ilQoRG CeLtic InfLaences:

Ylumenon anxy the Seconty Oge by Marie 'Barnfieicf

The genesis o f the legend Ireland and many names besides, and its dwellers come not into these tales."4 In my article on Celtic influences on the (I should stress that the concept of Britain and First Age (in M a llorn 28) I claimed that the Ireland having once formed a single island has Second Age was "worthy of separate study in its no historical validity; both were originally own right” , despite the fact that it is joined to the continental mass, and Ireland dominated not by the encouragingly Arthurian- broke away much earlier than Britain.5) sounding Beleriand but by the island of Numenor, which owes its story to the Greek The pre-Akallab£th legends all centre legend of Atlantis, its culture to ancient Egypt around the coming of a Saxon elf-friend, Eriol and its religion to the Hebrews1. I shall start or Alfwine, to an Elvish island; in the earliest by stressing that Tolkien’s purpose in versions the story was to end with the Elves beginning his island tales was not to invent a conveniently annihilated by other agencies and, new . The work that he in due course, the inheriting the land. planned was an Anglo-Saxon English mythology, So far we have a very anglocentric tale, with needed, he felt, because lacked "stories the B rlth on in and Guidlln dismissed as hostile of its own (bound up with its tongue and soil) mortal invaders who preceded the Saxons and ... of the quality that I sought (and found) ... had insufficient reverence for the fairies.* in legends of other lands. There was Greek, However, the theme of mortals coming to and Celtic, and Romance, Germanic, reside in a land hallowed by earlier divine Scandinavian, and Finnish (which greatly inhabitants is one that we find in Celtic ; affected me); but nothing English, save it is the same motive that lies at the heart of impoverished chap-book stuff."2 The Numenor the Irish conquest of the Tuatha De Danann7, story as it finally appeared in The Silmarillion and as I demonstrated in my previous article it incorporates elements of The Book of Lost was very largely on the Tuatha De Danann that Tales originally connected either with Tol Tolkien’ s Elves were based. Eressea, or with that remnant of Beleriand known in the Second Age as Leithian, Luthien And immediately we find a second Celtic or Luthany. The island of Leithian itself was link. In order to turn Tol Eressea into viewed as a fairy isle comprising what are now England, Tolkien apparently planned a scenario the separate islands of Britain and Ireland, under which it would be drawn by a great whale which at that time, we are told, formed a single from its position far out in the ocean, coming mass. Of the sundering of the two parts to rest close to the Great Lands "nigh to the Tolkien wrote: promontory of Ros”fl, which Christopher "Osse is wroth at the breaking of the Tolkien tentatively identifies as Brittany9 ( ro s roots of the isle he set so long ago ... is, incidentally, the Irish word for that he tries to wrench it back; and the "promontory”). The great battle of Ros at western half breaks off, and is now the which the Elves were to be attacked and isle of Iverln.”3 defeated by the forces of evil may be a Quenya I r c r in is clearly cognate with "real” reference to the cosmic conflict upon Mont Dol names for Ireland derived from the tribal name christianised as a battle between St. Michael Ir e r n i, (such as Ireland, Erin, Hibernia). and the Devil.1“ Elsewhere we learn that: ” ... that part that was broken was called Perhaps Tolkien himself felt uneasy at

6 the way in which he had been forced to dismiss into these tales” , but Ireland, Vales and Britain’ s Celtic past and the Roman occupation Cornwall all lie between England and the as interludes inconveniently sandwiched between Atlantic. A mythology based on westward the Elvish days and the coming of his Saxons, voyages from England which had no reference to particularly as England has in the Arthurian these Celtic areas would seem a little false. cycle a strong tradition of Celtic-derived myth. Also, the tradition of the Land of Promise is at Anyway, he gradually abandoned the best only inferred in the British Celtic material: identification of Alfwine’s elvish isle with it was in the Irish im ram a, or voyage tales of England, though still retaining the notion that mortals to a western Otherworld, that Tolkien elves had once dwelt here. Instead, he sent his found his garbled memories of Valinor.1* It hero westward from England to a second island was perhaps inevitable, therefore, that Ireland where the elves still dwelt.11 But his purpose should eventually find its way into the Alfwine remained that of rooting his elvish "traditions" soup. firmly in England’ s Anglo-Saxon past. Eriol/Alfwine’ s sojourn amongst the Elves, In the 1930s the development of the whether in England or the new place, was a "island saga” took a new turn, for Tolkien made device enabling him to commit to writing that a bargain with C.S.Lewis to write a time-travel which he had seen for the benefit of his own story, and he chose the theme of Atlantis. people: "thus it is that through Eriol and his Thus was begun The Lost Road, in which the sons the Eagle have the true tradition of the name Num enor appears for the first time. For fairies, of whom the Ira s and the Wealas tell this book Tolkien retained the story of garbled things. "12 Eriol/Alfwine’ s voyage to the Vest, but took him not to a fairy paradise but, via the lost In one sense this statement reinforces the Straight Road, back in time to a mortal island- view that Tolkien’ s mythology was to be kingdom located far across the Sea but yet east specifically English and not Celtic. Looked at of the Elvish Isles. Tolkien’ s notes show that the other way, however, he seems to have been in fact he planned to work backwards to the suggesting that he planned to tell the "true” story of Numenor via the voyages of several version of the stories told in garbled form by Alfwine figures. These included a twentieth- the Irish and Velsh - /,

7 who had survived the Deluge, in Magnus reality that has been so great a part of its Maclean’s Literature of the Celts.17 How he appeal. planned to use the testimony of "the oldest man in the world", his notes do not make clear, but Foundation and culture presumably "Finntan” would have remembered the Isle of Numenor and its Downfall and the Numenor, as the Drowned Land, carries parting of Earth from the Straight Path to the echoes not only of Atlantis but of the foundered West. Nothing came of these plans other than kingdoms of Celtic myth. The name the poem "The nameless Land”, reproduced in Westernesse is reminiscent in form of Zyonesse, Christopher Tolkien’s edition of The Lost Road. the sunken land beyond Cornwall of Arthurian Nothing, that is, except for one small legend2i, and the motif of a deluge sent by God philological detail. to end the influence of a demonic power over the ruling family is also to be found in the In his papers on the subject, the Breton legend of Is.22 The motif of the Land of Professor glossed Finntan as " N a rk il White Gift may have been derived from the wishful Fire”. "White Fire” would more normally be thinking of Irish myth, according to which the rendered into Elvish as W a rsa w , So that it goddess Eriu ceded Ireland to the mortal would be interesting to know whether Finntan Milesians with these words: had anything to do with the naming of Elendil’s "To you who have come from afar this long-lived sword. island shall henceforth belong, and from the setting to the rising of the sun there In the end, of course, Alfwine himself was is no better land. And your race will be discarded, together with any attempt to link - at the most perfect the world has ever least in print - the history of Numenor, or seen. ”23 indeed any of the invented mythology, to the On the other hand, the culture of Numenor as English or to a historically identifiable England. described in The SiimariUion and U nfinished As Christopher Tolkien summed it up: "these Taies shows little of either Celtic - or indeed notes were written down in his youth, when for Germanic - influence. The only significant him Elvish magic ’lingered yet mightily in the cultural detail I have noticed that may have a woods and hills of Luthany’; in his old age all Celtic inspiration is the custom that the King was gone West-over-sea __ ” The tales of the should abdicate and surrender his life before Four Ages belong, in their final form, merely to senility. According to ancient (particularly the north-west of the Old World, and that is the Celtic) tradition, the health and fortunes of the most that we can say.20 Yet I hope that the land were bound up with those of the king. In summary I have given of the route by which Arthurian legend the lands of the Fisher King Tolkien came to create this land has been more were wasted because of his lameness24; a well- than mere digression. For I believe that it known Irish myth tells of how King Nuada does cast considerable light on his intentions Airgetlam was forced to abdicate because of the regarding the use of Germanic and Celtic loss of his hand in battle25; in a related material in his compositions. In its first Breton tale the wicked Rivod deprives his young conception, the mythology was to be purely nephew of his rights to his patrimony by Anglo-Saxon and to extol the origins of the cutting off from the boy a hand and a foot.26 English inhabitants of Britain at the expense of Even in Christian times, it was the tradition in their Celtic neighbours. But Tolkien’s weakness Gaelic Ireland that a chieftain must be of sound here was that he was smitten by the essentially mind and body: this practice extended to some Irish vision of a fair immortal race and their of the more hibernicised Norman families, and Otherworld paradise in the West. Yet I also was responsible in the fifteenth century for the believe that it was the abandonment of the early earldom of Kildare falling into abeyance for a patriotic purpose that freed Tolkien to make use period of approximately twenty years, during of a wider range of inspiration than had been the lifetime of the sixth Earl’s son, John Cam evident in the early work, that range which gave or "Crooked John”.27 to his invented world the sense of depth and

$ Aside from the moral desirability of the before that.”30 King's voluntary surrender of his life, therefore, his abdication and death while in good health is The Centre mythologically necessary to maintain the In the centre of Numenor stood a high fortunes of the land. It is notable that the mountain, the Meneltarma, "and no other coming of the shadow upon Numenor coincided likeness of a temple did the Numenoreans with the refusal of the kings to surrender either possess in all the days of their grace.” 31 The power or life, clinging on until death took them Meneltarma was, in other words, the Sacred "perforce in dotage" . 28 Centre of Numenor, that place familiar to ancient peoples and representing an axial or Topography and division umbilical link with the Otherworld.

If Celtic influence upon the culture of The Meneltarma was the source of the Numenor is slight, the physical structure of the great river Siril that rose in springs underneath island as described in Unfinished Taies shows by it. The other major river of Numenor, the contrast an enormous debt to Celtic sources. In Nunduine, is also shown as having had its source the following study of the topography and near the centre of the island, about fifteen division of Numenor, comparisons with ancient miles from the mountain. The Centre as a Ireland and wales are based on the analysis given source of the great rivers is a belief to be found in A. and B. Rees’ Celtic heritage. Though I in many cultures; according to Norse myth, for have no evidence that Tolkien was familiar with instance, eleven rivers flow from the Spring of this book it is a major work on the subject and Hvergelmir at the root of Yggdrasil.33 Of the the similarities between the theories it twelve chief rivers of Ireland, a legend says that propounds and the arrangements in Numenor are they were formed by a great hailstorm that fell striking. Its publication in 1961 also coincides upon the sacred centre, the hill of Uisnech. In well with the time of writing of A Description Wales Pumlumon (Plinlimmon) is the source of of Numenor, which "was certainly in existence the rivers Wye and Severn, and there is other by 1965, and was probably written not long evidence that this mountain marked the centre

The Provinces o f Ireland

9 of the country.33 closely the conceptual division of Ireland resembled the structure of Numenor, but also The position of the royal capital, how unusual a pentagram division appears to Armenelos, to the east of the Meneltarma, have been. T.F.Q’Rahilly indeed assumed it to parallels the Irish arrangement, in which the be due to pure scribal invention, and devoted a High King’s palace of Tara lay many miles to the whole chapter of his Irish History and east of Uisnech. The relative positions of M ythology to demonstrating that: "In pre- Uisnech and Tara are almost certainly not Goidelic times ... the country was divided into accidental. If Tara belonged to the King, four quarters, corresponding to the four points Uisnech seems to have belonged to the mother of the compass ....” 33 I would guess that goddess, and was called "the navel of Ireland” . Tolkien was familiar with O’Rahilly’ s book, The Rees brothers link these two sites with the first published in 1946, as its arguments are stipulation in the Indian Brahmanas that every largely philological, but it seems that he sacrificial site should contain two fires, one rejected him on this occasion in favour of five reserved for the consorts of the gods, and the points, which link in so neatly with the star other to the east of it for the worship of the symbolism already established for Numenor. (male) gods and representing their celestial The Rees brothers, unlike O’Rahilly, accept the cosmic world. In ancient Rome the hearth of fitness of the fivefold division on symbolic Vesta and the tempia quadrat a to its east grounds, for in our world, as they point out, probably represented the same concept. five is the number of completeness, of life.

The divisions The pentangle arrangement is stated in the Book of Invasions to be pre-Goidelic in Tolkien tells us that "the land of Numenor origin and is implicit in most of the early Irish resembled in general outline a five-pointed star literature, which speaks of two Munsters, East or pentangle ...” with a central portion from and West. However, this pentagram which extended five large peninsular arrangement would appear to be only one of two promontories, each of which was regarded as a methods of fivefold division applied to Ireland separate region.34 in ancient times. The other represented the cross of the elements with its quintessential The five-pronged form is similar to a centre and may be equated with the Rig Veda’ s method of division used in Ireland in ancient description of space in terms of north, south, times. The Irish word for a province ( coiced) east, west and "here” . This is the arrangement literally means "a fifth ” , and the ancient texts attested in surviving Irish folk tradition and tell us that Ireland was originally divided into medieval texts, consisting of four modern five provinces, though the identification of the provinces and Meath ("Centre” ) which included fifth is uncertain (the four clearly definable both Uisnech and Tara.36 Numenor too had its provinces, into which Ireland is still divided are central region, the Mittalmar, which embraced Ulster, Leinster, Munster and Connaught). The the Meneltarma and the palace at Armenelos. pillar-stone at Uisnech was five-ridged, symbolising the five provinces at the Centre, With regard to these divisions, the Rees and around it was marked out a measure of land brothers warn: "the two alternatives ... are for each province. Of Uisnech, the Rees alternatives, for to merge them together six brothers comment: "it differs from the four­ provinces must be reckoned with, and that sided Mount Meru of Indian tradition and other would belie the very name for a province - a pyramidal symbols of the centre, and compares *fifth’ .”37 Yet the regions of Numenor are not rather with the five-pointed star and the five- called fifths, so this is a linguistic pit into petalled flower with which the alchemists which Tolkien had no need to avoid falling. sometimes represented the ’quintessence’ in the And merge the two alternatives he did, giving centre of the cross of the elements. Numenor both a central region and five peripheral ones. The above quotation shows not only how Directional functions The Narrative

The Rees brothers show that in Irish, as We are told that the summer following in Indian, tradition the five directions reflect the marriage of Aldarion and Erendis was the fivefold division of society. Fintan, whom particularly fruitful; there is more than we met earlier, described the functions of the ordinary symbolism behind this detail for, directions thus: "knowledge in the west, battle particularly in Celtic tradition, it is the King s in the north, prosperity in the east, music in marriage to the goddess that ensures the the south, kingship in the centre." Also, as we fertility of the land. A second detail of the have seen, the western (mountain) centre may be story which may relate to Celtic myth is the classified as feminine and the eastern capital as decision of Aldarion’ s father Tar-Meneldur to masculine. abdicate in his favour when the threat of Sauron grows in Middle-earth. The Irish King Within Numenor, the Mittalmar, with its Nuada likewise abdicated (albeit briefly) in royal capital, certainly represents kingship. favour of the youthful Lug, whom he believed to There is also a clear east-west division between be better fitted to lead the Tuatha De Danann materialism and knowledge and between the against the demonic Balar of the Evil Eye. masculine and feminine functions. Both in A kallabcth and in Aldarion and Erendis, eastern The early, beneficial visitations of the Numenor, looking towards Middle-earth, is Numenoreans to Middle-earth may be seen as represented as concerned with deeds, riches, the "source” of many tales of culture heroes in temporal glory, and even war; its people speak European and Near Eastern mythology111, a mortal tongue (Adunaic). In contrast, the amongst which may be included the Irish belief Westlands, facing towards Aman, represent that the home of the gods lay across the spiritual values, wisdom and remembrance of old Atlantic. The Numenoreans ’ later tyranny, lore; its people speak an elven tongue.3® This when "they laid the men of Middle-earth under division of function is exemplified in the tribute, taking now rather than giving”^ , is description of the two sons of Ar-Gimilzor: also echoed in the Irish legend of the "For Inziladun [Flower of the West] the elder Fomorians, oppressors of both gods and was beloved of his mother and of mind with her; mortals, who laid the Tuatha De under tribute but Gimilkhad [Sword of the East?] the younger and who had their abode either in or across the was his father’ s son __ ” 39 In Aldarion and sea; they appear often as pirates. The change Erendis the two sub-divisions of the Mittalmar - in the character of the Numenoreans over time the eastern Arandor of the Kings and the may also "account for" the curious fact that the western Emerie of the Shepherds - symbolise Fomoire are also said to have taught the secrets the contrasting functions of royalty, high of agriculture to the Tuatha D6 Danann. civilisation and masculinity on the one hand, and femininity and rustic simplicity on the Elendil had three sons, two of whom other. The functions of Arandor and Emerie are were to found dynasties upon Middle-earth. But unite in the body of the Mittalmar, which the third son sailed towards Aman to ask mercy embraces both. of the gods and was lost. His clearest mythological association is with the Irish Some evidence of a more detailed Donn. Donn, his father and his brothers were functional division may be seen in the the first of the mortal Gaels to reach Ireland, description of Orrostar (the East) as a grain­ but Donn was lost in the tempest which the growing region (indicating Prosperity), and in gods, raised to protect the land from invasion; the stony, deserted nature of the Forostar, thus was fulfilled the prophecy of the goddess which fits well with the Irish description of the Eriu that neither he nor his descendants would North as a region of "hardihood, rough places live to enjoy the island.¿3. , . . . ” ■10

H Of Ar-Pharaz6n and the mortal warrior* assumed - that Tolkien was choosing Germanic who embarked with him upon the shores of sources in preference. For whilst the Germanic Valinor, Tolkien tells us that they "were buried motifs are certainly present in the early under falling hills: there it is said that they lie versions of Tolkien’s , in the finished imprisoned in the Caves of the Forgotten, until texts they are hardly more in evidence than the Last Battle and the day of Doom.” 44 Here their Celtic neighbours. For Tolkien’ s field of we have echoes of Celtic legends regarding inspiration expanded: Numenor is culturally sleeping warriors under hillsides, many of which more akin to Athens or Luxor than to Uppsala centre around the figure of . About or Tara, and Eriador includes the whole of ten miles from my own home in Cheshire there modern France. Yet in one significant area it is a sheer hill known as Alderley Edge, riddled seems Tolkien may have borrowed a Celtic model with caves as the result of ancient copper lock, stock and barrel, and that is in the working; according to local legend, King Arthur method of division he chose for the Land of the and his knights lie sleeping within behind a Star. huge concealed doorway, ready to ride forth at the hour of England’ s need. In general, however, the Celtic influence is, as with the First Age, one of vision more As for the Faithful and their westward than of detail, and in this respect its gazing, Tolkien wrote of this in a way which pervasiveness is hard to overestimate. The echoes a haunting passage in Irish myth reasons which may have drawn Tolkien towards describing how the mortal Milesians (Gaels) in the Irish vision of the Otherworld rather than, their original continental home first came to say, the Norse, are admirably summed up by the descry the island of Ireland: Celtic scholar Nora Chadwick: "In this country Bregon ... had built a "A beautiful dignity hangs over Irish watchtower from which, one winter’ s mythology, an orderliness, a sense of evening, Ith saw, far off over the sea, a fitness. All the gods are beautifully land he had never noticed before. It is dressed and most are of startlingly on winter evenings, when the air is pure, beautiful appearance. It is only by that a man’ s eyesight reaches farthest contrast with other mythologies that we realise that the 'land of promise’ In Akaiiabeth we read of the Numenoreans that: contains little that is ugly. There is no "at times, when the air was clear and the sin and no punishment. There are few sun was in the east, they would look out monsters, nothing to cause alarm, not and descry far off in the west a city white- even extremes of climate. There is no shining on a distant shore, and a great serious warfare, no lasting strife. Those harbour and a tower. ”‘16 who die, or who are lured away to the And in Of the Rings of Power and the Third Age Land of Promise, the land of the young, we are told that after the Downfall Elendil would leave for an idealised existence, amid repair to the Tower Hills: beauty, perpetual youth and goodwill. The "and thence he would gaze out over the heathen Irish erected a spirituality - a sundering seas, when the yearning of exile spiritual loveliness which comes close to was upon him; and it is believed that thus an ideal spiritual existence.”^ he would at whiles see far away even the This is the ideal towards which the doomed Tower of AvalldntS upon Eressea.” 47 Numenoreans looked in longing and envy, the vision of a fair immortal land descried from the Conciusion top of a high tower at times "when the air is pure” . I think it is plain from the above that as regards the actual story-lines specific debts to Celtic sources in the tales of the Second Age are present, but far from overwhelming. And yet the reason for this is not that sometimes

n M otes Doubleday, 1910-1959. 28. Unfinished Tales p2 2 \. 1. Tolkien’s description of the Men of Gondor in Letters 29. For detais, see note 14.

would apply equally wel to their island ancestors, 30. Uhfhisbed Takes p.7. particularly in the latter years of the kingdom: "The 31. JttLp.186. Numenoreans o f Gondor were proud, peculiar and archaic, 32. C rossley-H olan d, K. The N o r s e M y th s Penguin, 1982. and I think are best pictured in (say) Egyptian terms. In 33. See Rees and Rees, o p d t p.175.

many ways they resembled 'Egyptians' - the love of, and 34. Unfinished Tales pp.165-6 power to construct, the gigantic and massive. And their 35. p.172. great interest in ancestry and in tombs. (But not of 36. Such a fivefold division Is, of course, a natural course in 'theology’: in which respect they were Hebraic progression from division according to the four cardinal „ ) . ” (Letters no. 211) directions, and was probably not uncommon in the ancient world. The Rees brothers point out (o p d t p.173) th a t 2. Book o f Lost Titles Ip22. such a division is suggested by the EngSsh regional names 3. Book o f Lost Tales J’ p^83. Essex, Sussex, Wessex and Mddesex, and even CTRahilly 4. Ibid^ p.312. admits the existence o f Meath as a separate province, at 5. M cEvedy, C. The Penguin Atlas o f Ancient History. least at one stage o f Gaelic history. Penguin, 1967; The Course o f Irish History, ed. T.WJAoody and F.X.Martin. Cork: M ercier Press, 1967. 37. R e e s and R ees, o p d t p.121. 6. Book o f Lost Tales 2 p.234. 38. S ee Unfinished Tales , note 19 to Aidarion and Trend!s. 7. Squire, C. Celtic M yth and Legend, Poetry and Romance. 39. I b id p Z n . Newcastle Publishing Co. Inc, I97S (reprint o f 191? ed.) p.119. 40. Rees and Rees, o p d t p.123. 8. Book o f Lost Tales 2 p.283. 41. "„and when they had departed they called them gods,

9. Ibid., p.28S. hoping for their return."! The Silmariliion p.263) 10. Green Tourist Guide BRITTANY. Michelin, (s.d.); Aubert, 42. £rö£,p.26S. O.L. Legendes TraditioneUes de la Bretagne. Kerengwenn: 43. R e e s and R ees, o p d t pp.126-131; MacCana, P. Celtic Coop Breiz, (s.d.). M y th o lo g y . N ew n es, 1968. pp.36-38. 11. Book o f Lost Tales 2 pp.322 ff. 44. The SHmarffionpZIB.

12. ib id , p. 290. 45. From The Book o f Invasions as quoted in Rees and 13. L e t t e r s no. 19. R ees, o p d t p.121. 14. See: Rees, Alwyn, and Rees, Brinley Celtic Heritage 4 6 The SHmariBonplSL Thames and Hudson, 1961. Chapter XVL WT. !bid^p2B2.

15. The Lost Road, p.7. 48. Chadwick, N. The C elts. Penguin, 1976 16. Ibid, p.80. In his own poem Im ram , based on the Voyage of St. Brendan, Tolkien was to equate two of the islands which Brendan visited with Numenor and Tol Eressea (see: Kocher, P. M aster o f Middle-earth, Thames and Hudson, 1972. pp. 206 ff.

17. See Christopher Tolkien’s discussion in The Lost Road, pp.82-83. Regions of Numenor 18. L o s t R o a d p.82. 19. N a rs / I may in fact be simply a later development of the w ord N a rk B , as "white shining" is rendered by GIL- In th e 1930s Etymologies (see L o s t R o a d p.358), but by s/in the Appendix to The SiknariHion.

20. The quotation is from Book o f Lost Tales 2, pp. 327-328. J.R.R.Tolkien w r o te In 1967 rega rd in g The Lord o f the Rings: "The action of the story takes place in the North-west of 'Middle-earth’, equivalent in latitude to the coastiands of Europe and the north shores of the Mediterranean. But this is not a purely 'Nordic' area in any sense.” ( L etters no.294).

21. Senior, M. British M yth Orbis, 1979. 22. Aubert, o p . t i t ,

23. R e e s and R ees op. d t p.125. 24. Senior o p d t p.218; The Mabinogion, tr. Gwyn Jones and Thom as Jones. Dent, 1978. 25. Rees and Rees, o p . d L p.78. 26. S ee th e ta le Pied cfAirain e t Main if Argent in Aubert, o p c it , 27. Complete Peerage o f England, Scotland, Ireland and the United Kingdom, ed. G.E.Cockayne, new ed. Vicary Gibbs.