s geopolitics as a morality tale,” The Financial Times, 28 October 2001. 5. Martin Kramer, “The Muslim Middle East in the 21st Century,” 25 November 1998, Dayan Middle East Center Website.

Chapter 2

1. Steven Bruce, “Fundamentalism, Ethnicity, and Enclave,” in Martin E. Marty, and R. Scott Appleby, eds., Fundamentalisms and the State: Remaking Polities, Economies, and Militance, vol. 3 of series (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993) p. 51. 2. For a good discussion of these issues, see Robert D. Lee, Overcoming Tradition and Modernity: the Search for Islamic Authenticity (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1997) pp. 1–7, 184. 3. I thank Professor Daniel Brumberg at Georgetown for this thought. 4. Dale F. Eickelman, and James Piscatori, Muslim Politics (Princeton: Princeton Univer- sity Press, 1996) p. 136. 5. For a good brief summary of this potential shift in political culture in Malaysia, see Chandra Muzaffar, Ulama as Mentri: the Challenge of Transforming Malay Political Culture,” 24 December 1999, International Movement for a Just World Website, http://www.jaring.my/just/. 6. Ibid. 7. For a definitive treatment of this topic, see Ann Elizabeth Myers, Islam and Human Rights (Boulder, CO: Westview Press) 1991. 8. Ahmad Mousalli, “Modern Islamist Fundamentalist Discourses on Civil Society, Plu- ralism and Democracy,” in Jillian Schwedler, ed., Toward Civil Society in the Middle East? (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1995) pp. 35–36. 9. Serif Mardin, “Civil Society and Islam,” Summary of a paper published in Civil Society, ed., John A. Hall (New York: Polity Press, 1996). 10. George Joffe, “Maghribi Islam and Islam in the Maghrib,” in David Westerlund and Eva Evers Rosander, African Islam and Islam in Africa (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1997) p. 77; Olivier Roy, “Pourquoi le ‘post-islamisme,’” Revue du Monde Musulman et de la Mediterranee, #85–86, p. 9–10. 216 THE FUTURE OF POLITICAL ISLAM

11. Nilüfer Göle, “Secularism and Islamism in Turkey: The Making of Elites and Counter- elites,” The Middle East Journal, Winter 1997, p. 57. 12. See for example Anis Abd el Fattah, “Liberating Fatma: the centrality of the need to ad- dress the rights and roles of women in Muslim societies.” Muslimedia.com is the Inter- net edition of Crescent International, Newsmagazine of the Islamic Movement, December 2001.

Chapter 3

1. John Voll, Islam: Continuity and Change in the Modern World, second edition (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1994), pp. 21–23. 2. Voll, Islam, pp. 21–23. 3. Charles Kurzman, Liberal Islam (London: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 5–6. 4. I owe these insights to Laith Kubba, from an interview in April 1999 in Washington, DC. 5. Kurzman, Liberal Islam. 6. R. Hrair Dekmejian, Islam in Revolution (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1995), pp. 94–95. 7. Dr. Mansoor al-Jamri, “Contemporary Currents in Islamist Political Thought,” first published in the London-based Al-Quds, 22 January 1999, a summary of which is also available on Islam 21 Website: http://islam21.org. 8. For one incisive, yet controversial discussion of this issue see Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban, ed., Against Islamic Extremism: The Writings of Muhammad Sa’id al-Ashmawy (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1998). 9. Fluehr-Lobban, p. 91, in which ‘Ashmawi refers to his own earlier work, The Roots of Is- lamic Law. 10. I borrow this turn of phrase from Professor Jon Anderson at Catholic University, Wash- ington DC. 11. ‘Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na’im, “Shari’a and Basic Human Rights Concerns,” in Kurz- man, Liberal Islam, op. cit. p. 236. 12. Qaradawi as quoted in John L. Esposito, and John O. Voll, Islam and Democracy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), p 45. 13. Farish A. Noor, “Interview with Syed Hiader Farooq Muslimaudoodi,” taken from New Straits Times (nstp.com.my), 15 April 2001, posting from Noor ([email protected]). 14. Farish A. Noor, “UMNO, PAS and the Ulama—Challenges and Obstacles to Reform,” 12 May 2000, Deputy Director of International Movement for a Just World (JUST), Kuala Lumpur, ([email protected]). 15. One good source of materials on that topic is Charles Kurzman’s edited volume Liberal Islam (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998). 16. Fazlur Rahman, Islam and Modernity (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1982), p. 23, italics mine. 17. Shaykh Rashid al-Ghanuchi, “Self-Criticism And Reconsideration,” Palestine Times, Issue #94, 1999. http://www.ptimes.com. 18. Dr. Mohammed Shahroor, “A Proposed Charter for Muslim Activists,” August 1999, http://islam21.org/charter. 19. Sadek J. Sulaiman, “Democracy and Rule of Law,” in Charles Kurzman, ed., Liberal Islam, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 98. 20. S. M. Zafar, “Accountability, Parliament, and Ijtihad,” in Charles Kurzman, ed., Liberal Islam (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp. 71–72. 21. Laith Kubba, “Short words on Islam and Democracy,” http//:islam21.org. NOTES 217

22. Laith Kubba in a personal exchange with the author, July 1999. 23. Dr. Asghar Ali Engineer, “Reconstruction of Islamic Thought,” Institute of Islamic Studies, India, http://Islam21.org. 24. Cited in Dale Eickelman and James Piscatori, Muslim Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), p. 34. 25. Fazlur Rahman, Islam and Modernity (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1982), p. 23.

Chapter 4

1. For one discussion of this concept as it relates to the Muslim world, see S. M. Shamsul Alamm, “Islam, Ideology and the State in Bangladesh,” Journal of Asian and African Stud- ies, vol. XXVIII, 1–2 (1993), p. 94, although the details of his discussion are based pri- marily on the Bangladeshi model. 2. Mark Juergensmeyer, The New Cold War: Religious Nationalism Confronts the Secular State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), pp. 1–8. 3. See Graham E. Fuller, “The Next Ideology,” in Foreign Policy, Spring 1995. 4. David E. Sanger, “Shipwreck in Seattle,” New York Times, 4 December 1999. 5. For an excellent discussion of the problems of globalization, see John Gray, False Dawn: The Delusions of Global Capitalism (New York: The New Press, 1998), pp.209–235. 6. Gray, p. 192. 7. Gray, p. 191. 8. Gray, p. 193. 9. Craig R. Whitney, “Keeping French Fears of US Dominance at Bay,” New York Times, 1 December 1999. 10. Robert Kaplan, “The Coming Anarchy,” The Atlantic Monthly, February 1994. 11. Kaplan, op. cit. 12. David Ownsby, “China’s War Against Itself,” New York Times 15 February 2001. 13. Peter L. Berger, “Four Faces of Global Culture,” The National Interest, Fall 1997, pp. 27–28.

Chapter 5

1. I am grateful to Professor Augustus Richard Norton, Boston University for this definition. 2. For a provocative and thought-provoking discussion of terrorism, see Eqbal Ahmed, “Terrorism: Theirs and Ours,” A Presentation at the University of Colorado, Boulder, October 12 1998 as reproduced in Turkistan Newsletter, 1 Oct 2001. 3. Khaled Abou El Fadl, “ Terrorism Is at Odds With Islamic Tradition,” Los Angeles Times, 22 August 2001; professor at the UCLA School of Law and author of “Rebellion and Political Violence in Islamic Law,” Cambridge University Press, 2001.

Chapter 6

1. Timothy Carney and Mansoor Ijaz, “Intelligence Failure? Let’s Go Back to Sudan,” The Washington Post, 30 June 2002. 2. See Kalim Siddiqui, Stages of Islamic Revolution (London: The Open Press, 1996). 3. One of the best portrayals of failing Islamist ideology in daily life in Iran is available in Farhad Khosrokhavar, and Olivier Roy, Comment Sortir d’une Revolution Religieuse (Paris: Editions de Seuil, 1999). 218 THE FUTURE OF POLITICAL ISLAM

4. Peter K. Bechtold, “More Turbulence in Sudan,” in Sudan: State and Society in Crisis, ed., John Voll (Boulder: Westview, 1991), p. 1. 5. Martha Wenger, “Sudan Politics and Society,” Middle East Report, September-October 1991, p. 3. 6. See Mohamed Elhachmi Hamdi, The Making of an Islamic Political Leader: Conver- sations With Hasan Al-Turabi (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1999). 7. Timothy Carney and Mansoor Ijaz, “Intelligence Failure? Let’s Go Back to Sudan.” 8. Williams, Brian, “The Continuing Decline of Afghan Statistics,” Reuters, 3 August 1997. 9. Bailey, op. cit. 10. Kathy Gannon, “Afghanistan Exiles Fear Taleban,” Associated Press, 17 February 1999.

Chapter 7

1. Seyyed Veli Reza Nasr, The Vanguard of the Islamic Revolution (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1994), p. 15. 2. Mumtaz Ahmad, “The Tablighi-Jamaat,” in Martin E. Marty and Scott Appleby, eds., Fundamentalisms Considered (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), pp. 510–524. 3. Zeki Saritoprak, “The Nur School of Turkey and Political Islam: A Comparative Dis- cussion,” in manuscript form, 1999. 4. “Vast extent of the ‘Gülen Empire’,” Briefing Ankara, 28 June 1999. 5. For further details, also see Hakan Yavuz, “Toward an Islamic Liberalism? The Nurcu Movement and Fethullah Gülen in Turkey,” The Middle East Journal, Autumn, 1999; Bülent Aras, “Turkish Islam’s Moderate Face,” Middle East Quarterly, September 1998; and the definitive book on the founding of the movement, Serif Mardin, Religion and Social Change in Modern Turkey: The Case of Bediüzzaman Said Nursi (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989). 6. See a fascinating discussion of this rivalry in London in Tayfun Atay, “Bir Naksibendi Söyleminde Vahhabilik” (Wahhabism in a Naqshbendi Discourse), in Kimlik Tar- tismalari ve Etnik Mesele (Identity Debates and the Ethnic Issue), Türkiye Günlügü, Ankara, April 1995. 7. S. V. R. Nasr, “The Rise of Sunni Militancy in Pakistan: The Changing Role of Islamism and the Ulama in Society and Politics,” Modern Asian Studies, 34, 1 (2000), p. 149. 8. Seyyed Veli Reza Nasr, The Vanguard of the Islamic Revolution, p. 149. 9. Rashid Ghannushi, “Islamic Movements: Self-Criticism And Reconsideration,” Pales- tine Times, No. 94 (April 1999). 10. Jillian Schwedler, “A Paradox of Democracy? Islamist Participation in Elections,” Mid- dle East Report, Winter 1998, p. 27. 11. Olivier Roy, The Failure of Political Islam (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994), pp. 75–77. 12. Rashid Ghannushi, “Islamic Movements.”

Chapter 8

1. Paul Johnson, A History of Christianity (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1976), pp. 92–93, 178–179. NOTES 219

2. Muslim Public Affairs Council, MPACnews, 19 November 2001, quoting Graham from remarks on “NBC Nightly News” on 16 November 2001, ([email protected] news.org). 3. Maulana Muhammad Masoud Azhar, “Fundamentalism,” no date, Taliban Website, (http://www.ummah.net/taliban/) downloaded 24 January 2000. The above passages are my own summary of the message. 4. For a less traditional discussion of this problem, see Graham E. Fuller and Ian O. Lesser, “Persian Gulf Myths,” Foreign Affairs, May 1997. 5. For detailed treatment of this argument, see Graham E. Fuller, “Redrawing the World’s Borders,” in The World Policy Journal, Winter 1997.

Chapter 9

1. Ibrahim Karawan, “The Islamist Impasse,” (London: International Institute of Strate- gic Studies, 1997). 2. For an excellent discussion of this phenomenon in Egypt, see Steven Barraclough, “Al- Azhar: Between the Government and the Islamists,” The Middle East Journal, Spring 1998. 3. See Dale F. Eickelman and Jon W. Anderson, “Print, Islam, and the Prospects for Civic Pluralism: New Religious Writings and Their Audiences,” Journal of Islamic Studies 8:1 (1997). 4. Eickelman, p. 125. 5. I am grateful to Iraqi Islamist Laith Kubba for this observation. 6. Nilüfer Göle, “Secularism and Islamism in Turkey: The Making of Elites and Counter- elites,” The Middle East Journal, Winter 1997, p. 58. 7. See Khosrokhavar and Olivier Roy, Iran: Comment Sortir d’une Revolution Religieuse, es- pecially chapter 5, “Individu, Jeunesse, et Espace Publique” (Paris: Editions de Seuil, 1999). 8. Isma’il al-Faruqi as quoted by John Voll in “Islamic Issues for Muslim in the United States,” in Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, ed., The Muslims of America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 212.

Chapter 10

1. Roy in a personal exchange with the author. 2. Joseph Samaha, “Are the Islamists going mainstream?” Mideast Mirror, 9 June 1999. 3. Fahmi Howeidi, “Why Moslems should support NATO in its punishment of the Serb butchers,” in Mideast Mirror, 6 April 1999, citing al-Ahram; and al-Effendi, Abdelwah- hab, “Why Arab commentators should be cheering NATO,” Mideast Mirror, 20 April 1999, citing al-Quds al-’Arabi. 4. Alan Richards, “The Political Economy of Economic Reform in the Middle East: The Challenge to Governance,” from the executive summary in RAND DRR–2763053102 (manuscript), The Political Economy of Economic Reform in the Middle East, prepared for RAND Project, “The Future of Middle East Security” Santa Monica, forthcoming 2002. 5. “Self Doomed to Failure: A special report on Arab development,” The Economist, 6 July 2002, p. 24. 220 THE FUTURE OF POLITICAL ISLAM

6. Ali A. Mazru’i, “Islam and the End of History,” Iranian Journal of International Rela- tions, vol. 7 # 1, 1995, p. 22. 7. I make this argument in greater detail in my book The Democracy Trap: Perils of the Post–Cold War World (New York: Dutton, 1992). 8. M. A. Muqtedar Khan, “Postmodernity and the Crisis of “Truth,” AReturn to Enlight- enment, Volume 2, No: 1 (Jan 21, 2000). INDEX

’Abdu, Muhammad, 7, 58 al-Nahda, 23, 61, 133 Abou el Fadl, Khaled, 90 al-Qa’ida, 41, 83–88, 94, 100, 117, 126, Abu Sayyaf, 89, 89 159, 191 Acton, Lord, 27 al-Sa’dawi, Nawal, 39 Afghanistan, 6, 7, 10, 15, 16, 24, 29, al-Takfir wa’l Hijra, 88 30, 38, 42, 76, 83, 87, 97, 101, Anatolian Tigers, 34 113–117, 137, 154, 167, 176, 177, Anti-Americanism as ideology, 91–95, 178, 186, 198 159–160 Africa, 12, 18, 23, 77, 107, 149, 212 Anti-Islamic Coalition, 192 Ahmad, Eqbal, 94 Arab Socialism, 15 (AID) Agency for International Armed Islamic Group (GIA), 88 Development, 165 Armenia, 41 AK Party (Turkey), 34, 129, 195 Asia, 18, 74, 77 Akbar (Moghul Emperor), 150 Ataturk, Mustafa Kemal, 8, 18, 119, al-Afghani, Jamal-al-din, 7 179 al-Asad, Hafiz, 191 Aum Shinrikyo, 89 al-Ashmawi, Muhammad Sa’id, 56, 57 Auschwitz, 175 al-Azhar University, 168, 169, 184 Australia, 165 al-Faraj, ‘Abd-al-Salam Muhammad, 52 Azerbaijan, 167 al-Faruqi, Isma’il, 185 Azhar, Maulana Masoud Muhammad, Algeria, 10, 15, 24, 27, 28, 31, 42, 71, 150, 151 76, 84, 88, 90, 119, 125, 126, 133, 138, 139, 141, 142, 154, 162, 167, Baader Meinhoff Gang, 89 176, 188, 203 Bahrain, 167, 212 al-Hayat, 196 Balkans, 23, 148 al-Haq, Zia, 131, 132 Baluch, 59, 176 ‘Ali, Ben, 22 Bamyan, 101, 117 al-Mahdi, Sadiq, 130 Bangladesh, 10, 42, 138, 141, 168, 170 al-Mawdudi, Abu al-A’la, 9, 120 Basques, 19 al-Mawdudi, Farooq, 58 Ba’th, 153, 187 222 THE FUTURE OF POLITICAL ISLAM

Bediuizzaman, Said Nursi, 8 Dar al-Islam, new, 184–186 Ben Bella, 119 Da’wa, 122, 123, 127, 128, 130, 135, Berbers, 176 185, 208 Bin Ladin, Usama, 53, 60, 83–85, 87, Democratization, 29–31 94,95, 100, 114, 116, 117, 186 Deobandi, 114 Black Muslims, 28 Dial-a-fatwa, 57, 58 Blasphemy, 38–40 Diamond, Jared, 6 Bosnia, 10, 22, 71, 84 Bourgiba, 119 East Asia, 12, 149 Bruce, Steven, 13 Ecumenicism, 174 Buddha, 117 “Electronic umma,” 174 Buddhist, 3, 40 Egypt, 9, 10, 13, 15, 22, 23, 24, 28, 31, Burma, 101 34, 36, 38, 39, 42, 50, 72, 84, 90, Bush George W., 83, 85, 86, 88, 151, 119, 132, 133, 138, 141, 142, 153, 157 154, 167, 168, 170, 173, 184, 187, Byzantium, 3, 148 188, 196 Eickelman, Dale, 173 Cairo, 30, 48, 68, 169, 173, 174 England, 19 Caliphate, 8, 18 Engineer, Asghar Ali, 62 Canada, 165 Ethnicity and Islam, 70, 176 Cantori, Louis, 168 Eurasia, 5, 67 Carter, Jimmy, 112 Europe, 7, 18, 40, 68 Catalans, 19 European Union, 19, 46, 190 Catholic Church, 40 Evangelical Pentacostalism, 77, 78 Caucasus, 76 Central Asia, 23, 188 Fahd bin ‘Abdul ‘Aziz, (King) 22 Chechnya, 10, 22, 24, 28, 41, 68, 84, Falun Gong, 63 126, 162 Family Law, 195 Chiapas, 77 Fatwa, 71, 111, 173 China, 2, 12, 21, 36, 37, 40, 41, 74, 75, Fazilet Party (Turkey), 34, 130, 131, 78, 84, 101, 149, 181, 190–192 195 Civil Society, 31–33 Fertile Crescent, 6 Clash of Civilizations, 145, 151 Fethullahcilar; see also Gulen Movement, Clinton, Bill, 75 128 CNN, 161 Feminism and Islam, 36–38 Cold War, 8, 9, 15, 70, 154, 156, 162, Fiqh, 56, 198, 200 196 FIS Movement (Algeria), 42, 131 Columbia, 75 France, 46, 75 Congo, 75 French Revolution, 26 Crusades, 18, 148 Germany, 73, 75 Dacca, 68 Ghannushi, Shaykh Rashid, 23, 31, 61 Dar al-Harb, 185 GIA (Armed Islamic Group), 88 INDEX 223

Globalization, 73–74, 183, 189 Islam and Nationalism, 21–22 Göle, Nilüfer, 35, 181 Islam and National Liberation Gore, Al, 197 Movements, 22–23 Gray, John, 74 Islam and Shari’a, 198–201 Greek Orthodox Patriarch, 149 Islam and the West, 145, 146, 160–162, Gulen, Fethullah, 128 201–203 Gulen movement, 128 Islamic Economies, 26, 141 Islamic Human Rights Commission, 30 Hadith, 38, 48, 58, 64 Islamic Action Front, 136, 138 Hamas, 53, 133, 138 Islamic Jihad, 88 Hashemites, 40 Islamic law; see Shari’a Hajj, 17 Islamism and Geopolitics, 67–81 Hazaras, 176 Islamism as Ideology, 193 Hindus, 3, 40 Islamist Femininist Movement, 37 Hindu Revivalist Party, 70 Islamization, 35, 131 Hizballah, 88 Israel, 8, 9, 40, 84, 93, 148, 152–154, Hudud punishments, 200 157, 164 Huntington, Samuel, 145, 151 Istanbul, 68, 173 Hussein, Saddam, 40, 90, 100, 163, Italy, 72, 74 167, 187, 191, 197 Jahiliyya, 52 Ibrahim, Anwar, 197 Jaish-e Mohammad, 150 Ijtihad, 50, 56, 63, 104–112, 128, 184 Jama’at-i Islami, 7, 20, 42, 53, 131 Iman, 4 Jama’at-i ‘Ulama-i Islami, (JUI) 23, 116 IMF (International Monetary Fund), 73, Japan, 46, 74 111, 142 Java, 3 India, 2, 10, 12, 36, 37, 40, 68, 74, 84, Jihad, 10, 149, 150 149, 157, 191 Jinnah, Mohammad Ali, 119 Indonesia, 3, 10, 23, 28, 31, 36, 50, 62, Joffee, George, 33 68, 72, 76, 125, 126, 133, 136, Jordan, 9, 10, 12, 36, 40, 138, 141, 138, 139, 167, 168, 173, 187, 188 142, 168, 176, 187, 212 Internet, 10, 40, 164 Judeo-Christian, 148 Iran, 10, 15, 21, 26, 30, 31, 34, 41, 43, Jundallah, 88 57, 71, 97–99, 101, 102–107, 111, Justice and Development Party (Turkey); 116, 118, 119, 131, 137, 139, 140, see AK Party 154, 158, 157, 176, 177, 183, 184, 187, 188, 196, 197, 198 Kadivar, Abdol Muhsin, 184 Iraq, 10, 21, 68, 83, 86, 90, 102, 126, Kafir, 48, 52 132, 153, 154, 157, 158, 167, 176, Kaplan, Robert, 76 189, 197 Karachi, 68 Iran-Iraq War, 107 Karawan, Ibrahim, 168 Islam and History, 1–4 Kashmir, 22, 71, 84, 126, 150, 162, Islam and identity, 17–18 163, 191, 195 224 THE FUTURE OF POLITICAL ISLAM

Kazakstan, 167 Modernist Islam, 49 Kemalism, 35, 139 Modernization, 68–69 Khan, Muqtedar, 208 Mohammad, Mahatir, 197 Khartoum, 112, 113 Morocco, 3, 10, 12, 28, 40, 71, 168, Khomeini, Ayatollah, 105, 156, 182 176, 212 Korea, 74 Moscow, 154 Kramer, Martin, 1 Mossad, 84 Kubba, Laith, 61–63 Mossadegh, 100 Kufr, 135, 150 Mubarak, Husni, 22 Kurds, 71, 176 Mughal Dynasty, 172 Kuwait, 10, 29, 31, 39, 125, 133, 138, Muhammadiya (Indonesia), 23, 52, 131, 139, 141, 167, 195–197, 212 136, 138, 199 Muhsin, Salahaddin, 39 Laicisme, 176 Mujahidin, 29, 42, 85, 87, 88, 100, Latin America, 12, 36, 74 114–116 Left and Islam, 196 Mukhabarat, 126, 128, 192 Leninist tactics, 21, 98, 123 Munharif (Deviant from Islam), 117 Levant states, 9 Muslim Brotherhood, 20, 42, 52, 53, Leviathan, 32 169, 170, 187, 195 Liberalism in Islam, 54–56 Muslim Brotherhood of Egypt, 108, Lebanon, 9, 31, 138, 177 120 Libya, 126, 132, 154, 167, 187, 188, Muslim Brotherhood of Kuwait, 39 189 Muslim seafarers, 5 London, 30, 61, 104 “Muslim Space,” 33 Muslim Student Association, 161 Madrasas, 132 Mu’tazilite, 50 Magna Carta, 25 Muzaffar, Chandra, 27 Maghreb, 189; see also North Africa Mahfouz, Naguib, 39 Nahdatul ulama (NU-Indonesia), 23, Malaysia, 10, 23, 27, 28, 31, 36, 72, 131, 138 84, 138, 167, 168, 170,172, 176, Na’im, Abdullah Ahmad, 5, 212 Nakshibendi Brotherhood, 130, 136 Marja al-Taqlid, 63 Nasir, Vali, 131 Marx, 8, 17, 34, 80 Nasr, Abu Zayd, 39 Maslaha, Islamic concept of, 32, 98 Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 13, 119, 191 Materialism and Islam, 181–183 National Islamic Front (NIF-Sudan), Mazlumder (Turkey), 30 108–109, 111–113, 132, Mazru’i, Ali, 4, 205 NATO, 197 Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt, 42 Neo-Islamist, 49 Mecca, 17, 18, 147 Nietzsche, 207 Mesopotamia, 135 Nigeria, 75, 162 Mexico, 77 Non-governmental Organizations Minority Rights, 175 (NGO), 28, 122, 140 INDEX 225

Noor, Farish, 59 Qaradawi, Shaykh Yusif, 24, 57, 173 North Africa, 11, 188 Qur’an, 4, 48, 55, 56, 58, 63, 89–90, Northern Ireland 13, 78 147, 171, 172, 200, 209 North Korea, 85 Qutb, Sayyid, 52 Nubians, 176 Nur Movement, 11, 34, 129, 130, 171, Radicalism in Islam, 51 195, 205; see also Gulen Movement, Rahman, Fazlur, 60, 63 Fethullacilar Renaissance, 6 Nursi, Bediuzzaman Said, 128, 129 Reza Shah Pahlevi, 119 Richards, Alan, 203 Old Testament, 146, 172, 181 Ridha, Rashid, 7, 58 Ottoman Empire, 6, 8, 148 Rohatyn, Felix, 75 Rome, 7, 91 Pakistan, 9, 10, 24, 26, 31, 34, 39, 42, Roy, Olivier, 33, 185, 194 71, 76, 87, 115–117, 119, 120, Ruiz, Samuel, 77 125, 127, 131, 132, 134, Rumi, 50 138–142, 154, 157, 168, 170, Rushdie, Salman, 111 176, 177, 178, 184, 187, 188, Russia, 23, 40, 41, 75, 85, 115, 190, 195, 196, 198 192 Palestine, 10, 22, 53, 68, 84, 125, 126, 162, 163 Saadet Party, (Turkey), 34 Pan-Arabism, 155 Sachs, Jeffrey, 6 Panch Sila, (Five Principals) 139 Sadat, Anwar, 108 Pan-Islamism, 41–42 Salafis, Salafiyya, 38, 48, 49, 172 PAS Party of Malaysia, 23, 131, 170, Samaha, Joseph, 196 172 Saudi Arabia, 10, 22, 24, 38, 41, 85, 90, Pashtuns, 115, 176 99–101, 106, 107, 111, 113, 126, Persia, see Iran 131, 132, 137, 141, 167, 168, 187, Philippines, 10, 22, 40, 68, 85, 89, 190, 198 126 Scotland, 19 Political Islam, definitions, xi Secularism, 33, 42, 60–63, 69, Political Islam, its uses, 13–46 179–181 Pluralism, 71–72, 170 Seddiqui, Kalim, 104 Pope John Paul II, 78, 149 Sepah-e-sahaba, 88 Post-Modernism and Islam, 206–211 Serbia, 40, 197 Prophet Muhammad, 4, 50, 147 Shahrur, Muhammad, 61 Protestant, 40 Shari’ a, 4, 28, 45, 55, 56–57, 59, 62, Protestant Reformation, 60 63, 76, 106, 113, 175,194, 198, Protestantism, 36, 37 200 Punjab, 176 Shariati, ‘Ali, 141 Sharon, Ariel, 85 Qadhafi, Mu’ammar, 156, 191 Shi’a, 5, 59, 90, 177 Qatar, 12, 24, 173 Shinto, 40 226 THE FUTURE OF POLITICAL ISLAM

Shura, 61 Tunisia, 22, 30, 31, 42, 90, 132, 167; Sindhis, 71 see also Rashid Sisters in Islam in Malaysia, 38 Tunisian National Council for Liberties, Somalia, 10, 85 30 Soroush, Abdol Karim, 184 Turabi, Hasan, 31, 108, 109, 111–113, South Africa, 149, 152 123 Soviet Union, 10, 12, 15, 77, 181, 212; Tu rkey, 11, 18, 23, 24, 27, 28, 30, 31, see also Russia 33, 34, 35, 36, 50, 57, 71, 107, Spain, 19 119, 123, 125, 128, 129, 131, 136, Sri Lanka, 78 138–142, 154, 157, 167, 168, 170, Sudan, 10, 15, 16, 23, 30, 34, 41, 43, 171, 173, 176, 177, 187, 189, 195, 75, 97–101, 107–113, 116, 118, 202, 205, 212 167, 176, 186, 198; see also Tu rkmenistan, 167 National Islamic Front, Hasan Turabi ’ulama, 23, 24, 26, 33, 58–60, 63, 112, Sufi, 3, 50 131, 198 Suharto, 133, 136, 139 Umma, 20, 53, 58, 59, 150, 185; and Sulaiman, Sadek, 61 national identity, 19–20 Sunni, 5, 18, 59, 177 United Arab Emirates (UAE), 167 Supreme Leader of Iran (Rahbar), 102, United Kingdom, 19 103 Universalism and Islam, 204 Suttee, 37 UNDP, 204 Switzerland, 37 United Nations, 114 Syria, 9, 101, 126, 132, 153, 154, 167, United States, 28, 37, 40, 45, 51, 71, 188, 189 73, 75, 80, 83, 84, 86, 88, 94, 98, 100–102, 111, 157, 158, 163, 164, Tablighi Jama’at, 11, 127, 128 175, 192 Taiwan, 75 U.S. Constitution, 55 Tajiks, 41, 176 U.S. Supreme Court, 93 Takfir, 52 Urdu, 173 Taleban, 11, 42, 83, 87, 98, 100, Usulis, 50 113–115, 117, 118, 178, 186, Uygurs, 41; see also Xinjiang 197, 198; see also Afghanistan Uzbekistan, 10, 24, 90, 101, 115, 132, Tajdid, concept of 23, 49 167, 176 Tajikistan, 41 Tanzania, 83 Vakif, 129 Tasawwuf, 51; see also Sufi “Virtual Umma,” 174 Taymiyya Ibn, 52 Virtue Party (Turkey); see Fazilet Party Tehran, 68, 104, 190; see also Iran Voll, John, 48 Terrorism, and Islam, 83–95 Third world, 9, 15, 57, 68, 69 Wahhabi, 40, 41, 48, 172, 195 Tolerance, 171–174 Wahid, Abdurrahman, 23 Traditionalists, 47 Wales, 19 INDEX 227

War Against Terrorism, 10, 18, 29, Yasin, Shaykh Ahmad, 23 83, 85–87, 94, 95, 110, 165, 168, Yemen, 10, 15, 31, 85, 125, 138, 139, 192, 197, 211, 212 154, 167, 187, 212 Welfare Party, 129; see also Refah World Trade Center, 83, 84, 88, 197 Zafar, M. S., 61 World Trade Organization (WTO), 73, 75 Zakat, 63 World War II, 8, 37 Zapatista, 77 Zionism, 153 Xinjiang, 22 Zoroastrian, 3