North Caucasus)

AE ARCHÄOLOGIE 36 I N EURASIEN 36

ANDREJ B. BELINSKIJ AND HEINRICH HÄRKE Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar (North Caucasus)

Excavations 1994−1996 in the Iron Age to early medieval cemetery ANDREJ B. BELINSKIJ AND HEINRICH HÄRKE HEINRICH AND BELINSKIJ B. ANDREJ Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar (North Caucasus) Klin-Yar at population and society Ritual, ANDREJ B. BELINSKIJ AND HEINRICH HÄRKE

RITUAL, SOCIETY AND POPULATION AT KLIN-YAR (NORTH CAUCASUS): EXCAVATIONS 1994 – 1996 IN THE IRON AGE TO EARLY MEDIEVAL CEMETERY ARCHÄOLOGIE IN EURASIEN

Herausgegeben von Svend Hansen

BAND 36

DEUTSCHES ARCHÄOLOGISCHES INSTITUT

EURASIEN-ABTEILUNG Deutsches Archäologisches Institut Eurasien-Abteilung

Andrej B. Belinskij and Heinrich Härke Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar (North Caucasus)

Excavations 1994 – 1996 in the Iron Age to early medieval cemetery with contributions by Dmitrij V. Bogatenkov, Alexandra P. Buzhilova, Mariya V. Dobrovolskaya, Sergej L. Dudarev, Igor O. Gavritukhin, Thomas Higham, Dmitrij S. Korobov, Galina V. Lebedinskaya, Vladimir Yu. Malashev, Mariya B. Mednikova, Sergej N. Savenko, Anna K. Shvyryova and Rebecca Warren

HABELT-VERLAG · BONN XVIII, 428 Seiten mit 233 Abbildungen und 7 Tafeln

Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über abrufbar.

Umschlagmotiv: Klin- Yar von Südosten, Foto: Heinrich Härke. Goldene Scheibenfibelaus Grab 345, Foto: Igor Kozhevnikov. Gestaltung: Anke Reuter

Redaktion: Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Eurasien-Abteilung, Im Dol 2 – 6, 14195 Berlin Herstellung: druckhaus köthen GmbH & Co. KG, Friedrichstraße 11/12, 06366 Köthen Kommissionsvertrieb: Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH, Am Buchenhang 1, 53115 Bonn Table of contents

Preface of the Editor ...... IX

Lists ...... X List of authors and contributors ...... X List of tables ...... X List of figures ...... XI List of plates ...... XV List of abbreviations ...... XV

Preface of the authors ...... XVII Linguistic conventions ...... XVII Acknowledgements ...... XVIII

1 Introduction ...... 1 1.1 Location and context ...... 1 1.2 History of research at Klin-Yar ...... 2 1.3 The 1994 – 1996 seasons ...... 5

2 The Koban Culture graves and finds ...... 9 Andrej B. Belinskij and Sergej L. Dudarev 2.1 Grave structures ...... 9 2.2 Treatment of the body ...... 9 2.3 Ritual inclusions in the graves ...... 10 2.4 The provision of grave-goods ...... 12 2.5 Grave 355: a ‘shaman burial’? ...... 13 2.6 Pottery ...... 13 2.7 Dress ornaments ...... 15 2.8 Weapons, tools and accessories ...... 17

3 The Sarmatian and Alanic graves ...... 20 Heinrich Härke 3.1 Burial ritual and excavation technique ...... 20 3.2 Spatial patterning and chronology ...... 20 3.3 Grave construction and multiple use of catacombs ...... 21 3.4 Deposition of bodies and ‘family burial’ ...... 25 3.5 The provision of grave-goods in the chamber ...... 26 3.6 Ritual depositions and activities ...... 28 3.7 The elite plot ...... 32

4 Pottery vessels from Sarmatian and Alanic graves ...... 35 Vladimir Yu. Malashev 4.1 Grave 351B ...... 35 4.2 End of the Late Sarmatian Period and Beginning of the Hun Period/ Transition Period (RZ and Ia1) ...... 37 4.3 Periods Ib – e/Iб – д ...... 45 4.4 Periods IIb2 – IIIc/IIб2 – IIIв ...... 46 4.5 Base stamps ...... 47 4.6 Conclusions ...... 47

5 Belt sets from Alanic graves: Chronology and cultural links ...... 49 Igor O. Gavritukhin 5.1 Buckles ...... 49 5.1.1 Introduction ...... 49 5.1.2 Round and oval buckles with round-sectioned loop ...... 49 5.1.3 Hollow kidney-shaped (B-shaped) buckles ...... 54

V Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

5.1.4 Hollow buckles with raised ‘platform’ on the loop ...... 55 5.1.5 Rectangular and trapezoidal buckles ...... 59 5.1.6 Hollow oval buckles with a pronounced groove for the pin, and with ‘platforms’ in the rear part of the loop ...... 67 5.1.7 Buckles with elongated rear part of the loop ...... 68 5.1.8 Rare forms ...... 70 5.2 Strap-ends and belt mounts ...... 71 5.2.1 Introductory notes ...... 71 5.2.2 Strap-ends with emphasized upper ‘platform’ ...... 71 5.2.3 Rectangular strap-ends with ridge in the lower part ...... 72 5.2.4 Hollow strap-ends with straight sides ...... 73 5.2.5 Hollow strap-ends of complex outline ...... 75 5.2.6 ‘Box-shaped’ strap-ends ...... 76 5.2.7 Belt set with incised components and inlaid repoussé gold appliqué with plaited-cord motif ...... 81 5.2.8 Suspended strap-ends for fastening ...... 82 5.2.9 T-shaped hollow mounts ...... 84 5.2.10 Trefoil-shaped strap-dividers ...... 86 5.2.11 Strap-dividers with loop ...... 88 5.2.12 Horizontally symmetrical mounts with plain scutiform halves (double-scutiform mounts) ...... 88 5.2.13 Х-shaped mounts with emphasized central part ...... 90 5.2.14 ‘Circle + shield’ mounts ...... 91 5.2.15 ‘Circle + trapezium’ (keyhole-shaped) mounts ...... 91 5.2.16 Scutiform mounts of ‘heraldic’ type ...... 91 5.2.17 Rectangular mounts, hollow, with bevelled edges and four round cut-outs or their imitations ...... 93 5.2.18 Rectangular mounts with rectangular cut-out at the centre ...... 93 5.2.19 Crescent-shaped (C-shaped) mounts ...... 94 5.2.20 Cruciform repoussé mounts with plain lobes ...... 94 5.2.21 Small ‘bird’s face’ mounts ...... 95 5.2.22 ‘Pyramid + brush’ mounts ...... 95 5.2.23 Pseudo-buckles ...... 96 5.2.24 Horizontally symmetrical repoussé mounts with hemispheres in relief (‘bunch of grapes’) ...... 96

6 Other dating finds from Late Sarmatian and Alanic graves ...... 97 6.1 Glass vessels ...... 97 Igor O. Gavritukhin 6.1.1 Thin-walled conical beaker ...... 97 6.1.2 Thin-walled bowl with cut oval decoration and horizontal grooves under the rim ...... 97 6.1.3 Thick-walled hemispherical bowl with closely cut decoration . . . . . 98 6.2 Byzantine coins ...... 98 Sergej N. Savenko

7 Social analysis of 4th to 8th century Alanic burials at Klin-Yar ...... 106 Dmitrij S. Korobov 7.1 The analysis of family patterns at Klin-Yar III ...... 107 7.2 Identifying male and female grave-goods at Klin-Yar III ...... 109 7.3 Analysis of the social hierarchy at Klin-Yar III ...... 114 7.4 Social analysis of Klin-Yar IV burials ...... 123 7.5 Conclusions ...... 125

8 Radiocarbon dating at Klin-Yar ...... 127 Rebecca Warren and Thomas Higham 8.1 Introduction ...... 127 8.2 Initial radiocarbon results ...... 128

VI Table of contents

8.3 Materials and methods ...... 129 8.4 Radiocarbon results ...... 130 8.5 Conclusions ...... 132

9 The human bones from Klin-Yar III and IV ...... 134 Alexandra P. Buzhilova, Mariya V. Dobrovolskaya, Mariya B. Mednikova, Dmitrij V. Bogatenkov and Galina V. Lebedinskaya 9.1 Introduction ...... 134 9.2 Materials and methods ...... 134 9.2.1 General comments ...... 134 9.2.2 Catalogue of skeletal material from the 1994 – 1996 excavations at Klin-Yar III and IV ...... 135 9.3 Palaeodemography of Klin-Yar III and IV ...... 142 9.3.1 Methods ...... 142 9.3.2 Palaeodemographic characteristics ...... 142 9.3.3 Comparative analysis ...... 144 9.4 Craniological patterns of the series ...... 145 9.4.1 Description of cranial features ...... 145 9.4.2 Skull deformation patterns ...... 151 9.4.3 Cases of artificial skull deformation from excavations 1994 – 1996 . . 154 9.4.4 Summary and discussion of artificial skull deformation ...... 156 9.5 Morphological patterns of the series ...... 156 9.5.1 Koban period ...... 156 9.5.2 Sarmatian period ...... 160 9.5.3 Transitional Sarmatian-Alanic graves ...... 163 9.5.4 Alanic period ...... 163 9.6 Palaeopathology and indicators of physiological stress ...... 172 9.6.1 Koban period ...... 172 9.6.2 Sarmatian period ...... 174 9.6.3 Sarmatian-Alanic period ...... 175 9.6.4 Alanic period ...... 175 9.7 Non-metric traits and kinship ...... 177 9.8 Bone chemistry: a provisional reconstruction of the diet ...... 178 9.9 Discussion and conclusion ...... 181

10 Animal bones and horse burials from the Klin-Yar excavations 1994−1996 . . . . . 184 Anna K. Shvyryova 10.1 Introduction ...... 184 10.2 Material from Klin-Yar III graves ...... 184 10.3 Material from Klin-Yar III ritual features ...... 193 10.4 Material from Klin-Yar IV graves ...... 195 10.5 Horse remains from the Koban settlement ...... 196 10.6 Conclusions ...... 196 10.7 Data tables of Klin-Yar horses ...... 197

11 Results ...... 203 11.1 The cemeteries of Klin-Yar III and IV ...... 203 11.2 Population and culture ...... 204 11.3 Social structure ...... 205 11.4 Ritual and society ...... 206 11.5 Settlement and diet ...... 209 11.6 Regional context ...... 210

12 Summaries ...... 212 12.1 Summary ...... 212 12.2 Zusammenfassung ...... 213 12.3 Резюме ...... 214

13 Bibliography ...... 217

VII Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

14 Catalogue ...... 237 14.1 Introduction and conventions ...... 237 14.2 Klin-Yar cemetery III: Graves ...... 238 14.3 Klin-Yar cemetery III: Ritual features ...... 384 14.4 Klin-Yar cemetery IV: Graves ...... 385

Plates 1 – 7 ...... 417

VIII Preface of the Editor

The present volume documents the results of tributed to this volume and have shed light on one of the early joint projects between Russian widespread nomadic cultures like the Sarma- and Western archaeologists. The cemetery of tians and the Alans by a detailed analysis of Klin-Yar, situated near Kislovodsk in the foot- the excavated cemeteries. We still need more of hills of the North Caucasus, had already been such well excavated and documented evidence excavated before 1993. 350 graves, mostly for overarching perspectives and theories. belonging to the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age Koban Culture, had been uncovered; The Caucasus is a region which deserves more another 70 graves belonged to the Sarmatian attention in archaeology. It was always more of a and the early medieval Alanic period. The field bridge than a barrier between South and North, work of the Anglo-Russian team carried out be- something which is apparent in finds from pre- tween 1994 and 1996 brought to light another historic and early historic graves from the ceme- 52 graves, most of them Alanic. The original tery, e. g. Iranian glass. Therefore we need more plan for DNA analysis could not be realized in fieldwork in the region, and the present volume the 1990 s but is due to be revived after the re- is an excellent advertisement for joint projects. cent improvements in the extraction of ancient DNA. The results of the anthropological analysis The edition of the volume in our monograph se- suggest an immigration of both, the Sarmatian ries was already agreed in the 1990 s with Her- and the Alanic population with new male and man Parzinger. It is a pleasure for me that the female phenotypes as well. The modern Osse- publication of the book could be realized now. tians are considered to be the descendants of I am very grateful to Heinrich Härke and Erdmute the Alans. Schultze for undertaking the onerous job of edit- ing the manuscript. Beside the main authors Andrej B. Belinskij and Heinrich Härke, a number of notable colleagues, Berlin, May 2018 anthropologists and archaeologists, have con- Svend Hansen

IX Lists

List of authors and contributors

Andrej B. Belinskij, independent research enter- Thomas Higham, Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator prise Nasledie, Stavropo l’, Russia Unit, RLAHA, University of Oxford, Great Britain

Dmitrij V. Bogatenkov, formerly Anthropology Dmitrij S. Korobov, Institute of Archaeology, Rus- Laboratory, Institute of Archaeology, Russian sian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia Galina V. Lebedinskaya, formerly Anthropology Alexandra P. Buzhilova, Anthropology Laborato- Laboratory, Institute of Archaeology, Russian ry, Institute of Archaeology, Russian Academy of Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia Sciences, Moscow, Russia Vladimir Yu. Malashev, Institute of Archaeology, Mariya V. Dobrovolskaya, Anthropology Labora- Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia tory, Institute of Archaeology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia Mariya B. Mednikova, Anthropology Laboratory, Institute of Archaeology, Russian Academy of Sergej L. Dudarev, Department of World and Re- Sciences, Moscow, Russia gional History, Armavir State Pedagogical Acade- my, Armavir, Russia Sergej N. Savenko, Pyatigorsk Local History Mus eum, Pyatigorsk, Russia Igor O. Gavritukhin, Institute of Archaeology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Rus- Anna K. Shvyryova, Department of Nature, Stav sia ropol’ Museum, Stavropol’, Russia

Heinrich Härke, Department of Medieval Archae- Rebecca Warren, formerly Oxford Radiocarbon ology, Institute of Pre- and Protohistory, Univer- Accelerator Unit, RLAHA, University of Oxford, sity of Tübingen, Germany Great Britain

List of tables

Table 1. Dr omos evidence for ritual deposi- Table 11. C haracteristic grave-goods of Cluster tions and activities in Sarmatian and III male burials. Alanic graves. Table 12. C haracteristic grave-goods of Cluster Table 2. R elative dates of Sarmatian and Alan- IV male burials. ic pottery assemblages. Table 13. C haracteristic grave-goods of Cluster I Table 3. A bsolute dates of the chronological female burials. periods (after Gavritukhin). Table 14. C haracteristic grave-goods of Cluster Table 4. Byzantine coins of the 6th to 8th cent. II female burials. AD from the Kislovodsk Basin and ad- Table 15. C haracteristic grave-goods of Cluster jacent areas. III female burials. Table 5. Byzantine coins of the 6th to 7th cent. Table 16. C omparison of jointly buried males AD from Klin-Yar III. and females at Klin-Yar III. Table 6. Byzantine coins of the 6th to 8th cent. Table 17. Initial radiocarbon ages obtained AD from the North Caucasus. from the Klin-Yar site. Table 7. C lassification matrix by Discriminant Table 18. C omparison between all radiocarbon analysis of Alanic single burials at ages of horse/cow and human bone Klin-Yar III. from the same archaeological con- Table 8. Distances between Discriminant text. groups of Alanic single burials at Klin- Table 19. R adiocarbon pMC values for collected Yar III. modern plant, water and fish sam- Table 9. C haracteristic grave-goods of Cluster I ples. male burials. Table 20. L ocal and chronological groups in the Table 10. C haracteristic grave-goods of Cluster skeletal material of Klin Yar III and IV. II male burials. Table 21. Individual cranial measurements of Koban males.

X Lists

Table 22. Me an cranial measurements of Koban Table 41. Morp hological patterns of Alanic males individuals. from Klin-Yar III and IV (1994 – 1996): Table 23. Individual cranial measurements of Right side. Sarmatian males. Table 42. Morphological patterns of Alanic males Table 24. Individual cranial measurements of from Klin-Yar III and IV (1994 – 1996): Sarmatian adolescents and females. Left side. Table 25. Individual cranial measurement of Table 43. Morp hological patterns of Alanic fem Alanic males. ales from Klin-Yar III and IV (1994 – Table 26. Individual cranial measurements of 1996): Right side. Alanic females. Table 44. Morp hological patterns of Alanic fem Table 27. Morphological patterns of Koban males ales from Klin-Yar III and IV (1994 – from Klin-Yar III and IV (1994 – 1996): 1996): Left side. Right side. Table 45. A lanic male stature (in сms). Table 28. Morphological patterns of Koban males Table 46. A lanic female stature (in сms). from Klin-Yar III and IV (1994 – 1996): Table 47. Morphological patterns of Alanic child Left side. ren: Right side (upper line) and left Table 29. Mean morphological characteristics side (lower line). of female Koban group. Table 48. Indic ators of stress in Koban series. Table 30. Morphological patterns of Koban child: Table 49. Indic ators of stress in Sarmatian ser Right side (upper line) and left side ies. (lower line). Table 50. Indic ators of stress in transitional Sar- Table 31. Morphological patterns of Sarma- matian-Alanic series. tian males from Klin-Yar III and IV Table 51. Indic ators of stress in Alanic series. (1994 – 1996): Right side. Table 52. C oncentrations of chemical elements Table 32. Morphological patterns of Sarma- (1х10 – 4 %, ррm) in mineral part of tian males from Klin-Yar III and IV the bone: Koban individuals. (1994 – 1996): Left side. Table 53. C oncentrations of chemical elements Table 33. Sarm atian male stature (in сms). (1х10 – 4 %, ррm) in mineral part of Table 34. Morphological patterns of Sarma- the bone: Sarmatian individuals. tian females from Klin-Yar III and IV Table 54. C oncentrations of chemical elements (1994 – 1996): Right side. (1х10 – 4 %, ррm) in mineral part of Table 35. Morphological patterns of Sarma- the bone: Alanic individuals. tian females from Klin-Yar III and IV Table 55. C omparative bone chemistry data of (1994 – 1996): Left side. chronological groups at Klin-Yar. Table 36. Sarm atian female stature (in сms). Table 56. C omparative bone chemistry data of Table 37. Morphological patterns of Sarma- some Iron Age groups and Klin-Yar tian-Alanic males from Klin-Yar III and cemetery (concentrations in ppm). IV (1994 – 1996): Right side. Table 57. Hor se skull data from Klin-Yar III. Table 38. Morphological patterns of Sarma- Table 58. Hor se mandible data from Klin-Yar. tian-Alanic males from Klin-Yar III and Table 59. Horse metacarpal III data from Klin-Yar. IV (1994 – 1996): Left side. Table 60. Hor se metatarsal III data from Klin-Yar. Table 39. Morp hological patterns of Sarmatian- Table 61. Hor se scapula data from Klin-Yar. Alanic female (386/2): Right side. Table 62. Hor se humerus data from Klin-Yar. Table 40. Morphological patterns of Sarma- Table 63. Hor se radius data from Klin-Yar. tian-Alanic children: Right side (upper Table 64. Hor se femur data from Klin-Yar. line) and left side (lower line). Table 65. Hor se calcaneus data from Klin-Yar.

List of figures

Fig. 1. Location of Klin-Yar. Fig. 7. T rench 3/1996 at Klin-Yar III: plan of Fig. 2. The site of Klin-Yar. excavated features. Fig. 3. Ex cavations and discoveries 1983 − Fig. 8. Trench 1/1996 at Klin-Yar IV: plan of 1996 at Klin-Yar III. excavated features. Fig. 4. M ain trench (1/1994, 1/1995, Fig. 9. Analytical plan of the ‘elite plot’ in 1/1996) at Klin-Yar III: plan of exca- cemetery III of Klin-Yar. vated features. Fig. 10. Cross-tabulation of pottery assemb Fig. 5. T rench 2/1994 and 2/1995 at Klin-Yar lages of the Sarmatian and Alanic pe- III: plan of excavated features. riods from the Kislovodsk Basin. Fig. 6. T rench 2/1996 at Klin-Yar III: plan of Fig. 11. Cross-tabulation of pottery assemb excavated features. lages of the second half of the 4th cen-

XI Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

tury from the Kislovodsk Basin and the Fig. 36. P arameter qx in Koban series (male Upper Kuban area (with diagnostic and female patterns). pottery types). Fig. 37. Parameter qx in Klin-Yar III Alanic elite Fig. 12. Di agnostic grave assemblages of peri- plot (male and female patterns). od RZ. Fig. 38. Parameter qx in Klin-Yar III and IV Fig. 13. Diagnostic grave assemblages of sub- Alanic non-elite areas (male and fem period Ia1 (1). ale patterns). Fig. 14. Diagnostic grave assemblages of sub- Fig. 39. Factorial analysis of comparative pop- period Ia1 (2). ulations (Klin-Yar III and IV marked +). Fig. 15. Diagnostic grave assemblages of sub- Fig. 40. Graphical reconstruction of the in- period Ia1 (3). dividual in Klin-Yar III grave 368: Fig. 16. Diagnostic grave assemblages of sub- Stage 1. period Ia2. Fig. 41. Graphical reconstruction of the in- Fig. 17. K erch chamber 78/1907. dividual in Klin-Yar III grave 368: Fig. 18. Seriation of belt sets with pseu- Stage 2. do-buckles with cut-through pendant. Fig. 42. Skulls of adult men and woman from Fig. 19. Di stribution of large buckles made in the burial to the sanctuary at Cape one piece with scutiform plate (Cau- Zikh (Crimea) (according to Маслен- casus block of series). ников 2007, p. 433) Fig. 20. Luchistoe shoe sets and their recon- Fig. 43. Gr aphical reconstruction of individu- structions. al 2 in Klin-Yar IV grave 8: Stage 1. Fig. 21. Sk alistoe chamber 420. Fig. 44. Gr aphical reconstruction of individu- Fig. 22. Chronology of assemblages with al 2 in Klin-Yar IV grave 8: Stage 2. small buckles and rectangular or trap- Fig. 45. Di aphyseal length of humerus of ezoidal loop made in one piece with Koban child in comparison with feat cut-through plate. ures of 10-year old children in Africa, Fig. 23. Distribution map of Byzantine coins North American natives, and Cauca- and copies of the 6th to 8th cent. AD in soid inhabitants of North America. the North Caucasus. Fig. 46. Diaphyseal length of femur of Koban Fig. 24. Box plot analysis of the correlation be- child in comparison with features of tween chamber areas of catacombs and 10-year old children in Africa, North numbers of individuals buried in them. American natives, and Caucasoid in- Fig. 25. Bo x plot analysis of the proportionate habitants of North America. chamber area per individual in single Fig. 47. Inc idence of caries in Bronze Age and burials. Iron Age populations. Fig. 26. T ypes of grave-goods found with child Fig. 48. Incidence of caries in the Klin-Yar se- ren and adults. ries. Fig. 27. Types of grave-goods found with males Fig. 49. Os teoma on the temporal bone of the and females. individual in Klin-Yar grave 351B. Fig. 28. C luster analysis of male burials. Fig. 50. L ong-term variability of stature in the Fig. 29. Correspondence analysis of male bur- Klin-Yar skeletal series. ials. Fig. 51. Female stature in per cent of male Fig. 30. Sc hematic representation of the male stature at Klin-Yar. social hierarchy as represented in Fig. 52. Isometric reconstructions of the grave burials. types of the three periods of use of Fig. 31. C luster analysis of female burials. the cemeteries of Klin-Yar. Fig. 32. Correspondence analysis of female Fig. 53. Gender space in Sarmatian and Alanic burials. graves at Klin-Yar III. Fig. 33. The relationship between δ15N and Fig. 54. Archaeological map of the Kislovodsk the offset in radiocarbon years be- Basin, Koban to Alanic period. tween human and animal bones from Fig. 55. Gr ave 341. Plan, detail, sections, and the same grave context. elevation of entrance. Fig. 34. The relationship between δ13C and Fig. 56. Gr ave 341. Finds from dromos. the offset in radiocarbon years bet Fig. 57. Gr ave 341. Finds from chamber. ween human and animal bones from Fig. 58. Gr ave 341. Finds from chamber. the same respective grave context. Fig. 59. Gr ave 341. Finds from chamber. Fig. 35. (a) Human bone radiocarbon offsets Fig. 60. Gr ave 341. Finds from chamber. from historic age, as deduced from Fig. 61. Gr ave 341. Finds from chamber. artefactual and numismatic evidence. Fig. 62. Gr ave 341. Finds from chamber. (b) AMS date offsets as deduced from Fig. 63. Gr ave 341. Finds from chamber. comparison with animal bone from Fig. 64. Gr ave 342. Plans, sections and eleva- the same contexts. tions.

XII Lists

Fig. 65. Gr ave 342. Finds. Fig. 116. Gr ave 357. Finds from chamber. Fig. 66. Gr ave 343. Plan and section. Fig. 117. Gr ave 357. Finds from chamber. Fig. 67. Gr ave 343. Finds. Fig. 118. Gr ave 357. Finds from chamber. Fig. 68. Gr ave 344. Plans and section. Fig. 119. Gr ave 358. Plan. Fig. 69. Gr ave 344. Finds and detail. Fig. 120. Gr ave 358. Finds and detail. Fig. 70. Gr ave 345. Plan, details and sections. Fig. 121. Grave 359. Plan, sections, and eleva- Fig. 71. Gr ave 345. Finds from dromos. tion of entrance. Fig. 72. Gr ave 345. Finds from dromos. Fig. 122. Grave 359. Finds from dromos (D) and Fig. 73. Gr ave 345. Finds from chamber. chamber. Fig. 74. Gr ave 345. Finds from chamber. Fig. 123. Grave 360. Plans, sections, and ele- Fig. 75. Gr ave 345. Finds from chamber. vations of entrance and wall. Fig. 76. Gr ave 345. Finds from chamber. Fig. 124. Grave 360. Section of dromos and de- Fig. 77. Gr ave 345. Finds from chamber. tail of chamber. Fig. 78. Gr ave 345. Finds from chamber. Fig. 125. Gr ave 360. Finds from dromos. Fig. 79. Gr ave 346. Plan and elevation. Fig. 126. Gr ave 360. Finds from chamber. Fig. 80. Gr ave 346. Finds. Fig. 127. Gr ave 360. Finds from chamber. Fig. 81. Grave 347. Plan, sections, and eleva- Fig. 128. Gr ave 360. Finds from chamber. tion of entrance. Fig. 129. Gr ave 360. Finds from chamber. Fig. 82. Gr ave 347. Finds. Fig. 130. Gr ave 360. Finds from chamber. Fig. 83. Gr ave 348. Plan and elevation. Fig. 131. Gr ave 360. Finds from chamber. Fig. 84. Gr ave 348. Finds and detail. Fig. 132. Gr ave 360. Finds from chamber. Fig. 85. Grave 349. Plan, section and eleva- Fig. 133. Gr ave 360. Finds from chamber. tion. Fig. 134. Gr ave 360. Finds from chamber. Fig. 86. Gr ave 349. Finds. Fig. 135. Gr ave 360. Finds from chamber. Fig. 87. Gr ave 350. Plans and section. Fig. 136. Gr ave 360. Finds from chamber. Fig. 88. Gr ave 350. Finds. Fig. 137. Gr ave 360. Finds from chamber. Fig. 89. Grave 351. Plans and sections. Fig. 138. Gr ave 360. Finds from chamber. Fig. 90. Gr ave 351A. Finds. Fig. 139. Grave 361. Plan, sections, and eleva- Fig. 91. Gr ave 351B. Finds. tions of entrances. Fig. 92. Gr ave 352. Plans and section. Fig. 140. Gr ave 361A. Finds. Fig. 93. Grave 352. Finds from fill (F) and floor Fig. 141. Gr ave 361B. Finds. of chamber. Fig. 142. Gr ave 362. Plan, sections and eleva- Fig. 94. Grave 352. Finds from floor of cham- tions. ber. Fig. 143. Gr ave 362. Finds and details. Fig. 95. Gr ave 352. Finds from floor of cham- Fig. 144. Grave 363. Plans, sections, detail of ber. dromos and elevation of entrance. Fig. 96. Gr ave 352. Finds from floor of cham- Fig. 145. Gr ave 363. Finds from dromos. ber. Fig. 146. Gr ave 363. Finds from chamber. Fig. 97. Gr ave 352. Finds from floor of cham- Fig. 147. Gr ave 363. Finds from chamber. ber. Fig. 148. Gr ave 363. Finds from chamber. Fig. 98. Gr ave 352. Finds from floor of cham- Fig. 149. Gr ave 363. Finds from chamber. ber. Fig. 150. Grave 364. Plan, sections, and eleva- Fig. 99. Grave 352. Finds from floor of cham- tion of entrance. ber. Fig. 151. Gr ave 364. Finds. Fig. 100. Gr ave 353. Plan and section. Fig. 152. Grave 365. Plan, sections, and eleva- Fig. 101. Gr ave 353. Finds. tions of entrance. Fig. 102. Gr ave 354. Plan and section. Fig. 153. Gr ave 365. Finds from access pit (D) Fig. 103. Gr ave 354. Finds. and chamber. Fig. 104. Gr ave 355. Plan and section. Fig. 154. Gr ave 366. Plans and elevations. Fig. 105. Gr ave 355. Finds. Fig. 155. Gr ave 366. Finds. Fig. 106. Grave 356. Plan, section, and eleva- Fig. 156. Gr ave 366. Finds. tions of entrance. Fig. 157. Gr ave 367 (horse burial). Plan and Fig. 107. Gr ave 356. Finds. sections. Fig. 108. Gr ave 356. Finds. Fig. 158. Gr ave 368. Plan and sections. Fig. 109. Grave 357. Plans, sections, and ele- Fig. 159. Grave 368. Finds from dromos (D) and vations of entrance. chamber. Fig. 110. Gr ave 357. Finds from dromos. Fig. 160. Gr ave 369. Plan and section. Fig. 111. Gr ave 357. Finds from dromos. Fig. 161. Grave 370. Plan, sections, and eleva- Fig. 112. Gr ave 357. Finds from chamber. tions of entrance. Fig. 113. Gr ave 357. Finds from chamber. Fig. 162. Gr ave 370. Finds. Fig. 114. Gr ave 357. Finds from chamber. Fig. 163. Grave 371. Plan, sections, and eleva- Fig. 115. Gr ave 357. Finds from chamber. tion of entrance.

XIII Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 164. Gr ave 371. Finds. Fig. 202. Grave 387. Finds from dromos (D), fill Fig. 165. Gr ave 372. Plan and sections. (F) and floor of chamber. Fig. 166. Gr ave 372. Finds. Fig. 203. Grave 388 (‘cenotaph’). Plan, sec- Fig. 167. Grave 373. Plan, sections, and elevations, and elevation of entrance. tions of entrance. Fig. 204. Rit ual feature 1/1995. Plan. Fig. 168. Gr ave 373. Finds. Fig. 205. Rit ual feature 2/1995. Plan. Fig. 169. Gr ave 373. Finds. Fig. 206. Rit ual feature 1/1996. Plan. Fig. 170. Gr ave 374. Plan, detail, sections, and Fig. 207. Cemetery IV grave 6. Plan, sections, elevations of entrance. and elevations of entrance. Fig. 171. Gr ave 374. Finds from fill (F) and floor Fig. 208. C emetery IV grave 6. Finds from dro- of chamber. mos (D) and fill of chamber (F). Fig. 172. Gr ave 374. Finds from floor of cham- Fig. 209. Cemetery IV grave 6. Finds from floor ber. of chamber. Fig. 173. Gr ave 374. Finds from floor of cham- Fig. 210. Cemetery IV grave 7. Plan, detail, sec- ber. tions, and elevations of entrance. Fig. 174. Gr ave 375. Plan. Fig. 211. C emetery IV grave 7. Finds from dro- Fig. 175. Gr ave 376. Plan. mos (D) and fill of chamber (F). Fig. 176. Gr ave 376. Finds. Fig. 212. Cemetery IV grave 7. Finds from floor Fig. 177. Gr ave 377. Plan. of chamber. Fig. 178. Gr ave 377. Finds. Fig. 213. Cemetery IV grave 7. Finds from floor Fig. 179. Grave 378. Plan, sections, and eleva- of chamber. tion of entrance. Fig. 214. Cemetery IV grave 7. Finds from floor Fig. 180. Gr ave 378. Finds. of chamber. Fig. 181. Grave 379. Plans, sections, and ele- Fig. 215. Cemetery IV grave 7. Finds from floor vation of entrance. of chamber. Fig. 182. Gr ave 379. Finds from fill of chamber. Fig. 216. Cemetery IV grave 8. Plans, detail, Fig. 183. Gr ave 379. Finds from floor of cham- sections, and elevations of entrance. ber. Fig. 217. C emetery IV grave 8. Finds from dro- Fig. 184. Grave 380. Plan, sections, and eleva- mos. tion of entrance. Fig. 218. Cemetery IV grave 8. Finds from cham- Fig. 185. Gr ave 380. Finds from dromos. ber. Fig. 186. Grave 381. Plan, sections, and eleva- Fig. 219. Cemetery IV grave 8. Finds from cham- tion of entrance. ber. Fig. 187. Grave 381. Finds from dromos (D) and Fig. 220. Cemetery IV grave 8. Finds from cham- fill of chamber (F). ber. Fig. 188. Gr ave 381. Finds from floor of cham- Fig. 221. Cemetery IV grave 9. Plans, detail, ber. sections, and elevations of entrance. Fig. 189. Gr ave 381. Finds from floor of cham- Fig. 222. C emetery IV grave 9. Finds from dro- ber. mos. Fig. 190. Gr ave 381. Finds from floor of cham- Fig. 223. C emetery IV grave 9. Finds from dro- ber. mos. Fig. 191. Grave 382. Plan, sections, and eleva- Fig. 224. Cemetery IV grave 9. Finds from cham- tion of entrance. ber. Fig. 192. Grave 382. Finds from dromos (D) and Fig. 225. Cemetery IV grave 9. Finds from cham- chamber. ber. Fig. 193. Grave 383. Plan, sections, and eleva- Fig. 226. Cemetery IV grave 10. Plan, sections, tions of entrance. and elevation of entrance. Fig. 194. Gr ave 383. Finds. Fig. 227. C emetery IV grave 10. Finds from dro- Fig. 195. Grave 384. Plan, sections, and eleva- mos (D) and chamber. tions of entrance. Fig. 228. C emetery IV grave 10. Finds from Fig. 196. Gr ave 384. Finds from fill (F) and floor chamber. of chamber. Fig. 229. Cemetery IV grave 11. Plan and sec- Fig. 197. Gr ave 385 (burial in topsoil). Plan. tion. Fig. 198. Grave 386. Plan, sections, and eleva- Fig. 230. C emetery IV grave 11. Finds. tions of entrance. Fig. 231. Cemetery IV grave 12. Plan, sections, Fig. 199. Grave 386. Finds from dromos (D), fill and elevations of entrance. (F) and floor of chamber. Fig. 232. C emetery IV grave 12. Finds from fill Fig. 200. Gr ave 386. Finds from floor of cham- (F) and floor of chamber. ber. Fig. 233. C emetery IV grave 13 (‘cenotaph’). Fig. 201. Grave 387. Plan, sections, and eleva- Plan. tion of entrance.

XIV Lists

List of plates

Plate 1 Klin-Yar. 1 View of Klin-Yar in 1996 mid-shaped gold earrings; 7 hilt and from the southeast; 2 stone-lined scabbard mouth band of the sword. Koban grave 362. Plate 6 Klin- Yar. 1 The ‘horse skin’ on top of Plate 2 Klin- Yar. The decorated bronze axe the refilled dromos of ‘cenotaph’ grave from Koban grave 362. 388; 2 the possible human sacrific e in Plate 3 Klin-Yar. 1 The possible ‘shaman’s grave 385. burial’ in Koban grave 355; 2 male Plate 7 Klin- Yar. 1 Byzantine solidus (coin 1) burial with iron long sword in Late from Alanic grave 341; 2 Byzan- Sarmatian catacomb grave 365. tine solidus (coin 2) from Alanic Plate 4 Klin- Yar. 1 The rich 7th century Alan- grave 341; 3 Byzantine solidus from ic grave 360 with a double burial; Alanic grave 363; 4 gold disc brooch 2 the horse sacrifice in the dromos of from Alanic grave 345; 5 earrings from grave 360. Alanic grave 363; 6 silver strap-end Plate 5 Klin-Yar grave 360. 1 Boot fittings; from Alanic grave 341; 7 gold plates 2 belt fittings; 3 belt fittings; 4 Irani- from the elaborate necklace found in an glass vessel; 5 gold brooch with Alanic grave 363. inlay of semi-precious stone; 6 pyra-

List of abbreviations

AAH Act a Archaeologica Academiae Scien- NMRU National Museum of the Republic of tarum Hungaricae Udmurtia, Izhevsk (Национальный музей Удмуртской республики, GHA Germ anen, Hunnen und Awaren. Ижевск, abbreviated НМУР) Schätze der Völkerwanderungszeit. Nürnberg 1987. NRTKh Nation al Reservation of Taurid Kher- sones, Sevastopol’ (Национальный IHMC Institute of the History of Material заповедник Херсонес Таврический, Culture, Russian Academy of Севастополь, abbreviated НЗХТ) Sciences, St Petersburg (Инсти- тут истории материальной куль- NSHM No vorossijsk State Historical Museum туры Российской академии наук, and Reservation (Новороссийский Санкт-Петербург, abbreviated ИИМК государственный исторический му- РАН) зей-заповедник, abbreviated НГИМЗ)

JAM Jósa András Múzeum, Nyíregyháza PMA Państwowe Muzeum Archeologiczne, Warszawa KChLHM K arachaevo-Cherkessia Local History Museum (Карачаево-Черкесский Го- RGZM Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuse- сударственный объединенный крае um Mainz ведческий музей-заповедник) SH State Hermitage, St Petersburg (Госу- KSHAM Krasnodar State Historical-Archi- дарственный Эрмитаж, Санкт-Петер- tectural Museum and Reservation бург, abbreviated ГЭ) (Краснодарский государственный историко-архитектурный музей-за- SHM St ate Historical Museum, Moscow поведник, Краснодар, abbreviated (Государственный Исторический му- КГИАМЗ) зей, Москва, abbreviated ГИМ)

KLHM Ki slovodsk Local History Museum SLHM St avropol Local History Museum (Кисловодский краеведческий (Ставропольский Государственный музей, abbreviated ККМ) объединенный краеведческий му- зей им. Г. Н. Прозрителева и Г. К. Пра- MNM Magyar Nemzeti Múzeum, Budapest ве; abbreviated СКМ)

NHM Naturhistorisches Museum Wien SME State Museum of the East (Государ- ственный Музей народов Востока)

XV Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

USGS United States Geological Survey МАИЭТ Материалы по археологии, истории, этнографии Таврии, Симферополь ИА НАНУ Institute of Archaeology, National Academy of Sciences of the Ukraine, МАК М атериалы по археологии Кавказа, Kiev (Институт археологии Нацио- Москва нальной Академии наук Украины, Киев) МГУ Mo scow State University (Москов- ский государственный университет) ИА РАН Ins titute of Archaeology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow (Ин- МЗХТ M useum and Reservation of Taurid ститут археологии Российской ака- Khersones, Sevastopol’ (Музей-запо- демии наук, Москва) ведник Херсонес Таврический, Се- вастополь) ИАК Известия Императорской археоло- гической комиссии, Санкт-Петер- МЕУ Hebrew University of Moscow (Мо- бург сковский еврейский университет, Москва) КЕС Культура евразийских степей второй половины I тысячелетия н.э., Самара МИА Материалы и исследования по архео логии СССР КСИА Кр аткие сообщения Института архео логии OAK Отчет Императорской археологиче- ской комиссии (Санкт-Петербург) КСИИМК Краткие сообщения Института исто- рии материальной культуры САИ Свод археологических источников.

XVI Preface of the authors

This publication is the outcome of an interna- conservation and redrawing before this (still tional project which combined in an almost ideal mysterious) loss. An incident of overnight grave fashion local expertise and evidence with con- robbery during the fieldwork and the disappear- temporary international debates and research ance of a couple of artefacts from the site have questions. The collaboration came about by a resulted in some (though minor) loss of evidence chance meeting in Oxford 1992 of a western and documentation of finds, as has the difficul- colleague looking for a fieldwork project in East- ty of tracing all finds in the stores of Stavropol ern Europe, with the representative of a group Local History Museum1 for the purposes of in- of young Russian archaeologists looking in the spection and redrawing. Finally, changes in per- post-Soviet political climate for international sonnel and technology over the long duration of collaboration in their projects in the North Cau- the project have led to some inconsistencies in casus. Initial problems arising from different the styles of drawings, particularly of artefacts. backgrounds and scholarly traditions were grad- The unforeseen delay of the publication after the ually overcome because of the willingness of completion of the final typescript means that rel- both sides to learn from each other, and to adapt evant work published after May 2012 could not their own approaches and methods. be taken into account.

This volume has been a long time in the making. It is hoped, nevertheless, that readers will agree This is due to a number of factors, some expect- that these problems are minor compared to the ed, others unexpected: the nature of interna- actual findings and results of our project. The tional collaboration involving long distances, in- authors also hope that this publication in Eng- frequent meetings and different languages; the lish of work on, and analysis of, one of the most practical conditions of working in Russia in the important sites in the North Caucasus will make immediate post-Soviet period; the attempt to in- original data available to western readers and volve a large number of local specialists; and the further the understanding of this crossroads re- changes in the professional contexts of the two gion among a wider audience. main authors, one on them (A. B. Belinskij) setting up and running from 1995 to 2014 the Cul- tural Heritage Unit (GUP Nasledie) of the Ministry Translation and linguistic conventions of Culture of Stavropolskij Kraj, an administrative region twice the size of Belgium, the other (H. It is in the nature of an international collabora- Härke) pursuing an academic career in Britain tive project like this one that many translations until 2007, over a period which saw a profound of texts were necessary, and that these had to transformation and bureaucratization of the Brit- be edited extensively in collaboration of editor ish university system, resulting in a significant (HH) and authors. The final, careful and agree- loss of research time for academic staff. able edit in the DAI Eurasien Department (Erd- mute Schultze) added another linguistic layer. Since the start of the project (in 1993) and in the Initial translations of the original Russian texts intervening two decades since the end of field- for chapters 1.2, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9 and 10 were done work (in 1996), a number of changes and devel- by Andrej Egorikhin (Stavropol), for chapter 6.1 opments have affected the original direction of by Sergej V. Kullanda (Moscow), and for chapter the project and its publication. The discovery 6.2 by Yurij A. Golovenko († formerly Kislovodsk). of a hitherto unsuspected area of exceptionally The other chapters were submitted in English by rich graves (the Sarmatian-Alanic ‘elite plot’), the respective authors. followed by the realization that the human bone preservation would not be good enough for DNA The transliteration of Russian names and terms extraction with the techniques available in the is based on the Gost 1971 convention, but using late 1990s shifted questions and approaches the common ALA-LC substitutions of ts instead of from population dynamics to social aspects, cz (for Cyrillic ц), shch instead of shh (for щ), and although the subsequent study of the radio- kh instead of x (for х). In most letter sequences, carbon dating problem (caused by a ‘reservoir particularly in grave numbers, Cyrillic letters are effect’ of old carbon in the local environment) substituted by Latin letter sequences (a, b, c, brought back issues of immigration as well as d, e, etc.) rather than being transliterated (which diet and dating. The loss of all Sarmatian and would have resulted in a, b, v, g, d, etc.). Cyrillic Alanic beads in transit from Stavropol to Moscow means not only the absence of a specialist report on this important artefact category, but also a 1 Ставропольский Государственный объединенный крае certain incompleteness of the beads drawings ведческий музей им. Г. Н. Прозрителева и Г. К. Праве because there had been no time to do all the (abbreviated СКМ).

XVII Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

letters are kept in some cases where reference to came the main artefact illustrator for this pub- previous publications in Russian may be impor- lication, which we are very grateful for. We also tant (e. g. for pottery types, chronological peri- owe profound thanks to all Nasledie staff then ods etc.). based in Stavropol, in particular Jacov Berezin, Aleksej Kalmykov and Arsenij Lychagin, for their Names of sites in Russia are given in their trans- tireless on-site work and post-excavation sup- literated form instead of in translation (e. g. port, and to Margaret Mathews in the Archae- Lermontovskaya Skala rather than Lermontov ology Department of the University of Reading Rock). Established geographical terms are used for the unflagging technical support during the in their most widely accepted form in order to preparation of the publication, in particular facilitate recognition, even if that means aban- the laborious digitization of all illustrations. doning the principle of direct transliteration The excellent colour photographs of finds from (thus Ossetia instead of Ossetiya, Altai instead our excavations are the work of freelance pho- of Altaj, etc.). In the part of the bibliography tographer Igor Kozhevnikov (Stavropol). We which lists publications in Latin script, translit- are grateful to the staff of Stavropol Local His- erated names of Russian authors are kept in the tory Museum (СКМ) who supported the lengthy published format although that may lead to ap- post-excavation inspection and documenta- parent inconsistencies (e. g. Belinsky in a French tion of finds as best they could under difficult publication, but otherwise Belinskij). Names of circumstances. Sabine Reinhold and Aleksej Russian institutions are translated throughout Kalmykov provided the basis for the overall plan the text, but their Russian original form will be of the Klin-Yar site (Fig. 3), and Dmitrij Korobov given at first mention. kindly supplied the map of the Kislovodsk Ba- sin showing the wider archaeological context (Fig. 54). Acknowledgements Heinrich Härke records his thanks to the Lever- The authors wish to thank first and foremost hulme Trust and the British Academy for their the British Academy for funding an exploratory joint Senior Research Fellowship in 1997 – 98 visit (by H. Härke) to the North Caucasus, three without which the organisation of the post-exca- years of fieldwork at Klin-Yar and two years of vation work in Russia and the compilation of the post-excavation work. Without this continuous English-language catalogue of finds and findings support over six years, this project would not for publication would have been all but impossi- have come about. We are also grateful to the Arts ble. He remembers gratefully the numerous col- and Humanities Research Board (AHRB, Great leagues in Moscow and the North Caucasus for Britain) for additional post-excavation funding, their friendly reception, their help, advice and and to the Society of Antiquaries of London and understanding offered to a stranger who arrived the University of Reading Research Endowment in the North Caucasus with little background Trust Fund as well as the Historic Archaeology knowledge of East European archaeology, and Research Group at Reading for travel grants in with no practical experience of fieldwork in the connection with post-excavation work. The be- region; many of these colleagues have become ginning of fieldwork was also supported with good friends in the meantime. He is also grate- rescue archaeology funds by the Archaeology ful to the Archaeology Department of the Univer- Laboratory (headed at the time by A. B. Belinskij) sity of Reading for material and administrative of Stavropol State University2. support over the years, and to his Departmental colleagues for the atmosphere of mutual support We are grateful to the Reading students who which made this project possible; John Creighton went out to Klin-Yar, and to the Russian students and Aleks Pluskowski helped with questions con- and volunteers for their enthusiastic participa- cerning the Klin-Yar coin finds and animal bones, tion in the fieldwork, and for their willingness respectively. to engage in cross-cultural communication and international understanding; the encounters The authors owe particular gratitude to two suc- provided many memorable moments. Among cessive Directors of the Eurasia Department of the volunteers, the renowned Moscow artist the German Archaeological Institute (DAI), Prof. and illustrator Evgenij Telishev deserves spe- Hermann Parzinger and Prof. Svend Hansen, for cial mention for his outstanding field drawings. their generous offer to publish this excavation in One of the Reading students, Jason Walker, their Department’s monograph series ‘Archäolo- having staid on in Stavropol for some time, be- gie in Eurasien’.

2 Ставропольский государственный университет (abbreviated SGU); at the time of the excavation, it was called ‘institute’ (teacher training college), but has been renamed since.

XVIII 1 Introduction

1.1 Location and context

The site of Klin-Yar is located in the Russian Koban and Alanic periods. Further settlement are- North Caucasus, in the far south of the kraj as of Koban and Alanic date are located on the up- (self-governing administrative region) of Stav- per slopes around the plateau while several cem- ropol, some three kilometres from the centre of eteries with Koban, Sarmatian and Alanic graves the historic spa town of Kislovodsk (Fig. 1). It has occupy the lower slopes around the Parovoz. The been known for some time to be a key site for lat- plateau itself affords excellent views of the chalk er prehistoric and early medieval archaeology in and sandstone hills of the surrounding Caucasus the North Caucasus: previous observations and foothills, and of the valley of the river Podkumok excavations have produced settlement evidence which runs about a kilometre north of the site, of the Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age Koban Cul- providing an easy east – west communication ture and the early medieval Alanic period, and route. On clear days the distinct, snow-covered extensive burial grounds of Koban, Sarmatian double cone of Mount Elbrus can be seen from (Late Iron Age) and Alanic date, with evidence the Parovoz on the southern horizon, across for wealth and far-flung contacts to regions west grass-covered high plateaus which to this day and south of the Caucasus and to the steppes to provide extensive pasture for the local livestock the north and north-east (see below). economy. Mount Elbrus is a dormant volcano the presence of which is a reminder of the volcanic The core of the site is formed by a narrow, nature of the region. Further reminders are pro- steep-sided sandstone plateau (locally called vided by the many natural springs of hot and cold Parovoz, or ‘The Locomotive’), with an approx- mineral water (mostly ferrous and sulphurous) imate length of about 500 metres and a max- which have given their name to the area (Mineral- imum width of under 40 metres (Fig. 2; Pl. 1,1). nye Vody). They are found most famously in Kislo- Surrounded by a curving valley (the eponymous vodsk (‘Sour Water’) and other nearby spa towns Klin-Yar, or ‘Crooked Valley’), it forms an easily such as Pyatigorsk which have attracted visitors defensible settlement area which was used in the since the 19th century. But there are local mineral

Fig. 1. Location of Klin-Yar.

1 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 2. The site of Klin-Yar.

water springs bubbling out of the earth across the ly mixed, with a preponderance of Russians. The region; one spring located about one and a half landscape around Klin-Yar and to the south is kilometres to the northwest of Klin-Yar may, how- used today mainly for livestock rearing, particular- ever, be pipe-fed from elsewhere. These sources ly of cattle and sheep. During the excavation sea- have been regularly exploited by local residents, sons, Karachai ‘cowboys’ drove their cattle herds and they are relevant to the interpretation of the past the site and showed great interest in the anomalous radiocarbon dates obtained from hu- excavations as well as the presence of foreigners man bones from Klin-Yar (see Chapter 8). in the area. The source of some of this interest is to be found in the regional disputes about ethnic The Caucasus region is famous, and infamous, for origins and ancestry. At one point, two ‘cowboys’, its ethnic diversity and tensions. The North Cau- sitting sideways in their saddles and watching the casus was annexed by the Russian Empire only in proceedings, were overheard discussing if they the late 18th century and colonized (though not im- were descended from the Alans who were being mediately pacified) by the foundation of fortress- excavated here, or from the Avars. In North Cau- es and towns; the regional capital of Stavropol casus disputes, an Alanic origin counts as ‘pres- was founded in 1777, the town of Kislovodsk in tigious’, but it is more convincingly claimed by 1803. Klin-Yar is located in the Russian adminis- the Iranian-speaking, mostly Christian Ossetians trative region of Stavropol, but within a couple of some 200 kilometres further east.3 This little inci- hundred metres of the border with the self-gov- dent highlights, at the same time, that there was erning republic of Karachaevo-Cherkessia which no local objection at all against the excavation is part of the Russian Federation. The rural popu- of graves and human skeletons at Klin-Yar, only lation in the vicinity of Klin-Yar consists mainly of a great deal of interest in the findings and, some- Karachai, a Turkic-speaking Muslim population; times, an explicit hope that our work might finally the urban population of Kislovodsk is ethnical- settle the disputes about Alanic ancestry.

1.2 History of research at Klin-Yar

Fieldwork since the 1960s has revealed Klin-Yar is located about 3 km west of the old Kislovodsk to be one of the richest and most complex sites Lake and the buildings of the former Velingrad of the Early Iron Age and the Early Middle Ages in sanatorium, on the upper right-bank terrace the entire Caucasus Mineral Waters region, and of the River Podkumok. The valley of Klin-Yar is the richest in the Kislovodsk Basin (Fig. 3).

The site comprises settlements and cemeteries 3 Кузнецов 1993, 155 – 183; Kouznetsov/Lebedinsky 1997, of the Koban, Sarmatian and Alanic periods. It 139 – 154; see also Härke 2007.

2 1 Introduction

closed to the north, towards the river, by a long early Scythian type. The authors of the first re- Fig. 3. Excavations and rock formation called Parovoz (‘The Locomotive’) port suggested that the presence of decorative discoveries 1983−1996 at which extends some 500 meters from east to bronze plates belonging to the Caucasian tradi- Klin-Yar III. west. The flat top of the rock, protected by an al- tion alongside weapons from the steppe tradi- most vertical cliff, was used as a fortress and a tion was evidence of Scythian-Caucasian con- refuge at various times in the past. Deep pits or tacts at the time, reflected in the grave-goods at shafts, probably intended as cisterns, have been Klin-Yar and the nearby cemetery of Sultan-Gora. cut into the eastern part of the rock surface, and these pits still collect rainwater today. The west- The same report also provided the first infor- ern part of the flat top of the rock is cut off by a mation on the cemetery of Klin-Yar III which was rampart, and the remains of a stone structure, discovered in a ploughed field about 150 meters probably a watch tower, are visible approximate- east of Klin-Yar II.5 Here, 11 graves were excavat- ly in the centre of this area. The proximity of wa- ed in 1968: nine catacombs and two flat graves ter undoubtedly added to the attraction of this (burial pits). The authors attributed most graves natural fortification. (catacombs 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and flat graves 4 and 11) to the Late Sarmatian period; and they The cemeteries of Klin-Yar are located on the linked the flat graves to local burial traditions, southern, western and northern slopes below and the catacombs to the Alans. While most of the rock. A. P. Runich provided the first informa- the excavated graves were dated to the 2nd to tion about their discovery, excavated a number 4th centuries AD, based on grave-goods includ- of burials here in 1964 and 1968, and created ing bronze and iron buckles with movable pins, the numbering system for the various cemetery fibulae, small iron tanged trilobate arrowheads, areas (Klin-Yar I, II etc.). In 1968, ploughing in beads, pendants and pottery, the authors noted the area subsequently called Klin-Yar II uncov- that the cemetery continued into the 7th centu- ered eight crouched single burials in rectangular ry AD. stone cists.4 The grave-goods included everyday items and weapons typical of the first half of the th th 6 to the first half of the 5 centuries BC, such 5 Виноградов/Рунич 1969, 118. – The double appearance as bronze and iron arrowheads of socketed tri- in that article of grave number 4 (once for a catacomb, an- lobate type, and iron short swords (akinakes) of other time for a flat grave) seems to be an error. The original field report assigns the number 4 to a flat grave; Рунич 1968; personal communication Ya. B. Berezin (Kislovodsk). The correct catacomb number seems to be 3; personal com- 4 Виноградов/Рунич 1969. munication D. Korobov (Moscow).

3 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Large-scale excavations of the Klin-Yar cemeter- were handed over to Pyatigorsk Museum. Flyor- ies were started in 1983 by the Stavropol expedi- ov excavated an area of 400 sq. metres along the tion of the Institute of Archaeology, USSR Acad- northern and eastern boundaries of the building emy of Sciences, directed by S. N. Korenevskij site and opened about ten Alanic catacombs and with the assistance of M. V. Andreeva. Fieldwork a Koban stone cist. began as a rescue excavation ahead of building projects for a bypass and a cattle farm for the In 1984, fieldwork at Klin-Yar was continued by Government sanitorium of the 4th Department the expedition of the Institute of Archaeology of the USSR Ministry of Health. In that year, An- led by Flyorov.8 During that season, he estab- dreeva excavated 65 burials in the Koban part of lished that a Koban Culture settlement occupied the cemetery; one of the graves was published the entire central part of the slope south of the in 1986 by herself and Kozenkova.6 The authors Parovoz rock. The settlement area measured reported that the 1983 excavation was carried approximately 400 m east to west, and up to out in the lower part of the valley, “north” of the 150 meters north to south. Flyorov found that Parovoz rock formation, in an area called “cem- this entire area had been densely built over etery of Klin-Yar III”.7 The exact location of their with stone-built structures of two types, above- excavation relative to the cemeteries of Klin-Yar I ground and sunken-floor buildings. A total of and II seems to have been unclear to the authors 1,556 sq. metres was opened up in the settle- who maintained, nevertheless, that doubtlessly ment area by a number of excavation trenches in the cemetery of Klin-Yar III is close to Klin-Yar I 1984. Flyorov noted that the Koban houses had and II, and that this needs to be taken into ac- not been built on steep slopes, but on horizon- count when studying the topography of the cem- tal terraces, even where these appeared rather etery. Andreeva and Kozenkova published the narrow for the purpose. The occupation layer so-called ‘treasure’, a collection of bronze items included pottery, animal bones (mainly from discovered by accident in the cut made for road horse, cattle and sheep) and stone debris, and widening in the hill about 50 meters south of the it varied in thickness across the settlement area. main excavation area with the stone cists. They In addition to buildings, Flyorov also identified commented that the articles were probably from two features which he interpreted as ‘places of a destroyed male burial of the Koban Culture. sacrifice’. This ‘treasure’ included parts of a bronze armour, bracelets, accessories of a sword-belt, and a Also in 1984, the locations of the cemeteries cast bronze dagger with a cruciform hilt. The au- were established with a greater degree of accu- thors suggested that these finds were among the racy than before. It was found that Koban cem- earliest of the pre-Scythian assemblages of the etery areas were located immediately west and Koban Culture dating to the 9th to 8th centuries east of the Koban settlement, and a rescue exca- BC. It is, however, far more likely that the items vation of some disturbed Koban graves (nos. 15, of the ‘treasure’ came from more than one burial. 26 and 27) was carried out. The exact extent of Later excavations in the cemetery demonstrated the Alanic catacomb cemetery was established that bracelets are part of the female grave-goods with the help of employees of the I. M. Gubkin In- set and never occur in Koban male burials at this stitute (now Gubkin Russian State University) for site. Oil and Gas who, for the first time at Klin-Yar, applied electric resistivity and magnetic prospect In the same year, during building work for the ion. The 1984 excavations did not, however, cattle farm, V. S. Flyorov observed traces of a produce any evidence of the medieval (Alanic) catacomb cemetery in the area of the sedimenta- settlement which had been suggested by some tion reservoirs 300 meters southeast of the east- authors including V. A. Kuznetsov and E. Afa- ern tip of the rock formation. He noted that the nas’ev. construction which had started in 1982 had destroyed about ten catacombs. Most of the grave- Over the next two years, Flyorov continued his goods had been taken by the building workers, excavations of the Koban settlement and the and only a few items were gathered by members multi-period cemetery. In 1985, the total exca- of the archaeological study group of Kislovodsk vation area was 1,095 sq. metres.9 Fieldwork Museum. One of the catacombs destroyed at in the Koban settlement that year produced a the time had held a wide range of finds, includ- rectangular dwelling measuring 6 by 5.5 meters ing gold artefacts; the finds were only returned which contributed to our knowledge of the de- by the workers when police got involved, and tails of Koban buildings. Flyorov suggested that the walls had been made of wattle and daub, with stone having been used only for the foun- 6 Андреева/Козенкова 1986. 7 Андреева/Козенкова 1986.The statement about the location of their excavation is confused and has to be an error. Circumstances and description suggest that the trench was 8 Флёров 1985. located south of the rock. 9 Флёров 1985.

4 1 Introduction

dations. Forty graves of various dates were also sented in this volume was undertaken in 1993 opened during that season, 26 of them dating as an exploratory excavation by the Archaeolo- to the Late Sarmatian period (nos. 28, 33 – 44, gy Laboratory, and in the years 1994 to 1996 in 46, 47, 50, 53, 54, 56 – 59, 61, 63, 64, and 66). three full fieldwork seasons by the newly found- Most of these were excavated in the eastern part ed GUP ‘Nasledie’ of the Ministry of Culture, of the cemetery where Late Sarmatian and early Stavropol region (kraj), and the Department of medieval (Alanic) graves were found together. Archaeology, University of Reading (UK). The early medieval graves were all of catacomb type, with their access corridors (dromoi) point- The outcome of more than three decades of field- ing north, a pattern imposed by the southern work at Klin-Yar includes almost three hundred slope below the rock formation. In 1986, the burials of the Koban Culture, a collection of Late fieldwork (directed that year jointly by Flyorov Bronze Age to Early Iron Age evidence which is and V. E. Nakhapetian) focused on the cemetery, unparalleled in the North Caucasus. This is sup- producing 51 Koban and eight Late Sarmatian plemented by some 30 tombs (niche graves and graves, 14 early medieval catacombs and one catacombs) of the Sarmatian period and about horse burial. 70 Alanic catacombs of the early medieval period, the latter representing the largest complex of The main results of Flyorov’s excavations in the undisturbed Alanic graves anywhere in the North Klin-Yar cemeteries have been published in three Caucasus. monographs. The first of these, published in 2000, presents his findings from the early medi- The state of publication of the Klin-Yar cemetery eval Alanic catacombs, with a particular focus on evidence so far is somewhat uneven, with the re- the so-called ‘rite to render the dead harmless’.10 sults of individual excavators, and of individual The pottery assemblages from these catacombs assemblages or finds, presented or published in were analysed and published by Malashev in the a variety of papers and monographs.13 Particular same year.11 Most recently, the Late Sarmatian national and international attention has been graves excavated by Flyorov in the years 1983 to focused on the typological identification and 1986 have been published.12 chronological implications of horse harness, As- syrian helmets and other outstanding finds from In subsequent rescue excavations in 1987, Koban burials at this site. Among the later evi- Berezin (Stavropol Local History Museum) re- dence, the discovery in 1995 of a Late Sarmatian corded 21 graves of the pre-Scythian Koban to Alanic ‘elite plot’ at Klin-Yar III, with the Alanic period. From 1988, fieldwork in cemetery III ‘princely grave’ 360, and the more recent rescue of Klin-Yar was continued by the expedition of excavation of the 5th century ‘princely grave’ 389, the Archaeology Laboratory of Stavropol State are of particular significance for national and Pedagogical University. In 1989 to 1991, the international debates about early Alanic social expedition, directed by A. B. Belinskij, excavat- structure and the nature of burial ritual.14 Most of ed 181 burials of the Early Iron Age Koban cul- the hitherto unpublished finds and findings from ture and a significant number of Late Sarmatian the Klin-Yar cemeteries are now being prepared graves and early medieval Alanic catacombs. The for publication, or they are presented in this vol- international project the results of which are pre- ume.

1.3 The 1994 – 1996 seasons

As previously observed, the existence of three 1994 – 96 in a joint Anglo-Russian project by the chronological and cultural phases in the Klin- University of Reading and, on the Russian side, Yar cemeteries was the starting point for ques- initially the State University of Stavropol, lat- tions guiding the fieldwork undertaken in er the Ministry of Culture for Stavropol Region. The main intention was to explore to which extent population change (if any) had contributed 10 Флёров 2000. to the culture change visible in artefact styles, 11 Малашев 2000a. grave constructions and burial rites. This would 12 Флёров 2007. involve testing the hypothesis that the Alans of 13 Андреева/Козенкова 1986; Флёров 1989; Белинский 1990; Флёров/Дубовская 1993; Белинский/Эрлих 1994; the North Caucasus were the result of an ethno- Berezin/Dudarev 1999; Белинский/Дударев 2001a; Бе- genetic process whereby immigrant Sarmatians линский/Дударев 2001b; Belinsky et al. 2001; Белинский (probably from the southern Urals region) as- et al. 2001; Белинский et al. 2002; Belinsky/Dudarev 2002; similated the native Koban people of the area.15 Белинский/Дударев 2002; Дударев/Белинский 2002a; Ду- дарев/Белинский 2002b. 14 Härke/Belinsky 2000; Härke/Belinskij 2008; Härke/Be- linskij 2011a; Härke/Belinskij 2015. 15 Абрамова 1993.

5 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

It was clear that this key question required an interdisciplinary approach which would sys- tematically compare cultural and biological data in order to assess the relative contributions of population dynamics and acculturation to the process of culture change. The relevant cultural data were identified as artefact types and styles, grave constructions, and the various facets of burial ritual. Biological data were to be obtained through skeletal analysis (metric and non-metric traits, palaeopathology), bone chemistry, and ancient DNA; the latter was to be analysed concurrently at Oxford and Moscow. The new fieldwork was intended to increase the size of the available sample, to obtain more information on the lay-out of the various cemetery areas, and to provide uncontaminated bone samples for bone chemistry and, in particular, DNA analysis.

The choice of the locations for the new trenches on the southern slope of the rock, the main cemetery area (Klin-Yar III), was informed by the locations of previous trenches and by the expected extent of the Koban settlement area which was to be avoided. Use was also made by the presence of Moscow geophysicists who trained their students at Klin-Yar in 1993 and 1994. Their georadar sweeps across the possible excavation areas identified a number of large underground anomalies which became the focus of the trenches in 1994 – 95 and turned out to be the large Alanic catacombs of the ‘elite plot’. This area was excavated in a north-south strip 33 metres long and 10 metres wide which was located some 300 m south-southeast of the eastern tip of the central rock formation (Fig. 4). The shape of this main trench (1/1994, 1/1995, 1/1996) was constrained by previous excavations to the south and east, and Koban settlement features to the west. After the discovery of the elite plot in 1994 and its continued explor ation in 1995 and 1996, together with a small area slightly further south on the slope (2/1994, 2/1995; Fig. 5), the original intention of sam- pling several cemetery areas became even more important.

In 1996, four smaller trenches were opened closer to the eastern boundary of the cemetery, at distances of between 80 and 200 metres east and east-southeast of the main trench. Two of these trenches, one at each distance, were empty and did not even produce stray finds, suggesting a marked drop in the density of burials, while the other two produced Sarmatian and Alanic graves (2/1996 and 3/1996; Figs. 6; 7). Finally, still in 1996, excavations were shifted Fig. 4. Main trench (1/1994, 1/1995, to the northern side of the rock where previous 1/1996) at Klin- work had revealed the existence of a further Yar III: plan of exca- Koban and Alanic cemetery area (Klin-Yar IV). An vated features. initial trial trench here was empty of graves and

6 1 Introduction

Fig. 6. Trench 2/1996 at Klin-Yar III: plan of excavated features.

stray finds. Another trench (1/1996) was, therefore, opened about 100 metres further west, north of an area of Alanic settlement further up the slope, and this produced a series of Alan- Fig. 5. Trench 2/1994 and 2/1995 at Klin-Yar III: plan of ic catacombs as well as some Koban evidence excavated features. (Fig. 8).

Fig. 7. Trench 3/1996 at Klin-Yar III: plan of excavated features.

7 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

The final tally of the three seasons was 17 Koban burials, nine Sarmatian tombs, two transitional Sarmatian/Alanic and 24 Alanic catacombs (with more than 100 individuals from these 50 graves), two ‘cenotaphs’ without contents and three unassociated ‘horse skin’ (head-and-hooves) depositions between the graves. The excavations also produced some settlement evidence of Koban date. Post-excavation work was mostly carried out at Stavropol (conservation, animal bones) and Moscow (human skeletal material), with only the radiocarbon dating being done outside Russia (at the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Labora- tory). Interim reports on the excavations have been published in English, French and German; overviews of the results were given in Russian at regional conferences.16 Evidence obtained during the excavations and observations made during the joint project have been incorporat- ed into various other conference papers.17 The radiocarbon offset noticed during routine dating at Oxford, together with the relevant stable isotope data, has been published separately18 while the radiocarbon dates and a discussion of their implications are presented here (see Chapter 8).

Fig. 8. Trench 1/1996 at Klin-Yar IV: plan of excavated features.

16 English: Belinskij/Härke 1995; Belinskij/Härke 1996; Härke/Belinskij 2011b; Härke/Belinskij 2012; French: Härke/Belinsky 2000; German: Härke/Belinskij 2011a; Rus- sian: Белинский/Харке 1998. 17 Белинский et al. 2001; Härke 2000; Härke/Belinskij 2008; 2015. 18 Higham et al. 2010; Белинский et al. 2013.

8 2 The Koban Culture graves and finds

Andrej B. Belinskij and Sergej L. Dudarev

2.1 Grave structures

A total of 17 Koban burials were opened dur- traceable because of the nature of the soil (369, ing the 1994 – 1996 excavations at Klin-Yar: 16 375 – 377). Several pits were entirely or partially in the cemetery of Klin-Yar III south of the rock, covered with stone slabs (344, 350). Some pits one in Klin-Yar IV north of the rock. Four types of had a single ledge along one inside of the pit grave construction may be distinguished among (344), ledges on opposite walls (west and east; them. 353), or all round (350). These features are also typical of other burial pits of Klin-Yar III where Two burials were in stone cists of sub-rectangu- they are the most frequent type of Koban burial lar or square outline, made of upright sandstone (type II, 172 cases).22 slabs (burials 346, 366). The cists were not large, 0.62 × 0.67 and 0.97 × 0.78 m, respective- Another type, the ‘walled pit’ (type IV at Klin- ly, which is smaller than some of the cists pre- Yar after Berezin and Dudarev),23 was repre- viously excavated at Klin-Yar III which included sented in 1994 – 1996 by burial 349. In a pit of sizes up to 2.0 × 1.45 m. Although stone cists 1.53 × 1.25 m, three sides were covered by dry- are the main type of grave structure in the so- stone walls while the fourth was left bare. A total called Western (or Pyatigorsk) variant19 of the of five graves of this type have been excavated at Koban Culture, only 19 are known from Klin-Yar Klin-Yar over the years. III (out of 223 graves excavated by Flyorov, Be- linskij and Berezin, the data of which are acces- Finally, two graves (348, 362) represent a sible)20. It is, therefore, unsurprising that there type which combines features of several other were so few in the new excavations. Stone cists types and which we termed ‘walled cist’. Two are type I of the Koban grave structures in this walls of these graves were bare soil, one was cemetery.21 made of upright slabs, and the fourth of a dry- stone wall. In one case (362), the dry-stone Eleven burials had been made in ground grave wall had been built on a low step; this grave pits (Klin-Yar III graves 344, 350, 353 – 355, was also partially covered with flagstones. 358, 369, 375 – 377; Klin-Yar IV grave 11), The dimensions of these two graves were their dimensions varying from 0.75 × 0.50 to 1.22 × 0.90 and 1.95 × 1.30 m, respectively. 1.53 × 1.25 m. Burial pits were of sub-rectan- These are the only two cases of walled cists gular or square shape with rounded corners, or at Klin-Yar, and they make up type VI of Koban trapezoidal. The outlines of some pits were un- graves at this site.24

2.2 Treatment of the body

All burials were, on excavation, identified as bent at the knees at a sharp angle and pulled those of single bodies placed crouched on the up to the abdomen. The skeleton in burial 343 side, although osteological analysis identified had an unusual posture: extremely crouched, long bone and pelvis fragments of a child with with the knee joints nearly against the coro- the female adult burial 343. nal bones of the skull. This was only possible because, in an act of post-mortem injury, the The skeletons found in graves 348, 355, 375 femur trochanters had been twisted out of the and 377 were tightly crouched, with their legs hip joints so that the femurs were in parallel to the body. This may also have been the case in grave 58 (excavated by Flyorov) where the

19 left femur of the skeleton was dislocated to- Козенкова 1989, 76. 25 20 Флёров/Дубовская 1993; Berezin/Dudarev 1999; Бе- wards the waist. These and other cases (e. g. линский/Дударев 2001a; Белинский/Дударев 2001b; Бе- the post-mortem trepanation of the skull in линский et al. 2001; Белинский/Дударев 2015. grave 177) suggest that the Early Iron Age peo- 21 Berezin/Dudarev 1999. 22 Berezin/Dudarev 1999. 23 Berezin/Dudarev 1999. 24 Белинский/Дударев 2015. 25 Флёров/Дубовская 1993.

9 Klin-Yar – A. B. Belinskij and S. L. Dudarev

ple of Klin-Yar already practiced post-mortem found on the left side were those of children manipulation in order to ‘render harmless’ or (375 and 377); their grave-goods were not di- ‘stop’ certain dead, possibly out of supersti- agnostic. Finally, in three cases the body position. Such a practice has already been observed tion was unknown or uncertain (346, 354, 369). for the Koban population of the early Scythian There appear, therefore, to have been predom- period.26 inant, though not mutually exclusive, modes of gender-determined deposition, with males on Crouched burial implied a choice of deposition the right side, and females on the left side. This on the right or the left side. Of the seven cas- confirms earlier observations in Koban cem- es on the right side, five (in graves 344, 358, eteries of the Caucasian Mineral Waters area, 362, 376 and IV-11) were male according to including earlier excavations in the cemetery of their grave-goods (knife, whetstone, spear- Klin-Yar III.27 head, axe, flint), and this is confirmed or not contradicted by the skeletal sexing (376 is an Eleven of the 17 Koban burials were orientated unsexed juvenile). The two other burials on the with their heads to the north, one to the south- right side are exceptional cases. Grave 343 held west, and one to the south (IV-11); in three cas- the only double burial, that of a young female es, the orientation was uncertain. This pattern adult (deposited on the right side) and a child relates only to the cemetery areas excavated (bone fragments, not identified during excava- 1994 – 1996, and is not typical for the cemetery tion); the grave-goods were inconclusive here. of Klin-Yar III as a whole which has a predom- The other case is grave 355 which held an adult inant orientation around south (155 cases, or man (according to the bone report) buried with nearly 81 % of 192 cases with known orienta- a female grave-goods set (bronze pin, glass tion). In its overall pattern, Klin-Yar confirms the beads, bronze tubes and a snail shell, as well as rule for the Koban Culture, including its western a pottery bowl placed upside down); the body zone: the predominance of a particular orient had been deposited in an unusual position, ation within any one cemetery.28 For example, in the corner of the grave pit (see below). Sev- predominantly southwestern orientations have en skeletons were found lying on the left side. been reported from the Agachevo cemetery.29 Five of these had been buried with a female By contrast, the northerly orientations of heads grave-goods set containing dress and body or- found during the 1994 – 1996 excavations at naments (348 – 350, 353, 366), although one Klin-Yar are rare in the Western Koban zone, with of them (349) was identified as male on oste- only three cases (mostly around northwest) list- ological grounds. The remaining two skeletons ed by Kozenkova.30

2.3 Ritual inclusions in the graves

Details of the ritual also include placing animal cavated by Berezin, and grave 283). Individ- bones and charcoal pieces in the grave-pit fill or ual stones and slabs (placed near the head or with the buried individuals (in graves 344, 350, the feet, etc.) were also found in other graves. 366, 376 and 377); sometimes such bones and The custom of placing stone slabs at the head charcoal were placed inside vessels (grave 350). of the body and/or in a corner of the grave pit Other such small depositions include flints and has been described for the Caucasian Mineral sulphur (grave 376). Waters area by Vinogradov (for the cemeteries of Klin-Yar I and Mebelnaya Fabrika 1),31 by Du- Occasionally stones were found near the body, darev (for burial 18 in the cemetery of Belore- such as the sandstone next to the skull of the chenskij 2, in the Kislovodsk area),32 and later child in grave 375. Stones placed against or more generally by Kozenkova who also drew close to various parts of the body have been re- interesting comparisons with cemeteries of the corded during earlier excavations at Klin-Yar: at eastern variant of the Koban Culture33. These the skull and cervical vertebra (graves 253, 258, cases suggest that individual stones and slabs 270), near and over arm bones (graves 259, were not just a part of the grave furniture, a 264, 267, 286, 290, 310), on a shoulder-blade kind of extension of its stone design (Kozenko- (grave 241), and near the pelvis (grave 14, ex- va believes them to be a structural detail of the grave), but also an important component of the

26 Ковалевская 1984; Козенкова 1989. 27 Виноградов et al. 1976; Козенкова 1989; Флёров/Ду- бовская 1993; Berezin/Dudarev 1999; Дударев 2004. 28 Козенкова 1989; Дударев 2004. 31 Виноградов 1972. 29 Козенкова 1989. 32 Дударев 2004. 30 Козенкова 1989. 33 Козенкова 1977; Козенкова 1989.

10 2 The Koban Culture graves and finds

funerary ritual and intended to accompany the While the immediate vicinity of, and overlap dead to the next world. with, the Koban settlement must be borne in mind, the presence of charcoal in graves at Klin- It is also worth noting that in some Late Bronze Yar III may be evidence of the ‘fire ritual’ popular Age to Early Iron Age cemeteries of Transcauca- among prehistoric populations of the Caucasus. sia, a ritual detail was found that is close to the This ritual is suggested by particles of charcoal one observed at Klin-Yar III: a river pebble placed in many graves: charcoal and ash in the fill of under the head (in the cemeteries of Treli, Artiki, grave pits, and pieces of charcoal with the bur- etc.).34 In grave 1 near the village of Atarbekian ials themselves (e. g. in graves 74, 261, 349, (Armenia), a flat basalt stone was found in each etc.). The occurrence in grave 377 of charcoal corner of the burial chamber.35 It seems clear pieces under the skull is matched by findings in that stones played a special role in the rituals grave 12 (excavated by Flyorov). In folk beliefs and cults of the inhabitants of the Caucasus, and of the Caucasus, charcoal, symbolizing fire, was this can be traced from prehistory up to the 19th/ also thought to be an efficient means to fight evil early 20th century.36 spirits.45

Flint chips are known not only from grave 376, The presence of food offerings in graves, such but from a whole series of other graves at Klin- as in the fill of grave pits (in grave 366), sug- Yar (e. g. 23 and 143; found in a total of 25 gests the sacrifice of animals at the time of graves);37 they are also known from some oth- the funeral. Evidence for this was found dur- er pre-Scythian cemeteries of the Pyatigorsk ing earlier excavations at Klin-Yar in a series area38. We believe that the frequent occurrence of graves (graves 136, 174, 186, 229, 259, of flints in the Klin-Yar graves (11,2 %) is not 282, 285, etc.). Usually, part of the body of typical for the pre-Scythian period in the Pyati an animal had been placed in front of the face gorsk area as a whole, and its scale has no par- or chest, or occasionally at the feet, of the in- allels in Early Iron Age cemeteries south-east terred. In some cases, animal bones were put of the Caucasian Mineral Waters area. Among in a pot (grave 349, where charcoal was found the Steppe-Chernogory people (900 – 750 BC) in the vessel together with the bones) or in a on the northern Black Sea littoral, burials with bowl (grave 259). In grave 349, animal bones flint chips account for 14 % of all burials known were also found on a stone between the pot- by the late 1980s, a figure close our data.39 Giv- tery vessel and the side of the grave, implying en the intensive contacts of the pre-Scythian a combination of ritual acts relating to stones population of the Pyatigorsk area with the early and to fire. nomads of southeastern Europe,40 it is possible that nomads might have influenced this detail The sulphur found in grave 376 is of special in- of the funeral ritual of indigenous groups in the terest. Sulphur has not been noted as a compo- Caucasian Mineral Waters area. It is also pos nent of burial ritual in any publications on the sible, however, that this ritual detail is part of a archaeology of the Caucasus, and it does not ap- wider phenomenon. In the Early Iron Age, flint pear to be typical for burials of the Early Iron Age chips and small flint tools occur not only in bur- in the Caucasian Mineral Waters area. ials of the Western Koban population, but also among proto-Maeotes,41 among the Early Anani- Thus, the Koban burial ritual in the cemetery of no population on the Middle Volga,42 and in the Klin-Yar III included significant practices such Danube Basin43. The ritual role of flint may be as the use or deposition of charcoal, flint chips, explained to an extent by the old local supersti- obsidian, food offerings, ochre, etc. These have tion in the Caucasus that flint, being a material been found in graves of Late Bronze to Early Iron which strikes fire, can protect the traveller from Age cultures across the North Caucasus, includ- evil spirits.44 And what was the moment of buri- ing the Koban and Kayakent-Kharachoevsk cul- al if not the beginning of a long and dangerous tures.46 Some of these practices (for example, travel to the world beyond? the use of charcoal) survived in magic rituals of the mountain populations until the 19th to early 20th centuries.47

34 Хачатрян 1975; Абрамишвили/Рамишвили 1976. 35 Хачатрян 1975. 36 Чурсин 1929. 37 Berezin/Dudarev 1999; Флёров/Дубовская 1993. 38 Козенкова 1989. 39 Отрощенко 1989. 40 Дударев 1999. 45 Чурсин 1929. 41 Лесков/Эрлих 1999. 46 Техов 2000; Техов 2002; Козенкова 2002; Марковин 42 Патрушев/Халиков 1982. 1969; Марковин 2002. 43 Patek 1993. 47 Техов 1977; Козенкова 1977; Марковин 1969; Марко- 44 Чурсин 1929. вин 2002.

11 Klin-Yar – A. B. Belinskij and S. L. Dudarev

2.4 The provision of grave-goods

Types of grave-goods found in the Koban graves are frequently associated at Klin-Yar, which is an excavated 1994 – 1996 include pottery, weap- indication of their functional link. ons, tools, and various types of ornaments. There were never more than one or two pottery Bronze and iron awls (in graves 358, 362 and vessels deposited in each grave. This is differ- 376) had a less standardized deposition pat- ent from the Klin-Yar cemetery as a whole where tern, being found at the shoulder, the elbow and up to three or four vessels may be present in the knees, respectively. Awls in graves of the any one grave. Bowls are the predominant type western area of the Koban Culture were usually of pottery vessel: they occured in ten out of 17 found at arms, chest and waist.51 Near the awl in graves; other types include pots (three) and cups burial 358, there was a rare object similar to a (three). Vessels (regardless the type) were most miniature pole-axe, the purpose of which is un- frequently placed in front of the skull (near a cor- known. ner of the grave pit) or at the crown of the skull, but also near the hands of the interred (graves Female grave-goods sets are characterized by 343, 348, 349, 350, 353, etc.). But occasionally the presence of dress and body ornaments the vessels were found near or under the feet (graves most striking of which are bronze artefacts: 355, 369); in both these cases, they were bowls, discs and buttons, bracelets and armlets, neck- one of which had been placed upside down lets, bead from necklaces, embroidery beads, (grave 355; see below). Apart from grave 355, small tubes, pins and needles. these positions of pottery vessels are, on the whole, typical for Koban cemeteries in the Cau- Discs of thin bronze foil were found near or un- casian Mineral Waters area and Klin-Yar III it- der the skull (in graves 348 and 349). Small cast self.48 In one case at Klin-Yar, a Koban bowl was bronze buttons were recorded at the back of found in an Alanic catacomb (grave 368). The the body (graves 349, 350) or in the chest area number of Koban burials from the 1994 – 1996 (grave 366). Bronze bracelets were still on the excavations is too small to make inferences on arms (grave 350) or in the area where the arms gender preferences, but it appears that pots and (now decomposed) would have been (grave cups were only found in graves with female ar- 366). Bronze necklets were found in two graves, tefact sets (graves 348, 349, 350, 353, 366; one at the wall of the grave (grave 350) and 349 was sexed male on osteological grounds). therefore probably not worn, the other in an am- This supports earlier observations made on the biguous position next to the skull remains, in the basis of all previously excavated Klin-Yar graves chest area (grave 366). Beads and bead neck- that pots and – with some exceptions – cups are laces were probably worn when the body was markers of female burials in this cemetery. deposited; they were typically observed in the area of the skull, neck, or chest (grave 343, 344, Weapons and tools were typical components 348, 350 etc.). Occasionally, however, they were of male grave-goods sets. Three graves (graves found inside vessels or among their fragments 358, 362 and IV-11) produced iron spearheads (graves 349, 350). On the whole, the positions in placed in the corner in front of the body; this is the graves as described above for the ornaments where most spearheads have been found at Klin- are typical of pre-Scythian Koban graves in the Yar III and in other Koban graves excavated in the Caucasian Mineral Waters area.52 vicinity of Kislovodsk.49 The bronze axe in grave 362 had been placed close to the hands, like In some cases, ornaments had been displaced other axes (including those of iron and stone) at by rodent activity and were found in animal bur- Klin-Yar. rows at the edge of the grave pit, such as the large pin in grave 349, and the small pin and The whetstones in graves 344, 358, 362 and 376 bronze tubes in grave 355. The usual position were found at various points of the waist area; for bronze tubes was in the skull area (smaller this is their usual place, both in this cemetery items) or at the back (larger items); they were and in Western Koban burials overall.50 In grave most likely a detail of hair and braid decoration. IV-11, the whetstone had been deposited close Pins and needles have been described in publi- to the hands in front of the body. The iron knives cations of Western Koban burials as having been in graves 362 and IV-11 were found at the right found in the chest or waist area. At Klin-Yar, their and left elbow, respectively; in grave 344, the positions are more varied, usually at the chest or knife was inside a bowl. Whetstones and knives near the hands, but curiously also near the face and at the lower jaw.

48 Козенкова 1989. 49 Козенкова 1989. 51 Козенкова 1989. 50 Козенкова 1989. 52 Козенкова 1989.

12 2 The Koban Culture graves and finds

2.5 Grave 355: a ‘shaman burial’?

The burial in grave 355 combines a number of all cemeteries.56 Meat deficiency in the diet may unusual features. The body of the deceased not be such an extraordinary feature, either; had been tightly packed into one corner of the bone chemistry shows that the meat consump- grave pit, leaving half of the grave free; there tion of the local Koban population was well be- are no parallels for this at Klin-Yar. The pottery low that of the subsequent Sarmatian and Alan- vessel had been deposited upside down under ic populations.57 Finally, there is no unanimity the right femur of the body, again without par- concerning the indicators of shamans’ or priests’ allels in undisturbed Koban graves at Klin-Yar, burials in the Western Koban Culture. Possible ar- although there are a couple of cases elsewhere, chaeological indicators which have been mooted such as a large fragment of a bowl lying up- include an abundance of charcoal in the grave side down in Belorechenskij 2 grave 35,53 and (Klin-Yar III grave 242); a lack of pottery in other- Kamennomostskij grave 10 where the excavator wise rich burials (Klin-Yar III graves 162 and 242); interpreted the evidence as remains from a fu- and the presence of particular artefact types, neral feast54. The skeletal analysis has identified such as pendants and discs with solar symbols in the individual in grave 355 as male, aged 40 to the pre-Scythian period (Klin-Yar grave 182), and 49 years old, with an unusually low level of zinc additionally boar tusks, mirrors, dagger-shaped in his bones, indicative of dietary stress and/or pendants (Kislovodsk Mebelnaya Fabrika ceme- a diet low in animal protein; a check of the re- tery 1 grave 7), anthropomorphic plaques, arm- cords confirmed that the sexing may be consid- lets with zoomorphic ends, bronze chains, rich ered 90 % certain.55 While this agrees with the bead sets, etc. in the Scythian period.58 Likewise, predominantly male position of the skeleton on post-mortem manipulation of the body (Klin- its right side, it appears to contradict the usual- Yar III grave 343) may be an anthropological in- ly female-associated types of artefacts found in dicator. the grave (beads, pin, bronze tubes from hair or head decoration). It is, therefore, hardly justified to identify as a ‘shaman’ the possibly cross-dressing, vegetar- However, the pin and the bronze tubes were ian male buried with unusual ritual features in found in an animal burrow close to the edge of grave 355, unless other burials at Klin-Yar, and the grave pit; they are most likely to have been elsewhere in the Western Koban Culture, are in- original depositions in grave 355, but the dis- terpreted similarly. All that one may say with any turbance introduces an element of uncertainty. degree of confidence is that he seems to have Also, the gender association of the body position had an unusual status which commanded rein the Western Koban Culture (men on the right spect or even fear, perhaps because of his role in side, women on the left) is a clear and predom- life or the circumstances of this death, and that inant feature, but exceptions from this rule (i. e. these factors may be behind the unusual feat ‘wrong-sided’ positions) are known from nearly ures of his burial.59

2.6 Pottery

Pottery types found in Klin-Yar graves include one line of indents. The vessels from graves 349 pots, bowls and cups. In 1994 – 1996, pots were and 366 have a thicker lip, one of them with in- found in graves 349, 350 and 366. They are ei- dents made with a punch (grave 366). The pot ther jar-like (grave 349), or nearly ovoid in shape from grave 350 has indents, made with a trian- (graves 350, 366). They are all hand-made, fairly rough, with asymmetric outlines. The bodies of all three vessels are decorated, in one case 56 Козенкова 1989. with uneven lines of horizontal finger-tip or 57 Buzhilova, Kozlovskaya and Mednikova in Дударев/Бе- линский 2002; see also their anthropological report on the seed-like impressions (grave 366), in another 1994 – 1996 excavations in Chapter 9, this volume. with triangular marks made with a punch-stick 58 Белинский 1989; Виноградов 1972; Березин et al. 1993; (grave 350); the third vessel (grave 349) has only Березин/Дударев 1998. 59 Ethnographic evidence of shamans’ burials adds some supporting observations. Corner burials have been noted as a feature of shamans’ burials among the Sami, possibly be- 53 Дударев 2004. cause something or somebody else is imagined in the grave; 54 Батчаев 1974. and tubular objects have been found in such burials across 55 See the anthropological report in Chapter 9. We are grate- the circumpolar world, from northwest Canada to Siberia, ful to M. B. Mednikova for checking again her notes and re- and have been interpreted as ‘soul-catchers’ (Neil Price, cords for the skeleton from grave 355, for drawing our atten- Aberdeen, personal communication to H. Härke). This would tion to its low zinc levels, and for discussing the implications give an alternative meaning to the ‘female’ headdress tubes of the evidence. in grave 355.

13 Klin-Yar – A. B. Belinskij and S. L. Dudarev

gular punch, under the lip. The surface of the pot Type 2, with a deeper and more slender body, from grave 366 is rough while the neck of the pot is represented only by the bowl from grave 355. from grave 350 and the body of that from grave It is 140 mm high, has a mouth diameter of 349 have glossy smooth surfaces. The colours of 206 mm and a base diameter of 95 mm; the sur- the surfaces are grey-black and greyish-brown. face is reddish-brown. Judging by the surviving The mouth diameters vary from 130 to 216 mm, fragments, the bowl from grave 354 may have the height from 159 to 192 mm, and the base di- belonged to the same type. ameters from 80 to 100 mm. Type 3 comprises bowls with a thickset body of The 1987 excavations at Klin-Yar III by Berezin biconical shape and a carination which is most produced similar pots.60 Overall, the pots from frequently in the middle of the body (graves Klin-Yar are very close to this type of pottery from 343, 353, 358, 376). The vessels are between cemeteries of the Western Koban area.61 Archae- 89 and 120 mm high, the diameter of the mouth ologists specializing in the Koban Culture have is 165 to 190 mm, and the base diameter 70 to long believed these pots to be an archaic type, 100 mm. The surfaces of the vessels are fired on account of its finger-tip decoration which re- to produce colour combinations of grey, black sembles the decoration on pottery of the North and brown. Type 3 bowls feature a fine finish, Caucasus Culture.62 The earliest date of these with highly burnished surfaces. They also have pots would accordingly be the late second mil- decorative compositions in the shape of incised lennium BC while their latest date has not been geometric patterns such as suspended shaded established with certainty; it is in the first half of, triangles, oblique grids, oblique shaded strips or somewhere in, the 8th century BC.63 We believe etc. that the latest date for pots with lines of indents may also include the first half of the th7 century The bowls, primarily types 1 and 2, have paral- BC because such decoration (but not the vessel lels in their shape and decoration among the shapes) survived until the early Scythian period, burnished bowls of the Western (after Kozenko- as late as, though not later than, the second half va), or Pyatigorsk (after Vinogradov), variants of of the 7th century BC.64 the Koban Culture.66 They date most probably to the pre-Scythian period. Bowls are the most common and diagnostic type of pottery, and as researchers have pointed out, Cups are the third category of pottery from the they are one of the best indicators of the Western site. The 1994 – 1996 excavations produced re Koban Culture.65 During the 1994 – 1996 excava- presentatives of two of the three cup types found tions at Klin-Yar, they were found in ten Koban at Klin-Yar. Group 1 comprises the most common burials and in one Alanic catacomb, and they cups with round base. The cups from graves correspond to the three main bowl types of the 349 and 353 belong to this group; they are 52 Klin-Yar III cemetery. to 72 mm high, and their mouth diameter is 94 to 100 mm. The surface of the vessels is grey- Type 1 includes bowls with a biconical or carinat- brown, and smooth or burnished. The body of ed body profile and a smooth everted rim, found the vessel from grave 349 featured a carination in graves 344, 362, 368 (Alanic catacomb), 377 with fine indents. Group 2 includes the cup from and IV-11. They are 80 to 127 mm high, with a grave 343 which is globular like a bowl. It is quite mouth diameter of 140 to 235 mm, and a base small, only 63 mm high, with a mouth diameter diameter of 40 to 85 mm. The surface is smooth of 108 mm and a base diameter of 45 mm. The or burnished, of grey-brown or black colour. On surface is grey-brown and burnished. the shoulder, the vessels have incised decorative patterns of combinations of geometric The Klin-Yar cups belong to a well-known cate- shapes such as oblique lines, grids, suspended gory of pottery from the Kabarda and Pyatigorsk triangles etc. The richest decoration was that of areas and from Karachaevo-Cherkessia. The cup the vessel from grave 362 where, in addition to from grave 353 has parallels in the cemeteries of the usual frieze of geometric shapes, there were Kamennij Most, Berezovskij 3 and Ispravnenskij, schematic images of animals below the carina- and also at the Perkalskij site.67 It has been sug- tion. gested that the round-based cups of the Western Koban area should be dated to the 9th to 6th centuries BC.68 In the case of Klin-Yar, the cups are unlikely to be as late as the 6th century BC be- 60 Berezin/Dudarev 1999. 61 Виноградов et al. 1976; Козенкова 1998. 62 Крупнов 1960; Виноградов et al. 1976; Афанасьев/ Козенкова 1981. 66 Козенкова 1998; Виноградов et al. 1976. 63 Афанасьев/Козенкова 1981; Андреева/Козенкова 1986. 67 Батчаев 1974; Виноградов et al. 1976; Козенкова/ 64 Дударев/Рунич 1992. Найденко 1980; Козенкова 1998. 65 Козенкова 1989. 68 Афанасьев/Козенкова 1981.

14 2 The Koban Culture graves and finds

cause none have been found in Koban graves of may have been a smaller copy; it may therefore the early Scythian period at this site.69 The cup date to the same period as the bowls them- from grave 343 resembles bowls of type 1 and selves, i. e. the pre-Scythian period.

2.7 Dress ornaments

The principal type of dress or body ornament tral Caucasus where they are known from the at Klin-Yar as a whole is a pierced tube rolled of 11th to 9th centuries BC.73 Research has shown thin, corrugated or fluted bronze sheet. Over the that they were common in the Caucasian Mineral years, the cemetery has produced a large num- Waters area during the 8th and 7th centuries BC.74 ber (more than 250) of them, but in 1994 – 1996 only six were found in two graves (graves 353, The spiral bracelets found in graves 350 and 355). They are between 55 and 65 mm long. In 366 belong to a very common group of orna- both graves, they were found in disturbed con- ments, classed as type XXII of Western Koban texts (animal burrows), but in-situ finds in other bracelets.75 They are flat spirals made of sev- graves, as well as their sizes, suggest that they eral (two to five) coils of rectangular-sectioned were part of hair or head decoration. Pierced bronze rod (occasionally of sub-triangular sec- tubes are considered one of the most typical tion) with pointed terminals, and with diame- decorations of the Western variant of the Koban ters from 67 to 107 mm. The two graves 350 and Culture for its entire duration, and they have 366 produced 13 of the 47 bracelets of this type been classified as an independent type (type II known from Klin-Yar III. Grave 350 contained the of Western Koban Culture bronze pendants, after well-furnished burial of a child while the individ- Kozenkova).70 ual in grave 366 was an unsexed adult. Such spiral bracelets are usually found in female burials, The next most popular type of bronze ornaments but they have been recovered from male burials in the cemetery (with more than 190 items) is in other cemeteries of the Caucasian Mineral Wa- represented by circular fittings made from thin ters area. These bracelets are typical of the 10th sheet bronze. The seven specimen from graves to 8th centuries BC.76 348 and 349 are 29 mm in diameter and slightly convex, with four paired holes at the edges, The bronze pins found in graves 349 and 355 while the one from grave 366 is flat, with a dia belong to two types. Type 1 is represented by meter of 50 mm, and four equidistant holes the find from grave 355: a smooth, round-sec- along the edge. Their recorded positions near tioned shank broken off at the top, with an ex- the skulls suggest that they were headgear dec- tant length of 127 mm (although this may be orations, and the holes may have been meant conceivably a type 2 pin with the top broken for attaching them to a headscarf or cap. Such off). The pin of type 2 from grave 349 is a Rollen fittings belong to Kozenkova’s type I of bronze kopfnadel, 179 mm long, with a round-sectioned disks that were common in periods II and III of shank twisted at the top and rolled into the char- the Western variant of the Koban Culture, i. e. in acteristic head of this type. These pins belong the first half of the first millennium BC.71 to Kozenkova’s type VI of Western Koban pins; more recently, Kozenkova noted that this pin Another type of ornaments is represented by type was typical for many cultures in the Cauca- small bronze buttons with a transverse bar, or sus between the 14th/13th and 8th/7th centuries cross-piece, on the back, found in the skull ar- BC. 77 However, it was in use as late as the 6th to eas of graves 350 and 366. They are cast, and 5th centuries BC (cemeteries of Mineralovodskij have diameters of 13.5 to 14.5 mm. Such but- and Belorechenskij 2).78 It has been suggested tons have frequently been found on sites of the that pins were used to close the coarse outer Koban Culture and adjacent areas, and most of garments, and possibly to fasten complex head- them are dated to the 8th to 7th centuries BC.72 A gear.79 The evidence from the two Klin-Yar graves slightly different type of cast button with cross- does not help to decide this question because piece is the two boat-shaped, almost rhomboid both pins were found in animal burrows. buttons from grave 366 which are 24 and 25 mm long. Their origin is in the highlands of the Cen-

73 Техов 1977; Техов 2002; Мошинский 1990. 74 Козенкова 1998. 69 Флёров/Дубовская 1993. 75 Козенкова 1998. 70 Козенкова 1998. 76 Козенкова 1998. 71 Козенкова 1998; Козенкова 1996. 77 Козенкова 2002. 72 Козенкова 1998; Лесков/Эрлих 1999; Кашуба 2000; 78 Афанасьев/Рунич 1976; Дударев 2004. Марковин 2002; Патрушев/Халиков 1982; Техов 2002. 79 Козенкова 1998.

15 Klin-Yar – A. B. Belinskij and S. L. Dudarev

The bronze necklets found in graves 350 and semi-precious stone was equally popular in the 366 are a typical Koban attribute. They are Middle East, in the Crimea and in the Caucasus. Ösenhalsringe, made from thick, round-sec- Medieval Georgians believed that carnelian tioned rod bent into penannular shape, with could heal swellings and wounds inflicted by flattened terminals which have been rolled into cold steel, while the Armenians of the same pe- spiral tubes; their overall sizes are 114 × 95 and riod thought that this stone may thwart the ene- 134 × 121 mm, respectively. Ösenhalsringe my’s designs and give problem-free childbirth. make up type I of the Koban necklets and are The stone was also a love charm, and in order typical for the entire Koban Culture area.80 We to bring out the red colour of carnelian, people would date them not later than the mid-7th cen- heated it in the sun or on coals.83 It should be tury BC. noted that carnelian does not occur on its own in the amulets of peoples of the Caucasus; it Finally, burial 366 also produced another type was usually worn together with other beads of ornament, a temple pendant shaped as a and stones, and this may be reflected in our ar- ring with overlapping ends, 15 mm in diameter, chaeological evidence at Klin-Yar (see grave 366 and made of round-sectioned wire. This speci- etc.). men belongs to type 2 of Koban temple rings, with a broad chronological range which spans Jet, a variety of fossil coal, has also been found nearly the entire first half of the first millenni- in female burials at Klin-Yar. In the Caucasus, it um BC.81 was traditionally believed to improve one’s eye- sight, protect from the ‘evil eye’, and cure head- Beads will not be considered here in any depth aches and toothaches. It was also an integral because research on the necklace and embroi- part of prehistoric and medieval necklaces in the dery beads from Klin-Yar (totalling at least four region. We believe that beads of glass and paste thousand beads from Klin-Yar III alone) is a sep- may have had a similar function; for example, arate task. Not only do they need to be classi- the Armenians in Turkey used to embroider chil- fied (something that no archaeologist has done dren’s caps and sleeves with blue beads to pro- yet for the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages of the tect them from the ‘evil eye’.84 Caucasus), but also their place in the system of ornaments, costume etc. needs to be reconsid- It may be thought that bronze bracelets could ered. Nevertheless, the end of this section is also be used as magic protection among the the place for some observations about beads living. However, it is also possible that they and metal ornaments that may have had a role had a specific role in death. The finds of numer- in ritual or magic, even if such observations ous heavy bracelets on the arms of individuals are to an extent speculative and require further in some graves (350, 366) do not necessarily corroboration by future research. The point is imply that such items had been worn in life that in pre-industrial societies the tradition- as they would have been most cumbersome. al costume of women was highly charged with Besides, many bracelets from the Western ideological concepts because it was believed Koban area do not show traces of regular wear that women were close to the forces of nature. and tear, and they may well have been manu- Women’s dress in ancient agrarian societies factured specifically for burial with the dead. included female elements (such as carnelian Heavy bracelets of this type would have also beads and particular pendants) as well as items represented a fortune in metal at the time, that related to magic practices, and these were and were probably limited to displays of the quite frequently present not just in the dress of wealthy strata of society. As Kozenkova put it: witches or priestesses, but also in that of ordi- they were the expression of the “splendour of nary women.82 the ritual procession”.85 But whom was all this splendour meant for? It may not have been only Carnelian beads were very popular grave-goods for the show to impress the participants in the in female burials of the Koban Culture during the funeral; the otherworld also had to receive gifts Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages in the central in order to ensure for the living a return in the Caucasus region. Because carnelian has warm form of good harvests, increasing livestock, red and orange colours, many past societies be- etc.86 lieved it to be related to the sun and ascribed to this stone the ability to protect the wearer from disease, and to give happiness and peace. This

83 Чурсин 1929. 84 Чурсин 1929; Марковин 1969; Бараниченко/Чахкиев 80 Козенкова 1998. 1985. 81 Козенкова 1998. 85 Козенкова 2002, 136. 82 Pennick/Jones 1995. 86 Антонова/Раевский 1984.

16 2 The Koban Culture graves and finds

2.8 Weapons, tools and accessories

Iron spearheads were found in graves 358, 362 of the Koban and Colchis traditions into four pe- and IV-11, but the latter two were too corroded to riods, and attributed fish and snake-decorated establish their exact type or size; all that can be axes similar to the Klin-Yar axe to his first period said is that they were socketed and fairly small which Kozenkova has equated with her Koban (extant lengths 145 and 172 mm, respectively). period II.92 Skakov has also made a number of The spearhead from grave 358 is 150 mm long; important observations that help to establish the its blade has a lentoid section and was original- chronological position of the axe from Klin-Yar ly probably leaf-shaped, without any ribs. The grave 362 more precisely. Thus, axes of period 1 blade is shorter than the socket. This type of have no decorated strip between shaft-hole and spearhead was common in the North Caucasus blade and no cord ornament on its sides; images during the Early Iron Age (section 1, types 2 and seem to crawl from one plane over to the other. 3 of spearheads of the Western Koban Culture, Period 2 axes do have a decorated strip, but no after Kozenkova; type IV of spearheads of the cord ornament; in period 3, axes have a strip and Central and North Caucasus and the Terek river the cord appears; in period 4, both the strip and basin, after Dudarev).87 The closest parallels to the cord are present. In the chronological evolu- the spearhead from grave 358 are known from tion of decorated axes, images are limited to a nearby sites around Kislovodsk and in the trans- single plane from period 2 onwards. The Klin-Yar Kuban area, dated generally to the 8th to 7th cen- axe from grave 362 features a combination of the turies BC.88 earliest (fish, snakes, ‘crawling’ multi-plane images, no cord ornament, iron inlay) with some lat- The bronze axe from grave 362 is a magnificent er traits (the partially shaded strip), and should specimen, 174 mm long, with a double-curved therefore date to the 10th to 9th centuries BC. This body, pronounced butt, oval shaft-hole, blade agrees with the date of the bronze awl from the with semicircular edge, and three cast ribs on ei- same grave. However, the presence in grave 362 ther side of the shaft-hole. Cleaning and conser- of as many as three iron artefacts (a spearhead, vation of this axe showed that the space around a knife and a miniature ‘halberd’) is not typical the shaft-hole, on top and bottom of the blade, for firmly dated complexes of the late Belozerskij is decorated with pictures of fishes and circles, to the early Chernogorovskij periods in the North filled with punched dots Pl.( 2). These are sepa- Caucasus, i. e. Koban period IIIA after Kozenkova rated from the blade by an engraved strip the top (mid-10th–9th cent. BC).93 Therefore, burial 362 part of which is covered with an oblique shading should be later, and date to the first half of the pattern that stretches across the crest along the 8th century BC. top of the axe. One fish seems to have jumped over the strip, so to speak, and is on the right side The origins of the Klin-Yar axe may be sought in of the crest. On either side of the blade, there is the highland areas of the Central Caucasus; it is an iron inlay in the shape of a snake. Their heads, certainly unique among the Early Iron Age finds represented as triangles in the tradition of Col- of the Pyatigorsk area. The Colchis and Koban chis and Koban metalwork, reach onto top and axes found here belong to a different variant of bottom of the blade, in front of the shaft-hole. this weapon type.94

Iron inlay on bronze artefacts appeared at the end Iron knives are fairly rare in the graves excavated of Koban period II (after Kozenkova), i. e. at the in 1994 – 1996. The 88 mm long knife recorded at turn of the 11th to the 10th century, or very early in the right elbow of the skeleton in grave 362 has the 10th century BC.89 This appears to agree well a gently curved tang, a straight blade and slight- with the fact that the axe from grave 362 is very ly raised point; it belongs to type II subtype 2 close to a group of axes (type I) from the cemetery in Belinskij’s classification of knives from Klin- of Tli which Tekhov dated to the 12th to 10th cen- Yar. The small, fragmentary knives from graves turies BC.90 However, Tekhov later divided type I 344 and IV-11 have curved blades (type III after axes into five sub-types. His sub-type 1 which the Belinskij).95 Knives of type II are known both in Klin-Yar axe is most closely related to was dated Transcaucasia and in the North Caucasus from to the 11th to 8th centuries BC, with a few axes sites of the first half of the first millennium BC.96 being as late as the 7th century BC.91 Skakov has divided the evolution of decorated bronze axes 92 Скаков 1997; Скаков 1998; Козенкова 1996. 93 Дударев 1986; Дударев 1999; Козенкова 1996. 87 Козенкова 1995b; Дударев 1983. 94 Козенкова 1995a. 88 Виноградов et al. 1980; Козенкова 1995a; Лесков/Эр- 95 Белинский 2004. лих 1999. 96 Абрамишвили et al. 1979; Воронов/Вознюк 1975; Лорд 89 Козенкова 1996. кипанидзе 1978; Трапш 1969; Трапш 1970; Хачатрян 1979; 90 Техов 1977. Микеладзе et al. 1991; Пицхелаури 1979; Pizchelauri 1984; 91 Техов 1988. Козенкова 2001; Афанасьев/Рунич 1976.

17 Klin-Yar – A. B. Belinskij and S. L. Dudarev

Krupnov believed that iron knives with curved Graves 358, 362 and 376 produced three awls blades may have evolved locally, i. e. in the Cau- of two different types. Type I is represented by casus, from earlier bronze knives of the same the iron awl, 77 mm long, square-sectioned type.97 But we do not know of any widespread and with tapering point, from grave 358; wood bronze analogues to type III knives in the North remains from the handle are preserved on the Caucasus and Transcaucasia. According to tang. The two bronze awls from graves 362 and Trapsh, “knives with a sickle-like edge and con- 376 are of type II, in the shape of a flat, rectan- vex back first occur in the th9 century BC in all gular-sectioned rod with one end sharpened; archaeological cultures of Transcaucasia”.98 Oth- the complete specimen from 362 is 65 mm ers have suggested a widespread and simultane- long, while the broken awl from 376 has an ex- ous popularity of iron knives with curved blades tant length of 55 mm. Bronze tools similar to our in the Caucasus from the end of the 8th or the types I and II occur in the North Caucasus as ear- beginning of the 7th century BC, and particularly ly as the Middle Bronze Age, but in Transcauca- in the 7th century.99 More recently, the earliest sia also in the Late Bronze to Early Iron Ages, so date of some knife types with curved blades from there are no reasons to doubt the local (i. e. Cau- Western Koban sites100 was moved back so that casus) origin of such awls.107 Similar bronze awls their use includes the entire 8th century BC. were widespread in the same period from southeastern Europe to Central Asia;108 iron awls also Grave 358 produced a small iron artefact of un- became common at that time.109 Iron awls which known function, 27 mm long, flat, and shaped are identical to the one from grave 358 were in like a miniature halberd. The similar object use in Eastern Europe until the 6th century BC.110 from burial 6 of kurgan 1 at Sadovy village (near Our type I awl corresponds to type I of Western Mozdok) has been interpreted as the fragment of Koban awls, and our type II to Western Koban a knife.101 However, both items are specific and type III.111 It has been suggested that in the Cau- peculiar artefacts whose purpose is difficult to casian Mineral Waters area, bronze items were identify. Such objects have also been found in gradually replaced with iron items, starting in the cemeteries of Berezovskij 1 (grave 26) and the middle and second half of the 8th century BC, Belorechenskij 2 (grave 17).102 All four objects but mainly in the first half of the 7th century BC.112 date to the pre-Scythian period. The evidence from Klin-Yar III demonstrates that this process had been far from complete while A bronze needle was found in grave 362 (but pos- this cemetery was in use. sibly originating from 369), 116 mm long, with its top bent to make an eye. In Western Koban The final category of tools comprises the whet- sites, including Klin-Yar III, such needles with an stones from graves 344, 358, 362, 376, 383 (a eye that was hammered are most common in the Sarmatian catacomb which had probably dis- 8th to 7th centuries BC and survived until the 6th to turbed and destroyed a Koban grave) and IV-11. 5th centuries BC.103 This needle type appears in These whetstones all belong to type I of Klin-Yar the North Caucasus in the Middle Bronze Age;104 whetstones113 which is the most frequent type in the North Pontic region it emerged at the be- in the cemetery (where a total of 44 whetstones ginning of the Timber Grave Culture (Srubnaya have been found). They may be further divided Culture, 16th–14th centuries BC; e. g. in the Loboj into two sub-types; the first comprises the two kovskij hoard),105 and continued in use here until longer stones, between 130 and 140 mm long at least the 9th to mid-8th century BC (e. g. in the (from 362 and 383), the second the four shorter settlement of Sakharna-Mare)106. In the Koban ones, between 80 and 110 mm long or just over. area and elsewhere, this type of tool remained They all have a sub-rectangular outline, with one morphologically unchanged for centuries. The or both ends tapering to a blunt point, and oc- reason for this seems to be a surprising stability casionally with slightly convex sides; their sec- of traditional forms of daily life, but that gives us tions are sub-rectangular, rarely trapezoidal (as virtually no information concerning the chronolo in that from 383). Most whetstones have perfo- gy of archaeological items from the Bronze Age rations which were drilled from both sides, often to the beginning of the Early Iron Age. rather roughly; some have no holes (such as the ones from 383 and IV-11). The whetstones found

97 Крупнов 1960. 98 Трапш 1969, 169. 107 Кореневский 1984; Хачатрян 1979; Гунба 1979; Пи- 99 Афанасьев/Козенкова 1981; Давудов 1974; Крупнов цхелаури 1979; Майсурадзе/Панцхава 1984; Марковин 1960; Техов 1980. 1969; Козенкова 1982. 100 Козенкова 1998. 108 Черных 1976; Шарафутдинова 1980; Итина 1977. 101 Козенкова et al.1997. 109 Граков 1977; Березанская et al. 1986. 102 Дударев 1999; Дударев 2004. 110 Солнцев/Шрамко 1998. 103 Козенкова 1998. 111 Козенкова 1998. 104 Кореневский 1984. 112 Козенкова 1998. 105 Лесков 1981; Березанская et al. 1986. 113 Белинский 2004; Флёров/Дубовская 1993; Berezin/ 106 Кашуба 2000. Dudarev 1999.

18 2 The Koban Culture graves and finds

in 1994 – 1996 were mostly made of rather soft sus context120 even before southeast European stone (sandstone or limestone) of yellow, pink nomads expanded their activities towards the or grey colour; only one was made of hard rock south. The northeastern Caucasus was on the (black basalt; from grave 376). Many whetstones periphery of the relations between the ‘Cimme- bear traces of their use for sharpening knives. A rians’ and the Caucasus,121 therefore whetstones few whetstones show signs of exposure to fire never evolved there into a significant attribute of (e. g. the one from 344); this may have happened the warrior’s way of life. as part of the funerary ritual. The folklore of the North Caucasus peoples Whetstones of Klin-Yar type I are within the pa- knows of miraculous properties of whetstones rameters of type II of Western Koban whetstones which could allegedly heal wounds (in the ep- which are occasionally dated as early as the 12th ics of the Adygs, Ossetians, Chechens and In- to 11th centuries BC, but in the main belong to gush).122 The Abkhazian Adygs (and also the the 8th to the first half of the 7th centuries BC.114 Hatts) seem to have seen the whetstone as They are particularly common at the end of the an attribute of the god of thunder and sky.123 Late Bronze Age, but especially at the beginning Among Scythians and Sarmatians, whetstones of the Iron Age, in cemeteries and settlements also played a role in cult and magic, and they of the Koban and proto-Maeotic communities, may have been used as amulets against the ‘evil the early Ananino and Chernolessk cultures, eye’.124 the Kozia-Sakharna Culture, the ‘Cimmerian’ burial mounds in the North Pontic zone, the Füz- The phallic-shaped whetstone from catacomb esabony-Mezöcsát group, and also at Stillfried, 383 is one of several of this kind excavated Brno-Obřany, Batina and other Central Europe- at Klin-Yar III over the years; others have been an sites;115 they are also known further east in found in graves 190, 196 and 300.125 Togeth- Eurasia116. Chlenova and Lovpache consider er with the phallic-shaped pendant from grave these whetstones to be diagnostic of Cimmerian 14,126 and phallic-shaped stones from graves ethnic affiliation;117 this has been supported by 249 and especially 264,127 they may reflect the Chochorowski and Krushel’nits’ka.118 existence of a phallus cult in the Caucasus in ancient times.128 Kozenkova and Dudarev have disputed this ethnic interpretation.119 We believe that the spread The Koban Culture graves excavated in of whetstones as an attribute of the warrior was 1994 – 1996 at Klin-Yar are only a small part of determined by the military fashion of pre-Scyth- the large number of Early Iron Age graves uncov- ian nomads on the East European steppes who ered so far at this site. As a whole, they represent lived in close contact with the sedentary popu- one of the most interesting and significant peri- lations of the North Pontic zone, along the Volga ods in the history of the region, a period that laid and in the North Caucasus. Whetstones them- the foundations for the material and spiritual selves, however, must have been known as a culture, and the ethnogenesis of the future peo- craft and cult attribute in the indigenous Cauca- ples, of the central North Caucasus.129

120 Козенкова 2001. 114 Козенкова 1998. 121 Дударев 1999. 115 Козенкова 2001; Лесков/Эрлих 1999; Кашуба 2000; 122 Членова 1984; Холаев 1974. Пьянков/Тарабанов 1997; Халиков 1977; Крушельниць- 123 Членова 1984. ка 1998; Тереножкин 1976; Яровой et al. 2002; Metzner- 124 Грязнов 1961; Андреев 1992. Nebelsick 1998; Chochorowski 1993. 125 Белинский/Дударев 2007. 116 Членова 1997. 126 Berezin/Dudarev 1999. 117 Членова 1984; Ловпаче 1997. 127 Белинский/Дударев 2007. 118 Chochorowski 1993; Крушельницька 1998. 128 Марковин 1986. 119 Козенкова 1998; Дударев 1999. 129 Крупнов 1960; Фёдоров 1982.

19 3 The Sarmatian and Alanic graves

Heinrich Härke

3.1 Burial ritual and excavation technique

The Sarmatian and Alanic burial rite at Klin-Yar been located, the entrance stones were removed as revealed in the 1994−1996 excavations may to see if the chamber had collapsed and was briefly be characterized as follows.130 The popu- completely filled with soil. If this was the case lations of both periods practised inhumation in (as it was in the majority of cases), the chamber underground chambers (catacombs) the access was opened from above, the fill taken out, and to which was via a pit, shaft or corridor (dromos). the floor with the skeletons and depositions In most Sarmatian chambers, a single body was cleaned for recording and photography. In a cou- deposited whilst most Alanic chambers held ple of cases (Sarmatian grave 365 and Alanic multiple burials which had been deposited suc- grave IV-7) where the collapse was incomplete, it cessively. Because of the broad similarities, was attempted to excavate the chamber from the the grave constructions and burial rites of both entrance until the shape of the ceiling and upper periods can be described here together. This is walls could be recorded. This was possible be- facilitated by the fact that the Sarmatian graves cause of the clayey subsoil into which the cham- uncovered in 1994−1996 were all of Late Sarma- bers had been dug; this subsoil was very hard, tian date (second half of 4th to early 5th century); particularly in the dry summer season, and suf- the Alanic graves all date to a limited span from ficiently different in texture and colour from the the 5th to the early 8th century; and the Alanic looser, mostly darker or mixed fill of the cham- graves of Klin-Yar IV (northern cemetery area) bers and dromoi. The topsoil above the clay was are of the same basic type as those of Klin-Yar III thin (around 0.20 m thick); and the sandstone (southern cemetery area). underneath the clay had been mostly avoided by the Sarmatian and Alanic grave diggers al- The excavation technique for the Sarmatian and though the floors of several Alanic catacombs Alanic graves was determined by their construc- had been cut into the sandstone, though usual- tion (see below). Trenches were taken down in ly not by much. The fill of the chambers was not level spits until the outlines of dromoi or access infrequently disturbed by animal burrows which pits became clear. Then the fill of the pit or dro- had introduced darker soil or humus. In one case mos was carefully removed whilst looking for (Sarmatian grave 361A), one gold ring of a set of depositions or other signs of ritual activity. Once two was found in an animal burrow leading out the entrance to the underground chamber had of one corner of the chamber.

3.2 Spatial patterning and chronology

The location of individual graves within the cem- Koban graves were cut and disturbed by Sarma- etery areas was clearly not haphazard. The evi- tian and Alanic graves, but even that appears to dence for this has several elements: the rarity of have been infrequent (Koban grave 369 partly intersections by later grave constructions; the destroyed by Sarmatian grave 365). In a cou- existence of, at least, two separate Alanic cem- ple of cases, Koban artefacts in Sarmatian and etery areas (III and IV); and the existence within Alanic chambers (pottery vessel in Alanic grave Klin-Yar III of an ‘elite plot’ and its own spatial 368, whetstone in Sarmatian/Alanic grave 383) structure. provide indirect evidence of the destruction of Koban graves. Two Sarmatian chambers were The relative lack of intersections is particular- cut by Alanic features (grave 361B by the dromos ly interesting given the density of graves in the of grave 359, and grave 372 by the chamber of main trench (Fig. 4). Because of the lack of direct grave 371). In the case of the Alanic catacomb continuity, it should not be surprising that some 363B, it appears from the scattered human bones around the entrance and from the radiocarbon dates (problematic though they may be; 130 For parallels for many features of grave construction and see below) that it cut and destroyed a Sarmatian burial ritual, see the publications of earlier excavations of child burial. The fragments of a miniature vessel catacombs at Klin-Yar, in particular Флёров 2000; and at other Alanic burial sites in the North Caucasus, in particular in the dromos and chamber of the Alanic cata- the publication of Mokraya Balka: Афанасьев/Рунич 2001. comb 381 may represent a similar case.

20 3 The Sarmatian and Alanic graves

More relevant to the suggestion of deliberate lo- the latest graves, with a range from Late Sarma- cation are the few intersections of Alanic graves tian RZ to Early Alanic IIIb−c/б–в (second half with one another. The dromos of grave 371 was of 4th to beginning of 8th century; see Chapters cut by the horse burial 367, quite possibly delib- 4 and 5). The other areas of Klin-Yar III sampled erately in order to demonstrate a link. The dromoi by our excavations have markedly earlier periods of two other Alanic catacombs had cut and partly of use centering on the 5th century: the southern destroyed earlier Alanic chambers. The dromos trench 2/1995 with grave 356 from period Ic/в of the rich catacomb 345 cut off part of the small- (late 5th to early 6th century), confirmed by the later chamber 347; jumbled bones and a fragmen- er discovery of the 5th-century grave 389 in the tary pottery vessel were found in the remaining same general area; and the two eastern trench- part of the chamber. Even more interesting is es 2/1996 (grave 382, period Id) and 3/1996 the case of the dromos of the very rich catacomb (graves 383 to 388, periods RZ to Ic−d/в–г) with 360 (mid-7th century) destroying half of the early a combined range from the second half of the Alanic chamber 359 (5th century): the bones had 4th century to the second half of the 6th century. been heaped against the east wall, a pot and a By contrast, the six Alanic graves of cemetery IV broken fibula were added to the remaining half have a markedly later range covering mostly the of the chamber which was then carefully walled mid-7th century, with one grave possibly as late off with a dry-stone wall; nearby, on the floor of as the mid-8th century. the dromos of grave 360, lay a heavy gold brooch in polychrome style (finds no. D3) which cannot The Klin-Yar IV cemetery was located on the have been part of the much later assemblage of northern side of the rock (Fig. 2). In their loca- catacomb 360 and must have come from the dis- tion at the northern end of a small spur, and in turbed chamber 359. their arrangement in a strip running north-south, the six catacombs here form a unit (Fig. 8). They It is likely that the rarity of intersections of Late differed from the Klin-Yar III catacombs in subtle Sarmatian and Alanic graves resulted from their details of grave construction and grave-goods dromoi being visible above ground, in some assemblages: the orientation of chambers and cases left open for some time (see below). This dromoi was more variable; the roofs of their would explain why in Klin-Yar III, chambers underground chambers had been carved in a were cut and disturbed, but with one exception shallower curve; pits in the chamber floor under (Alanic grave 371, see above) dromoi were not. the entrance were rare; the sherds of complete, It would also explain why there are no intersec- soot-covered pottery vessels had been spread in tions among the Alanic graves of Klin-Yar IV: their the fill of their dromoi; and there was a greater date span (perhaps half a century) is considera- range of organic materials among grave-goods at bly narrower than that of the Late Sarmatian and Klin-Yar IV. More importantly, perhaps, it lacked Alanic graves of Klin-Yar III (three to four centu- Late Sarmatian graves and elite burials. Stable ries). No evidence of any kinds of grave markers isotope data obtained as part of a series of ra- was found during the excavations. diocarbon dates of Klin-Yar bone material give reason to believe that the Alanic population The chronological and spatial structure of the buried here had a geographical origin different site is hinted at in the dating patterns of the from that of the Klin-Yar III population.131 This ev- graves uncovered during our 1994−1996 ex- idence supports the argument that the separate cavations, but the overall structure will only location of the Klin-Yar IV burials was deliberate, become clear in a complete analysis which in- and that spatial patterning was part of the chron- cludes graves excavated before 1994. The main ological and social structuring of the site of Klin- trench (1/1994, 1/1995, 1/1996) in cemetery Yar (see end of this chapter for discussion of the area III produced some of the earliest as well as elite plot).

3.3 Grave construction and multiple use of catacombs

The main elements of the grave construction are dence of a (partial?) backfill of the chamber: the an underground chamber with its various fea- rich Alanic catacomb 360 had stone packings tures such as niches and entrance pits; the en- as well as horse depositions high in the cham- trance itself with its method of closure by a stone ber fill. The floors of some of the biggest and or stones; and the access feature which consist- deepest chambers had been cut into the sand- ed of a pit, shaft or dromos.

The chambers had been carved into the clay subsoil and stood without internal supports of any 131 T. Higham personal communication; see also Higham kind. In only one case is there unambiguous evi- et al. 2010. − Chapter 8, this volume.

21 Klin-Yar – H. Härke

stone bedrock by up to about 0.30 metres, and grave IV-10), the organic floor deposit was white the Alanic chamber 374 was mostly carved out and was thought to have been birch bark. The of the sandstone, but in most cases this addi- initial interpretation was that the floors of these tional labour seems to have been avoided where chambers had been covered with textiles, car- possible. The chamber floor outline was oval or pets, wool, bark or some other organic material. sub-rectangular, in one case (Alanic grave 352) At the same time, it was noticed that the outlines markedly trapezoidal. The walls and roof formed of these floor deposits were irregular, and that one unit carved in the shape of a flat ovoid; the the bone preservation in chambers with these bigger and deeper the chamber, the more verti- deposits was particularly bad. A detailed labo- cal were the lower parts of the walls. In the Klin- ratory analysis of samples from the deposits in Yar IV area, the chamber roofs appeared to have catacombs 341, 345 and 352 concluded that a somewhat shallower curve, as far as could be this had not been a textile or similar cover, but ascertained from the few uncollapsed chambers. that it was the residue from the decay of organic The orientation of the long axis of the chamber matter (including body tissue).132 This explains varied considerably across the site and the peri- the bad organic preservation in these chambers, od of its use. Sarmatian chambers ranged wide- but it does not explain why this deposit had only ly between south–north and west–east (head formed in some catacombs, but not in others. end given first), while the Alanic chambers of The analysis also confirmed an observation in Klin-Yar III clustered closely around west–east, situ that occasionally there was a band of light and those of Klin-Yar IV varied incremental- soil in between two dark bands of deposit. The ly from south-southeast – north-northwest to analysis suggests that this may have been a layer west-northwest – east-southeast. of loess or a similar soil which resulted from material flaking off the chamber roof or introduced Chamber dimensions as measured on the floor by rodents, or it may even have been a deliberate ranged from 0.88 × 0.60 m (Alanic 380, with floor coating of clay and gypsum. The presence a single child burial) to 2.54 × 1.85 m (Alanic of this layer implies that there had been several 360, the richest catacomb). Korobov’s analysis successive phases of organic decay each lasting demonstrates that the chamber size was closely several years (a more exact specification is not correlated with the number of individuals buried possible), and that first and later phases (two or in, or apparently intended for, the catacomb (see three in total, where observed) were sometimes Chapter 7). Therefore, it does not make much separated by undefined periods of inactivity (see sense to calculate average sizes here, but it is below). There can be little doubt that the layers also unsurprising that the Sarmatian chambers, of the floor deposits reflect the successive burial being mostly designed for individual burial, were episodes in these large chambers, and it is even generally smaller than the Alanic catacombs possible that occasionally the floor was pre- most of which held several bodies. Sarmatian pared before additional burials were inserted. chamber sizes cluster around 1.80 × 0.80 m (with a width of around 1.30 m when holding two In a number of cases (graves 352, 357, 360, 373, bodies), Alanic chambers around 2.20 × 1.30 m 374, IV-9 and IV-10), small niches had been cut (and correspondingly smaller when holding just into the walls of Alanic chambers, but not all of one body). Overall, there appears to be a trend of them had been used for the deposition of grave- increasing chamber sizes over time; at Klin Yar IV goods. In one case (grave IV-7), an empty niche where the chronological range is narrower than was found in a dromos. A more frequent, but at Klin Yar III, the chamber sizes cluster much also more enigmatic feature was the entrance more closely. One noticeable difference between pit in Alanic chambers: a sub-rectangular de- the Sarmatian and Alanic chambers is their inter- pression of variable size (from 0.72 × 0.11 m to nal height: the most complete Sarmatian cham- 1.50 × 0.60 m) and shallow depth (from 0.05 to ber (grave 370) measured 0.82 m in height, the 0.27 m), always with a flat bottom, located in the most complete Alanic chamber (grave IV-7) 1.43 chamber floor directly under the entrance hole. m; as far as could be judged from the less com- The occurrence of this feature also has clear pletely preserved cases, this appears to reflect a chronological and spatial correlations: it occurs wider trend. It was also quite noticeable during only in Alanic chambers, and only once (in grave the excavation that the richest Alanic catacombs 357) before Period IIIa; it occurs in all Klin-Yar III were also the deepest (most clearly so in the cas- chambers of Period III, but only once in a Klin- es of 352 and 360), suggesting a link between Yar IV chamber (grave IV-7) even though five out burial wealth and labour investment.

In about half of all Sarmatian and Alanic cham- 132 This analysis was carried out in 2005 by the Centre for bers, a dark, almost black floor deposit was ob- Historical and Traditional Technologies of the D. S. Likhachev served around and underneath the skeletons. It Russian Research Institute for Cultural and Natural Heritage, Moscow (Центр Исторических и традиционных технологий was up to 20 mm thick and gave the impression Российского научно-исследовательского института Куль- of decayed organic matter. In one case (Alanic турного и природного наследия им. Д. С. Лихачева).

22 3 The Sarmatian and Alanic graves

of six catacombs there date to Period III. The pur- only used in the Sarmatian period (in grave 370); pose of this flat pit is not clear; sometimes it had blue clay was predominantly used in Alanic cata been used for the deposition of artefacts (most combs of Klin-Yar III; and green or yellow-green conspicuously so in the cases of Alanic graves clay predominantly in Klin-Yar IV. Clays of these 357 and 360), but more often it was empty, and colours do not occur at the site of Klin-Yar and it never contained bodies or parts of bodies. It must have been brought in specifically for this may have had a symbolic or apotropaic purpose, purpose. In some cases, patches of clay were but a practical function is equally likely: in the found on dromos floors (345, 356, 381, 382, dark chamber, it would have defined an area 386) or even in the entrance pit (grave 341); in without depositions from where work or ritual the dromos of grave 381, the clay patch was of could be conducted without disturbing earlier substantial thickness, and a complete pottery burials; artefacts might then have been deposit- jug had been deposited on top of it. ed there after the final burial in the chamber. Access to the entrance was provided in Sar- The entrance which gave access to the cham- matian catacombs by a pit or short dromos, in ber was usually found on one of the long sides Alanic catacombs usually by a long dromos, of Alanic catacombs (the southern side in Klin- occasionally a short dromos, and in one case Yar III, the eastern in Klin-Yar IV), while access (grave 352) by a shaft. The latter is unique at to Sarmatian chambers was more often from Klin-Yar, and reminiscent of the shaft access to the east, and occasionally from the short side of catacombs under Scythian barrows;133 but rath- the chamber (as in the case of the double cata- er than being the deliberate revival of a much comb 361). The opening itself was semicircular, earlier practice, given the absence of continuity sub-rectangular or trapezoidal, with one case in the intervening centuries, this case is much of a markedly triangular opening (Alanic grave more likely to have been a development of the 374). The hole was big enough (typically 0.40 to Sarmatian access pit. These access pits (as 0.60 m wide and 0.30 to 0.50 m high) to allow a found in catacombs 351, 365, 370 and 372; the person to crawl through (this was tested during latter may be classified as a pit or very short dro- the excavations of uncollapsed chambers), but mos) varied in size and shape, but were general- it was clearly not built for comfortable access. ly irregular or sub-rectangular affairs measuring Seen from the chamber, the opening was gener- around 1.50 × 0.90 m. ally well above the floor, but less so in Sarmatian (0.20 to 0.80 m) than in Alanic chambers (0.66 Dromoi are easier to classify. Most Sarmatian to 1.14 m, but only 0.22 m in the small catacomb dromoi were short (1.40 to 2.20 m) and ran 380, with one child). In the largest and deepest east – west (with the chamber entrance at the Alanic catacombs, it is likely that a person would western end), although there was great variety: have needed assistance when trying to leave the in the adjacent Sarmatian graves 378 and 379, chamber. the former had a south – north dromos, the latter an east – west one. In some cases, dromoi One of the most interesting features of the en- were used to link two Sarmatian chambers with trance was its closure with one or more stones, a single burial each, thus creating double graves often with the addition of clay. The usual meth- (342 and 361); in one case, an access pit had od had been to cover the entrance hole from been built to have this effect (grave 351). Alan- the outside with one or two large sandstone or ic dromoi tended to be longer (2.40 to 5.60 m, limestone slabs, supplemented by a number of with 1.12 m in the child catacomb 380); with- smaller stones around the edges. The rich Sar- out exception, they ran south – north (with the matian chamber 361A and the large and con- chamber entrance at the northern end) in Klin- spicuously rich Alanic catacomb 360, but also Yar III, with more variety in Klin-Yar IV where the less conspicuous catacombs 380, 383 and dromos orientations varied incrementally from IV-12 each had a double set of entrance stones, east – west at the northern edge (catacomb 9), one behind the other; one catacomb (IV-6) even to south-southwest – north-northeast at the had a triple set. Three catacombs (Alanic graves southern edge (grave 12). With two exceptions 373, 381 and IV-9) had an outer closure of stone (Sarmatian graves 342 and 361), the dromos slabs, and an inner one made of a dry-stone ran more or less at right angles to the long axis wall. In many cases, clay had then been smeared of the chamber. Most dromoi were reasonably around the edges of the outermost stones, and straight affairs; the short, uneven or curved dro- in some cases between the stones, as if to close moi of catacombs 378 and 381 are exceptions. any gaps that may have remained. This seems The width of dromoi was much more standard- to have originated in the Late Sarmatian peri- ized than their length, and was usually between od (fewer than half of the Sarmatian catacombs 0.50 m and 0.65 m, with a range from 0.39 to have this feature), and was regularly practised in the Alanic period. There are also some intriguing differences in the use of clay: yellow clay was 133 See Rolle 1979.

23 Klin-Yar – H. Härke

0.97 m. This is just about the width required for Dromoi, as well as the chambers themselves, comfortable, upright walk, without brushing the also provide some of the best evidence for the dromos sides all the time. Many Alanic dromoi re-opening and clearing out of Alanic chambers had between one and four irregularly cut steps in antiquity, apparently in most cases for re-use at the access (southern) end of the dromos, and or in preparation for re-use. Thus, the dromos of widened slightly towards the entrance (cham- catacomb 357 in the elite plot was full of broken ber) end. Floors of dromoi tended to be even, but items from belt sets, bows and other weapons; were dipping very slightly (usually between 0.05 the original entrance stones were lying in the and 0.08 m) towards the chamber. The Sarma- middle of the dromos while the chamber had tian dromos 372 appeared to have a clay cover been closed with several smaller stones. One or plaster on the floor, making it exceptionally skeleton in the chamber was complete but dis- even. In only one case (Alanic grave 363) was turbed, as if it had been moved, the other was there clear evidence of recutting part of the dro- incomplete and badly disturbed; the pottery mos; this had happened near the access steps of vessels were broken or turned upside down; and the dromos. the other finds in the chamber were a mixture of male and female grave-goods, including dress In a few exceptional cases, dromoi had been ornaments and weapons, many of the latter in covered with stones, the Sarmatian dromos 379 broken condition. The time span between the with two huge boulders, the Alanic dromos 363 first and last depositions in the catacomb is in- with smaller pebbles; in Alanic grave IV-8, two dicated by a fragmentary 5th century bowl (nos. large flagstones on top of the dromos fill pro- D5/6/11) in the dromos, and the 6th century pot- vide something of a partial cover. Clearly, such tery in the chamber (see Chapter 4); the final dis- heavy stone covers could only have been added turbance of the chamber contents must postdate after the dromos had been refilled. In the case of the last deposition. The dromos of catacomb 345 grave 379, a horse ‘skin’ high in the dromos fill, appears to be a similar, if less dramatic case. The underneath the boulders, appears to confirm stone-covered dromos of nearby catacomb 363 that the dromos had been backfilled after the contained broken bow reinforcements as well as deposition of the single burial in the chamber. complete depositions of a horse, a pottery jug, The stone covers may be a precaution against a horse bit and arrowheads; there is evidence robbery (as may have been the stone packing of a robber trench to explain the disturbance of in the upper fill of the rich, and undisturbed, the two bodies in the chamber. However, the chamber of catacomb 360). In other cases, the occurrence in grave 363 of stacked bones of positions of pottery vessels and horse ‘skin’ one individual together with an in-situ skeleton depositions (see below) suggest that dromoi is paralleled in the undisturbed catacomb IV-6 had been left open, or were at most only partly and may, therefore, represent an original fea- refilled, for some time. For example, the pottery ture of re-use. Two catacombs (364 and 368) jar leaning against the entrance stone of the Sar- close to 363 had been completely cleared out. matian/Alanic catacomb 387 must have been In the chamber of 368, a Koban pottery vessel placed there after the dromos had been open for had been placed upside down on some human a while, allowing dark earth to accumulate on bones on the otherwise empty chamber floor. the floor. In the dromos of neighbouring Sarma- This would also appear to be a case of robbery in tian grave 386, with two bodies in the chamber, antiquity, were it not for the absence of a robber a complete pottery vessel stood 0.29 m above trench and the presence of a horse ‘skin’ which the dromos floor. In the case of catacombs with had been placed on top of the refilled dromos. In multiple burials, it is therefore likely that the catacomb 9 of Klin-Yar IV, part of the older cham- dromos was left open after the first, or before ber contents seem to have been cleared out into (and sometimes after) the last, burial, and dur- the dromos, including a heraldic-style belt set, ing that time served as a marker and a place of dress ornaments, horse harness fittings, and ritual (see below) while erosion would have led large fragments of a basket (with ?food remains) to some accumulation of soil in the dromos. and textile; an older horse ‘skin’ deposition ap- Backfilling of the dromos may then have hap- pears to have been disturbed in the process. Of pened after the last burial in the chamber, as the three bodies in the chamber, the two earli- is suggested by the positions of horse ‘skins’ er ones seem to have been disturbed when the on several dromoi, and of skeleton 385 on top third was added. of the dromos fill of Sarmatian catacomb 386. The fill of dromoi, while usually darker in colour There is much evidence of such disturbance and less dense than the surrounding matrix, of earlier burials by later depositions in Alan- suggests in most cases one continuous process ic chambers, and this is to be expected in the of refill in each case rather than several distinct case of successive depositions in chambers phases. In Klin-Yar III, this fill often included nu- which were used as family vaults (see below) merous Koban pottery sherds from the settle- over some time. Some of the other evidence ment on the southern slope of the site. outlined above (and documented in greater de-

24 3 The Sarmatian and Alanic graves

tail in the Catalogue) cannot, however, be the have to consider in some cases the possibility of result of straightforward re-use, preparation for re-opening and deliberate disturbance, be it for re-use, or robbery, and this is clearest in the cas- ritual purposes (re-burial), out of superstition es of catacombs 357 and 368. We may therefore (fear of the dead),134 or for other reasons.

3.4 Deposition of bodies and ‘family burial’

The next two aspects of burial ritual, treatment back, whilst a considerable proportion of Alan- and deposition of the body and the provision ic females had been buried in a flexed position, of grave-goods, are discussed and analysed in lying on their right side. In chambers with multi- some depth in Korobov’s contribution to this ple burials, bodies would frequently be laid out volume. His observations and conclusions need with reference to one another, most often with no repetition, but key points will be summarized the female turned on the side to face the male, and supplemented here, sometimes from a dif- but this was occasionally reciprocated with the ferent perspective. head of the male turned towards the female (as in Alanic grave 360). In the Alanic ‘shaft grave’ In both phases (as previously in the Koban peri- 352 which held two bodies, the splayed position od), the Klin-Yar populations practised dressed of the woman’s legs was reminiscent of Scythian inhumation in a fashion closely similar to that cases where ritual rape has been suggested.135 in the corresponding periods (Roman Iron Age and Early Middle Ages) in central, western and The orientations of Sarmatian bodies varied from northern Europe. The bodies of the dead were south-southeast to west, with heads to the left of fully clothed and were deposited with accesso- the entrance. The only case where the head was ries and additional depositions, some of them to the right (grave 342B) was in a double cata- worn on the body (such as dress ornaments and comb where the access was between the two bags), some of them deposited in the chamber chambers so that a parallel deposition of the two (such as pottery, weapons, horse harness, etc.). bodies would result in one being to the left, the opposite body to the right of the respective en- Most Sarmatian bodies were deposited extend- trance. The orientation of Alanic bodies showed ed on the back in a single-burial chamber each. less variation, with heads pointing west (to the In many cases, the upper body or the head was left of the chamber entrance) in Klin-Yar III, and slightly turned to the right or the left. There is from south-southeast to west-northwest in Klin- no discernible gender or age pattern in these Yar IV, again to the left of the entrance. With re- variations, with the exception of the two cases markable regularity, the great majority of Alanic of crouched deposition on the right side, which catacombs in Klin-Yar III contained a male body were both female adults (graves 361A and 379). in the southern half (close to the entrance), and In some cases, Sarmatian chambers were linked a female body in the northern half (away from by a dromos or access pit to form a double burial, the entrance). The arrangement in Klin-Yar IV cat- usually of a male and a female adult (graves 342, acombs was less standardized. 351, 361). The 1994−1996 excavations produced only one Sarmatian chamber which held As might be expected, the sequence of deposi- two bodies, the Late Sarmatian chamber 386. tions in multiple chambers varied. In the Alanic catacomb 356, with two skeletons, the male adult Alanic catacombs held from one to four bodies appears to have been deposited first, in the cen- as identified during the excavations; skeletal tre line of the chamber. His skull and parts of his analysis occasionally added to these numbers upper body were dislodged when a female adult with the identification of parts of further skele- was deposited on his northern side, i. e. at the far tons, doubtless from earlier depositions. Dou- wall as seen from the entrance; at this time, the ble burials in both phases would normally be male body must still have been partly articulated. those of a male and a female; Alanic burials In catacomb 341, an adult skeleton (no. 2) was with more bodies would mostly include at least badly disturbed and disarticulated when one, or one male and one female, though not necessar- both, of the other two skeletons (a male adult and ily both of adult age (in 15 of 19 double-burial an unsexed young adult, female on associated catacombs from all excavation seasons, includ- finds) were added to the chamber. In the case of ing 1994−1996; see Chapter 7). Alanic males the double burial in catacomb IV-6, the male adult generally had been deposited extended on the had been deposited before the female. In the other multiple burials of Klin-Yar IV, the gender order

134 Флёров 2000; see the critique by Афанасьев 2012 and Korobov’s comments in Chapter 7, this volume. 135 Rolle 1979.

25 Klin-Yar – H. Härke

cannot be inferred, but in one case, two children Klin-Yar. The parallel alignment of dromos 371 were deposited after two adults (catacomb IV-7) and horse grave 367, the rarity of dromos inter- while in another case, a female adult followed sections, and the likelihood that open dromoi two children (catacomb IV-9). served as grave markers (see above) makes this appear a deliberate intersection which may Some Alanic chambers which held only one buri- be linked to the absence of a male body in the al seemed prepared for the deposition of another chamber of 371. body. The most instructive case is catacomb 371 where a young adult female had been buried Such an absence is the most extreme case of an with a small child at her feet. But the woman interval between successive burials, which may had been deposited close to the northern edge have been up to a couple of decades or so. The of the chamber, crouched on her right side and length of such intervals or even the absence of facing the empty southern half where the male a second adult body is a powerful indicator that would normally be deposited; a bead necklace this second body was to be that of a specific indi- had been placed in the empty half. Intriguingly, vidual, not just the next dead in the community, the dromos of grave 371 was cut by a later horse which, in turn, is another argument for the Alanic burial (367), the only separate deposition of a catacombs at Klin-Yar to have been family or kin- complete horse (rather than a horse ‘skin’) at group vaults.

3.5 The provision of grave-goods in the chamber

As noted above, the types, numbers and loca- and IV-12), although the preservation factor tions of Alanic grave-goods are analysed in Ko- makes direct comparisons difficult, and the dif- robov’s contribution to this volume (Chapter 7); ference may well be one between Klin-Yar IV and in addition, artefact types of key importance Klin-Yar III rather than between the Sarmatian for dating are discussed in depth below (Chap- and Alanic grave-goods customs. ters 4, 5 and 6). All that is required here are some general observations on the provision of grave- It therefore appears that there was an elabo- goods in the chamber in order to tie this aspect ration of the grave-goods custom from (Late) in with the other aspects of the burial ritual. Sarmatian to Alanic times, but no fundamental change. It is also noticeable that this elaboration With the exception of a couple of robbed or happened mainly at the upper levels of the buri- disturbed catacombs (347 and 364) and the al wealth hierarchy whereas the poorly furnished ‘cenotaph’ 388, all Sarmatian and Alanic burial graves of both periods remained closely similar chambers excavated 1994−1996 contained de- (compare e. g. the finds from Alanic grave 382 liberate depositions of grave-goods. The general with those from Sarmatian graves 370 and 372). categories of artefacts found at Klin-Yar are the This is demonstrated by a comparison of rich Sar- same in Late Sarmatian and in Alanic chambers: matian and Alanic catacombs in the elite plot. dress and its associated ornaments, accesso- The Sarmatian catacomb 361 contained two of ries (such as bags and their contents), pottery the richest Sarmatian assemblages. Chamber vessels and other containers (such as the bas- A with the female burial produced two golden ket in Alanic grave IV-9), tools and weapons (in- earrings, a gold pendant with a precious stone cluding knives), and horse harness items. Other inset, a polyhedral gold bead, glass beads, a depositions in the chambers include food offer- bronze mirror, and three pottery vessels. The ings (witness the animal bones found in several grave-goods of the male in chamber B consisted chambers). In many ways, the Late Sarmatian of a large iron sword, four pottery vessels and graves uncovered in 1994−1996 look like the a horse’s long bone. The broadly contemporary poor relations of the Alanic catacombs; in fact, catacomb 378 also produced some indicators of the poorer Alanic catacombs (e. g. 382) have a wealth: a horse completely filled its short north- range and quantity of grave-goods identical to south dromos, and the child in the chamber those of Late Sarmatian catacombs. One of the was accompanied by an iron horse bit, a glass differences in grave-goods between the two pe- cup (probably Late Roman; see Chapter 6.1), riods is the presence of coins in rich Alanic cata- and three pottery vessels. Compared with other combs (341 and 363), although it should be not- Sarmatian graves at Klin-Yar, these are wealthy ed that the coin in grave 363 was part of a dress burials, but they pale by comparison with the ornament, and the traces of silver solder on the assemblages in the rich Alanic catacombs, in coins from grave 341 may indicate a similar use. particular 360. Here, two golden earrings, a gold The other difference is possibly represented by brooch, a bronze mirror and beads, a bag, and organic household items (tables or trays) which bronze shoe fittings were found with the female. were found in some Klin-Yar IV catacombs (IV-7 The man wore a small gold earring and sport-

26 3 The Sarmatian and Alanic graves

ed golden boot fittings. At his right side was a (between approximately AD 620 and 720). The sword with decorated hilt reminiscent of Late stirrups themselves had been hammered out of Sassanian work, P-shaped scabbard mounts of iron rods rather than cast, and in Avar contexts Early Avar type, and a sword belt with numer- their type would date to around the middle of ous gold and silver fittings in heraldic style; the the 7th century.137 Their association with coins mixture of typological elements suggests that at Klin-Yar allows an assessment of the relative the sword may have been produced in the late and absolute chronology of successive burials 6th century in a Byzantine workshop on the Black in the respective chambers. In catacomb 341, Sea.136 Horse gear had been deposited at his the coins found with the young woman (skel- feet: an iron horse bit, an iron stirrup with a gold- eton 1, sexed by grave-goods only) date to en strap end, and a complete horse harness with AD 582 – 602 (see Chapter 6.2), and the female bronze and silver fittings. The entrance pit held a assemblage (particularly the golden earrings large bronze bowl, a chain-mail breast patch, a with pyramid-shaped pendants) cannot be later decorated belt and about 15 arrows. Further ves- than AD 620 – 630 while the stirrups are from the sels were found in the head end of the chamber: middle of that century.138 In other words, there a pottery bowl, two pottery jars (the larger one may have been an interval of up to two decades containing another belt with gilt fittings), and an or more between the burials of the young female Iranian glass bowl (see Chapter 6.1). adult and the male adult (skeleton 3), something that would agree with other evidence of in- An interesting aspect of the separate cemetery tervals between successive burials in the Alanic area of Klin-Yar IV, compared with Klin-Yar III, chambers (see above). In the case of catacomb was the high degree of organic preservation in 363, the coin on the woman’s necklace dates to the Alanic chambers. Thus, a number of wood- AD 634 – 641 which makes for a much smaller en objects could be observed among the grave- chronological difference between the two buri- goods, including a vessel (catacomb IV-9), two als, with the stirrup deposition in a corner of the tables or trays (catacombs IV-7 and IV-10), sev- chamber being likely to date after the last (prob- eral buttons and a ball (catacomb IV-7), and two ably male) burial; but the disturbance of the unidentified objects, possibly small tables or grave context in the chamber makes it difficult to boxes (catacombs IV-8 and IV-9). In the dromos reconstruct the sequence and interval in great- of catacomb IV-9, parts of a woven basket were er detail. In catacomb 360 where there are no found; and in catacomb IV-10, substantial parts coins to provide a close date, the chronological of a leather belt with silver studs had been pre- range of both burials is around the middle of the served. Such preservation was rare in Klin-Yar III, 7th century suggesting a more rapid sequence but some organic finds were preserved in the or- of male and female burials here than in 345, ganic floor deposits. In the Alanic catacomb 356, and perhaps on the same scale as in 363. This the remains of what may have been a wooden discussion is also a reminder that the artefact box or casket were found in the foot end of the dates for the Klin-Yar graves relate necessarily to chamber. the last, and latest, burial in each chamber.

A few special finds warrant additional com- Mirrors are provided with most Sarmatian and ments, first among them the series of compara- Alanic female burials, but in one case (Alanic tively early stirrups from Alanic catacombs in the grave 363) there was a mirror broken in two, with elite plot (341, 345, 360 and 363). While one (in the two halves widely separated (0.60 m apart grave 345) was found in fragmentary condition and on slightly different levels). In spite of the in the dromos fill, the other three were recov- complex situation and possible disturbance of ered complete from the chambers. The two from this chamber, it is conceivable that this break- undisturbed contexts (graves 341 and 360) had age had been deliberate, and the deposition been deposited outside the right knee or lower symbolic. Possibly symbolic depositions in oth- leg of the male adult in the respective cham- er graves include a fossil, astragali, and lumps ber, and in both cases a horse bit was nearby, of resin. While fossils occur locally in the sand- in one case (360) together with what appears stone of Klin-Yar, the fossil mussel shell in the to have been a complete horse harness at the Alanic chamber 374 had been deposited togeth- feet of the man. In the disturbed catacomb 363, er with a mirror in a corner of the chamber, which a horse bit was found on the floor in the east- is unlikely to have happened coincidentally. The ern end of the chamber. It is probably no coinci- fossil mussel shell on the floor of dromos 345 is dence that these four catacombs were the rich- a less clear case: it may have gotten there acci- est in the elite plot, and it is interesting to note that they have all been dated to period IIIa/б

137 See Curta 2008. I am grateful to F. Curta (Gainesville, Flor- ida) for additional information and for a discussion of the 136 Personal communication A. Koch (Zurich); see also Koch chronological implications for the Klin-Yar graves. 1998; Koch 1999. 138 Personal communication F. Curta.

27 Klin-Yar – H. Härke

dentally in the process of digging the dromos, burials elsewhere in Europe. Even though these or it may have been cleared out of the chamber uncertainties of the evidence affect all cases of together with the other objects found in this dro- beads with males, and daggers or large knives mos. Astragali (ankle bones) were found in two with females, they contain some hints that the adjacent catacombs in trench 3/96 of Klin-Yar III, boundary between the two gender ‘kits’ may outside the elite plot: in the transitional Sarma- have been less sharply defined than in western tian/Alanic catacomb 383 (with 12 astragali) and northern Europe.140 Korobov (Chapter 7) and the neighbouring Alanic catacomb 384 (with therefore identifies trends of gender-related a total of 45). Here, in spite of the spatial and provision rather than specific, clearly separated chronological proximity of the finds, an interpre- kits. This extends to weapons and dress orna- tation in terms of symbolic deposition is more ments; for example, the male adult in the rich difficult because in both cases the bones were Alanic catacomb 360 had clearly worn an earring found in the fill of dromos and/or chamber, and in his left ear. one of the chambers (383) had been robbed in antiquity. A single astragalus was found on the Grave-goods, unless they were an integral part floor of the Alanic chamber 382, further east in of the dress, appear to have been deposited cemetery III. close to the body rather than worn, even where that would have been possible. This appears to Equally difficult is the interpretation of the lumps be the case with many bag complexes found in of black resin found in the Sarmatian catacomb Alanic catacombs although it is quite possible 351B and the Alanic catacombs 356, 373 and that some other bags were worn. The swords in IV-6. While the finds are from different periods the Sarmatian catacombs 351A, 361B and 365 and/or different cemetery areas, the element had been deposited on the left of the body, out- linking them is the grave context: all four graves side and alongside the left arm; and the sword in were those of female adults (351B and 373), Alanic catacomb 360 had been placed along the or they included one (IV-6; 356/2 was female right side of the body of the male adult, its hilt on grave-goods). However, the analysis of a level with the skull. In all four cases, the sword larger database shows that resin occurs with was clearly not worn, but separately deposited males as well as females (see Chapter 7). The in its scabbard and (certainly in the Alanic case) frequent identification of black resin lumps as with its sword belt. The locations of grave-goods ‘raw opium’ has, however, been repudiated by in the chamber are, again, discussed in detail the results of a forensic analysis undertaken on by Korobov. It only needs to be highlighted here a sample of resin from the lump found in grave that certain categories of artefacts seem to have 351B; this showed conclusively that the resin is had preferred locations. Thus, pottery vessels not opium.139 were most often found near the entrance or in the head end of the chamber, to the left of the Similar to the situation in Iron Age and early me- entrance, whilst horse harness items were usual- dieval burials in western and northern Europe, ly deposited in the foot end. On the other hand, the pattern of grave-goods deposition allows the mirrors, in contrast to virtually all other artefact identification of age and gender-related provi- categories, do not have a standard location, sion. However, the regular occurrence of re-use which is all the more intriguing as they are often and multiple burials at Klin-Yar makes such ob- thought to have had a symbolic role in the burial servations less certain than in the case of single ritual.

3.6 Ritual depositions and activities

The evidence for ritual activities, either as part lumps; see above). The main areas of ritual ac- of the funerary rites or conducted later in mem- tivities seem to have been the dromoi and the ory of the dead, is one of the most fascinating cemetery space between them, but we should aspects of the archaeological record of Klin- also bear in mind that the deposition of a body Yar. Some of this rich and varied evidence has in the chamber and the placing of grave-goods already been touched upon in the context of would have happened in a ritual context, as did grave construction (particularly the re-opening probably the careful closing of the entrance with and re-use of chambers) and grave-goods in the stones and specially selected clay. And while chamber (such as mirrors, astragali and resin the most obvious animal depositions happened outside the chamber, there is some evidence of animal bones inside the Sarmatian and Alanic

139 Comparative forensic analysis by Senior Expert Yu. M. Mor gunkova, Moscow, commissioned via the Institute of Geogra- phy, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, in 2009. 140 See Härke 2011.

28 3 The Sarmatian and Alanic graves

chambers (in addition to the cattle astragali in Complete horse depositions (graves 341, 345, catacombs 382, 383 and 384): the sheep and/ 360, 363 and 378, all of them in the elite plot) or cattle bones found close to pottery vessels in were generally found with the horse’s legs fold- catacombs 341, 361B and 387; the ovicaprine ed underneath the body which was in an upright ribs in the large bronze cauldron in catacomb position (as dictated by the width of the dro- 381; and the hind legs of a young horse found mos) or lying on one side. This in-situ evidence together with cattle bones between a stone and the consideration of the size and weight of packing high in the fill of the rich catacomb 360 a horse seem to rule out that it was killed out- (see Chapter 10). These may well be remains of a side the dromos and then moved to the intended funeral feast, particularly in the latter two cases. location. The most likely procedure was that the horse was led into the dromos, made to kneel Activities in and around the dromos comprise down with the head towards the chamber en- the deposition of horses (complete or as heads- trance, and then killed in situ. While the narrow and-hooves, here termed horse ‘skins’), a pos- width of the dromoi may make this procedure sible human sacrifice, the complete deposition appear remarkable, it should not present a huge or smashing of pottery, the careful deposition of problem with a well-trained horse guided by ex- metal artefacts on or near the access steps, and perienced horse handlers. Shvyryova’s report fire on the dromos floor. The evidence points to (Chapter 10) shows that the sacrificed horses a narrower range of less frequent ritual activities were mostly high-quality stallions with a wide in the Late Sarmatian period, followed by more age range, implying that they were not selected frequent and varied ritual in the Alanic period because they were old or less valuable − in oth- (Tab. 1). This is an interesting process running er words, they may well have been the favourite parallel to the elaboration of the grave-goods horse of the owner buried in the catacomb, or custom from the Sarmatian to the Alanic period have had some other association with him or (see above). her.143 A horse in the dromos is likely to have been deposited at the time of the last burial in The clearest evidence of ritual activity is un- the chamber, but this need not always have been doubtedly represented by the complete horse the case. In the Alanic dromos 345, the strati- skeletons in the dromoi of the rich Late Sarma- graphic position of pottery fragments on top of tian and Alanic catacombs of the elite plot, but the horse skeleton means that the horse had they are surely just a variation of the same sa been placed there before the chamber was partly crificial ritual represented by the horse ‘skins’ cleared out for further burial(s). deposited on or in Sarmatian and Alanic dromoi as well as between the graves.141 While the size Even more intriguing evidence of possible sa of horses made it necessary to place them on crifice comes from the single human skeleton the dromos floor, horse ‘skins’ seem to have 385, a juvenile aged 10 – 13 years, uncovered in been deposited preferentially high in, or on top trench 3/1996, about 80 metres to the east of of, the dromos fill; all undisturbed horse ‘skins’ the elite plot in cemetery area III. It was found in (graves 360, 379, 388) were found in this posi- and right below the topsoil, from 0.12 m under tion. This was also their usual position at other the modern surface, without any recognizable cemetery sites of the North Caucasus, e. g. in grave pit and without any artefacts. The contort- the catacomb cemetery of Brut.142 The Klin-Yar ed position of the body is unique at Klin-Yar, as ‘skins’ seem to have usually been bundled or is its location and the absence of grave-goods. It folded, but the horse ‘skin’ on top of the dro- had been deposited on top of, and in line with, mos of Sarmatian grave 379 appears to have the short east-southeast – west-northwest dro- been spread out and then covered with stones. mos of the Late Sarmatian catacomb 386 which Given the positions of horse ‘skins’, re-opening contained the bodies of two adults, one of them and re-use of catacombs would often affect old- a male. The association of the skeleton with the er depositions. In the cases of the Alanic cata- dromos is unambiguous, as is the stratigraphic combs 368 and IV-9, older horse ‘skin’ deposi- sequence: the chamber had to be closed and tions appear to have been disturbed when part the dromos had to have been backfilled before of the chamber contents were cleared out into the dromos.

143 Horses played an important role in the mythology of the ethnographically well-recorded Ossetians, the descendants 141 In Russian archaeological debates and publications, a of the Alans of the North Caucasus: horses were thought to distinction is frequently made between ‘dedication’ which carry the dead up to heaven, transforming them into heaven- is a gift to the deceased, and ‘sacrifice’ which is addressed ly ancestors, and horses were therefore sacrificed as a gift to to a deity. While such a distinction is, in principle, necessary the deceased in a ritual called bækhfældīsyn/bækhfældes- and important (see Härke 2003; Härke 2014), it cannot in un which also included the breaking of pottery vessels. The our view be achieved on archaeological evidence alone and origin of this may lie in Indo-Aryan mythology (Кузьмина is, therefore, not attempted here. 2001). I am grateful to Alan A. Tuallagov (Vladikavkaz) for 142 Туаллагов 2008. drawing my attention to this.

29 Klin-Yar – H. Härke

Human Complete Broken Horse skin Horse Artefact Fire skeleton pot pot

Sarmatian

342

351

361

365 X

370

372

378 X

379 X

386 X X

Sarmatian/ Alanic

383

387 X

388 X

Alanic

341 X X ?

345 X X ? X

347

352

356 X

357 ? ?

359 X

360 X X X X X

363 ? X X X

364

368 X

371

373

374

380 X

381 X

382 X

384

IV-6 X

IV-7 X X

IV-8 X X

IV-9 X ? X Table 1. Dromos evidence for ritual depositions and IV-10 X activities in Sarmatian and IV-12 Alanic graves.

30 3 The Sarmatian and Alanic graves

the single skeleton could have been placed of such secondary deposition at Klin-Yar. The ra- on top. It could be a later, secondary burial al- diocarbon dates, problematic though they are though all multiple-burial catacombs at Klin-Yar for absolute dating (see Chapter 8), may still be had been re-opened for exactly this purpose, used as approximate indicators of relative chro- and there is no other, remotely comparable case nology.

OxA-7757 burial 386/1 AD 250 – 400 (at 68.2 %) AD 200 – 440 (at 95.4 %) OxA-7669 burial 386/2 AD 335 – 420 AD 250 – 450 OxA-7683 burial 385 AD 210 – 330 AD 130 – 340

These dates place the three skeletons in the floor. Broken pots in Klin-Yar III dromoi tend- same broad dating bracket which, allowing for ed to be near the entrance, and in Klin-Yar IV a likely offset, is in the Late Sarmatian period. spread throughout the dromos fill. In the latter The apparently earlier radiocarbon date of the cases, the vessels were noticeably covered in stratigraphically later skeleton 385 may be due soot and are likely to have come from the near- to a different individual offset, but all three dates by Alanic settlement area on the northern side overlap sufficiently clearly, particularly at the of the rock, a bit higher up the slope, but the higher probability level. The (possibly female) evidence and the completeness of the vessels juvenile in burial 385 could conceivably be a hu- make it unlikely that these were stray sherds man sacrifice although such cases seem to have from the surface: they must have been brought been far less frequent in Sarmatian and Alanic complete to the cemetery. It is not impossible contexts than in Scythian barrows. But Sarma- that they had been used in a funeral feast at the tian cases have been reported from the ceme- graveside and then been smashed. tery of Samankul’ (kurgan 2, grave 51) and from a shrine under a barrow at Kurganinsk (with five The final type of ritual activity in Alanic dromoi at cut-up skeletons), and a later Alanic case from Klin-Yar involves fire. The evidence for this con- the cemetery of Kari Tsagat.144 sists of charcoal patches on the floors of some dromoi (most clearly so in 345 and 360, both in Other depositions in the dromos areas of Alanic the elite plot, and 356 in the southern trench), catacombs involve metal artefacts and pottery and of some calcination and discolouration of vessels. In dromos 363, a horse bit had been parts of one dromos underneath and next to a placed on the steps at its southern end, and a horse deposition (360). Charcoal in chambers bow and a quiver with 13 arrows in the fill in 345 (near the entrance) and 356 might mean the middle of the dromos. A horse bit was also that the entrance was open when a fire was lit in found in the fill of dromos 359. A gold fibula had the dromos, or that remains of an earlier fire in been placed on the floor of dromos 360, be- the dromos fell into the chamber when this was tween the horse and the entrance, and near the re-opened. This is confirmed by the position of fire which had been lit there. Other finds in the the charcoal under a clay band in dromos 345, same dromos, apart from the complete horse suggesting that the fire had burnt here before and two horse ‘skins’, included a belt buckle clay was brought in to seal the entrance. In fact, and bone reinforcements from a bow in the fill the association of dromos fire evidence with (possibly from the chamber 359 which was cut multiple burials in chambers might imply a link by dromos 360), as well as a complete pottery between re-opening and the lighting of a fire, jar resting in broken condition on the dromos but the number of cases is too small for safe in- floor near the chamber entrance. Pottery dep- ferences. Evidence of fire in the burial ritual is ositions in Alanic dromoi were complete ves- widely paralleled elsewhere in Sarmatian and sels or pottery fragments of mostly complete Alanic graves, and also in the later Ossetian vessels which seem to have been broken in ethnographic context where a fire was lit in the situ. The positions of complete vessels varied, freshly dug grave pit before the funeral ceremo- from the chamber entrance to the middle of the ny, and again on top of the grave during the me- dromos to the access steps. In the dromos of morial ceremony.145 Sarmatian/Alanic grave 387, a pottery jar was found on the dromos floor, against the outside A similar range of activities might have been of the entrance stone, in an area of loose black conducted in the cemetery area between the earth which suggests a partial backfill after graves, but the only surviving evidence of this is the deposition of the jar, or its later deposition horse ‘skins’ deposited on or near the old sur- some time after the construction of the dromos face, between 0.54 and 1.28 m below the mod- when earth had already accumulated on the ern surface (ritual features 1/1995, 2/1995 and 1/1996). By their very nature, these separate

144 Каминский/Берлизов 1987; Кадиева 2008; personal communication A. A. Tuallagov. 145 Personal communication A. A. Tuallagov.

31 Klin-Yar – H. Härke

depositions have to be of Sarmatian or Alanic in this cemetery area), with a mock entrance at date. All three of them were found close to the its western end. The sub-triangular entrance dromos of a rich Sarmatian or Alanic catacomb hole was not covered by the usual entrance (357, 363 and 379, respectively). In a similar as- stones, and the short horizontal shaft of the sociation, a complete horse had been deposited entrance had a dead end. An extensive control in a dromos-like cut (grave 367) running parallel trench did not produce any evidence of a cham- to, and slightly cutting, the dromos of the Alan- ber, burial, or other depositions or finds behind ic catacomb 371. Again, an association is likely the apparent entrance. The only sign that this but cannot be proven. Interestingly, two of the may have been more than an incomplete and/ three sacrificial horse deposits also include hind or abandoned catacomb construction was the leg bones from cattle (in 1/1995) and sheep horse ‘skin’ placed on top of the western end (in 1/1996; see Chapter 10), respectively, hint- of the dromos. This may, indeed, have been ing at the possibility that these animals were a cenotaph for someone whose body had not consumed in a ritual meal or feast before the been returned for burial at Klin-Yar; or it was an deposition. abandoned grave construction in which case there must have been a ritual concept requir- A different aspect of ritual seems to be repre- ing a sacrifice for this. Parallels for the Klin-Yar sented by the ‘cenotaph’ 388. Essentially, this ‘cenotaph’ are two 2nd/1st century BC cases of was an east – west dromos (therefore most access pits without chamber in North Ossetia, likely of Sarmatian or transitional Sarmatian/ at Sadovy kurgan 4, grave 9 and Chernoyarskaya Alanic date, similar to the neighbouring graves kurgan 1, grave 6.146

3.7 The elite plot

The main trench in Klin-Yar III produced a con- a total of 14 depositions of horse ‘skins’ and centration of rich Late Sarmatian and Alanic complete horses, partly in or on dromoi, partly graves which the excavators have termed ‘elite in separate sacrifical depositions. Rare grave- plot’ (Fig. 9). It is discussed here at the end be- goods which are likely to indicate elite status cause its analysis involves aspects of spatial are iron long swords found in three Sarmatian and chronological patterning, grave construc- (351A, 361B, 365) and two Alanic catacombs tion, burial wealth, ‘family’ vaults, social struc- (357, 360), and iron stirrups in three or four ture and ritual. It was located on the southern Alanic graves (341, 360, 363; and fragment in slope of the hill, some 300 m south-southeast of dromos of 345). Bronze bowls, glass vessels the eastern tip of the central rock formation. The and gold coins generally are similarly rare items catacombs found here in 1994−1996 include in Sarmatian and Alanic graves. But four cata- the richest of all tombs from these two periods combs in the elite plot (352, 360, 378 and 381) known at Klin-Yar, with only two similarly rich have produced three of the five bronze bowls, catacombs (234 and 389) just outside the main and all four glass vessels, found in decades trench. The evidence for links between the Sar- of research at Klin Yar; and two other elite plot matian and Alanic graves of the elite plot goes graves (341 and 363) produced three of the four well beyond close spatial clustering. Apart from Byzantine gold coins known from this site (see the common concept of inhumation in under- Chapter 6.2). ground burial chambers (a concept not limited to elite burials) and the exceptional wealth by The man with deformed skull buried in catacomb the standards of their respective periods, the 360 (dated to the mid-7th century AD) undoubt- two phases of the elite plot are linked by several edly belonged to the top level of Early Alanic cases of artificial skull deformation (Sarmatian: society in the North Caucasus. At his side was 342B, 351B; Alanic: 356, 357, 359, 360, 371, a sword which combined Sassanian, Avar and 380, 381), a feature which is often considered a Byzantine decorative and typological elements; social indicator of elite status; the occurrence of a complete horse harness with silver fittings had lumps of black resin (Sarmatian: 351B; Alanic: been deposited at his feet, and an Iranian glass 373); and the frequent presence of horse or cup near his head. The latter is an intriguing con- horse ‘skin’ depositions which are rare outside trast to the Byzantine coin on the gold necklace the elite plot. from the immediately adjacent catacomb 363. These objects demonstrate not just wealth, but The evidence for this plot being a deliberate also far-flung connections and perhaps alle- concentration of elite burials is quite convinc- giances (if temporary ones). ing. Horse depositions are relatively rare, and usually associated with exceptional wealth. But the three seasons in the elite plot uncovered 146 Ростунов/Березин 2007; Nagler 1996.

32 3 The Sarmatian and Alanic graves

Fig. 9. Analytical plan of the ‘elite plot’ in cemetery III of Klin-Yar.

33 Klin-Yar – H. Härke

The extent of the elite plot is uncertain to the equally in the northern and southern halves. The east, but has been established to the north absence of graves from phase II is a further in- where it peters out with less wealthy graves dication that some rich graves may be located within the main trench. Immediately to the east in unexcavated areas just outside of our main of the trench, previous excavations had found trench. However, this gap in terms of relative only one grave (234) which cluster analysis in- dating is less apparent when the dates are trans- cluded in the richest cluster (see Chapter 7). lated into absolute chronology: there appear to The southern extent of the elite plot is indicated have been built three catacombs in the 5th and by the findings in the southern trench 2/1995, another three in the 6th century, two or three in about 40 metres south of the main trench, or the early to mid-7th century, and four in the late about 60 metres south of the richest graves; it 7th to early 8th centuries. produced one Alanic catacomb (356) with gold earrings, but otherwise unremarkable grave- Given the chronological span of the elite plot goods and labour investment. However, at about graves, the numbers of individuals buried here the same distance to the southeast of the main need not imply more than one high-status fa trench, a later rescue excavation led to the dis- mily, or at the most two families, burying their covery of an exceptionally rich and large cata- dead over some 300 to 350 years (or about 12 comb (grave 389) which compares with cata to 15 generations): 11 individuals in Late Sar- comb 360 in terms of wealth, but is considerably matian period RZ, 11 in Early Alanic I, and 14 in earlier (5th century). This spectacular find con- Early Alanic III. By the 7th century, two groups of firms the existence of an elite plot at Klin-Yar, large and/or rich catacombs can be discerned: a but suggests that it extends somewhat further central group with two robbed graves (364 and to the south and southeast than indicated by the 368) and two outstandingly rich ones (360 and 1994−1996 excavations.147 363); and a southern group with two strikingly similar, well-equipped catacombs (341 and 345) The elite plot has its own chronological and and one unique, rich ‘shaft grave’ (352). There spatial patterns which are unlikely to be coinci- is a series of epigenetic (non-metric) skeletal dental (Fig. 9). Significantly, all Sarmatian cata traits linking several individuals in the central combs in this area date to the Late Sarmatian and northern parts of the elite plot (359, 363/2, period (phase RZ, second half of 4th to beginning 371/1, 373, and 381/1), confirming the likely of 5th century AD). They are spread quite evenly existence of family relationships between the across the area of the main trench, with a con- elite members buried here. The five richest cata centration of double burials in the southern half; combs (352, 360, 341, 345 and 363, in chron- the latter, however, may be an artefact of the ological order) all belong to a relatively narrow extent of the trench. Alanic graves then filled up time-span from AD 620/630 to 680/720 (see the spaces in between the Sarmatian graves, in Chapters 4 and 5). This may be an effect, or re- the 5th/6th centuries AD (phase I after Malashev flection, of the wider political and historical con- and Gavritukhin) more in the northern half of the text of the Kislovodsk Basin in this period (see plot, in the 7th/early 8th centuries AD (phase III) Chapter 6.2).

147 Grave 389 (field report submitted 2006) will be published elsewhere. For further publications presenting analy ses of the elite plot along closely similar lines, see Härke/ Belinskij 2011b; Härke/Belinskij 2012.

34 4 Pottery vessels from Sarmatian and Alanic graves

Vladimir Yu. Malashev

The overall chronological range of the pottery Some of the assemblages included in the vessels and assemblages from Sarmatian and cross-tabulation of vessels come from other Alanic graves excavated in 1994−1996 at Klin- sites in the Kislovodsk Basin (Fig. 10) and will Yar III and IV is fairly broad. Mainly, it covers the therefore receive less attention here. Other cat- time from the end of the Late Sarmatian period egories will not be analyzed because they have (third quarter of the 4th century AD) to the late 7th been discussed in previous publications of or early 8th centuries. Early medieval pottery of the finds from Klin-Yar III and Mokraya Balka.150 Not Transition Period in the Kislovodsk Basin has al- all vessels listed in the field report and seen by ready been examined in two publications,148 and Härke during the compilation of the catalogue the categories identified there have been dated for publication were available for inspection (i. e. attributed each to one or more chronological for this pottery report.151 Finally, grave 368 con- periods). Our analysis here is going to use this tained a bowl typical for Koban Culture assem- existing framework. The assemblages will be dis- blages; this was clearly a secondary deposition, cussed in chronological order, set out in tables by and the vessel will be omitted from the analysis phases and in the sequence that represents the and discussion here. process of change in the pottery, and these phases are given absolute dates after Gavritukhin.149

4.1 Grave 351B

The artefact set from this grave is chronologically characteristic profile of the pin places it close to ambiguous: the assemblage includes items that buckles of type П10 (after Malashev) and sug- can be correlated with artefacts of the first centu- gests a date in the 4th century.154 ries AD and of the Late Sarmatian period. For this reason, grave 351B is discussed separately from The date of the assemblage hinges on the at- 351A (see below). tribution and chronological assessment of the small bow-shaped fibula. However, its precise A small vessel (cat. no. 6), with ovoid body and attribution is difficult on the basis of the illustra- funnel-shaped neck, its handle broken off in tion alone, and it is not quite clear whether the antiquity, is similar to pottery of this area in the fibula is single-component or two-component. If early centuries AD.152 Parallels for the other jug the fibula is single-component, its dimensions (cat. no. 7) are harder to find. Its ornamental will place it close to type 2 which means that pattern of faint, wide vertical grooves and bulg- it is not later than the first half or the middle of es links it to cups of type Кр.18.153 The metal the 2nd century. But the foot suggests a connect finds (fibula, buckle, mirror and pendant) are ion with more sophisticated fibulae. Also, the more diagnostic here. The small bronze buckle presence of an axis for the spring would imply loop without plate is not easily datable, but the that this fibula is two-component, in which case it must be more recent. Two-component bow- shaped fibulae became common in the North rd 148 Малашев 2000а; Малашев 2001. Caucasus from the second half of the 3 century 149 Гавритухин 2001b. AD and were in use until the Hun period. Small 150 Малашев 2000а; Малашев 2001. fibulae from the cemeteries of Palasa-syrt and 151 The following vessels recorded in the field reports (Бе- Brut 2,155 among others, may be considered as линский 1994; Белинский 1996) were not extant or could th not be accessed in SLHM during the preparation of this the latest in this series; those of the 4 century pottery report: Klin-Yar III, grave 341, cup from dromos (Бе- are usually not large. All this suggests that the линский 1994, Fig. 8; in this publication: catalogue no. D1); fibula from grave 351B dates to the th4 century, grave 342A, jar (Белинский 1994, Fig. 33; cat. no. 1); grave most likely to its end. 342B, cup (Белинский 1994, Fig. 34; cat. no. 1); grave 345, fragments from dromos (cat. 12 – 13, 15 – 18); grave 351В, bowl (cat. no. 9); grave 352, jug (Белинский 1994, Fig. 125; cat. no. F1); Klin-Yar IV, grave 6, cup (Белинский 1996, Fig. 183; cat. no. 1). As far as possible, vessels not seen for this report were classified from their earlier photographs 154 Малашев 2000b, 209 Fig. 2. and included in the analysis here. 155 Воронин/Малашев 2006, Fig. 13,7; Гмыря 1993, 152 Абрамова 1993, Figs. 51,10.11 etc. Figs. 23,7 – 9; 26,7; Габуев/Малашев 2003, Figs. 80,7; 153 Малашев 2001, 17. 280,2.

35 Klin-Yar – V. Yu. Malashev

Fig. 10. Cross-tabulation of pottery assemblages of the end of the Sarmatian period and the Early Middle Ages from the Kislovodsk Basin.

36 4 Pottery vessels from Sarmatian and Alanic graves

The grave also produced a small mirror with a Thus, the assemblage in grave 351B defies any handle and a small conical bulge on the back, a attempt at definite dating. If the fibula is of the type that was widespread in the 1st to early 2nd cen- single-component type, then the grave must be tury AD.156 In our view, some of these mirrors from dated from the second half of the 1st century to sites of this region may be dated as late as the the middle of the 2nd century. That would mean middle of the 2nd century, for example burials 13,2 a serious chronological gap between chambers and 14,2 of the Podkumok cemetery.157 The small A and B of this grave. If, however, the fibula is of pendant or hook from 351B has no close parallels the two-component type, grave 351B belongs to in the area. Somewhat similar, though much larg- the second half of the 4th century, and the small er, items dated to the 4th century are known from mirror would represent a case of later re-use of the Tsilibium cemetery (Abkhazia).158 an earlier artefact.

4.2 End of the Late Sarmatian Period and Beginning of the Hun Period/ Transition Period (RZ and Ia1)

A representative series of assemblages belongs were also similar in their technological charac- to the Transition Period, with a starting date not teristics: as a rule, they are made of grey or light earlier than the middle of the 4th century.159 This grey clay with a tempering of relatively large- includes graves 342, 351A, 361A and B, 365, grained sand. This type of jugs continued in use 370, 372, 378, 379, 383, 386 and 387. In the Kis- until the early 7th century and has been found in lovodsk Basin, the Transition Period corresponds assemblages with belt sets decorated in heral- to the Late Sarmatian period RZ and the addition- dic style, e. g. Mokraya Balka catacomb 100.163 ally identified sub-period Ia1160 described below. Transition-period vessels occupy an intermediate 2. Jugs and tall cups of types Кк. 18 and Кр. 18 place between the pottery of the Sarmatian peri- (e. g. 351A no. 4; 361A no. 3; 386 nos. 3 and od and that of the Early Middle Ages (i. e. Alanic). 5; 379 no. 1; Fig. 11,6) with a handle at- Its morphological traits show it to be a fairly inde- tached to the rim, and shoulder and body dec- pendent phenomenon; the term ‘transition-type orated with wide, vertical or slanting, closely pottery’ primarily reflects its chronological posi- set grooves. These vessels often are of high tion between the earlier and later traditions. The quality and highly burnished.164 following vessel types may be considered diagnostic for the assemblages of this period (exam- 3. Small spouted jugs of type Кс. 6 (e. g. 361B ples in brackets refer to grave numbers and cata- no. 2; 370 no. 1; 378 no. 1; Fig. 11,4) with a logue entries unless specified otherwise). handle attached to the rim, a projecting knob on the top strap of the handle, and shoulder 1. Medium-sized and small unburnished jugs decorated with a herringbone pattern of mul- of type Кв. 1Б (e. g. 386 no. 4; 378 no. 2; tiple zig-zag grooves or lines.165 Fig. 11,5) with smooth necks and a slightly everted rim with low-cut spout.161 In most cas- 4. Cups of type Кр. 19 (e. g. 361B no. 4; 378 es, the handle has a marked angle at the upper no. 3; 379 no. 5; Fig. 11,1); wide and low ves- joint; at this point, it is often decorated with sels with a loop-shaped handle attached to molded patterns or a feature in relief (ridge, the body, a projecting knob on the top strap knob). This group of jugs goes back to types of the handle, often decorated with wide ver- of the 2nd to 4th centuries AD which were wide- tical, closely set grooves or fluting on shoul- spread across the Trans-Terek area162 and which der and body.166 The earliest specimen of this type may be that from Kishpek kurgan 13,167 dated to the late 3rd to early 4th centuries AD. 156 Абрамова 1993, 155. 157 Абрамова 1987, Figs. 21 – 22. Another type of cups, Кр. 24,168 is morphological- 158 Воронов 2003, Figs. 10,6.7; 20,21.22. 159 Гавритухин/Малашев 1998, 48, 49; Малашев 2000а, ly close to cups of type Кр. 18 (see above, 2), but Tab. II. differs in its decoration: body and shoulder are 160 Малашев 2001, 38. For a list of the chronological periods decorated with shaded triangles of broad converg- used here and their absolute dates (after Гавритухин 2001b, 48), see Table 3, below. 161 Малашев 2001, 23. 163 Афанасьев/Рунич 2001, Figs. 109; 110; Малашев 2001, 162 Абрамова 1997, Fig. 5,12; Arzhantseva et al. 2000, Fig. 49; 77,37 – 42. For belt fittings in heraldic style, see Fig. 7; Малашев 2001, 9; see also the field reports (with- Chapter 5, this volume. out archive numbers) by F. S. Dzutsev on the excavation of 164 Малашев 2001, 17, 20. the Beslan cemetery, and the 2002 – 2003 field reports by 165 Малашев 2001, 23. Gabuev/Malashev on the excavation of the Brut cemetery, in 166 Малашев 2001, 24. the archives of the Institute of Archaeology, Russian Acade- 167 Бетрозов 1987, Fig. 4,15. my of Sciences (ИА РАН), Moscow. 168 Малашев 2001, Fig. 75,А and Б.

37 Klin-Yar – V. Yu. Malashev

Fig. 11. Cross-tabulation of pottery assemblages of the second half of the 4th to the middle of the 5th century from the Kislovodsk Basin and the Upper Kuban area (with diagnostic pottery types; for illustrations of Type 3, see catalogue for grave 361A no. 1 in Fig. 140, and grave 387 no. 2 in Fig. 202).

38 4 Pottery vessels from Sarmatian and Alanic graves

ing lines (Fig. 11,7). This decoration has parallels with splayed terminals that emerged in pre-Hun- among that of jugs (e. g. Fig. 11,9) and is proba- nic times and became widespread during the bly is a result of the influence of the latter. Cups Hun period.174 Buckles from graves of period of Кр. 24 are rare, with only three cases known RZ are typical of the second quarter to the end (Shestaya Shakhta, Kislovodskoe Ozero 1 grave 5, of the 4th century. The two buckles from Klin-Yar and Lermontovskaya Skala 2 catacomb 10). A III catacomb 6 (Fig. 12A) are rather similar: they cup from catacomb 11 at Klin-Yar III169 is similar have massive oval loops visibly bulging at the to Кр. 24 cups, but its decoration consists of nar- front, massive pins with a high step at the back, row non-converging lines, and it has three conical and oval plates. They have parallels in finds from bosses on the body. It is likely that this vessel goes the second quarter to the end of the 4th centu- back to cups of type Кр. 24, but that it is later. ry;175 they also occur in the Bosporus cemetery (near Kerch, Crimea) where they mark the earlier In the following, the Sarmatian and Alanic pot- horizon.176 The features of the large buckle loop tery from the 1994 – 1996 excavations at Klin-Yar from catacomb 6 (semi-circular loop slightly is compared with a broad range of finds, not only bulging at the front, and a pin with a high step at from the Kislovodsk Basin, but also from the Up- the base, and the tip of which reaches the mid- per Kuban area.170 Earlier cross-tabulations have dle of the circumference of the front strap of the identified the Transition-period assemblages as loop) matches those of the other buckles from a separate group (period RZ) and demonstrated the second quarter to the end of the 4th centu- the substantial differences between the pottery ry (Fig. 12A). The buckle loop from burial 351A sets of the Late Sarmatian period and those of the looks more archaic, mainly because of the shape earliest medieval pottery (period Ia) of the area.171 of its pin (slightly curving downwards in the mid- Previous analyses of the pottery have also identi- dle, with a low step at the base, and the tip of fied two horizons within the Hun Period (period Ia) which does not reach the middle of the circum- in the Kislovodsk Basin and the Upper Kuban area: ference of the front strap of the loop), and does Shestaya Shakhta – Gilyach grave 4, and Gilyach not contribute to the dating of this grave. The lat- grave 5 – Lermontovskaya Skala 2 catacomb 11.172 est date for typical RZ pottery is the transition of the 4th to the 5th century and the early 5th century, The results of the analysis are represented as a i. e. already in the Hun period (Fig. 12E). cross-tabulation (Fig. 11) that largely duplicates the earlier periods (RZ and Ia) in the period ta- The distribution of diagnostic pottery forms ble of the Kislovodsk Basin (Fig. 10). The Klin- of period RZ is not uniform. Spouted jugs of Yar pottery is supplemented, in the tables, with type Кс.6 (Fig. 11,4) are found only in graves the finds from the Upper Kuban area (Shestaya at Klin-Yar III. Cups of type Кр.19 (Fig. 11,1) are Shakhta). This isolates an additional group of known from the cemeteries of Klin-Yar III, Vy- pottery assemblages that occupy an interme- sokogornyj I177 and Zamkovyj;178 outside the Kis- diate position between the assemblages of pe- lovodsk Basin, a similar cup was found in Kish- riods RZ and Ia, corresponding to the horizon pek kurgan 13 (see above). The distribution of Shestaya Shakhta – Gilyach grave 4 and identi- types Кр.18 and Кк.18 (Fig. 11,6) in period RZ fied here as sub-period Ia1. Therefore period Ia covers mainly the southern part of the Kislovodsk (in Fig. 11), mostly synchronous with the horizon Basin: the cemeteries of Klin-Yar III, Zelenogor- Gilyach grave 5 – Lermontovskaya Skala 2 cat- skij, Vysokogornyj I, Berezovskij 2,179 Otstojnik, acomb11, is now identified as sub-period Ia2. and unattributed finds from the Kislovodsk rajon Excluding later assemblages and adding graves (district) and parts of Kabardino-Balkariya.180 that include one or more vessels of the relevant types, the cross-tabulation produces three In sub-period Ia1 (Figs. 13; 15; 16), practically all chronological groups among the pottery assem- vessel types characteristic of period RZ disappear blages of the mid-4th to mid-5th centuries AD. from grave assemblages, except Кр.18 and Кк.18. Jugs that become widespread now have a more On the basis of associated, diagnostic finds (a pronounced spout than before, and a shoulder or- fibula, buckles, and a glass vessel), pottery of nament consisting of two to three parallel zig-zag period RZ (Fig. 12) cannot be earlier than the lines (although that was already known from most middle of the 4th century.173 Graves from this pe- of the 4th century) or shaded triangles, and also riod also produced single-component strap ends

174 Малашев 2000b, 203 – 205 Figs. 1; 2. 175 For example, Малашев 2000b, Figs. 12А,2; 12E,1.3; 169 Малашев 2000a, 16, 17, Fig. 2,8. Храпунов 2002, Figs. 68,8; 75,4; 104,9; 104,10. 170 See the earlier comparisons in Гавритухин/Малашев 176 Засецкая 1993, Tab. 26,102а – г.107.113; 61,355; 104,10. 1998; Малашев 2000а; Малашев 2001. 177 Березин 1990; Березин 1991. 171 Гавритухин/Малашев 1998, Fig. 1; Малашев 2001, Fig. 59. 178 Рунич 1974; Абрамова 1997, Fig. 17,5. 172 Гавритухин/Малашев 1998, 42, 43; Малашев 2000а, 179 Рунич 1958; Zelenogorskij: archive of KLHM. 15; 16; 24; 25; Малашев 2001, 38. 180 ‘Otstojnik’: Савенко 1992; finds from Kislovodsk rajon: 173 Гавритухин/Малашев 1998, 48; 49. archives of KLHM and SME.

39 Klin-Yar – V. Yu. Malashev

Fig. 12. Diagnostic grave assemblages of period RZ. A Klin-Yar III catacomb 6; B Klin-Yar III grave 6(27); C Klin-Yar III grave 378; D Klin-Yar III catacomb 53; E Zamkovyj catacomb 1; F Zelenogorskij catacomb 1 (1967).

rolled body decoration: Shestaya Shakhta;181 Gily- with Кр.24) and the absence of vessels with con- ach grave 4182 (Figs. 13A; 14). A new type of cup, ical bosses (Fig. 11,10.15). The association with Кр.24 (Fig. 11,7), appears, with shoulder and cups of types Кр.18 and Кр.24184 shows that this body decorated with shaded triangles: Shestaya sub-period includes an earlier group of artefacts Shakhta, Lermontovskaya Skala 2 catacomb 10183 from Lermontovskaya Skala 2 catacomb 10185 (Figs. 13,4; 15,2). The typical feature of grave as- (Fig. 15A). A representative group of burials from semblages in sub-period Ia1 is the presence of the Kislovodsk Basin and the Upper Kuban area cups of types Кр.18 and Кк.18 (possibly together contains single vessels of types Кр.18, Кк.18 and Кр.24: Zelenogorskij (1982), Klin-Yar III cata

181 Алексеева 1971, Tab. 21б; archives of KChLHM. 182 Минаева 1982, Figs. 5; 13 – 15; archives of KChLHM. 184 Малашев 2001, 38; 39. 183 Рунич 1976, Fig. 2,8; archives of KChLHM. 185 Амброз 1989, 37; 38, Fig. 11; KChLHM archives.

40 4 Pottery vessels from Sarmatian and Alanic graves

Fig. 13. Diagnostic grave assemblages of sub-period Ia1 (1). A Shestaya Shakhta; B Bajtal-Chapkan grave 2; C Gilyach grave 7; D Tamgatsik grave 4. comb 54 (Fig. 15B), Alanskaya Krepo st’, Kislo Early medieval Alanic pottery proper appears vodskoe Ozero 1 grave 5,186 Tamgatsik grave 4187 in sub-period Ia2 (Figs. 11; 16): cups and jugs (Fig. 13D), Bajtal-Chapkan grave 2 (Fig. 13B), Gi- decorated with conical bosses, and three-hand lyach grave 7 (1968) (Fig. 13C), El’burganskaya led jugs which are a new functional group of Bal’nitsa and Kyzyl-kala grave 2.188 vessels (Fig. 11,14). Vessels of types Кр.18 and Кк.18 are still found in graves containing The assemblages of sub-period Ia1 are con- pottery decorated with conical bosses: Zele- temporary with the Untersiebenbrunn horizon nogorskij grave 1/09.89, Bajtal-Chapkan grave (Figs. 13 – 15) and the Central European phase 18 and Mokraya Balka catacomb 123,190 but D2 (after Tejral).189 The distribution of Ia1 pottery we have no information on other cases of their is fairly wide, from the Upper Kuban area in the joint occurence. In the further development of west to North Ossetia in the east. cup type Кр.18 and jug type Кк.18, decoration by vertical convergent grooves is replaced by 186 Zelenogorskij: SME archives; Alanskaya Krepost’: KLHM narrow burnished lines, also vertical but not archives; Kislovodskoe Ozero: Рунич 1957. convergent, which cover shoulder and body. 187 Алексеева 1955, Fig. 31. Vessels with conical bosses appear first in as- 188 Bajtal-Chapkan: Минаева 1950, Fig. 5б; Gilyach: SLHM archives; El’burganskaya Bal’nitsa and Kyzyl-kala: KChLHM archives. 189 Амброз 1989, Fig. 6; Гавритухин/Малашев 1998, 45 – 49; 190 Zelenogorskij: KLHM archives; Bajtal-Chapkan: KChLHM Tejral 1997. archives; Mokraya Balka: Малашев 2001, Figs. 1,1 – 2; 75 Г.

41 Klin-Yar – V. Yu. Malashev

Fig. 14. Diagnostic grave assemblages of sub-period Ia1 (2). Gilyach grave 4.

semblages such as Gilyach grave 5191 (Fig. 16B) types of bowls: a more frequent one with straight and Lermontovskaya Skala 2 catacomb 11192 sides and inverted rim (grave 351A catalogue (Fig. 16A). These assemblages are similar to no. 3; 342B no. 2; 361B no. 3; 379 no. 2; 386 those of sub-period Ia1, and they equate to the nos. 1 and 2), and a rare one with slightly cari- Central European period D2. It is still difficult to nated body and everted rim (361A no. 2).193 The draw an exact borderline between sub-periods presence of bowls in grave assemblages goes Ia1 and Ia2 in absolute dates; the metal finds back to the tradition of Sarmatian-period pottery. do not allow a precise chronological distinction. Second, some graves produced pottery types the In terms of relative chronology, a distinction origins of which go back to Sarmatian pottery, is possible for the North Caucasus using the such as the small pot with lid from grave 361A changes in the composition of pottery assem- (no. 1). This type was common in pottery assemblages. The newly defined sub-period Ia1 cor- blages from burial sites in the Central Caucasus responds to the earlier part of the conventional from the 2nd to the 4th centuries AD; these vessels period Ia, and there is a partial synchronicity of vary remarkably in dimensions and decoration.194 sub-period Ia2. Therefore, the appearance of the Third, Klin-Yar has produced some pottery that new early medieval pottery set in the western ar- has no parallels in the region; the decoration of eas of the Alanic culture is probably later than the small jug from grave 365 (no. 1) with a grid the first decades of 5th century AD, and close to of incised lines is rare, as is the type of roughly the middle of that century. made miniature cup from burial 379 (no. 3).

At Klin-Yar itself, Transition-period graves con- Several other Transition-period graves at Klin- tain some pottery types in addition to the diagn Yar have features and finds that require further ostic types discussed above. First, there are two

193 Малашев 2001, 24. 191 Минаева 1982, Fig. 6. 194 Arzhantseva et al. 2000, Fig.14; Абрамова 1997, Figs 11,5; 192 Амброз 1989, Fig. 10,1 – 25. 13,12.

42 4 Pottery vessels from Sarmatian and Alanic graves

Fig. 15. Diagnostic grave assemblages of sub-period Ia1 (3). A Lermontovskaya Skala 2 catacomb 10; B Klin- Yar III catacomb 54.

discussion. The dating of grave 342 depends gnostic metal finds makes any closer dating on the association of its pottery assemblage impossible, but the grave design (a Т-shaped with a two-chamber catacomb design typical of arrangement of dromos and chamber) is that of the preceding period in the region. Given that the Migration Period and the Early Middle Ages one of the vessels (342A no. 1) is a jug of type in the region. The combination of an early ves- Кк.18,195 and the other (342B no. 1) is typo- sel type with a chamber with short dromos (pro- logically close to the undecorated cups of type portions approx. 1 : 2) suggests a date in the Кр.4Б1,196 the burial dates most probably to the Transition Period. late 4th century. In the case of grave 365, we have a similar com- Exact parallels for the jug from grave 372 (no. 1) bination, but the other way round. The grave con- are difficult to find. The biconical shape of the struction (a catacomb with almost parallel ar- body appears to place this jug in a group of rangement of the long axes of the access pit and vessels from the early centuries AD in the Pya- the chamber) is typical for cemeteries of the 1st tigorsk and Kabarda areas.197 However, a later to 3rd centuries AD in this area198 while the shape date cannot be ruled out. The absence of dia of the vessel (no. 1) belongs to the early medieval pottery of the Kislovodsk Basin, though its rare decoration (see above) defies close dating. 195 Белинский 1994, 17, Fig. 33. 196 Малашев 2001, Fig. 55. 197 Абрамова 1993, Figs. 49,7 – 8.27 – 28.32; 51,10 – 11; 61,21 – 22. 198 Абрамова 1987.

43 Klin-Yar – V. Yu. Malashev

Fig. 16. Diagnostic grave assemblages of sub-period Ia2. A Lermontovskaya Skala 2 catacomb 11; B Gilyach grave 5.

Nevertheless, the combination of the ‘archaic’ jug or large cup (no. 1) with a tall ovoid body, a catacomb type with a later type of jug suggests a short neck and a small loop-shaped handle at transitional date between the Sarmatian period the widest point of the body. There are no close and the Early Middle Ages. parallels for it in the Kislovodsk Basin, but the buckle from this grave is dated by Gavritukhin In summary, the Transition-type pottery ap- to the late 4th to early 5th centuries. In grave 387, peared in the Kislovodsk Basin not earlier than the jug from the dromos (no. D1, type Кв.1Б) the mid-4th century AD and fairly soon replaced and the bowl (no. 1) belong to Transition-peri- the pottery typical of the 3rd to early 4th centu- od types. One of the two jugs from the cham- ries. In the first decades of 5th century, it was also ber (no. 2) can, because of its distinctive dec- widespread in the Upper Kuban area. Later on, oration with vertical grooves in groups of three, probably close to the mid-5th century, it was, in be compared to cups of type Кр.4A common in turn, gradually replaced by vessels that are typi- periods Id and Ie.199 The other jug (no. 3), with cal for the early medieval pottery tradition. Tran- a decoration of broad vertical grooves covering sition-type pottery existed only for a relatively the entire body, is similar to vessels of type short period, perhaps three or four generations. Кк.18 which are typical for assemblages of pe- Therefore, graves 342A and B, 351A, 361A and riods RZ, Ia1 and Ia2. The presence of a late 4th B, 365, 370, 372, 378, 379 and 386 should date to early 5th century buckle (see chapter 5) in the to the period from the second half of the 4th to grave provides a more exact date, placing this the early 5th centuries AD. grave in the Transition Period.

Two Klin-Yar graves of this horizon, 383 and 387, have a special status in terms of chronology. Grave 383 produced an unusual decorated 199 Малашев 2001, 17, Fig. 59.

44 4 Pottery vessels from Sarmatian and Alanic graves

4.3 Periods Ib – e/Iб – д

The next group of graves comprises catacombs able certainty, making a more detailed discus- 356, 357, 359, 371, 373, 380, 381, 382 and sion of the vessels from these graves unneces- 384; it is synchronous to periods Ib – e/Iб – д sary. Thus, graves 356 and 373 belong to period of the Kislovodsk Basin (Fig. 10, Tables 2 – 3) Iс/Iв, and grave 382 to Id/Iг.201 Graves 357 and which are equivalent to periods 1 and 2 of Klin- 381 belong to either Id/Iг or Ie/Iд;202 in the Yar as defined earlier.200 Some of the graves can cross-tabulation (Fig. 10), they will therefore ap- be assigned to a particular period with reason- pear ambiguous.

Grave no. Period /date Grave no. Period /date second half 1st – mid-2nd cent. or RZ Klin-Yar III grave 384 Ic – d (Iв – Iг) Klin-Yar III grave 351B (second half 4th – early 5th cent.) Klin-Yar III grave 382 Id (Iг) Klin-Yar III grave 351A RZ Klin-Yar III grave 357 Id – e (Iг – Iд) Klin-Yar III grave 342 RZ Klin-Yar III grave 381 Id – e (Iг – Iд) Klin-Yar III grave 361A RZ Klin-Yar III grave 371 Ia – e (Ia – Iд) Klin-Yar III grave 361В RZ Klin-Yar III grave 352 IIIa Klin-Yar III grave 365 RZ Klin-Yar III grave 360 IIIa Klin-Yar III grave 370 RZ Klin-Yar III grave 341 IIIb (IIIб) Klin-Yar III grave 372 RZ Klin-Yar III grave 345 IIIb (IIIб) Klin-Yar III grave 378 RZ Klin-Yar III grave 363 IIIb (IIIб) Klin-Yar III grave 379 RZ Klin-Yar III grave 374 IIIb (IIIб) Klin-Yar III grave 386 RZ Klin-Yar III grave 368 IIIa – c (IIIa – IIIв) Klin-Yar III grave 387 RZ Klin-Yar IV grave 6 IIb2 (IIб2) Klin-Yar III grave 383 RZ Klin-Yar IV grave 7 IIIa Klin-Yar III grave 356 Ic (Iв) Klin-Yar IV grave 8 IIIa Klin-Yar III grave 373 Ic (Iв) Klin-Yar IV grave 9 IIIa Klin-Yar III grave 359 Ib – c (Iб – Iв) Klin-Yar IV grave 10 IIIa Klin-Yar III grave 380 Ic – d (Iв – Iг) Klin-Yar IV grave 12 IIIb – c (IIIб – IIIв)

Table 2. Relative dates of Periods Periods Absolute dates (years AD) Sarmatian and Alanic pottery (Latin letters) (Cyrillic letters) assemblages. Ia Ia around 400 – 440/460 Ib Iб 430/450 – 470/500 Ic Iв 470/480 – 520/540 Id Iг around 500 – 550/580 Ie Iд 530/550 – 580/600 IIa IIa 560/600 – 620/630 IIb1 IIб1 around 600 – 630/650 IIb2 IIб2 620/630 – 650/670 IIIa IIIa 620/630 – 670/680

IIIb IIIб around 650 – 680/720 Table 3. Absolute dates of the chronological periods IIIc IIIв around 700 – 730/760 (after Gavritukhin).

200 Малашев 2000а, Tab. II. of its ornamental pattern suggests that it should probably 201 In Fig. 10 (see also Малашев 2001, Fig. 59), the jug from belong to type Кк.1A. This does not, however, affect the dat- grave 382 (no. D1) is classified as Кк.1, based on the photo- ing of grave 382. graph and description in the field report. Closer inspection 202 Гавритухин 2001b, 43.

45 Klin-Yar – V. Yu. Malashev

Pottery from the aforementioned graves has al- occur in periods Iс – IIb1/Iв – IIб1 (Fig. 10),208 but ready been discussed and dated within the context they are most typical for Iс – Id/Iв – Iг assemblag- of their respective assemblages;203 pottery from es. The base mark (diagonal cross in a square the other graves of this group requires some addi- frame) shows similarities with the marks on ves- tional discussion. The cup from grave 359 (no. 1) sels of period Iс/Iв.209 The base of the cup from may be classified as Кр.4/18 because, typologi- burial 382 (no. D2) bears a unique mark in the cally speaking, it takes up an intermediate position shape of a grid, which has no parallels in the between vessels of types Кр.18 and Кр.4. These western areas of the Alanic culture. The type Кр.1 vessels occur in periods Ib/Iб and Iс/Iв, contempo- cup from burial 384 (no. 1) does not help to date rary with assemblages such as Klin-Yar III grave 9204 the grave to within a narrow time span; it broadly and the later group of finds from Lermontovskaya belongs to periods Iс – IIa/Iв – IIa although most Skala 2 catacomb 10 (Fig. 10).205 The ornament cups of this type occur in assemblages of the late on the shoulder of the cup from grave 371 (no. 1) 5th to 6th centuries (periods Iс – Id/Iв – Iг; Fig. 10; is a rare type from the eastern Alanic culture and Table 3). The two jugs from grave 381 (nos. D1 cannot be compared directly with any of the typo- and 1) are very similar to one another in technol- logical groups nor with any vessels from cemeter- ogy, shape and decoration, and may therefore ies of the region. The shape and cross-section of be the work of the same potter. the handle may allow this vessel to be attributed to pottery of period I of the Kislovodsk Basin.206 The dromos of grave 357 produced several fragments of a bowl (cat. nos. D5, 6 and 11) which The pottery from grave 380 includes a small pot is the first bowl from a th6 century burial context or cup (no. D2), and an undecorated jug with a in the Kislovodsk Basin. Its distinctive feature is handle attached to the rim of the vessel (no. D1). a wide base which puts it into a series of simi- Rarely found in graves of this area,207 pots cannot lar vessels known so far only from assemblages be used to identify and date assemblages. Jugs of the 5th century in more eastern regions of the similar to the one from this grave (type Кк.6A1) North Caucasus.210

4.4 Periods IIb2 – IIIc/IIб2 – IIIв

Pottery from Klin-Yar III graves 341, 345, 352, respectively (nos. 17 and D2), which are not in- 360, 363, 368 and 374, and Klin-Yar IV graves cluded in the cross-tabulation, but these issues 6 – 10 and 12 belongs to period 3 of the Klin-Yar do not affect the dating. To the tabulated assem- cemetery211 and to periods IIb2 – IIIс/IIб2 – IIIв of blage from grave 345 must be added the frag- the Kislovodsk Depression.212 As in the case of mentary jugs from the dromos (nos D18a and the previous group of graves (above), the chronol- D14), of types Кв.6 and Кв.17, respectively; this ogy of these graves has already been published moves the grave into period IIIb/IIIб. In the case elsewhere.213 Thus, period IIb2/IIб2 includes Klin- of grave 352, two cups need to be added. The cup Yar IV grave 6; period IIIa accounts for Klin-Yar III of type Кр.1 (no. 81) is archaic in the terms of this graves 345, 352, 360 and Klin-Yar IV graves 7 assemblage; it is typical for a significantly earlier and 10; while period IIIb/IIIб includes Klin-Yar III time and should not be allowed to influence the graves 341, 363, 374 and Klin-Yar IV grave 8. cross-tabulation. The other cup (no. 4), of type Кр.7, does not affect the place of the assemblage But some additional comments as well as amend- in period IIIa. In the case of grave 360, the classi- ments to the cross-tabulation (Fig. 10) are re- fication of the two jugs (nos. D1 and 4a) as Кв.5 quired here. The cup from grave 341 (no. 19) (in Fig. 10) was an error; they should be moved classified as type Кр.10Б in the table should to Кв.8 which means that the grave may belong properly be classified as Кр.10A/Б. The grave to either period IIIa or IIIb/IIIб. The assemblage also produced two jugs of types Kv.6 and Kv.17, tabulated for grave 363 should be expanded by a jug of type Кв.6 (no. 16), but that does not change its position or date. Finally, Klin-Yar IV grave 8 pro- 203 Малашев 2001, 30; 31 Fig. 59. duced a jug which is close to type Кс.2, but with 204 Флëров 2000, Fig. 31,14 – 16; Малашев 2000а, Fig. 2,5 – 7. conical bosses on the body; this vessel type was 205 Амброз 1989, Fig. 42; Малашев 2001, 26; 38; 39. not included in the original cross-tabulation. A 206 Малашев 2001, Fig. 71. 207 very similar jug was found in Mokraya Balka cata- Малашев 2001, 21. 214 208 Малашев 2001, 19; 20. comb 45, dated to period IIIa. This might affect 209 Малашев 2001, 34, Fig. 72. the dating of the assemblage in Klin-Yar IV-8, mov- 210 Абрамова 1997, Fig. 12,8 – 9.20; Габуев/Малашев 2003, ing it from period IIIb/IIIб to period IIIa. Figs. 94,4; 216,2; 226,10. 211 Малашев 2000а, Tab. II. 212 Малашев 2001. 213 Малашев 2001, Fig. 59 is the source of Fig. 10 here. 214 Малашев 2001, Fig. 17,5.

46 4 Pottery vessels from Sarmatian and Alanic graves

A number of assemblages from Klin-Yar III and IV The bossed cup from the chamber (no. 1) belongs are not represented at all in the cross-tabulation to type Кр.9А found in graves of periods IIIa and (Fig. 10) and need to be discussed in order to IIIb/IIIб. The undecorated large cups or small jugs assign them to a chronological period (Table 2). from the chamber (nos. 2 and 3) may be of type The fragmentary cup from the dromos of grave Кр.11A/Б or Кк.6А2, but they cannot be classi- 368 (no. D7) is of type Кр.11A/Б; such vessels fied unambiguously. If they are large derivatives occur in periods IIIa – IIIс/IIIa – IIIв. The set of ves- of cup type Кр.11A/Б, and given the possibility sels from Klin-Yar IV grave 9 is fairly representa- that one of the cups may be of type Кр.10А, the tive, but not all of them can be classified. This is grave may be dated to period IIIa. The cup from particularly true of the pot (no. D48) and the cup Klin-Yar grave 12 (no. 1) belongs to type Кр.11Б fragments from the dromos; some of the latter which is typical for periods IIIa – IIIс/IIIa – IIIв, but (D49) may possibly be from a cup of type Кр.10А. is more frequent in IIIb and IIIс/IIIб and IIIв.

4.5 Base stamps

Stamped marks which may be workshop or pot- those on the earliest Alanic pottery (see above) ters’ marks are found on the bases of many Alanic is another argument in favour of a developmen- vessels. Without going into the details of the or- tal link between these two traditions. igins of this tradition in the Central Caucasus,215 one can say that such stamps do not occur on Vessels of period I from the 1994 – 1996 excava- pottery of the 1st century AD. They only become tions have considerably fewer stamps. This match- widespread from the 2nd century onwards,216 prob- es the general trend in the pottery from the two key ably appearing in the first half of that century. This sites of the area, Mokraya Balka and Klin-Yar (pre- tradition is likely to have emerged in large craft 1994 finds).217 Notably, the ‘cross in circle’ which centres, such as the Zilga (Zilgi) fortified settle- is common in the Transition Period, is rarely found ment, Nizhni Julat, Brut, Alkhankala and others. At on vessels of later periods. The present sample the time, the ‘cross in circle’ was the most com- produced only two stamps: a ‘diagonal cross in mon among various stamps found on pottery from square’ (380 no. D1) and a ‘grid’ (382 No. D2). sites of the early Alanic culture in Kabarda and the Trans-Terek area. Pottery vessels of synchronous with stage III of the Kislovodsk Basin and period 3 of Klin-Yar fea- On Transition-period vessels, stamps have most- ture the greatest number and variety of stamps; ly been found on cups and small jugs, such as this agrees with earlier observations on pottery types Кр.18, Кр.19, Кс.6. On the pottery of this from sites of the area.218 The most frequent ones period from the 1994 – 1996 excavations at Klin- are the ‘cross in circle’ (three cases: 363 no. 16, Yar, two types of stamps occur: the ‘cross’ in four IV-9 no. 3, IV-12 no. 1), ‘star in circle’ (three cases: cases (361A nos. 1 and 3, 361B no. 4, 372 no. 1) 341 no. 19, IV-8 no. 2, IV-10 no. 3), and a ‘bird’s and the ‘cross in circle’ in six (graves 361A no. 3, claw’ design (two cases: IV-7 no. 2, IV-8 no. 4). The 361B no. 2, 365 no. 1, 370 no. 1, 378 no. 3, 379 ‘cross in two concentric circles’ was found only no. 5). The similarity between these stamps and once (345 no. 56).

4.6 Conclusions

The first, and probably most important, aspect the Sarmatian and early medieval periods; this to be emphasized here is the continuity of use of link is most obvious in the pottery assemblages. the Klin-Yar cemetery III from the 1st to the mid-8th century AD, without a break or interruption that Thus, the finds from Klin-Yar III and IV allow us could be identified within the limits of our dating to trace virtually the entire evolution of the re- resolution. At present, Klin-Yar is the only site in gional pottery of the Sarmatian period and the the Pyatigorsk – Upper Kuban area that provides Alanic pottery, and to identify the main trends a virtually uninterrupted sequence of finds of the of its development from the moment of its origin Sarmatian and early medieval (early Alanic) pe- until the mid-8th century. A small gap in the ev- riods, making it a key site for this region. It is of idence which previously existed in the first half paramount importance that the cemetery has pro- of the 7th century (mainly within stage II of the duced evidence for the Transition Period that links Kislovodsk Basin and of Mokraya Balka) because

215 Малашев 2000а, 24; Малашев 2001, 34 – 35. 217 Малашев 2000а, 24; Малашев 2001, 34 Fig. 72. 216 Arzhantseva et al. 2000, 235 Fig. 15. 218 Малашев 2000а, 24; Малашев 2001, 34 Fig. 72.

47 Klin-Yar – V. Yu. Malashev

of the small sample of Alanic graves excavated Even so, there was no complete match of the ar- by Flyorov and Nakhapetian,219 is reliably closed chitectural elements of Kislovodsk Basin graves with the group of Klin-Yar IV graves published with corresponding chamber graves in the ‘me here. The unique pottery types the presence of tropolitan’ areas of Trans-Terek and Kabarda. which led to the identification of an independent (if brief) stage II in the Mokraya Balka cem- These changes in, and relationships between, etery,220 are insignificant at Klin-Yar, as they are regional traditions of grave architecture have in other cemeteries of the Kislovodsk Basin. This their background in the culture and population supports the earlier conclusion about the local history of the areas north of the Central Cauca- character of the pottery assemblages at Mokraya sus in the 2nd to 4th centuries AD. The graves in Balka in the first half of the th7 century. the cemeteries of the early Alanic fortifications in the areas east of the Kislovodsk Basin dis- A second important issue relates to the origins played a high degree of uniformity, suggesting and development of the culture of the early me- the existence of a social group which main- dieval inhabitants of the Kislovodsk Basin which tained this aspect of the ritual in the social con- was a key area within the western regions of text of a proto-urban population. A migration Alanic culture. It has been noted above that Tran- of part of this population into the Kislovodsk sition-period pottery appeared in the Kislovodsk Basin without a corresponding proportion of Basin probably not earlier than mid-4th century workers may have resulted in a partial transfer AD and fairly quickly replaced the pottery types of the features of the grave architecture, with typical of the 3rd to early 4th centuries. This Tran- the basic proportions of the catacomb graves sition-type pottery is different from the previous (such as the angles and size ratios between types and assemblages of the area,221 but it in- chamber and dromos) being reproduced in cludes vessels which are similar to those found the Kislovodsk Basin while other diagnostic in cemeteries of the 3rd to 4th centuries in the features of the Trans-Terek and Kabarda graves Kabarda and Trans-Terek areas east of the Kislo- (such as the shape of the underground cham- vodsk Basin, and which were not known at that ber and the steps in the dromos) were not. A time in the Kislovodsk Basin itself. similar process of partial transfer and change happened at approximately the same time The Transition Period also saw a change in the in the uplands of the Central Caucasus which grave architecture of the area, marked by the had also received an immigration from the low- gradual disappearance of the previous types of lands of the Trans-Terek and Kabarda areas. In chamber graves (catacomb with parallel align- these uplands, too, the standardized catacomb ment of chamber and access pit, two-chamber type of the lowlands was replaced by a new catacomb, etc.), and by the increasing popularity standard type that became common in the Ear- of the catacomb with a T-shaped arrangement of ly Middle Ages. A similar process had occurred chamber and dromos.222 This change made the in the mid-3rd century AD when early Alans mi- graves of the Transition Period in the Kislovodsk grated from the Central Caucasus into the River Basin similar to earlier and contemporary grave Don basin. types further east, in the Kabarda and Trans- Terek areas, and anticipated the early medieval Thus, it is significant that changes in the design grave architecture of the Kislovodsk Basin.223 of the graves coincided with changes in the pottery assemblages and with the spread of new pottery types. These were probably the results 219 Малашев 2000а, 24 – 25. of an immigration from the plains and foothills 220 Малашев 2001, 31 – 32 Fig. 63а. of the Central Caucasus, east of the Kislovodsk 221 Абрамова 1987, Figs. 54 – 58; Абрамова 1993, Figs. 49 – Basin and of Klin-Yar, in the second half of the 53; 55 – 56; 61; 63; 64. th 222 In the current sample of 11 Transition-period graves at 4 century. The new immigrants brought with Klin-Yar, six are Т-shaped catacombs while two are two-cham- them elements of their own, early Alanic culture ber constructions and another three are catacombs with par- which were superimposed on the Sarmatian- allel alignment of chamber and access pit. One may add to period culture of the local ‘substrate’ popu- this list two previously excavated Т-shaped catacombs (6 and 54; Флëров 2000, Figs. 8, 23а). Even this small sample shows lation in the Kislovodsk Basin. This started a that in the late 4th century there was at this site a mix of tra- cultural transformation (the Transition Period) ditional elements of grave architecture which had originated and laid the foundations for the early medieval in the two neighbouring areas of Pyatigorsk and Trans-Terek. Alanic culture in the western areas of the Cen- 223 Looking only at the 1994 – 1996 sample from Klin-Yar, the width:length ratio of the dromoi of Transition-period T-shaped tral Caucasus, a transformation that was com- th catacombs is 1:2 to 1:3.5; this is close to that of the graves pleted in the first half of the 5 century AD. in the Trans-Terek and Kabarda areas of the late 2nd–4th cent. In catacombs of the 5th–6th cent. the proportion ranges from 1:3.5 to 1:5 (the 1:2 ratio of grave 380 is an exception). The dromoi of the latest graves (7th cent.) of the sample have ratios of 1:4.5 to 1:9. This chronological trend has been identified earlier by Gabuev (Габуев 1988, 152, 153).

48 5 Belt sets from Alanic graves: Chronology and cultural links

Igor O. Gavritukhin

5.1 Buckles

5.1.1 Introduction cultural and historical phenomena233 as reflected in Klin-Yar buckles of the end of 4th to 7th cen- The only study of East European buckles of the turies published here. The following study is Migration and Early Medieval periods as a whole limited to issues of chronology and cultural and is by Kovalevskaya.224 Unfortunately the study, historical context. It does not present the history although undoubtedly pioneering for its time of research, detailed discussion of the function and still useful in parts, has some weaknesses of the buckles, and catalogues of related mate- in methodology and chronology which prevent rial; these aspects will be presented elsewhere. the general application of its results to previously omitted sub-samples and to new finds.225 Among regional studies, the most valuable in 5.1.2 Round and oval buckles with both, scope and quality of research, is the study round-sectioned loop by Ajbabin of finds from the Crimea.226 The study by Gorokhovskij which covers the 1st to 5th cen- Round buckles with tip of pin bent downwards, turies AD buckles from the forest-steppe zone pressed against and covering the full thickness of the Ukraine has unfortunately not been pub- of the loop lished.227 Buckles of the 4th to 7th centuries from the middle Volga region have been studied by At Klin-Yar, this type (Fig. 202,6.8/12) is repre- Bogachev,228 but his typological and chronologi- sented by the relatively large buckles without cal system is not always reliable.229 The only spe- plate from graves 383 (catalogue no. 3) and cialized study of buckles from the North Cauca- 387 (no. 6), and by the pair of smaller buckles sus was published in an article by Afanas’ev.230 It with a small round plate from grave 387 (nos. 8 contains a formal description of the buckles from and 12). The larger ones appear to be belt buck- Mokraya Balka, one of the best-studied burial les while the pair of smaller buckles was part grounds in the Kislovodsk Basin, and has been of a footwear set. They all have a somewhat used in setting up a local chronology.231 Some of thickened front part of the loop, and a relative- the debatable points of this study have already ly heavy pin (similar to the loop in width and been discussed elsewhere.232 cross-section) which had a high step at the rear end and was round in cross-section, or slightly The present report is not the place to suggest flattened at the bottom. an improved typology of buckles from the North Caucasus, let alone from all of Eastern Europe. Closely similar buckles are known from other The material is classified here sometimes (sec- sites in the Kislovodsk Basin234 and from else- tions 5.1.2, 5.1.5) by formal characteristics, but where in the North Caucasus.235 Heavier speci- most of the classifications attempt to record mens sometimes differ in some details, e. g. in groups of materials which characterize actual having slight facetting of the pin and loop (see Fig. 14, two left).236 All these buckles are dated to the Hun period en general or to its early part, 224 Ковалевская 1979. i. e. end of the 4th to the beginning of the 5th cen- 225 See also footnotes 408, 412, 425; p. 92; Айбабин 1990, turies AD. 27; Засецкая 1994, 77 – 78; Гавритухин 1999, 160 – 161; Гавритухин 2001а, 41. 226 Айбабин 1990, 27 – 50. 227 E. L. Gorokhovskij’s unpublished thesis (see summary 233 As in the classical typological systems of, e. g., fibulae Гороховский 1988) is kept in the archive of the Institute of (Almgren 1923; Амброз 1966). Archeology, Ukrainian National Academy of Sciences. There 234 For example, Афанасьев/Рунич 2001, Fig. 96,20; in- is also a copy in Moscow, in the archive of the Department spection of the original item showed that it is similar to the for the Archaeology of the Migration and Early Medieval Pe- ones under discussion, the only difference being a small riods ИА РАН. ledge on the back part of the pin. 228 Богачев 1992. 235 Абрамова 1975, Figs. 7,27 – 28; Гавритухин/Пьянков 229 See discussion in Гавритухин 2000b. 2003, Tab. 74,1; barrow 9/2003 of Brut 2 (Габуев/Малашев 230 Афанасьев 1980. 2009, Fig. 35,2.4a). 231 Афанасьев 1979a; Афанасьев/Рунич 2001. 236 Минаева 1982, Figs. 4,3 – 5; finds inspected in stores of 232 For example Гавритухин 2005, 388 – 390. SLHM.

49 Klin-Yar – I. O. Gavritukhin

Similar buckles are found in the Crimea where an element of the ‘international’ style of the they often have grooves on the pin,237 although Hun period. the majority of buckles with a grooved pin have an oval loop. It seems that such buckles with oval loop appeared somewhat earlier than the Small oval buckles with flat (‘light’) pin round ones. The buckles discussed here have parallels among Ajbabin’s variants 3 to 5 of This type (Fig. 17,3.18.43.46.54) is represented “oval and D-shaped buckle types of the 3rd to by three items from grave 357 (dromos no. D10, 5th centuries”, the majority of which date from chambers nos. 4 and 45). One of them (45) has the last decades of the 4th to the first half of the a small raised ‘platform’ at the rear of the pin, 5th centuries.238 while the others have a low indent on its dorsal side. In all three cases, the pin is flattened and The buckles of this type have parallels in the Hun sub-oval in section. The term ‘small’ relates less area on the East European steppe.239 In Mala- to size than to function (they were used in horse shev’s classification they correlate with the later harness, footwear, baldrics etc. to attach ad- modifications of type П-11 which is characteris- ditional straps for suspending things), but this tic of the final period of the Late Sarmatian epoch also led to a smaller size in comparison with belt in Eastern Europe, i. e. basically of the Hun peri- buckles from the same assemblages. od.240 A close analogy to the buckle from Klin-Yar 387 is known from Kantimirovka Barrows grave In the Kislovodsk Basin, similar buckles with a 3 which has become a reference assemblage for raised ‘platform’ on the pin have been found in the Early Hun period.241 the western chamber 4 at Kugul.247 The buckles from catacombs 71 and 11К at Mokraya Balka In the Chernyakhov Culture, buckles similar to may (judging by the publications) belong to this this type have been found on sites of the final type.248 Catacomb 11К dates to period IIb1 ac- period which are datable to the Hun period.242 cording to Malashev; catacomb 71 produced a In the Danube area, similar buckles are among vessel of Malashev’s type Кр.2А which is dated the diagnostic finds of phase D2 (380/400 – to his periods Ib–Ie.249 440/450).243 Here, the closest parallel to the buckles from Klin-Yar 383 and 387 is the find Elsewhere in the North Caucasus, these Klin-Yar from grave 25 at Tiszadob-Sziget cemetery244 buckles are very similar to the one with raised which is firmly dated from the end of the 4th to ‘platform’ on the pin from burial 7/1936 of the the beginning of the 5th centuries.245 Later buck- Pashkovskij cemetery near Krasnodar.250 Simi les from the Danube area are less heavy, for in- lar buckles were found in considerable num- stance the items from phase D2/D3.246 bers at Dyurso near Novorossijsk;251 these have a raised ‘platform’ and a markedly faceted pin Thus, the date for analogies of the buckles from or, less frequently, a pin with sub-oval section, Klin-Yar 383 and 387 is within the last decades and often an oval loop. These similar finds have of the 4th to the first decades of the 5th centu- been classed by Dmitriev as type 15252 which is ries, and this date range can only tentatively characteristic of the slightly later assemblages be extended to cover the entire first half of the in the earlier part of the cemetery, and they are 5th century. From a cultural and historical per- dated from the end of the 5th to the middle of the spective, such buckles should be considered 6th centuries.253 Kazanskij suggested to set the

237 For example, Храпунов 2002, Figs. 143,12; 211,1; Стре- 247 Рунич 1979, Fig. 7,6.9. Inspection of the artefacts in желецкий et al. 2005, Tab. 22 grave 168б; item inspected SLHM showed that the published drawing was quite sche- in NRTKh. matic; in reality, these buckles are very similar to one an- 238 Айбабин 1990, 28. other (probably a pair), with insignificant differences in size 239 Засецкая 1994, Figs. 18,1; 18б,2. and length of pin. 240 Малашев 2000b, 196 – 197, 205. 248 Афанасьев/Рунич 2001, Fig. 85,5; Ковалевская 2005, 241 Обломский 2003, Fig. 92,5. Figs. 94,1.6; see footnote 273. 242 Гавритухин 2000a, 275, Fig. 2,12 – 13.24; 3,5.10; cf. also 249 For chronological periods, see Chapter 4, this volume. Fig. 4,15; Kovács 1912, Fig. 14,2; Diaconu 1965, pl. CXIII,3. 250 In the collection of the KSHAM; personal communication 243 Tejral 1997, Fig. 17,6 – 9. I. V. Kaminskaya. 244 Istvánovits 1993, Fig. 12,4; inspected in JAM. 251 In the collection of the NSHM. I am grateful to A. V. Dmitriev 245 Istvánovits 1992; Istvánovits 1993. for access to the unpublished material. 246 Friesinger 1984, Figs. 12,3; 13,3; inspected in the NMW; 252 Дмитриев1982, Fig. 11. for dating, see Nagy 2002, 364. 253 Дмитриев 1982, 99, 101, 103 – 104.

Fig. 17. Kerch chamber 78/1907. 1 plan of chamber with location of burials; 2 – 5 finds from burial 5; 11 – 14 from burial 4; 15 from burial 1; 16 from burial 6; 17 from niche in right wall of the dromos; 18 – 23 from burial 2; 24 – 28 from burial 8; 29 – 30 from burial 7; 31 – 32 from niche above left bench; 33 from niche above right bench; 34 – 42 from burial 12; 43 – 50 from burial 9; 51 – 53 from burial 10; 54 – 59 from burial 13; scale: 60 for finds 2 – 4.11 – 16.18 – 19.24 – 26.28 – 30.34 – 41.43 – 48 and 53 – 57; 61 for other finds (after Засецкая 1993; Засецкая 1998; Айбабин 1990; 2 – 3.16.18.43 – 44.46.54 – 57 drawn from original).

50 5 Belt sets from Alanic graves

51 Klin-Yar – I. O. Gavritukhin

upper limit of the horizon to the first third of the for the appearance of this buckle type in the 6th century, and he compares this type to western cemeteries of Pashkovskij, Klin-Yar and Kugul. European finds from the second half of the 5th to Among the local modifications of the type were the beginning of the 6th centuries.254 oval buckle loops with pins having a D-shaped or rectangular section and no raised ‘platforms’ Similar buckles have frequently been found in or ledges;264 these existed during the first half Chersones, its environs, and in the mountains of the 7th century (periods IIb1 and IIb2 after of the Crimea. Khajredinova has demonstrated Malashev). A similar local evolution of the type that these are usually shoe buckles, and she and happened in the South Crimea, as was demon- Ajbabin think that they were produced in Cher- strated by Khajredinova (see above). sones.255 Among the earliest sub-types, dated to the first half of the th6 century, she lists those Thus, the buckles from Klin-Yar grave 357 date having a faceted pin with raised ‘platform’ (like from the middle of the 6th to the beginning of the most from Dyurso). According to her data, buckles 7th centuries, and they reflect the influence of with ‘wire loop’ and a pin with D-shaped section northeast Pontic cultures on the North Caucasus. were in circulation until the first half of the th7 cen- Buckle plates decorated with relief-dot ornament tury.256 Early sub-types have been found in cham- (like on Klin-Yar grave 357, catalogue no. D10) ber 495 at Skalistoe257 the date range of which, are encountered in several different cultures.265 judging by Byzantine-Pontic buckles with incised lines on the plate, does not exclude the last decades of the 5th and the middle of the 6th century.258 Oval buckles with kidney-shaped plate Similar buckles have been found further north, for with inlay instance in the eastern part of the Ukrainian forest-steppe and on the upper Don;259 their dating At Klin-Yar, this type (Fig. 107,8) is represented is based on the analogies discussed above. by a buckle (catalogue no. 8) from grave 356. Buckles of the same basic shape, but made of In the Middle Danube area, buckles of this type gold with garnet inlay, are known from the grave have been found in assemblages of phase D2/3 of Childeric (died AD 481/482) at Tournai.266 and D3 (circa 440 – 470/480) and later.260 They Generally, such items belong to the large group belong to artefacts which reflect a period of close of buckles with kidney-shaped plate found in a contacts between Danubian and Pontic cultures number of West and Central European as well as in the middle of the 5th century AD. This buckle Mediterranean cultures from the second half of type appears to have emerged during this peri- the 5th to the first decades of the th6 centuries.267 od; later development of the type reflects local The earliest such buckles (with a kidney-shaped evolution.261 These buckles became especially aperture for an inlay in an oval plate, and with popular in the Pontic area around the end of the round or similar loop) are known in the area from 5th and in the first half of the th6 centuries (see the Middle Danube to Kerch in the Hun period.268 above). Most of the items have a faceted pin and The key assemblage for later specimen is grave 5 a thicker front part of the loop; loops may also be at Flonheim, datable from the end of the 5th to round or kidney-shaped (B-shaped). the beginning of the 6th centuries.269 The pair of buckles from this grave is characterized by a flat Chamber 78/1907 in Kerch where several of pin and a narrow border of the plate, although these buckles were found is important for the types of pin and plate comparable with the Klin- study of artefacts from the North Caucasus as Yar buckle are also found in the first half of the well (Fig. 17,3.18.43.46 – 47.54). It dates to 6th century.270 around the middle of the 6th century AD.262 At this time, the influence of northeast Pontic cul- Judging by the characteristics of the buckle and tures on those of the North Caucasus was quite by the pottery assemblage (period Ic after Mala- noticeable.263 This was probably the reason shev), the buckle from Klin-Yar should date from

254 Казанский 20001, 56. 264 Афанасьев/Рунич 2001, Fig. 25,10 – 11; 99,11; Рунич 255 Хайрединова 2003. 1979, Fig. 4,1 – 20 (in the publications, the characteristic 256 Хайрединова 2003, 126 – 127. features of the buckles are not shown clearly enough, but 257 Веймарн/Айбабин 1993. they have been checked in the SLHM collection); Ковалев- 258 Kazanski 1994; Гавритухин 2002, 218 – 219. ская 2005, Fig. 94,12. 259 Обломский 2004, 224, Figs. 2,3 – 4.9.12 – 13. 265 For example in Crimea, Хайрединова 2003, Fig. 8,5.7. 260 Tejral 1997, Figs. 26,2; 29,2 – 3.6 – 7.9; Gepidische 266 Kazanski/Périn 1996, Fig. 2. Gräberfelder 2005, Tab. 34,2.4 – 5. 267 See a representative selection in Werner 1966; Kazanski 261 A similar picture may be seen in some fibulae types, e. g. 1994. Гавритухин 1994a; Гавритухин 2004; Гавритухин/Пьянков 268 For example, GHA, III.3 – 47; Prichodnjuk/Chardaev 2004, 2002. no. 25; Засецкая 1993, nos. 106б, 107; Damm 1988, no. 5. 262 Гавритухин/Казанский 2006, 304, 319. 269 Ament 1970. 263 Гавритухин/Казанский 2006. 270 Kazanski 1994.

52 5 Belt sets from Alanic graves

the second half (perhaps the last decades) of the the Kislovodsk Basin highlight that a classifica- Fig. 18. Seriation of belt sets 5th to the first decades of the 6th centuries. Cul- tion on the basis of loop shape or pin length is with pseudo-buckles with cut- turally, it is an indicator of Mediterranean influ- a purely formal one as all variants of this buckle through pendant. ence of which there are numerous examples in type occur together. the North Caucasus during that time.271 In the Kislovodsk Basin, buckles of this type are best represented at Mokraya Balka273 in assem- Small buckles with ‘wire’ loop of uniform blages of period IIIа (catacombs 17, 29, 109), thickness and ‘simple’ pin IIIb (catacombs 22, 92) after Malashev and other. At Chmi in North Ossetia,274 such buck- These are represented at Klin-Yar by an oval les have round loops of slightly larger diameter buckle with ‘snout-like’ pin from grave 341 (cat- (10 – 15 mm in diameter), frequently with a pin alogue no. 32), a buckle with a pin overlapping with narrow tip. The Chmi assemblages are dat- the loop from the fill of grave 379 (no. F10), and ed from the middle of the 7th to some time in three buckles with round loop from the dromos (perhaps the middle of) the 8th century.275 The of grave IV-9 (no. D8, D21, D27). In this case, development of this buckle type in the North metric characteristics can be used for defining Caucasus seems to have been largely a matter of this type which consists of round buckles with a local variation.276 loop about 10 mm in diameter or not much larger, and oval buckles with a loop not longer than 15 mm (the intervals have been identified em- 273 Among the buckles of Afanas’ev’s types 2, 3 and 4 pirically). Afanas’ev classified these and some (Афанасьев 1980, Tab. 1), buckles from the following cata other buckles as his types 2, 3 and 4, identi- combs at Mokraya Balka are not included in the present se- fied by differences in the shape of the loop and ries: 86 and 3А (thickened loop); 105 (flattened loop, judg- length of the pin.272 It is suggested here to use ing by the publication); 106 and 1А (larger size); 9К (slightly faceted pin); 9К and 4К (flattened pin with raised ‘platform’; features such as size and construction details (a the buckles differ from those covered on p. 50 – 52 only by loop made of uniformly thick wire, and a wire pin their D-shaped loop); 58, 71 and 89 (judging by the publica- usually with a D-shaped section). The finds from tion, these are probably closer to buckles covered on p. 50). 274 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, Fig. 82,57.62.96.111 – 112; 83: catacombs 15, 21, 23, 1, F, and 9. 275 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, Fig. 83. 271 Kazanski/Mastykova 1999. 276 For some of the likely prototypes of the Kislovodsk series, 272 Афанасьев 1980. see footnote 273.

53 Klin-Yar – I. O. Gavritukhin

Round iron buckles Some of the iron specimens from Dyurso which are unfortunately badly preserved,284 and finds from At Klin-Yar, these are present in graves 341 (cata some other sites are likely to belong to this series. logue nos. 2, 36), 352 (no. 25) and cemetery IV grave 10 (no. F1). It is possible that find no. 45 Some of the buckles discussed here have been from grave 352 with short ovoid loop belongs to found with early types of ‘heraldic’ mounts (Ve- this or a similar type (see p. 66 – 67). On the basis seloe) and archaic pseudo-buckles (Birsk, Klin- of the Mokraya Balka finds, Afanas’ev assigned Yar; see Fig. 18). Judging by the available materi- such buckles to types 38 and 39 which are en- al, ‘heraldic’ sets appear at the time of Justinian I countered in all phases of the site.277 The close (see section 5.1.4), and the pseudo-buckles study of some of the original items suggests that make their appearance at the same time as the in the case of such buckles, oxidized remains of Turks appear in Europe (Fig. 18; see section the belt are often mistaken for the loop. Due to 5.2.23). This dates the buckles discussed here their simple shape and the often bad preserva- to the period from the middle of the 6th to the tion of the details, these objects are of little use beginning of the 7th centuries, confirmed by the for chronological and cultural analysis. find of three coins of Justinian in the Tsebelda burial. The date for catacomb 4К at Mokraya Bal- ka is the middle to the second half of the 6th cen- 5.1.3 Hollow kidney-shaped (B-shaped) tury.285 This series of buckles appeared at some buckles point in the first half of the th6 century, which is indicated by the decoration with incised lines on Buckles with movable plate the plate of the buckle from burial 456,286 and by glass with hollow base287 which is typical of as- At Klin-Yar, this type (Fig. 189,8) is represented by semblages in the earlier part of the Dyurso ceme- the buckles from graves 357 (catalogue no. 62) tery (see p. 50). The same date applies to the for- and 381 (no. 8) which belong to the quite recog- mation of other series of high hollow buckles.288 nizable Tsebelda – Birsk series. This is characterized by a high, yet not heavy, faceted loop with a В- Thus, the Tsebelda – Birsk series evolved from or 8-shaped aperture. Similar buckles of other East the first half or the middle of the 6th century, European series can be distinguished from this probably in the centres connected with the series by their smooth edges, loop decoration, etc. eastern coast of the Black Sea, and from there reached the western regions of the North Cauca- The closest analogies of the Klin-Yar finds are the sus and the Volga region. The popularity of the buckles found in the assemblage at Tsebelda in series reached its peak in the middle and the Abkhazia discovered in 1967, and in the west- second half of the 6th century, which is the date ern chamber 4 at Kugul in the Kislovodsk Basin, of the specimens from Klin-Yar. both with round insert on the pin;278 burial 941 at Shoksha in the Oka basin, with rectangular insert;279 burial 407 in Dyurso, with a pin with five Small buckles with integral, fixed plate or six facets and a low raised ‘platform’;280 burial 165 at Birsk in Bashkiria, with a scutiform plate Small buckles (in this case, usually up to 3 cm and hollow pin, with a raised ledge in the rear part long including the plate but not the pin) are of- (Fig. 18,2);281 and burial 5/1936 of the Pashkovskij ten distinguished by function as well as by size. cemetery at Krasnodar282. Similar buckles with dif- They were used mainly for footwear, horse har- ferently shaped pins and plates are known from nesses, baldrics etc. Sometimes their shape imi the burial at Veseloe near Sochi, from catacomb tates belt buckles which are usually larger, and 4К at Mokraya Balka, burial 456 at Dyurso etc.283 sometimes has its own peculiarities. Therefore, small buckles should be considered separately. The published artefacts from Klin-Yar belong to 277 Афанасьев 1980, 147, 152. several types and series. 278 Воронов/Юшин 1971, Fig. 42,2; Рунич 1979, Fig. 7,10; the characteristic features have been checked on the original in SLHM. 279 The majority of those are unpublished. I used the corpus Shipovo circle (Ременная гарнитура n.d.) which is now being prepared for publication, and I thank my co-authors for the opportunity to This type (Fig. 189,6e) includes the remains use the material here. 280 See footnote 251. of thin, yet heavy-looking buckles made in one 281 Амброз 1980, Fig.5,1 – 2. 282 Excavations by N. V. Anfimov; KSHAM accession no. 1652; I am grateful to A. V. Pyankov for his help in working with the 284 See footnote 251. material. It is possible that this buckle or a similar one is 285 Гавритухин 2001b, 43. listed in Анфимов 1941, Tab. 36,9. 286 Kazanski 1994; details in Казанский 2001, 46. 283 Гавритухин/Пьянков 2003, Tab. 75,5 – 6; Ковалевская 287 Of the type Дмитриев 2003, Tab. 81,4; see footnote 251. 2005, Fig. 90,1; Дмитриев 2003, Tab. 79,31, checked in NSHM. 288 Гавритухин 2001b, 43.

54 5 Belt sets from Alanic graves

piece with a scutiform plate from catacomb 381 cised lines, and with a two-faceted cross-section (nos. F2, 6е and 9b). The Klin-Yar finds belong to of the loop. Indents on the sides of the rectan- the circle of late variations of buckles of the Shi- gles and ledges in their back part are character- povo series; the peak of their popularity is the istic of the East European sub-group (Fig. 18,11). middle to the second half of the 6th century.289 Pronounced and ‘tapered’ ledges are an indica- Similar buckles were popular in the North Cau- tor of the Caucasian block of series which is dis- casus and the Volga region,290 and the centers tinguished on the basis of the loop having been where strap sets of the Shipovo circle developed cast together with a scutiform plate.296 Buckles and flourished were located there. of the East European sub-group frequently had a many-faceted cross-section of the loop, the importance of this feature was noted by Ajbabin.297 Made in one piece with scutiform plate with Small buckles are considered separately since it lateral apertures is not always obvious if they belong to a certain block of series,298 and their function depends on In Klin-Yar, these are represented by the very the cultural context (cf. p. 54). similar items (Fig. 127,4h) from catacomb 360 (nos. 4 h and 38). Ajbabin included similar buckles from the Crimea in variant 4-3 of type II for East Mediterranean sub-group В-shaped buckles and dated them to the first half of the 7th century.291 Elsewhere, В-shaped At Klin-Yar, this is represented with only one form buckles with scutiform plate have been classi- (Fig. 129,21). fied into several series and variants, and their dating has been confirmed on a more extensive database.292 Buckles with В-shaped loop, groove without raised borders for the pin, and flexible connec- The Klin-Yar artefacts belong to variant (or to be tion to the belt more precise, a block of variants) 2 of the ‘main’ series. This variant includes the find from burial Several series of such buckles were the subject 132 at Callatis,293 but this obviously belongs to a of a special study;299 a detailed study of the East different cultural context, being different in size Mediterranean sub-group of buckles is to be and other details. The main series is encoun- published separately.300 tered from South Baden and the West Balkans to the Pontic steppes, Ossetia and Eastern Georgia, The buckles from grave 360 at Klin-Yar (catalogue but most of the finds are from the Pontic area.294 no. 21) and from grave 118 at Suuk-Su301 belong The majority of the artefacts from the main series to a special Klin-Yar block of variants of the Chufut- can be dated to within the first half to the middle Kale series. The series is characterized by a rec- of the 7th century, although some of the varia- tangular plate, sometimes with cut-outs, which tions must have appeared slightly earlier.295 Tak- fastens the buckle to the belt with the help of flat ing all the evidence into account, it seems that loops; the plate is divided into two symmetrical the Klin-Yar buckle in question is a late variation parts by an indented horizontal line which makes reflecting Pontic influence on North Caucasian it resemble buckles with two small rectangular cultures. plates. The Klin-Yar block of variants is characterized by a long horizontal plate with small cut-out in the centre. The buckle found near Cherkassy 5.1.4 Hollow buckles with raised and known only from the schematic drawing by ‘platform’ on the loop Spicyn302 probably belongs to the same block of variants. The abrupt transition from the seemingly This group of buckles is divided into several subgroups. Among the most important characteristics of the East Mediterranean sub-group are 296 Гавритухин 1999, 163 – 170. raised ‘platforms’ without ledges or with barely 297 Айбабин 1990, 38 – 39: variants 1 and 2 of type II. 298 Гавритухин 1999. marked ones, usually decorated with vertical in- 299 Хараламбиева 1993, 43; Гавритиухин 2002а; Schulze- Dörrlamm 2002, 68 – 78. 300 This was presented by the present author at the conference in commemoration of G. F. Korzukhina which took 289 Гавритухин 1999, 190 – 193. place in April 2006 in Saint Petersburg and is being pre- 290 Гавритухин 1999, 191 – 192, 203 – 204. pared for publication. From the list by Schulze-Dörrlamm 291 Айбабин 1990, 39. (2002, Fig. 25), the following items are not included in the 292 Гавритухин 1999, 185 – 189. East Mediterranean sub-group: no. 4 (it has a В-shaped loop 293 Preda 1980, Pl. XXXIV. without raised ‘platforms’ in the rear part), no. 11 (belongs 294 Гавритухин 1999, 186, 202. to the East European series) and no. 12 (cast in one piece 295 For instance, the ones from Callatis and from cistern with the loop). Buckle no. 8 has a rectangular loop. П/1967 in Chersones; see Гавритухин 2002, no. 6; Гаври- 301 Айбабин 1990, Fig. 39,17. тухин 1999, 187 – 189. 302 Корзухина 1996, Tab. 94,18, catalogue no. 61а.

55 Klin-Yar – I. O. Gavritukhin

clipped back part of the loop to the elongated Some finds from the Crimea, predominantly the back ‘platforms’ together with a rectangular cut- earlier variations, have very close counterparts out of the loop can be seen on finds from Cherno- in other parts of the Empire; they must have morskoe and Knyazhia Gora.303 The loops of these been imported. Nonetheless, the peculiarities of buckles must have been manufactured in the some of the buckles, for instance the one from same workshop or in closely linked ones. grave 118 at Suuk-Su, are not present in finds from other regions of the Empire. That means Grave 118 at Suuk-Su is dated to about the sec- that in the 7th century, at least, buckles were pro- ond to third quarter of the 7th century on the ba- duced in the Crimea after the fashion of Imperial sis of bipartite mounts with keel-shaped upper artifacts; and it is the South Crimean finds that part304 which must have appeared not earlier the buckles from the Dnepr region and the Cau- that the time of Heraclius I,305 and of the buckle casus resemble in many details. of the Salona – Histra type of the first half (circa AD 610/620?) to the middle of the 7th century.306 It appears that during a rather short period of This is also the date for grave 360 at Klin-Yar, time the belts with buckles of the ‘South Crime- judging by the pottery which Malashev assigns an’ variation mentioned above found their way to period IIIа. to some military and political groups on the Dnepr steppe and forest-steppe and in the North The East Mediterranean sub-group is obviously Caucasus. Gifts to leaders of some barbarian connected with Byzantine culture. Dates for the groups, including belts of the second and third most archaic variations show that it was formed quarters of the 7th century produced in Byzan- by the middle of the 6th century.307 That was the tium, have been discussed in the literature on time when buckles of the Sucidava and other several occasions.311 It is possible that not only similar types appeared,308 multipartite strap the leader but also persons from his entourage sets of the ‘heraldic’ circle,309 ‘Byzantine’ cast received gifts of belts. In this case, assemblag- (‘Danube-Illyrian’) fibulae,310 and other accesso- es with Byzantine gold artefacts from Peresh- ries which are probably connected with the for- chepina and Kelegei312 explain the finds of the mation of a new style of warrior equipment in the above-mentioned cheaper Byzantine buckles in time of Justinian I. Some elements of this fashion the Dnepr steppe and forest-steppe. existed until the time of Heraclius I and his sons. Grave 360 at Klin-Yar is the richest of all the Buckles of the East Mediterranean sub-group very known contemporary assemblages in the Kislo- rarely found their way out of the Empire. The find vodsk Basin. The belt found in it (see p. 81 – 82; from Klin-Yar is the only such item from the North 98; Pl. 5), with the buckle described below, was Caucasus. In the steppe and forest-steppe of East- probably a Byzantine gift to the local ruler or to ern Europe there are only the finds from Knyazhia his close entourage. Gora, the environs of Cherkassy, and Chernomor- skoe (all from the Dnepr region) listed above. In the Crimea, they are encountered quite frequently Buckles of the East European block of series within the zone controlled by the Byzantine Em- pire: in Chersones and environs, and in the cem- At Klin-Yar, these are represented by a large eteries along the coast (Suuk-Su, Alonia) located buckle of the Caucasian block of series with between Chersones and the Byzantine fortress of scutiform plate, and small buckles made in one Aluston (modern Alushta). Judging by the pub- piece with the plate. lished finds, they are encountered less frequently at Luchistoe which is slightly away from the coast, and in more distant regions of Mountain Crimea Large buckles of the Caucasus series, with fixed (e. g. Chufut-Kale, Skalistoe) they are represent- scutiform plate ed by single finds only. It appears that belts with these buckles which were part of military equip- A special study of such buckles has been pub- ment, were not items of trade. lished.313 The buckle from grave IV-8 at Klin-Yar (catalogue no. 21) is among the finds made after this publication.314 303 Комар, Орлов 2006, Figs. 2,4; 4,1; Корзухина 1996, Tab. 91,29. 304 Айбабин 1990, Fig. 51,2.23. 305 Гавритухин 2001a, 109 – 117. 306 Айбабин 1990, Fig. 41,13; Гавритухин 1994b; Гавриту- 311 Залесская et. al. 1997, 70 – 71; 116 – 118; 144 – 154, хин 2001a, 117, 152. with bibliography. 307 Schulze-Dörrlamm 2002. 312 See bibliography in Гавритухин 2005, 386 – 387. 308 D1 – 4 according to Schulze-Dörrlamm 2002. 313 Гавритухин 1999, 163 – 167. 309 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 22 – 23; 63; 66 Fig. 90, 314 The find from grave 1 at Suuk-Su should be excluded from ИС-1 – 3. the list in Гавритухин 1999, 164 – 165; it should now be as- 310 Гавритухин 2002. signed to the Black Sea-Volga block of series.

56 5 Belt sets from Alanic graves

Fig. 19. Distribution of large buckles made in one piece with scutiform plate (Caucasus block of series). 1 Zamok catacomb 4 (pers. comm. S. N. Savenko); 2 Klin-Yar grave IV-8; 3 Kugul’ western chamber 3 (Рунич 1979, Fig. 5,14. Гавритухин 1999, Fig. 1 : 16); 4 Machty catacomb 3 (pers. comm. S. N. Savenko); 5 Mirnyj catacomb 3 (after drawing by A. P. Runich; Гавритухин 1999, Fig. 1,15); 6 Mokraya Balka catacomb 89 (Гавритухин/ Малашев 1998, Fig. 5,1; Гавритухин 1999, Fig. 1,3; Гав- ритухин 2001b, Fig. 86,10); 7 – 8 Gizhgid chamber 11.1928 (Амброз 1989, Fig. 29,32 – 33; Гавритухин 1999, Fig. 1,1); 9 Mukulan (Иессен 1941, table VI,8); 10 Kvemo Alevi grave 23 (Апхазава 1988, table XIII,1; Гавритухин 1999, Fig. 1,7); 11 Borisovo grave 15 (Саханев 1914, Fig. 20,17; Гавритухин 1999, Fig. 1 : 8); 12 Khutor Krupskoi (Атавин 1996, table 2,1; Гавритухин 1999, Fig. 1,6); 13 Serpovoe (Гавритухин 1999, Fig. 1,2); 14 Seleksa grave 38. (Богачёв 1992, Fig. 27; Гавритухин 1999, Fig. 1,4). Preliminary classification on basis of schematic drawings: 15 Cher- sones (Ковалевская 1979, table XIX,14); 16 Toktalchuk grave 351 (Археологические памятники 1989, Fig. 9,3).

Buckles of the Caucasus series may be dated to can note elements most probably connected with within the first half to the middle of the th7 cen- the period of decline of this school (Fig. 219,22). tury.315 Judging by the concentration of the finds (Fig. 19) and the variety of variations, the buckles in question originate from the central part Small buckles with В-shaped or oval loop of the North Caucasus (Kislovodsk Basin and Kabardino-Balkaria). Single finds in the Volga These vary significantly in the shape of the plate. region, Pontic area and Transcaucasia where the majority of the buckles belonging to other blocks of series are common316 may be explained by re- With trapezoidal or rectangular plate lations with cultures in the respective zones. At Klin-Yar, these buckles (Fig. 130,27) have In its size, its deliberate imitation of ‘massiveness’ been found in graves 352 (catalogue nos. 30, 63 and other characteristics, the buckle in question and 73) and 360 (nos. 4f and 27). Buckles of this resembles most closely some items from the Kis- series are fairly standardized.319 The length of lovodsk Basin317 which belong to the Kislovodsk the recorded ‘small’ items is 17 – 22 mm which, School of manufacturing belt sets of the ‘heraldic’ combined with other features, definitely distin- circle318. In the set from grave IV-8 at Klin-Yar, one guishes them from the ‘large’ items. Many have in the rear part of the plate incised lines perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the buckle. 315 Гавритухин 1999, 165 – 167. 316 Гавритухин 1999. 317 For example, Гавритухин 1999, Fig. 1,3.16. 318 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 82. 319 See also Афанасьев 1980, 145, type 24; Айбабин 1990, 39.

57 Klin-Yar – I. O. Gavritukhin

The earliest item of the series in question was Both of the Klin-Yar finds have a gradual ledge in found in chamber 42 at Luchistoe.320 Here, the the rear part of the plate. The majority of small association of eagle-head buckles of the first buckles with such a plate (several finds from the and second variants with a buckle with a lion North Caucasus, from Artsibashevo and Kalinin- on the plate points to the last decades of the 6th skaya Stanitsa) are dated to about the second to and the first decades of the th7 centuries (see third quarter of the 7th century.325 Burial 252 at p. 59 – 60). All the finds from the North Caucasus Shoksha is dated slightly earlier (the first dec- (Klin-Yar, and catacomb 1 at Mokraya Balka321) ades of the 7th century?).326 The same or a later belong to period IIIa according to Malashev, date (including the middle and the third quarter dating to about AD 620/630 – 670/680. Similar of the 7th century) has been suggested for finds dates may be suggested for the finds from the at Dyurso, Vinogradnoe,327 and burial 52 at Bo- Belozyorka and Novo-Bikkino barrows,322 judg- risovo328. ing by a horizontally symmetrical mount with rhombic central part, a mount of the ‘circle + he- The proportions and size of the buckle no. 11 raldic shield’ scheme (see section 5.2.14), and from Klin-Yar grave 341 are similar to those of a zoomorphic mount of the Martynovka treasure the find from burial 3 of barrow 30 near Kalinin- circle.323 Dates for other assemblages available skaya Stanitsa on the lower Kuban.329 In the defor the present study do not contradict this. It is tails of the rear part of the loop, they are close possible that this series of buckles, which is fair- to items of the Black Sea-Volga block of series, ly compact typologically, existed for a relatively with a date from the end of the 6th century to the short period of time. third quarter or second half of the 7th century; and the assemblage from Kalininskaya Stanitsa Most of the buckles of the series in question dates not earlier than the second quarter of the are connected with sites on the East European 7th century.330 steppe and in the South Crimea, in single cases with the Volga region. In the Caucasus, the The buckle no. 33a from grave 341 has a line cut buckles in question have been found at only two through the rear part of the loop, like the item sites in the Kislovodsk Basin, and are connect- from grave 120 at Suuk-Su,331 but the other fea- ed with strap sets for weapons or possibly with tures of the two buckles differ, hence their sim- horse harness. Taking into account the military ilarity is not conclusive. The item from Suuk-Su character and the chronological proximity of the has ‘platforms’ in the rear part of the two-faceted Caucasus finds, it is possible that they are the loop, is without ledges and is decorated with an reflection of a relatively short-lived influence incised line; these details are characteristic of the which must have been connected with steppe East Mediterranean sub-group (see p. 55 – 56).332 military culture. Actually, the incised line or relief band in the rear part of the loop may draw on, and simplify, not just elements of the East Mediterranean series, With scutiform or similar plate but also those of other traditions.333

At Klin-Yar, these have been found in grave 341 On the whole, origins of this buckle type are con- (catalogue nos. 11 and 33a). Similar buckles nected with various traditions of the second half have already been the subject of special stud- of the 6th century. The variety of functions and ies.324 the geographical range must be the explanation for the diversity of details. The majority of these buckles existed in the 7th century, especially in the second and third quarter. 320 Айбабин 1994, Fig. 26,5. 321 Афанасьев/Рунич 2001, Fig. 13,11. 322 Айбабин 1985, Fig. 8,4; Мажитов 1981, 17 – 18 Fig. 8,3.4. 323 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996. 325 Гавритухин 1999, 166 – 167, 171. 324 Саханев 1914, 128; Айбабин 1990, 39; Гавритухин 326 Гавритухин 1999, 169. 1999, within the Black Sea – Volga, Caucasus and Dzhu- 327 Гавритухин 1999, 169 – 170, 171. lat series which are the closest to the finds in question 328 SHM, Archaeology Department, collection 1108; the as- and their context. Compared with the lists in Гавритухин semblage is similar to the one found at Vinogradnoe. 1999, 164 – 165; 168 – 169; 175 (where the small buckles 329 Атавин 1996, Tab. 13,4; the characteristic features have discussed here were listed together with the large ones), been checked on the basis of the photo in the archive of ИА the number of recorded finds has increased, though not РАН. dramatically. The following finds should be excluded from 330 Гавритухин 1999, 169 – 171. the list by Айбабин 1990, 39: Környe (judging by the 331 Репников 1907, Tab. XV,1; Айбабин 1990, Fig. 39,18; publication, the buckle quoted by Ajbabin has no ledges Гавритухин 1999, Fig. 1,22. in the rear part of the loop) and Chersones (mentioned 332 In Гавритухин 1999, 164, this buckle was discussed in by Ajbabin without references; if the item in question is the context of derivatives of the ‘Caucasus’ series, but now I find NRTKh no. 1888/4, then it should be assigned to the consider it better to relate such items to the Byzantine circle Byzantine variations of the Danube series which are not and its influence. considered in the present work; see Гавритухин 1999, 333 For example, Гавритухин 1999, Fig. 1,23.24.39.49.53. 171 – 172). 60 – 69.

58 5 Belt sets from Alanic graves

5.1.5 Rectangular and trapezoidal With plate indented at the sides buckles At Klin-Yar, such buckles (Fig. 129,20) have been Hollow buckles with ‘platforms’ in the rear part found in graves 341 (catalogue nos. 24 and 25), of the loop 345 (no. 75а), 360 (no. 20) and IV-5 (nos. 6 and 18, from pre-1994 excavations by A. B. Belin One such item has been found at Klin-Yar: the skij). Ajbabin assigned these buckles to vari- buckle from grave 360 (catalogue no. 46) which ant 7 of his type I of buckles with rectangular was in use for a long time. Similar buckles, al- loop and dated them from the end of the 6th to though with less pronounced ‘platforms’ in the the first half of the th7 centuries.340 Khairedinova rear part of the loop, are known from Mokraya conclusively demonstrated that in all Crimean Balka catacomb 94 and possibly from cata- in-situ finds, such buckles are connected with comb 30.334 Afanas’ev assigns these finds to footwear, and suggested various reconstruc- type 35 which is dated to the second half of the tions (see e. g. Fig. 20).341 She also indicated the 6th to the first quarter of the th7 centuries;335 but features for the chronological division of such on the basis of the pottery assemblage, Mala- buckles into items of “the second half of the shev assigned catacomb 94 to his period IIb2, 6th century” and “first half of the 7th century”,342 dated to about AD 620/630 – 650/670. unfortunately without detailed arguments.

Similar buckles, though differing in size, loop Of the datable items which can be drawn on section and type of pin, are encountered here, the assemblage from burial 5/1936 of the from the Danube to the Kama.336 According to Pashkovskij cemetery (Krasnodar) includes a Ajbabin’s classification, buckles of this circle В-shaped hollow buckle dated to approximate- correlate with those of variant 3, and partly vari- ly the second half of the 6th century (see p. 54). ant 2, of his type II of rectangular and trapezoidal Judging by the Udine-Planis fibula and the belt buckles, dated to approximately the second half set, the finds from burial 144 at Bzhid on the Cau- and respectively the first quarter of the th7 cen- casian Black Sea coast shold be dated not later tury.337 According to their main features, these than the beginning of the 7th century.343 A number buckles belong to the group considered above of early buckles have been found in the Crimea. (see p. 55 – 56). As was shown there, for subdivi- sions of this group details of the rear part of the Burial 3 of chamber 420 at Skalistoe (Fig. 21) is loop are important. The Klin-Yar find has neither considered to represent the earliest period of the incisions nor cut-outs on the ‘platforms’ in the Suuk-Su Culture, dated to about the second half rear of the loop. This appears to be a simplified of the 6th century.344 The two-plate fibulae from version which could have been a derivative of burial 1 or 2 are not paired and slightly smaller in buckles of both East Mediterranean338 and East size than the fibula from burial 3, which may point European339 sub-groups. to a later date. Burial 1 or 2 contained oval buckles with a protruding groove for the pin, made in one piece with a scutiform plate (Fig. 21,46). Small buckles made in one piece with the plate Such items are commonly encountered throughout the 7th century both in the Crimea and in the These often differ from the series described Carpathian Basin.345 The time and mechanism of above (see p. 54 – 55; 57 – 58) only in the shape the appearance of these buckles are unclear, and of the loop. In some cases, their cultural and the features of the pin groove can be traced back historical context is similar. At the same time, to buckles of the Late Roman/Early Byzantine tra- blocks of series with trapezoidal or rectangular dition (Sucidava type, etc.), so it may be possible loop have their own regularities and peculiari- that they appeared as early as the 6th century. Giv- ties of development. en the length of the loop holder, the eagle-head buckle from burial 3 (Fig. 21,9) is an early variant, but the ornament on its plate is similar to the buckle from grave 77 at Suuk-Su which has a 334 Афанасьев/Рунич 2001, Fig. 106,6 (see more correct holder characteristic of later items and was found drawing in Гавритухин 2001b, Fig. 77,1); Афанасьев/Ру- нич 2001, Fig. 48,5. 335 Афанасьев 1980; Афанасьев/Рунич 2001. 340 Айбабин 1990, 48 – 49 Fig. 2, feature 87. 336 Petre 1987, no. 209b; Verkh-Saya, barrow 57, finds 341 Хайрединова 2003. stored in Udmurtia State University and scheduled for pub- 342 Хайрединова 2003, 128. lication. 343 Пьянков 2002, 107, no. 13 – 14 Fig. 3,1.3; for the dating 337 Айбабин 1990, 49. see Гавритухин/Пьянков 2003, 192; Гавритухин/Казан- 338 As in Айбабин 1990, Fig. 46,2.3; Petre 1987, Pl. 127, ский 2006, 314 – 320. no. 202с, etc. 344 Веймарн 1979; Айбабин 1990, Fig. 2; Айбабин 1999, 339 As in Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, Fig. 79,15, 87,107; 273; 275. 89,151; Гавритухин/Малашев 1998, Fig. 4,2; Афанaсьев 345 Айбабин 1990, 41, variant 3 of ‘lyre-shaped’ buckles; 1980, type 30, etc. Гавритухин 2001a, 119.

59 Klin-Yar – I. O. Gavritukhin

Fig. 20. Luchistoe shoe sets together with a coin of AD 597 – 602 date.346 Since Of the several burials in chamber 77 at Luchis- and their reconstructions the time difference between the burials in cham- toe, burials 1 and 3 have been suggested to be (after Хайрединова 2003). ber 420 was hardly a great one, it must have been the earliest.347 For correlation of chamber 77 at 1 – 12 chamber 64 burial 3; used within the last decades of the 6th and the Luchistoe with the South Crimean chronology, 13 – 25 chamber 189 burial 3; first decades of the 7th century, and burial 3 ap- buckles showing a cross on the plate, as found 26 – 35 chamber 77 burial 3; 36 – 45 chamber 204 burial 3; pears to be slightly earlier than burials 1 and 2. in burials 1 and 3, are indicative finds. Ajbabin 46 scale for 1 – 10, 14 – 24, 26 – 34 and 37 – 45. 346 Амброз 1988, Fig. 2,5. 347 Айбабин/Хайрединова 1996.

60 5 Belt sets from Alanic graves

Fig. 21. Skalistoe chamber 420. 1 plan of the chamber; 2 – 14 burial 3; 35 – 36 burial 1; 43 – 44 from outside the burials; 45 burial 2; others – burial 2 or 1 (after Веймарн/Айбабин 1993).

61 Klin-Yar – I. O. Gavritukhin

dated such items, as well as buckles depicting at Mokraya Balka,356 and graves 345 and 360 at lions, to the first half of the 7th century.348 Since Klin-Yar.357 Judging by the scutiform mount with a about twenty buckles with repoussé images of a ‘hook’ and other finds, burial 402 at Dyurso be- lion or a cross are known,349 and they have never longs to the same horizon.358 been encountered with artefacts of the second to third quarter of the 7th century, but are clear- According to its pottery assemblage, catacomb ly associated with items from the second half of 117 at Mokraya Balka359 should be assigned to the 6th century,350 it appears that such buckles period IIIb; according to the mount with birds’ may be dated to the last decades of the 6th cen- heads, it is connected with the traditions repre- tury and the first decades of the 7th century. The sented in assemblages of the Bócsa – Peresh- same date range may therefore apply to burial 3 chepina horizon.360 The similarity of material which contained the laterally indented buckles from catacomb 117 to period IIIа assemblages discussed here. Some details of the belt sets is confirmed by the presence of pottery vessels from burials 3 and 4, and of the brooch from bur- with stamps of group III according to Malashev.361 ial 1, have analogies in the contemporary com- Catacomb 341 at Klin-Yar dates to period IIIb ac- plex from Bzhid mentioned above. cording to Malashev, dating approximately to the second half of the 7th century. The similarity Such buckles are often included in sets which con- of metal ornaments from graves 341 and 345 tain horizontally symmetrical mounts with ‘flame- (see above) at Klin-Yar suggests that the date of shaped’ shield (Fig. 20,7.8.17.21.40.45), large the former is closer to the middle than the end of trefoil-shaped mounts (Fig. 20,3 – 6.15.16.23.24), the 7th century. and bipartite horned mounts with three apertures and elongated lower part (Fig. 20,19.20). This The large number of datable assemblages makes combination correlates with ‘heraldic’ strap sets 2 it possible to track one of the evolutionary trends to 5 groups from the Crimea, the earlier finds from of the laterally indented buckles, which is their Chmi, and Horizon 2 of ‘heraldic’ sets from the change in size (Fig. 22). The picture which Volga region, which dates it to the last decades emerges is as follows. Laterally indented buckles of the 6th and first half of the 7th centuries.351 The appeared in the second half of the 6th century; all described set has been encountered together with buckles of this date belong to block 1 of variants laterally indented buckles in chambers 422 and (about 30 mm in length). The last decades of the 486 at Skalistoe and chamber 189 at Luchistoe, 6th to the first decades of the 7th centuries are both in the Crimea, and in catacomb 1 at Nizhnij the peak of their use, only some of the variants Dzhulat in Kabardino-Balkaria.352 Chamber 189 at might have been in circulation somewhat later. Luchistoe has been dated by Khairedinova to the At about the same time, buckles of block 2 of var- second half of the 6th century. iants appear (23 – 26 mm in length); they were in use until approximately the third quarter of the The buckle from burial 19 at Kharachoj (Dagest- 7th century, with the largest buckles (25 – 26 mm an) was found together with a mount of the Shi- in length) already not typical of mid-7th centu- povo circle.353 Shipovo strap sets do not seem to ry assemblages. The use of buckles from block belong to a single chronological horizon, but can 3 of variants (20 – 22 in length) is limited to the be divided into several phases which span from 7th century (except its beginning), and the peak the Hun period to the first half of the th7 centu- of use is the second to third quarter of this cen- ry.354 The Kharachoj set, the importance of which tury. By the end of the 7th century, these buckles for chronology was noted by Ambroz, appears ceased to be used. to belong to late manifestations of the Shipovo style.355 Finds of laterally indented buckles are concentrated in the Mountain Crimea and the North Period IIIа of early medieval finds from the Kis- Caucasus. They are fairly rare in other regions lovodsk Basin, contemporary with the Bócsa – where they are linked to cultural groups which Pereshchepina horizon of the second to third quarters of the 7th century, includes catacomb 90 356 Афанасьев/Рунич 2001, Fig. 101,30.31; the details and attribution of this and some other items from the assem- 348 Айбабин 1990, 29; 31 – 32; Айбабин 1999, 276. blage have been ascertained in the KLHM with the kind help 349 See list in Айбабин 1990, 31 – 32; Хайрединова 1999. of S. N. Savenko. 350 Айбабин 1999, 275. 357 Гавритухин 2001b, 46; Гавритухин 2005, 406 – 409. 351 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 89 – 90: ИС-5, 8, 9, 10 358 Дмитриев 1982, Fig. 12; Дмитриев 2003, Tab. 83; the Figs. 68; 82; 89; 90. Finds from Chmi: excavations by details have been checked in NSHM and using the photo- D. Ya. Samokvasov and NHM collection. graph kindly provided by A. V. Dmitriev; for the dating see 352 Веймарн/Айбабин 1993; Хайрединова 2003; Абрамо- Гавритухин/Малашев 1998, 60 – 61, 67; Гавритухин 1999, ва 1972. 166; Гавритухин 2005, 400, ИС-7. 353 Амброз 1989, Fig. 38,1.2. 359 Афанасьев/Рунич 2001. 354 Гавритухин 2001b, 43, 45; see section 5.1.5. 360 Гавритухин 2005, 400 – 401, ИС-8. 355 Амброз 1989, 81. 361 Гавритухин 2001b, 45 – 46.

62 5 Belt sets from Alanic graves

Fig. 22. Chronology of assemblages with small buckles with rectangular or trapezoidal loop made in one piece with cut-through plate: a – dates of assemblages available for analysis; b – date according to Khairedinova (Хайрединова 2003); c – dates for blocks of variants; d – length of buckles (in mm, excl. tongue). 1 Dyurso grave 402; 2 Pashkovskij grave 5/1936; 3 Nizhnij Dzhulat catacomb 1; 4 Luchistoe grave 102; 5 Luchis- toe chamber 170 burial 3; 6 Skalistoe chamber 420 burial 1; 7 Klin-Yar IV grave 5; 8 Skalistoe chamber 486 (1); 9 Klin-Yar III grave 360 burial 1; 10 Klin-Yar III grave 345; 11 Mokraya Balka catacomb 90; 12 Mokraya Balka catacomb 117 burial 4; 13 Luchistoe chamber 189 burial 3; 14 Luchistoe chamber 64 burial 3; 15 Skalistoe chamber 420 burial 3; 16 Skalistoe chamber 420 burial 1 or 2; 17 Skalistoe chamber 486 (2); 18 Luchistoe chamber 77 burial 3; 19 Luchistoe chamber 164 burial 5; 20 – 21 Klin-Yar III grave 341; 22 Kharachoj grave 19; 23 Bzhid grave 144.

63 Klin-Yar – I. O. Gavritukhin

had links to cultures of the North Caucasus and at Klin-Yar. In grave 360, a pair of such buckles Mountain Crimea. In the Crimea, these buckles was found near the feet of burial 1, together have not been found in Chersones and in burials with a set of mounts analogous to the ones from on the coast, nor have they been found in Byzan- Luchistoe (burial 3 of chamber 64, and burial 3 tine areas, that is, in areas where buckles of Byz- of chamber 189; Fig. 20), but without the strap antine series are concentrated (see p. 55 – 56). ends and ‘horned’ mounts. In grave 8 at Klin- Yar IV, the belt in situ had a buckle with В-shaped The buckles which reflect local traditions and the loop made in one piece with a scutiform plate directions of connections are identified by the (see p. 56 – 57); a strap divider with a loop and a shape of the rear part of the loop and by some small strap-end were found at the knees. The oth- other features (see Fig. 22) which were also used er items were scattered around the burial cham- in the study of similar buckles with a В-shaped ber, including a pair of laterally indented buckles or oval loop.362 Series I and II (which includes the and a small strap-loop. Since the assemblage finds from Klin-Yar IV grave 5) are found mainly had been disturbed and sustained some losses, in the Pontic area, with only isolated finds in the it may be suggested that it had a set similar to western regions of the Caucasus. The find from the shoe set from burial 144 at Bzhid and buri- Slovenia363 most probably reflects connections al 3 of Luchistoe chamber 170.370 The T-shaped to the Pontic area which have not so far been and bipartite pendant mounts from Klin-Yar IV-5 studied. Series III (which includes the buckles appear to have belonged to a sparsely decorated from graves 345 and 360 at Klin-Yar) is the most belt which has more than one parallel in the Cau- numerous and has the most extensive distribu- casus.371 In Klin-Yar grave 341, laterally indent- tion. In addition to the Mountain Crimea and the ed buckles were found near the lower part of the North Caucasus, it has been found on the Pontic shin of burial 3, together with mounts the shape steppes and in the Sura Basin (the forest-steppe, of which unfortunately cannot be reconstructed. right bank of the Volga). Series IV (which includes the buckles from grave 341 at Klin-Yar) is The most detailed and the earliest shoe sets found in the North Caucasus from the Black Sea which contain such buckles are found in the coast to the eastern parts of the region. The find Pontic area. The most complete sets in the North from Gradizhsk (forest-steppe Dnepr area),364 Caucasus come from Nizhnij Dzhulat and Klin-Yar judging by its similarity to the item from burial IV grave 5; the buckles (of series I and II) as well 144 at Bzhid,365 reflects relations with the Black as the mounts have Pontic parallels. Most likely, Sea coast of the Caucasus; the Gradizhsk region the structurally uncomplicated sets from cata- where the find was made is at the crossroads of combs 90 and 117 at Mokraya Balka which in- important river and land routes.366 The find from cluded buckles and probably circular mounts372 Vinogradnoe on the Pontic steppe367 probably belong to a local variant. marks one of the mediators or participants of the contacts. The item from Vishenki in the Middle It seems that footwear strap sets with lateral- Dnepr area368 reflects, probably indirect, Cauca- ly indented buckles appeared in the Mountain sus influence. Crimea and spread from there to the Caucasus and other regions. Some of the buckles were Khairedinova’s observation that in the Crimea manufactured in the Crimea and exported to- laterally indented buckles belonged to soft foot- gether with the shoes, but many of them were wear369 is supported by the majority of finds from made in other places on Crimean models, which other regions. Wherever these buckles have is shown by a find of production waste in the been found in well-documented assemblages, Gradizhsk region.373 But there are no clear an- they usually formed a pair, or they were found in swers to the questions as to who made the buck- a pair with a small buckle of a different type. They le at the Gradizhsk crossroads, for whom, and for are often associated with mounts found in shoe what purpose. It is possible that only the buckle sets in the Crimea (e. g. Fig. 20,1 – 2.14). In some was made there for a repair of the footwear, and cases, such sets, or parts thereof, were found in not the footwear itself. situ near the lower part of the legs, as they were Similar uncertainty covering the place of pro duction exists in the case of the respective Klin- 362 Гавритухин 1999, 185 – 189. Yar finds. For the set containing the buckle of 363 Sveti Lambert pri Pristave nad Stično; Narodni muzej series I found in grave IV-5, a Pontic origin ap- Slovenije, Ljubljana, no. S3105. I am grateful to T. Knific for the opportunity to inspect the find. pears to be most likely. The irregular buckles of 364 Левченко 2001, Fig. 1,1. series IV, popular in the Caucasus and found in 365 Пьянков 2002, 107 no. 13 – 14 Fig. 3,1.3. 366 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996; Гавритухин 2003, Fig. 2,16. 367 ‘Initial 1983 excavations’; Орлов/Рассамакин 1996, 370 Пьянков 2002, 106; Хайрединова 2003, Fig. 14. Fig. 5,13. 371 Гавритухин/Пьянков 2003, 192. 368 Корзухина 1996, no. 99.3 Tab. 91,23. 372 Афанасьев/Рунич 2001, Fig. 101,28 – 29; 134,1.2.15. 369 Хайрединова 2003. 373 Левченко 2001, Fig. 1,11.

64 5 Belt sets from Alanic graves

one of the latest assemblages with such buckles On the basis of the pottery assemblage, the (Klin-Yar grave 341), are most probably of local buckles from catacomb 2А at Mokraya Balka manufacture. The details of the buckles from should date to period IIа or IIb1 according to graves 345 and 360 have both, local and non-lo- Malashev, but the belt set from the same cata- cal parallels. comb suggests a late date within that range, that is, approximately the first half of the th7 century. The buckles from catacomb 125 at Mokraya Bal- With scutiform plate without apertures ka381 have been found in an assemblage of period IIb1 according to Malashev and are dated At Klin-Yar, such buckles (Fig. 225,28) were to approximately the first half of the 7th century. found in graves 345 (catalogue no. 75а) and Judging by the set of mounts in the assemblage, IV-9 (nos. D17 and 28). Buckles of this series are a similar date applies to the smaller buckles quite rich in details, but, on the other hand, simi- from burial 12 of barrow 8 at Bogachevka, in the larity of outward appearance may be observed in steppe zone of the Pontic area.382 items connected with quite different traditions. The relatively simple scutiform plate may have The buckle from burial 68 at Seleksa383 in for- appeared as a simplification of plates with aper- est-steppe zone on the right bank of the Vol- tures or cut-through buckles belonging to differ- ga was found together with bipartite ‘horned’ ent series or even sub-groups, and in some cases mounts which are dated to approximately the last it could have followed its own line of evolution.374 decades, or the very end, of the 6th century to the The function of these buckles also varies. It is first decades or the middle of the 7th century.384 evident that they should not be subjected to an The buckle from burial 32 at Seleksa was found analysis similar to the one applied to the block of together with mounts which show the influence series considered above (see p. 64). of southern models and their local reworking, which led to the formation of ‘heraldic’ styles of The most systematic study of these buckles was Horizon 2 in the Volga region, suggesting a date conducted by Ajbabin who suggested a date of approximately the first half of the 7th centu- range from the second half of the 6th or first quar- ry.385 The buckles from burial 17 in Kushnarenk- ter of the 7th centuries to the second half of the ovo, situated in the forest-steppe Urals, date to 7th century.375 Yet the latest finds in the Crimea within the end of the 6th to the first half of the alone challenge these observations,376 and the 7th centuries, judging by the mounts.386 chronology may need further study. The find from Pregradnaya in the North Cauca- A series of early assemblages exists in the sus387 is contemporary with the Fönlak assem- Crimea. Chamber 78/1907 in the cemetery of blage of the ‘Middle Avar I’ period and with the Kerch (Fig. 17,4.44.57) dates to about the middle Martynovka hoard on the basis of anthropomor- of the 6th century (see p. 52). The buckles from phic and zoomorphic mounts; this dates it to chamber 153 at Suuk-Su are dated on the basis of approximately the second to third quarters of associated finds to the last decades of the th6 and the 7th century.388 Buckles with similar features the first decades of the 7th centuries,377 as is the and identical date have been found in the west- find from chamber 420 at Skalistoe Fig.( 21,40; ern chamber 3 at Kugul’ in the Kislovodsk Basin, see p. 59 – 60). In catacomb 1 at Ostryj Mys 2 in and in the burial from the initial 1983 excava- the Kislovodsk Basin,378 the buckle was found to- tions at Vinogradnoe on the Pontic steppes.389 In gether with a strap-end representative of Crimean ‘heraldic’ sets dated to about the first quarter of the 7th century, according to Ajbabin, or slightly 381 Афанасьев/Рунич 2001, Fig. 155,1; the data of the earlier.379 Buckles found in burial 11 of the Pet- buckle, the fragments of the second one from the pair, and other finds from the assemblage have been checked ropavlovsk cemetery in the Kama Basin are simi- with the originals which are partly published in Гавритухин lar to those from burial 552 at Varni which date to 2001b, Fig. 77,32. about the first third of the th7 century.380 382 Генинг/Корпусова 1989, Fig. 10,2. 383 Some of the buckles from Seleksa have been published in Богачeв 1992, Fig. 27, where unfortunately the proportions are distorted due to a drawing error, and in some cases 374 In relation to buckles with a similar loop or В-shaped the wrong number of the assemblage is given; see Ремен- loop, this can be clearly seen from the material in Гавритухин ная гарнитура n.d. 1999, partly presented above on p. 58. 384 Гавритухин/Иванов 1999, 108 – 110; Гавритухин 2001c, 375 Айбабин 1990, 48 – 49 Fig. 2. horizons 2 and 3. 376 Хайрединова 2003. 385 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 85 – 86, with corrections 377 Репников 1907, Tab. XV,3; Гавритухин 2002, 221. in Гавритухин 2001c, 38. 378 Рунич 1977, Fig. 6,8; the data of the items have been 386 Генинг 1977, Fig. 7,19 – 20; Гавритухин/Иванов 1999, checked in SLHM, collection no. 18617. 105 – 110. 379 Айбабин 1990, Fig. 2,103; Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 387 Минаева 1957, Fig. 52,1; Амброз 1989, Fig. 37,1 – 3. Fig. 68,103; 72; 90. 388 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996; Гавритухин 2001a. 380 Семёнов 1976, Tab. 2,7; the original buckle was checked 389 Рунич 1979, Fig. 5,18; Орлов/Рассамакин 1996, in NMRU no. 179/54; Гавритухин/Иванов 1999. Fig. 3,21.

65 Klin-Yar – I. O. Gavritukhin

catacomb 50 at Lunacharka,390 in the Kislovodsk Simple concave-faceted rectangular buckles, Basin, a buckle of this type was associated with with circular-sectioned axis set slightly inward a glass vessel and other finds similar to those from the rear end of the buckle found in Kugul western chamber 3. The buckle from burial 1/1997 at Lunacharka,391 judging by At Klin-Yar, this type is represented by a buckle the associated objects typical of assemblages loop from grave 341 (catalogue no. 48). A similar of period III according to Malashev, cannot be buckle in a better state of preservation has been earlier than the middle of the 7th century. On the found at Kugul in western chamber 5, also in the Pontic steppes, a buckle of this type has also Kislovodsk Basin.398 Both buckles have a heavy, been found at Kelegei, dated to approximately bevelled loop, which makes them similar to less AD 620/640 – 660/680.392 heavy items with concave interior face. The date of this (the Kislovodsk) series is determined by The buckle from burial 810/1958 at Samtav- the following benchmarks. On the basis of the ro in Transcaucasia, judging by the associated pottery assemblage, grave 341 belongs to period vessel and other objects, is contemporary with IIIb according to Malashev, and therefore dates to periods «b/б» and «c/в» of the chronology for the second half of the 7th century. Kugul’ western sites with ‘heraldic’ strap sets in Georgia which chamber 5 also produced a zoomorphic mount cover the middle decades of the 7th century.393 and other finds which are contemporary with The buckles from burial 21 at Kvemo Alevi in the the Martynovka hoard, which suggests a date in same region date to a somewhat earlier peri- the second to third quarters of the 7th century.399 od.394 Some other associated finds from Klin-Yar grave 341 are similar to styles of the middle of the The associated pottery dates the buckles from 7th century rather than to those of the end of the catacombs 92 and 114 at Mokraya Balka395 to 7th/beginning of 8th centuries (see p. 52; 72 – 73; periods IIIа and IIIb according to Malashev, 80; 88 and the sections about mounts). that is, to the middle and the second half of the 7th century. The buckle from burial 79 at Chir Yurt Buckles with some similar features can also in Dagestan has been assigned to period 2b (2б) be found in other cultural contexts. The finds of the cemetery, that is, it dates to approximately from Kelegei on the Pontic steppes400 and from AD 650 – 680; an associated coin with suspen- the Tsarskij Kurgan on the Lower Kuban401 are sion hole and dated AD 621 does not allow a among the chronologically close items. These significantly earlier date of the assemblage.396 steppe finds are lower and less heavy than the There are also late sites with such buckles in Kislovodsk buckles; other parallels are even less the Mountain Crimea. Chamber 164 at Skalis- similar.402 Much earlier buckles of this type have toe contains several items (a glass vessel, jingle also been found in the Caucasus.403 bells, etc.) which appeared not earlier than the 7th century; Ajbabin dated it to the second half of Basically, the buckles discussed here could have the 7th century.397 appeared either independently, or as borrow- ings or local re-workings of imported specimens. The examples given above show the wide distri- They seem to belong to a small local series the bution and long existence of this type of buckles. origins of which are uncertain. Of the Klin-Yar graves with such buckles, Mala- shev, using the associated pottery, assigned grave IV-9 to his period IIIа, and grave 345 to pe- Elongated trapezoidal buckles riod IIIb. That places them late in the sequence of this buckle type. These are represented by a poorly preserved iron loop from grave IV-7 (catalogue no. 40). Such buckles resemble rectangular, oval, ovoid and other iron types, and the distinction is not always clear due to the usually poor preservation.404 390 Unpublished excavations of A. P. Runich, information provided by Yu. A. Prokopenko. 391 The semi-destroyed assemblage was also studied by I. A. Arzhantseva, whom I thank for the drawings of the 398 Рунич 1979, Fig. 8,7; the characteristic features of the finds. buckle have been checked on the original object in SLHM. 392 Айбабин 1991, Fig. 2,8; Prichodnjuk/Chardaev 2001, 399 Рунич 1979, Fig. 5; Гавритухин/Обломский 1996. Fig. 4,3; Гавритухин 2005. 400 Айбабин 1990, Fig. 46,4; Айбабин 1991, Fig. 2,9; Pri 393 Апхазава 1979, Tab. XXVII,1; Гавритухин/Обломский chodnjuk/Chardaev 2001, 592 Fig. 4,2. 1996, Figs. 78 – 79;90. 401 Атавин 1996, Fig. 16,2; the characteristic features have 394 Апхазава 1988, Tab. XI,1.2; Гавритухин/Обломский been checked on the original object in KSHAM. 1996, Fig. 79. 402 See incomplete, yet representative list in Айбабин 1990, 395 Афанасьев/Рунич 2001. 49 – 50; Prichodnjuk/Chardaev 2001, 592. 396 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, Figs. 80 – 81.90; Гавриту- 403 For example, Воронов 2003, Fig. 98,44. хин/Казанский 2006. 404 This can be easily seen on the illustrations of such finds 397 Веймарн/Айбабин 1993, 194; 187. from Mokraya Balka: Афанасьев 1980, Fig. 4,17 – 22; 5,1 – 4.

66 5 Belt sets from Alanic graves

A buckle with ‘short ovoid’ loop from Klin-Yar Ajbabin assigned similar buckles to variant 1 grave 352 (catalogue no. 45) could belong to of lyre-shaped buckles.408 He dates the Crime- this circle (see p. 54). Given current knowledge an finds to the third quarter of the 7th century; and the simplicity of these buckles, it is practi- they appear therefore to be the latest finds in cally impossible to use them as chronological or the abovementioned assemblages, which might cultural markers (cf. p. 54; 69 – 70). imply a somewhat earlier date of some of these buckles.409 A general date in the first half to third quarter of the 7th century is not contradicted by 5.1.6 Hollow oval buckles with the finds of this buckle type in burial 30 at Bor- a pronounced groove for the pin, isovo and burial 276 at Dyurso on the Caucasus and with ‘platforms’ in the rear part Black Sea coast, in the mid-Volga region, in Iran of the loop etc.410

In Russian archaeological literature, buck- Judging by the origin of buckle loops with raised les with a groove for the pin marked by raised borders marking the groove for the pin, and by sides are frequently called ‘lyre-shaped’. Such the context of the south Crimean finds, this block pronounced grooves must have appeared on of series evolved under Byzantine influence. The buckles of the Late Roman tradition, and sub- distribution and the variety of details show that sequently became quite popular. At Klin-Yar, this influence was interpreted differently in dif- this group is represented only by hollow oval ferent cultural areas to the east and north-east of buckles with ‘platforms’ in the rear part of the the Byzantine Empire. loop.

Buckles made in one piece with two identical With flexible connection to the strap, plates East European block of series At Klin-Yar, this type (Fig. 209,12) is represent- In this case, the East European block of series is ed in grave IV-6 (catalogue no. 12). Ajbabin as- identified on the basis of the same factors as the signed such items to variant 5 of lyre-shaped East European sub-group of hollow buckles with- buckles, contemporary with variant 1 and dis- out pronounced groove for the pin (see p. 55). tributed in the same area (see above). The bipar- The available finds of this block of series have tite plate must have appeared as an imitation of other common characteristics: an oval loop (in two small plates joined flexibly to the loop (see some variations of other series, it can be almost e. g. p. 55 – 56). Compared with the buckles list- circular; see e. g. the following section), and ed above, some of the variants of this block of raised sides of the groove for the pin which do series have an almost circular loop, and some- not project forward significantly. times an even thinner one;411 their dating could be somewhat different. The Klin-Yar buckle was In the Kislovodsk Basin, in addition to the find found in an assemblage of period IIb2 according from Klin-Yar grave IV-7 (catalogue no. 41), a to Malashev, dating to the first half of the 7th cen- buckle of this block of series has been found in tury. catacomb 125 at Mokraya Balka.405 This buckle differs in some details of the loop and has a scutiform plate; on the basis of its pottery assemblage (period IIb1 according to Mala- shev), it is dated to the first half of the th7 cen- 408 Айбабин 1990, 41. The following items in Ajbabin’s list tury. Items with identical plates (which allow should not be assigned to the block of series under investigation: Suuk-Su grave 192 (the raised ‘platforms’ in the rear to group them into a separate series) are rep- 406 part of the loop assign it to the East Mediterranean tradi- resented by finds from Chmi in North Ossetia tion); Pereschepina (the buckle mentioned by Ajbabin and and are dated to approximately the second to similar buckles (Залесская et. al. 1997, no. 121) have an third quarters of the 7th century.407 The same elongated back part of the loop; see p. 68 – 70). The buckle from Suuk-Su grave 166 has only been published as a de- date applies to the find from Klin-Yar, judging by scription, which is not sufficient for a definite attribution. On the pottery assemblage of period IIIa according the other hand, the buckles discussed here are similar to to Malashev. items which have a marked groove for the pin (as in Айбабин 1990, Fig. 39,15). Kovalevskaya has published a list of 24 “shield-less lyra-shaped” buckles (Ковалевская 1979, 33, type 1). However, the two schematic drawings provided there are sufficient to see that the two items are quite hete rogeneous; unfortunately, the majority of the other finds 405 Афанасьев/Рунич 2001, Fig. 155,4; a more precise have not been published. drawing, checked against the original object, can be found 409 Айбабин 1990, Fig. 2,143. in Гавритухин 2001b, Fig. 77,20. 410 SH no. 1108/151; see footnote 251; 279; Jahresbericht 406 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, Fig. 82,47; 107. 1986, 911 – 912 Fig. 96. 407 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 79 – 81 Fig. 90. 411 As in Айбабин 1990, Fig. 40,12.

67 Klin-Yar – I. O. Gavritukhin

Small buckles made in one piece with this group of buckles, with an emphasized lower a rectangular plate part of the loop, are known from Iran, Azerbai- jan, eastern Georgia and Abkhazia.416 A belt set This series of small buckles (Fig. 97,38) is con- with such a buckle from a private collection ap- sidered separately, as are other small buckles pears to belong to this group.417 Numerous se- (see p. 54; 57). At Klin-Yar, buckles of this type ries of such buckles are known in the North Cau- were found in graves 352 (catalogue no. 38) and casus, and a local block of series evolved in the 360 (nos. 48 and 70). On the basis of their pottery Kama area (see below). Further west, the influ- assemblages, these graves date to period IIIa ac- ence of this style, with some modifications, ex- cording to Malashev (AD 620/630 – 670/680). A tended to the East European steppes, the Avar similar, contemporary pair of buckles was found Khaganate, southern Bavaria etc.418 However, in burial 251/1940 at Samtavro; judging by the such buckles are rarely, if ever, found in the drawing,412 this might be connected with buck- Crimea which was closely linked to the culture of les with an elongated rear part of the loop (see the Balkans and Asia Minor. The single Crimean next section). The small buckles with rectangular specimen, found at Suuk-Su419 among dozens of plates from barrow 66а at Chir-Yurt (Dagestan) contemporary Crimean buckles (from a region- are dated by the mounts from the same assem- al sample of hundreds of sites), only serves to blage to the last decades of the 7th century or the stress the point. first decades of the 8th century;413 they belong to the group of derivatives of this buckle type, or to It appears that the origin of this group of buckles a series which had evolved convergently. A buck- is linked to the Iranian sphere, parts of Transcau- le similar to the ones from Chir Yurt, but without casia, and possibly Syria. Unfortunately, strap a groove for the pin, though with slightly pro- sets from these regions have not been studied truding front part of the loop and with a smaller in sufficient detail. The item from burial 326 at plate, has been found in Kamunta.414 Tsebelda, judging by associated finds, is dated to the last decades (or second half?) of the 6th to The origin of this buckle type seems to be the the beginning of the 7th centuries.420 Hence, the imitation of similar, but larger buckles which are date for the origin of this group of buckles can- also known in the North Caucasus, e. g. from bur- not be later than the 6th century. ial 55 at Nizhnij Dzhulat.415 Another line of prototypes is the small buckles with rectangular plate and В-shaped loop which frequently have lines Buckles with round front part of the loop, in the rear part of the plate, like the find from gently curved rear part of the loop, and raised Klin-Yar grave 352 (see p. 57 – 58; Figs. 97,30; sides marking the groove for the pin 99,73). In graves 352 and 360 at Klin-Yar, small buckles made in one piece with a rectangu- These buckles (Fig. 146,2b) belong to a clear se- lar plate have been found together with simi- ries which, on the basis of numerous finds, may lar buckles with B-shaped loop. Buckles with be called the Kislovodsk series. They were first B-shaped or ‘lyre-shaped’ loop and rectangular singled out as a special typological unit by Afa- plate are known from several East European se- nas’ev who called them the “lyre-shaped group”, ries, including Caucasus series. and he divided them into two types (17 and 18) according to the presence or absence of a plate, and identified sub-types according to the curve of 5.1.7 Buckles with elongated rear part the rear part of the loop; all buckles of this group of the loop date from the second quarter of the 7th century to the transition from the 7th to the 8th centuries.421 These (Figs. 78,65; 146,2b; 219,15) are often These buckles belong to a local series, are usu- included among ‘lyre-shaped’ buckles, and not ally connected with a specific belt type, and are distinguished from buckles with oval loop which especially characteristic of period IIIb in the Kis- have quite a different origin, distribution and lovodsk Basin pottery chronology.422 cultural context (see above). Clear examples of

416 Werner 1974, Taf. 21A,1; Иессен 1965, Fig. 27; Bálint 412 Апхазава 1979, Tab. XXVIII,2.3. In Гавритухин/Облом- 1992, Taf. 19,1; Апхазава 1979, Tab. XXVIII,1; Воронов ский 1996, Fig. 79,50 – 61 there is a misprint. Kovalevskaya 2003, Fig. 149,23. published a similar item with a different pin from “Samtav- 417 Rom und Byzanz 1998, no. 340. ro” (Ковалевская 1979, Tab. XV,14); she assigns this find 418 Залесская et al. 1997, no. 121; Balogh 2004, Fig. 1,2; to type 5 of lyre-shaped buckles which is made up of heter- Garam 1992, Tab. 78,8; Koch 1968, Tab. 27,14. ogeneous finds. 419 Репников 1906, Fig. 45. 413 Магомедов 1983, Fig. 21; Гавритухин 2005, 401 – 402, 420 Воронов 2003, Fig. 149,25 – 44; for belts of this circle, ИС-16, Fig. 1,7. see Гавритухин/Пьянков 2003, 192. 414 SH no. 2010/70. 421 Афанасьев 1980, 144 – 145; 150; 151; Афанасьев/Ру- 415 Айбабин 1990, 41, variant 2 of lyre-shaped buckles; нич 2001. Абрамова 1972. 422 Гавритухин/Малашев 1998, 61.

68 5 Belt sets from Alanic graves

At Klin-Yar, buckles of this series are represented buckles with scutiform or other loop, or joined by the specimen from grave 363 (catalogue no. 2b) flexibly to the strap.426 These buckles belong to and an unpublished find from grave 234 (excava- relatively narrow belts, the rear part of the more tion by A. B. Belinskij). The majority of the buckles ‘stylish’ models is decorated with semi-oval date to period IIIb according to Malashev; dated cut-outs. The rectangular plates of such buck- cases are Klin-Yar grave 363, and Mokraya Balka les are elongated and have an oblique rear catacombs 33, 74, 117 and 124.423 Catac omb 104 part. These details show that the find from Klin- at Mokraya Balka dates to final of period IIIa (see Yar is not directly related to the Kama block of Fig. 10). The earliest find of such a buckle comes series. from catacomb 25 at Mokraya Balka, dated to period IIb2 (AD 620/630 – 650/670) which overlaps In the North Caucasus, only isolated finds of with period IIIb (circa AD 650 – 680/700). Thus, buckles with oval loop and rectangular plate are the Kislovodsk series emerged in the middle of known. It is not clear to what extent they relate the 7th century and existed throughout the second to one another and to the buckle (see p. 68). On half of the 7th century. the other hand, there is no reason to believe that the buckle in question is an import. The pottery Among the buckles of this group, those from cata- assemblage allows to assign it to period IIIb ac- combs 59 and 103 at Mokraya Balka are truly orig- cording to Malashev (circa AD 650 – 680/720). It inal, as has already been noted by Afanas’ev who may be considered an individual variation which assigned them to subtype 1 of type 17. In addition is in keeping with the styles of late ‘heraldic’ to an almost straight rear part of the loop, they are sets, and quite typical of the early part of this characterized by a higher, yet less heavy loop, and period. a wider oval front part of the loop; uniquely in this group, they also have a plate made from two thin strips. Catacomb 103 dates to period IIIc according Early medieval ‘guitar-shaped’ buckles of the to Malashev, and catacomb 59 to IIIb/IIIc. It seems Kislovodsk Basin that these two buckles belong to a special series. Elongated buckles with concave sides are known Buckles comparable to this group have been from Roman times to the Middle Ages over a found at Chmi in North Ossetia424 where only the wide area. For some cultures such buckles may item from catacomb 6 may be assigned to the be considered diagnostic; in many cultures there Kislovodsk series. are single finds of such buckles or none at all. It seems that in the case of this buckle type, similarity in appearance does not reflect a common Buckles with oval loop with raised sides cultural area, continuity or influences of cultural marking the groove for the pin, and with traditions, etc. Elongated buckles with concave a rectangular plate sides seem to have had several epicenters of ori gin. At Klin-Yar, this type has been found in grave IV-8 (catalogue no. 15). There are no closely similar At Klin-Yar, ‘guitar-shaped’ buckles have been buckles known so that it is not really possible to found in graves 341 (catalogue no. 13), 345 think that this represents clear variants or a se- (nos. 26 and 65), 360 (nos. 68 and 82), 374 ries of buckles. (no. 14), IV-7 (nos. 14 and 39) and IV-10 (no. 6). Afanas’ev assigned similar buckles from The formal description corresponds to numer- Mokraya Balka to type 44, lumping together ous items belonging to one of the Kama block buckles with and without a marked groove for of series.425 Other series of the block include the pin since they are hardly distinguishable due to poor preservation, and dated them from the second quarter of the 7th to the transition 423 See publication of these and other Mokraya Balka as- from the 7th to the 8th centuries.427 The majority semblages mentioned here in Афанасьев/Рунич 2001. of the buckles was made of iron, and is often 424 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, Fig. 83, catacombs 6, 2, 23, 7, А, 17. poorly preserved. This makes analysis of the 425 Голдина/Водолаго 1990, Tab. XXVII,42 – 44; Голдина 1985, details more difficult. In spite of differences in Tab. VIII,37.38; etc. Kovalevskaya (Ковалевская 1979, 34) de- loop cross-sections and in some other details, scribed these items as sub-type 1 of type 5 of ‘lyre-shaped’ the ‘guitar-shaped’ buckles found around Kis- buckles, but her views on distribution and dating may need correction. In addition to the Perm oblast’ and single finds in lovodsk shall therefore be considered below as the Oka basin, they have also been encountered in cultures in one group. Udmurtia and Bashkiria and in the Vyatka basin. Since they are mainly concentrated in the Kama area, this and similar series of buckles should rather be called the Kama block of series. These buckles are connected with the so-called ‘Agafono- 426 For example, Голдина/Водолаго 1990, Tab. XXVII,20.22. vo’ belts, which are dated to the second half of the 7th century 24.27; Голдина 1985, Tab. IХ,35; etc. (Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 85 – 89). 427 Афанасьев 1980, 147, 152.

69 Klin-Yar – I. O. Gavritukhin

The reason for conflating these buckles with with beaded loops of trapezoidal shape or made ‘lyre-shaped’ ones (see above) as suggested by in one piece with the plate.431 The origin of this Afanas’ev lies not only in the difficulty of classi- style of loop decoration does not seem to have fying some of the iron items. In addition to their been studied. It is possible that this style has similar shapes, the two buckle types have similar Central Asian or Transcaucasian prototypes.432 date ranges (see below) and are frequently associated with identical strap ends and mounts. It appears that in some cases the ‘guitar-shaped’ Oval buckles with flattened and oblique section buckles were derived from ‘lyre-shaped’ models of local or affiliated series. A buckle of this type was found in grave 384 at Klin-Yar (catalogue no. 3). Such buckles are not ‘Guitar-shaped’ buckles have been found with typical of the North Caucasus. The nearest par- pottery assemblages assigned by Malashev allels can be found in several burials at Dyurso to periods IIb2 (Mokraya Balka catacomb 57), which unfortunately cannot be dated precise- IIIа (Klin-Yar graves 345, 360, IV-7 and IV-10; ly.433 It is unclear whether they are linked to the Mokraya Balka catacombs 52 and 90), IIIb buckles from Dyurso with flattened rectangular (Klin-Yar graves 341 and 374; Mokraya Balka section. Oval buckles with flattened and oblique catacombs 73 and 78) and IIIc (Mokraya Balka section, though without a groove for the pin as catacomb 78). Judging by the metal finds and found on the specimens from Klin-Yar and Dyur- individual pottery vessels, the same dating so, have been recorded at Chersones and at should be applied to the other finds of this buck- Bzhid near Tuapse where they were connected le type.428 with the wider orbit of Byzantine culture of the 6th to the beginning of the 7th centuries.434 The It seems that these buckles, as well as similar associated pottery from catacomb 384 at Klin- buckles with a marked groove for the pin, reflect Yar has analogies in periods Ic to Id according a Transcaucasian influence (probably during the to Malashev, which suggests a date not later reign of Heraclius I), its local interpretation and than AD 550/580. This buckle probably reflects development. the contacts between North Caucasus and Pon- tic cultures in the first half to the middle of the 6th century. 5.1.8 Rare forms

Buckles with beaded (‘pearl-necklace’) loop Hollow oval buckle loops made in one piece with a ‘spade-shaped’ plate At Klin-Yar, this type has been found in grave 374 (catalogue no. 16). There do not appear to At Klin-Yar, this type has been found in the dro- be any direct analogies for this object; it seems mos of grave 360 (catalogue no. D2). I know of to have no counterparts, however distant, in no similar items from the North Caucasus. Deep the North Caucasus. It is possible that the Klin- cut-outs between the loop and the near-scuti- Yar find was not a buckle but a pendant, or had form plate, making the plate resemble the out- some other function. On the basis of the asso- line of a spade, are known on items with a rec- ciated pottery, the object can be assigned to pe- tangular loop from Transcaucasia.435 This shape riod IIIb according to Malashev (i. e. the second probably reflects the style of buckles with cres- half of the 7th century) although a slightly earlier cent-shaped plate which are connected with the or later date cannot be excluded (Fig. 10). culture of Sassanian Iran.436 This may explain the presence of similar types in the Volga-Urals The buckle with beaded loop from the Byzantine region;437 the Caucasus was often a transmitter fortress near Ilyich village on Taman429 is larger of influences from Iran to the north (as far as the than the Klin-Yar object, oval in shape, has no Volga-Urals region). Some other buckles and studs, and is not hollow. Small rounded buckles mounts from Klin-Yar grave 360 are Byzantine im- with beaded loop are known in the northeast- ports or reflect the influence of Pontic and Medi- ern Caucasus and on the Kama;430 unfortunately the drawings do not show whether the finds are hollow or not. Such buckles may be connected 431 For example, Голдина/Водолаго 1990, Tab. LXVII,2.3; LXIX,8.22. 432 Распопова 1980, Figs. 61,7; 62,1; Рамишвили 2003, Tab. 112,3). 428 See the publication of the Mokraya Balka finds in 433 See footnote 251. Афанасьев/Рунич 2001; in some cases, the attribution was 434 Гавритухин 2002, 218 – 219 nos. 3 – 4; Гавритухин/Пьян- checked on the originals in SLHM and KLHM. ков 2003, Tab. 76,24. 429 Гавритухин/Паромов 2003, Tab. 61,9. 435 Апхазава 1979, Tab. ХХХ,1; Дзаттиаты 1986, Fig. 3,18. 430 For example, the Duba-Yurt cemetery of the Saltovo pe- 436 Казанский 2002. riod; IHMC photo archive, II.77023, О.1408.91; Голдина/ 437 Генинг 1977, Fig. 7,8; Амброз 1980, Fig. 4,22; Голдина/ Водолаго 1990, Tab. XXVIII,15; Голдина 1985, Tab. IX,28. Водолаго 1990, Tab. XXVII,29.38.

70 5 Belt sets from Alanic graves

terranean cultures. The combination of these el- 7th century, which is also the date of grave 360 ements with Iranian ones is especially typical of on the basis of the pottery assemblage and other strap sets of the second to third quarters of the finds.

5.2 Strap-ends and belt mounts

5.2.1 Introductory notes includes T-shaped mounts (section 5.2.9). An- other block of functional groups is strap dividers The only comprehensive study of strap-ends (sections 5.2.10 – 5.2.11). Some groups are rep- and mounts in Eastern Europe and Siberia is by resented by mounts of complex shape, including Kovalevskaya.438 It was written at the same time those which could have been used as strap-ends and as a follow-up to her book about buckles,439 (sections 5.2.12 – 5.2.15, 5.2.22), and one-part and it has the same drawbacks although pub- mounts (sections 5.2.16 – 5.2.17), including lished 20 years later. This means that there is a mounts with apertures which sometimes have gap between the known and the published ma- a functional purpose (section 5.2.18). C-shaped terial, as the author herself notes. The regional mounts (section 5.2.19) could have had a spe- studies quoted above (section 5.1.1)440 devote cial function. A special block of groups is formed more attention to buckles than to strap-ends and by small mounts (sections 5.2.20 – 5.2.21, mounts, which is due to the peculiarities of the 5.2.25). Mounts with pendants are represented material. There is no specialized study of strap- by pseudo-buckles (section 5.2.23). Repoussé ends and mounts from the Caucasus. sets with relief surface are represented by only one type of mounts (section 5.2.24). The typology of strap-ends and mounts is concerned to a larger extent than in the case of buckles with functional and technological aspects. 5.2.2 Strap-ends with emphasized The so-called ‘heraldic’ styles are of special sig- upper ‘platform’ nificance for the material in question.441 Unfor- tunately, the technological characteristics and A general overview of such strap-ends and some morphological details of strap-ends and mounts observations on the representative Volga-Kama are not always clear from the publications. material have been published.443 At Klin-Yar, this group is represented by one item from catacomb At Klin-Yar strap-ends made from thick plate are 357 (catalogue no. D30; Fig. 111). The upper only represented by a group with emphasized up- ‘platform’ is wide rather than faceted and nar- per ‘platform’ (section 5.2.2). Strap-ends with a rowing towards the end, which differs from the ridge in the lower part are represented by hollow other series outside the Caucasus. specimens442 (section 5.2.3). Other groups of hollow strap-ends are differentiated on the basis The similarity of this strap-end to the find from of the shape (straight-sided or complex; sections the grave of 1967 at Tsebelda, dated to the mid- 5.2.4 – 5.2.5). A separate group includes box- dle to the second half of the 6th century, has al- like strap-ends which were made of two plates ready been mentioned.444 A strap-end which soldered together with a metallic band (section is almost identical to the one from Klin-Yar has 5.2.6). Suspended fastener strap-ends (section been found in burial 2 of the Shapka cemetery 5.2.8) also form a functional group which often at Yustinianov Kholm445 which, like Tsebelda, is located in Abkhazia. A date of the second half of the 5th to the 6th centuries has been suggest- 438 Ковалевская 2000. ed for the assemblage, although for some of 439 Ковалевская 1979. the finds a more precise date of the end of the 440 Айбабин 1990; Гороховский 1988; Богачев 1992. 5th century to the middle of the 6th century has 441 In Russian archaeological literature, ‘heraldic’ applies to been proposed.446 The dating by Bazhan and Gej, multiple-part strap sets which existed from the middle of the th 6th and throughout most of the 7th centuries, with the gener- from the second half of the 5 century to the first th 447 al outline or details of mounts, strap-ends or buckle plates half of the 6 century, is not sufficiently sub- having the appearance of a heraldic shield (see Гавритухин/ stantiated. A closely similar repoussé strap-end Обломский 1996, 22 – 24). Another widespread term for this from catacomb 4 at Mokraya Balka (excavations group is ‘Martinovka type’; in German, they are often called Maskenbeschläge (mask-type fittings). by V. B. Kovalevskaya) originates, like the Klin- 442 Hollow strap-ends and mounts can be either cast or hammered (repoussé). The former are attached to the strap with loops or pegs which can be cast together with the object or 443 Гавритухин/Иванов 1999, 114 – 117. inserted; the latter are attached with inserted rivets, staples 444 Гавритухин 2001c, 36; see above, p. 54. inserted in a paste, a soldered plate or rivets on the reverse 445 Воронов/Юшин 1973, Fig. 11,6. side of the strap, etc. These differences are taken into ac- 446 Kazanski 1994, 143 – 144; 151. count in the following classifications. 447 Гей/Бажан 1997, Tab. 30.

71 Klin-Yar – I. O. Gavritukhin

Yar item, from the Kislovodsk Basin and dates In the Klin-Yar assemblages published here, to the middle to second half of the 6th century.448 such items were found in graves 341 (cata- Thus, the series of strap-ends with emphasized logue no. 41/42), 352 (nos. 32, 41, 51) and 360 upper ‘platform’ (henceforth called the Shapka (no. 63). Most of them are large, thin metal strips series) can be dated from the end of the 5th to the with cut-outs; the pair from grave 352 (nos. 32 6th centuries. Since the series is small and typo- and 41) stand out by their size, proportions, cut- logically ‘compact’, it is unlikely that these strap- outs and thickness of the metal. All are from as- ends were manufactured for an entire century. semblages of periods IIIа and IIIb after Malashev, Judging by the three coins of Justinian I in the which suggests a date of the middle to second grave of 1967 at Tsebelda, and the assemblage half of the 7th century. Strap-ends which are very of strap sets from Klin-Yar grave 357 which are similar to the finds from grave 341 were found in characteristic of the Early Turkic period,449 it ap- grave 234 from earlier excavations at Klin-Yar,454 pears that the peak of use of the Shapka series and in chamber 5 of the Khasaut cemetery,455 was in the middle to second half of the 6th cen- also in the Kislovodsk Basin. Their date is the tury. same as that suggested above for this group.

The origin of the Shapka series is not clear. It is As to proportion, size and manufacture, the yet another local manifestation of the evolution closest parallels of the large strap-ends of this of strap-ends with emphasized upper ‘platform’. type are from the Avar Khaganate on the Middle Strap-ends of similar shape, but smaller and Danube. Both, on the Danube and at Klin-Yar, with a ridge in the lower part are known from the such strap-ends are likely to have been part of central part of the North Caucasus, i. e. Kab ar horse harness. Strap-ends of the Danube se- dino-Balkariya450 and the Kislovodsk Basin.451 It ries are either abundantly ornamented with re- appears that this is another local Caucasian se- poussé, or smooth without cut-outs. It seems ries which either derives from the Shapka series that the type found in the Kislovodsk Basin be- or shares a common prototype. longs to a local series which may be called the Klin-Yar series. It has no direct parallels elsewhere in the Caucasus, with the exception of 5.2.3 Rectangular strap-ends with the relatively small, plain strap-end from Kugul ridge in the lower part western chamber 5.456 This is dated to the second to third quarters of the 7th century on the The most comprehensive description of this basis of a zoomorphic mount which belongs to group of strap sets (Fig. 62,41/42; 97,32.41) the same type as mounts from Martynovka (see has been provided by Nagy who studied many p. 65). The only earlier find from the Caucasus items from Late Roman to early Migration Period seems to be a pair of short strap-ends with ridg- date from Great Britain to Kazakhstan, and notes on both ends from Kugul western chamber 4 ed also the presence of 6th to 7th century items which dates to the middle to second half of the at sites of the Avar circle.452 The most compre- 6th century (see p. 54). hensive study of ‘Avar’ finds has been done by Kiss; Garam noted their use until the last third In the forest-steppe area on the Dnepr, ridged of the 7th century; the key finds from dated as- strap-ends are found in hoards of the Martynov- semblages which are important for understand- ka type, dating to the second to third quarters ing the evolution of this group of Avar strap- of the 7th century.457 Yet these are soldered ‘box- ends have been compiled elsewhere.453 This like’ items which differ from those in the Cauca- evidence shows that ‘Avar’ strap sets are not sus and Danube series in details of manufacture, derived from the preceding Central European in proportions, and in their lack of decoration; ones, implying that the fashion must have come they have no local prototypes either. So far, from the East. ridged rectangular strap-ends have not figured among East European steppe finds of the 6th to 7th centuries.

448 Ковалевская 2005, Fig. 90,5; Гавритухин 2001b, 43. 449 Гавритухин 2001c. Strap-ends with a ridge in the lower part are th th 450 Амброз 1989, Fig. 29,35. known in 5 to 6 centuries assemblages of the 451 Such a strap-end, now stored in KLHM, has been found in Urals region.458 These, however, differ from the assemblage 20/1970 at Mokraya Balka which corresponds to catacomb 58 in the overall numbering system. Some finds in the museum differ significantly from the publication (Афанасьев/Рунич 2001) which does not cover the item in 454 Unpublished excavations by A. B. Belinskij. question either. Such inconsistencies are not uncommon. 455 Unpublished excavations by A. P. Runich, information All we can say, therefore, is that this strap-end comes from from Yu. A. Prokopenko and S. N. Savenko. the Kislovodsk Basin. 456 Рунич 1979, Fig. 8,9. 452 Nagy 2005, 467 – 476. 457 Корзухина 1996, Tab. 13,14; 29,16.19; Гавритухин/Об- 453 Kiss 1996, 245; Garam 1992, 160 – 161; Гавритухин ломский 1996. 2001a, Fig. 54. 458 See e. g. Голдина/Водолаго 1990, Tab. XXX,1 – 11.

72 5 Belt sets from Alanic graves

type found at Klin-Yar in manufacturing technique significantly from that of the finds from the Cau- and in overall proportions; they were often deco- casus. A similar, hollow strap-end was found in a rated with attached plates with granulation, and woman’s burial in grave 11 at Baklinskij Ovrag; it were used in belts of the so-called Kharino type. differs from the ones discussed here in its more elongated proportions, in its particularly wide Thus, ridged strap-ends of the Klin-Yar series cut-out, and in its use on a narrow strap.462 The are a short-lived local phenomenon the origin date for this grave is determined by fibulae typ- of which is unclear. Their similarity to the Dan- ical of the first (Martynovka type), and similar ube series may point to a common, though as to items of the second, group of early medieval yet uncertain origin, although we cannot exclude Dnepr hoards, which points to a date in the sec- contacts between the Caucasus and the Danube ond half or the last third of the 7th century.463 region in the 7th century (see e. g. on p. 85 – 86). The Klin-Yar strap-end may, therefore, be a deriv- Even less clear is the situation with the pair of ative of the styles which were known in the Cau- small strap-ends from Klin-Yar grave 352. They casus (including the Kislovodsk Basin), on the were found in a complex of artefacts above the Pontic steppes and in Mountain Crimea (see also feet of burial 1, and could have been used in p. 80). Their date covers most of the 7th century, either the footwear or the horse harness placed and the Klin-Yar strap-end probably belongs to nearby. A mould for making small ridged strap- its later part. ends is in the collection of Anapa Museum (North-Eastern coast of the Black Sea); unfortunately, it was a stray find. With keyhole-shaped cut-out

At Klin-Yar, a strap-end of this type has been 5.2.4 Hollow strap-ends with straight found in grave IV-8 (catalogue no. 19; Fig. 219). sides A hammered equivalent is known from the Kis- lovodsk Basin, but it is somewhat longer, with Strap-ends of this type vary in size, but are quite a narrower cut-out and two apertures and lines similar in shape and decoration. Nonetheless, at the mouth.464 This assemblage is character- before analyzing the similarity, individual varia- istic of period IIb2 after Malashev, dated to AD tions of such objects need to be considered, in 620/630 – 650/670. At Chmi (North Ossetia), particular, whether the respective strap-end had catacombs 17 and Д produced strap-ends of this been on the main belt or on a peripheral strap. type together with items dated to approximately The discussion below covers only the types en- the second to third quarters of the 7th century; countered at Klin-Yar. a similar association was found at Kuchur-oba (Azerbaijan).465

Strap-ends with semicircular tip, for main belt The variety of details of the strap-ends in quest ion does not allow to identify any stable se- With real or imitated cut-out of the same shape ries; it appears rather that similar phenomena as the strap-end appeared in similar environments. They could have been derived from strap-ends found in the At Klin-Yar, such a strap-end with imitated cut- Crimea and on the Danube and connected most out has been found in grave IV-8 (catalogue probably with the Byzantine circle.466 The ap- no. 11; Fig. 219). The Zamkovyj cemetery in the pearance of these strap-ends in the Caucasus Kislovodsk Basin produced a similar strap-end may be connected with the influence of a great- with real cut-out.459 A smaller, similarly propor- er number of various small strap-ends with key- tioned strap-end has been found in grave 313 hole-shaped cut-out (see below). Whatever the at Tsebelda in Abkhazia, dated to the second case, the strap-end from Klin-Yar belongs to the to third quarter of the 7th century on the basis styles typical of North Caucasus cultures of the of T-shaped mounts with a triangular crossbar second to third quarters of the 7th century the in- centre.460 Similar strap-ends made in a different fluence of which may have extended to a some- technique have been found at Sivashovskoe (on what later period. the Pontic steppes) and in chamber 19 at Bak- linskij Ovrag in Mountain Crimea.461 Judging by their associated finds, their date does not differ 462 Айбабин/Юрочкин 1995, Fig. 22,5. 463 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996. 464 Афанасьев/Рунич 2001, Fig. 52,5; see the corrected drawing based on the original item in Гавритухин/Малашев 459 Personal communication S. N. Savenko. 1998, Fig. 5,12; Гавритухин 2001b, Fig. 77,16. 460 Гавритухин 2005, ИС-4. 465 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, Figs. 82,60.69.90; Bálint 461 Комар et al. 2006, Fig. 32,22; Айбабин/Юрочкин 1995, 1992, Tab. 41,21. Fig. 26,4. 466 Айбабин 1990, Fig. 49,22; Balogh 2004, Fig. 23,1.8.

73 Klin-Yar – I. O. Gavritukhin

Small strap-ends with semicircular or gently der southern influence, including the Caucasus. pointed tip, for supplementary straps It dates to the second to third quarters of the 7th century, which is confirmed by the dating of In the case of these artefacts, ‘small’ means a other finds in the assemblage. width of less than 15 mm. Strap-ends with gently pointed tip are much more numerous than the previously described Strap-end with keyhole-shaped cut-out and two sub-type. Apart from the Caucasus (with Tran- round holes (‘mask’ cut-out) scaucasia), Mountain Crimea, Kerch, the Pontic and Azov steppes and the Volga region,475 such At Klin-Yar, such a strap-end with semicircular tip items have been found on the forest-steppe and (Fig. 129,19) was found in grave 360 (catalogue forest reaches of the Dnepr and on the middle no. 19) and one with pointed tip in grave 352 Danube.476 (no. 61). Important features are the decoration of the tip, and the size. The length of most of these strap-ends is three times their width or less. Ajbabin has dated Strap-ends with semicircular tip are represent- them to the second half of the 7th century;477 only ed by a variety of finds from the Caucasus.467 the assemblage from Bogachevka belongs to the One of the shortest strap-ends of this type fourth quarter of the 7th century, given the asso- (11х19 mm), but without the two round cut- ciated buckles with rectangular frame and scuti- outs, has been found in a grave from previous form plate.478 However, the date range for such excavations at Klin-Yar.468 These finds are dated buckles cannot be quite so narrow, especially to the first half (second quarter?) to third quarter since the assemblages quoted by Ajbabin (e. g. of the 7th century,469 although they are all some- chamber 78/1907 at Kerch,479 and Kelegei) are what shorter than the specimen from grave 360 dated to an earlier period (see p. 52). Khaired- at Klin-Yar. inova suggested a date from the end of the 6th to the first half of the th7 centuries, but Ajbabin’s Similar strap-ends from the Oka region are com- suggestion of the use of such strap-ends in the parable to the ones from the Caucasus and are third quarter of the 7th century can hardly be dated accordingly.470 Judging by the publication, doubted.480 a fragmentary strap-end from chamber 197 at Skalistoe (Mountain Crimea)471 is similar to the Long strap-ends (with a length which is more Caucasus items and should be dated to the than three times the width) are much fewer in same period. A long strap-end (11х37 mm) was number. Specimens from the North Caucasus found in the Kama region;472 it seems to belong are known in the Olshevskij collection and from to a local series of strap-ends characteristic of Dagestan.481 A find from the Dnepr-Donets for- the Nevolino stage of the Nevolino Culture,473 est-steppe belongs to the hoard of Martynovka dated not earlier than the middle or end of the type.482 In the Danube region, similar items have 7th century, but mostly to the 8th century, and been found at Mokrin.483 Hoards of the Martynov- most probably its first half.474 The Klin-Yar strap- ka type are composed predominantly of items end from grave 360 is slightly shorter than the popular during the second to third quarters of other Nevolino cases and has a rounded tip, the 7th century;484 Mokrin burial 67 is not earlier which suggests an early date within the Nevoli- than that (cf. p. 80). This agrees with the date es- no stage. tablished for Klin-Yar grave 352 on the basis of pottery and other finds. The parallels mentioned Thus, the Klin-Yar strap-end with semicircular tip belongs to a block of variants which is concentrated mainly in the Caucasus. It is slightly 475 See selection in Айбабин 1990, 55; additional data do longer than the average local items, but shorter not change the overall picture. than the Nevolino ones which had evolved un- 476 See examples in Корзухина 1996; Гавритухин/Облом- ский 1996; Balogh 2004; and below. 477 Айбабин 1990, 55 Fig. 2,128. 478 Айбабин 1990, Fig. 2,162. 467 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, Fig. 79,37 – 38; 82,59; 479 Хайрединова 2003, 132. Абрамова 1972, Fig. 11,6; see also footnote 251; personal 480 See also above, section 5.1.5 for the Crimean assem- communication S. N. Savenko on Machty cemetery. blages. 468 Unpublished excavations by A. B. Belinskij. 481 Photo archive of IHMC, no. 503.79, 222; Гавритухин/Об- 469 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, ch. 3.5., 3.7. Fig. 90; see ломский 1996, Fig. 46,16. also above, section 5.1.5. 482 Корзухина 1996, Tab. 55,18. The presence of a pointed 470 See footnote 279. tip can be seen on the drawing by A. K. Ambroz stored in the 471 Веймарн/Айбабин 1993, Fig. 19,2. archive of ИА РАН; the strap-end is in the Kharkov Historical 472 Голдина/Водолаго 1990, Tab. XXIX,26. Museum and has sustained damages, hence it is impossible 473 Голдина/Водолаго 1990, Tab. XXIX,24 – 28; XLIV,4; LXVIII, to check this detail. 19. 483 Balogh 2004, Fig. 4,16; 24,44.46. 474 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 86 – 89. 484 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996.

74 5 Belt sets from Alanic graves above could hardly have been all manufactured 5.2.5 Hollow strap-ends of complex in one place; their proportions most probably re- outline flect the trend towards elongation of strap ends and of other types which appeared in some East With concave sides European cultures by the middle of the 7th century.485 These strap-ends differ in proportions, outline, perforations and other decoration.491 The types found at Klin-Yar all belonged to narrow straps With one triangular and two or three small (less than 15 mm in width). round cut-outs

Such a strap-end has been found in Klin-Yar Elongated, with a pair of round perforations or grave 360 (catalogue no. 19). Hollow strap-ends indents with triangular cut-out are definitely original and belong to a single series. A number of finds from At Klin-Yar, these (Fig. 135,62) were present in the central part of the North Caucasus, includ- graves 352 (catalogue nos. 47, 49а), 360 (nos. ing the one discussed here, belong to a special 62/65, 87), IV-8 (nos. 16, 20, 24) and IV-9 (nos. block of variants which is characterized by three D4, D10/11). They belong to a group of artefacts round cut-outs facing the corners of the triangu- which may serve as a chronological indicator: lar cut-out, and gently pointed tip. elongated arrow-shaped (long-scutiform) strap- ends with slightly concave sides and two round In the Kislovodsk Basin, such strap-ends have perforations or their imitations.492 The single find been found at Mokraya Balka, three in catacomb from the Gaponovo hoard belongs to an original 94 and one in catacomb 11К.486 They belong to variant connected with the block of series which periods IIb2 and IIb1 after Malashev, i. e. the is most widely represented in the Caucasus and first half to third quarter of the th7 century. A find at sites in the Volga-Urals region. Typologically, from Lunacharka belongs to the same horizon.487 they precede the ones with a more markedly con- In Kabardino-Balkaria, two similar strap-ends cave-sided outline (‘Agafonovo’ type) and date have been found in catacomb 1 at Nizhnij Dzhu- to the second to third quarters of the 7th century. lat which is again dated to the same period.488 Another find “from Chegem” has been noted by The finds from Klin-Yar listed above clearly belong Kovalevskaya.489 Outside the North Caucasus, to the North Caucasus series. It is distinguished similar strap-ends are known from two assem- by its size (12 – 15 × 37 – 44 mm, with a ratio of blages from the Pontic steppes and have the approximately 1 : 3), by lateral points situated same date as the ones from the Caucasus.490 slightly above two-thirds of the height, by a point in the shape of an emphasized or long tapering The earliest of these items, the one from cata- tip, and by a longitudinal ridge. In the Kislovodsk comb 11К at Mokraya Balka, is characterized Basin, apart from Klin-Yar, a similar strap-end by incised lines at the mouth, and an elongated has been found in catacomb 1 at Mokraya Bal- triangular aperture adjoining the lower round ka.493 All of these assemblages belong to period one. The finds from Dzhulat have a shorter and IIIа, with only one (Klin-Yar grave IV-8) from peri- wider triangular aperture which is not joined to od IIIb after Malashev, which gives a date of the the round ones, and the items from catacomb 94 second to third quarters of the 7th centuries, with at Mokraya Balka have no incised lines. The final a possible ‘time lag’ in individual cases. Similar stage of this evolution is represented by the item items have been found on the Caucasian Black from grave 360 at Klin-Yar. This strap-end be- Sea coast, on the lower reaches of the Kuban, in longs to the development of local traditions and Kabardino-Balkaria, North Ossetia, Bashkiria and reflects the completion of the evolution of strap- the Aral region.494 The date for these finds seems ends discussed here around the middle (second to be the same as for the Kislovodsk Basin assem- to third quarters) of the 7th century. blages.

485 See above on strap-ends with semicircular tip, sections 491 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 32; 90; 92; 94. 5.2.5 and 5.2.6; Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 90, 92,ИС- 492 See footnote 491, indicator ИС-22. 28. 493 Афанасьев/Рунич 2001, Fig. 13,8; details checked in 486 Афанасьев/Рунич 2001, Fig. 106,9. See corrected draw- A. P. Runich’s report in the archive of ИА РАН. ing based on the original item in Гавритухин 2001b, Fig. 77,6; 494 Гавритухин/Пьянков 2003, Fig. 78,56; Атавин 1996, Ковалевская 2005, Fig. 94,5. Tab. 9,1, checked against the photograph in the report in the 487 Unpublished excavations by A. P. Runich, information archive of ИА РАН; Амброз 1989, Fig. 29,10; Ковалевская from Yu. A. Prokopenko and S. N. Savenko. 2000, 324, no. 710 – 712; Мажитов 1981, Fig. 4,22; Гав- 488 Абрамова 1972, Fig. 10,4; see above, section 5.1.5. ритухин/Обломский 1996, Fig. 45,23.25; Левина 1994, 489 Ковалевская 2000, Tab. 4, no. 409. Fig. 154,31 – 32; and possibly some other finds mentioned 490 Personal communication A. I. Kubyshev. by Kovalevskaya.

75 Klin-Yar – I. O. Gavritukhin

It is evident that the finds of the series found at Kovalevskaya has suggested that the imitation Klin-Yar are concentrated in the central part of of a human face was the first motif in the de- the North Caucasus. Prototypes for this series velopment of ‘heraldic’ strap set decoration.501 are also known in this region.495 Variants can be However, the mounts from Klin-Yar do not seem identified within the series, but they do not seem to support her suggestion. On the basis of their to have any chronological or geographical signif- associations and parallels, they are dated to the icance. second to third quarters of the 7th century, being individual modifications of local styles which were influenced by cultures from further north. Elongated, with one keyhole-shaped cut-out and two round apertures (‘face’) With ornamental band at the mouth At Klin-Yar such strap-ends, which also have a re- poussé ‘checkmark’ (joined curved lines) above A concave-sided (long-scutiform) hollow strap- the round apertures (or indentations) have end with this feature has been found in Klin- been found in grave 352 (catalogue nos. 70, 72, Yar grave 352 (catalogue no. 68). Ornamented Fig. 99). Here, ‘elongated’ means that the length bands at the mouth are known on ‘box-shaped’ is more than three times the width. strap-ends with decorated functional strip which served to reinforce the assembled construction. There do not appear to be any parallels in the Hollow strap-ends do not need this detail; of North Caucasus. Most of the similar items come course, the mouth of hollow strap-ends was also from the forest-steppe Dnepr area and in the area decorated, but usually with horizontal lines. The of the Dnepr rapids.496 Another similar strap- only exception are numerous strap-ends from end, though smaller and almost straight-sided, the Oka region the dating of which is close to has been found in Lower Austria.497 But here are grave 352 at Klin-Yar.502 Ornamentation at the no strap-ends which are identical to the Klin-Yar mouth has already been mentioned among the items (for instance, none of them has a ‘check- features peculiar to the specific Oka series.503 mark’), and they differ noticeably from each The ‘northern’ influence can be traced on other other in some of the details. The finds from the strap-ends from Klin-Yar grave 352 as well (see Kama region are typologically even less similar above). In this case, the source of the influence to these strap-ends.498 Although some of the appears to be the Oka region. finds from the Kama region have, like the Klin- Yar ones, curved cut-outs above the round apertures,499 they differ in proportions and may have 5.2.6 ‘Box-shaped’ strap-ends the same prototypes as the finds from Klin-Yar. There does not appear to be a specialized study Since the ‘face-decorated’ strap-ends are not devoted to this group of strap-ends.504 Ajbabin a series, they may be individual modifications has noted the features and chronological details which used local elements. Indeed, in the North which distinguish them from items similar in ap- Caucasus, and specifically at Klin-Yar, there are pearance but made in a different way;505 howev- parallels for the shape and type of the cut-outs er, he described variations which have not been (see p. 73; 75); different forms of ‘checkmarks’ found at Klin-Yar. A comparison of strap-ends on are also found among the North Caucasus finds. the basis of size and proportions will be correct Nonetheless, the relatively large size of the Klin- only where the compared items had similar func- Yar item is not typical of the North Caucasus tions and belonged to similar cultural contexts and suggests influence from the Dnepr or Oka because different cultures saw different direc- regions where hollow strap-ends for supplemen- tions of the evolution of sizes of mounts.506 The tary straps about 50 mm in length are frequently importance of the ‘dimension’ or ‘size standard’ found,500 and possibly from the Kama region. All (meaning a limited range of sizes and propor- these regions had intensive and wide-ranging tions of items belonging to a single type) has contacts with the North Caucasus. also been noted by Kovalevskaya.507

495 E.g. Афанасьев/Рунич 2001, Fig. 119,6; about the trend towards increased length of strap-ends in some East 501 For critical comments, see Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, European cultures, see also p. 74 and section 5.2.6. 22; Гавритухин/Пьянков 2003, 192. 496 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, Fig. 45,37 – 38.51; Лев- 502 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, Fig. 45,44.53; see also ченко 2001. footnote 470. 497 Daim 1987, Pl. 153,В.1. 503 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 32. 498 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, Fig. 45,6 – 7, etc. 504 See brief outline in Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 35. 499 E. g. Fig. 18, type 16; Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 505 Айбабин 1990, 55. Fig. 45,28; Семёнов 1976, Tab. III,9. 506 See e. g. Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 35; Гавритухин 500 E. g. Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, Fig. 45,33.37.44 – 46; 1990, 128. see also below. 507 Ковалевская 2000.

76 5 Belt sets from Alanic graves

Smooth, with straight sides and semicircular tip Long strap-ends, for main belt and horse harness Medium-sized strap-ends, for medium-width main belt The length of such strap-ends is more than three times their width. Apart from belts, they have Basically, the strap-ends in question are the also been found in horse harness. The main geo points of belts over 22 mm in width; the length graphical distribution of this type is similar to of the strap-ends themselves is not more than that given above for their shorter or wider coun- three times their width. Such items are quite fre- terparts (see above). quently found in the Volga region, in the North Caucasus and the Crimea.508 At Klin-Yar, one At Klin-Yar, two long strap-ends of this type have specimen has been found in grave 357 (cata- been found in grave 352 (catalogue nos. 23 and logue no. 39). The size standard of the Klin-Yar 50). They have similar sizes, but vary in some find is represented by a rather limited circle of details. No. 23 has a corrugated edging strip, artefacts (sizes 24 – 26 × 44 – 50 mm). two rivets and traces of decorative plating at the mouth; no. 50 widens out more noticeably at the As to size and proportions, the closest par- tip, has one rivet and no additional decorations. allel of the Klin-Yar strap-end is the find from Despite these differences which may be the re- Ilovatka kurgan 3 on the Volga steppes (size sult of repairs or replacement, they must have 24 × 47 mm) which belongs to the early ho- belonged to one set, most probably a bridle. rizon of ‘heraldic’ strap sets in the Volga region.509 The mounts and buckle of the Ilovatka There do not appear to be any strap-ends simi- assemblage compare with sets which include lar to the size standard of these finds from Klin- pseudo-b uckles of groups 1 and 2 (Fig. 18), Yar. In the Kislovodsk Basin, shorter strap-ends which suggests a date within the last decades were found in catacomb 94 at Mokraya Balka of the 6th and the first decades of the 7th cen- (19 × 61 mm),513 which is dated to period IIb2 tury (see section 5.2.23). A slightly shorter after Malashev, i. e. approximately the second strap-end (24 × 44 mm) has been found in quarter of the 7th century. Strap-ends which are burial 50 of Otstojnik cemetery510 which, like four times as long as they are wide have been Klin-Yar, is located in the Kislovodsk Basin. found at Chir-Yurt in Dagestan: the item from the This group most probably also includes the flat cemetery is from period 2а, dating to the sec- strap-end from burial 15 in the kurgan near ond to third quarters of the 7th century, and the Spokojn aya stanitsa in the Krasnodar region find from the kurgan (barrow) cemetery is from (max. size 26 – 27 × 50 mm).511 Judging by the between this date and the 730s.514 associated finds, these assemblages appear to be slightly later than those of the Ilovatka On the Caucasian Black Sea coast, a series of group, but they lack the features characteristic strap-ends (18 – 21 × 68 – 75 mm) has been of strap sets of the second to third quarters of found at Dyurso, all dating to the 7th century, the 7th century.512 mainly to its middle; and one of the narrow- est items which widens out at the terminal It appears that the strap-end from Klin-Yar be- (17/18 × 71 mm) is not earlier than the second longs to the size standard which is connect- half of the 7th century.515 The somewhat longer ed with sites reflecting the relations between strap-end (20 × 78 mm) from burial 137 at regions in the North Caucasus and the Volga Dyurso is, unfortunately, undated. The longest steppes. From the last third of the 6th century, strap-end found in the region, the one from bur- these regions belonged to the First Turkic Kha- ial 114 at Bzhid (18 × 88 mm), is dated to the ganate. second to third quarters of the 7th century,516 and the similar find from burial 135 at Dyurso517 should have the same date.

Although the strap-ends which have been discussed above come from different regions of

508 Box-shaped strap-ends are found quite widely in cemeteries of the Avar circle on the Middle Danube. They have 513 Гавритухин 2001b, Fig. 77,2. undergone a local evolution (Гавритухин 1990, 128). 514 Магомедов 1983, Fig. 24,29; Ковалевская 2005, 509 Смирнов 1959, Fig. 7,2 – 4; Гавритухин/Обломский Fig. 65,26; Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, Fig. 80; 90; Гав- 1996, 85 – 86 Fig. 89. ритухин 2005, 391 – 392; Гавритухин/Казанский 2006. 510 Personal communication S. N. Savenko. There are further, unpublished stray finds from Dagestan. 511 Лопатин 1995, Fig. III.5в; the characteristic features have 515 See footnote 251. been checked against the original item with the kind help of 516 KSHAM collection. I am grateful to the excavator, A. V. Pyan V. S. Olkhovskij. kov, for access to the material which he is preparing for pub- 512 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996; Гавритухин 2001c; Гав- lication. ритухин 2005. 517 Дмитриев 2003, Tab. 83,28.

77 Klin-Yar – I. O. Gavritukhin

the Caucasus, they record one and the same have been found at Mokraya Balka; although the trend: items more than four times as long as museum inventory lists them as finds from cat- they are wide became popular about the middle acomb 115, they were not published together of the 7th century, although their shorter coun- with the assemblage, while similar items have terparts were still in use. A similar trend can be been published for catacombs 113, 114 and observed in the Kama region where long narrow 117.521 In this case, it is not particularly impor- strap-ends, frequently widening out slightly at tant to solve this problem since all of the quot- the terminal (15/17 × 81 mm, 17/18 × 95 mm, ed assemblages from Mokraya Balka, as well as 17 × 84 mm)518 belong to the so-called Agafono- the relevant assemblage from Klin-Yar, belong to vo horizon (second half of the 7th century, or at period IIIb after Malashev. Thus, in this case we any rate not earlier than that)519. The same trend have a typologically compact local variant which can be seen in artefacts from the Oka and Sura existed for a short period of time. basins.520

It is interesting that the especially long strap- Smooth, concave-sided, with round tip ends have not been found in the Crimea, the (elongated drop-shaped) Dnepr region and on the Azov-Pontic steppes where their shorter and wider counterparts are Strap-ends for main belt frequent. It must be that the events of the second half of the 7th century, marked by the depo- Such strap-ends belong to rather narrow belts sition of hoards of the Martynovka type, by the (mostly 15 – 20 mm in width). The length of the end of Sivashovka-type burials, etc., had cata- strap-ends is three times their width, and fre- strophic consequences for the Dnepr cultures, quently much longer; they are, with rare ex- and the new fashion had simply no opportunity ceptions (see below), main mounts of the belt to develop there. In the Caucasus and Volga-Ural and often have decorated plating at the mouth. cultures of the second half of the 7th century, a These finds represent the North Caucasus se- strong influence of the earliest strap set styles is ries, and they are mainly concentrated in the visible, together with innovations. central regions of the North Caucasus although they are known from elsewhere; single finds Thus, the strap-ends from Klin-Yar belong to local have been made in the Volga region. At Klin-Yar, variations reflecting the stylistic trends of strap graves 363 (catalogue no. 2а) and IV-10 (no. 9) set evolution in the middle to second half of the have produced such items. 7th century, trends which are similar in several regions of the North Caucasus and the Volga-Ural Since strap-ends of this type are similar in width, region. they are mainly differentiated by length. One of the shortest strap-ends is from burial 121 at Eliza- vet-Mikhajlovka on the river Tsna in Mordovia Small narrow strap-ends with band around the (length 62 mm)522 which, judging by the associat- mouth, for supplementary straps ed strap set, is contemporary with the Martynov- ka hoard horizon of the second to third quarters Small ‘box-shaped’ strap-ends for side-straps, of the 7th century.523 Short strap-ends have been baldrics, harness, footwear, etc., are found from found in catacombs 16 and 17 at Chmi which date the zone of Byzantine presence (i. e. Chersones to the same period (length 73 mm in catacomb and Abkhazia) to the Volga. Among them, the 16, and 59 and 86 mm in catacomb 17).524 The clearly identifiable Kislovodsk variant includes assemblage of the same horizon in catacomb 12 items with a mouth 11 – 12 mm wide, approxi- at Chmi contains longer items as well (length mately four times as long as they are wide, fre- 113 mm).525 The strap-end from grave 17 of the quently widening at the tip, and with plating at Petropavlovskij cemetery (length 80 mm) is con- the mouth. This variant is similar to the series of temporary, judging by the set with pseudo-buck- small concave-sided strap-ends which are also les of horizon 4 (see section 5.2.23).526 typical for assemblages in the Kislovodsk Basin A good selection of examples of strap-ends (see p. 79). of this type (length 78 – 114 mm527) is represented at Mokraya Balka, in catacombs 15, At Klin-Yar, strap-ends of the Kislovodsk variant have been found in grave 341 (catalogue nos. 33b and 34l). At least two very similar strap-ends 521 Афанасьев/Рунич 2001; finds in SLHM. 522 See footnote 279. 523 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 24 – 25, type 3б. 518 After Голдина/Водолаго 1990, Tab. XXXIII,19 – 20; Голди- 524 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, Fig. 82,72 – 73.93; 83. на 1985, Tab. XIII,23. 525 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, Fig. 82,86. 519 Гавритухин 1996; Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 86 – 89; 526 Семёнов 1976, Fig. II,17; Гавритухин 2001c; characteris- Гавритухин/Иванов 1999, 142. tic features, including those not noted in publications, have 520 See footnote 279. been checked in the NMRU collection, no. 178/382.

78 5 Belt sets from Alanic graves

74, 78, 90, 114, 115, 117 and 124 which are Strap-ends for supplementary straps dated mainly to period IIIb, but also to IIIc after Malashev, indicating a date in the second The difference between main-belt strap-ends half of the 7th to the beginning of the 8th cen- and those for supplementary straps (fixed at turies. The same size bracket and date apply the sides or used for fastening accessories) is to other finds from the Kislovodsk Basin.528 The size: the latter have a width of 15 mm or less. In find from catacomb 52 at Mokraya Balka has borderline cases, the function of the respective been assigned by Malashev to period IIIа, and strap-end can be inferred from the associated the associated vessel with group III stamp sug- finds. The length of these strap-ends is four to gests a date in the later part of that period or five times their width at the mouth. Like the main- even beyond.529 belt strap-ends, they usually have plating at the mouth. At Klin-Yar, such strap-ends of differing In Dagestan, a strap-end of this type has been sizes have been found in graves 345 (catalogue found in Chir-Yurt burial 4 excavations by nos. 24, and probably 75b) and 374 (no. 24). N. D. Putintsev a (length 107 mm).530 It belongs to period 2а of the flat cemetery, dated to the One of the strap-ends from grave 345 (no. 24) second to third quarters of the 7th century.531 On is very similar to the item from catacomb 90 at the Caucasian Black Sea coast, a similar strap- Mokraya Balka535 which Malashev dated to pe- end (length 102 mm) has been found in grave riod IIIа; the associated vessel with group III 59 at Bzhid, dated only generally to the 7th cen- stamp puts this assemblage to the end of peri- tury.532 The second half of the 7th century is the od IIIа or the beginning of IIIb 536 while the item date for the long strap-end from Lagereevo in from Klin-Yar grave 345 belongs to the beginning Bashkiria.533 In the Carpathian Basin, in burial 2 of period IIIb after Malashev. In addition to the at Deszk-M, a strap-end (length 100 mm) which small strap-end, both assemblages included a appears to have slightly concave sides is part of larger one, also for a supplementary strap (see a set all components of which have counterparts below). It seems that the type of short strap- in the North Caucasus.534 The date of this burial ends was a local variant of small strap-ends cannot be earlier than the peak of popularity of (length 35 – 45 mm) which existed for a short pe- belts with such mounts in the Caucasus, i. e. the riod of time and was included in strap sets which second to third quarters of the 7th century (see were part of a series of similar assemblages. This above, Chmi). supports the date suggested above, the end of period IIIа and the earlier part of period IIIb after Thus, the shortest strap-ends of this series Malashev (i. e. the third quarter of the 7th century (length up to 80 mm) are only known as rare or slightly wider). finds from the Oka region to the North Cau- casus in the second to third quarters of the The closest parallels of the strap-end from Klin- 7th century. At approximately the same time, Yar grave 374 (no. 24) are the finds from cata- longer versions appeared which were most combs 90 and 92 at Mokraya Balka.537 Malashev popular in the second half of the 7th century, assigned both assemblages to period IIIb, and mainly in the North Caucasus and its contact on the basis of all available indicators their date regions. The find from grave IV-10 at Klin-Yar is close to that of catacomb 90 at Mokraya Balka is probably among the early variants of the se- (see above). It is possible that some of the finds ries, and the find from grave 363 among the from catacombs 113, 114 and 117 at Mokraya later variants which are widely distributed in Balka (see p. 78) also belong to this (Kislovodsk) the Kislovodsk Basin in the second half of the series of strap-ends. 7th century. The Kislovodsk series of supplementary strap- ends is clearly connected with the main-belt strap-ends discussed above. Their combined presence signal the peak of popularity of an original belt style in the Kislovodsk Basin in the third quarter of the 7th century (or in some cases 527 Sizes after Афанасьев/Рунич 2001, checked against the possibly slightly later). Yet some parts of these original items or in other sources. belts can have wider dating and a wider cultural 528 Unpublished excavations by A. P. Runich, information context. from Yu. A. Prokopenko and S. N. Savenko. 529 Гавритухин 2001b, 45 – 46; see also below. 530 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, Fig. 80,31; Ковалевская 2005, Fig. 70,8. 535 Афанасьев/Рунич 2001, Fig. 101,23. All defining fea- 531 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, Figs. 80; 90; Гавритухин tures have been checked against the original item. 2005, 391 – 392. 536 Гавритухин 2001b, 45 – 46; see also this page above. 532 See footnote 516. 537 Афанасьев/Рунич 2001, Figs. 101,24; 104,7. The char- 533 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, Fig. 89,45. acteristic details have been checked against the original 534 Balogh 2004, Fig. 14,26. item from catacomb 90.

79 Klin-Yar – I. O. Gavritukhin

With triangular tip (pentagonal) rowing down the dating.547 A small strap-end of this outline has been found in chamber 422 at Box-shaped strap-ends of this type are not nu- Skalistoe, but the publication does not indicate merous. At Klin-Yar, one specimen was found whether it is box-shaped or hollow;548 the date in grave 341 (catalogue no. 12). A strap-end of for the finds from the chamber is the first half to this type, shorter and with straight sides, has third quarter of the 7th century (see p. 62). been found in burial 135 at Dyurso.538 That assemblage contains a pair of fibulae with tubular Various cut-through strap-ends are quite fre- catch539 and fragments of corrugated repoussé quently found (see e. g. p. 73 and this section mounts of ‘heraldic’ type540, suggesting a date below), as are cut-through mounts. It appears in the 7th century. In the Middle Danube region, that strap-ends of this type are rare local mani- such strap-ends with concave sides have been festations of this wider context. found in burials 62 and 67 of Mokrin cemetery,541 dating most probably to the Middle Avar period, i. e. AD 620/640 to circa 700.542 Gold strap-ends With granulated gold appliqué of this type with granulation are thought to be Iranian.543 Strap-ends decorated with granulation have been covered in several studies.549 The following blocks The outline is widely represented among dif- of series need to be distinguished: (1) box-shaped ferently made strap-ends, including hollow solid gold strap-ends, found usually in the richest repoussé and solid cast ones, ornamented grave assemblages from Iran to the Middle Dan- cast strap-ends, etc., ranging from the Avar ube; (2) plated strap-ends found in the Caucasus, Khaganate to the Caucasus and the Volga re- on the steppe of the Lower Kuban and in Artsiba- gion. This shape becomes especially popular shevo to the south of the Oka, which could have around the last third of the 7th century,544 and been placed directly on the leather or reinforced continued in use later. In all characteristics, with a plate made of organic materials or metal; the Klin-Yar find is similar to the drop-shaped repoussé was sometimes used to imitate granula- strap-ends widely distributed in the Kislovodsk tion, suggesting an imitation of more prestigious Basin in the second half of the 7th century (see styles; (3) cut-through box-shaped strap-ends, above), and it may be an individual modifica- made of silver with a decorated gold plate insert- tion of those. ed under the cut-out, which is the case with the Klin-Yar finds. The following discussion is limited to this third block of series. Small strap-ends with straight sides, semicircular edge and narrow cut-out The Klin-Yar series is represented by the strap with semicircular edge set from Klin-Yar 360, which includes one main- belt strap-end (catalogue no. 85) and at least At Klin-Yar, this type is represented by find five standard-sized strap-ends for side or sup- no. 31 from catacomb IV-9 (Fig. 225). It has few plementary straps (nos. 24, 54, 74, 86). Judging direct analogies. A similar, but slightly shorter by the publication, the nearest analogies seem specimen has been found in the intrusive bur- to be the four small strap-ends (size 12 × 41 mm) ial excavated in 1983 in kurgan 5 at Vinograd- from a strap set in the Musées Royaux d’Art et nyj on the Pontic steppes,545 dated to the first d’Histoire (Brussels) which may have come from half or the second to third quarters of the the Amlash region in Iran.550 7th century (see this section below). A similar date applies to the cut-through strap-ends, in- The Vasil’evka series was found in Vinograd- cluding a small one, from chamber 2 at Kalakol noe (23 × 45 or 48 mm),551 and in burials 1 and (Kabardino-Balkaria).546 A fragment of a similar 2 of kurgan 2 at Vasil’evka (main-belt strap- strap-end with very narrow cut-out has been ends 24 or 26 × 53 or 56 mm, and 22,5 or found in chamber 419 at Skalistoe in Moun- 23 × 49,5 or 51 mm; supplementary strap-ends tain Crimea which produced no finds for nar- 14,5 or 16 × 32 or 35 mm, and 13 or 15 × 31 or 32 – 34 mm; the scale of the available drawings varies slightly).552 It is similar to the Klin-Yar se- 538 Дмитриев 1982, Fig. 12,32. 539 Type 3 after Дмитриев 1982. 540 See footnote 251. 541 Balogh 2004, Figs. 23,18; 24,47. 547 Веймарн/Айбабин 1993, Fig. 71,22. 542 After Гавритухин 2001a; Гавритухин 2005. 548 Веймарн/Айбабин 1993, Fig. 7. 543 Bálint 1978, Fig. 8. 549 Станилов 2006, with a list of earlier publications. 544 Starting from Middle Avar II period after Гавритухин 550 Splendeur 1993, no. 43. 2001a; Гавритухин 2005. 551 Орлов/Рассамакин 1996, 111, Figs. 3,13; 4,1. 545 Орлов/Рассамакин 1996, Fig. 5,17. 552 Personal communication I. A. Kubyshev. The strap-ends 546 Unpublished excavations by A. G. Nechaeva; report in ИА and mounts from burial 2 in kurgan 2 at Vasil’evka have been РАН archive, P-1, no. 4221. published, without comment or scale, in Bálint 1992, Pl. 49.

80 5 Belt sets from Alanic graves

ries in the granulation scheme (which involves be an indicator of separate series, but fully pre- rather random positioning of triangles made up served strap-ends with such plates have not yet of small granules, and framed by lines of gran- been found. ules of varying size). But strap-ends of this series have straight sides, are slightly more than twice Most of the above assemblages are contempo- as long as they are wide (which dictates the rary with the Pereshchepina horizon which dates granulation compositions), and the supplemen- to circa AD 620/640 to 660/680,559 although a tary strap-ends differ from the main-belt ones in slightly earlier date for the Vasil’evka series and the decoration of the inset and even in its dec- the Iranian finds is possible. orative technique (on the item from burial 2 at Vasil’evka, the centre of the inset is decorated with repoussé plant ornament and framed with 5.2.7 Belt set with incised components granulation). and inlaid repoussé gold appliqué with plaited-cord motif The Borisovo series is characterized by decoration with two types of granulated figures close At Klin-Yar, such a belt set (Fig. 127,4b; 129,22; together. The series includes the straight-sid- 130,28.32 – 36; 131,37.39.40.42.43.45; Pl. 5,2.3) ed strap-end from burial 52 of the Borisovo has been found in grave 360. It includes a large cemetery near Gelendzhik (22 × 65 mm).553 strap-end (catalogue no. 45) and several smaller The small strap-end from burial 3 of kurgan 30 ones (nos. 22, 28, 35, 40, 42); scutiform mounts near Kalininskaya stanitsa in the Lower Kuban (nos. 4b, 34, 36, 37, 43); an almond-shaped (11,5 × 30 mm)554 probably also belongs to it; mount (no. 4е); bipartite mounts with notched this is supported by its proportions, and its tips (no. 33, 39); and several single-part mounts smaller size explains the simplicity of the deco- of various sizes with outlines similar to that of rative composition of granulated triangles. the bipartite ones (nos. 4с, 4d, 32). They were made in several different techniques: the strap- Judging by the published photograph, part of ends are box-shaped, the mounts are hollow, as one of the gold strap-ends from Artsibashevo is the buckle (see p. 55 – 56), fixed to the belt by had a ‘rim’ outside the edge, something that is looped pegs or rivets. The inlays and their deco- not necessary on box-shaped or plated strap- ration suggest that these components may have ends;555 this part could quite possibly have been part of a single set or kit. been an insert in a, now lost, silver cut-through strap-end similar to the ones described above. Inlays closely similar to the ones on these belt This block of series probably includes the long fittings are known from the burial discovered strap-end “from the environs of Olbia” which in 1891 in Kerch where a lamellar helmet, ar- seems to be very similar to the find from Artsiba- mour and other items were found.560 A similar shevo.556 The strap-end from chamber 52/1909 inlay has been found at Suuk-Su in the southern at Kerch,557 as well as the three small strap-ends Crimea.561 Bálint pointed out that these items from the North Caucasus in the Olshevskij col- belong to the Byzantine sphere, quoting as ev- lection,558 may also have belonged to this block idence a gold set from Caesarea Maritima and of series. plait-decorated strap-ends from other parts of the Empire, and the appearance of this motif on The series identified above are local ones: the other artefacts from some of the cultures which Borisovo series is represented in the north- had contacts with Byzantium.562 The plaited-cord eastern Pontic area and the adjoining Kuban decoration on the items from Klin-Yar and from region, the Vasil’evka series in the North Pon- the Byzantine Empire is closely comparable, but tic steppes, and the Klin-Yar series on the Cau- differs in some details. casus and adjacent regions of Iran. In all these regions, similar, but plain strap-ends have been In his discussion of Byzantine items decorated found (cf. this section above). The plates from with plaiting, Bálint noted this motif on some of Artsibashevo, “Olbia” and the Olshevskij col- the buckles of the Trebizond type. For the Klin- lection are somewhat larger than those of the Yar and Crimean finds of this type, another group strap-ends discussed above, which may also of Byzantine-sphere buckles is of even greater importance. They are decorated with similar plaiting in the central recessed part of the buckle 553 Саханёв 1914, Fig. 21; Гавритухин/Пьянков 2003, plate or the facing mount on the belt, surround- Pl. 78,84. The original item was inspected in SHM. 554 Атавин 1996, Tab. 13,5; checked against the photograph in the report in the archive of ИА РАН. 559 Гавритухин 2005. 555 Монгайт 1951, Fig. 45,3. 560 ОАК 1891, 60, Fig. 38 – 39; Werner 1974, 111 Pl. IX,8.9 556 Bálint 1978, Fig. 12,9. Fig. 1,3; Айбабин 1990, Fig. 52,23.24. 557 Айбабин 1990, Fig. 52,27. 561 Bálint 2000, Pl. 12,6. 558 Photo archive of IHMC, no. Q.503.81: III,59 – 61. 562 Bálint 2000, 125 – 128.

81 Klin-Yar – I. O. Gavritukhin

ed by a border of pseudo-granulation. Kazanski 5.2.8 Suspended strap-ends for assigned such buckles to the Palmyra type, and fastening Schulze-Dörrlamm to her type D31.563 These finds are mainly distributed in Asia Minor and Syria, but they are also found in Egypt, Italy, Eng- These are side (supplementary) straps of belts land and Bulgaria;564 they undoubtedly belong to or parts of horse harness. Such a strap-end may the Byzantine sphere. In Sardis, mounts of this be a simple frame fastened on one side to the type were discovered in a place which had most end of the strap, or a frame with plate or cross- probably been destroyed in AD 614, and in a bur- bar for fastening to the strap, etc. Objects could ial in Kent together with a Syracuse-type buckle. be hung from the frame with the help of a strap, This style probably emerged in the second half of a string, or other constructions. Such strap- the 6th century and lasted until the middle of the ends could also have been used for connecting 7th century.565 straps. The presence of a frame (metal and bone frames are known) provided for rigidity of the In shape and construction, the cut-through strap- construction, which was comfortable for both, ends from Klin-Yar have counterparts which are fastening and unfastening. Buckles, T-shaped most frequently found in sets of the second to mounts and other devices could be used for the third quarters of the 7th century in which Byzan- same purpose. tine or Iranian influence can be clearly traced (see p. 74; 80 – 81). Solid bipartite mounts with In European traditions, at least during the Ro- straight sides and undulating ends are connect- man and Migration periods, buckles were most ed with the Byzantine Pontic tradition represent- commonly used as strap-end fasteners. Frame ed by several series, including local modifica- strap-ends are superior to buckles in having a tions.566 The analogies for other mounts do not simpler construction and providing more secure give a more precise picture. fastening, although they are less easy to fasten or unfasten. This must have been the reason for Thus, the set (or kit) from Klin-Yar grave 360 their high popularity in nomad culture, especial- is doubtlessly connected with the Byzantine ly in horse harness, up to the present day. The circle, which is also confirmed by the analysis of discussion below covers only the types which the buckle belonging to this belt (see p. 55 – 56). are represented at Klin-Yar; buckles which could Parallels from the Bosporus and the southern have been used to fasten suspended straps are Crimea suggest a local series the decoration covered above (part 5.1, various small buckles), of which developed under the influence of bi- strap-ends here, and T-shaped mounts below partite sets with Palmyra-type buckles. As not- (section 5.2.9). ed above (see p. 56), the buckle was probably made in a south Crimean workshop where part of the production was intended to serve as gifts With circular loop and open-frame plate to allies. It is quite probable that the workshop also manufactured strap-ends, mounts and oth- At Klin-Yar, these have been found in graves IV-9 er components of the sets, and assembled the (catalogue no. D6) and 360 (no. 58). The item belts. from grave IV-9 was obviously part of the bridle found with horse bones in the dromos, and the It is possible that the appearance of this work- one from catacomb 360 has been found in the shop in the Crimea was the result of the migra- chamber near the stirrups and horse bit, sug- tion of craftsmen from the southern parts of gesting its use in the horse harness. the Empire which were first occupied by the Persians, and then by the Arabs. The more like- The strap-ends from Klin-Yar belong to the Klin- ly cause was Arab aggression, the Byzantines Yar – Chmi series which is characterized by having understood its danger after a series of a rather wide loop (internal diameter greater defeats and the fall of Sassanian Iran. This threat than 10 mm), sometimes with a barb-like point, and the consequent need for allies in the north- and by an open-frame plate, often with ledges, east may explain why the products of this work- which is connected to the ring by an empha- shop were used as gifts in the Dnepr area and in sized bridge. The nearest analogy for the Klin- the Caucasus around the middle of the 7th cen- Yar items is the strap-end from Artsibashevo568 tury.567 which dates to the second to third quarters of the 7th century.569 Similar finds are known in Korablino on the middle reaches of the Oka,570 563 Kazanski 2003, 40; Schulze-Dörrlamm 2002, 214 – 217. 564 About Bulgaria personal communication N. Hrissimov. 565 Schulze-Dörrlamm 2002, 215 – 217. 568 Монгайт 1951, Fig. 43,3. 566 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 24 – 25; items similar to 569 See p. 81; Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 31. the Klin-Yar specimens: Fig. 35,11.13.17.25.27.28.39. 570 Excavations by I. V. Belotserkovskaya; I am grateful to her 567 See p. 56. for providing the information.

82 5 Belt sets from Alanic graves

and in the Caucasus among the items, main- in South Ossetia.575 It seems that the poorly pre- ly in Ossetia (in the Olshevskij collection)571. served strap-end from burial 52 at Borisovo on The variants found in catacombs 11 and 17 at the Caucasian Black Sea coast and a fragment Chmi (North Ossetia) differ in their details572 from Gizhgid in Kabardino-Balkaria belong to the and date to the second to third quarters of the same variant.576 7th century.573 In catacomb 11 at Chmi, a leather strap was preserved which had been decorated Variant 2 is characterized by a loop without with circular mounts and fitted with a strap- point, a slightly shorter bridge, and a rectangular end, similar to the leather strap from grave plate with two small round apertures. This var- 360 at Klin-Yar. The assemblages of Klin-Yar iant is represented by the finds from catacomb 360 and IV-9 has been assigned by Malashev 17 at Chmi and from catacomb 3/1991 of the to period IIIа which dates to the second to third Machty cemetery in the Kislovodsk Basin.577 quarters of the 7th century. Variant 3 is so far represented by a single find Strap-ends of other series belonging to this from the western chamber 3 at Kugul in the Kis- type are fairly numerous in the North Cauca- lovodsk Basin.578 It differs from the variants de- sus, and in the Volga region from the Oka to scribed above by having a five-faceted plate and the Kama; they are also found on the steppes bridge, a smaller size (33 mm whereas variants 1 of lower Kuban, in the forest-steppe Dnepr and and 2 are closer to 40 mm or even longer), and in Don areas, and in the middle Danube region; other details. single finds have been made in northern Syria and at Chersones. The items from Zdvizhenskoe The date of this series is the same as that for near Stavropol and some other date to the Hun the Klin-Yar – Chmi series (see above); its distri- period.574 bution is concentrated in the central part of the North Caucasus and does not spread beyond These Klin-Yar strap-ends belong to one of the the adjacent areas. In spite of this, its origin series reflecting steppe influence on the con- may be in the steppe tradition which was merely struction and decoration of the bridle, which reworked in the Caucasus where the frame-like were in use in the second to third quarters of plate was replaced with a solid plate. the 7th century in the central regions of the North Caucasus, on the steppes (see the assemblage from Artsibashevo which is generally thought to With truncated-oval loop and solid plate be associated with the steppe tradition) and in the middle Oka region. At Klin-Yar it has been found in the dromos of grave IV–9 (catalogue no. D18). Only one parallel is known, from the burial at Artsibashevo.579 With circular loop and solid plate A similar item, but with a proper buckle pin, was found in burial 252 in Shoksha in the middle Oka At Klin-Yar, such a strap-end has been found region.580 The groove for the non-existent pin on in the dromos of grave IV-9 (catalogue no. D5). the Klin-Yar item highlights that buckles were Like the strap-ends discussed above, it is part the prototypes for such strap-ends. The distribu- of horse harness. It belongs to the North Cau- tion and even the type of grave contexts in which casus series which is characterized by an long these strap-ends are found are the same as those hollow bridge (longer than 5 mm), usually fac- of frame strap-ends of the Klin-Yar – Chmi series eted, which connects the hollow loop and plate (see above). The use of a buckle (possibly as a which, in turn, is joined to the strap by two model for the mould) for producing strap-ends in pegs. the ‘steppe’ tradition suggests, again, a combination of steppe and local traditions in the second Variant 1 is characterized by a loop with barb- to third quarters of the 7th century (see above). like point, a long bridge (10 mm and longer), and a smooth rectangular plate with sloping edges. Besides the item from Klin-Yar, a pair of similar 575 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, Fig. 83, catacomb 11. The strap-ends has been found in catacomb 11 at information has now been corrected after inspecting the Chmi in North Ossetia and in burial 12 at Edys original item stored in SHM, no. 76990.598 – 599; Дзаттиаты 1995, Tab. I,1ж.4. 576 SHM no. 49272.634; A. K. Ambroz’s archive in the archive of ИА РАН, with a reference to the museum in Nalchik, 571 Photo archive of IHMC, no. Q.503.78, III.135. no. 2633.30. 572 SHM no. 76990.597; Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 577 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, Fig. 83, catacomb 17; Fig. 83, catacomb 17; no dots on the ring and sometimes no personal communication S. N. Savenko. dots on the plate; elongated crossbar on the, as yet unpub- 578 Рунич 1979, Fig. 6,31; corrected after inspection of the lished, item from catacomb 11. original find stored in SLHM, accession no. 19888. 573 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, Figs. 83; 90. 579 Монгайт 1951, Fig. 43,2. 574 Засецкая 1994, Tab. 11,8. 580 See footnote 279.

83 Klin-Yar – I. O. Gavritukhin

5.2.9 T-shaped hollow mounts The shape of the plate on the Klin-Yar specimen has its closest analogies in items found in the Given the position of many such mounts at burial excavated in 1976 at Shatrishchi and in the end of a strap, they might be better called burial 30 at Undrikh on the middle Oka (Fig. 18, strap-ends and listed, according to their func- type 6), which date from the last third of the 6th tion, under suspended strap-ends for fastening to the first third of the 7th centuries.585 Less direct (section 5.2.8). Yet cases are known where such parallels which seem to belong to this group have items were used as simple belt mounts. Also, been found in burial 4 of the Yasli cemetery (Kislo- the fastening function is almost impossible for vodsk Basin) and in the Kama region.586 A similar repoussé items which are fairly numerous; this mount from a 13th/14th century grave in the Shuan implies that many T-shaped mounts had a pure- cemetery (Ingushetia)587 undoubtedly represents ly decorative function. Traditionally, these items the chance inclusion of an ‘antique’. A local vari- have been called ‘mounts’, and it seems futile to ant (‘Kuzebaevo’) characterized by concave sides try to overturn this established term.581 is found in the Kama region and dates to the last decades of the 6th century and the first decades of the 7th century.588 A local series of T-shaped With unperforated, straight-sided scutiform mounts belonging to the same block of series is plate and movable crossbar present in cemeteries of the Avar Khaganate.589 A special series of interpretations of the Avar series At Klin-Yar, this type has been found in the dro- or of Byzantine-Lombard models is represented by mos of grave 357 (catalogue no. D4). An impor- smooth T-shaped mounts with straight sides from tant constructional element of this item is that the south-eastern zone of the Merovingian sphere. the crossbar was made separately and fixed to the plate with a band extending over the cross- The core distribution of the earliest series of bar to the back of the plate where it was fast T-shaped mounts with smooth straight-sided ened by a rivet. This construction clearly imi- scutiform plate, as well as of mounts with a sep- tates crossbar fasteners which were attached arately made crossbar, includes the Black Sea directly to the leather strap or string. Such fast regions of the Caucasus, the central regions of eners were used in contemporary dress; they the North Caucasus and the middle Oka region, were quite popular in the early medieval Cauca- describing a kind of ‘rim’ around the Volga-Don sus, and their prototypes were probably made steppes. The finds from the Kama region form a of wood or other organic material. T-shaped northern branch of this core, and the Avar finds a mounts probably appeared when belts with sus- western branch; they are obviously derived from pended straps appeared and crossbar fasten- the early series and have their own directions of ers were attached to them with metallic plates. development. A closely similar distribution and Soon, composite constructions would have cultural context has been observed in the case of been replaced by simpler and more secure ones B-shaped buckles of the Tsebelda – Birsk series in which the crossbar was made in one piece and for other items which date to the middle and with the plate. second half of the 6th century, or to the last third of the 6th to the beginning of the 7th centuries Not many T-shaped mounts with separately (see p. 54; 85; 92; 93; 96). made crossbar are known. A number of various items were found at Tsebelda in Abkhazia where Thus, the item of this type from Klin-Yar belongs they date from the middle of the 6th to the first to the circle of early T-shaped mounts character- decades of the 7th centuries.582 Burial 941 at istic of the styles which developed between Ab- Shoksha, in the middle Oka basin, produced a khazia, the central North Caucasus and the Oka, mount of the same construction, dated to the and date to the middle of the 6th and the first middle to second half of the 6th century.583 A decades of the 7th centuries. crossbar typical of this construction (the plate was not preserved, or there had been none) has been found, together with a solid T-shaped With bifurcated (‘B-shaped’) terminal mount (see below), in burial 61 at Borisovo on the North Caucasian Black Sea coast.584 At Klin-Yar, this type is represented by a pair of unperforated mounts from grave 381 (catalogue

581 Russian ‘накладки’; see also Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 51; Bálint 1992, 383 – 384. 585 Гавритухин 2001c, Figs. 4,11; 5,4; 16. 582 Воронов 2003, Figs. 146,30.31; 149,27; 132,40; with 586 Personal communication S. N. Savenko; Голдина 1985, crossbar fastener: Fig. 132,18; Гавритухин/Обломский Tab. IX,38. 1996, Figs. 65,8; 68,84 – 86; 90:ИС-4; see also below, 587 Чахкиев/Нарожный 1984, Fig. 38. p. 86 – 87. 588 Гавритухин/Иванов 1999, 112 – 113. 583 See p. 54. 589 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 72 – 73 Figs. 74,10; 75,83; 584 SHM no. 49272.678. 76,37; Kiss 1996, 220 – 221 no. 87.

84 5 Belt sets from Alanic graves

no. 6b) for which there do not seem to be any and the variant with “not prominently pointed” close parallels. Except for the bifurcated termi- corners to the second half of the 7th century.595 nal, they can be included in the circle of early se- However, the distinction between the variants ries of non-perforated mounts with straight sides seems unclear, and Ajbabin’s only case from the and pointed terminal (see above). fourth quarter of the 7th century, a mount from the burial at Bogachevka, may be wrongly dated T-shaped mounts with B-shaped terminals, but (see p. 74). Therefore, the confirmed date range with cut-outs, make up a distinct type (Б-4) of for this type of mount is circa the first to third different variants which are found from Moun- quarters of the 7th century. tain Crimea and the Volga region (including Bashkiria) to the lower reaches of the Syr-Darya, Among the mounts which could be studied in the western Siberia and the Altai.590 The closest par- original, the ones most similar to the relevant allels to the Klin-Yar pair are the mounts with Klin-Yar items are the finds from burial 455 at pairs of round apertures found in burial 381/1 of Dyurso near Novorossijsk, from burial 14 at Bor- the cemetery of Altyn-asar in the lower Syr-Darya ki, and from Kuzyomkino on the middle Oka,596 region, and in burial 165 at Birsk in Bashkiria; none of these cases provide further dating evi- the mount with notched sides from burial 15 at dence. The relations between these regions and Akhmylovo in Mari-el in the Volga region (Fig. 18, the Kislovodsk Basin are documented by many type 5), is stylistically close.591 At Birsk and other finds. Akhmylovo, such mounts are included in sets with pseudo-buckles of the same group as the ones from grave 357 at Klin-Yar, and date to the With scutiform plate and elongated bridge last third of the 6th century to the first third of the 7th century.592 The type with elongated bridge is comprised of mounts where the length of the bridge ex- Thus, the context of mounts with a bifurcated ter- ceeds the width of the plate. At Klin-Yar, this minal which are most similar to the Klin-Yar items type is represented by a mount with semicircu- corresponds largely to the one described above lar aperture on the shield, found in grave 360 although the emphasis of the cultural links here (catalogue no. 23). There do not seem to be is on the First Turkic Khaganate’s dominance in any direct analogies for this item. A mount with the east of Europe. solid plate and fishtail-shaped bridge has been found in grave 234 during previous excavations at Klin-Yar.597 A noticeable trend towards With scutiform plate, semicircular aperture lengthening of the bridge can be noted in the and short bridge items with decoration consisting of cut-through ‘checkmark’ and two small circles, found at Two such mounts were found in grave IV-8 at Mokva near Kursk.598 Klin-Yar (catalogue nos. 8b and 12); they differ from one another in shape and in minor details. A whole range of finds with long bridge and unperforated plate is found in Avar Khaganate cem- This type represents the most frequent T-shaped eteries in the Middle Danube area and in Justin- mounts. They are often found in various regions iana Prima, in the Balkans.599 Some of the items of the Caucasus, the Crimea, the Volga and Dne- the plate of which is not preserved may have pr regions, and individual items have been en- belonged to this type. Central European publica- countered further west.593 Given this range, the tions date such artefacts to the ‘Early Avar’ peri- type cannot be homogeneous. Some of the more od, which means the period from the last third of original variations have been noted,594 but the the 6th to the middle of the 7th centuries.600 How- systematic analysis of the entire sample is made ever, they have not been found in reliable as- difficult by the fact that most of the finds differ in semblages undoubtedly belonging to the ‘Early details that are not reflected in publications. Avar’ period,601 but they have been found in the Carpathian Basin and in Eastern Europe in sev- The only discussion of the chronology of such eral assemblages dated to circa AD 620/640 to mounts has been by Ajbabin who, on the basis of finds from the Crimea, assigned the variant “with pointed lower ends” of the plate to the first half, 595 Айбабин 1990, 53, Fig. 2, features 104 and 138. 596 NSHM no. 3941; see footnotes 251 and 279. 597 Unpublished excavations by A. B. Belinskij. 590 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 27. 598 Корзухина 1996, Pl. 59,7 – 9. 591 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, Fig. 38,12.17; Гавритухин 599 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 73 Figs. 74,29.37.38.59; 2001c, Figs. 3,4; 5,11. 76,39; 66,9; Kiss 1996, schedule 22. 592 See below, p. 96; Гавритухин 2001c. 600 See e. g. Kiss 1996, 220. 593 Bálint 1992, Pl. 50:A; Ковалевская 2000, 193. 601 AD 568 – 620/640 after Гавритухин 2001a; Гавритухин 594 See e. g. Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 26. 2005.

85 Klin-Yar – I. O. Gavritukhin

660/680. It appears that the lengthening of the varied;604 the Klin-Yar specimens have plain bridge, together with other changes in the ap- semi-oval or pointed non-corrugated leaves, and pearance of T-shaped mounts, was more or less decorative cut-outs or indents. contemporary with this phase and found reflection in various series of mounts from the Danube Khairedinova has shown that in the Crimea sol- to the Caucasus.602 id trefoil-shaped dividers belong to footwear sets of the second half of the 6th to the 7th cen- Thus, the strap-end from Klin-Yar is connected turies; an exception is chamber 38 at Luchis- with the wider trend towards lengthening of the toe where such mounts were found on a child’s bridge of T-shaped mounts around the second belt, which is in keeping with observations to third quarters of the 7th century. The other fea- elsewhere about changing functions of mounts tures of the Klin-Yar mount are found quite wide- in children’s burials.605 The typology suggest- ly, and they can all be observed on mounts from ed by Khairedinova is based only on the finds the North Caucasus (see this section above); it from Luchistoe. While this is not enough for was probably manufactured by local craftsmen understanding the evolution of this type, the (see also this section below). Luchistoe finds demonstrate that previous typological and chronological schemes are insufficient.606 With rectangular plate and elongated bridge The two sets from Klin-Yar, as well as other finds At Klin-Yar, such a strap-end has been found in from the Caucasus and other regions, support grave 352 (catalogue no. 14). The dating and Khairedinova’s observations about the func- cultural context of this type603 is similar to the tions of tripartite strap-dividers. An exception previous one. is provided by catacomb 45 at Mokraya Balka where such dividers were found near the belt of skeleton 1; the assemblage of mounts there is Mount (catalogue no. 30) from grave 360 typical of footwear sets, but none of them form a pair.607 This may be a woman’s burial containing The shape and some other features of this mount a narrow belt decorated with mounts taken from have a very wide range of analogies, but it also a footwear set or made after the same model. has features which have not so far been found The neighbouring skeleton with beads, earrings anywhere else. These are (1) a recessed plat- and bracelets is most probably a woman, so the form which takes up most of the plate and may smaller-sized skeleton 1 may have belonged to have held a mount or inlay which is no longer an adolescent, which would fit the model sug- extant; (2) a granulated strip preserved on one gested by Khairedinova. end of the crossbar. There are examples of strap set parts decorated with granulation (see e. g. The mounts from grave 381 at Klin-Yar are char- p. 80 – 81), but there do not seem to be any acterized by rounded leaves, a raised central T-shaped mounts with granulation on the cross- platform, and a hemispherical boss at the cen- bar. On the whole, the features of this item are tre. The mount from the western chamber 4 at quite in keeping with the assemblage from grave Kugul (also in the Kislovodsk Basin) is the clos- 360 at Klin-Yar. est analogy for shape, size and manufacturing technique, but the publication does not indicate whether its central part is raised or not.608 The as- 5.2.10 Trefoil-shaped strap-dividers semblage from this grave dates to the 6th century (see p. 50; 52; 54; 55). The Klin-Yar and Kugul Solid hollow mounts items make up the Kislovodsk series.

In the Klin-Yar assemblages from the 1994 – The Pontic series is characterized by pointed 1996 excavations, such mounts (Fig. 128,18) leaves and a hemispherical boss at the centre. are represented by at least three items from A raised central ‘platform’ with three indents grave 381 (catalogue no. 9а) which must have at the corners, like on the items from Klin-Yar been connected with footwear, and by four grave 381, decorated the mounts from buri- items from grave 360 (no. 18) which were part al 279 at Tsebelda in Abkhazia which dates to of the footwear set of skeleton 1 (see p. 64; 88). Solid trefoil-shaped strap-dividers are quite 604 See examples in Bálint 1992, Pl. 39; Ковалевская 2000, Fig. XVI,8.37 – 42. 605 Хайрединова 2003, 130. 602 Гавритухин 2005, 400 Fig. 1,ИС-4.5. 606 Айбабин 1990, 54 – 55; Ковалевская 2000, 159. 603 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 26 – 27; Гавритухин 2005, 607 Афанасьев/Рунич 2001, 113, Fig. 62. 400, 406 – 409 Fig. 1,ИС-5; Гавритухин, in press, with cata- 608 Рунич 1979, Fig. 7 : 11; cf. below for the find from cham- logue. ber 3.

86 5 Belt sets from Alanic graves

the middle or the second half of the 6th centu- Balka, with a pair of mounts,618 is dated on the ry.609 Similar mounts made in a simpler tech- basis of the pottery to the same period as Klin- nique (repoussé without ornamentation or Yar grave 360, which is period IIIа after Malashev emphasized ‘platforms’) have been found in (the second to third quarters of the 7th century). burial 3 of chamber 189 at Luchistoe in Moun- tain Crimea; they belong to a special variant These and other finds of this series from the (Fig. 20,15 – 16.23 – 24) and date to the second Caucasus and elsewhere do not show any local half of the 6th century.610 The buckles shown or chronological variations. In the first half to in the publication (Fig. 20,14) are especial- the third quarter of the 7th century, they are par- ly characteristic of the last decades of the 6th ticularly popular in the central North Caucasus. and the first decades of the th7 centuries (see In Mountain Crimea, several have been found p. 59 – 63). The pair of mounts from burial 3 in at Skalistoe, and almost none at other sites.619 chamber 43 at Luchistoe dates to the fourth They are occasionally found in other areas; in quarter of the 7th century.611 The assemblage the Volga region they have so far been found has not been published, and the available data only in Bashkiria, and further west only on the suggest the presence of several horizons in the right bank of the lower Dnepr and slightly further chamber, from the second half or the end of the north of it.620 6th to the middle or second half of the 7th centuries.612 The items from chamber 43 have short Thus, the mounts from Klin-Yar grave 381 belong leaves, which may be a chronological indicator to the Kislovodsk series which appeared at some if Khairedinova’s dating is confirmed. stage during the 6th century and probably existed for only a short period of time. Stylistically, The finds from Klin-Yar grave 360 have three ap- it echoes the Pontic series where the mounts ertures in the central part (which is slightly raised most similar to the Klin-Yar ones point to a date in one case) and a triangular cut-out (except in in the second half of the 6th century. Mounts of one case). The apertures on the leaves are prob- the Nizhnij Dzhulat series from the Kislovodsk ably the result of repair. It therefore appears that Basin (Klin-Yar grave 360 and Mokraya Balka in this set of fittings, there are several variants catacomb 45) are later variants belonging to the of mounts which belong to the Nizhnij Dzhulat cultural context of the end of the 6th to third quar- series. The series also includes mounts with ter of the 7th century in the North Caucasus. emphasized triangles (in relief or cut-through) in the central part, and unperforated mounts of some variants. Movable (composite) dividers

In the North Caucasus, this series is represented These strap-dividers consist of a loop holding in several dated assemblages. At Nizhnij Dzhulat metal strips which provide a movable connec- they date from the end of the 6th to the middle of tion between loop and straps. From two to four, the 7th century;613 at Chmi, they have been found or even more, straps can be attached in this in a similar context in catacomb 16.614 Indicators manner. This scheme is very effective and en- of this date can be also seen on the item ac- joyed wide popularity in different periods and quired in 1928 at Gizhgid.615 The finds from the places. Various parallels of the 5th to 6th cen- western chamber 3 at Kugul616 are chronological- turies in cultures of the Merovingian circle to ly close, which is suggested by the anthropomor- the Baltic and Dnepr regions have been noted phic figurine from the latest woman’s burial in by Khairedinova in her discussion of Crimean the chamber; this figurine belongs to Martynov- shoe finds.621 In grave 360 at Klin-Yar, a pair ka type of hoards of the second to third quarters of strap-dividers of this construction (cata- of the 7th century.617 Catacomb 45 at Mokraya logue nos. 51 – 52) belonged to the footwear of skeleton 2. Their shape and decoration are very similar to those of the dividers with loop from the same set found in grave 360 (see sec- 609 Воронов 2003, Fig. 132,21 – 24; see above, p. 84 for the tion 5.2.11). set. The fibula is characteristic of the period preceding ‘heraldic’ sets; Гей/Бажан 1997, indicator 63. 610 Хайрединова 2003, 130, Fig.15,2.3.10.11. 611 Хайрединова 2003, 130, Fig.17,1.3. 612 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, Figs. 69; 72; 90. 618 Афанасьев/Рунич 2001, Fig. 62,8; corrected drawing 613 Абрамова 1972, Figs. 10,3; 11,5; 13,33.38. – See also published in Гавритухин/Малашев 1998, Fig. 6,23; Гаври- p. 62 and Fig. 22,3. тухин 2001b, Fig. 78,53. 614 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, Fig. 82,90. 619 For instance, among the published material from Luch- 615 Амброз 1989, Fig. 29,20. istoe there is only one item belonging to the Nizhnij Dzhu- 616 Рунич 1979, Fig. 6,20; inspection of the original item lat series, and it is a repoussé item which is typical of local stored in SLHM showed that the mount is made in repoussé variations of the Pontic series; Хайрединова 2003, 130, technique and has an emphasized platform decorated with Fig. 2,22. indentations to imitate cut-outs. 620 Personal communication M. E. Levada. 617 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996. 621 Хайрединова 2003, 129.

87 Klin-Yar – I. O. Gavritukhin

5.2.11 Strap-dividers with loop of the finds from Klin-Yar and some of the items from the Kislovodsk Basin suggests that they These consist of a metal plate or strip holding were made locally. the end of one strap, and a loop for the other(s). This flexible construction can hold up to three A small number of mounts of complex shape is straps. The first type of the construction has typical of North Caucasus footwear sets (see also a solid loop cast in one piece with the plate.622 p. 64). The sets from graves 341 and 345 are The second type consists of a metal U-bent strip particularly simple; they are dated to period IIIb which holds the end of one strap and forms a after Malashev, which is slightly later than grave loop for the other; variants may be distinguished 360 (period IIIа); and they are all relatively late using the shape of the plate and the width of the when compared with finds from other regions, loop (Fig. 20,28.29.37.38.42.43).623 Khairedi- and overall they date to the second half and sec- nova demonstrated that in Mountain Crimea, all ond to third quarters of the 7th century. of them belong to footwear of the second half of the 6th to 7th centuries, and cited parallels from This strap-divider belongs to late variants of lo- the North Pontic and Azov steppes and from the cal footwear sets. The appearance and evolution North Caucasus.624 of this tradition was influenced by contacts with the population of the Caucasian Black Sea coast, At Klin-Yar, strap-dividers of the first construc- and with groups of nomads from the Crimea and tional type have been found in grave IV-5 during the Kuban. previous excavations,625 and those of the second type during the 1994 – 1996 excavations in graves 341 (catalogue no. 23b), 345 (no. 66а) 5.2.12 Horizontally symmetrical and 360 (no. 57a). The latter are simply made mounts with plain scutiform halves and had in some cases clearly been made on (double-scutiform mounts) the spot, and probably not in series. On the other hand, they belonged to often complex, and The term ‘horizontally symmetrical mounts’ has frequently imported, footwear sets or their imi- been introduced to describe some stylistically tations. Different variants of strap-dividers are related subgroups among elongated mounts.630 sometimes found within one assemblage. This All these mounts at Klin-Yar are hollow, either makes it more difficult to work out a consistent cast or repoussé, and fastened with either pegs and distinct classification, although it is pos or brackets. sible to identify features which are characteristic of some of the centres. At Klin-Yar, such mounts (Fig. 129,19) have been found in graves 345 (catalogue no. D26а), 352 All finds of this constructional type from Klin-Yar (nos. 27, 44, 46), 360 (no. 19, a not entirely are made of thin metal strips and, unlike most of matched pair), and IV-9 (no. D3). Whereas the the Crimean items, have no facets along the edg- finds from grave 360 undoubtedly belong to es. The finds from Klin-Yar graves 360 and, espe- the footwear of skeleton 1 (together with other cially, 341 have narrow lateral indentations. The components; see p. 64; 86), at least some of the same feature can be seen on the finds from the mounts from graves 352 and IV-9 are from horse Caucasian Black Sea coast, e. g. Tsebelda, Bor- harness. The items from grave 352 were in situ isovo and Dyurso.626 The decoration with a bor- on fragments of a narrow leather strap where der of short incised lines, as on the items from they served as decorative mounts. grave 360 at Klin-Yar, is found on several finds from the Kislovodsk Basin,627 from the Cauca- New analysis of mounts with plain ‘flame- sian Black Sea coast,628 the steppes of the Low- shaped’ shield shows that many of the items are er Kuban, and the eastern Crimea (Tsarskij, Izo- quite standard up to the smallest details. They bil’noe, Natashino)629; it probably reflects local need to be discussed within their, largely region- traditions and relations. The obvious originality al, series.631

The Klin-Yar – Nizhnij Dzhulat series is charac- 622 Variant 1 after Хайрединова 2003, 130. terized by a concave-sided central part with rec- 623 Variants 2 and 3 after Хайрединова 2003, 130 – 131. tangular cut-out, and two scutiform halves dec- 624 Хайрединова 2003, 130 – 131. orated each with a crescent-shaped cut-through 625 Unpublished excavations by A. B. Belinskij. 626 Воронов 2003, Fig. 149,38.39.42.43; Саханёв 1914, and a small circular aperture above the concave Fig. 20,6; see footnote 251. 627 Афанасьев/Рунич 2001, Figs. 55,7; 119,10; Рунич 1979, Fig. 6,29; Ковалевская 2005, Fig. 94,2 – 4; Lunac harka cem- 630 See overview of some of them in Гавритухин/Обломский etery, burial 1/1997: personal communication I. A. Arzhan 1996, 27; cf. below, section 5.2.13. tseva. 631 See examples in Айбабин 1990, 54; Bálint 1992, 628 See footnote 516. Pl. 32.В, 44; Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 27 – 29, 90, 91; 629 Хайрединова 2003, 131. Ковалевская 2000, 159; Хайрединова 2003, 124 – 125.

88 5 Belt sets from Alanic graves

side of the crescent. Such mounts have been Mountain Crimea where such items are the most found at Klin-Yar in grave 352 and in graves from numerous and varied, the Pontic steppes, the unpublished excavations by Belinskij. A pair of Dnepr forest-steppe, and the central regions of them has been found in catacomb 1 at Mokraya the North Caucasus. A poorly preserved item Balka, together with other mounts, on a quiv- from Novo-Turbasly in Bashkiria may also belong er.632 In Kabardino-Вalkaria, such items have to this series.640 been found in burial 1 at Nizhnij Dzhulat633 and chamber 2 at Kalakol634 where they were com- In the Kislovodsk Basin, all series discussed bined with other components of footwear sets. above belong to period IIIа after Malashev In other regions of the North Caucasus, similar (AD 620/640 – 660/680). Elsewhere, assem- mounts have been recorded, but not from as- blages with mounts of the Klin-Yar – Nizhnij semblages. Outside the North Caucasus, such Dzhulat series have the same, or a slightly mounts figure among finds acquired in north- earlier, date (end of the 6th to middle of the ern Syria which also include other artefacts 7th century; see p. 62, Fig. 22). The mounts of frequently found in the North Caucasus.635 The the Klin-Yar – Skalistoe series found at Skalis- Middle Danube variants characterized by elon- toe itself are not earlier than the corresponding gated proportions are probably derived from items in Kislovodsk Basin, judging by the belt this series.636 sets;641 and those from Manyak appear to be later variants because the associated type of The Klin-Yar – Skalistoe series features a con- stirrup with straight tread was not known be- cave-sided central part with rectangular or seg- fore the last third of the 7th century. The dating ment-shaped cut-out (not a circular one), and for many items of the main series is the same, two scutiform halves decorated each with two although none of them appear in reliably dated circular apertures. At Klin-Yar, the series is rep- assemblages of the last third of the 7th centu- resented by the finds from graves 345, 360 and ry. The late date for chambers 321 and 381 at IV-9 which differ from each other by construc- Skalistoe applies to mounts of other series.642 tion technique (cast or repoussé), the presence The date suggested by Khairedinova (second or absence of incised lines, and other minor half of the 6th century) applies only to the finds details. An artefact very similar to one of the from Luchistoe; it is quite possible that these mounts from Klin-Yar grave 360 has been found are the earliest variants. Chamber 420 at Skalis- in catacomb 45 at Mokraya Balka.637 The variants toe produced quite an early variant (Fig. 21,20; found at Skalistoe in Mountain Crimea are char- see p. 59 – 62). acterized by a segment-shaped central cut-out or a more elongated central part.638 Another variant Overall, then, ‘horizontally symmetrical’ (or comes from burial II-1 at Manyak in Bashkiria double-scutiform) mounts first appeared in where the mount was found near the feet, but footwear sets in Mountain Crimea. From there parts of a horse harness had also been placed they spread to the Pontic steppes, the middle there.639 Dnepr region and the North Caucasus. In these regions and elsewhere, they served as models The Main series is the most numerous and var- for local series and were often used in other ied. It is characterized by a concave-sided cen- ways just for footwear. The Klin-Yar – Nizhnij tral part with a circular cut-out, and two scuti- Dzhulat series appeared in the central North form halves decorated each with two circular Caucasus around the first half of the th7 cen- apertures of the same, or slightly smaller, size tury and disappeared by the fourth quarter of (Fig. 20,8.17.21.45). It seems to have been the 7th century. The Klin-Yar – Skalistoe series the basis from which the two series above, and developed in the central North Caucasus, prob- some other series of the sub-group, had devel- ably the Kislovodsk Basin, around the second oped. In Klin-Yar grave 60, a mount of this series quarter or the middle of the 7th century. It is was paired with one of the Klin-Yar – Skalistoe probably a hybrid of the widespread Main se- series. The distribution of the series includes ries and the local Klin-Yar – Nizhnij Dzhulat series. The Skalistoe variants may be the result of an isolated influence of models from the Kis- 632 Афанасьев/Рунич 2001, 54, Fig. 13,6. lovodsk Basin or adjoining areas, or they may 633 Абрамова 1972, Fig. 10,8; shape of cut-outs corrected have appeared in parallel, though under North after the photograph kindly provided by M. P. Abramova. Caucasus influence. The variant from Manyak 634 Unpublished excavations by A. G. Nechaeva, archive of ИА РАН, Р-1, no. 4221. appears to be derived from North Caucasian 635 Bálint 1992, Pl. 5,58. mounts. 636 Balogh 2004, Fig. 5,23 – 24; 20,8 – 10. 637 Афанасьев/Рунич 2001, Fig. 62,10; corrected drawing published in Гавритухин/Малашев 1998, Fig. 6,18; Гавритухин 2001b, Fig. 78,48. 640 Мажитов 1964, Fig. 1,10. 638 Веймарн/Айбабин 1993, Figs. 60,19; 83,11 – 14. 641 Айбабин 1990, 56 – 57 type III. 639 Мажитов 1981, 12, Fig. 6,2. 642 Айбабин 1990, Fig. 2.

89 Klin-Yar – I. O. Gavritukhin

5.2.13 Х-shaped mounts with repoussé (no. 71), others are cast (nos. 47 and emphasized central part 49b). Most have the standard decorative scheme of six round apertures and a central rectangle Strictly speaking, these mounts are also ‘hori- of uniform width (nos. 47 and 71); the closest zontally symmetrical’ (see section 5.2.12), but analogies for these can be found in the central they have to be considered separately because North Caucasus and at Kerch. One item (no.49b) they form a special corpus which characterizes has a small lozenge cut-out at the centre; this is a specific group of cultural and historical phe- also found on unpublished mounts from burial 7 nomena.643 The prototypes for these mounts are at Shatrishchi on the middle Oka.645 Some items represented by several series of the Roman and from the Caucasus series are clearly from belts, Migration periods which have emphasized cen- but in Klin-Yar grave 352 such mounts decorated tral, upper and lower parts. A type with ‘horned’ the straps of military equipment and horse har- upper and lower part appeared not later than ness. the 6th century, of which several local series are found in the Oka region, the Urals, and other areas including Byzantine provinces. They are Kislovodsk School especially numerous and varied in the 7th century, which is the period of the Klin-Yar items dis- This ‘school’ which manufactured strap sets cussed below. of the ‘heraldic’ type developed in the central North Caucasus, and more specifically in the Kislovodsk Basin, judging by the concentration Caucasus series and variety of finds.646 Prototypes of some elements characteristic of the strap sets of this The mounts of this series (Fig. 98,49b; 99,71) school have been found among local antiquities are characterized by a relatively small, standard of the middle to second half of the 6th century, size (not more than 25 × 20 mm, usually about and the ‘school’ emerged around the end of the 20х15 mm), ‘horned’ upper and lower parts, 6th to the beginning of the 7th centuries under and lateral points in the middle. The mounts the influence of Pontic styles. By the middle of are cast or repoussé, and hollow with a smooth the 7th century, other more widespread styles surface and bevelled edges, usually with con- replaced it although strap sets, or elements of cave outlines. The most common decorative strap sets, of the Kislovodsk School still occurred scheme comprises six round apertures against occasionally after this date. the points, and one elongated central aperture. They were fixed to the belt with pegs (rivets) or At Klin-Yar, mounts of this ‘school’ (Fig. 219,22) clamps. have been found in grave IV-8 (catalogue no. 22, possibly also 6 and 26) where they be- The distribution of this type has a concentration long to belt sets, as in other cases where the in the Caucasus, with a few finds at Kerch and function of the mounts could be established. At individual ones in Mountain Crimea, on the left Mokraya Balka, a number of mounts have been bank of the Dnepr and in the Oka region. It is dat- found which are closely related to these Klin- ed to the 7th century, with more tightly datable Yar finds: the closest analogies, although more assemblages belonging to the second and third slender, in catacombs 16 and 89;647 mounts quarters of the 7th century.644 This date also ap- which are even more slender, and typologically plies to the finds from the Kislovodsk Basin; they closer to the prototype, in catacombs 100 and have all been encountered in assemblages of 122; a variant which probably developed un- period IIIа after Malashev. The shape of the cut- der the influence of the Caucasus series (see outs may be used to distinguish several variants, above) in catacomb 2А; and specimens of the although these do not help to identify the earli- prototypes in catacomb 4К648. Outside the Kis- est variants. As noted above, the most frequent lovodsk Basin, mounts of this series are known scheme includes six round apertures against the from the neighbouring region of Kabardino- points. The central cut-out is in most cases rect Balkaria.649 angular, frequently widening out at the centre or at the ends; it can also be cross-shaped. 645 Excavations by I. R. Akhmedov; I am grateful to him for At Klin-Yar, mounts of the Caucasus series are providing the information. 646 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 82; Гавритухин/Малашев represented by the two versions from grave 352 1998, 58 – 60; Гавритухин 2001b, 43 – 44. (catalogue nos. 47, 49b and 71). Some items are 647 Here and below after Афанасьев/Рунич 2001; see some of the corrected drawings in Гавритухин/Малашев 1998; Гавритухин 2001b, Fig. 77. 643 For a review based on a representative number of such 648 Ковалевская 2005, Fig. 90,12 – 14. finds from the Volga and other regions, see Гавритухин/Ива- 649 Амброз 1989, Fig. 29,34; Bachil-aul, excavations 1896 нов 1999, 110 – 112. by Vladimirov, archive of IHMC, store 1/1896, no. 215, fo- 644 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 90, 92:ИС-31. lio 8.

90 5 Belt sets from Alanic graves

Within the typological development outlined connected with the culture of East European no- above, the Klin-Yar finds belong to the latest var- mads, together with mounts of some other ‘com- iants. Assemblages with similar mounts which bined’ forms (see e. g. section 5.2.15). are typologically closer to the prototypes belong to the almost contemporary periods IIb2 and IIIа after Malashev, which suggests a date of the 5.2.15 ‘Circle + trapezium’ second to third quarters of the 7th century. Klin- (keyhole-shaped) mounts Yar grave IV-8 belongs to period IIIа or IIIb after Malashev; this is, therefore, probably one of As with ‘circle + shield’ mounts (see section the latest graves with mounts of the Kislovodsk 5.2.14), these mounts (Fig. 98,58) include a School (see also section 5.2.20). special East European series. They also have a smooth surface (sometimes with the ‘circle’ slightly above the ‘trapezium’), are hollow and 5.2.14 ‘Circle + shield’ mounts decorated with a combination of apertures; there is usually a ridge at the end of the ‘trapezium’. At This type (Fig. 222, D16)650 is represented at Klin-Yar, such mounts have been found in grave Mokraya Balka and Chmi where it dates to the 352 (catalogue nos. 43, 48, 58, 62, 76), together second to third quarters of the 7th century, and with ‘circle + shield’ mounts. The same combina- in cemeteries of the Avar Khaganate where it tion can be observed at other sites in the central belongs to the Middle Avar periods 1 and 2. In North Caucasus (Machty and Chmi; see section contrast to mounts from the Danube, the mounts 5.2.14). The two types are, therefore, likely to from the North Caucasus have a smooth surface have the same date and context. (sometimes the circle is raised slightly above the ‘shield’) and bevelled edges, are hollow and dec- Keyhole-shaped mounts are known in the arch orated with a combination of apertures. These aeological record of Lower Kuban nomad cul- features define the East European series. The nu- tures;658 these are closest to the Klin-Yar finds merous similar items from the Kama region651 dif- in the shape of their apertures, and they have fer in some features, but most importantly, they the same date. The series has also been found do not have a ‘circle’, but a ring for attaching a in the assemblage from Shelugi on the Pontic rope or a strap. steppes.659 This assemblage is dated to the last decades of the 6th century or the beginning of the At Klin-Yar, mounts of the East European series 7th century, a dating which is based on the as- have been found in graves 352 (catalogue nos. sociated, straight-sided bipartite mounts which 52 – 53) and IV-9 (nos. D9, D16, D19). Elsewhere are similar to Byzantine mounts from the Lower in the Kislovodsk Basin, catacomb 29 at Mokraya Danube and the south coast of the Crimea,660 Balka652 and the Machty cemetery produced such and an associated buckle with bipartite plate mounts.653 All these assemblages belong to period (as Fig. 209,12). The date of the Shelugi mount IIIа after Malashev. In the central North Caucasus, confirms that the origins of this type are to be a similar mount was found in catacomb 17 at Chmi; found within East European nomad culture. its finds do not contradict the above date. Similar mounts were used by Pontic nomads,654 in the Oka region,655 and in Bashkiria656. The fragment of a 5.2.16 Scutiform mounts of ‘heraldic’ mount which could have belonged to this type (or type that in section 5.2.15) has been found in Mokva near Kursk.657 The dating of these assemblages Mounts shaped as a ‘heraldic’ shield (pointed at does not contradict the Caucasus dates although one end and straight at the other) are quite di- it might cover the second half of the 7th century (as verse. East European finds are usually connect- do, e. g., the Middle Danube ‘Avar’ artefacts). ed with sets of the ‘heraldic’ type, as they are at Klin-Yar. The origin of this East European series is unclear. Most probably, it originated in an environment Mounts with two round cut-outs and bow- shaped cut-outs above 650 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 90 and Fig. 90,ИС-30. (‘impression of face’ decoration) 651 Голдина 1985, Pl. IX,41 – 43; Голдина/Водолаго 1990, Pl. XXXV,1 – 12. 652 Афанасьев/Рунич 2001, Fig. 47 : 10; drawing corrected At Klin-Yar, two such mounts have been found in after inspection of the original item published in Гавритухин/ grave IV-8 (nos. 8а and 18а). Most similar finds Малашев 1998, Fig. 6,14; Гавритухин 2001b, Fig. 78,47. 653 Personal communication S. N. Savenko. 654 See e.g Айбабин 1985, Fig. 8,5.36. 655 See footnote 279. 658 Атавин 1996, Pl. 10,7. 656 Мажитов 1981, Fig. 3,9. 659 Комар/Кубышев/Орлов 2006, Fig. 48,30. 657 Корзухина 1996, Pl. 59,17. 660 As in Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, Fig. 35,32 – 37.

91 Klin-Yar – I. O. Gavritukhin

in the Caucasus and the Crimea date to the first ed scutiform mounts with ridge have been found half and middle of the 7th century.661 New finds in Bashkiria and in Mountain Crimea.669 from the Crimea show some variants with Byz- antine connections which appeared in the sec- The mount from Klin-Yar grave 381 (catalogue ond half of the 6th century.662 This type has also no. 6c) differs from the ones above in size and in been found in the Volga-Urals zone, on the Pon- having a non-corrugated shield. The mount is re- tic steppes, the Middle Dnepr region, and in the poussé, which is not typical of the Kama mounts Avar Khaganate.663 which are the largest group of corrugated mounts of this type. The closest analogies were The finds from the Kislovodsk Basin vary in some found during previous excavations at Klin-Yar;670 details (size, proportions, location of apertures, they belong to a particular style of repoussé sets etc.) even though they were probably all locally which were known in the North Caucasus since, made; this may reflect the influence of differ- at least, the second half of the 6th century and ent models. No variants which are similar to the which appeared in steppe assemblages of the earliest mounts (see above) have been found. period of the First Turkic Khaganate.671 The find from catacomb 34 at Mokraya Balka,664 though made in repoussé, is quite comparable The new finds from Klin-Yar confirm this picture to the Klin-Yar mounts of this type; associated (see also p. 84 – 85 and section 5.2.17). Non-cor- pottery dates this assemblage to period IIb2 af- rugated scutiform mounts or buckle-plates with- ter Malashev, which gives an absolute date of out ridge figure in this stylistic circle in associ- circa AD 620/630 – 650/670. The mount from the ation with mounts with vertical ridge (Fig. 18, western chamber 3 at Kugul differs somewhat types 7 and 3).672 This stylistic circle was most from the ones discussed above,665 but the date probably the basis from which several later se- of the assemblage is similar to that of catacomb ries of mounts with ridge and without apertures 34 at Mokraya Balka (see p. 87). Judging by as- evolved (see above). sociated pottery and other finds (see p. 90 – 91), the mounts from Klin-Yar are the latest. They belong to period IIIа or the beginning of period IIIb Plain scutiform mounts, straight-sided after Malashev, that is, they date to circa the sec- and pointed ond to third quarters of the 7th century. At Klin-Yar, a mount of this type has been found in the dromos of grave 345 (catalogue no. D26b). Mounts with vertical ridge and without A very similar item has been found in burial 344 apertures at Dyurso on the Caucasian Black Sea coast, but without associated dating finds.673 Two mounts Kovalevskaya has included mounts with such of the same shape, but of larger size and fas- features in her type 3, sub-section 2 of section tened to the leather with loops instead of pegs 10.666 The Volga-Urals region is suggested as (typical for items connected with the Byzantine their main area of distribution, their date is giv- circle) have been found in grave 118 at Suuk-Su en as 8th to 9th centuries, and only for Siberia is which dates to the second to third quarters of the a 7th century date not excluded, though without 7th century.674 Another mount of the same shape, further details. Her catalogue lists finds from the but larger size has been found in kurgan 18 at Nevolino cemetery on the Kama, Timiryazevskij Brut in North Ossetia.675 The small number of in western Siberia, and Elizavet-Mikhajlovka on finds and the wide range of analogies for individ- the Tsna in the Oka basin.667 In fact, the finds ual features make it difficult to analyze artefacts from the Kama belong to the so-called Agafonovo of this type. The find from Klin-Yar belongs, on circle and date to the second half of the 7th cen- the basis of associated pottery, to group IIIа af- tury or slightly earlier and later.668 Non-perforat- ter Malashev, which is close to the date for the South Crimean parallels; and the similarity to the item from Dyurso points to connections with the Caucasian Black Sea coast. 661 Айбабин 1990, 54; Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 90, 91, Fig. 90. 662 Айбабин 1999, Fig. 44. 663 Ковалевская 2000, 151; 187; Левченко 2001; Balogh 2004, Fig. 5,19 – 21. 669 Мажитов 1981, Fig. 7,5; Айбабин/Хайрединова 1996, 664 Афанасьев/Рунич 2001, Fig. 52,8; corrected drawing Fig. 8,11. published in Гавритухин/Малашев 1998, Fig. 5,13; Гаври- 670 Флёров 2000, Fig. 34, catacomb 17, finds under no. 10. тухин 2001b, Fig. 77,17. 671 Гавритухин 2001b, 43. 665 Рунич 1979, Fig. 6,27. 672 Гавритухин 2001c, Figs. 1,1 – 3; 4,1 – 3.6.10; 5,4 – 6.8.9, 666 Ковалевская 2000, 152; the statement “of subtype 2” etc. appears to be a printing error. 673 See footnote 251. 667 Ковалевская 2000, appendix Tab. 5, nos. 1565 – 1575. 674 Репников 1907, Fig. 130; Айбабин 1990, Fig. 51,28; see 668 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, ch. 3.6 – 7, Fig. 90; above, p. 56. Гавритухин/Иванов 1999, 142. 675 Габуев/Малашев 2009, Fig. 92,6.

92 5 Belt sets from Alanic graves

5.2.17 Rectangular mounts, hollow, 5.2.18 Rectangular mounts with rect with bevelled edges and four round angular cut-out at the centre cut-outs or their imitations At Klin-Yar, this type was found in graves 345 (cat- At Klin-Yar, mounts of this type (Fig. 114,32) alogue no. D10), 360 (no. 29) and 364 (no. 1). have been found in graves 357 (nos. D21 and Rectangular mounts with a rectangular cut-out 32) and 381 (no. 6d). Some of the mounts are re- are quite diverse and are found in the second half poussé, and some are cast, many have a central of the first millennium from Japan to the Mediter- ridge, some have a triangular cut-out or indenta- ranean.681 tion on at least one of the narrow sides. Despite the differences in details and the variety of their The mount from grave 360 is small, has slightly combinations, it is clear that these are all vari- concave sides, a narrow ledge along the edges of ants of a single series, the Klin-Yar – Berduty se- the cut-out, and high bevelled edges. In some of ries. the features, it is comparable to the smaller re- poussé mount (about 20 × 11 mm) from the west- An artefact with features analogous to the find ern chamber 2 at Kugul in the Kislovodsk Basin, from the chamber of grave 357 (catalogue no. 32) the mounts from the vicinity of Dailaman in north- at Klin-Yar has been found in burial 941 at Shok- ern Iran, and the differently proportioned vari- sha which contained a buckle and a T-shaped ants from Mountain Crimea.682 It seems that such mount dated to the middle to second half of the mounts were not made in series, and they were 6th century (see p. 54; 84). A variant of this series, parts of a variety of sets. The item from grave 360 characterized by a ridge formed by the sloping is also likely to be an individual item, most proba- sides of the mount, existed in other parts of the bly from the sword suspension which is not an un- North Caucasus.676 At Gizhgid, a similar mount common use for mounts with rectangular cut-out. was acquired together with artefacts of different periods. Buckles of the Shipovo circle and other The mount from Klin-Yar grave 364 is large, elon- finds from burial 4 at Berduty677 show that it is gated, and made of sheet metal without facets contemporary with periods Id to Ie for the Kislo- or any other decorations. In contrast to the item vodsk Basin (after Malashev), which suggests a from grave 360, it was fastened with rivets which date in the 6th century. pierced the metal and probably had ornamental heads. At Klin-Yar, it has close analogies which This series was probably the basis for the evolu- have been found in previous excavations in as- tion of ‘horned’ mounts with four round cut-outs sociation with a set especially characteristic of which are frequent in the Volga region and have period IIIb, but continued in period IIIc after Mala- their own line of evolution.678 A special series of shev’s chronology for the Kislovodsk Basin.683 The mounts with straight sides and bifurcated edge rather large, elongated mounts and buckle-plates is similar in many of its features to the Klin-Yar – made in the same technique, mostly without cut- Berduty series; they have been found from the outs or with butterfly-shaped, rarely with rectan- Volga steppe region to the Kama region.679 The gular cut-outs, are numerous in the Carpathian same stylistics and combination of details, in Basin. There they are characteristic finds of the an analogous context, are present on mounts end of the Middle Avar and the initial phases of of other types, for instance Т-shaped or scuti- the Late Avar periods,684 i. e. the end of the 7th and form mounts (see p. 84 – 85; 92). These various the first decades, or first half, of the 8th century. series of mounts with straight sides must have Large plated mounts with rectangular apertures developed in parallel, with some mutual influ- and fastened with four pegs are also found in ence, with series of straight-sided mounts with benchmark assemblages of the Pereshchepina cut-outs at the sides of the Byzantine and Iranian horizon685 dating to AD 620/640 – 660/680.686 circle680 and their derivatives. They differ in their proportions from the Klin-Yar mounts, but in this case it may be a chronologi- Thus, this type of mount belongs to the context cal feature. Thus, together with the possible in- of Pontic-Caucasus-Volga relations which pro- fluence of Avar styles, the parallel appearance of duced new forms during the period of the First these mounts in the Caucasus may be seen as a Turkic Khaganate. reworking of Pereshchepino-horizon models.

676 Амброз 1989, Fig. 29,27; Виноградов/Мамаев 1979, 681 See Амброз 1986, 59, Fig. 3, Гавритухин 2002, 221 – 222. Fig. 4,43. 682 Рунич 1979, Fig. 4,8; Bálint 1992, Pl. 2,15; 3,1 – 5; Амброз 677 Виноградов/Мамаев 1979, Fig. 4,42 – 52. 1986, Fig. 3,27 – 28; Веймарн/Айбабин 1993, Fig. 19,30. 678 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, Fig. 89,144, see also 683 Флёров 2000, Fig. 39,9 – 10; about dating see above, Fig. 89,91. p. 69; 79; Гавритухин/Малашев 1998, 61 – 62; Гавритухин 679 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, Fig. 89,133.140; Голдина/ 2001b, 46 – 47. Водолаго 1990, Tab. XXX,28. 684 Гавритухин 2001a, 82, 85. 680 As in Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, Fig. 35,21.25.27. 685 Амброз 1986, Fig. 3,16.21.23; Tóth/Horváth 1992, Pl. XV,4. 29.31.38. 686 Гавритухин 2005.

93 Klin-Yar – I. O. Gavritukhin

The mount from Klin-Yar grave 345 is medi- with the crescent-shaped mounts of the Alanic um-sized, which is quite common, and similar series; they may well have been a material reflec- in its proportions to the finds from catacomb tion of the Alanic contribution to the multi-ethnic 364. Similar size and proportions are found on elite culture of the Hun period, although the in- the mount from Bachil-aul in Kabardino-Balka- fluence may have been the other way round, or ria.687 But the mount from Klin-Yar grave 345 both series of mounts were derived from a com- was fastened with pegs, not with rivets piercing mon, so far unknown prototype. the mount. This, together with its marked thickness and bevelled edges, makes it somewhat similar to the items discussed in connection 5.2.20 Cruciform repoussé mounts with with the mount from grave 360. Size and pro- plain lobes portions of the mounts from Klin-Yar grave 345 and from Bachil-aul are close to variants found At Klin-Yar, this type has been found in grave IV-8 at Byzantine sites on the Lower Danube and in (catalogue no. 17). The closest analogy is from Chersones.688 These were fastened with two riv- catacomb 16 at Mokraya Balka where it has been ets, like the item from Bachil-aul, and have a found near the shoulder of the buried individu- decoration of the narrow sides, for which incised al.695 This assemblage also included X-shaped lines were used on the mount from grave 345. mounts of the ‘Kislovodsk School’ which were Nonetheless, the North Caucasus and Byzantine found near the waist. They belong to a variant mounts clearly belong to different series. The which is quite similar to the one found in grave mount from Klin-Yar grave 345 has to be consid- IV-8 at Klin-Yar (see section 5.2.13). Similar ered an individual item whose method of pro- mounts have also been found in catacomb 25К duction is similar to the item from grave 360 and at Mokraya Balka696 which belongs to period IIа its parallels, and whose proportions are similar after Malashev, that is, it dates to the last dec- to the item from grave 364 and its parallels. ades of the 6th to the first quarter of the th7 centuries. All such mounts from the Kislovodsk Ba- sin are characterized by an emphasized square 5.2.19 Crescent-shaped (C-shaped) centre and belong most probably to a local, Kis- mounts lovodsk series. Its derivatives have been found on the Kuban.697 These mounts (Fig. 202,7.9 – 11) belong to a clear Alanic series made up of crescent-shaped In the Caucasus, mounts with a square central mounts (‘lunulae’) made of sheet metal, fre- platform (but with concave sides) are known quently silver, fastened to the leather with three from burial 279 at Tsebelda in Abkhazia698 where pegs. At Klin-Yar, this type is represented by one they belonged to footwear the components of older find from grave 14,689 and four new finds which also have analogies at Klin-Yar and date to from grave 387 (catalogue nos. 7, 9 – 11). They the middle to second half of the 6th century (see are found quite frequently in the central North p. 86 – 87). They belong to a special series in a Caucasus, including the Kislovodsk Basin,690 in style found on artefacts from the Avar Khaganate assemblages of the Hun period (AD 380/400– to Siberia.699 Other cruciform mounts differ in the circa 450).691 On the left bank of the Dnepr, they shape of the central platform;700 they fit quite have been found in the kurgans near Kantemirov- well into the context of East European and North ka which are thought to be Alanic barrows of the Asian cruciform mounts of other series.701 early Hun period.692 Thus, the cruciform mount from Klin-Yar belongs Mounts of similar shape, also with three pegs but to the Kislovodsk series which was most prob made of gold with cloisonné and red glass inlays, ably connected with the activity of the Kislovodsk have been found at Kerch.693 A crescent-shaped School of strap set production (see p. 90 – 91). gold appliqué with amber inlays was recorded in The closely similar item from Abkhazia shows the the destroyed burial near Novo-Ivanovka on the Pontic influence which is characteristic of this Dnepr steppes.694 These items are contemporary school. Judging by the assemblage and the closest analogies, the Klin-Yar mount belongs to late variants of the styles of the Kislovodsk School. 687 Excavations 1896 by Vladimirov, archive of IHMC, store 1/1896, no. 215, 9. 688 Гавритухин 2002, Fig. 2,6.8.9. 689 Unpublished excavations by A. P. Runich; information 695 Афанасьев/Рунич 2001, Fig. 28,4. provided by S. N. Savenko. 696 Ковалевская 2005, Fig. 101,4 – 8. 690 Амброз 1989, Figs. 9,26 – 27; 11,10; 13,4; Габуев/Мала- 697 Personal communication I. V. Kamenskaya. шев 2009, 126 with references, Fig. 35,11. 698 Воронов 2003, Fig. 132,27 – 30. 691 Phase D2 after Tejral 1997. 699 See e. g. Balogh 2004, Fig. 3,20 – 21. 692 Обломский 2003, 80 – 83, Figs. 91,6 – 8; 92,7. 700 See e. g. Афанасьев/Рунич 2001, Figs. 49,5; 112,9; Ма- 693 Засецкая 1993, no. 144. житов 1981, Figs. 8,13; 6,3; Магомедов 1983, Fig. 24,13. 694 Засецкая 1994, Tab. 14,5. 701 See Гавритухин/Иванов 1999, 105 – 108.

94 5 Belt sets from Alanic graves

5.2.21 Small ‘bird’s face’ mounts 5.2.22 ‘Pyramid + brush’ mounts

These mounts feature two circles and a beak-like At Klin-Yar, such mounts have been found in point, creating the impression of a bird’s head grave 360 (catalogue nos. 60 and 64). There do as seen from the front and slightly from above. not appear to be any exact analogies for these At Klin-Yar, such fittings have been found in mounts, and their various elements point in dif- grave 381 (catalogue nos. 6a, 9c-d). They are re- ferent directions. poussé, with two round segments with bevelled edges and with a circle-and-dot (‘eye’) decora- Pyramid-shaped mounts, often with four cut- tion each, and a ridged point (‘beak’) with line outs, are frequently encountered on Meroving decoration following the ridge. ian sword-belts. Finds from northeastern France suggest that they were in use from the middle The closest analogy appears to be a mount from of the 6th to the first half, or the first third, of burial 2 at Berduty in the eastern North Cauca- the 7th centuries.708 Similar mounts, but hori- sus;702 unfortunately, a precise dating of this zontally symmetrical with two scutiform halves, grave is not yet possible. The nearby burial 4 have frequently been found at steppe sites to contained several items which have parallels at the east of the Azov Sea, and one case in the Klin-Yar, including items in grave 381, sugges- upper reaches of the western Bug (Zimno hill- tive of links to the First Turkic Khaganate (see fort) and in Transylvania (Bratei, cemetery 3); section 5.2.17). These mounts make up a Klin- mounts with a single shield are encountered Yar – Berduty block of variants. in Bashkiria and around the Dnepr rapids709. Simple pyramid-shaped mounts are also known The fragment of a mount which appears to be- from Bashkiria, and they are found in the same long to the same series has been found in kur- assemblages which contain the mounts with a gan 18 of Brut cemetery 2 in North Ossetia, and single shield.710 The horizontally symmetrical judging by the publication, the mounts from bur- mounts have been found in assemblages rep- ial 21 at Kushnarenkovo in Bashkiria appear to resentative for the second to third quarters of belong to the same series.703 But another mount the 7th century, the finds from Bashkiria date from the set found at Kushnarenkovo704 has con- to the first half to the middle of the th7 centu- cave lower sides, which links it to several other ry.711 It is not clear what the connection (if any) series of small figure mounts. The set may have is between these steppe-context finds and the formed under the influence of items from sev- mounts from Merovingian sword-belts. eral series of small mounts, if the drawings are anything to go by. A special variant of similar The brush-shaped (or shell or paw-shaped?) mounts is represented by a cast mount “from the mounts have a different context. They are found Caucasus” in the British Museum which is part in Avar Khaganate cemeteries, at Langobard of a lot much of which clearly belonged to one sites in Italy, and at Voznesenka on the steppe assemblage.705 south of the Middle Dnepr, and they are connected with Byzantine influence.712 It should be In summary, mounts of the Klin-Yar – Berdu- noted that together with assemblages dated on ty block of variants belong to a cultural circle the basis of A. Kiss’s data to some part of the 6th which reflects the close contacts between sever- and until the middle of the 7th century, the find al cultures of the North Caucasus and the Volga from Voznesenka proves that these items were region at the time of the First Turkic Khaganate in use until the last decades of the 7th century.713 (see p. 85; 92 and sections 5.2.17 and 5.2.23). Various complex mounts with a brush-shaped The same is true of the assemblage from Brut 2. element are quite numerous at Avar Khaganate The assemblage from Kushnarenkovo, judging sites where they belong to horse-harness and by the double-plate fibula which has numerous are found from the Early Avar to the Middle analogie s in the central North Caucasus and is Avar 2 periods,714 i. e. over the same period as frequently found in Bashkiria,706 reflects the similar fittings elsewhere. same cultural tradition. The item in the British Museum also belongs to these Caucasus tradi- 707 tions. 708 Legoux et al. 2004, no. 97. 709 Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 27, 28, Figs. 40,29 – 31, 41,г; Bálint 1992, Pl. 44,11 – 14. 710 Мажитов 1981, Fig. 7,34.37; Bálint 1992, Pl. 59,15 – 16. 702 Виноградов/Мамаев 1979, Fig. 4,63. 21 – 22. 703 Габуев/Малашев 2009, Fig. 92,7 – 9; Генинг 1977, Fig. 9, 711 Гавритухин 1999, 194; Гавритухин/Обломский 1996, 23 – 24. chapters 3.6 – 7; Figs. 89 – 90, for horizon II of Volga region 704 Генинг 1977, Fig. 9,22. strap sets. 705 Гавритухин 2001c, 61 – 62, Fig. 11,5. 712 Kiss 1996, 222, Type no. 101. 706 Генинг 1977, Fig. 9,21; Амброз 1980, 6 – 10. 713 Гавритухин 2005. 707 The pseudo-buckles are especially representative; see 714 See some of the specimens in Гавритухин 2001a, Гавритухин 2001c. Fig. 54.

95 Klin-Yar – I. O. Gavritukhin

5.2.23 Pseudo-buckles the Avar Khaganate where local series also appeared. Byzantine workshops, too, started to At Klin-Yar, six items of this type715 have been manufacture pseudo-buckles for the nomad elite found in grave 357 (catalogue nos. 41, 48 – 49, of the Dnepr region and on the Danube (Pere 58 – 60). shchepino – Bócsa circle).

The use of several mounts with figure pendants The finds from Klin-Yar grave 357 belong to the on the belt did not start in Eastern Europe be- earliest variants of pseudo-buckles, and togeth- fore the middle of the 6th century. Mounts of this er with other finds from the North Caucasus, they scheme in which fittings covered the belt are reflect the styles which evolved on the basis of known from cultures of the Far East in the 5th to local traditions and interregional relations in the 6th centuries. Laszlo and Ambroz have suggested period of the First Turkic Khaganate (see p. 85; that these were the prototypes for mounts with 92 and sections 5.2.17 and 5.2.21). Dated par- figure pendants in Europe and Kazakhstan. Ini- allels and cultural and historical context suggest tially, they did not differ from ordinary buckles that these items are dated the last third of the 6th of those cultures, but later they were made spe- to the beginning of the 7th centuries. cifically and evolved. This tradition is not known among Turkic peoples, but it may have been imported by a significant group included in the First 5.2.24 Horizontally symmetrical Turkic Khaganate. repoussé mounts with hemispheres in relief (‘bunch of grapes’) The earliest pseudo-buckles have been found on the Sura in the forest-steppe zone on the right At Klin-Yar, this type (Fig. 135,61) is represented bank of the Volga, in the central North Cauca- by the sizeable collection of fittings from grave sus and in the northeastern Aral area (Fig. 18, 360 (catalogue nos. 61 and 88) which was most group 1). Simultaneous or somewhat later var- probably from the horse harness (perhaps the iants have also been found there, as well as in bridle). A close analogy can be found in probable Bashkiria (forest-steppe and north of the steppe horse-harness mounts discovered in the 1991 zone on the left bank of the Volga) and in for- assemblage at Borok 2 on the middle Oka716 est-zone cultures adjoining the forest-steppe which dates to the middle of the 7th century; this cultures from the middle reaches of the Oka to assemblage produced other finds with parallels the Kama (Fig. 18, groups 2 and 3). It appears to Klin-Yar. The somewhat simpler find from Kecel that these regions were dependent on, or other- in the Middle Danube is also similar; Balogh not- wise connected with, the First Turkic Khaganate ed that it has an analogy in Gorno-Altaisk in Si- and the subsequent Western Turkic Khaganate. beria and that the style is connected with various These regions may have provided warriors for widely popular mounts of other shapes with sev- the troops which participated in campaigns led eral hemispheres in relief.717 Other horizontally by either Turks or closely associated groups at symmetrical mounts for bridle decoration have their request. This was the context in which belts been found in Avar Khaganate cemeteries.718 with pseudo-buckles appeared. Thus, the Klin-Yar mounts belong to the circle After the period of dissent in the Western Turkic of intercultural contacts which in the middle of Khaganate which was around AD 630, and un- the 7th century connected the military elite cul- der the influence of relations within this cultural ture of the North Caucasus with the Danube and circle, pseudo-buckles appeared to the west of several other regions (see e. g. section 5.2.3 and the Don: on the Dnepr and in some groups of p. 80 – 81; 85 – 86).

716 See footnote 279. 715 For a detailed study with all references, see Гавритухин 717 Balogh 2004, Fig. 1,9; 2,9; 3,12 – 24. 2001c. 718 See e.g. Nagy n. d., Fig. 86,1 – 20.

96 6 Other dating finds from Late Sarmatian and Alanic graves

6.1 Glass vessels

Igor O. Gavritukhin

6.1.1 Thin-walled conical beaker 6.1.2 Thin-walled bowl with cut oval decoration and horizontal grooves A fairly large beaker of this type was found in the under the rim chamber of Alanic grave 352 (cat. no. 1). Glass vessels of similar shape, though of different The bowl or small beaker of milky-white trans- size, with blue-glass decoration and other fea- lucent glass found in Klin-Yar III grave 378 (cat. tures, are known from Hun-period assemblages no. 4) is very badly preserved. In the North Cau- of neighbouring sites in the Kislovodsk Basin, casus, judging by the published evidence and as well as from Kabardino-Balkaria and Kara- museum collections inspected by the author, chaevo-Cherkessia.719 These vessels are clearly this vessel is unique, but similar cups or bowls not related to similar ones which were common are known from Scandinavia, Central Europe, in the 4th to the first half of the th5 centuries AD and the Chernyakhov Culture. Vessels similar on the Danube, in the area of the Chernyakhov to the Klin-Yar specimen belong to the relative- Culture and in the northern Pontic region.720 It is, ly rare type 226 after Eggers. These finds, along therefore, most unlikely that the conical vessels with other types of cut bowls and low beakers, found in the North Caucasus were imports from are attributed by Rau to type Sakrau II which oc- the west. Closer, though not identical parallels cupies a relatively early chronological position in have been found in the eastern Mediterranean.721 the Late Roman period in Central Europe (not later than mid-4th century, although some samples A chronological problem is posed by the fact from Scandinavia may be dated later).724 Straume that, generally, thin-walled conical beakers and puts such vessels in subgroup 1 of cut cups and similar vessels date to the 4th to 5th centuries AD bowls which date to periods C2–D1 of the Scan- while Klin-Yar III grave 352, judging by its pottery dinavian chronological system (second half of and metal finds, cannot be earlier than th7 centu- 3rd to first half of 5th centuries).725 Petrauskas ry. Theoretically we may assume a very long peri- and Pasternak suggest that in the Chernyakhov od of use, but for thin-walled glass vessels such Culture, glass vessels of the type discussed here a period of 200 years is improbable. We therefore belong to the first half of the th4 century AD, al- need to look for a different explanation. Conical though they consider this date as very approxi- beakers/lamps have been found in 7th century mate.726 The closest parallel of the Klin-Yar cup contexts in southern France and Italy although, is the one from Redlino (Poland), but this is un- judging by the publications, these differ from the fortunately from an assemblage which is only Klin-Yar beaker in the shape of the lip and other generally datable to the Late Roman period or details.722 These finds demonstrate, at least, the the beginning of the Migration Period.727 Anoth- contemporary existence of conical vessels else- er relatively close analogy which differs in some where. A type of conical or truncated-conical cup details comes from Kobbeå (Bornholm), grave 31 with a lip similar to the vessel from grave 352 has which, judging by the associated pottery, dates been found in northern Jordan, in archaeological to the Late Roman period (before AD 400).728 contexts with artefacts dating to the end of 7th to 8th centuries.723 It is possible that the Klin-Yar ves- Thus, the search for formal analogies of the sel belongs to some, so far little-studied, centre bowl from grave 378 only suggests a broad area of production (perhaps in Syria?) which was ac- of distribution of similar vessels, but does not tive in the 7th century. produce a tight area of origin nor indicators for precise dating. Glass vessels of various types the

719 Рунич 1976; Батчаев 1984, Fig. 1,2; Минаева 1982, Fig. 4,9. 724 Rau 1972, 129. 720 See overviews by Barkóczi 1988; Ružić 1994; Минчев 725 Straume 1987. 1988; Кропоткин 1970; Сымонович 1977; Gomolka-Fuchs 726 Петраускас/Пастернак 2003, 67 – 68. The parallels 1999; Гавритухин 2000a; Сорокина 1984. their work offers are not direct, although not as general- 721 See e. g. Harden 1936; Hayes 1975; Weinberg 1988; ized as those of Straume and Rau, and they relate to type Dussard 1998; with further references. Eggers 223 which is slightly different from the bowl from 722 For example Foy 1995, type 22b and partly 22а; Sternini Klin-Yar 378. 1995, Fig. 19,45. 727 Stawiarska 1999, no. 147. 723 Dussard 1998, 79: type BVI.1111b. 728 Straume 1987, no. 84.

97 Klin-Yar – I. O. Gavritukhin and S. N. Savenko

common feature of which is glass of poor qual- The dating which has been suggested so far for ity are not rare in Chernyakhov cemeteries in glass vessels of this type is rather vague and Moldova and the northwest Pontic region (with spans the 5th to 7th centuries AD, although a gener- many finds unpublished, partly because of poor al chronological framework has been published.731 preservation) where they appear to belong to the This type is, indeed, not typical for the Roman pe- later phases of that culture.729 Numerous cultural riod, although it is probably associated with glass elements in the North Caucasus which are asso- working traditions of that period; it is also loosely ciated with the Chernyakhov Culture and Central related to another circle of glass products which Europe belong to the Hun period.730 Grave 378 at are typical for the Islamic period, and sufficiently Klin-Yar most likely dates to the early part of this well known from Central Asia to the Mediterra- period (i. e. the last decades of the 4th and the nean. The available information from settlement first decades of the th5 centuries AD) if the anal- finds does not allow us to narrow down the dating ogies of the glass vessel are anything to go by. further than 5th to 7th centuries. This dating does not contradict the chronological assessment of the pottery vessels from this Finds of this glass vessel type from graves are, grave (see Chapter 4). unfortunately, rare and come from areas peripheral to the Sassanian Empire. One of them is associated with the tomb of the Japanese Emper- 6.1.3 Thick-walled hemispherical bowl or Ankan whose death is assigned in Japanese with closely cut decoration sources to the year AD 535; critical reviews of that date have not moved it out of the 6th century. Klin-Yar III grave 360 produced a palm cup of this In the North Caucasus, finds of such vessels in type (cat. no. 2, Pl. 5,4). The compilation of a cat- burial contexts have been made in a grave near alogue of similar vessels from the North Cauca- the hamlet of Druzhba, datable approximately sus and their analysis are being undertaken by to the first half of the 7th century;732 in the cham- Gavritukhin and Galina A. Kamelina (SHM); the ber graves at Gizhgid, associated with finds of following observations are short excerpts of rel- the 7th century;733 and in Klin-Yar III grave 360. evance to this publication. Although many such On the Middle Dnepr, a glass vessel of this type cups are known from the art trade, the focus here is known from the assemblage found at Novye is on recorded finds. Sanzhary and dating to the second half of the 7th century, which is confirmed by the latest of Previous studies agreed that the production seven associated coins (dated AD 641 – 646).734 centres of hemispherical glass bowls with rows of cut oval, hexagonal or octagonal facets were It is clear, therefore, that this type of Sassanian located in Iran or Mesopotamia, irrespective glass bowls dates to the 6th to 7th centuries AD, of smaller differences in glass colour, size, and although its origin cannot be dated yet, and number and arrangement of the facets. There are that finds of this type in the North Caucasus are no strong arguments in favour of the existence of from 7th century contexts. They may be associat- production centres in the Caucasus, for example ed with the campaigns of the Turks and Khazars in Armenia. But while the existence of several, south into Trancaucasia which attracted the par- possibly linked, centres of glass working in Sas- ticipation of groups from the North Caucasus. sanian Iran is highly likely, this does not exclude This should be the historical context of the glass the possibility of some peripheral workshops. vessel from Klin-Yar III grave 360.

6.2 Byzantine coins

Sergej N. Savenko

Among the most significant and historically val- of Klin-Yar III found during the excavations of uable finds from the early medieval catacombs 1994 – 1996 are three Byzantine gold coins. They are from the rich Alanic catacombs 341 (excavated in 1994) and 363 (excavated in 1995).735 729 The end of the Chernyakhov Culture dates to the beginning of the 5th cent. AD and may have been caused by the mobilization of barbarians for a campaign in Italy under Ra- dogais (AD 405/406) or the concentration of forces of the Hunnic ‘Empire’ under Attila (from the 430s); see Гавритухин 731 See Джанполадян 1974, 57. 2000a; Гавритухин 2005b. The date of the mass influx of 732 Гавритухин 2001b, 61 Fig. 9. poor-quality glass vessels into the area of the Chernyakhov 733 Unpublished archive of A. K. Ambroz in the ИА РАН. Culture is difficult to determine reliably because of the lack 734 Смиленко 1968; Семёнов 1986, 96 – 97; Гавритухин 2005, of chronological indicators in many assemblages. 386 – 387. 730 See e. g. Gavritukhin 2003. 735 Белинский 1994; Белинский 1995.

98 6 Other dating finds from Late Sarmatian and Alanic graves

Catacomb 341 had a horse sacrifice and pottery been robbed, probably in antiquity. It held the depositions in the dromos, and its chamber held badly disturbed remains of a male and a female the remains of three human skeletons. Two coins adult. Child bones found around the entrance (catalogue no. 10) were found together with two are most likely from a Sarmatian grave disturbed large pyramidal gold earrings (no. 8) and a gold- when the Alanic catacomb was dug. The coin and-silver medallion (no. 9) near the skull of (catalogue no. 10) was found near the skulls on skeleton 1 (a juvenile or young adult). This small the chamber floor. complex of precious finds may originally have belonged to the disturbed skeleton 2 (an adult?) COIN 3 (currently in museum of GUP Nasledie, because the two earrings were clearly not worn. Stavropol) – solidus of Emperor Heraclius and Skeleton 3 was a male adult wearing a single sons (Constantine and Heraclonas), of bright yel- gold earring of different type. low colour, almost exactly circular, with a rounded thin edge; diameter 20 mm, weight 4,28 g COIN 1 (Stavropol Local History Museum (Pl. 7,3). 28667/19 no. 1379) – light solidus of Tiberius Obverse: The entire field is taken up by the Mauritius (Maurice), of gold 999 standard, dark three figures of emperor and regents standing in yellow colour, few abrasions; diameter 19 mm, ankle-length garments and wearing crowns with weight 3,71 g (Pl. 7,1). crosses. The central figure of Heraclius is the Obverse: In the centre is a large portrait of the largest; he is distinguished by a long beard and emperor en face with high semi-oval crown, with a moustache. The larger of the two other figures, diadem bordered with pearls, with an oval lamel- probably his older son, is to his right; the small- late cover in the centre and a coral branch(?) at- er figure to his left is probably his younger son. tached to the left side of the headgear. On both Moustaches are not shown on the sons’ faces, sides near the temples there are pairs of long or they are invisible; only the older son seems pendants with pronounced oval edges. The top of to have a small beard. All three figures are re the folded cloak with a broad collar (chlamys) is presented in the same pose, carrying orbs with fastened with a round brooch. To the right of the crosses in their right hands and with their left head there is the image of a small cross with pro- hands down along the front of their bodies. nounced edges, probably held in the emperor’s Reverse: The centre and upper part show a arm which is bent at the elbow. To the left of the cross-potent, with T-shaped terminals, on Mount head there is the legend ΤΊΒΡΡΛΥ along the edge. Golgotha. The mount is represented in relief by Reverse: In the centre is the standing figure of the three steps of the virtues (Charity, Hope, the winged goddess Nike, in a long garment. Her and Faith). On each side of the cross there is an arms are bent at the elbows and held away from eight-rayed star(?) with its rays ending in round- the torso; the right hand holds a staff terminat- ed points; the star on the right of the cross is ing in a cross with pronounced oval edges, the larger than the one on the left. Horizontal leg- left hand holds a sphere representing her power. ends are placed to both sides of the image and At the sides of the figure and below are legends underneath it: to the right VICTORIA, to the left around the edge: to the right VICTORI, to the left АVSYS(?), and underneath CONOB. АΛVCCI, and below BXX. The date range of the coin is AD 634 – 641. A The likely date is provided by Tiberius Mauritius’ suspension hole (diameter 1.5 mm) has been reign, from AD 582 to 602. The mint is not given, pierced close to the edge from the obverse side. but it is probably Constantinople. The coin has no perforations for suspension or fastening. Earlier excavations in Klin-Yar cemetery III had produced a golden solidus of Heraclius and Con- COIN 2 (Stavropol Local History Museum stantine minted in Constantinople between AD 28667/20 no. 1380) – solidus of Tiberius Mau- 613 and 630 (according to A. B. Nikitin). This ritius, of gold 999 standard; identical to coin coin which had two perforations was found with 1, but the colour is a lighter grey-yellow, with a the single female burial in catacomb 20 excavat- slightly asymmetrical shape and few abrasions; ed in 1984 by Flyorov.736 diameter 20 mm, weight 3,70 g (Pl. 7,2). The images are the same as on coin 1, but they are The coins from Klin-Yar are a valuable addition slightly displaced to the left. Dating and like- to the considerable number of numismatic finds ly mint are, again, the same as for coin 1, and from the area of Kislovodsk, and in particular there are likewise no perforations. Close visual from the Kislovodsk Basin itself. The concentra- inspection of the images on the coins suggests tion of coins and other numismatic finds high- that they had been minted from the same stamp. lights the relative importance of the Kislovodsk Basin within the early medieval North Caucasus. Catacomb 363, the second tomb with a Byzan- The collection of Byzantine coins and related tine coin, was also distinguished by indicators of wealth, such as a horse sacrifice and artefact depositions in the dromos, but the chamber had 736 Флёров 2000, 35 – 36 Fig. 336,1.

99 Klin-Yar – I. O. Gavritukhin and S. N. Savenko

Emperor Dating Type of find Material Quantity Remarks hoard of several 1 Justinian I 527 – 565 coin (follis) copper 1 dozens of coins 2 Justin II 565 – 578 indications copper 2 Justin II and Tiberius 3 578 coin gold 1 Constantine silver barbarian 4 Tiberius II Constantine 578 – 582 indications 1 (low-grade) copy Tiberius Mauritius 5 582 – 602 coins silver 2 found together (Maurice) 6 Phocas 602 – 610 coins silver 2 silver 7 Phocas 602 – 610 indications 3 2 found together gilt 8 Heraclius 613 – 641 coin gold 1 Heraclius and sons 12 11 gold indications 9 (Constantine III and 614 – 641 indications gold silver 4 found together Heraclonas) 10 Constans II 641 – 648 indication bronze 1 Constans II and 11 659 – 668 indications gold 2 found together Constantine 12 Constantine IV 668 indications gold 2 silver 13 Tiberius III Apsimar 698 – 705 indications 5 found together gilt Constantine V bronze 14 751 – 775 (?) counterfeits 2 found together Table 4. Byzantine coins of Copronymus (?) gilt the 6th to 8th cent. AD from silver 2 the Kislovodsk Basin and 15 unknown indications found together copper 2 adjacent areas.

items from the Kislovodsk area began at the end A number of hitherto overlooked or neglected of the 1950 s during rescue work by local ama- finds need to be added to the list of known Byz- teur archaeologists Mikhajlov737 and Runich738 antine numismatic items from the Kislovodsk Ba- in conjunction with members of the youth club sin. Prokopenko has already drawn attention to Kislovodsk Archaeological Section. By the be- inaccuracies in earlier publications on coin finds ginning of the 1970s, the number of coin finds from the area.743 The above-mentioned summary had increased so much that they became the papers failed to mention the gold coin of Hera- subject of two summary papers by Rtveladze and clius found by members of Mikhajlov’s archae- Runich.739 In an overview of early finds of Byzan- ological section as early as the beginning of the tine coins and indications,740 Afanas’ev noted 1960s at the settlement or burial site of Otstojnik two finds which had not been mentioned by Rt- (Gornoe Ekho).744 In 1982 we found two counter- veladze and Runich: a gilt indication from cem- feits of Byzantine coins with two opposing eyes etery 2 at Lermontovskaya Skala, and a hoard of for suspension or fastening, probably from the dozens of coins discovered during the building period of Constantine V (AD 751 – 775), in cata- of a furniture factory (probably on the site of the comb 23 of the the 11th – 12th century cemetery I early medieval settlement Desyat’ Peshcher (Ten at Koltso-Gora.745 Unfortunately these items were Caves).741 The only surviving coin from the latter lost whilst being studied at Moscow State Uni- complex is a copper follis of Justinian I.742 versity. Another golden indication, of a coin of Constantine IV(?), was found in a destroyed catacomb of the Direktorskaya Gorka cemetery.746 737 Михайлов 1967. 738 Рунич 1968b, 213. The collation of all finds from the Kislovodsk Basin 739 Ртвеладзе/Рунич 1971, 219 – 223; Ртвеладзе/Рунич 1976, makes it possible to put the coins from Klin-Yar in 151 – 156. 740 ‘Indication’ (индикация) is the Russian term for a circular context. The 45 Byzantine coins, indications and piece of thin gold or silver foil with the imprint of a coin. In that, indications differ from counterfeits and bracteates. 741 Афанасьев 2004, 125 – 126. 743 Прокопенко 1995a, 6 – 7. 742 Афанасьев 1979b, 8. The coin is now in the Kislovodsk 744 Виноградов et al. 1983, 113 – 114. Local History Museum ‘Fortress’ (Кисловодский историко- 745 Виноградов et al. 1983, 114. краеведческий музей «Крепость»). 746 Personal communication Ya. B. Berezin.

100 6 Other dating finds from Late Sarmatian and Alanic graves

Emperor Dating Type of find Material Quantity Remarks Tiberius Mauritius coins (light found together; 1 582 – 602 gold 2 (Maurice) solidi) excavations 1994 – 96 Heraclius and excavations Flyorov 2 613 – 630 coin (solidus) gold 1 Constantine 1984; with two holes Heraclius and sons excavations 1994 – 96; Table 5. Byzantine coins of 3 (Constantine III and 614 – 641 coin (solidus) gold 1 with suspension hole the 6th to 7th cent. AD from Heraclonas) Klin-Yar III.

counterfeits of the 6th to 8th centuries AD which of Byzantine numismatic material from the entire Fig. 23. Distribution map of had been known earlier subdivide as follows: North Caucasus puts the Klin-Yar finds in a wider Byzantine coins and copies coins – copper 1, silver 4, gold 2; chronological and geographical context (Tab. 6, of the 6th to 8th cent. AD in the indications (gold, silver, or gilt copper) – 33; Fig. 23). North Caucasus. 1 Kislovodsk counterfeits (gilt bronze) – 2. Basin; 2 Taman; 3 Stani tsa Sennaya (Fanagoriya); Their chronological spread and the associations Geographically, the highest density of Byzan- 4−5 Anapa; 6 Dzhigitinskoe; with Byzantine emperors are shown in Tab. 4. tine numismatic items is found in the Caucasian 7 Stanitsa Kurchanskaya; The only case of a later counterfeit in the Kislo- Mineral Waters region, and more specifically the 8 Slavyansk-na-Kuban; vodsk area is that of a coin of Constantine VII Kislovodsk area. Chronologically, coins from the 9 Stanitsa Varenikovskaya; and Romanus II (AD 945 – 959) found in a robbed reign of Heraclius and sons (AD 610 – 641) domi- 10 Sukko; 11 Armavir; catacomb of the 10th – 12th century cemetery I of nate across the North Caucasus; the reign is rep- 12 Stanitsa Barakaevskaya; Rim-Gora.747 resented with 19 individual coins, indications 13 Moshchevaya Balka and copies, and two closed finds of contempora- cemetery; 14 Kyafar hillfort; 15 Adiyukh hillfort; 16 Ust- The above data show a predominance of coins neous and/or identical items. Kovalevskaya has Teberda cemetery (Amgata); and indications from the reign of Heraclius and analyzed the composition of known Late Roman 17 Tyrnyauz (Ozorukovo); rd th his sons in terms of both, absolute numbers of and Byzantine coin finds of the 3 to 9 centu- 18 Chegemskoe Obshchest- coins and numbers of closed finds. Including the ries AD from the North Caucasus and identified vo; 19 Kholam cemetery; Klin-Yar finds in the statistics Tab.( 5) highlights a peak in the time of Heraclius and sons and 20 Peschanka cemetery; the key role of that reign even more. Phocas (i. e. between AD 602 and 641).749 In the 21 Kashkatau cemetery; above table, Phocas’ reign is represented with 22 Galiat; 23 Kamunta; The reign of Emperor Mauritius was already rep- nine finds, the preceding reign of Mauritius Ti- 24 Nizhnij Sadon; 25 Arkhon resented in the region with the find of two silver berius (AD 578 – 602) with seven finds. Thus the cemetery; 26 Chmi cemetery; 27 Armkhi cemetery; 28 Chir- coins, each with two holes for suspension or fas- coins from Klin-Yar all belong to the phase of the Yurt cemetery; 29 Derbent; tening, from catacomb 113 in the Mokraya Balka most intensive influx and widest spread of Byz- 30 Sadovoe. cemetery.748 The compilation of all known finds antine coins and related material in the North Caucasus.

747 Ртвеладзе/Рунич 1976, Tab. 1,7. 748 Рунич 1977, 250. 749 Ковалевская 2005, 16 – 163.

101 Klin-Yar – I. O. Gavritukhin and S. N. Savenko

Type of Emperor Dating Total find Lower and Middle Middle and Lower Kuban Kuban Upper Mineral Caucasian region Waters Kabardino-Balkaria - NorthOssetia Alaniya and Ingushetia Chechnia Dagestan of area Steppe region Stavropol

Co - - - - 2 1 - - 3 In ------1 Anastasius I 491 – 518 Br - - - - 1 - - - 1 Cf ------

Co - - - - 1 - - - 1 In ------2 Justin I 518 – 527 Br ------Cf ------

Co - - 1 H - - - - - 1 Justinian I the In ------3 527 – 565 Great Br ------Cf ------

Co ------In ------4 Theodora I 527 – 548 Br ------Cf ------

Co - - - - 2 - - - 2 In - - 2 - - - - - 2 5 Justin II 565 – 578 Br ------Cf ------

Co - - 1 - 1 - - - 2 Tiberius II Con- In ------6 578 – 582 stantine Br ------Cf ------

Co - - 2 - 2 - 2 - 6 582 – 602 Mauritius Tiberius In ------7 (Maurice) Br - - - - 1 - - - 1 Cf ------

Co - 1 1 - 3 - - - 5 In - - 2 - - - - - 2 8 Phocas 602 – 610 Br - 1 - - 1 - - - 2 Cf ------

Co 2 - 2 + 1 F - 4 - 3 - 12 Heraclius and In - - 5 + 1 F - - - - - 6 9 610 – 641 sons Br ------3 - 3 Cf ------

Co ------Constantine III In ------10 641 Heraclius Br ------Cf ------

Co ------Heraclonas In ------11 641 (Heraclius II) Br ------Cf ------

Co 1 - - - 1 - - - 2 In - - 2 1 - - - - 3 12 Constans II 641 – 668 Br ------Cf ------

Co 1 1 ------2 In - - 2 - - - - - 2 13 Constantine IV 668 – 685 Br ------Cf ------

102 6 Other dating finds from Late Sarmatian and Alanic graves

Co 1+1 H 1 ------3 In ------14 Justinian II 685 – 695 Br ------Cf ------Co ------In ------15 Leontius 695 – 698 Br ------Cf ------Co ------Tiberius III In - - 1 F 1 - - - - 2 16 698 – 705 Apsimar Br ------Cf ------Co ------Philippicus In ------17 711 – 713 Bardanes Br ------Cf ------Co ------Anastasius II In ------18 713 – 715 (Artemius) Br ------Cf ------Co ------In ------19 Theodosius III 715 – 717 - Br ------Cf ------

------1 9 Co 5+3 H 1 - 11 - - - - 12 In - 20 Leo III Isaurus 717 – 741 1 ------1 Br ------Cf -

------1 4 Co 2+1 H ------Constantine V 741 – 775 In - 21 - 1 - - - - - 1 Copronymus Br ------1 Cf -

Co ------In ------22 Artavasdus 742 – 743 Br ------Cf ------Co 1 H ------1 In ------23 Leo IV the Khazar 775 – 780 Br ------Cf ------Co ------780 – 790 In ------24 Irene 797 – 802 Br ------Cf ------Co ------In ------25 Constantine VI 790 – 797 Br ------Cf ------20 + 3 Total 12+6 H 6 13 19 1 8 2 90 H/F

Table 6. Byzantine coins of the 6th to 8th cent. AD from the North Caucasus. Legend: Co –coin; In – indication; Br – brakteat; Cf – counterfeit; H – hoard; F–closed find. Cases of coins and other numismatic items from one reign found together in a closed find are counted in the total as one find.

103 Klin-Yar – I. O. Gavritukhin and S. N. Savenko

Most of the Byzantine coins and indications The solidus of Heraclius and sons found in cat- found in the North Caucasus had been minted acomb 363 is perforated near the edge and was in Constantinople, and only few in the provinc- probably used as a pendant. This was the pre- es of the Empire (incl. Khersones). They arrived dominant use of coins found in cemeteries of the in the region by various means: as diplomatic North Caucasus, and it was not limited to the ear- gifts, payment for allies in the region and mer- ly Middle Ages. It has long been thought that im- cenary service outside the region, loot and trib- ported coins, particularly Byzantine coins, had ute, payment for safe conduct of trade goods been used by the natives as ornaments, and that through the region, and indirectly as a result of such coins may have been worn as amulets or in exchange with neighbouring states (Abkhasia, some other religious or cult function.755 Discuss- Crimea, etc.), among others. The possibility of ing the Byzantine coins of the 10th century from local copies and indications being produced the Upper Kuban, Lozhkin suggested that coins within the region of Caucasian Mineral Wa- with Christian images or showing features typi- ters has been discussed in specialist publica- cal of the early churches of the region may have tions.750 served as pectoral crosses or ikons; Vinogradov and Maslova have accepted this argument only The origin of the Klin-Yar coins in the capi- for exceptional cases.756 tal and the central areas of the Empire is evidenced, in particular, by the name of Con- The hole near the edge of the coin of Heraclius stantinople on the solidus found in the 1984 and sons from Klin-Yar is placed in such a position excavations. But the coins found here were that the emperor figures on the obverse would probably meant for the barbarian world. One have been the right way up when the coin was of the most convincing arguments in favour worn as a pendant, but the Golgatha cross on the of this suggestion is the light weight of the reverse would have been upside down. This sug- gold coins of Mauritius Tiberius: their weight gests that only the image of the Byzantine rulers (4.5 – 4.54 grams) is well below the stipulated held a meaning for the wearer of the coin. Though standard.751 Such light solidi which were prob- the hole had slightly damaged Heraclius’ crown, ably intended for tribute and ransom payments this need not have affected the respect accorded were already minted by the time of Justinian I to the image. It is possible that such perforated (AD 527 – 565).752 coins may have also served as awards or medals: the development of coins to medals happened in The absence of holes or perforations on the Classical antiquity and in the Middle Ages.757 coins from Catacomb 341 is a rare feature, and it suggests that they may have been part of a re- Like his predecessors, Emperor Heraclius quite of- ward or payment which was valuable to its own- ten employed barbarian mercenaries and soldiers er in its original form, and not as ornament or in pursuit of his foreign policy. He had to rule the jewellery. In the reign of his predecessor Tiberi- Empire during one of the most difficult periods us, and on his behalf, Mauritius was engaged in in its history, and the situation forced him to pay the organisation of a barbarian army for the war particular attention to tribes located to the north against Persia, and in AD 577 he was appointed of the Empire.758 The Avars and Slavs presented a magister militum per orientem.753 When he suc- very serious danger to the Empire at this time, with ceeded to the throne, he had to deal with the Av- groups of Alans from the North Caucasus being al- ars to whom he was obliged to make substantial lied to the Avars. More than once Heraclius paid payments. Having concluded an unprofitable substantial sums to the Avars, up to 80,000 to bargain with the Avars, Mauritius and his army 100,000 solidi in each case, and on one occasion accomplished several successful campaigns 200,000 gold coins in a single payment. For this in Armenia, including the siege and temporary purpose, particularly in AD 615, he minted gold capture, in AD 591, of the town of Dvin, the Sas- coins of considerably reduced weight, and bor- sanid governor’s residence.754 It is conceivable rowed money from rich families and the Church. In that Alanic horsemen from the Kislovodsk Basin AD 619, several successive payments were made had been mercenaries. Their payment and loot to the Avars to buy peace and ensure the return of may have been the background of the wealth some 300,000 prisoners. This is the reason for the found at Klin-Yar in the tombs with horses in wide distribution of Heraclius coins from the Dan- their dromoi. ube to the Urals, including the North Caucasus.759

755 Виноградов 1982; Виноградов/Деппуева 1990; and others. 750 For example Виноградов et al. 1983, 116 – 117; Проко- 756 Виноградов/Маслова 2003, 12. пенко 1995b, 63 – 67; Прокопенко 1998, 16 – 17. 757 Потин 1993, 32 – 35. 751 Фенглер et al. 1993, 48. 758 Потин 1993, 45; История Византии 1967, 364 – 365; 752 Семёнов 1991, 124. and others. 753 Дашков 1996, 86. 759 Семёнов 1991, 125 – 126; Казаманова 1957, 70 – 76; 754 Мушегян 1962, 12. Копылов/Смоляк 1988, 60, 66.

104 6 Other dating finds from Late Sarmatian and Alanic graves

The solidus from Klin-Yar catacomb 363 be- Byzantine Empire soon found new allies in the longs to the late Heraclius coins which are Khazars who were then infiltrating the North widespread in the North Caucasus: solidi with Caucasus. In AD 627 the army of Heraclius in- the image of the three standing figures of He vaded Persia and defeated Chosroes II. Kavad raclius, Constantine and Heraclonas did not who replaced the executed ruler concluded appear until AD 629.760 By this time Heraclius a peace with Byzantium. The Byzantine army had already overcome many internal and exter- included Khazar and Alanic units. It is not in- nal problems. Military reforms were completed conceivable that an Alanic horseman from the by AD 622, providing the basis for an offensive Kislovodsk Basin took part in these campaigns against Persia. In AD 626 the Persians con- and, together with other warriors, was reward- cluded a treaty with the Avars and their allies ed with rich gifts and solidi of Heraclius. After who again attacked Constantinople. This time, his death, the coin was deposited with him in however, the Avars were defeated, and the catacomb 363 at Klin-Yar.

760 Копылов/Смоляк 1988, 72.

105 7 Social analysis of 4th to 8th century Alanic burials at Klin-Yar

Dmitrij S. Korobov

This paper presents two aspects of the social from the current analysis. The first stage of the analysis of the graves in the cemeteries of Klin- analysis of Klin-Yar III used 61 catacombs with Yar III and IV. The first aspect is the analysis of known chamber length and width, and known horizontal social differentiation, based on the numbers of individuals buried in them.769 The use of catacombs as re-usable tombs, which al- analysis of social stratification included all lows the reconstruction of family patterns. The graves with undisturbed skeletons which al- second aspect is the analysis of vertical social lowed the inference of the deposition of body differentiation intended to reveal hierarchi- and grave-goods. The reconstruction of typical cal and status differences in the society whose grave-goods sets at Klin-Yar III used data from members are buried.761 11 children and 61 adults.770 The analysis of social status distinguished between 26 male and This analysis uses the methodology developed 26 female burials.771 Excavations in the cem- in an earlier study of 80 male and 121 female etery of Klin-Yar IV produced ten Alanic cata burials from the Kislovodsk Basin.762 In the combs with three children and 12 adults; of the analysis of catacombs as family vaults, the latter, four were identified as male and seven proportionate chamber space per individual is as female.772 As with Klin-Yar III, disturbed cata calculated; Savenko has established that the combs and burials were excluded from the required minimum space for a buried individ- analysis if their grave-goods sets could not be ual ranges from 0.74 to 0.86 sq.m for an ex- reconstructed.773 tended body, and 0.8 to 0.99 sq.m for a body in crouched position.763 The analysis of social status applies the methodology of Afanas’ev who has used Cluster analysis.764 In my earlier study as well as here, this method is improved by 765 using weighted attributes. Correspondence 769 These were the catacombs excavated by Runich analysis which has recently become popular in (catacombs 3 ,5, 9; Рунич 1968, 5−6, 9), Flyorov (cata- European archeology766 was used here to verify combs 2, 3, 5, 6, 9−11, 17, 19, 20, 22, 23, 28−30, 32, 49, 52, 54, 55, 60, 62, 64, 68, 116; Флёров 2000), and the results of the Cluster analysis. The results Belinskij and Härke, respectively (graves 199, 233, 234, were then compared with those of previous re- 237, 238, 281, 338 – 341, 345, 352, 356, 357, 359, search on social hierarchies of the Alans of the 360, 361A and 361B, 363BB, 364, 368, 371, 373, 374, Kislovodsk Basin.767 378 – 382, 384, 386 and 387; most of them published in this volume). In order to simplify the description of data, an R-prefix is used here to identify catacombs excavated The sample analysed here comprises all un- by Runich; Flyorov and Belinskij used consecutive num- disturbed, or only slightly disturbed, Alanic bers for the graves from their excavations. An additional catacombs excavated over the years at Klin-Yar number after a slash indicates the number of the skeleton in the respective catacomb (e. g. 341/2 for skeleton 2 in III and IV; this includes the new excavations catacomb 341). of 1994−1996. While Flyorov has suggested 770 Children: R-3, R-5/3, R-9/2, 62/1, 68, 234/3, 340/1, that some graves at Klin-Yar III and elsewhere 341/1, 371/2, 380, 382/3; adults: R-5/1, R-5/2, R-5/4, had been opened and intentionally disturbed R-9/1, 2, 3/2, 6, 9, 10, 17, 20, 22, 23/2, 23/3, 28, 29/2, 30, 32/1, 52, 54/1, 57, 62/2, 64, 199, 233, 234/1, 234/2, in antiquity for ritual and apotropaic purpos- 768 237, 238/1, 238/2, 248/1, 248/2, 339/1, 339/2, 340/2, es, this idea is still under debate, and graves 340/3, 341/3, 352/1, 352/2, 356/1, 356/2, 357/1, with disturbed skeletons have been excluded 357/2, 360/1, 360/2, 361A, 361B, 363BB/2, 371/1, 373, 374, 378, 379, 381/1, 381/2, 382/1, 382/2, 384, 386/1, 386/2, 387. 771 Males: R-5/1, 3/2, 6, 9, 10, 17, 22, 23/2, 28, 32/1, 54/1, 234/1, 238/2, 339/1, 340/2, 341/3, 352/1 (?), 761 Tainter 1978, 131; Бунатян 1985, 25−26. 356/1, 357/1, 360/2, 361B (?), 378 (?), 381/1, 382/2, 762 Коробов 2003, 10−20; 291−293. – For the chronology 386/1, 387); females: R-5/2, 2, 20, 23/3, 29/2, 30, 52, 57, used here, see Chapters 4 and 5, this volume. 199, 237, 238/1, 339/2, 340/3, 352/2, 356/2 (?), 357/2, 763 Савенко 1984, 64; Савенко 1989, 12. 360/1, 361A, 363BB/1, 371/1, 373, 374 (?), 379, 381/2, 764 Афанасьев 1993b, 133−141. 382/1, 386/2. 765 Коробов 2003, 19; 307. 772 Children: 2/2, 7/1, 9/1; adults: 1, 2/1, 5/1, 5/2, 6/2, 766 Nielsen 1991; Theune 1995; Jensen/Nielsen 1997; Rein- 7/3, 7/4, 8/1, 8/2, 9/3, 10 and 12; males: 5/1, 7/4, 8/1 hold 1997a, 1997b. and 12; females: 1, 2/1, 5/2, 6/2, 7/3, 8/2 and 10. 767 Коробов 2003, 194−260; 307−309. 773 This applies in the cases of catacomb 3 which held 768 Flyorov has suggested that the rite was meant to forestall three individuals (male, female, and child); and male bur- danger emanating from the dead; Флёров 2000. ial 6/1.

106 7 Social analysis of 4th to 8th century Alanic burials

7.1 The analysis of family patterns at Klin-Yar III

There are 61 excavated catacombs with known chamber dimensions and numbers of buried individuals. The dimensions of burial chambers vary from 0.60 to 2.65 m in length, and from 0.36 to 1.95 m in width. Their nominal areas (chamber length multiplied by chamber width) ranged from 0.36 to 4.70 sq.m and they contained from one to four individuals. There is a clear correlation between chamber areas and numbers of buried individuals (Fig. 24). The mean and the median areas for the entire sample are approximately 2.47 sq.m. Most catacombs (35 out of Fig. 24. Box plot analysis 61) held one burial, with a chamber area slight- of the correlation between ly below the average (1.57 – 2.47 sq.m); the 19 chamber areas of catacombs catacombs with two skeletons typically have an and numbers of individuals area slightly larger than the average (2.40 – 3.30 buried in them. sq.m); the chamber areas of the six catacombs with three individuals range from 2.09 to 4.24 sq.m; and the only chamber holding four bodies tors – chamber length and width – while sex and has an area of 4.41 sq.m. age were merely taken as classification factors (Tab. 7, Fig. 25). Calculating the proportionate chamber area per individual (i. e. length multiplied with width of The analysis shows that adult individuals of chamber, divided by number of skeletons) pro- both sexes were buried in chambers of similar duces a somewhat different picture Fig.( 25). dimensions, as represented by Discriminant The average chamber area per individual rang- group 2. Children fall into two groups, with es from 0.24 to 3.30 sq.m, with an average of one having the chamber dimensions of adult about 1.77 sq.m, and a median of about 1.65 group 2, and the other one standing apart by sq.m. But the actual values vary in relation to the virtue of their chamber dimensions; this Discri- number of individuals in the chamber: the pro- minant group (3) also includes a female adult. portionate area in a single-burial catacomb is in The substantial difference between the two most cases 1.7 – 2.5 sq.m, in double-burial cata- groups in the lengths and widths of their catacombs 1.2 – 1.6 sq.m, in triple-burial catacombs 1.0 – 1.35 sq.m, and in the quadruple-burial 1.10 sq.m per individual. This shows that cat- Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 acombs with only one skeleton have enough Male adults 2 8 0 0 space for additional burials because they have about twice the required minimum burial area Female adults 3 7 1 1 calculated by Savenko for an individual body. In fact, the proportionate area per individual in Children 0 2 3 0 double-burial chambers is close to the calculat- Unsexed adults 1 6 0 1 ed minimum while the proportionate space in triple and quadruple-burial chambers is below that. Table 7. Classification matrix by Discriminant analysis of If the burial chamber of an Alanic catacomb had Alanic single burials at Klin- Yar III. been built each time for a specific number of individuals, one would have expected the same proportionate area per body in all of them. This is clearly not the case, with double-burial chambers representing an optimum value. A closer analysis, taking age and sex into account, re- veals further interesting patterns.

The Alanic single burials at Klin-Yar III include ten male adults, 12 female adults, five children, and eight unsexed adults. Discriminant analysis Fig. 25. Box plot analysis of was applied to analyse the differences in sizes of the proportionate chamber single-burial chambers. This used only two fac- area per individual.

107 Klin-Yar – D. S. Korobov

near the far wall of the chamber, away from the Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 entrance (R-3, 17, 30, 52, 64, 199, 237, 373, Men 0.000 0.084 6.828 0.076 374, 378, 379, 384). This suggests that these chambers were meant to accommodate more Women 0.084 0.000 5.401 0.208 burials at a later stage. This pattern is clearer at Children 6.828 5.401 0.000 7.284 Klin-Yar than in the whole of the Kislovodsk Ba- sin where, out of 131 adults in single burials, 63 Not Identified 0.076 0.208 7.284 0.000 had been placed in the middle of the chamber, four close to the entrance, and 37 close to the Table 8. Distances between comb chambers is obvious from the distances far wall. This confirms our earlier suggestion that Discriminant groups of Alanic between the groups (Tab. 8). the burial chamber of an Alanic catacomb was single burials at Klin-Yar III. designed for two bodies. Discriminant analysis has, thus, revealed substantial differences between the sizes of sin- Among the 19 double-burial catacombs of Klin- gle-burial chambers for adults and children, re- Yar III, no fewer than 15 contained an adult male spectively. Where single-burial chambers were and an adult female (graves 3, 29, 32, 54, 55, on average 1.88 m long by 1.2 m wide in the 238, 339, 352, 356, 357, 360, 363B, 364, 381, case of male adults (and closely similar for un- 386). Of the remaining four, one held a woman sexed adults), they were 1.79 m by 1.11 m for fe- and a child (371), one a man and a child (49), male adults, and 1.22 m by 0.72 m for children. and two an unsexed adult with a child (R-9 and The woman in catacomb 361A had chamber di- 62). The Klin-Yar evidence, thus, supports our mensions (1.35 m long and 0.36 m wide) which earlier observation that Alanic double burials were close to those of the children’s group. Two in the North Caucasus consist of a male and a children (R-3 and 384) had larger chambers female adult in almost all cases where skeletal (1.84 and 1.62 m long, 0.90 and 1.10 m wide, data could be obtained.777 In virtually all cases, respectively); one of them (384) was an early ad- the age of the men is the same or slightly older olescent of about 10 – 12 years of age. In the oth- than that of the respective women buried with er three cases of children in single-burial cata them. But this age difference was not as con- combs (R-9/2, 68, 380), only one could be aged siderable as it was, for example, in some graves skeletally: the infant in 380 was about 18 – 24 of the Dmitrievskij cemetery (e. g. catacombs months old. 33 and 74, with a young man and an elderly woman) where the evidence was interpreted by This pattern confirms the author’s earlier sug- the excavator as the ritual interment of ‘death gestion that in the Alanic burial rite children re- wives’.778 The pattern at Klin-Yar and elsewhere ceived adult treatment from the age of 10 – 12 in the North Caucasus supports Afanas’ev’s onwards.774 This appears to be a threshold age suggestion that double burials in Alanic cata- at which children passed into the next higher combs repr esent the nuclear family,779 an idea age group. Flyorov came to the same conclusion which was later given further support on a broad- in a paper on burial rites in the Mayatskij cem- er evidential basis.780 etery.775 In Ossetian ethnography, children as a group were called kastarta (minors), and sub- Most chambers with double burials of a male and divided into two sub-groups. It is possible that a female adult have proportionate areas close smaller chambers at Klin-Yar held individuals of to the mean value of the group (1.2 – 1.6 sq.m) the cumajykar age sub-group (‘little runners’, whereas double burials with an adult and a child 3 – 10 years old) while chambers of a size com- are found in chambers with smaller proportion- parable to that of catacombs for adults held ate areas (0.98 – 1.29 sq. m.), and in only one children of the fæsivæd age group (‘successors’, case in a larger chamber (1.91 sq.m, in R-9). 10 – 16 years old), i. e. those approaching or This probably means that the double burial of an reaching marriageable age.776 The available skel- adult with a child had the same status as a single etal data for Klin-Yar III, incomplete though they adult burial, with the child not being entitled to are, seem to support this analogy. its allocation of additional space.

The arrangement of bodies in single-burial cata The few cases of three individuals buried in one combs appears significant, too. Only nine out of chamber were combinations of a man, a woman 35 single burials had been placed in the middle and a child (23, 340 and 382); an unsexed adult, of the chamber (22, 28, 60, 116, 233, 361A, a man and a child (234 and 341); and three adult 361B, 383 and 387) while 12 had been placed

777 Коробов 2003, 143; 302. 774 Коробов 2003, 141 – 142; 302. 778 Плетнёва 1989, 202. 775 Флёров 1993, 10; 30. 779 Афанасьев 1993а, 51−64. 776 Чочиев 1985, 56−57, 64; Чочиев 1996, 119−133. 780 Коробов 2003, 122−180; 300−303.

108 7 Social analysis of 4th to 8th century Alanic burials

individuals (man, woman, and unsexed adult, in cupied the second position from the entrance 345). There are few data about their respective (5, 29, 32, 54, 339, 352, 356, 357, 360, 363B, ages, but what there is does not contradict our 381, 386), and three were in the third place earlier observations. The proportionate areas (23, 340 and 382). However, in the 15 cases in triple-burial chambers are approximately the of a male and a female burial in double-burial same as in double-burial catacombs (1.40 – 1.60 catacombs, men had been placed closer to the sq.m per individual), and occasionally smaller chamber entrance in 13 cases (29, 32, 54, 339, (1.12 sq.m in 382) or larger (1.80 sq.m in 345, 352, 356, 357, 360, 363B, 381 and 386); the with three adults). The quadruple burial in cata- opposite was the case in just two catacombs comb R-5 consisted of a man, a woman, an un- (55 and 238). Preferential gender positions as sexed adult and a child, with a proportionate suggested by the excavators may therefore be area per person space of 1.10 sq.m which is perceived as a trend at Klin-Yar III, as well as at somewhat below the Klin-Yar III average. Here, the cemeteries of Bermamyt, Kugul 1, Kugul 2, as in the case of catacomb 382, the presence Lermontovskaya Skala 1, and Mirny 2; other of a child led to a smaller proportionate area, Alanic cemeteries in the Kislovodsk Basin do confirming the trend observed above in cases of not show this trend.782 double burials. Overall, the high-quality data from Klin-Yar III In preliminary reports on the Klin-Yar excava- support earlier suggestions that an Alanic cata tions, Belinskij and Härke have suggested that comb-type tomb was meant for a nuclear fami male burials were predominantly located next ly consisting of a couple with their children. In to the chamber entrance while female burials single-burial chambers, space had been left for were closer to the far wall.781 Before the new another body in half of all cases, with the bur- Klin-Yar excavations, the evidence from the Kis- ied body placed closer to the far wall from the lovodsk Basin had not produced anything to entrance. Double burials of adults were exclu- support this notion. At the first glance, it does sively those of a man and a woman, triple burials not even appear to be supported by the Klin-Yar mostly those of a man, a woman and a child. At III evidence of 4th–7th century catacombs. Out of the same time, the burial of a child with adult(s) 20 cases of double burials, the man was placed did not lead to an increase in chamber size. If closest to the chamber entrance in 13 cases the child was buried on its own, the chamber (R-5, 29, 32, 54, 339, 341, 352, 356, 357, 360, size depended on the respective child’s age, 363B, 381, 386) whereas he occupied the se with children from a certain age (apparently cond position from the entrance in seven cases 10 – 12 years) being buried in larger, adult-sized (3, 23, 49, 55, 238, 340, 345 and 382). Of the chambers. But undoubtedly, the size of the tomb 19 women in double burials, four were placed also reflects labour investment which, in turn, next to the entrance (3, 55, 345, 371), 12 oc- depends of the deceased’s social status.

7.2 Identifying male and female grave-goods at Klin-Yar III

Before any analysis of social status can be un- one case a buckle next to the right arm, in the dertaken, it is necessary to identify grave-goods other a belt set consisting of a buckle and belt assemblages which are diagnostic of gender plates (382/3 and 341/1). Beads occurred at and age at this site (Figs. 26; 27). The first step the neck, waist and right arm (62/1, 234/3 and is the analysis of age patterns of grave-goods 341/1); occurrences of other dress ornaments provision in the sample of 61 adult and 11 child were a brooch on the chest (62/1), bracelets on ren’s burials (with the two 10 – 12 year old ado- or next to the right arm (62/1 and 234/3), ear- lescents in graves 378 and 384 included in the rings on the skull (R-5/3, 62/1, 234/3, 341/1), adult sample). head decoration (234/1), and shoe buckles and decorative fittings (341/1). Cult or ritual objects Four children had no grave-goods at all (R-3, are also unusual in children’s graves: one child R-9/2, 371/2 and 380); in the latter two cas- (340/1) had a resinous substance at the belt; es, the age was found to be between 6 and 24 an astragalus was found on the chest of another months old. For the remaining children, it was child (62/1); and a bronze bell was at the belt of untypical to have weapons placed in their graves the third child (234/3). Pottery found in multiple (with the exception of body armour fragments burials can hardly ever be identified as belong- found next to the left arm of the child in 234/3). ing a specific individual, particularly if placed in Belt fittings were found with two children, in the dromos or close to the entrance; this is the

781 Belinskij/Härke 1996, 14; Härke/Belinsky 2000, 200. 782 Коробов 2003, 159−160.

109 Klin-Yar – D. S. Korobov

died before reaching the age of 3 were buried outside the common fields.783 However, at least three children buried at Klin-Yar III were below the age of 3 (371/2, 380 and 382/3). Given the absence of more data on children’s age at death, a more detailed analysis of the funeral rite for children was impossible.

Of the adults excavated at Klin-Yar III, 22 could be skeletally sexed male and 25 female. Body position in the grave was one of the differen ces between the sexes. Among female adults, two were found crouched on the left side, and 16 flexed or crouched on the right, while nearly all male adults (20 out of 22) had been deposited extended on their backs. Only four women (R-5/2, 339/2, 352/2, 363B/1) had been deposited in extended position on their backs; all of these were found in multiple-burial catacombs, and three of them date to the third period of Klin- Yar III (after Malashev and Gavritukhin). It would therefore seem that the crouched deposition of females was gradually replaced with extended deposition on the back, at Klin-Yar and elsewhere in the Kislovodsk Basin.784 Another general feature of cemeteries in this region is the occurrence of bodies placed with their heads to the left of the chamber entrance as seen from outside.785 At Klin-Yar, individuals buried with their heads pointing to the right of the chamber entrance were all placed in extended position on the back (64, 352/1, 352/2).

Weapons and horse harness are generally not typical of female burials, but common with males (Fig. 27). Only three female burials had harness Fig. 26. Types of grave-goods case in children’s burials R-5/3, R-9/2, 62/1, parts or a bit in the dromos (29 and 363B), a found with children and 340/1, 341/1 and 382/3. In one catacomb with stirrup at the feet (363B/1), a bow (357), and a adults. a single burial, a jug and a cup were found in the quiver of arrows in the dromos (363B), respec- dromos (380, an infant 12 – 24 months old); in tively. In all three cases, these female burials another (68), a cup had been placed to the left were accompanied by males for whom these ob- of the chamber entrance. In the multiple-burial jects may have been meant. Three female burials catacomb 340, a cup was found at the child’s had large knives on the belt (363B/1), or at the head (340/1). left (357/2) or right (352/2) arm.

The above discussion highlights how scarce By contrast, horse harness parts and weapons grave-goods are in children’s graves, and it ap- were more frequent in male adult burials. These pears that infants were generally buried without include head-band, girth buckle, bits and/or any grave-goods (with a few exceptions, such as stirrups placed near the respective individual’s 234/3, 341/1, 380, 382/3). On the other hand, head, feet or right arm, as well as at the cham- grave 341/1 was accompanied by objects which ber entrance (burials 339/1, 352/1, 356/1 and would have been considered valuable among the grave 360). Numerous bow reinforcements were adult population (see below) of the Kislovodsk found in the dromos of catacomb 357, from at Basin, such as a belt set, shoe buckles and least one bow, while quivers of arrows had been decorative fittings. Given this assemblage, the deposited at the right arm, along the feet, or absence of strap ends with this individual may in the entrance pit (352/1, 341/3 and 360, re- mean that 341/1 was female (see below). The spectively). Individual arrows were found in the small number of children found within the cemetery of Klin-Yar III could imply that most children were buried at a separate location, and not in the 783 Чочиев 1985, 59. cemetery for adults. Ethnographic observations 784 Коробов 2003, 260 Fig. 107. in Ossetian society indicate that children who 785 Коробов 2003, 99.

110 7 Social analysis of 4th to 8th century Alanic burials

left half of the chamber next to the entrance (28) and at the man’s feet (6). Swords were found with four male burials, in two cases with scabbard and sword belt (357/1 and 360/2); they had been placed at the left or right arm, along the right leg, or in the entrance pit (361, 360/2, 238/2 and 357, respectively). Several large knives (or daggers) were found, placed at the man’s head (356/1, 381/1) or in the entrance pit (357, 360).

There are some differences between the sexes in how knives were placed near the body. Among male burials with knives, there were four cases each of knives at the right hand (burials 6, 9, 17, 252/1), the left hand (22, 341/3, 356/1, 382/2) and the belt (R-5/1, 3/2, 339/1, 340/2). In three catacombs, the knife was placed at the chamber entrance (28, 32, 387; in the latter case together with sheep ribs). In one burial each, the knife was found at the head (360/2), the feet (352/1), or in the entrance pit (357). In female burials, the knife is most often placed near the arms, a consequence of the preferred crouched deposition (2, 20, 29/2, 30, 52, 57, 199, 386/2). But as often as in male burials, the knife was on or at the woman’s belt (23/3, 340/3, 357/2, 381/2). A few knives were placed at the woman’s left arm (363B/1), on her chest (371/1), at the chamber entrance (373), and the chamber’s rear wall (361A).

Awls were found in four catacombs, three of them with female burials; here, the awl was feet. The only two belt sets with female adults Fig. 27. Types of grave- placed at the woman’s head (379) or at her feet were found at the waist (357/2 and 363B/1). goods found with males and (340/3). In the male burial 381/1, the awl was There is, therefore, a clearer association of belt females. found at the head. Scissors were probably also buckles and belt-sets with male than with fe- a predominantly female accessory; two were male individuals. It is also interesting to note found with females, one to the left of the ent that not a single belt strap-end has been found rance into a single-burial chamber (379), the in female burials. other at the woman’s feet (30). In catacomb 357 which held a man and a woman, the scissors had By contrast, fibulae were more often a compo- been deposited in the entrance pit. nent of the female than the male burial costume. Fibulae were found in four male burials The frequency and use of buckles and belt-sets is of Klin-Yar III: at the head (burial 382/2), and somewhat different in the male and female buri- on the right (17) and left (339/1, 382/2) shoul- al costumes of Klin-Yar III. In male burials, buck- der. In catacomb 341 containing a man and les (in burials 6, 9, 22, 339/1, 340/2, 352/1, an individual of unidentified sex, a fibula was 360/2, 386/1, 387) or belt-sets (341/3, 356/1) found in a purse that had been placed as a fu- are mostly found on the belt. Belt buckles have neral gift to the left of the chamber exit, which been found at the left (22) or right (3/2, 6) arm, probably means that in this case the fibula was at the feet (340/2), and next to the chamber not part of the man’s inventory. Fibulae are entrance (32). Belt sets had been deposited at much more frequent in female burials; in most the right (17, 352/1) or left (341/3) arm, at the of the 17 cases, the fibula had been placed on feet (352/1), to the left of the chamber entrance the chest (237, 352/2, 357/2, 360/1, 381/2), (341), and once inside a jar placed to the left of at the waist (R-5/2, 30, 352/2, 361A, 381/2) or the chamber entrance (360). Belt buckles and inside a bag (20, 199, 356/2, 363B/1, 371/1). sets are clearly less frequent with females than In one case each, the fibula was found to the with males. Only one buckle has been found left of the chamber entrance (373), on the right close to the waist of a woman: burial 352/2 had shoulder (340/3), at the hands of the crouched a buckle at the woman’s right hand. With burial skeleton (2), and at the chamber entrance 340/3, the buckle had been deposited at the (373).

111 Klin-Yar – D. S. Korobov

Beads present a similar picture, occurring in four in those cases their position suggests that they male burials; in two of them, they were found at were not essential components of the male bur- the neck where they would be expected if worn ial costume. Three cases are known where a mir- in the conventional manner (burials 17 and ror was found at the man’s head (R-5/1), and two 382/2). In the other two cases, they were at the were found inside a bag placed to the left of the waist (341/3) and at the feet (356/1). In cata- chamber entrance (341 and 352). Mirrors were a comb 341, some beads were found in the bag component in about a half of the female burials; deposited to the left of the chamber entrance. they were found with 11 female adults, in a vari- In female burials, beads are an almost universal ety of locations and positions: at the head (29/2, occurrence, found with 20 out of 25 burials. Most 357/2, 363B/1), at the waist (381/2), in a purse of them were found at the neck or chest (R-5/2, (356/2), next to the hands of the crouched body 20, 29/2, 52, 237, 340/3, 352/2, 356/2, 357/2, (2), at the right hand of a body extended on its 360/1, 373, 381/2), inside a purse or bag (20, back (361A), at the feet (30), and also to the left 23/3, 199, 356/2, 357/2, 363B/1, 371/1), or at of the entrance (238), at the entrance (373), or the waist (20, 30, 339/2, 340/3, 357/2, 361A); in the entrance pit (199). There was clearly no some were at the head (360/1, probably from a standard place for a mirror accompanying a fe- headdress), at the hands (2, 52), at the feet (20) male burial, and this may reflect ideas related to and inside a casket (356). this particular artefact and its ritual deposition.

Brooches were female-only grave-goods, found The typical female assemblage includes bags on women’s chests (burials R-5/2, 29/2, 381/2) holding various objects: beads, amulets, toilet and at the hand (2). This is also true of brace- accessories, etc. Interestingly, in only two cata- lets which were found in seven female buri- combs (341 and 351) where the bag had been als, almost always on both arms (R-5/2, 2, 20, deposited to the left of the entrance, is it dif- 23/3, 29/2, 352/2, 360/1), and of earrings (2, ficult to associate the bag with either the man 20, 23/3, 29/2, 52, 199, 237, 340/3, 352/2, or the woman. The most frequent location for 356/2, 357/2, 360/2, 361A, 363B/1, 371/1, the bag is at the crouched woman’s hands (20, 373, 381/2). Two Alanic males wore a single 199, 356/2), on her chest (23/3, 371/1), on her gold earring each which was found on the skull waist (357/2, 363B/1), or at her head (360/1). (341/3) and under it (360/2), respectively. Cata- Shoe or boot fittings such as buckles, decorative comb 341 held a triple burial, and bracelets and fittings and strap ends are more typical of male a bronze finger-ring had been deposited inside a burials: these occurred with eight male burials bag to the left of the chamber entrance. The oth- (3/2, 9, 17, 341/3, 352/1, 360/2, 381/1, 387), er rings (perhaps finger-rings?) from Klin-Yar III but only once with a female burial (360/1), and were found with female burials 20 and 363B/1: in this case without strap ends. in the first case on the right hand, in the second case inside a purse. Cult or ritual objects reveal intriguing differences between male and female funeral rites. For It is clear from the evidence discussed above example, in catacombs with male burials animal that belt buckle and belt set were predominant- bones had been placed to the right of the cham- ly attributes of the male burial costume, while ber entrance (341, 387), at the chamber exit (3), body and dress ornaments were predominantly and at the man’s head (340/2). The latter po- attributes of the female costume (Fig. 27). Some sition was also observed in the only catacomb of the few ornaments found with male burials, where a female burial was associated with ani- and of the belt accessories with female burials mal bones (2). In most cases, however, we can- may have been funeral gifts; this would have par- not unambiguously associate remains of food allels in the distributions of amulets and ritual depositions with male burials because most artefacts in Alanic society.786 were found in multiple-burial catacombs.

Similar gender distinctions can be observed Lumps of black resinous substance that have in the case of other dress accessories. Toilet been suggested to be ‘mumiyo’787 or raw opi- kits which typically include an ear-scoop, a um788 were found with both, male and female nail-cleaner, tweezers, a small brush and a cos- burials. Men had these lumps at their waist (bur- metics spoon were only found in female buri- ial 339/1), at their left hand (22), or at the feet als, placed at the waist (burials 23/3, 357/2, (340/2), while women had them at their hands 381/2), next to the crouched skeleton (2), on the chest (29/2, 30, 237, 381/2), or inside a purse (52, 356/2, 363B/1). Occasionally, large mirrors 787 Мумиё, a decomposition product from bat excrements appear to be associated with male burials, but which is thought to have medicinal properties; Афанасьев 1976, 128−129. 788 Фоменко 1989, 20; Прокопенко 1999, 77. – Recent laboratory analysis has shown that the black matter is unlikely 786 Албегова 2000, 10. to be, or contain, opium; see Chapter 3, this volume.

112 7 Social analysis of 4th to 8th century Alanic burials

(30), at the chamber entrance (373) or in the ated individuals. Some cups had been deposit- entrance pit (199), and inside a casket (356/2). ed to the right of the chamber entrance (graves Cowry shells were only found in catacombs with 237, 386), at the entrance (6, 17, 23, 52, 233, female burials, on the woman’s chest (grave 237) 378), at the rear wall (17, 339), and at the left or in a purse (52, 371/1); in catacomb 381, a (248/2) or right (3/2) hand. Catacombs of the shell was found in the fill of the chamber which Late Sarmatian period (RZ) produced pottery held a man and a woman. Astragali (ankle bones bowls placed to the left of the chamber entrance of sheep or cattle) were found with two males (graves 361A, 379, 387), to its right (361B, 386), and one female, positioned either at the head or at the chamber entrance (6). (in 382, with a male and a female) and at the rear wall of the chamber (3/2). Interestingly, the great- Glass vessels in Klin-Yar catacombs do not show est number of astragali was found in children’s any age or gender-related pattern either. They graves 383 and 384. In adult graves, metal am- were found to the left of the entrance (352), in ulets found on the chest (237) and in a bag (20, the head end (360), at the left hand of female 341), respectively, seem to be associated with burial 357/2, and at the entrance of grave 378 females. In one case, a bird’s-head amulet was which held a single adolescent of 10 – 12 years found at the pelvis of a man (381/1). Bronze bells of age. Other containers found in the cemetery have been found twice: at the head of a male indi- include a wooden casket deposited at the feet of vidual (grave 341/3) and on the chest of a woman male burial 356/1; the casket contained beads (352/2). Small mirrors, believed by many authors and a lump of black resin. to be amulets,789 were found with two female burials: inside a bag (20), and at the woman’s head Burials with bronze cauldrons present a very sim- (360/1). The four Byzantine gold coins from Klin- ilar picture. Only in one case could a cauldron be Yar III were associated with two female burials linked to a specific individual: in catacomb 360, (20, 363B/1) and one male (341/3). the cauldron was placed at the feet of the male burial 360/2. Other cauldrons were placed in the Pottery in graves at Klin-Yar III does not show any entrance pit (352, 357, 381). Given that male at- gender-related pattern. The analysis is compli- tributes such as armour and weapons had been cated by the fact that the association with spe- deposited in entrance pits, it is arguable that cific individuals is uncertain in catacombs with the bronze cauldron was also a male attribute multiple burials, particularly where the vessels at Klin-Yar III. This is confirmed by observations had been deposited in the dromos (although in other cemeteries of the Kislovodsk Basin, for that is a comparatively rare feature in this cem- instance at Mokraya Balka I (catacomb 123).791 etery). Pottery vessels deposited inside the chambers were found in a number of standard The above discussion shows that the following locations. Large jars had typically been placed grave-goods were typically associated with male to the left of the entrance (graves R-5, 32, 341, burials, and rarely or never associated with fe- 357, 363B, 374, 378), apparently in a particular males: area in the head end of the chamber that was weapons and armour meant to receive the funeral food and gifts.790 horse harness In some cases, such jars were found to the right bronze cauldrons. of the entrance, closer to the feet (graves 199, 373, 386); less frequently, they had been placed By contrast, the following grave-goods were typ- close to the head (234, 360), the feet (2, 22, ical of female burials, and rarely associated with 30, 62, 340), and at the chamber entrance (29, males: 52). A similar pattern can be observed in the scissors case of smaller jars and jugs most of which were ornaments found to the left of the entrance (graves R-5, 9, ritual (cult) objects and amulets 20, 381, 387), less often at the feet (2, 30), or toilet sets at the rear wall of the chamber (17). The cup is large mirrors the most frequent type of pottery vessel in cata headgear comb graves; it, too, is most often placed to the bags. left of the chamber entrance (graves R-5, 9, 20, 22, 28, 32, 199, 237, 340, 341, 356, 357, 361A, Objects which are found equally with male and 361B, 363B, 373, 378, 379, 381, 384, 387), at female burials include: the head (29, 54, 234, 238, 339, 352, 360, 371, knives (including large knives or daggers) 382) or at the feet (2, 22, 62, 340, 352, 356, belt buckles and belt sets 379, 382), irrespective of the sex of the associ- glass vessels boot or shoe accessories.

789 Каменецкий 1986, 176. 790 Коробов 2003, 196. 791 Афанасьев/Рунич 2001, 228 Fig. 150.

113 Klin-Yar – D. S. Korobov

The identification of these patterns allows the (by adding 234/1, 238/2, 361B and 378, with gender identification of additional burials which weapons and horse harness) and the female could not be skeletally sexed, thereby increasing sample from 25 to 26 (by adding 374, with toilet the samples in the social analysis below, boost- set, headgear and bag). ing the male sample of Klin-Yar III from 22 to 26

7.3 Analysis of the social hierarchy at Klin-Yar III

The analysis of the vertical social differentiation 357/1);794 the first four of these, in turn, repre- of the community that buried their dead in the sent Subgroup I-a, the latter three Subgroup Klin-Yar III cemetery applies procedures previous- I-b. The richest male burials of Klin-Yar III are ly tested on the evidence of the catacomb burials clearly found in this cluster (Tab. 9): most of of the North Caucasus.792 This includes the use them contained horse harness, a belt set, and of Cluster analysis of weighted criteria (grave- weapons. Half of them were accompanied by a goods) which is then verified by Correspondence horse deposition, in the case of catacomb 360 analysis. The calculation of the weighting of cri- several horses. In addition, the men in this clus- teria for Cluster analysis used the Social Analysis ter had boot or shoe fittings, and more than a Method of WinBASP (Bonn Archaeological Sta- half of them had a glass vessel and/or bronze tistical Package). Essentially, this calculates a cauldron. Interestingly, the burials of this clus- wealth index from the artefacts associated with ter span several chronological phases: from RZ the respective burial.793 Each criterion – wheth- (378), through Ic (356/1) and Ie (357/1), to IIIa er a type of artefact or a set of such types – has (352/1, 360/2) and IIIb (341/3). Most of them an index that equals the average of all criteria were mature men, of 20 – 35 years of age (341/3, present in a burial. For example, male burials 356/1, 357/1). One burial (360/2) was that of a with buckles average 2.40 types of grave-goods man aged 35 – 39; his warrior status is shown not used for analysis. Therefore, the index 2.40 is the just by his grave-goods, but also by his riding fa weighting of a buckle in the Cluster analysis. The cets and signs of cold stress, i. e. he spent much graves that contained remains of armour aver- time in the saddle and in the open air. The man aged 7.75 types of grave-goods. The weight of ar- in catacomb 356 had a cut mark from a bladed mour as a criterion is, therefore, more than three weapon on his thoracic vertebrae; and like the times the weighting of a buckle. men in catacombs 360 and 357, he had an artificially deformed skull. The cluster also includes The Cluster analysis of male burials used the fol- a 10 – 12 years old adolescent in a single-burial lowing types of grave-goods (with their respec- catacomb (378); this is not just the youngest in- tive criterion weights): dividual of this group, but also its earliest burial buckle – 2.40 (Late Sarmatian, phase RZ). In this early phase, knife – 3.75 the adolescent may have been buried as a po- sword – 5.0 tential warrior; in later phases, horse harness boot or shoe fittings – 5.22 and weapons were no longer associated with ad- large knife or dagger – 6.0 olescent burials. bow – 6.0 horse harness – 6.14 Additional evidence of the high social status belt set – 6.50 of the men in Cluster I is provided by the con- bronze cauldron – 6.75 struction of their catacombs. For a start, their horse deposition in the dromos – 7.00 graves had long dromoi, four of them longer glass vessel – 7.67 than 2.50 m (graves 341, 356, 357, 360), with armour – 7.75. one as long as 5.60 m (360); these four dromoi also had steps cut on the access end. The burial The Cluster analysis, based on the calculation of chambers of Cluster I were large (1.87 – 2.65 m weighted Euclidean space between the burials long by 1.25 – 1.95 m wide); almost all of the produces a hierarchical tree that can be subdi- chambers had entrance pits (graves 234, 341, vided into four groups (Fig. 28). 352, 357, 360), and three of them also niches (352, 357, 360). The adult males of this cluster The first cluster comprises seven male burials had been buried together with other family mem- (341/3, 234/1, 356/1, 378, 360/2, 352/1, bers (females and children); the one adolescent

792 Коробов 2003, 18−20; 291−293. 794 Here and in the following discussion, graves are listed 793 Arnold 1980; Hodson 1979; Orton/Hodson 1981; Jør- from left to right according to their respective positions on gensen 1987; Jørgensen 1991. the cluster analysis tree.

114 7 Social analysis of 4th to 8th century Alanic burials

had been placed against the rear wall of the large chamber (378, with an area of 2.45 sq.m) which suggests that further burial(s) were to follow. And with one exception (grave 234), the burials of Cluster I were part of the elite plot of Klin-Yar III.795

The second cluster includes five male burials (381/1, 17, 9, 387, 3/2). Their assemblages are characterized by a belt buckle (3/2, 9, 387) or a belt set (17) combined with a knife (Tab. 10). All of them feature boot or shoe fittings; one of them produced a large knife (dagger) and a bronze cauldron (381/1). The datable burials of Cluster II are all comparatively early, dating to phases RZ (387), Id (17) and Ie (381/1). These were the burials of adult men. The youngest among them (381/1), aged 20 – 24 years, with an artificially deformed skull, had been a rider, had been ex- posed to cold, and had suffered a broken nose; Fig. 28. Cluster analysis of male burials.

Artefact type Minimum Maximum Mean Average 25% quartile 75% quartile Horse harness 0 1 1 85.7% 1 1 Bow 0 1 1 71.4% 0.5 1 Sword 0 1 0 28.6% 0 0.5 Long knife/dagger 0 1 0 28.6% 0 0.5 Armour 0 1 1 57.1% 0 1 Horse deposition 0 1 1 57.1% 0 1 Belt buckle 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 Belt set 0 1 1 71.4% 0.5 1 Knife 1 1 1 100.0% 1 1 Glass vessel 0 1 0 42.9% 0 1

Bronze cauldron 0 1 0 42.9% 0 1 Table 9. Characteristic grave-goods of Cluster I male Boot/shoe fittings 0 1 1 57.1% 0 1 burials.

Category Minimum Maximum Mean Average 25% quartile 75% quartile Horse harness 0 0 0 0% 0 0 Bow 0 0 0 0% 0 0 Sword 0 0 0 0% 0 0 Large knife/dagger 0 1 0 20% 0 0 Armour 0 0 0 0% 0 0 Horse deposition 0 0 0 0% 0 0 Belt buckle 0 1 1 60% 0 1 Belt set 0 1 0 20% 0 0 Knife 0 1 1 80% 1 1 Glass vessel 0 0 0 0% 0 0

Bronze cauldron 0 1 0 20% 0 0 Table 10. Characteristic grave-goods of Cluster II male Boot/shoe fittings 1 1 1 100% 1 1 burials.

795 Härke/Belinsky 2000, 199−201 Pl. 2.

115 Klin-Yar – D. S. Korobov

Category Minimum Maximum Mean Average 25% quartile 75% quartile Horse harness 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 Bow 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 Sword 0 1 0 33.3% 0 0.75 Long knife/dagger 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 Armour 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 Horse deposition 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 Belt buckle 0 1 0 33.3% 0 0.75 Belt set 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 Knife 0 1 0 16.7% 0 0 Glass vessel 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0

Table 11. Characteristic Bronze cauldron 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 grave-goods of Cluster III Boot/shoe fittings 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 male burials.

he had also been buried with high-status arte- the third (387) was in the middle of a chamber facts. The two men buried in catacombs 9 and that was probably designed for single burial. 387 died at a more mature age (40 – 55 years); the skeletal evidence of one of them (387) also The third cluster consists of six male burials suggests a lifestyle which included much riding. (361B, 238/2, 386/1, 54/1, 23/2, 10). Their range of grave-goods is limited (Tab. 11): two The lower social status of this group is highlight- belt buckles (238/2, 386/1), two swords (238/2, ed by the lower labour investment into grave 361B), one knife (361B). Two burials (238/2 and construction. The dromoi of their catacombs 361B) make up Subgroup III-a; this includes a were not as long as those of Cluster I (1.84 – 2.55 young man of 20−29 years of age (361B), with m) and had no steps (except grave 17); their bur- an artificially deformed skull, who had been ial chambers were smaller (1.65 – 2.13 m long buried with a sword and a knife. The men of the by 1.21 – 1.65 m wide; probably also an effect of second subgroup were older (between 30 – 39 the higher proportion of single burials) and had and 45 – 60 years); one of them (386/1) showed no niches or entrance pits. The dromoi of this skeletal evidence of riding. The burials of Sub- cluster held no horse depositions, and only two group III-a date to period RZ; in Subgroup III-b, chambers produced sheep or goat bones (3/2 only catacomb 23 could be dated (period IIIc). and 387). The men of this cluster were found in single burials (9, 17, 387), or in multiple burials Cluster III burials are also characterized by small with women (3 and 381). Two of the former (9 tombs. Only one dromos is fairly long (3.10 m, and 17) had been placed at the rear wall of the of catacomb 23), while two dromoi (of 361B and chamber leaving space for another burial, while 386) were 1.83 and 1.95 m long, respectively;

Category Minimum Maximum Mean Average 25% quartile 75% quartile Horse harness 0 1 0 12.5% 0 0 Bow 0 1 0 25.0% 0 0,25 Sword 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 Long knife/dagger 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 Armour 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 Horse deposition 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 Belt buckle 0 1 1 62.5% 0 1 Belt set 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 Knife 1 1 1 100.0% 1 1 Glass vessel 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0

Table 12. Characteristic Bronze cauldron 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 grave-goods of Cluster IV Boot/shoe fittings 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 male burials.

116 7 Social analysis of 4th to 8th century Alanic burials

Fig. 29. Correspondence analysis of male burials. but this also reflects the shorter dromos length and that the absence of belt sets (there are only typical of earlier grave construction at Klin-Yar.796 belt buckles in this cluster) may be a chronologi- Sizes of burial chambers are also smaller than cal rather than a social feature. those of Clusters I and II (1.52 – 2.37 m long and 1.05 – 1.52 m wide), and the chambers had no There are few skeletal traits which distinguish additional features such as niches or an ent the males of this cluster. Their range of ages at rance pit. death is broad, from 18 – 25 years (burial 22) to between 30 and 40 (6, 382/2). Grave construc- In terms of male grave-goods assemblages, Clus- tion in this cluster reaches the standard of Clus- ter III is the poorest at Klin-Yar, but this cluster ters II and III, with dromos lengths (1.76 – 3.10 m) may, at least partly, be a chronological as much even surpassing the latter; many dromoi in Clus- as a social phenomenon. This is illustrated by ter IV also had steps on the access side (22, 32, the man buried in catacomb 361B which dates 339, 340, 382). Chambers were medium-sized to the Late Sarmatian period RZ: in terms of this (1.60 – 2.45 m long by 0.80 – 1.80 m wide), period, his assemblage represents considera- and some had additional features (a niche and ble social status; he was distinguished by arti- sheep/goat bones in 32, sheep/goat bones ficial skull deformation; and his single burial in in 340). Five of the eight burials in this cluster a chamber (linked by a dromos to grave 361A (R-5/1, 32/1, 339/1, 340/2, 382/2) were in fam- with a female individual) is a consequence of the ily tombs while three (6, 22, 28) had been placed grave construction of that period which, at Klin in the middle of their respective chambers which Yar III, is dominated by single burial.797 were designed for single burial. It should be noted that two of the single burials (6 and 28) also The final male cluster comprises eight burials had bows, and both date to the early period RZ. (340/2, 32/1, 22, R-5/1, 382/2, 339/1, 28, This emphasizes again the impact of chronologi- and 6). All of them produced a knife, and most cal elements on the analysis of social structures, had a belt buckle (6, 22, 32/1, 339/1, 340/2); but it is arguable that the absence of warrior there were also two bows (6, 28) and one case symbolism from the later burials of Cluster IV im- of a horse harness (339/1; Tab. 12). These buri- plies a non-military social status of most males als date to various periods: RZ (6, 28), Ib/Iб (22), in this group. Id/Iг (32, 340/2, 382/2), and IIIc/IIIв (R-5/1). This highlights that there may be a strong chrono The results of the Cluster analysis of male buri- logical element in the composition of this group, als were checked by Correspondence analysis (Fig. 29). The resulting projection of male burials on the two axes that help to explain 90 % of 796 Коробов 2003, 57−58. their differences confirms the subdivision into 797 Коробов 2003, 126. four clusters. However, Correspondence analysis

117 Klin-Yar – D. S. Korobov

3. The third status group comprises the eight graves of Cluster IV (R-5/1, 6, 22, 28, 32/1, 339/1, 340/2, 382/2). They all featured belt buckles and knives, in some cases combined with weapons and horse harness; labour investment into their burials was not exception- Fig. 30. Schematic re al. These burials which make up 31 % of the presentation of the male male sample represent the section of the pop- social hierarchy as represent- ulation which may be termed ‘commoners’. ed in burials. 4. The lowest status group was Cluster III, with 23 % of the sample (10, 23/2, 54/1, 238/2, shows one Cluster II burial (381/1, a young man 361B, 386/1). However, this includes two with a bronze cauldron and a large knife or dag- early burials (238/2 and 361B, of period RZ) ger) to be close to the men of Cluster I. In Clus- with weapons and other indicators of a warri- ter III, Subgroup III-a with male burials 238/2 or lifestyle, marking them out as a chronologi- and 361B clearly stands out. The distinction cal rather than a social sub-group. This makes between Clusters II and IV by means of Corre- the label ‘poor commoners’ for this status spondence analysis is rather vague, highlighting group even more tentative. that this is largely a distinction based on the absence or presence of boot or shoe fittings within The above analysis confirms our earlier conclu- a group of males buried with belt buckles and sion about the blurred boundaries between the belt sets. Data processing procedures led to the otherwise clear social levels of the Alanic male exclusion of male burials without relevant grave- population of the Kislovodsk Basin.798 The ap- goods from this analysis. parently high proportion of the warrior elite at Klin-Yar may be due to the focus on the elite On the basis of the statistical analyses and the plot during the 1994−1996 excavations. Skele- above discussion, the excavated sample of the tal data support our earlier suggestion that the male population of Klin-Yar III may be catego- rise to power of the warrior elite whose chiefs rized as follows (Fig. 30): have been identified with the aldar (chief, war 1. The highest status of the community is repre- leader)799 happened during the 4th–8th centuries sented by burials of Cluster I (234/1, 341/3, AD as a result of their personal qualities and 352/1, 356/1, 357/1, 378, 360/2). They warrior lifestyle. The funeral rite and certain so- are characterized by military gear (weapons, cial features and rituals such as artificial skull horse harness), prestigious vessels (glass deformation suggest that members of the warri- vessels, bronze cauldrons), elaborate grave or elite grew into their role from early childhood construction, and horse sacrifices deposited onwards. This is illustrated by the burial of an in the dromos. Men in this group show physi- early adolescent, 10 – 12 years old, who was bur- cal signs of an active warrior life (riding facets, ied in catacomb 378 in a way that resembles the cold stress, wounds) and are distinguished by evolving burial ritual of the warrior elite, while artificial skull deformation which in the 5th– the location of this grave in the elite plot implies 8th centuries AD was not a common practice, that such high status may already have been he- but a mark of the social elite. All individuals reditary in the 5th–8th centuries AD.800 Thus, the in this group had been buried in family tombs, Klin-Yar evidence sheds new light on the rise of and all of them were found in the elite plot of the Alanic elite in the Kislovodsk Basin: families Klin-Yar III (or nearby), a feature which itself may have risen into elite positions, and secured is unique in the early medieval North Cauca- them on a hereditary basis, through their active sus. They arguably represent the local warrior involvement in warfare. elite. 2. The second-highest status group of male bur- For the female burials of Klin-Yar III, the same ials, probably equivalent to ordinary warriors, kind of Cluster analysis was run using the follow- constitutes about 19 % of the analyzed sam- ing artefact types and weightings: ple. These burials, identified as Cluster II in scissors – 3.50 the Cluster analysis (3/2, 9, 17, 381/1, 387), ritual or cult object – 4.70 belong to men with a belt buckle or a belt set knife – 4.82 combined with a knife, footgear accessories, ornament – 5.0 and occasionally weapons and bronze caul- amulet – 5.20 drons. One man in this group (381/1) has large mirror – 5.58 features which resemble those of the highest status group. It should be noted, however, that this second group includes some of the 798 Коробов 2003, 203; 281. earliest burials in this analysis, and their dis- 799 Афанасьев 1993а, 50; Коробов 2003, 287; 314. crete cluster may be due to this fact. 800 Contra Коробов 2003, 281; 314.

118 7 Social analysis of 4th to 8th century Alanic burials

wooden casket – 6.0 toilet set – 6.0 bag – 6.22 buckle – 6.50 glass vessel – 6.50 large knife or dagger – 7.0 food offering (animal bones) – 7.0 boot or shoe fittings – 7.0 coin – 7.50 headdress – 8.33 belt set – 8.50.

Cluster analysis subdivided the 26 female burials into three clusters (Fig. 31). The first cluster includes ten female burials which produced more than half of the grave-goods types used in the analysis, missing only belt sets, wooden cas- kets, animal bones, coins, toilet sets, and headdress (Tab. 13). This cluster, in turn, breaks down into three subgroups. Subgroup I-a includes four burials (R-5/2, 340/3, 57, 386/2); they feature of catacomb 340 (with a length of 3.10 m and Fig. 31. Cluster analysis of various ornaments (57, 386/2), in some cases access steps), and the small chamber of cata- female burials. combined with a knife (R-5/2, 340/3), but no comb 57 (1.92 by 0.75 m) which is clearly the other characteristic grave-goods. The women consequence of this having been intended as a in this subgroup belong to various periods: RZ single-burial chamber. The other burials of this (386), Id (340) and IIIc (R-5/2). The woman bur- subgroup were found in double graves, togeth- ied in catacomb 386 was 25 – 30 years old, with er with a male (386), or in multiple graves with skeletal signs of childbirth and a head wound males and children (R-5, 340). that probably caused her death. Interestingly, this subgroup includes a variety of body posi- Subgroup I-b which also consists of four buri- tions: on the back (R-5/2), crouched on the left als (238/1, 382/1, 379, 339/2) is quite poor side (386/2) and the right side (57, 340/3). in terms of burial wealth. One of the women (339/2) had none of the characteristic artefact The grave construction of this subgroup is un- types, others had one type each: scissors (379), remarkable, except for the fairly long dromos a large mirror (238/1), and ritual or cult objects

Artefact type Minimum Maximum Mean Average 25% quartile 75% quartile Knife 0 1 0 30.0% 0 0,75 Scissors 0 1 0 10.0% 0 0 Belt buckle 0 1 0 10.0% 0 0 Belt set 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 Ornaments 0 1 0 40.0% 0 1 Glass vessel 0 1 0 10.0% 0 0 Wooden casket 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 Large knife/dagger 0 1 0 10.0% 0 0 Food offering 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 Ritual/cult object 0 1 0 10.0% 0 0 Amulet 0 1 0 20.0% 0 0 Coin 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 Toilet set 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 Large mirror 0 1 0 10.0% 0 0 Headgear 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0

Bag 0 1 0 10.0% 0 0 Table 13. Characteristic grave-goods of Cluster I Boot/shoe fittings 0 1 0 10.0% 0 0 female burials.

119 Klin-Yar – D. S. Korobov

Artefact type Minimum Maximum Mean Average 25% quartile 75% quartile Knife 0 1 1 84.6% 1 1 Scissors 0 1 0 7.7% 0 0 Belt buckle 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 Belt set 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 Ornament 1 1 1 100.0% 1 1 Glass vessel 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 Wooden casket 0 1 0 7.7% 0 0 Large knife/dagger 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 Food offering 0 1 0 7.7% 0 0 Ritual/cult object 0 1 1 69.2% 0 1 Amulet 0 1 0 23.1% 0 0 Coin 0 1 0 7.7% 0 0 Toilet set 0 1 1 61.5% 0 1 Large mirror 0 1 1 61.5% 0 1 Headgear 0 1 0 7.7% 0 0

Table 14. Characteristic Bag 0 1 0 38.5% 0 1 grave-goods of Cluster II Boot/shoe fittings 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 female burials.

(382/1). The scarcity of grave-goods makes were adult women in the 25 – 45 year bracket; dating difficult; the two datable ones were from the skeleton of 360/1 shows signs of frequent periods RZ (379) and Id (382/1), respectively. horse-riding. While both are dated to period IIIa, All four women were placed with the head to their styles of deposition vary: one was extended the left of the chamber entrance, one extended on her back, with her head to the right of the ent on the back (339/2), the other three crouched rance (352/2), the other flexed on her right side, on the right side. The woman in catacomb 382 with the head to the left of the entrance (360/1). was 30 – 39 years old, showed skeletal signs of The catacombs of both have impressive features horse-riding, and had an artificially deformed of grave construction, with catacomb 352 having skull (as did the female 339/2). The woman in the only vertical access (shaft), and 360 having 379, aged 25 – 29, had a ‘horse skin’ and a large, the longest dromos, the biggest chamber and heavy stone packing on the dromos of her cata- the largest number of horse depositions at Klin- comb, the latter a labour-intensive feature which Yar. But it is an open question to what extent all was unique among elite-plot graves of period RZ. these features are specifically associated with This clearly casts doubts on her belonging to the the females in the catacombs, and if their status poorest group, particularly as further artefacts depended on the high status of the males they were found in the grave fill (toilet set, brooch, were buried with.801 beads, and others; the classification here is based exclusively on objects found directly on Cluster II with its 13 female burials can also be the body). The woman in grave 379 was also subdivided into three subgroups (Fig. 31). Over- the only single burial in this subgroup, depos- all, this cluster is characterized by burials with a ited at the rear wall of a chamber large enough knife (84 %) and ornaments (100 %); many had to accommodate another body. All other burials ritual or cult objects, large mirrors, and toilet of the subgroup were in double and multiple sets. Other grave-goods in this cluster include graves, usually with males, and in one case also bags and amulets, and less often scissors, a with a child (382). wooden casket, animal bones, coins, and headdress (Tab. 14). The last subgroup, I-c, includes two female burials found in catacombs 352 and 360 together Subgroup II-a comprises four female burials with the richest male burials in the elite plot of (371/1, 199, 23/3, 20) which combine a knife, the cemetery. Unlike the other two subgroups, ornaments and a bag with ritual or cult objects they have rich grave-goods: they all feature orna- (with the exception of 23/3 which had a toilet set ments and amulets, variously combined with a belt buckle and large knife (352/2), or glass vessel, bag, and shoe or boot fittings (360/1). Both 801 Коробов 2003, 282; 315.

120 7 Social analysis of 4th to 8th century Alanic burials

instead). In addition, catacomb 199 produced osition; and with the man a grave-goods assem- a large mirror while catacomb 20 had amulets blage (including weapons, horse harness and a and a coin. Interestingly, both datable graves of bronze cauldron) which compares with those of this subgroup belong to the final period IIIc. The the rich Cluster I of male burials. Catacomb 373 women were young adults (20 – 24 years old in also had a long dromos (3.61 m long), with ac- the case of 371/1, and 25 – 30 years old in 23/3); cess steps and a unique dry-stone wall closing two of them had artificial skull deformation (199, the chamber entrance. 371/1). The bodies had been deposited with the head to the left of the chamber entrance, either Finally, Subgroup II-c is made up of five burials extended on the back (199) or crouched on the (356/2, 237, 52, 30, 381/2) with assemblag- right side (20, 23/3, 371/1). There were no spe- es which are richer than those of the previous cial features of grave construction; catacombs subgroup: ornaments, ritual or cult objects, and 20 and 24 had quite long dromoi (2.50 – 3.10 m), toilet sets, in some cases combined with a knife and 199 had access steps in the dromos and an (30, 52, 381/2), scissors (30), a wooden casket entrance pit in the chamber. Two women were and a bag (356/2), a large mirror (30, 356/2, buried on their own, but against the rear wall of a 381/2), or a headdress (381/2). Interestingly, spacious chamber (20, 199); one was in a close- most of the burials date to early periods: Ia (30), ly similar position, but with an infant at her feet Ic (356/2) and Ie (52, 381/2). Also, the women (371), and one had been buried together with a of this subgroup died relatively young, at the re- man and a child (23). spective ages of 15 – 19 (burial 356/2), 20 – 24 (381/2), and 25 – 30 (30); one had an artificially Subgroup II-b also consists of four female burials deformed skull (52). There were few special fea- (29/2, 2, 373, 361A) which share the character- tures of grave construction or labour investment; istic grave-goods set of a knife, ornaments and all had been buried crouched on the right side, a large mirror, occasionally in combination with with the head to the left of the entrance. All of a toilet set (2, 29/2), ritual or cult objects (373), them also share the feature of actual or anti and food offerings represented by bones of cipated burial with another adult, presumably sheep or goat (2; in 361A, the bones were in the their respective husbands: three were found in dromos shared with 361B). The burials of this single burials, against the rear wall of spacious subgroup belong to various chronological peri- chambers (30, 52, 237); the other two (356/2 ods: RZ (361A), Ic (373) and IIIb (29/2). The lat- and 381/2) had been buried together with rich est burial is, at the same time, that of the oldest males (Clusters I and II). woman in this group (29/2, aged 55 – 65 years). The other aged individuals (361A, 373) are in The three richest female burials make up Clus- the bracket 20 – 29 years; one woman (373) has ter III (Fig. 31; Tab. 15). All three (357/2, 363B/1, riding facets. The earliest female (361A, peri- 374) had a knife, ornaments, a toilet set, large od RZ) had an artificially deformed skull; she was mirror and bag each, supplemented respectively placed with her head towards the chamber ent with a belt buckle, food offering, and shoe or boot rance while the others had been deposited with fittings (374), a belt set and large knife (357/2), the heads to the right of the entrance. All women and a belt set, large knife, coin and headdress of this group were in a crouched position. (363B/1). These were young women, none older than 34 years; and their burials date to periods While most women of this subgroup were found Ie (357/2) and IIIb (363B/1, 374). All three had in single burials (for catacomb 29, see below), been deposited with the head to the left of the the context indicates something different. The chamber entrance, but in different positions: ex- very small single-burial chamber (0.49 sq.m) of tended on the back (363B/1) and crouched on burial 361A was linked by a short dromos to the the left (357/2) or right (374) side. chamber of 361B, with an adult male; these are early burials, dated to period RZ. Two other sin- Unlike the richest male burials, these rich fe- gle burials (2 and 373) were found in spacious males have no distinctive skeletal features. Their chambers where the skeleton had been depos- high social status may be expressed in the la- ited in such a way as to leave space for anoth- bour investment in their catacombs: these had er body. The woman in catacomb 29 shared a long dromoi (2.96 – 4.65 m) with access steps; spacious chamber (2.40 by 1.70 m) with a male their chambers had entrance pits, and two of whose burial had been disturbed – deliberately them had niches (357 and 374), both elements so, in the view of the excavator, for apotropaic also associated with rich male burials; and a reasons.802 Other indicators signal the status of horse had been deposited in the dromos of catacomb 29: a long and deep dromos (4.60 m catacomb 363B, with an additional ‘horse skin’ long, 2.55 m deep), with a horse and a dog dep- deposited next to it. But as noted before, in the case of ‘family catacombs’ it is difficult to decide if it had been the status of the male or the female 802 Флёров 2000, 42−43. which had led to such an investment of wealth

121 Klin-Yar – D. S. Korobov

Artefact type Minimum Maximum Mean Average 25% quartile 75% quartile Knife 1 1 1 100.0% 1 1 Scissors 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 Belt buckle 0 1 0 33.3% 0 0,5 Belt set 0 1 1 66.7% 0,5 1 Ornament 1 1 1 100.0% 1 1 Glass vessel 0 1 0 33.3% 0 0,5 Wooden casket 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 Long knife/dagger 0 1 1 66.7% 0,5 1 Food offering 0 1 0 33.3% 0 0,5 Ritual/cult object 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 Amulet 0 0 0 0.0% 0 0 Coin 0 1 0 33.3% 0 0,5 Toilet set 1 1 1 100.0% 1 1 Large mirror 1 1 1 100.0% 1 1 Headgear 0 1 1 66.7% 0,5 1

Table 15. Characteristic Bag 1 1 1 100.0% 1 1 grave-goods of Cluster III Shoe/boot fittings 0 1 0 33.3% 0 0,5 female burials.

and labour. Certainly, the male in catacomb 357 on the completeness of their main assemblage, belonged to the highest ranks of the warrior not on the basis of specific assemblages as was elite, and the male in 363B (who probably also the case with male burials. A closer analysis of belonged to it) is only excluded from the analy- the high-quality data from Klin-Yar III produces a sis here because his burial had been disturbed. number of further, interesting observations. For On the other hand, Cluster III does include the example, richer grave-goods assemblages are single burial of a woman in catacomb 374 with present where the women had been buried with both, rich grave-goods and special features of toilet sets, large mirrors and headdresses. The grave construction, but space had also been left presence of a belt buckle or a belt set, a glass for the later burial of an additional body, some- vessel, or a large knife or dagger signals a more thing which may or may not have influenced the complex assemblage, as is typical for the burials demonstration of high status here. in Cluster III and Subgroup I-c (352/2, 357/2, 360/1, 363B/1, 374). The majority of the women Correspondence analysis of the female burials buried with a mirror, an amulet or a toilet set had from Klin-Yar III (Fig. 32) supports the impression been deposited in a flexed or crouched position. that, as a group, they lack the internal divisions Also, amulets accompanied mostly mature wo which are more obvious in the sample of male men in the age bracket 20 – 45 years. This ties burials. It confirms that burials in Cluster III and in with a suggestion by Albegova that amulets Subgroup I-c (352/2 and 360/1), as well as one in Alanic burials of the Saltovo-Mayatskij Cul- burial (30) from Subgroup II-c, have the richest ture indicate afsin:804 the senior women of their assemblages while the poorest ones are found respective families who may also have taken on in the burials of Subgroup I-b (379 and 382/1). the roles of household priestesses. All bags in All other burials form a kind of undivided ‘cloud’ the sample are associated with rich female buri- at the intersection of the two axes in the coordi- als of Clusters I-c, II-a and III found in catacombs nate system of the Correspondence analysis. designed for two bodies; this may, therefore, reflect the married status of these women. The above results support the author’s earlier conclusion that the funerary ritual of Alanic wo In contrast to male adults, there is no clear cor- men of the 4th–8th centuries AD in the Kislovodsk relation between a woman’s high status, as Basin does not indicate a hierarchy which is clear suggested by her grave-goods, and skeletal in- enough to allow a distinction of social groups.803 dicators of frequent horse-riding (such as riding Within the female sample, clusters are identified facets). Another contrast between the sexes is

803 Коробов 2003, 260. 804 Албегова 2000, 12.

122 7 Social analysis of 4th to 8th century Alanic burials

Fig. 32. Correspondence analysis of female burials. found in the correlates of artificial skull defor- Catacomb Male cluster Female cluster mation. All four such cases in the male sample belong to the richest warrior elite (Cluster I) and 356 I-а II-c are dated mostly to early periods (RZ, Ic, Ie), with 352 I-b I-c only the richest male (360/1) dating to the late 360 I-b I-c period IIIa when the popularity of skull deformation was declining. Females with artificially 357 I-b III deformed skulls also date to early periods, but 381 II II-c their grave-goods assemblages are rather mod- est. This difference may also imply that a wo 238 III-а I-b man’s grave-goods did not reflect her actual 386 III-b I-a social status in life, but may have been the re- 23 III-b II-a flection of her family position, her own wealth, or the wealth of her kin.805 5 IV I-a 340 IV I-a Males and females had been buried together in 12 ‘family tombs’. Their pairings (Tab. 16) sug- 339 IV I-b Table 16. Comparison of jointly buried males and gest that ordinary male burials were found to- 382 IV I-b females at Klin-Yar III. gether with quite ordinary female burials, whilst the highest-ranking males, of Subgroup I-b, were accompanied by the most impressive female nities in the Kislovodsk Basin may have had a burials, of Cluster II and Subgroup I-c. This con- complex structure in which some families rose to firms that the rising elite of the Alanic commu- dominance.

7.4 Social analysis of Klin-Yar IV burials

While the sample from the 1991 and 1996 exca- the Alanic settlement, is as yet insufficient for vations at Klin-Yar IV, a cemetery sector separat- multivariate analysis, some preliminary observa- ed from Klin-Yar III by the sandstone ridge with tions can be made here, drawing in particular on the available skeletal data.

805 Arnold 1980, 132; Shephard 1979, 67; Jensen/Nielsen Chamber dimensions and numbers of buried in- 1997, 58. dividuals are known for nine catacombs; two of

123 Klin-Yar – D. S. Korobov

them held single burials, three double burials, fibula, deposited at the right hand. Beads were and four multiple burials. The two single burials found twice in male burials, in both cases at the were those of a man (grave 12) and a woman individual’s neck/chest area (7/4, 12). In female (10), both of them deposited at the rear wall of burials, the location of the beads varied: in the a chamber large enough to accommodate a se neck/chest area (1, 6/2, 8/2), at the head (5/2, cond body (1,96 and 2.20 sq.m, respectively). 6/2, 7/3), at the waist (8/2, 10), at the left hand Two of the three double burials (5, 6) consisted (10), and at both hands of a crouched body of a man and a woman; in the third case (2), an (6/2). In both, male and female burials, brace- adult individual had been buried with a child lets were found on the right (1, 12) and/or left aged 6 – 7. In the latter case, the proportionate (6/2, 12) arm, and near the head (7/3 and 7/4). area per individual was 1.44 sq.m, while in the Earrings had been worn by one male (7/4) and former cases that area tended to be smaller three females (6/2, 7/3, 8/2); the man in cata- (1.06 and 1.55 sq.m). The multiple burials (4, comb 5 had a finger ring on his right hand. Typ- 7, 8 and 9) were those of one adult or an adult ical female grave-goods include a bag with con- couple together with a child or two children. The tents deposited on the chest (8/2), headdresses proportionate area per body was clearly smaller of various types (pointed with 7/3, like a skull than in the double-burial catacombs, suggest- cap with 8/2), and shoe fittings (5/2). Amulets ing that the chambers were originally intended were exclusively female grave-goods, attached to hold two adults each, but not the additional to the belt (6/2), in the bag (8/2) or placed at the child or children. Some of these children were feet (1). quite young, and most of them were under 10 years of age. Pottery, wooden vessels and horse harness cannot always be assigned to particular buri- Other aspects of grave construction follow the als; this is the case with pottery in the dromoi trends observed at Klin-Yar III. All male adults of several catacombs (6 to 9), to the left of the had been deposited extended on the back while chamber entrance (6 to 9) and to the head and females were either extended (burials 7/3 and feet of the bodies (7), and with wooden dishes 10) or crouched (3/3, 6/2, 8/2, 9/3). Male bur- deposited in the head end (7 to 9). An associ- ials tended to be located closer to the cham- ation can only be suggested where cups had ber entrance (3/1, 5/1, 6/1, 8/1) while female been placed at the head of specific individuals burials were further away (5/2, 6/2, 7/3, 8/2). (7/3, 7/4, 8/1), and in the cases of single buri- Children had been deposited next to the en- als: with females, a cup at the feet (1), and a jar trance in two cases (7/1, 9/1), and in one case in the dromos as well as three pottery vessels away from the entrance (2/2). and a wooden dish to the left of the chamber entrance (10); with a male burial, a cup to the The children’s burials at Klin-Yar IV had few left of the entrance (12). Parts of horse harness grave-goods. The artefacts which can be as- had been deposited in the dromoi of catacomb sociated with them include a knife and belt 5 (with a man and a woman) and 9 (a woman fittings at the waist (burial 9/1), an awl near and two children). No other horse harness the head (2/2), beads in the neck/chest area items or weapons were found in the excavated (2/2, 9/1) or near the head (in 7/1, perhaps part of Klin-Yar IV. from a skull cap); remains of a headdress were found with two children (7/1, 9/1). Other finds This partly confirms the gender patterns of grave- included a bronze bracelet and an astragalus goods observed at Klin-Yar III, with amulets, (7/1), a pottery cup (2/2), and a wooden dish bags and toilet sets being specifically female (9/1). These grave-goods types are not really items, and pottery, knives as well as some belt gender-specific. fittings and ornaments being found with both genders. In addition to gender-neutral artefacts, Male and female burials show differences in three of the four male burials with good data had their grave-goods assemblages and where these belt sets (5/1, 7/4, 8/1) combined with knives had been deposited. With male burials, knives (7/4, 8/1), an awl (7/4), horse harness (in the were found at the waist (burials 7/4 and 8/1) and dromos of catacomb 5), food offerings (8/1), and next to the head (7/4), while women had knives a wooden dish (7/4, 8/1). The single male burial at the waist (2/1, 10), at the right (1) or left (7/3) in catacomb 2 was accompanied only by pottery arm, or near the hands (6/2, in crouched posi- and ornaments, but not a single diagnostically tion). A belt set was found with three males (5/1, ‘male’ object. 7/4, 8/1) and four females (5/2, 7/3, 8/2, 10), while a belt buckle was only found in one fe- Most of the biologically sexed males had died male burial (1). Unlike at Klin-Yar III, fibulae were at an early adult age (5/1, 7/4 and 8/1 at found with male burials at Klin-Yar IV, placed on 20 – 29 years, 12 at 30 – 39 years); two males the chest (12) or at the waist (7/4, 8/1). By con- who were not included in the sample because of trast, only one female burial (5/2) produced a the disturbance of their burials, but are interest-

124 7 Social analysis of 4th to 8th century Alanic burials

ing because of their artificial skull deformation, may have performed the functions of household were in the same age bracket (6/1, aged 20 – 35) priestesses, are in the middle of that range (6/2: or older (3/1, aged 45 – 55). These males from 25 – 35 years; 8/2: 35 – 39). Three women had ar- Klin-Yar IV, whilst ‘commoners’ in the classifica- tificial skull deformation (8/2, 9/2, 10), one had tion used above, showed skeletal evidence of a healed injury (10), and another showed signs frequent horse-riding (6/1, 8/1, 12), cold stress of childbirth (7/3). The two latter had been bur- (6/1), and wounds (3/1, 6/1). The grave con- ied extended on the back, unlike the other wo struction of catacombs holding male burials did men who had been deposited in a crouched po- not have any special features, with the exception sition. It may well be significant that, in contrast of entrance pits in catacombs 5 and 7, and a long to Klin-Yar III, most women with skull deforma- dromos (3.07 m) in catacomb 8; virtually all dro- tion date to later chronological periods (burials moi had access steps, in some cases with a clay 8/2 and 10: IIIa). cover. Catacomb 9 is interesting for several reasons: it The female grave-goods assemblages of Klin-Yar held the triple burial of a female adult and two IV are not indicative of any clear hierarchy either. children; it had the longest dromos (3.60 m) of Female burials had knives (1, 2/1, 6/2, 7/3, 10) Klin-Yar IV; the dromos was full of broken items and ornaments (1, 5/2, 6/2, 7/3, 8/2, 10) sup- and produced a disturbed ‘horse skin’ deposi- plemented by a belt set (5/2, 7/3, 8/2, 10) or tion. The artificial skull deformation of individual buckle (1), amulets (6/2, 8/2), ritual or cult ob- 9/2, a child aged 5 – 7, is also suggestive of high jects (1), headdress (7/3, 8/2), bags (8/2), and status. shoe or boot fittings (5/2). The case of burial 8/2 confirms the earlier observation that women bur- Grave-goods assemblages and some elements ied with headdress, amulets, a toilet set and a of grave construction (such as the long dromoi bag tended to have richer grave-goods assem- of both, and a niche in 10) may also signal a blages. somewhat higher status for catacombs 8 and 10, while catacombs 5 and 7 had entrance pits. But The age at death of females ranged from 20 – 24 here and elsewhere at Klin-Yar IV, the data are (burial 9/3) to 40 – 49 years (3/3). The age of insufficient to identify convincingly burials and women buried with amulets, who in their lifetime catacombs of high status.

7.5 Conclusions

The above analysis of all excavated 4th–8th cen- which all adult men were considered warriors. tury catacombs at Klin-Yar III has identified male Where burials of this male group had been found burials of the very high status which has been together with those of females, the latter were equated with that of the warrior elite known as apparently not of high social status. aldar (chief, war leader).806 This group includes impressive male burials with weapons, horse At Klin-Yar IV, on the other side of the settlement harness, horse depositions, and special features between the two cemetery areas, the excavated of grave construction. The military role of this catacombs appear to belong entirely to the af- group may be inferred from their lifestyle which sad. There are no burials here which compare included constant horse-riding and extensive with those of the warrior elite found at Klin-Yar periods spent outdoors, and from wounds which III, but there is also some evidence of a military they had received. In addition, some members of lifestyle, such as horse harness depositions this group were distinguished by artificial skull in dromoi, and skeletal traits of riding and cold deformation. At Klin-Yar III, all burials of this elite stress. While some female burials have a few group were accompanied by female burials, in- possible indicators of a higher status, such as cluding the richest females. grave-goods usually associated with greater burial wealth, they do not suggest a marked social Most male burials at Klin-Yar III were probably hierarchy either. those of ordinary warriors and ‘commoners’; some of them had received wounds and had The social analysis of the burials excavated at been buried with weapons and a horse. The ac- Klin-Yar supports existing hypotheses on the so- cepted term for this group is afsad (the mass, cial structure of the 4th–8th century Alans in the the army),807 reflecting a social organization in Kislovodsk Basin, in particular the view808 that their society was developing from a ‘military

806 Афанасьев 1993а, 50; Коробов 2003, 287; 314. 807 Афанасьев 1993а, 50; Коробов 2003, 287; 314. 808 Гутнов 1993, 52.

125 Klin-Yar – D. S. Korobov

democracy’ into a ‘military hierarchy’.809 The ev- Klin-Yar of an early hereditary elite modify our idence from the 1994−1996 excavations, par- ideas of the rise of the Alanic warrior elite and ticularly in conjunction with the skeletal data, the emergence of an Alanic state in the 10th– adds new perspectives, and the indicators at 12th centuries in the North Caucasus.

809 The terms were coined by Lewis H. Morgan in the late 19th century and became popular in Soviet, and later Rus- sian, scholarship because of their evolutionary perspective; see Куббель 1988, 145−147. ‘Military democracy’ describes a society which is ruled by the council of warriors and has an elected chief. The term ‘military hierarchy’ applies to the next stage of social evolution where the role of the council of warriors has declined and the power of the military chief, which rests on his bodyguard, has increased.

126 8 Radiocarbon dating at Klin-Yar

Rebecca Warren and Thomas Higham

An initial series of radiocarbon dates (OxA-7683, not be reconciled with the reasonably reliable -7757 and -7669) from Klin-Yar was intended to artefactual dates. This prompted a second series clarify the relationship between catacomb 386 of dates from graves with coins or other imports (with a double burial) and the anomalous bur- (Tab. 17) which was intended to identify the ial 385 on top of its dromos. Whilst the dates likely cause of the discrepancy; this series con- showed that the three burials concerned had firmed the existence of a problem and led to fur- been deposited virtually contemporaneously, ther discussions and studies.810 they produced unexpected results which could

8.1 Introduction

One of the primary assumptions of radiocarbon lysis, they allow the archaeologist to detect the dating is that the concentration of 14C within an use of freshwater resources within the local organism is in equilibrium with that in the at- subsistence economy.811 Freshwater resources mosphere. This is not always the case, however. are notoriously difficult to identify within many Carbon depleted in 14C can enter the food chain archaeological contexts. Fish skeletal remains, causing what is known as a radiocarbon reser- for example, are exceptionally fragile, and where voir effect, and this will cause dates to appear they survive, are rarely recovered without careful aberrantly old compared with contemporary sieving. samples in equilibrium with atmospheric 14C levels. The best-known reservoir effect is that Carbon and nitrogen stable isotopic analysis found in the oceans. Here, deep water cannot has been widely used in archaeological studies exchange carbon with the atmosphere and so, of palaeodiet.812 Bone collagen can provide in- when it wells up to surface waters and reaches formation on the consumption of marine or C4 organisms feeding in the upper reaches of the derived foods versus terrestrial C3 foods within ocean, it acts to dilute the radiocarbon activity an individual diet. There are a number of com- there. Organisms within this reservoir will there- plications to this simple scenario in some con- fore appear around 400 years older than they texts, however, one of which is the inclusion ought to when dated. of freshwater fish within the diet. Because of the numerous allochtonous sources of carbon In freshwater systems, old carbon can derive coming into different freshwater systems, or- from numerous sources including dissolved ganisms from freshwater reservoirs can have limestone, peat and geothermal vents in lakes. a wide range of stable isotopic values. Whilst Therefore, the reservoir offset in lakes and riv- much of this range overlaps with that expected ers is expected to differ between, and within, in terrestrial organisms, high δ15N or unusual- each reservoir. This needs to be tested prior to ly enriched or depleted δ13C can indicate the routine radiocarbon dating programmes of ma- presence of freshwater resources within the terial from these locations. Freshwater reservoir diet. Whilst several stable isotope studies have effects are, in many respects, more complicated identified the presence of freshwater fish within to detect and understand than marine effects. a population,813 the significant overlap between They have the potential to seriously influence freshwater isotopes and terrestrial isotopes of- a radiocarbon chronology when their presence ten precludes the routine application of this as is unknown, but if found through isotopic ana a marker.

810 We acknowledge the financial contributions made by Academy of Sciences, Moscow). We are particularly grate- the NERC-ARHC ORADS programme (awarded to H. Härke, ful to Andrej Belinskij and the team from Nasledie, and to which funded the radiocarbon determinations from the Heinrich Härke for their advice and input at all stages of site) and Keble College Oxford. We are also grateful for the the work. contributions made to this work by the staff of the Oxford 811 Lanting/van der Plicht 1998; Cook et al. 2001; Cook et al. Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, University of Oxford, the 2002; Bonsall et al. 2004. staff of the Nasledie Cultural Heritage Unit, Stavropol, and 812 Schoeninger et al. 1983; Schoeninger/DeNiro 1984. Alexandra Buzhilova (Institute of Archaeology, Russian 813 O’Connell et al. 2003.

127 Klin-Yar – R. Warren and T. Higham

Estimated OxA δ13C δ15N Radiocarbon Calibrated age AD Offset from historic Sample reference historic number ‰ ‰ age BP (1σ) age ( in years) date AD

KY III 363B/2 – 470−477 (0.04) 634−641 -103 – 25 9388 -17.3 10.3 1507 ± 38 Human Bone 534−611 (0.95) [Coin] (63.8 %)

KY III 363A – Bone of 36−31 BC (0.04) Earlier than a child scattered at 9380 -15.7 10.2 1960 ± 45 0−12 BC (0.064) 634−641 n/a entrance to catacomb 1−82AD(0.892) [Coin] 363

KY III 341/1 – Human 582−602 9386 -16.8 9.9 1741 ± 39 243−344 (1.00) -343 to -240 Tooth [Coin]

KY III 341/3 – Human 434−494 (0.675) 582−602 9387 -17.6 10.6 1568 ±37 -150 to -50 Tooth 505−538 (0.325) [Coin]

74−140 (0.727) KY III 378 – Human Late 4th – 9389 -13.1 9.3 1879 ± 38 150−170 (0.152) -309 to -209 Tooth early 5th C 194−210 (0.122)

KY III 360/1 – Human 11.3 264−275 (0.098) 9390 -16.7 1685 ± 37 Mid 7th C -297 to -180 Tooth 333−410 (0.90)

434−494 (0.625) KY III 360/2 – Human 9391 -16.5 10.3 1556 ± 39 505−523 (0.160) Mid 7th C -162 to -50 Tooth 526−546 (0.215)

Table 17. Initial radiocarbon ages obtained from the Klin- 8.2 Initial radiocarbon results Yar site. Historic dates are shown in column 7. Stable isotope values are reported In the wake of three rangefinder dates (Ox- entering the food chain, ultimately ending up in with respect to VPDB (carbon) A7683, -7757 and -7669) obtained in 1998 from humans. and AIR (nitrogen). Measure- burial 385 and the two skeletons in grave 386, a ment errors are ±0.2‰ for further series of radiocarbon dates was obtained Contamination is thought unlikely to be the ex- carbon and ±0.3‰ for nitro- from human bones excavated in 1994 – 1996 at planation for the offsets. The bones were rea- gen. Offsets are calculated Klin-Yar. This was undertaken to test the accura- sonably well-preserved and the analytical data using OxCal 4.1. Differences cy of dates derived from numismatic evidence obtained (e. g. C:N ratios, stable isotopes, % between historic cal. date and the analysis of cultural remains, as well as carbon etc.) disclosed no significant problems, and 14C age BP are at 68.2% probability ranges unless to provide a more robust chronology for the site. although none of these methods individually specified. SeeFig. 35a for the The radiocarbon results yielded offsets from the are precise indicators of contamination. De- 814 data. dates expected (Tab. 17). Grave 363, for ex- spite the fact that these initial determinations ample, is dated by OxA-9388. A coin dating to were not ultrafiltered, the analytical data and the Byzantine emperor Heraclius and his sons the well-preserved nature of the samples makes (AD 634 – 641) was found in the same context. it unlikely that they were subject to significant A date around the middle of the 7th century AD contamination. The marine reservoir effect is or slightly later is supported by other artefacts, also unlikely to be an explanation. Klin-Yar is including jewellery, a mirror, belt fittings, an iron about 150 miles from the Black Sea and 300 stirrup and two pottery vessels. The radiocarbon miles from the Caspian Sea. Maintaining what dates from this context were, therefore, too old would need to be a constant influx of marine by up to a century. In other cases, the offsets ob- fish across such distances would have taken a served ranged up to more than three centuries. considerable amount of both, energy and time, and must therefore be deemed unlikely. In ad- Several reasons for these marked offsets were dition, the human nitrogen isotopic data, with considered possible at the time. These includ- an average of 10.3±0.6‰, is not indicative of ed: 1) contamination of the bone collagen with a large marine fish influence. The values would exogenous carbon and the failure of the labo- be expected to be somewhat higher than this ratory to remove it; 2) a reservoir effect in the for a significant marine component, although human bones, derived from the uptake of ma- quantification is difficult.815 Old carbon entering rine carbon; 3) a reservoir effect caused by old the food chain may be a more likely possibility carbon from a mineral source entering a fresh- because extensive geothermal activity is well water system, being fixed by aquatic plants and known in the environs of Klin-Yar. Carbonaceous

814 Bronk Ramsey et al. 2002, 77 – 78. 815 Hedges 2004.

128 8 Radiocarbon dating at Klin-Yar

spring waters locally are bicarbonate anion pre- Klin-Yar may, therefore, present an interesting dominant and are common in the area. Geother- scenario within which to examine the relation- 14 mal sources may introduce C-depleted CO2 into ship between archaeological evidence, stable local water regimes, producing an apparent age isotopic evidence and freshwater radiocarbon for living organisms with the reservoir.816 This reservoir effects as indicators for the consump- effect has been identified by Beavan-Athfield tion of resources from freshwater sources. The and others817 in New Zealand where a magmat- first aim of this study was to examine wheth- 14 ic vent introducing CO2 of infinite C age into er the offset seen between the age of human the waters of Lake Taupo resulted in significant, bones and artefactual evidence can be clarified but variable reservoir effects in plants, animals by further work. The radiocarbon age of human and water of up to 4000 14C years. For such old bones was compared to both, artefactual evi- carbon to affect human bone collagen values at dence and the age of dated herbivore bone from the Klin-Yar site, the old carbon would have to close association (in grave deposits and fills). be fixed at the base of the food chain in aquatic plants and passed on through the food chain, In the absence of ancient fish remains, and in or- ending up in humans. The most likely source of der to test the hypothesis that the age of carbon transfer might be through the consumption of within the freshwater is affected by geothermal freshwater fish from the local rivers, principally springs, modern riverwater and fish were dated. the nearby River Podkumok. However, there is Finally, stable isotope analysis was undertaken no archaeological evidence for the exploitation on further human and faunal bone to examine of fish at Klin-Yar, nor in the wider settlement whether this technique might be able to support evidence of the later Bronze Age and early Iron the radiocarbon evidence concerning fish con- Age in this region. sumption.

8.3 Materials and methods

Bone of terrestrial ungulates (horse and cow) The bones were either sampled using tungsten as well as human bone from some of the graves carbide drills, or as a ~10 × 20 mm section of were selected from collections at the Nasledie bone cut using a diamond saw. These samples heritage unit in Stavropol and the Institute of Ar- were cleaned at the Oxford Radiocarbon Accel- chaeology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Mos- erator Unit (ORAU) by scraping with a scalpel to cow. Some of the animal bone came from graves remove soil colouration, sediment detritus and which had been dated previously using human weathered surfaces, before being shot-blast- bone (Tab. 17), to examine whether terrestrial ed using aluminium oxide. Whole bone sam- ungulates were also subject to a reservoir offset ples were powdered in a mortar and pestle. and, if possible, to quantify the extent of an off- Bone powder samples were decalcified with set in the dated human bone. Stable isotopes of ~10 ml of 2 % v/v HCl. They were then washed carbon and nitrogen were analysed separately in a base (NaOH) and rinsed, and then gelat- and selected from a wider range of human and inised in weakly acidic water (pH3) at 75 °C animal bones.818 for 20 hours, with the supernatant recovered using an EziFilterTM. Each sample for radiocar- A small number of modern plants were collected bon dating was ultrafiltered using the methods near the Klin-Yar site and from a spring nearby by outlined by Bronk Ramsey and others.819 Com- one of us (TH). In addition, plants and water sam- busted gelatin samples were analysed using a ples were collected from the River Podkumok, Europa Scientific ANCA-MS system consisting near the town of Tereze. The aim was to measure of a 20 – 20 IR mass spectrometer interfaced the radiocarbon concentration and determine to a Roboprep CHN sample converter unit op- whether or not these materials differed signifi- erating in continuous flow mode using a He cantly when compared with modern atmospher- carrier gas. This enables the measurement of ic values. A modern fish (Salmo trutta) was also δ15N and δ13C, nitrogen and carbon content and obtained from the same river, some grasses from C:N atomic ratios. δ13C values for radiocarbon the site of Klin-Yar itself, and material from some measurements cited in this chapter are report- aquatic plants growing around a spring near the ed with reference to VPDB, and δ15N results are site (distance of approx. 100 metres). reported with reference to AIR.820 Graphite was

818 For a fuller publication of these results, see Higham et al. 816 Bruns et al. 1980; Rubin et al. 1987; Pasquier-Cardin 2010; Белинский et al. 2013. et al. 1999. 819 Bronk Ramsey et al. 2004. 817 Beavan-Athfield et al. 2001. 820 Coplen 1994.

129 Klin-Yar – R. Warren and T. Higham

prepared by reduction of the sample CO2 over 1M of carbonate free NaOH added to convert

an iron catalyst in an excess H2 atmosphere any bicarbonate to carbonate. 100 mls of bar- at 560° C prior to AMS radiocarbon measure- ium chloride solution was then added and the ment.821 Water was dated by extraction of the solution heated to 70° C in a water bath for carbonate and bicarbonate. A carbonate-free one hour. The precipitate was collected by fil- 1M NaOH solution was prepared by adding to tration with a glass-sintered filter and washed

a NaOH solution 8 % by mass BaCl2 in solu- thoroughly in distilled water. This fraction was

tion. The precipitate was allowed to settle converted into CO2 gas through acid hydroly- and filtered off. 100 mls of sample water was sis, graphitised and AMS-dated as described pipetted into a stoppered flask and 5 mls of above.

8.4 Radiocarbon results

The new radiocarbon ages obtained from horse strong correlation (Figs. 33 and 34): wide differ- and cow bones are compared with the previous ences in offset are not linked with stable isotope human bone determinations from the same values. In Fig. 35 the offsets are plotted for the grave contexts (Tab. 18). The offset between the radiocarbon dates.822 human and animal bone determinations ranges between 0 and ~340 yr; it therefore parallels the The new animal bones series appears to be ac- range shown earlier (Tab. 17) and confirms the curate, probably avoiding the dietary offsets pattern. Comparison of the radiocarbon offset that may be the cause of variations in the human data with the stable isotope results yields no bone determinations. OxA-14839, for instance,

Calibrated age range Radiocarbon OxA δ13C δ15N CN Radiocarbon AD (68.2% prob.) Sample reference offset No. [‰] [‰] ratio age BP (years) From To

9386 KY III 341/1 – Human -16.8 9.9 1741 ± 39 242 345 -380 to -265

9387 KY III 341/3 – Human -17.6 10.6 1568 ±37 434 538 -187 to -87

14839 KY III 341 – Horse -20.2 5.7 3.2 1428 ± 28 608 648

14774 KY III 357 – Human -17.3 11.7 3.3 1582 ± 28 431 533 -143 to -41

14773 KY III 357 – Horse -19.6 6.0 3.3 1497 ± 28 547 600

9390 KY III 360/1 – Human -16.7 11.3 1685 ± 37 264 410 -397 to -251†

9391 KY III 360/2 – Human -16.5 10.3 1556 ± 39 434 547 -226 to -118†

14885 KY III 360 – Cow -19.7 5.1 3.5 1356 ± 28 650 685

Table 18. Comparison bet 14886 KY III 360 – Horse -20.3 4.9 3.6 1345 ± 29 649 674 ween all radiocarbon ages of horse/cow and human bone 14775 KY III 361A – Human -16.9 11.2 3.1 1798 ± 30 139 254 n/a from the same archaeological context. The calibrated ages 14776 KY III 361A – Cow -18.8 7.5 3.2 2981 ± 31 -1268 -1131 (AD) are shown in column 6. 14777 KY III 361B – Human -15.2 11.4 3.2 1728 ± 38 254 379 -11 to 142 Offsets between the human and ungulate bones are 14840 KY III 361B – Horse -20.2 3.8 3.2 1780 ± 30 214 326 shown in column 8. No offset is calculated for Grave 361A 9388 KY III 363B/2 – Human -17.3 10.3 1507 ± 38 471 611 -110 to -10 because of the obviously intrusive nature of the cow 14047 KY III 363B – Horse -20.1 4.3 1411 ± 28 616 654 bone in the grave context. See 9389 KY III 378 – Human -13.1 9.3 1879 ± 38 74 210 -216 to -70 Fig. 35 b for a plot of the data. † calculated against the mean KY III 378 – Horse 14048 -20.4 4.1 1771 ± 28 230 326 of the two animal determina- (tooth) tions in the same grave.

822 The offsets are plotted as probability distributions using 821 Bronk Ramsey/Hedges 1999; Bronk Ramsey et al. 2000. OxCal 4.1; see Bronk Ramsey 2009.

130 8 Radiocarbon dating at Klin-Yar

a date obtained from a horse bone in grave 341, dates from AD 608 – 648, in close agreement with the age of a coin from the same context (AD 582 – 602). OxA-14885 and 14886 (cow and horse bones, respectively) from grave 360 date the context from the mid to late 7th century, as expected on the basis of the material-cultural evidence. We consider the animal bone series of dates to be reliable and accurate once calibrated.823

Tab. 19 shows the results of the AMS measurements undertaken on the modern samples of fish, water and plants. The radiocarbon values for grass and aquatic plants within the immediate vicinity of the Klin-Yar site are close to the expected values given current atmospheric pMC values measured at ORAU for modern plant mat- Fig. 33. The relationship between δ15 and the offset in radiocarbon years between human ter. The most depleted result was for carbonate and animal bones from the same respective grave context (see Table 18). extracted from the water collected from the Riv- er Podkumok, at 66.0 ± 0.3 pMC. The method of dating this sample is experimental and not rou- tinely undertaken in the ORAU. Unfortunately, the amount of carbonate that could be obtained from the water varied between repeat extract ions. Although this value should therefore be viewed with some caution, it does at least suggest that there is a major offset in the age of the water compared with modern values. Further support for this is obtained from the radiocarbon age for the fish and aquatic plant samples from the river, which suggests that there is old carbon in these waters acting to dilute the radiocarbon ages of these types of organisms living within the riverine reservoir. Although calculation of a precise offset is problematic due to the bomb carbon effect, we estimate a reservoir effect of circa 800 years for the aquatic plant and circa 600 years for the flesh of the trout from the river. Despite the problems with the preparation, the radiocarbon age of the water is equivalent to Fig. 34. The relationship between δ13C and the offset in radiocarbon years between hu- circa 3300 years BP. man and animal bones from the same respective grave context (see Table 18).

OxA/OxA-X number Material δ13C δ15N pMC value

14860 Klin-Yar grass -26.3 -1.9 105.5 ± 0.3

14859 Klin-Yar aquatic plant -29.0 6.1 106.0 ± 0.3

14882 Tereze River aquatic plant -19.8 8.4 94.6 ± 0.3

14861 Tereze trout flesh -26.7 11.7 97.5 ± 0.3

-X-2139-18 Tereze water HCO3 -19.7 nd 66.0 ± 0.3

Table 19. Radiocarbon pMC values for collected modern plant, water and fish samples. Klin-Yar grass and aquatic plant come from the grass on top of the site and from near to a spring c. 100 m from the site, respectively. Tereze samples come from the River Podkumok. An OxA-X value denotes a date of less certainty. pMC denotes ‘percent modern carbon’, with 100pMC equivalent to AD 1950.

823 The dates were calibrated using the INTCAL04 curve; see Reimer et al. 2004.

131 Klin-Yar – R. Warren and T. Higham

Fig. 35. a − Human bone radiocarbon offsets from historic age, as deduced from artefactual and numismatic evidence; see Table 17 for data. b − AMS date offsets as deduced from comparison with animal bone from the same contexts; see Table 18 for data. The offsets are plotted as probability distributions using OxCal 4.1.

8.5 Conclusions

Radiocarbon dating at the Klin-Yar site has δ15N isotopes can be problematic. The δ13C val- shown significant offsets from the ages expected ues of freshwater organisms typically overlap on the basis of artefactual evidence. A correction with terrestrial values because they both derive to account for this offset is not applicable since carbon from similar sources. Generally, fresh- there is no correlation between the carbon and water systems have fewer trophic levels than nitrogen stable isotopes obtained from the hu- marine foodwebs825 and correspondingly lower man bones and the offset in radiocarbon age. average δ15N. France’s review826 of the isotop- The likeliest source for the old carbon affecting ic values of 549 freshwater fish yielded a mean the radiocarbon ages is the freshwater ecosys- freshwater δ15N value of 9 ± 3‰. In the absence tem, as demonstrated by the reservoir ages in of values from the region, we are not able to in- modern samples of flora and fauna in the nearby terpret with confidence the human stable iso- river. This carbon, fixed at the base of the food tope results with respect to potential uptake of chain by photosynthesising aquatic plants, is fish protein. In addition, δ15N levels of freshwa- moved through the food chain and may end up ter systems exhibit both, great spatial variations in humans through consumption of river fish. and variation within and between species, and However, no archaeological evidence for fish to our knowledge, no study has looked at long- consumption has been found at the Klin-Yar site. term temporal change although this is also likely This is a cemetery site, with limited subsistence to be variable. However, if we take the average evidence from either the Alanic or Sarmatian freshwater δ15N value of 9 ± 3‰, this would phases. mean that some freshwater fish from the Pod- kumok may be isotopically close to the higher Previous excavations in Russia have generally range of the terrestrial animals of Klin-Yar.827 If recovered little evidence of fish bones. In other they were included in any proportion in the diet, Eurasian sites, isotopic evidence of freshwater isotopically they may not, therefore, be distin- fish consumption (up to 50 % in the dietary pro- guished easily using nitrogen. This may be one tein) has been identified on the basis of isotop- explanation for the lack of concordance between ic evidence without any freshwater fish remains δ15N and radiocarbon offsets; more research being discovered archaeologically.824 Identifying freshwater dietary input on the basis of δ13C and

825 Gannes et al. 1998. 826 France 1999. 824 O’Connell et al. 2003. 827 Data in preparation.

132 8 Radiocarbon dating at Klin-Yar

is required. One area of potential importance stable isotope measurements from human and might be the application of single amino-acid animal bones from Klin-Yar has recently been stable isotope analysis which is a technique cur- published which sheds further light on the di- rently being developed in a number of research et-related variations in radiocarbon and stable centres in Europe, including Oxford. isotopes at the site.830 The application of this method at the site is complicated by probable Privat’s examination of stable isotope evidence freshwater protein and C4 plant consumption, from archaeological populations on the Eura- which makes interpretation of the results diffi- sian steppes during the Bronze and Iron Ages828 cult. showed that average human δ15N ratios were 12.2‰, and faunal herbivore values were 7‰. What is clear, though, is that radiocarbon-dating This difference of 5.2‰ was taken as evidence human bone from these types of environments of fish consumption because it is greater than must be undertaken with caution.831 Even with the trophic level effect one usually finds. Our the analysis of both, carbon and nitrogen iso- stable isotope results (Tab. 18) are limited, and topes, the potential uptake of riverine fish of it is not possible to suggest a similar effect. In differing radiocarbon ages may be masked by addition, there is currently debate over the other dietary components. The study shows the variation in the size and variation of the troph- importance of establishing archaeological chro- ic level effect in archaeology which hampers nologies based upon radiocarbon dates from proper diagnosis.829 A larger report containing non-human bones in regions such as this.

830 Higham et al. 2010; for a Russian version with complete 828 Privat 2003. data presentation, see Белинский et al. 2013. 829 Hedges/Reynard 2007. 831 Shishlina et al. 2007.

133 9 The human bones from Klin-Yar III and IV

Alexandra P. Buzhilova, Mariya V. Dobrovolskaya, Mariya B. Mednikova, Dmitrij V. Bogatenkov and Galina V. Lebedinskaya

9.1 Introduction

The full extent of the Klin-Yar cemeteries is from previous excavations at this site (see be- probably somewhere between 1000 and 3000 low). Unfortunately, there were 12 skeletons graves.832 Their dates range from the Late Bronze with lost or incomplete labels or with imprecise Age/Early Iron Age (Koban Culture) to the early cultural identification (none of them from the medieval period (Alans). This chapter presents 1994 – 1996 excavations). These individuals the results of the physical-anthropological study were only included in the general analysis of of the material from the 1994 – 1996 excavations. the sample. All other material could be studied within the framework of local and chronologi- It should be noted that we could use for our study cal groups as presented in the following tables only a small part of the ancient population bur- (Tab. 20). ied in the cemeteries. Therefore, interpretations are presented here with due care, depending The grouping, on the one hand, takes account of on the results at various levels of analysis. We the specific cultural identification of the materi- analyzed the patterns of sex, age at death (APB, al, while on the other hand it enables us to infer MVD, and MBM), variations in cranial morpholo- the specific anthropological character of individ- gy (MVD and APB), body shape and size (MBM), uals from different areas of the cemeteries. In physical activity (APB and MBM), and pathologi- this way, the groups of individuals buried in Sar- cal cases and anomalies (APB). We also present matian and Alanic catacombs can be considered a reconstruction of the diet based on the ana separately for three areas of the cemeteries: lysis of bone chemistry (MVD); a demographic Klin-Yar cemetery III elite plot, Klin-Yar III eastern profile and the sex-age structure (DVB) using our non-elite (ordinary) areas, and Klin-Yar IV north- own program Pdemography3R (‘Acheron’); and ern non-elite (ordinary, Alanic only) area. a graphical reconstruction of faces (GVL). Thus, the collaboration of five specialists working on The term ‘ordinary’ is used to emphasise the different aspects of the skeletal biology of this special status of the population buried in the ancient population results in a bio-archaeologi- elite plot of Klin-Yar III as identified by the ex- cal picture of the life of the Klin-Yar population. cavators.833 The lesser wealth of archaeological finds in these ‘ordinary’ areas suggests a social The number of individuals used in the analysis status different from that of the elite plot of Klin- is 195; this includes a substantial proportion Yar.

9.2 Materials and methods

9.2.1 General comments skeletons. Sex was determined on the basis of the criteria of specific development of bone re- Following the excavations of Klin-Yar III and lief on the skull, on the basis of the shape of the IV in 1994 – 1996, the skeletal material from pelvis and on the general sizes of long bones.834 51 graves was studied; the overall number of The ageing of adults was based on the criteria individuals is 86. This represents about 47 per of occlusal surface wear of teeth, obliteration cent of the entire skeletal material from the ex- of skull sutures, the preservation of surfaces of cavations carried out in 1988 – 1989, 1991, and joints of long bones, pubic symphyses, and oth- 1994 – 1996 (182 individuals in total). er parameters. For sub-adult individuals, the age estimate was based on teeth eruption, epiphy- The preservation of the skeletal material was seal closure, and the length of long bones with- good enough for a detailed physical-anthropo- out epiphyses.835 logical analysis; it included practically complete

834 Алексеев 1966; Bass 1995. 832 Härke/Belinsky 2000. 835 Алексеев/Дебец 1964; Resnick/Niwayama 1988; Bass 833 Härke/Belinsky 2000. 1995.

134 9 The human bones from Klin-Yar III and IV

Chronological group No. of individuals KY III east ‘ordinary’ KY III elite plot KY IV north

Koban * 101 100 0 1 Sarmatian ** 17 6 11 0 Alanic 64 12 24 28 Subtotal 182 118 35 29 Other (unknown) 13 ? ? ? Table 20. Local and chronological groups in the skeletal Total 196 118 ? 35 ? 29 ? material of Klin Yar III and IV. * One ?child/sub-adult (grave 346) known only from archaeological observation is included (skeleton not extant). ** Including transitional Sarmatian-Alanic graves.

Our computer program (PDemography3R ‘Acher- ical image; the latter was used here. Graphical on’) was used for the demographic database. reconstruction is based on the skull craniogram. At the time of writing, the database includes Soft tissues of the head are reproduced by spe- 211 palaeodemographic samples from Eurasia, cial methods according to the craniogram. The ranging in date from the Mesolithic to the mid- relief of the skull, the degree of visceral cranium 19th century AD. All these samples have been col- impression, zygoma projection and other facial lected using uniform procedures, and they can features are taken into account during shadow- be used for comparative palaeodemographic plotting.839 analysis. Lesions and abnormalities were examined by The standard technique of Factor Analysis was visual inspection and radiology. The palaeo- applied for the comparative demographic ana pathological analysis was based on the evidence lysis of the mortality functions of groups. As in- published in medical and palaeopathological itial features of such an analysis, it is possible literature.840 Histological and chemical research to use the dx (or Cx) values of the life tables of methods supplied data for the microscopic each population in our database. These features analysis.841 An Atomic Absorption Spectrometer are weakly correlated with one another, and ho- was used with Zeeman effect in an air-acetylene mogeneous. On the final diagram of Factor Ana flame, and for strontium in a nitrous oxide-acet- lysis, first-factor values are placed on the y-axis. ylene flame.842 The x-axis is an absolute chronological scale in centuries (using the median of the date range for each burial site; groups with uncertain dates are 9.2.2 Catalogue of skeletal material excluded). On such a graph, it is possible to allo- from the 1994 – 1996 excavations cate each group to a point in the factorial space. at Klin-Yar III and IV This method can help us in the interpretation of the specific characteristics of each analysed The catalogue below uses the original grave num- population in comparison with the variablity of bers given in the field and used in the catalogue other, comparative groups. of archaeological findings. Where the number of individuals established by skeletal analysis dif- Craniological and osteological morphology were fers from that identified during excavation, the analysed by the standard programme of meas- individuals are numbered (1, 2, etc.). Under the urements.836 The massiveness of the skeletons item ‘Methods’, the catalogue lists techniques was compared using X-ray-morphological analy- applied to the respective individual (or individ- sis.837 Methods also applied here include the as- uals) during skeletal analysis, in addition to the sessment of the topography of long bone relief, standard techniques of sexing and ageing. The and the analysis of enthesopathies.838 item ‘Sex, age’ gives only the result of the skeletal study; it does not take account of cultural in- The reconstruction of facial soft tissue may be formation (i. e. details of the burial ritual, and/or carried out as a sculptural portrait, or as a graph- artefacts associated with the skeleton).

Throughout this chapter, the term ‘child’ re- 836 Алексеев 1966; Алексеев/Дебец 1964. fers to individuals aged up to 14 years (with 837 Медникова 1998; Медникова 2000. 838 Бужилова 1998; Медникова 1998. – A later, separate study of 88 individuals used the innovative method of tooth 839 Лебединская 1998. morphology to analyse the biological (Mahalanobis) dis- 840 Ortner/Putschar 1985; Рохлин 1965; Михайлов 1989; tances between the Klin-Yar populations; Rathmann 2013. Бужилова 1998. This study came too late to be included here in detail (but 841 Stout 1992; Козловская 1998. see footnote 882). 842 Sandford 1992.

135 Klin-Yar – A. P. Buzhilova et al.

the occasional use of ‘infant’ for children up to Preserved: Fragments of neurocranium, upper and lower 18 months or so), and ‘juvenile’ to individuals jaw, various teeth, fragments of both humeri, fragments aged 15 to 19 years; ‘adult’ refers to individu- of scapula, clavicles, cervical, thoracic and lumbar ver- als aged 20 and over, with ‘mature’ describing tebrae, ribs (of variable condition), fragments of femora (both), tibiae (both), pelvis individuals aged 36 and over. In some cases, Methods: Indicators of physiological stress the age of the same individual may be given in Sex, age: Juvenile (?male), 15 – 19 years. different sections of this chapter as, for example, 30 – 39 years and 30 – 40 years. The former Grave 345, Skeleton 1 system uses five-year intervals for statistical Culture: Alanic reasons, the latter uses the international system Preserved: No bones available for analysis. of age designations. In real terms, there is, of course, no difference between these two desig- Grave 345, Skeleton 2 nations. Culture: Alanic Preserved: Unmatched parts of hand and leg bones. Methods: Indicators of physiological stress, X-ray, chemical trace elements Klin-Yar III, excavations 1994 Sex, age: Male, 20 – 29 years.

Grave 341, Skeleton 1 Grave 345, Skeleton 3 Culture: Alanic Culture: Alanic Preserved: Teeth from several skeletons Preserved: No bones available for analysis. Methods: Indicators of physiological stress Sex, age: ?, young adult. Grave 346 Culture: Koban Grave 341, Skeleton 2 Preserved: No bones available for analysis. Culture: Alanic Preserved: No bones available for analysis. Grave 347 Culture: Alanic Grave 341, Skeleton 3 Preserved: No bones available for analysis. Culture: Alanic Preserved: Proximal epiphysis of femur, and foot bones Grave 348 Methods: Indicators of physiological stress Culture: Koban Sex, age: Male, 20 – 34 years. Preserved: Fragments of neurocranium, large fragments of upper jaw. Fragments of facial bones of skull, occipi- Grave 342A tal bone and fragments of lower jaw. Diaphysis of both Culture: Sarmatian humeri, fragments of radius, small fragments of both Preserved: No bones available for analysis. femora and tibiae, fragments of fibula, large fragments of sacrum and fragments of pelvic bones, foot bones Grave 342B Methods: Indicators of physiological stress, X-ray Culture: Sarmatian Sex, age: Female, 25 – 29 years. Preserved: Fragments of skull, lower and upper jaw, right humerus, right ulna and radius, clavicle and fragments Grave 349 of scapula, ribs, both femora and tibiae, fragments of Culture: Koban both fibulae, large fragments of pelvis and sacrum, ver- Preserved: Fragments of skull: nasal bones, parietal tebrae (different types), and foot bones bone, lower jaw, various teeth, base of skull. Fragments Methods: Osteology, indicators of physiological stress, of long bones, large fragments of pelvis, ribs (of various X-ray, chemical trace elements condition), foot bones Sex, age: Female, 30 – 39 years Methods: Osteology, indicators of physiological stress, Stature: 158.4 (after Bounak); 160.25 (after Trotter/ X-ray Gleser). Sex, age: Male, 30 – 39 years. Remarks: Evidence of artificial skull deformation (see below, 9.4.2 – 9.4.3). Grave 350 Culture: Koban Grave 343 Preserved: Fragments of neurocranium, fragments of Culture: Koban hand and leg bones Preserved: (1) Adult skeleton: fragments of neurocra- Methods: Indicators of physiological stress, X-ray nium, lower jaw tooth, fragments of both humeri, frag- Sex, age: Child, 8 – 10 years. ments of both radii and ulnae, large fragments of pelvic bones (both), both femora, tibiae and clavicles, frag- Grave 351A ments of ribs (different preservation). (2) Child skeleton: Culture: Sarmatian left ulna, fragments of humerus, left femur and fragment Preserved: Small fragments of skull, fragments of lower of pelvis and upper jaw, fragments of humeri (both), small frag- Methods: Osteology, indicators of physiological stress ments of radius, fragments of scapula and clavicles, Sex, age: (1) Female, about 20 years, (2) child. cervical and lumbar vertebrae, small fragments of pelvis, right tibia and femur, fibulae (both) Grave 344 Methods: Osteology, craniology, indicators of physiolog- Culture: Koban ical stress, X-ray, chemical trace elements

136 9 The human bones from Klin-Yar III and IV

Sex, age: Male, 20 – 24 years Preserved: Bad preservation: small fragments of skull, Stature: 189.365±4.57 (after Trotter/Gleser formula for fragments of lower jaw, various teeth, fragments of hu- Caucasoid populations); 186.3±4.23 (after Trotter/Gles- merus and femur, fragments of ribs er formula for Negroid populations). Methods: Indicators of physiological stress Sex, age: ?Male, 25 – 29 years Grave 351B Remarks: Evidence of artificial skull deformation (see Culture: Sarmatian below, 9.4.2 – 9.4.3). Preserved: Well preserved skeleton: skull (partially destroyed in right parietal-occipital area, and right tempo- Grave 356, Skeleton 2 ral bone missing), fragment of lower jaw, both humeri Culture: Alanic and radii, left ulna, vertebrae (practically complete), Preserved: Fragments of skull, lower jaw, various teeth, fragments of scapula, ribs, both femora, tibiae and fib- fragments of radius and ulna, left humerus, left scapula, ulae, sacrum, pelvic bones (both), teeth, bones of wrist, vertebrae (all types), ribs, foot bones patella Methods: Indicators of physiological stress, chemical Methods: Osteology, craniology, indicators of physiolog- trace elements ical stress, X-ray, chemical trace elements Sex, age: Juvenile, 15 – 19 years. Sex, age: Female, 30 – 39 (?30 – 35) years Stature: 157.44 (after Bounak); 157 (after Trotter/Gleser) Grave 357, Skeleton 1 Remarks: Evidence of artificial skull deformation (see Culture: Alanic below, 9.4.2 – 9.4.3). Preserved: Fragments of lower jaw, teeth, fragments of both femora and tibiae, pelvic bones and foot bones Grave 352, Skeleton 1 Methods: Indicators of physiological stress Culture: Alanic Sex, age: Male, 20 – 24 years Preserved: Fragments of foot and legs bones Remarks: Evidence of artificial skull deformation (see Methods: Sexing and ageing only below, 9.4.2 – 9.4.3). Sex, age: ?, adult. Grave 357, Skeleton 2 Grave 352, Skeleton 2 Culture: Alanic Culture: Alanic Preserved: Both scapulae, diaphysis of femur and de- Preserved: Fragments of both tibiae and femora stroyed cervical and thoracic vertebrae Methods: Indicators of physiological stress Methods: Indicators of physiological stress Sex, age: Female, 25 – 35 years. Sex, age: Female, 20 – 29 years.

Grave 353 Grave 358 Culture: Koban Culture: Koban Preserved: Fragments of skull, lower and upper jaw, vari- Preserved: Fragments of skull: neurocranium, upper jaw ous teeth, clavicles, both humeri, fragments of right radi- and lower jaw. Fragments of clavicle, fragments of radius us and ulna, both femora and tibiae, vertebrae (various and ulna, left humerus and fragment of right humerus, types) and foot bones pelvic bones, sacrum, fragments of both femora, tibiae Methods: Osteology, indicators of physiological stress, and fibulae, bones of wrists and feet X-ray Methods: Osteology, craniology, indicators of physiolog- Sex, age: Female, 25 – 29 years (nearer to upper limit). ical stress, X-ray, chemical trace elements Sex, age: Male, 30 – 39 years Stature: 163.7 (after Trotter/Gleser). Klin-Yar III, excavations 1995 Grave 359 Grave 354 Culture: Alanic Culture: Koban Preserved: Fragments of skull, fragments of upper and Preserved: Small fragments of skull, fragments of epi- lower jaw, long bones and some vertebrae physes of both femora, phalanges of wrist Methods: Osteology, indicators of physiological stress, Methods: Indicators of physiological stress X-ray Sex, age: Male, 25 – 35 years. Sex, age: Female, 25 – 29 years Stature: 152.28 (after Bounak); 151.17 (after Trotter/ Grave 355 Gleser formula for Negroid populations) Culture: Koban Remarks: Evidence of artificial skull deformation (see Preserved: Fragments of skull, upper and lower jaw, frag- below, 9.4.2 – 9.4.3). ment of right humerus, right radius and ulna, fragment of right clavicle, ribs and various vertebrae, both femora, Grave 360, Skeleton 1 tibiae and fibulae Culture: Alanic Methods: Osteology, indicators of physiological stress, Preserved: Skull (except for occipital bone and parts of X-ray, chemical trace elements base), upper jaw. Destroyed humeri (both), both femora Sex, age: Male, 40 – 49 years and tibiae, foot bones, both patellae Stature: 164.6 (after Bounak); 164 (after Trotter/Gleser Methods: Osteology, craniology, indicators of physiolog- formula for Negroid populations). ical stress, X-ray, chemical trace elements Sex, age: Male, 35 – 44 (?35 – 39) years Grave 356, Skeleton 1 Stature: 169 (after Trotter/Gleser formula for Caucasoid Culture: Alanic populations)

137 Klin-Yar – A. P. Buzhilova et al.

Remarks: Evidence of artificial skull deformation (see Stature: 170 (after Trotter/Gleser formula for Negroid below, 9.4.2 – 9.4.3). populations).

Grave 360, Skeleton 2 Grave 364, Skeleton 1 Culture: Alanic Culture: Alanic Preserved: Left humerus, left femur, both tibiae, frag- Preserved: Fragments of left femur and both tibiae, fragments of sacrum, parts of foot bones ments of phalanges of wrist Methods: Osteology, indicators of physiological stress, Methods: Indicators of physiological stress, X-ray X-ray, chemical trace elements Sex, age: Male, 20 – 29 years. Sex, age: Female, 35 – 44 years. Grave 364, Skeleton 2 Grave 361A Culture: Alanic Culture: Sarmatian Preserved: Both femora and fragments of foot bones Preserved: Right humerus, both radii and ulnae, clavi- Methods: Indicators of physiological stress, X-ray cle, fragments of scapula, fragments of ribs, sternum, Sex, age: Female, 30 – 39 years. fragments of cervical and lumbar vertebrae, large fragments of both femora, fragments of both tibiae and fibu- Grave 365 lae, fragments of pelvis and sacrum, phalanges of wrist, Culture: Sarmatian foot bones Preserved: Fragments of skull: facial part, lower jaw and Methods: Osteology, indicators of physiological stress, various teeth. Sternum, both humerus, fragments of pel- X-ray vic bones, corpus of vertebrae (various types), scapula, Sex, age: Female, 20 – 24 years (nearer to lower limit) clavicle and fragments of ribs Stature: 151 (after Trotter/Gleser) Methods: Osteology, indicators of physiological stress Remarks: Evidence of artificial skull deformation (see Sex, age: Male, 20 – 24 years (nearer to lower limit) below, 9.4.2 – 9.4.3). Stature: 177.81±4.57 (after Trotter/Gleser formula for Caucasoid populations); 174.84±4.23 (after Trotter/ Grave 361B Gleser formula for Negroid populations). Culture: Sarmatian Preserved: Fragments of neurocranium and lower jaw, Grave 366 various teeth, both humeri, fragments of left ulna, distal Culture: Koban parts of diaphyses of both radii, ribs Preserved: Fragment of skull (parietal bone) Methods: Indicators of physiological stress Methods: Sexing and ageing only Sex, age: ?Female, 20 – 29 years Sex, age: ?, adult (young). Remarks: Diagnostic male grave-goods. Grave 367 Grave 362 Horse burial. Culture: Koban Preserved: Complete skull (including lower jaw) Grave 368 Methods: Craniology, indicators of physiological stress Culture: Alanic Sex, age: Male, 40 – 49 years. Preserved: Skull (including lower jaw) Methods: Craniology, indicators of physiological stress Grave 363A Sex, age: Male, 35 – 44 years. Culture: ?Sarmatian (from destroyed grave) Preserved: 1) Child: facial part of skull, large parts of Grave 369 neurocranium, lower jaw, teeth, both humeri, both radii, Culture: Koban right ulna, left scapula, vertebrae (various types), ribs, Preserved: Fragments of femoral diaphysis, right tibia, sternum, pelvic bones, phalanges of wrist and feet, both small fragments of sacrum, patella femora, tibiae and fibulae Methods: Osteology, indicators of physiological stress, Methods: Osteology, indicators of physiological stress, X-ray, chemical trace elements chemical trace elements Sex, age: Male, 30 – 39 years Sex, age: Juvenile, 13 – 15 years. Stature: 154.5 (after Trotter/Gleser formula for Negroid populations). Grave 363B, Skeleton 1 Culture: Alanic Grave 370 Preserved: Skull, humerus, both femora, fragment of sa- Culture: Sarmatian crum Preserved: Well-preserved skeleton: skull and frag- Methods: Osteology, indicators of physiological stress, ments of lower jaw, left humerus, both femora, tibiae X-ray and fibulae, scapulae, pelvic bones, sacrum, vertebrae Sex, age: Female, 30 – 34 years (various types), ribs, fragments of sternum (manubri- Stature: 144 (after Trotter/Gleser). um) Methods: Osteology, craniology, indicators of physiolog- Grave 363B, Skeleton 2 ical stress, X-ray, chemical trace elements Culture: Alanic Sex, age: Female, 25 – 29 years Preserved: Skull, both femora and humeri, fragments of Stature: 143.52 (after Bounak); 143.25 (after Trotter/ pelvis Gleser). Methods: Osteology, indicators of physiological stress, X-ray Grave 371, Skeleton 1 Sex, age: Male, 20 – 29 years Culture: Alanic

138 9 The human bones from Klin-Yar III and IV

Preserved: Well-preserved skeleton: skull, lower jaw, Grave 377 both humeri, radii, ulnae, femora and clavicles, sternum, Culture: Koban large fragments of both scapulae, vertebrae (all types) Preserved: Well-preserved skeleton: skull (large frag- and ribs. ment, except for the lower jaw), both humeri, radii, ul- Methods: Osteology, craniology, indicators of physiolog- nae, femora, tibiae, fibulae and pelvic bones, vertebrae ical stress, chemical trace elements (various types) and fragments of ribs Sex, age: Female, 20 – 24 years Methods: Osteology, indicators of physiological stress, Stature: 155.13 (after Trotter/Gleser). X-ray, chemical trace elements Remarks: Evidence of artificial skull deformation (see Sex, age: Child, 9 – 10 years. below, 9.4.2 – 9.4.3). Grave 378 Grave 371, Skeleton 2 Culture: transitional Sarmatian-Alanic (later re-dated: Culture: Alanic Sarmatian) Preserved: Well-preserved skeleton: skull, lower jaw, Preserved: Well-preserved skeleton: skull (including low- both humeri, radii, ulnae, clavicles, femora, tibiae and er jaw), both scapulae, both humeri, radii, ulnae, femo- fibulae, vertebrae (all types) and ribs ra, tibiae and fibulae, right part of pelvis, vertebrae (all Methods: Osteology, indicators of physiological stress types), ribs (of various preservation), fragment of sacrum Sex, age: Infant, about 1 year. Methods: Osteology, indicators of physiological stress, X-ray Grave 372 Sex, age: Child, 10 – 12 years. Culture: Sarmatian Preserved: Well-preserved skeleton: complete skull and Grave 379 all bones of postcranial skeleton Culture: Sarmatian Methods: Osteology, craniology, indicators of physiolog- Preserved: Large fragments of skull and lower jaw, left ical stress, X-ray, chemical trace elements humerus, fragments of both radii, left femur, both tibiae, Sex, age: Male, 35 – 44 years pelvis, sacrum, right clavicle Stature: 172 (after Bounak); 169.75 (after Trotter/Gleser). Methods: Osteology, craniology, indicators of physiological stress Sex, age: Female, 25 – 29 years Klin-Yar III, excavations 1996 Stature: 153.5 (after Trotter/Gleser).

Grave 373 Grave 380 Culture: Alanic Culture: Alanic Preserved: Base of skull, small fragments of lower and Preserved: Fragments of skull, various teeth, both hu- upper jaw, different tooth. Both humeri, left radius and meri (destroyed) and radii, right ulna, fragments of both ulna, both femora, destroyed tibiae (both), both pelvic femora and tibiae, vertebrae bones, sacrum, ribs, vertebrae (various types), fragment Methods: Osteology, indicators of physiological stress of clavicle Sex, age: Infant, 1.5 years ± 6 months Methods: Osteology, indicators of physiological stress, Remarks: Evidence of artificial skull deformation (see X-ray below, 9.4.2 – 9.4.3. Sex, age: Female, 25 – 29 years (nearer to upper limit) Stature: 155.67 (after Trotter/Gleser). Grave 381, Skeleton 1 Culture: Alanic Grave 374 Preserved: Facial part of skull, neurocranium (except for Culture: Alanic occipital bone), fragment of left temporal bone, lower Preserved: Fragments of neurocranium, upper and lower jaw. Right humerus, right radius and ulna, clavicle, both jaw, various teeth. Fragments of right humerus, clavicle, femora, tibiae and fibulae, pelvic bones (both), foot scapula, ribs, femur, both tibiae, fragments of fibula, bones, ribs and vertebrae (various types) vertebrae (various types), foot bones, fragments of sa- Methods: Osteology, craniology, indicators of physiolog- crum ical stress, X-ray Methods: Osteology, indicators of physiological stress, Sex, age: Male, 20 – 24 years X-ray Stature: 163.24 (after Bounak); 163.4 (after Trotter/ Sex, age: Juvenile (?female), 15 – 19 years. Gleser formula for Negroid populations) Remarks: Evidence of artificial skull deformation (see Grave 375 below, 9.4.2 – 9.4.3). Culture: Koban Preserved: Small fragments of neurocranium, all long Grave 381, Skeleton 2 bones (arms and legs), ribs and vertebrae (various types) Culture: Alanic Methods: Indicators of physiological stress, X-ray Preserved: Fragments of lower jaw (right part) and var- Sex, age: Child, 8 – 10 years. ious teeth. Small fragments of humerus, left ulna, fragment of right femur, fragment of tibiae (both), fragment Grave 376 of pelvis Culture: Koban Methods: Indicators of physiological stress, X-ray Preserved: Fragments of femoral, tibial and fibula bones, Sex, age: Female, 20 – 24 years. foot bones, fragments of vertebrae, various teeth Methods: Indicators of physiological stress, X-ray Grave 382, Skeleton 1 Sex, age: Juvenile, 15 – 19 years. Culture: Alanic

139 Klin-Yar – A. P. Buzhilova et al.

Preserved: Skull (except for facial part), upper and low- Preserved: Fragments of skull and lower jaw. Large frag- er jaw. Both humeri, left ulna, both femora and tibiae, ments of humerus, left ulna and radius, both femora, fragments of fibula, left pelvic bone, some thoracic ver- tibiae, fragments of both fibulae, fragments of sternum, tebrae, ribs, bones of wrist scapulae, ribs Methods: Osteology, craniology, indicators of physiolog- Methods: Osteology, craniology, indicators of physiological stress ical stress, X-ray, chemical trace elements Sex, age: Female, 30 – 39 years Sex, age: Male, 30 – 39 years. Stature: 147.25 (after Trotter/Gleser). Remarks: Evidence of artificial skull deformation (see Grave 386, Skeleton 2 below, 9.4.2 – 9.4.3). Culture: transitional Sarmatian-Alanic (later re-dated: Sarmatian) Grave 382, Skeleton 2 Preserved: Fragments of cranium, small fragments of Culture: Alanic lower jaw, large fragments of both humeri, radii and ul- Preserved: Fragments of neurocranium, parietal bone, nae, right femur, left tibia, right fibula, right pelvic bone, occipital bone, small fragments of facial part of skull, fragments of ribs and foot bones lower jaw, various teeth. Fragments of left humerus, Methods: Osteology, indicators of physiological stress, both radii, destroyed left ulna, fragments of clavicle, X-ray, chemical trace elements both femora, fragments of tibia, fragments of left pelvic Sex, age: Female, 25 – 29 years. bone, fragments of lumbar vertebrae, small fragment of sacrum, ribs and foot bones Grave 387 Methods: Osteology, craniology, indicators of physiolog- Culture: Sarmatian (later re-dated: transitional Sarma- ical stress tian-Alanic) Sex, age: Male, 30 – 39 years Preserved: Complete skull, both humeri, radii, ulnae, Stature: 166 (after Trotter/Gleser formula for Negroid femora and tibiae, fragments of fibula, pelvis, fragment populations). of sacrum, both clavicles, both patellae, foot and wrist bones Grave 382, Skeleton 3 Methods: Osteology, craniology, indicators of physiolog- Culture: Alanic ical stress, X-ray, chemical trace elements Preserved: Right part of frontal bone, right fragment of Sex, age: Male, 40 – 49 years left parietal bone, occipital bone. Fragments of both hu- Stature: 169.12 (after Bounak); 169 (after Trotter/Gleser). meri, right femur, tibia and fibula, fragments of pelvis, fragments of vertebrae and ribs Grave 388 Methods: Osteology, indicators of physiological stress ‘Cenotaph’ (no bones). Sex, age: Child, 2 – 3 years Remarks: Evidence of artificial skull deformation (see below, 9.4.2 – 9.4.3). Klin-Yar IV, excavations 1996 Grave 383 Culture: Sarmatian (later re-dated: transitional Sarma- Grave 6, Skeleton 1 tian-Alanic) Culture: Alanic Preserved: Small fragments of neurocranium, both tibiae Preserved: Fragments of neurocranium, small fragments (destroyed) and foot bones of facial bones, fragment of lower jaw, both humeri, right Methods: Indicators of physiological stress, X-ray ulna, fragments of both femora, tibiae and fibulae, foot Sex, age: Child, 7 – 14 years. bones, both patellae, fragments of vertebrae (various types) Grave 384 Methods: Osteology, indicators of physiological stress, Culture: Alanic X-ray Preserved: Skull and fragments of lower jaw, both hu- Sex, age: Male, 20 – 34 years (age ranges from 20 – 29 to meri, right radius, both femora and pelvic bones, sa- 30 – 34 depending on ageing method). crum, fragments of scapula Remarks: Evidence of artificial skull deformation (see Methods: Osteology, indicators of physiological stress below, 9.4.2 – 9.4.3). Sex, age: Child, 10 – 12 years. Grave 6, Skeleton 2 Grave 385 Culture: Alanic Culture: transitional ?Sarmatian-Alanic (later re-dated: Preserved: Large fragment of humerus, right femur and ?Sarmatian) patella Preserved: Well-preserved skeleton: complete skull, Methods: Osteology, indicators of physiological stress both humeri, right ulna, both radii, both clavicles, femo- Sex, age: Female, 25 – 34 years (age ranges from 20 – 29 ra and tibiae, fibula, fragment of right pelvic bone, verte- to 30 – 34 depending on ageing method). brae (various types), ribs, scapulae, foot bones Methods: Osteology, craniology, indicators of physiolog- Grave 6, other skeletal material from the chamber ical stress Culture: Alanic Sex, age: Child (?female), 10 – 13 years. Preserved: Small fragments of long bones and other parts of several individuals. Grave 386, Skeleton 1 Methods: Indicators of physiological stress Culture: transitional Sarmatian-Alanic (later re-dated: Sex, age: (3) Child, less than 7 years; (4) ?, adult; (5) ?, Sarmatian) mature adult.

140 9 The human bones from Klin-Yar III and IV

Grave 7, Skeleton 1 Grave 9, Skeleton 1 Culture: Alanic Culture: Alanic Preserved: Small fragments of skull, various teeth. Left Preserved: Fragments of skull bones humerus, radius and ulna, ribs, fragments of os cocsae, Methods: Indicators of physiological stress complete and fragmentary vertebrae (various types) Sex, age: Child, approx. 3 – 7 years. Methods: Osteology, indicators of physiological stress, chemical trace elements Grave 9, Skeleton 2 Sex, age: Infant, 1.0 – 1.5 years. Culture: Alanic Preserved: Small and large parts of neurocranium and Grave 7, Skeleton 2 fragments of upper and lower jaw, clavicle, some corpus- Culture: Alanic es of cervical vertebrae, first rib, fragments of pelvis, foot Preserved: Fragments of neurocranium, various teeth, bones parts of right humerus, right tibia, fragment of clavicle, Methods: Osteology, indicators of physiological stress, fragments of pelvis and ribs X-ray Methods: Indicators of physiological stress Sex, age: Child, 5 – 7 years Sex, age: Child, 8 – 9 years. Remarks: Evidence of artificial skull deformation (see below, 9.4.2 – 9.4.3). Grave 7, Skeleton 3 Culture: Alanic Grave 9, Skeleton 3 Preserved: Fragments of skull (left part of neurocranium Culture: Alanic and fragments of upper and lower jaw), various teeth, frag- Preserved: Left part of skull except for lower jaw, fragments of left humerus, radius and ulna, fragments of left ment of upper jaw, cervical, diaphyses of both humeri, femur and tibia, sacrum, pelvis, thoracic vertebrae and ribs right radius and ulna, fragments of fibula, phalanges of Methods: Osteology, indicators of physiological stress wrist, both femora and tibiae, fragments of both fibulae, Sex, age: Female, 30 – 39 years (near midpoint of range). pelvic bones, fragments of sacrum, sternum, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, foot bones Grave 7, Skeleton 4 Methods: Craniology, osteology, indicators of physiolog- Culture: Alanic ical stress, X-ray Preserved: Right part of skull except for lower jaw. Clav- Sex, age: Female, 20 – 24 (?20 – 29) years icle, large fragments of right radius and ulna, diaphyses Stature: 153 (after Bounak); 151.5 (after Trotter/Gleser) of both femora, both tibiae, both pelvic bones Remarks: Evidence of artificial skull deformation (see Methods: Osteology, craniology, indicators of physiolog- below, 9.4.2 – 9.4.3). ical stress, X-ray Sex, age: Male, 20 – 29 years (nearer to lower limit) Grave 10 Stature: 160 (after Trotter/Gleser formula for Negroid Culture: Alanic populations). Preserved: Fragments of neurocranium, large fragments of upper and lower jaw, both humeri (de- Grave 8, Skeleton 1 stroyed), right ulna and radius, thoracic vertebrae and Culture: Alanic fragments of cervical vertebrae, fragments of both fem- Preserved: Fragments of neurocranium, left radius, left ulna, fragments of humerus, fragments of scapula, ster- ora and tibiae num and clavicle, fragments of ribs, left femur, parts of Methods: Osteology, craniology, indicators of physiolog- tibiae, both pelvic bones, sacrum, vertebrae (various ical stress types, incl. cervical and thoracic), various fragments of Sex, age: Female, 20 – 29 years years foot and wrist bones Stature: 160 (after Trotter/Gleser) Methods: Osteology, indicators of physiological stress Remarks: Evidence of artificial skull deformation (see Sex, age: Male, 20 – 29 (?20 – 24) years. below, 9.4.2 – 9.4.3).

Grave 8, Skeleton 2 Grave 11 Culture: Alanic Culture: Koban Preserved: Fragments of neurocranium, large fragment Preserved: Complete skull, both humeri, fragments of ra- of right humerus, right clavicle, both femora, one tibia, dial and ulnar bones, right femur, ribs, foot bones. one fibula, fragments of pelvis, foot bones Methods: Osteology, craniology, indicators of physiolog- Methods: Osteology, indicators of physiological stress ical stress Sex, age: Female, 35 – 39 years Sex, age: Male, 30 – 39 years Remarks: Evidence of artificial skull deformation (see Stature: 170 (after Trotter/Gleser). below, 9.4.2 – 9.4.3). Grave 12 Grave 8, Skeleton 3 Culture: Alanic Culture: Alanic Preserved: Small fragments of both humeri, diaphyses Preserved: Part of pelvis of both radii and ulnae, fragments of femur, foot bones Methods: Osteology Methods: Indicators of physiological stress Sex, age: Child. Sex, age: Male, 30 – 39 years.

141 Klin-Yar – A. P. Buzhilova et al.

9.3 Palaeodemography of Klin-Yar III and IV

9.3.1 Methods Thus, the groups from Klin-Yar III and IV, as well as all comparative samples, were compiled ac- For the interpretation of palaeodemographic cording to a number of basic principles: data, the most important factors are the size and 1. We use life (or mortality) tables based on representativity of the sample, a sufficiently -de equal 5-years age classes (0 – 4, 5 – 9 . . . tailed chronology, and the wider historical and 45 – 49, 50+). archaeological context. At Klin-Yar, we have the 2. The last age class is open and comprises all context and the chronology, but the sample is in- individuals aged 50 and above. The reason complete and relatively small. for this procedure is the aforementioned problem of exactly determining the age at The use of statistical methods in palaeodemo death in this age class. graphy843 requires uniform procedures of data 3. In the data set, the method of simple moving collection and processing. In our own analysis, average is used. For example, an individual we avoid modelling at the stage of data collect aged 20 – 34 years is entered with the value of ion as a matter of principle; modelling is only un- 0.3(3) in each of the Dx age classes 20 – 24, dertaken after analysis of the data. We use the 25 – 29, and 30 – 34. Thus, the Dx value ex- standard technique based on life tables and the presses the probability of the individual be- subsequent calculation of all demographic cha longing to a particular age class. The situation racteristics of the population.844 The complete is similar if the broad anthropological age cat- list of characteristics in our programme consists egories (infans to senilis) are used, but the re- of 25 indices. sulting picture is less reliable (for this reason, the Cer-value is used). Because life tables describe mortality for a 4. Techniques of transformation of the raw cohort of 100-radix, comparisons of different data849 are not applied, except for the simple samples are straightforward.845 This makes it moving average. easy to detect changes in demographic charac- 5. All data are calculated within the framework teristics of populations such as a decrease in of the stationary population model. child mortality or greater survival of older individuals as a result of advanced health care or For each ancient population, a mortality table is other factors. Mortality tables may also be con- calculated for the entire group, then separately structed for males and females separately.846 for the sub-groups of males, females, and un- Such tables and the graphical representations sexed adults. We intend to consider a range of of their functions can clearly show sex differ- palaeodemographic characteristics, including ences in mortality. It should be noted, howev- the profile of mortality functions (the dx, lx, qx er, that sex cannot be exactly determined for and Ex rows of the tables) which is the most im- juveniles,847 and that it is difficult to determine portant ecological feature.850 For the assessment accurately the age of old adults (50 – 55 and of the reliability of these curves, the parameter above). Cer was constructed.

The use of life tables in palaeodemography does have its pitfalls.848 It rests on the assump- 9.3.2 Palaeodemographic characteris- tion that the skeletal remains belong to a single tics population with constant age-specific birth and death rates, and therefore a constant age-sex The factors influencing the demographic cha distribution throughout the period of use of the racteristics of ancient populations include envi- cemetery. This is known as the stationary pop- ronmental conditions, type of economy, social ulation model in which the intrinsic growth rate status and others. In order to identify the key of the population (r) equals 0.0 per year and the factors, it is necessary to analyze all demograph- net productive rate (Ro, sum of net maternity ic characteristics of a given population and to function) equals 1.0. compare them with those of other palaeodemographic groups. Unfortunately, such a procedure is not always error-free because we rarely know all details of economy, social structure and host resistance (biological resistance to adaptation 843 Алексеева et al. 2002. 844 Acsadi/Nemeskeri 1970; Weiss 1973; Hassan 1981. 845 Moore et al. 1975. 846 Kobayashi 1967. 849 See e.g. Acsadi/Nemeskeri 1970; Weiss 1973; Moore et 847 Hassan 1981. al. 1975. 848 See e.g. Angel 1969. 850 Алексеева et al. 2002.

142 9 The human bones from Klin-Yar III and IV

and change) of all groups used for comparisons. At Klin-Yar III and IV, the mortality curves of all groups (defined by date, cemetery plot, sex and age) have a sufficiently high reliability (Cer > 92.0 %), and therefore all demographic indices appear to be representative.

Specific features of the Koban group are the low proportion of children in the buried population (8.9 %), and the fact that only 1.5 % of all individuals reached an age of 50 years or above. The prevalence of males (57.8 %) over females Fig. 36. Parameter qx in (42.2 %), and the higher average age at death Koban series (male and of males (34.4 years) compared with females female patterns). (33.1 years) are quite usual for Bronze Age and Early Iron Age populations of Eastern Europe. The female mortality curve has a distinct peak in the age class 30 – 39 years, while that of the males is a smoother curve (Fig. 36). The life tables show that the low proportion of children in the Koban sample is an effect of the small number of infants and very young children (only one in the cohort 0 – 4 years). By contrast, the mortality distribution in the interval from 5 to 14 years conforms to biological and statistical expectations.

The Sarmatian group is characterized by a dif- Fig. 37. Parameter qx in Klin- ferent combination of features. Among the 11 Yar III Alanic elite plot (male skeletons from the elite plot, only one belongs and female patterns). to the age group of 10 – 12 years (9 %), and there are none in the age class of 50 years and above. The average age at death of males is 32.5 years, and that of females 28.8 years. The sex ratio is 40 % males to 60 % females. Excavations in the other cemetery areas of Klin-Yar III produced six Sarmatian skeletons: two children aged 7 – 14 years (33.3 %), three males (average age at death 41.7) and only one female (aged 25 – 30 years, equivalent to an average age at death of 27.5).

For the Alanic graves in the elite plot, a slight Fig. 38. Parameter qx in preponderance of females (52.9 %) over males Klin-Yar III and IV Alanic non- (47.1 %) is characteristic. The average age at elite areas (male and female death is practically identical for both sexes (cir- patterns). ca 29 years). Only 1.8 % of males reached older age. The proportion of children in the Alanic elite plot group is low (about 17 %). But it should be tion of males and females (55.6 % to 44.4 %, noted that due to the bad preservation of the respectively) are a sufficient basis for combin- skeletal material, the reliability coefficient for ing these groups as the likely representatives this group is not very high (Cer 92 %). The differ- of the ‘ordinary’ population. They are character- ences in male and female mortality curves are ized by a reasonably high proportion of child obvious (Fig. 37). ren (27.5 %), and a high proportion of older age groups (about 4 % overall: 10 % of males Alanic burials from other cemetery areas at and 0 % of females) – the highest of all groups Klin-Yar (eastern, non-elite areas of cemetery analyzed here. An unusual feature is the high- III, and northern cemetery IV) differ somewhat er average age at death of females (34.4 years) in their characteristics. Their differences are compared with that of males (32.7 years). The primarily the effect of features of female and mortality curves of males and females from child mortality. Nevertheless, the similarity of these cemetery areas (Fig. 38) differ consider- their mortality curves and the identical propor- ably from those of the elite plot.

143 Klin-Yar – A. P. Buzhilova et al.

9.3.3 Comparative analysis individuals above the age of 50 in this Scythian population. We have compared the Klin-Yar data with the demographic parameters of some other palaeo In the flat graves of the Kelermes site (Kuban, populations. The people buried in the early Russia), the majority of individuals were Scythian burial site of Novozavedennoe II (Stav- males aged 20 – 50, but mostly 30 – 40 years ropol Region, North Caucasus) died young: (14 graves).855 This trend looks similar to the one 42.9 % of adult males died at the age of 20 – 24 observed for the Koban group of Klin-Yar. Among years, 28.6 % at 25 – 29 years, and 28.6 % at the females of Kelermes, the age group 20 – 39 30 – 34 years.851 Of the females, 66.7 % died at predominated (eight individuals), and only one the age of 20 – 24 years, and 33.3 % at 30 – 34 woman reached an age above 45 years. There years. The average age at death at this site is were only two children in the Kelermes series. closely similar for males and females (26.8 and 25.8 years, respectively), giving an average age Among the Saka of the Pamir mountains (Tajiki at death for the Novozavedennoe population of stan), the average age at death was 39.7 for only 26.3 years. males and 42.2 for females.856 Because of the bad preservation of the skeletons, the children’s Comparative data are available for other Scythi sample does not appear to be representative, an-Siberian populations in the eastern part of and the real number may have been higher. Eurasian steppe belt. In the early Tagarian ske letal series of Grishkin Log I (7th century BC), the Finally, we can compare the basic palaeodemo- average age of males was 40.4 years, that of graphic groups of Klin-Yar III and IV in relation to females 34.8 years, and that of the adult group other ancient populations with the help in Factor overall 37.6 years.852 About 16 % of males died Analysis. This provides a visualisation of the the at an age of 50 years and above. The mortality form of a mortality curve. As initial attributes of curve of Tagar females peaked ten years before each group, we use the PCD and dx values in the that of the males, and about 7 % belong to the age intervals 15 – 19 . . . 50+ of entire samples. 50+ cohort. This trend differs not only from the Included in the analysis are neolithic, aeneolith- situation of the early Scythians at Novozave- ic, Bronze Age, Early Iron Age and medieval pop- dennoe II where the mortality peak for both ulations (145 in all) from our palaeodemograph- sexes falls into the most active age class of ic database. Samples with PCD values < 5 % and 20 – 29 years; it also differs from the palaeode- Cer values < 75 % were not used for the compari- mographic profile of the Klin-Yar Koban group son. Factor 1 describes about 40 % of all demo- where the mortality peak for both sexes is in the graphic variability. All groups (each represented age class 30 – 39 years (Fig. 36). by a point in the diagram) with the highest values of Factor 1 are characterized by high PCD In the Scythian population of the 4th century BC and C50+, with a smooth shape of the mortality from the ordinary graves (58 individuals) at the curve between 20 and 45 years. The reverse sit- Chertomlyk barrow (Ukraine), 17 % had died uation is characteristic of groups with the lowest in childhood, according to the data presented values of Factor 1. It is in this area of the diagram by Schultz.853 The children included one new- that all samples of Klin-Yar III and IV are located born (buried with his mother) and two children (Fig. 39). under the age of 7. Of 24 female adults, 11 had died before the age of 40 (46 %), and six before In summary, the Koban population of Klin-Yar III the age of 30 (25 %). By contrast, only three of and IV shows an ancient complex of palaeode- 20 males had died before the age of 30 (15 %), mographic characteristics typical of the Bronze and five before the age of 40 (25 %). Seven indi- Age in the south of Eastern Europe. But it differs viduals (three males and four females, or 15 % from contemporary populations and later Scythi- of the entire sample) had reached senile age an, Maeotic and Saka groups by its middle posi- (50 years and above). tion in the distribution of life expectancy. There appears to be some similarity in the palaeode- The average age at death in the Scythian series mographic characteristics of the Klin-Yar Koban (5th – 4th centuries BC) of Ternovoe I and Kolbi- population and the Kelermes flat grave series. no I (Voronezh District, Russia) is 35.6 years for males and 32.5 years for females.854 By contrast In the case of the Sarmatian and Alanic popu- to the Klin-Yar Koban population, there were no lations buried at Klin-Yar, it is important to note the different character of the elite plot group,

851 Медникова 2000. 852 Медникова 1995. 855 Галанина 1997. 853 Шульц 1991. 856 Calculated by Алексеев 1986, on the basis of the data 854 Козловская/Зенкевич 2001. supplied by V. Ginzburg and T. Kinyatkina.

144 9 The human bones from Klin-Yar III and IV

Fig. 39. Factorial analysis of comparative populations (Klin-Yar III and IV marked +). compared with contemporaneous groups buried series shows just such a structure. The prepon- in other parts of the site. The latter, ‘ordinary’ derance of males strengthens the interpretation groups have parameters similar to those of var- in terms of a military population. ious, mostly migratory populations. But the Klin-Yar elite group differs from the comparative It should be emphasized that the Sarmatian series by the small proportion of very old indi- and Alanic populations buried at Klin-Yar have viduals. If this trend reflects the real population a younger age profile than comparative popula- structure, it would have implications for the in- tions, pointing to environmental factors which ference of the social structure of the Sarmatian reduced the life-spans of adult individuals. and Alanic populations at Klin-Yar. The military, By contrast, the Klin-Yar Koban series shows or warrior, populations which lived in the forti- a greater life expectancy. Thus, the later, im- fied settlements of this period were character- migrant populations to Klin-Yar had a shorter ized by a high proportion of young adults, and life expectancy than the earlier, native popula- a small proportion of children.857 The Klin-Yar tions.

9.4 Craniological patterns of the series

9.4.1 Description of cranial features the small size of the craniological sample we only present individual descriptions and measure- Craniological measurements and descriptions be- ments and refrain from statistical analysis. long to the classic methods of physical anthropology. Only 20 skulls were measured and described from the entire sample recovered from Klin- Koban period Yar in all excavations up to, and including, the 1994 – 1996 excavations. This small proportion All skulls have extremely poor preservation. It results from two factors: (1) very poor bone pres- was possible to measure only three individuals. ervation of the Iron Age (Koban) series, and (2) the existence of a local tradition of artificial skull Klin-Yar III grave 167 (excavations 1988). Male, deformation in the late Iron Age and early Middle 20 – 29 years. Ages (Sarmatian and Alanic periods). Because of The skull is very poorly preserved.

Klin-Yar III grave 186 (1988). Male, 35 – 45 years. 857 Малышев/Медникова 1995; Buzhilova/Mednikova The skull is very poorly preserved. It was possi- 1999. ble to take only one measurement.

145 Klin-Yar – A. P. Buzhilova et al.

Klin-Yar III grave 358 (1995). Male, 30 – 40 years. transverse diameters. The face is in the middle The skull is poorly preserved. The cranium is of the narrow range, the upper facial height is dolichomorphic, has a moderately narrow frontal low, with a medium orbital index. Frontal and oc- width and an extremely high nose bridge. cipital bone relief is moderately weak, the fossa canina is well developed (ball 3 – 4). Klin-Yar III grave 362 (1995). Male, 40 – 50 years. This skull has a different appearance. It is a Klin-Yar III grave 379 (1996). Female, 25 – 30 large, markedly dolichocranic, relatively high years. skull, with a clearly profiled face, a very marked It was possible to take only a few measurements. protrusion of the moderately wide nose, low or- All characteristics can be assessed as medium. bits, an orthognatic profile, and a moderately The angle of the nose bridge is medium high and high bridge of the nose. Frontal relief is moder- the nasal breadth is medium. ately developed, the fossa canina is characterized by ball 1, and the lower edge of the periform Klin-Yar III grave 385 (1996). Juvenile, 10 – 13 aperture has an anthropine shape. years. Adolescent skull sizes cannot be compared with Klin-Yar IV grave 11 (1996). Male, 30 – 40 years. adult crania. The mesocranic form of this skull The skull can be characterized as Europid. The and its low values of the horizontal face relief are longitudinal and transverse measurements of quite typical of juvenile individuals. the skull are small, with a medium volume and a small to medium size. The cranial index is small Klin-Yar III grave 387 (1996). Male, 40 – 50 years. and can be associated with a moderate, low to Longitudinal and transverse diameters can medium volume. The cranial index corresponds be characterized as being in the middle of the to mesocranic. Most of the cranial characteris- lower range; the cranial height is medium. The tics are in the range of moderate values. The su- skull proportions are mesocranic. The face is in praorbital parts and the supraorbital arches of the middle of the narrow range, the upper facial the frontal bone are moderately developed (ball height is low, the face is orthognatic, with a mod- 1 – 2), the mastoid process is moderately devel- erately sized and proportioned nose. The sizes oped (ball 2), the depth of the fossa canina is sig- of the orbs are in the middle of the lower range. nificantly developed (ball 3), and the lower edge The nose projection is very marked. The occipital of the periform aperture is of anthropine shape. relief is well developed.

The three Koban skulls which could be meas- Sarmatian skull preservation at Klin-Yar is bet- ured present quite a heterogeneous picture. The ter than that of Koban skulls. Six males, three average values are presented in tabular form females and one adolescent could be measured (Tabs. 21 and 22). (Tabs. 23 and 24).

Sarmatian period Alanic period

Klin-Yar III grave 352, skeleton 2 (1994). Fe- Klin-Yar III grave 238, skeleton 1 (1989). Male, male, 25 – 35 years. 35 – 45 years. The shape of the braincase may be assessed as do Badly preserved skull. lic homorphic and gracile. The face is narrow in relative and absolute terms, with a marked nose pro- Klin-Yar III grave 371, skeleton 1 (1995). Fe- jection, a strong profile, and medium to high orbs. male, 20 – 25 years. No data could be obtained for the sizes and pro- Klin-Yar III grave 370 (1995). Female, 25 – 30 portions of braincase and face. The horizontal years. profile of the upper part of the face is medium. The skull can be described as dolichocranic with The orbs are large and relatively high, the nose is a medium longitudinal diameter and small trans- characterized by moderate proportions, and the verse diameter. The face is of medium width, angle of the nose bridge is moderate. The relief with orbs of moderate proportions. The nasal of the frontal and occipital bone is insignificant proportions are moderate, too. The horizontal (ball 1), the fossa canina is undeveloped (ball 1). profile of the upper part of the face is moderately developed, and the horizontal profile of the mid- Klin-Yar III grave 360, skeleton 1 (1995). Male, dle part of the face is clearly expressed. The na- 35 – 45 years. sal angle is moderate. The skull shows traces of binding for artificial skull deformation. The frontal bone is narrow, Klin-Yar III grave 372 (1995). Male, 35 – 45 years. the orbs are assessed as moderately low, the The braincase is characterized by a mesocran- horizontal profile of the upper part of the face is ic shape, with medium longitudinal and small weak, the nose bridge is high.

146 9 The human bones from Klin-Yar III and IV

N according to Martin (sign) IV-11 362 358 167 186

1. Maximum cranial length (g-op) 178 191 191 189 212

8. Maximum cranial breadth (eu-eu) 137.5 126 135 129 -

8:1. Cranial modulus 77.2 65.9 70.7 68.25 -

17. Basion-bregma height (ba-b) 136 141.5 - - -

5. Basion-prostion length (ba-pr) 103 109 - - -

9. Minimum frontal breadth (ft-ft) 96 92 98 - -

10. Maximum frontal breadth 117 110 118 - -

20. Bregma-porion height 109 113 - - -

11. Aural breadth (po-po) 117 129 - - -

12. Occipital breadth (ast-ast) 106 112 - 106 -

40. Facial base length (ba-pr) 102.5 96 - - -

48. Upper facial height (n-pr) 62.5 - - - -

47. Total facial height (n-gn) 112 - - - -

43. Upper facial breadth (fmt-fmt) 101 102 - - -

46. Middle facial breadth (zm-zm) 97 - - - -

60. Palatal arch length 53 0 - - -

61. Palatal arch breadth 66 - - - -

62. Palatal length 48 - - - -

63. Palatal breadth 38 - - - -

55. Nasal height (n-ns) 53 55 - - -

54. Nasal breadth (al-al) 26 28 27 - -

51. Orbital breadth (d-ec) 37 40 - - -

52. Orbital height 32 33 - - -

50. Interorbital breadth (mt-mt) 21 24 - - -

66. Bigonial chord 90 - - - -

68. Mandibular length from the angles 89 - - - -

68(1). Mandibular length from the condyles 117 - - - -

70. Mandibular branch length 59 - - - -

44a. Bimalar chord 94 107.3 - - -

Nasion height over bimalar chord 15 12.5 - - -

77. Nasomalar angle 142 141 - - -

Zigomaxillar chord 98.5 - - - -

Subsp. height over zigomaxillar chord 17 - - - -

Zigomaxillar angle 129 - - - -

DC Dacrial chord 18.5 22.2 - - -

DS Dacrial height 7 14.1 - - -

SC Simotic chord - 9.2 7.5 - -

SS Simotic height - 4 5.5 - -

75(1). Angle of the nasal bones projection - 30 - - - Table 21. Individual cranial 72. Facial angle - 87 - - - measurements of Koban males.

147 Klin-Yar – A. P. Buzhilova et al.

Number according Martin (sign) N X S 1. Maximum cranial length (g-op) 5 192.2 12.32 8. Maximum cranial breadth (eu-eu) 4 131.87 5.30 8:1. Cranial index 3 71.3 5.67 17. Basion-bregma height (ba-b) 2 138.7 - 5. Basion-prostion length (ba-pr) 1 103 - 9. Minimum frontal breadth (ft-ft) 3 95.3 3.05 10. Maximum frontal breadth 3 115 4.36 12. Occipital breadth 3 115 4.36 40. Endobasion-prostion length 2 99.5 - 48. Upper facial height (n-pr) 1 62.5 - 47. Total facial height (n-gn) 1 112 - 43. Upper facial breadth (fmt-fmt) 2 104 - 46. Middle facial breadth (zm-zm) 1 97 - 60. Alveolar arch length 1 53 - 61. Alveolar arch breadth 1 66 - 62. Palate length 1 48 - 63. Palate breadth 1 38 - 55. Nasal height (n-ns) 2 54 - 56. Nasal breadth (al-al) 3 27 1.0 51. Orbital breadth (d-ec) 2 39.5 - 52. Orbital height 2 32.5 - 50. Interorbital breadth 2 22.5 - Biomial chord 2 100.6 - Nasion height over biomial chord 2 14.2 - 77. Nasomalar angle 2 141.5 - Zigomaxillar arch 2 98.5 - Subsp. height over zigomaxillar arch 2 15 - Zigomaxillar angle 2 130 - DC Dacrial arch 2 21.6 - DS Dacrial height 2 14.8 -

Table 22. Mean cranial SC Simotic arch 2 11.3 - measurements of Koban SS Simotic height 2 5 - individuals.

Klin-Yar III grave 368 (1995) (Figs. 40; 41). medium width, the face is low, and the orbs Male, 35 – 45 years. moderately high; the nasal index is medium, The longitudinal and transverse diameters are and the simotic height is large. The horizontal medium, the skull has mesocranic proportions. profile of the face can be assessed as signifi- The height and width of the face can be assessed cant. as medium. The sizes of the orbs are small, their shape is low, the nose is high and wide, and the Klin-Yar III grave 382, skeleton 1 (1996). Fe- nose bridge is high. male, 30 – 40 years. The skull is deformed and impossible to chacac- Klin-Yar III grave 381, skeleton 1 (1996). Male, terize in craniological terms. 20 – 25 years. The skull was strongly deformed, therefore Klin-Yar III grave 382, skeleton 2 (1996). Male, not many measurements could be taken. The 30 – 40 years. frontal bone can be characterized as being of The skull is strongly deformed.

148 9 The human bones from Klin-Yar III and IV

N according to Martin (sign) 372 387 X 1. Maximum cranial length (g-op) 182 175.5 178.25

8. Maximum cranial breadth (eu-eu) 129 135 132

8:1. Cranial modulus 76.9 76.9 76.9

17. Basion-bregma height (ba-b) - 135 -

5. Basion-prostion length (ba-pr) - 100.5 -

9. Minimum frontal breadth (ft-ft) 97 95 96

10. Maximum frontal breadth 110 120 115

20. Bregma-porion height - 137 -

11. Aural breadth (po-po) 121 119 120

12. Occipital breadth (ast-ast) 115 108 111.5

40. Facial base length (ba-pr) - 92.5 -

48. Upper facial height (n-pr) 71 65 68

47. Total facial height (n-gn) 114 - -

43. Upper facial breadth (fmt-fmt) - 106 -

46. Middle facial breadth (zm-zm) 99 100.5 99.7

60. Alveolar arch length 59 48 53.5

61. Alveolar arch breadth 64.5 - -

62. Alveolar length 51 - -

63. Alveolar breadth 35 - -

55. Nasal height (n-ns) 54 52 53

56. Nasal breadth (al-al) 25 24 24.5

Nasal modulus 0.46 - -

51. Orbital breadth (d-ec) - 40.5 -

52. Orbital height 34.5 33 34.2

50. Interorbital breadth - 19.5 -

66. Bigonial chord - 118.5 -

68. Mandibular length from the angles - 119 -

68(1). Mandibular length from the condoles 115 122 118.5

79. Mandibular branch angle 26 - -

70. Mandibular branch length 63 64 -

Bimalar chord 94 105 99.5

Nasion height over biomial chord 15 12.1 13.5

77. Nasomalar angle 142 154 148

Zigomaxillar chord 99 100 -

Subsp. height over zigomaxillar chord 20 23 -

Zigomaxillar angle 12.9 - -

DC Dacrial chord 8.5 18 13.25

DS Dacrial height 7 14 10.5

SC Simotic chord - 7.8 7.5

SS Simotic height - 4 5.5

75(1). Angle of the nasal bones projection - 33 - Table 23. Individual cranial measurements of Sarmatian 72. Facial angle - - - males.

149 Klin-Yar – A. P. Buzhilova et al.

N according to Martin (sign) 385, adol. 351B, F 370, F 379, F XS 1. Maximum cranial length 171 169 171 172 170.6 1.53 (g-op)

8. Maximum cranial breadth (eu-eu) 131 120? 125 - 122.5 -

8:1. Cranial modulus 76.6 71.0? 73.1 70.7 71.6 1.31

17. Basion-bregma height (ba-b) 120 - 127 - 127 -

5. Basion-prostion length (ba-pr) 97 - 100 97 98.6 -

9. Minimum frontal breadth (ft-ft) 91 93 95 98 95.32 2.52

10. Maximum frontal breadth 107 106 110 118 111.33 6.11

20. Bregma-porion height - - 110 - 110 -

11. Aural breadth (po-po) 111 - 114 - 114 -

12. Occipital breadth (ast-ast) 104 112 98.5 - 100.25 -

40. Facial base length (ba-pr) 94 96 94.5 94 94.83 1.04

48. Upper facial height (n-pr) 56 66 63 64 64.33 1.52

47. Total facial height (n-gn) 95.5 - 98.5 - 98.5 -

43. Upper facial breadth (fmt-fmt) 94 107 98.5 - 102.75 -

45. Malar breadth (zy-zy) 101 118? 123 - 120.5 -

46. Middle facial breadth (zm-zm) 82 88? 86 - - -

60. Alveolar arch length 50 53 51.5 49 51.66 2.02

61. Alveolar arch breadth 56 58 57.5 59 58.16 0.76

62. Alveolar length 40 45 - 42 43.5 -

63. Alveolar breadth 29 34 - 36 35 -

55. Nasal height (n-ns) 46 52 45 52 49.67 4.04

54. Nasal breadth (al-al) 24 23 23 25 23.67 1.15

51. Orbital breadth (d-ec) 34 36 37.5 36 36.5 0.87

52. Orbital height 31 33 32 34 33 1.00

50. Interorbital breadth 18 18.5 18.5 18.3 18.45 0.31

66. Bigonial chord 82 - 90 - 90 -

68. Mandibular length from the angles 86 - 92 - 92 -

68(1). Mandibular length from the condoles 100 - 102 - 102 -

70. Mandibular branch length 49 - 50 - 50 -

Bimalar chord 79 92.5 96.5 - 94.5 -

Nasion height over biomial chord 23.5 19.5 10.5 - 15 -

77. Nasomalar angle 123 133 154 - 143.5 -

Zigomaxillar chord 82.7 88 84.4 - 86.2 -

Subsp. height over zigomaxillar chord 23.5 19.1 23 - 21.05 -

Zigomaxillar angle 121 124 124 - 124 -

DC Dacrial chord 19.3 19.1 23.6 22 21.56 2.28

DS Dacrial height 19 13 19.5 12 14.83 4.07

SC Simotic chord 10 8.4 14.3 11.2 11.3 2.95

SS Simotic height 4 4.8 5.4 4.8 5.0 0.35

Table 24. Individual cranial 75(1). Angle of the nasal bones projection - - 20 - 20 - measurements of Sarmatian 72. Facial angle - - 89 - 89 - adolescents and females.

150 9 The human bones from Klin-Yar III and IV

Klin-Yar IV grave 7, skeleton 3 (1996). Female, 30 – 40 years. The skull is in a fragmentary condition. We can only comment on a few characteristics. The long itudinal diameter can be assessed as large, the orbs are low, the nose is narrow and moderately high.

Klin-Yar IV grave 10 (1996). Female, 20 – 30 years. The skull is in a fragmentary state and cannot be described.

The measurements are collated in tabular form (Tabs. 25; 26). The small number of Alanic individuals evaluated above is the result of poor preservation and the tradition of artificial skull deformation. For this reason, we cannot make statistical comparisons.

9.4.2 Skull deformation patterns

The tradition of binding children’s skulls appears on the southern steppes and in the Cau- casus foothills during the Bronze Age. This local tradition is one branch of the phenomenon of artificial skull deformation in Bronze Age Eurasia and Africa. The origin and meaning of this tradition is not yet clear. Fig. 40. Graphical reconstruction of the individual in Klin-Yar III grave 368: Stage 1.

The modern form of head modelling (occipital deformation) is quite widely distributed in Cen- tral Asia (Tajikistan, Uzbekistan) and results from fixing the infant’s position in the cradle. The first finds of deformed skulls were made at the beginning of the 20th century.858 Crania with traces of tight binding were found in Alanic burials of the 5th to 6th centuries AD.859 This practice was probably quite widely distributed among the Alanic population of the North Caucasus. Sim- ilar, deformed skulls were found in the Alanic burials at Cape Zikh (Fig. 42). The local tradition at Klin-Yar was predominantly to change the form of the child’s skull with different bandages, without inserting hard objects into the binding.

Hippocrates860 wrote about this practice among the tribes to the east of the Asov Sea (Mae otids Sea, in his terminology) during the Iron Age: “First of all, I would like to tell about the long-headed people. There is no other people with the same shape of the skull. At first, custom was the main reason for a long skull shape, but now nature helps tradition. These people believe that the most aristocratic persons have a long shape of the head. The custom consists of the following: the head of the newborn is cor-

858 Kuznecov 2000. 859 Kuznecov 2000. 860 Hippocrates, De aere aquis locis, Part 14 (Jones 1868). Fig. 41. Graphical reconstruction of the individual in Klin-Yar III grave 368: Stage 2.

151 Klin-Yar – A. P. Buzhilova et al.

N according to Martin (sign) 382/2 238 360/1 368 381/1 X S 1. Maximum cranial length (g-op) - - - 183 - 183 -

8. Maximum cranial breadth (eu-eu) - - - 144 - 144 -

8:1. Cranial modulus - - - 78.7 - 78.7 -

17. Basion-bregma height (ba-b) - - - 141 - 141 -

5. Basion-prostion length (ba-pr) - - 90 106 - 98 -

9. Minimum frontal breadth (ft-ft) - 92 - 97 94 95.5 -

10. Maximum frontal breadth - 116 112 116 105 111 5.56

20. Bregma-porion height - - - 12.5 - 125 -

11. Aural breadth (po-po) - - - 121 - 121 -

12. Occipital breadth (ast-ast) - - - 109 - 109 -

40. Facial base length (ba-pr) ------

48. Upper facial height (n-pr) - - - 69 65 67 -

47. Total facial height (n-gn) - - - 113 94 103.5 -

43. Upper facial breadth (fmt-fmt) - - - - 103 103 -

45. Malar breadth (ftm-ftm) ------

46. Middle facial breadth (zm-zm) - 90 - 99 95 97 -

60. Alveolar arch length - - - 55 63 59 -

61. Alveolar arch breadth - - - 68 63 65.5 -

62. Alveolar length - - - 47 45 46 -

63. Alveolar breadth - - - 44.5 34 39.25 -

55. Nasal height (n-ns) - - - 57 55 56 -

54. Nasal breadth (al-al) - - - 28 26 27 -

51. Orbital breadth (d-ec) - 35 42 39.5 39.5 40.33 1.44

52. Orbital height - 52 34 33 37 34.66 2.01

50. Interorbital breadth - - 23 22 - 22.5 -

66. Bigonial chord - - - 113 - 113 -

68. Mandibular length from the angles 81 - - 90 - 85.5 -

68(1). Mandibular length from the 120 - - 122 - 121 - condoles

70. Mandibular branch length 67 - - 68 - 67.5 -

Bimalar chord - - 103.2 - 103 103.1 -

Nasion height over biomial chord - - 23 - 11 17 -

77. Nasomalar angle - - 133 - 156 144.5 -

Zigomaxillar chord - - - - 93 93 -

Subsp. height over zigomaxillar chord - - - - 18 18 -

Zigomaxillar angle - - - - 138 138 -

DC Dacrial chord - 20 22 21.2 - 21.6 -

DS Dacrial height - 13 13.7 14.1 - 13.9 -

SC Simotic chord - 9.5 11.5 10.4 8 9.96 1.79

SS Simotic height - 4.8 5.5 3.9 4.5 4.63 0.81

Table 25. Individual cranial 75(1). Angle of the nasal bones projection - - - 16 - 16 - measurement of Alanic 72. Facial angle - - - 73 - 73 - males.

152 9 The human bones from Klin-Yar III and IV

N according to Martin (sign) IV-7/3 IV-10 371/1 382/1 X S

1. Maximum cranial length (g-op) 182 - - - 182 -

8. Maximum cranial breadth (eu-eu) ------

8:1. Cranial modulus ------

17. Basion-bregma height (ba-b) ------

5. Basion-prostion length (ba-pr) - 91 - - 91 -

9. Minimum frontal breadth (ft-ft) - - 93 - 93 -

10. Maximum frontal breadth - 110 113 - 111.5 1.03

20. Bregma-porion height ------

11. Aural breadth (po-po) ------

12. Occipital breadth (ast-ast) ------

40. Facial base length (ba-pr) ------

48. Upper facial height (n-pr) 64 - - - 64

47. Total facial height (n-gn) ------

43. Upper facial breadth (fmt-fmt) - - 99 - 99 -

45. Malar breadth (zy-zy) ------

46. Middle facial breadth (zm-zm) - - 86 - 86

60. Alveolar arch length 54 - - - 54 -

61. Alveolar arch breadth 49 61.5 - - 55.29 -

62. Alveolar length ------

63. Alveolar breadth ------

55. Nasal height (n-ns) 49 - 47 - 48 -

54. Nasal breadth (al-al) 22 - 24.5 26 24.17 2.02

51. Orbital breadth (d-ec) 37 - 38 - 37.5 -

52. Orbital height 31 - 35 - 33 -

50. Interorbital breadth - - 19 - 19 -

66. Bigonial chord - - - 98 98 -

68. Mandibular length from the angles - 110 - 83 96.5 -

68(1). Mandibular length from the condoles - 79 - 95 87 -

70. Mandibular branch length - 57 - - 57 -

Bimalar chord - - 108.5 - 108.5 -

Nasion height over biomial chord - - 19 - 15

77. Nasomalar angle - - 141 - 141 -

Zigomaxillar chord - - 88 - 88 -

Subsp. height over zigomaxillar chord - - 23.5 - 23.5 -

Zigomaxillar Angle - - 124 - 124 -

DC Dacrial chord - - 19.9 - 19.9 -

DS Dacrial height - - 10 - 10 -

SC Simotic chord - - 7.5 - 7.5 -

SS Simotic height - - 3.4 - 3.4 -

75(1). Angle of the nasal bones projection ------Table 26. Individual cranial 72. Facial angle ------measurements of Alanic females.

153 Klin-Yar – A. P. Buzhilova et al.

Fig. 42. Skulls of adult men rected by hand and fixed by bandages and other 9.4.3 Cases of artificial skull deforma- and woman from the burial devices; the shape of the head changes and tion from excavations 1994 – 1996 to the sanctuary at Cape becomes longer. At first, it happens according Zikh (Crimea) (according to to custom, but later this shape becomes natu- Klin-Yar III grave 342B. Sarmatian. Female, Масленников 2007, p. 433). ral and tradition loses its necessity.” This partly 30 – 40 years. fictional, partly ethnographic account describes The deforming bandage was placed along the the situation in the 5th century BC, in Hippo- upper occipital lines and above. Apparently, crates’ lifetime. We have no information about hard objects were put into the band because the names of the peoples which Hippocrates was some flat areas are found around the asterions. writing about in his treatise ‘About the Air, the Water and the Lands’. In spite of the problems Klin-Yar III grave 351B. Sarmatian. Female, involved in the interpretation of written sources, 30 – 40 years. we can accept that the text presents some evi- There is evidence of a ring-type binding which dence for the existence of this tradition in the passed above the frontal bosses. Clear traces of North Caucasus during the Iron Age. the occipital deformation are found on the temporal bones. Some flat areas can be seen on the Hippocrates wrote about this tradition on the ba- temporal bones, suggesting hard objects in the sis of hearsay and descriptions by other authors. binding. The well-marked temporal bosses were What he described is a practice for lengthening probably separated by sagittal longitudinal ele- the natural dolichocephalic shape of the head. ments of the bandage. It seems, therefore, that We can therefore suggest a situation whereby this binding took the form of a bonnet. On the oth- the cultural tradition accentuated the natural er hand, this skull shape may have resulted from shape of the head. Hippocrates noted that doli- compensatory growth of the temporal bones. chocephalic shapes were considered as evidence of aristocratic origin. If this was true, then Klin-Yar III grave 356, skeleton 1. Alanic. ?Male, it is likely that a population with a different skull 25 – 30 years. shape (meso- or brachycephalic) lived in the There are slight traces of a deforming bandage same area: only the co-existence of people with on the fragmentary cranial bones. different skull shapes could give rise to such a belief, and to the appearance of this tradition. It Klin-Yar III grave 357, skeleton 1. Alanic. Male, should be noted that Hippocrates wrote about 20 – 25 years. “long-headed” people – he did not use the As only fragments of the mandible and teeth sur- term “high-headed”. There is no evidence about vive, it is impossible to identify the shape of the changing the shape of faces, too. skull. Archaeological observations in situ sug- Among the skeletal material from Klin-Yar III gested that this skull was deformed. and IV, 17 skulls show traces of artificial deformation. This represents a proportion of 23 % of Klin-Yar III grave 359. Alanic. Female, 25 – 30 the total sample of 78 skulls the preservation of years. which allows us to assess the absence or pre Only fragments of this skull survive. It can be sence of deformation. seen that the bandage was placed above the

154 9 The human bones from Klin-Yar III and IV

frontal bosses. The shape of the forehead is unusually flat. This makes it likely that some hard or heavy object was used in this binding.

Klin-Yar III grave 360, skeleton 1. Alanic. Male, 35 – 45 years. The deforming bandage passed along and above the frontal bosses. Perhaps this bandage was the cause of the small eminence on the central (pre-bregmatic) part of the frontal bone.

Klin-Yar III grave 361A. Sarmatian. Female, 20 – 25 years. The skull is poorly preserved so that the use of a deforming binding can only be suggested.

Klin-Yar III grave 371, skeleton 1. Alanic. Fe- male, 20 – 25 years. The skull is strongly deformed. The bandage passed above the line of the eyebrows, the frontal bosses and the superior lines of the occipital bone. Perhaps this bandage consisted of two separate bands. The inferred width of the band is approx. 8.5 cm. A light vascular reaction is found where the bandage was placed; this is the result of the strengthening of peripheral blood vessels.

Klin-Yar III grave 380. Alanic. Infant, 1.5 years ± 6 months. Fig. 43. Graphical reconstruction of individual 2 in Klin-Yar IV grave 8: Stage 1. Traces of the deforming bandage are found on the frontal bone.

Klin-Yar III grave 381, skeleton 1. Alanic. Male, 20 – 25 years. The traces of a ring-type bandage are clearly marked on the frontal, temporal and occipital bones. The three lines of the bands are visible along the entire frontal bone. The binding has completely obliterated the frontal bosses. This case suggests that the binding was applied more than once: the binding may have been applied several times over the growth period as the skull bones changed in size.

Klin-Yar III grave 382, skeleton 1. Alanic. Fe- male, 30 – 40 years. Clear traces of the bands were found, one of them (width 3 – 3.5 cm) passing along the upper part of the frontal bone above the frontal bosses. Another one (width 1 cm) was located behind the frontal suture, running over the top of the skull. The occipital bone is flat; it seems that the binding placed some hard object(s) against the occipital bone.

Klin-Yar III grave 382, skeleton 3. Alanic. Child, 2 – 3 years. Clear evidence of a ring-type binding was found. One line of the bandage passed over the frontal bosses, and another one was located behind the frontal suture, running over the top of Fig. 44. Graphical reconstruction of individual 2 in Klin-Yar IV grave 8: Stage 2.

155 Klin-Yar – A. P. Buzhilova et al.

the skull. Some localized, flat areas are located 9.4.4 Summary and discussion of above the occipital bone; it seems that hard or artificial skull deformation heavy objects had been put into the binding. The temporal bosses are strongly developed. The overall number of deformed skulls is small. The marked growth of the temporal bosses may The preservation of the skulls from the early be due to the restrictions imposed by the de- years of excavations (before 1994) at Klin-Yar is forming binding. not satisfactory. For these reasons, statistical methods cannot be applied; instead, the follow- Klin-Yar IV grave 6, skeleton 1. Alanic. Male, ing observations are offered by way of results. 20 – 35 years. There are traces of the deformation on this Cases of artificially deformed skulls: skull. The traces of the binding are found on the Koban Culture: 0 of 13 individuals. frontal bone, under the frontal bosses only. The Sarmatian: 3 of 11 individuals (27 %); fe- deforming bandage had only an insignificant in- males only (!). fluence to the skull shape. For this reason, we Alanic: 14 of 26 individuals (54 %); three chil- have no reliable data about the size and posi- dren, seven females and five males. tion of this bandage. The preservation of this skull is not good enough to detect traces of the It seems that the local Koban population had no deforming bandage on other parts of the crani- tradition of artificial skull deformation. This tradi- um. tion existed among the Sarmatians and particularly the Alans. The Klin-Yar sample shows similar Klin-Yar IV grave 8, skeleton 2 (Figs. 43; 44). practices of skull deformation in both periods. Alanic. Female, 35 – 39 years. On the other hand, the local tradition was not Because of the very poor preservation of the closely circumscribed and shows a number of skull, it is possible to see traces of the binding variations. It seems the binding was placed high on the occipital bone only. on the skull, but the number of strips could vary.

Klin-Yar IV grave 9, skeleton 2. Alanic. Child, The question of the physiological consequences is 5 – 7 years. of interest for the bio-archaeological reconstruc- Slight traces of deformation were found on the tion. Historical records of skull deformation do not cranial bone fragments. offer any observations on behavioural patterns of individuals with artificially deformed heads. Klin-Yar IV grave 9, skeleton 3. Alanic. Female, Given the physiology and anatomy of the human 20 – 25 years. brain, we may expect in such cases epileptic seiz There is clear evidence of skull deformation. ures, hallucination, and high blood pressure in The deforming binding has created a tow- the head. However, there is no reliable evidence er-shaped skull. The bandages passed along of these pathological conditions. High blood pres- the frontal bone bosses and the superior lines sure is shown up by specific ‘undulating relief’ on on the occipital bone. It seems that the deform- the internal surface of the adult skull (primarily ing binding was very wide because it is impos- the frontal bone). This marker was found on both, sible to trace the upper edge of the bandage. deformed and non-deformed skulls. The lower edge runs just above the line of the eyebrows. We did not find any pathological changes of the bone tissue on the surfaces under the binding. Klin-Yar IV grave 10. Alanic. Female, 20 – 30 There is only one case of vascular reaction under years. the occipital part of the deforming bandage. This There are slight traces of a deforming bandage reaction may be considered as a negative conse- of ring type. quence of the binding.

9.5 Morphological patterns of the series

In this section, calculations of means are based because it is most appropriate for long-limbed se- on the data of all available skeletons from Klin-Yar ries. The terms ‘morphological’ and ‘morphomet- excavations, up to and including the 1994 – 1996 ric’ are used here as synonyms for ‘osteometric’. excavations. For stature calculations, three formulae have been used as appropriate for the morphological traits of the series, in particular the 9.5.1 Koban period linear proportions of the body. In the case of the Trotter/Gleser formula, the versions for European The series of Koban skeletal remains from the Klin- and Negroid populations were used, the latter Yar cemeteries is the largest of all three period

156 9 The human bones from Klin-Yar III and IV

series (106 individuals from all excavations). But because of the bad preservation of skeletons in the shallow Koban graves, the number of measurable individuals was considerably smaller. The se- Fig. 45. Diaphyseal length ries provides data for the discussion of the Koban of humerus of Koban child in skeletal constitution on the level of individual vari comparison with features of ability only. The mean data in the group of Koban 10-year old children in Africa (1 Nubia; 2 Kulubnarti), males, which is more representative than the fe- Europe (3 Berinsfield; 4 Mi- male sample, involve piecemeal observations, kulčice; 5 Alitus; 6 Altenerd- with a maximum number of 20 studied individuals ing), North American natives for some traits. The selectiveness of bone preser- (7 Knoll; 8 Arikara; 9 Libben), vation has severely limited the scope of osteomet- Alaska and Aleut Islands (10), ric analysis. That is why the results of the study of and Caucasoid inhabitants of the Koban series may not be statistically reliable. North America (11 Belleville; 12 American boys; 13 Ameri- Partly preserved postcranial bones of males from can girls). the following graves were measured: Klin-Yar III graves 181, 186, 194, 206, 220, 221, 241, 255, 282, 296, 303, 306, 316, 324, 325, 332, 355, Fig. 46. Diaphyseal length 358 and 369, and Klin-Yar IV grave 11. Morpho- of femur of Koban child in metric analysis was also done on three female comparison with features skeletons: Klin-Yar III graves 283, 343 and 353. of 10-year old children in Africa (2 Nubia; 3 Kulubnar- In summing up the patterns of postcranial mor- ti), Europe (4 Berinsfield; phology of Koban males, attention must be drawn 5 Mikulčice; 6 Alitus; 7 Al- to the relatively massive diaphyses of the upper tenerding), North American extremities, a pattern which was reflected in high natives (8 Knoll; 9 Arikara; values of the humeral diaphyseal circumferences 10 Libben), Alaska and Aleut Islands (11), and Caucasoid and diameters, and in strong transversal devel- inhabitants of North America opment of the radii and ulnae (Tabs. 27; 28). The (12 Belleville; 13 American heads of humeri were medium to large and had boys; 14 American girls). an oval shape. The longitudinal sizes of humeri varied from high (e. g. grave 11), to medium and low (e. g. grave 358) compared with contempo- The mean stature of the ten Koban males cal- rary samples. culated with the Trotter/Gleser formula is 167.1 cm. The osteometric study of the frag- The femoral bones were characterized by both, ments of female skeletons supported the con- high and low values for length. The build of fem- clusion about gracile constitution (Tab. 29). oral diaphyses and low epiphyses was medium There was only one stature calculation possible to massive; femoral heads were large, relatively for Koban females (154.3 cm for the individual in massive, and round. In the middle of the diaphy- grave 353, calculated after Bounak). The size of ses, femora had round sections; in the upper part the child skeleton in grave 377, aged 9 – 10 years of the diaphyses, most bones showed remarkab by dental eruption, shows gracility (Tab. 30) le flattenings. The data on the build of tibiae is which is especially noticeable in comparison more fragmentary. The longitudinal parameters with children of the same age from other palaeo- show great differences, e. g. between the indivi populations (Figs. 45 and 46). duals from graves 355 and 358 who had long lower legs, and the individual from grave 369 The closest comparative sample, both in chron- whose lower legs were short and gracile. A com- ological and geographical terms, is the group mon peculiarity of all studied Koban tibiae is the of early Scythians from the burial site of Novo- strong flattening in lateral view. The male in grave zavedennoe II (near Mineralnye Vody, Stavropol 355, with a platicnemia index 55.25/56.41 (right Region). According to our observations, the and left, respectively), had sabre-shaped tibiae. males from Novozavedennoe had noticeably longer and relatively more gracile extremities. The large number of isolated bone fragments This means that Koban males, in general, were precludes the possibility to come to final con- of lower stature and more brachymorphic than clusions about the kind of linear proportions of the Scythians of the 7th century BC (the Scythian Koban males, but it can be suggested that rela- male stature at Novozavedennoe has a range of tively long legs and short arms were rather typ- 171.2 to 174.2 cm).861 But the Koban males from ical for this population. Given their clavicular lengths, Koban males were characterized by a medium width of the shoulder. 861 Медникова 2000.

157 Klin-Yar – A. P. Buzhilova et al.

Trait N MEAN STD.DEV. MINIMUM MAXIMUM Trait N MEAN STD.DEV. MINIMUM MAXIMUM

age 20 33.2 6.8 18.0 45.0 8 fem 16 88.6 6.9 75.0 103.0

1 hum 2 324.5 16.2 313.0 336.0 18 fem 3 49.3 .5 49.0 50.0

2 hum 2 322.5 17.6 310.0 335.0 19 fem 3 47.6 .5 47.0 48.0

3 hum 2 50.5 .7 50.0 51.0 20 fem 3 158.6 1.5 157.0 160.0

4 hum 3 60.6 3.0 58.0 64.0 8 : 2 4 19.6 .8 18.8 20.6

5 hum 7 22.6 2.1 19.0 25.0 6 : 7a 16 97.4 9.6 80.6 112.0

6 hum 7 18.1 1.6 15.0 20.0 10 : 9 14 73.7 11.4 58.9 100.0

7 hum 7 65.8 4.1 59.0 71.0 (18+19)2 2 21.6 .8 21.0 22.3

7a hum 7 71.1 5.5 62.0 78.0 1 tib 5 349.0 24.2 318.0 385.0

9 hum 2 42.0 1.4 41.0 43.0 1a tib 3 342.0 19.1 320.0 355.0

10 hum 2 41.5 4.9 38.0 45.0 5 tib 2 70.0 1.4 69.0 71.0

8 hum 2 135.0 .0 135.0 135.0 6 tib 2 48.0 .0 48.0 48.0

7 : 1 2 19.7 7.5 19.3 20.1 8 tib 8 31.3 2.6 27.0 35.0

6 : 5 7 80.2 4.1 76.0 85.7 9 tib 8 20.8 2.3 18.5 24.0

1 rad 4 232.7 10.0 224.0 245.0 8a tib 8 36.0 2.0 33.0 39.0

2 rad 4 220.2 10.7 210.0 231.0 9a tib 8 22.8 2.4 20.0 26.0

4 rad 5 20.4 5.5 16.0 30.0 10 tib 8 85.2 6.4 77.0 93.0

5 rad 5 11.0 1.4 9.0 13.0 10b tib 8 77.0 5.7 70.0 86.0

3 rad 4 44.2 8.6 33.0 52.0 9a:8a 8 63.5 5.3 55.2 72.2

3 : 2 rad 4 20.1 4.3 14.2 24.5 10b:1 5 21.2 1.1 20.0 22.9

5 : 4 rad 5 57.2 15.7 30.0 68.7 1 fib 0

1 ul 2 251.5 9.1 245.0 258.0 r1:h1 1 71.8 .0 71.8 71.8

2 ul 2 221.5 7.7 216.0 227.0 r1:t1 2 64.8 1.9 63.4 66.1

11 ul 3 14.0 1.0 13.0 15.0 h1:f2 1 74.1 .0 74.1 74.1

12 ul 3 18.0 1.0 17.0 19.0 t1:f2 0

13 ul 4 20.0 3.7 15.0 24.0 intmemb 0

14 ul 4 25.2 3.7 20.0 29.0 1 pelv 1 225.0 .0 225.0 225.0

3 ul 3 39.3 3.0 36.0 42.0 2 pelv 1 266.0 .0 266.0 266.0

11 : 12 3 77.8 4.9 73.6 83.3 1:f2 0

13 : 14 4 79.2 9.9 68.9 92.3 15 pelv 1 85.0 .0 85.0 85.0

3 : 2 ul 2 18.5 1.2 17.6 19.4 17 pelv 1 85.0 .0 85.0 85.0

1 fem 4 448.7 17.3 431.0 470.0 2 sacr 0

2 fem 4 447.0 17.6 429.0 465.0 5 sacr 0

21 fem 3 77.0 7.0 69.0 82.0 1 clav 2 146.5 2.1 145.0 148.0

6 fem 16 27.1 3.0 21.0 31.0 6 clav 2 42.5 4.9 39.0 46.0

7a fem 16 27.1 1.9 24.0 30.0 1:h1 1 43.1 .0 43.1 43.1

9 fem 14 34.2 2.7 30.0 39.0 1 scap 0

10 fem 14 25.1 3.3 19.0 30.0 2 scap 0

Table 27. Morphological patterns of Koban males from Klin-Yar III and IV (1994−1996): Right side.

158 9 The human bones from Klin-Yar III and IV

Trait N MEAN STD. DEV. MINIMUM MAXIMUM Trait N MEAN STD. DEV. MINIMUM MAXIMUM

age 17 34.7 5.8 25.0 45.0 8 fem 14 90.9 5.6 80.0 101.0

1 hum 2 307.5 17.6 295.0 320.0 18 fem 5 47.8 2.3 44.0 50.0

2 hum 1 315.0 .0 315.0 315.0 19 fem 5 47.6 2.1 44.0 50.0

3 hum 2 51.5 .7 51.0 52.0 20 fem 4 158.2 4.5 156.0 165.0

4 hum 3 62.0 6.0 55.0 66.0 8:2 3 20.3 .5 19.7 20.8

5 hum 7 22.7 1.3 21.0 25.0 6:7a 14 102.1 9.0 88.8 116.0

6 hum 7 19.5 1.2 17.0 21.0 10:9 14 73.5 8.7 61.7 88.8

7 hum 8 65.3 4.5 60.0 75.0 (18+19)2 1 22.1 .0 22.1 22.1

7a hum 7 71.8 4.0 67.0 78.0 1 tib 2 350.0 14.1 340.0 360.0

9 hum 2 44.2 .3 44.0 44.5 1a tib 2 352.0 9.8 345.0 359.0

10 hum 0 5 tib 2 72.0 2.8 70.0 74.0

8 hum 0 6 tib 2 49.0 1.4 48.0 50.0

7:1 2 21.1 1.2 20.3 22.0 8 tib 2 33.5 2.1 32.0 35.0

6:5 7 86.3 6.5 77.2 95.2 9 tib 2 19.2 1.0 18.5 20.0

1 rad 1 228.0 .0 228.0 228.0 8a tib 2 37.0 2.8 35.0 39.0

2 rad 1 208.0 .0 208.0 208.0 9a tib 2 21.5 .7 21.0 22.0

4 rad 1 16.0 .0 16.0 16.0 10 tib 2 86.0 2.8 84.0 88.0

5 rad 1 9.0 .0 9.0 9.0 10b tib 2 77.0 1.4 76.0 78.0

3 rad 1 42.0 .0 42.0 42.0 9a:8a 2 58.2 2.5 56.4 60.0

3:2 rad 1 20.1 .0 20.1 20.1 10b:1 2 22.0 .4 21.6 22.3

5:4 rad 1 56.2 .0 56.2 56.2 1 fib 0

1 ul 0 r1:h1 0

2 ul 0 r1:t1 1 67.0 .0 67.0 67.0

11 ul 2 17.0 .0 17.0 17.0 h1:f2 0

12 ul 2 12.0 .0 12.0 12.0 t1:f2 1 82.3 .0 82.3 82.3

13 ul 2 20.0 2.8 18.0 22.0 intmemb 0

14 ul 2 22.5 2.1 21.0 24.0 1 pelv 1 226.0 .0 226.0 226.0

3 ul 2 40.0 .0 40.0 40.0 2 pelv 1 266.0 .0 266.0 266.0

11:12 1 141.6 .0 141.6 141.6 1:f2 0

13:14 2 88.6 4.2 85.7 91.6 15 pelv 1 86.0 .0 86.0 86.0

3:2 ul 1 .0 .0 .0 .0 17 pelv 1 91.0 .0 91.0 91.0

1 fem 4 455.5 17.9 440.0 472.0 2 sacr 0

2 fem 3 455.6 16.9 437.0 470.0 5 sacr 0

21 fem 2 80.5 .7 80.0 81.0 1 clav 1 145.0 .0 145.0 145.0

6 fem 14 28.2 2.7 24.0 32.0 6 clav 1 39.0 .0 39.0 39.0

7a fem 14 27.7 1.8 25.0 31.0 1:h1 0

9 fem 14 35.0 1.7 31.0 37.0 1 scap 0

10 fem 14 25.7 3.1 21.0 32.0 2 scap 0

Table 28. Morphological patterns of Koban males from Klin-Yar III and IV (1994−1996): Left side.

159 Klin-Yar – A. P. Buzhilova et al.

Trait right left

Humerus NXSNXS

1. maximal length 1 310.0 0.0

2. whole length 1 305.0 0.0

5. maximal diameter of midshaft 1 18.0 0.0

6. minimal diameter of midshaft 1 16.0 0.0

7. minimal circumference of diaphysis 1 50.0 0.0

7а. circumference in the midshaft of 1 55.0 0.0 diaphysis

6:5 index of transversal section of 1 88.89 0.0 diaphysis

Femur

1. maximal length 1 426.0 0.0

2. length in natural position 1 425.0 0.0

6. sagittal diameter in the midshaft 1 22.0 0.0 2 22.0 2.83

7а. transversal diameter in the mid 1 24.0 0.0 2 25.0 0.0 shaft

9. upper transversal diameter 1 34.0 0.0 2 32.0 2.83

10. upper sagittal diameter 1 23.0 0.0 2 32.0 2.83

8. midshaft circumference 1 75.0 0.0 2 78.0 5.66

8:2 index of robustness 1 19.29 0.0

Table 29. Mean morpholog- 6:7а pilaster index 1 91.67 0.0 2 88.0 11.33 ical characteristics of female 10:9 platymeric index 1 67.76 0.0 2 69.95 9.5 Koban group.

age Grave humerus radius ulna femur (years)

circum- circum- circum- circum- length length length length Table 30. Morphological ference ference ference ference patterns of Koban child: Right 195 37 - - 162 22 276 51 side (upper line) and left side 377 9–10 - 36 148 25 162 22 277 51 (lower line).

Klin-Yar show a high variability. Some of them Most Sarmatian males have large postcranial (Klin-Yar IV grave 11, Klin-Yar III graves 220, 241 bones (Tabs. 31; 32). The maximum length of hu- and 324, less so grave 355) were apparently meri in the Klin-Yar series is greater than in the close to the skeletal constitution of early Scythi majority of comparative data of Early Iron Age and ans. Hunno-Sarmatian populations which have already been known for this trait.862 Interestingly, the previously known maximum in the length of long 9.5.2 Sarmatian period bones had been found among the late Sarmatians of the Urals region (burial site of Bis-Oba). In the There are not many Sarmatian skeletons from Klin-Yar sample, an extraordinary development of Klin-Yar, and generally they are represented by this kind is shown by the man in grave 351A. individual parts and fragments. On the other hand, the preservation of bone tissue was better By comparison with Koban males, Sarmatian than in Koban graves. The male skeletons from males had larger epiphyses and heads of hu- graves 351A, 365, 372 and 387, and the female remains from graves 342B, 351B, 361A, 370 and 379 were osteometrically studied. 862 Медникова 1995, 87 Fig. 23.

160 9 The human bones from Klin-Yar III and IV

Trait N MEAN STD.DEV. MINIMUM MAXIMUM Trait N MEAN STD.DEV. MINIMUM MAXIMUM

age 5 35.9 9.1 22.0 45.0 8 fem 3 96.6 3.0 94.0 100.0

1 hum 4 350.0 24.1 330.0 385.0 18 fem 2 50.0 2.8 48.0 52.0

2 hum 4 345.7 23.7 326.0 380.0 19 fem 2 49.0 2.8 47.0 51.0

3 hum 4 54.7 4.9 50.0 60.0 20 fem 1 153.0 .0 153.0 153.0

4 hum 4 67.0 2.4 65.0 70.0 8:2 2 21.1 .7 20.6 21.6

5 hum 4 24.5 2.0 22.0 27.0 6:7a 3 108.2 7.3 100.0 114.2

6 hum 4 20.5 1.9 19.0 23.0 10:9 3 76.8 7.0 70.5 84.3

7 hum 4 67.7 2.6 64.0 70.0 (18+19)2 2 21.6 1.4 20.5 22.6

7a hum 4 75.7 6.5 68.0 84.0 1 tib 3 378.6 6.8 371.0 384.0

9 hum 4 46.0 4.7 43.0 53.0 1a tib 3 382.6 4.9 377.0 386.0

10 hum 3 49.3 3.2 47.0 53.0 5 tib 3 75.6 5.0 71.0 81.0

8 hum 3 147.3 7.5 142.0 156.0 6 tib 4 60.0 .8 59.0 61.0

7:1 4 19.4 1.4 17.9 21.2 8 tib 4 31.5 1.7 30.0 34.0

6:5 4 83.7 5.2 76.0 87.5 9 tib 4 22.7 1.7 21.0 25.0

1 rad 2 257.0 8.4 251.0 263.0 8a tib 4 37.0 .8 36.0 38.0

2 rad 2 239.5 7.7 234.0 245.0 9a tib 4 24.2 .9 23.0 25.0

4 rad 2 17.0 .0 17.0 17.0 10 tib 4 88.5 3.4 84.0 92.0

5 rad 2 12.0 .0 12.0 12.0 10b tib 4 80.0 1.4 78.0 81.0

3 rad 2 46.5 2.1 45.0 48.0 9a:8a 4 65.5 2.3 63.1 67.5

3:2 rad 2 19.4 .2 19.2 19.5 10b:1 3 21.1 .1 21.0 21.2

5:4 rad 2 70.5 .0 70.5 70.5 1 fib 1 379.0 .0 379.0 379.0

1 ul 2 278.5 9.1 272.0 285.0 r1:h1 2 76.7 .9 76.0 77.3

2 ul 3 246.3 7.6 238.0 253.0 r1:t1 2 68.0 .5 67.6 68.4

11 ul 2 14.2 1.0 13.5 15.0 h1:f2 2 73.0 .7 72.5 73.5

12 ul 2 17.0 1.4 16.0 18.0 t1:f2 2 82.3 1.1 81.5 83.1

13 ul 2 23.5 .7 23.0 24.0 Intmemb 2 70.8 .6 70.3 71.2

14 ul 2 25.0 1.4 24.0 26.0 1 pelv 0

3 ul 3 41.6 2.8 40.0 45.0 2 pelv 0

11:12 2 83.8 .7 83.3 84.3 1:f2 0

13:14 2 94.0 2.4 92.3 95.8 15 pelv 0

3:2 ul 2 17.4 .9 16.8 18.1 17 pelv 0

1 fem 2 462.5 3.5 460.0 465.0 2 sacr 0

2 fem 2 458.5 4.9 455.0 462.0 5 sacr 0

21 fem 4 86.2 3.7 81.0 89.0 1 clav 1 151.0 .0 151.0 151.0

6 fem 3 31.3 1.1 30.0 32.0 6 clav 1 40.0 .0 40.0 40.0

7a fem 3 26.3 4.7 21.0 30.0 1:h1 1 45.7 .0 45.7 45.7

9 fem 3 37.0 2.0 35.0 39.0 1 scap 0

10 fem 3 27.5 .5 27.0 28.0 2 scap 0

Table 31. Morphological patterns of Sarmatian males from Klin-Yar III and IV (1994−1996): Right side.

161 Klin-Yar – A. P. Buzhilova et al.

Trait N MEAN STD.DEV. MINIMUM MAXIMUM Trait N MEAN STD.DEV. MINIMUM MAXIMUM

age 4 36.8 10.0 22.5 45.0 8 fem 2 94.0 2.8 92.0 96.0

1 hum 2 333.0 2.8 331.0 335.0 18 fem 2 50.0 1.4 49.0 51.0

2 hum 2 329.5 2.1 328.0 331.0 19 fem 2 49.0 .0 49.0 49.0

3 hum 2 54.5 3.5 52.0 57.0 20 fem 2 158.5 2.1 157.0 160.0

4 hum 2 68.5 2.1 67.0 70.0 8:2 2 20.4 .7 19.9 20.9

5 hum 2 24.0 1.4 23.0 25.0 6:7a 2 108.8 7.6 103.4 114.2

6 hum 2 18.5 .7 18.0 19.0 10:9 2 83.0 7.3 77.7 88.2

7 hum 2 68.0 1.4 67.0 69.0 (18+19)2 2 21.5 .4 21.2 21.7

7a hum 2 75.0 .0 75.0 75.0 1 tib 3 381.0 12.4 371.0 395.0

9 hum 2 45.0 .0 45.0 45.0 1a tib 3 384.6 10.0 377.0 396.0

10 hum 2 49.0 2.8 47.0 51.0 5 tib 2 79.0 2.8 77.0 81.0

8 hum 2 148.0 4.2 145.0 151.0 6 tib 2 59.0 1.4 58.0 60.0

7:1 2 20.4 .2 20.2 20.6 8 tib 3 32.3 1.5 31.0 34.0

6:5 2 77.3 7.5 72.0 82.6 9 tib 3 22.3 .5 22.0 23.0

1 rad 2 259.5 7.7 254.0 265.0 8a tib 3 36.3 1.5 35.0 38.0

2 rad 2 240.5 6.3 236.0 245.0 9a tib 3 24.6 .5 24.0 25.0

4 rad 2 17.5 .7 17.0 18.0 10 tib 3 91.0 1.7 90.0 93.0

5 rad 2 11.7 .3 11.5 12.0 10b tib 3 79.3 1.1 78.0 80.0

3 rad 2 46.0 4.2 43.0 49.0 9a:8a 3 67.9 3.0 65.7 71.4

3:2 rad 2 19.1 1.2 18.2 20.0 10b:1 3 20.8 .5 20.2 21.2

5:4 rad 2 67.1 .6 66.6 67.6 1 fib 1 386.0 .0 386.0 386.0

1 ul 2 278.5 9.1 272.0 285.0 r1:h1 2 77.9 1.6 76.7 79.1

2 ul 2 244.0 7.0 239.0 249.0 r1:t1 2 67.7 .9 67.0 68.4

11 ul 2 15.0 1.4 14.0 16.0 h1:f2 2 72.3 .9 71.6 72.9

12 ul 2 18.5 2.1 17.0 20.0 t1:f2 2 83.1 4.0 80.3 86.0

13 ul 2 22.0 .0 22.0 22.0 intmemb 2 70.2 .0 70.2 70.2

14 ul 2 25.5 .7 25.0 26.0 1 pelv - - - - -

3 ul 2 45.0 4.2 42.0 48.0 2 pelv - - - - -

11:12 2 81.1 1.6 80.0 82.3 1:f2 - - - - -

13:14 2 86.3 2.3 84.6 88.0 15 pelv - - - - -

3:2 ul 2 18.4 1.2 17.5 19.2 17 pelv - - - - -

1 fem 2 465.0 .0 465.0 465.0 2 sacr - - - - -

2 fem 2 460.5 2.1 459.0 462.0 5 sacr - - - - -

21 fem 2 86.5 2.1 85.0 88.0 1 clav 2 145.5 6.3 141.0 150.0

6 fem 2 31.0 1.4 30.0 32.0 6 clav 2 38.0 .0 38.0 38.0

7a fem 2 28.5 .7 28.0 29.0 1:h1 1 42.6 .0 42.6 42.6

9 fem 2 35.0 1.4 34.0 36.0 1 scap - - - - -

10 fem 2 29.0 1.4 28.0 30.0 2 scap - - - - -

Table 32. Morphological patterns of Sarmatian males from Klin-Yar III and IV (1994−1996): Left side.

162 9 The human bones from Klin-Yar III and IV

Grave stature after Bounak stature after Trotter/Gleser

189.365 + 4.57 (formula for Caucasoids) 351A 186.3 + 4.23 (formula for Negroids)

177.81 + 4.57 (formula for Caucasoids) 365 174.84 + 4.23 (formula for Negroids)

372 172 169.75

387 169.12 169 Table 33. Sarmatian male Mean stature 170.56 177.49 stature (in сms). meri; more massive and round diaphyses; low 9.5.3 Transitional Sarmatian-Alanic values of the index ‘minimal bone circumfer- graves ence: physiological length’ in their forearms (3 : 2 according to R. Martin); a lower transversal From this group, the male and the female from diameter of the diaphysis of the ulna; and high- grave 386 could be measured, as well as two er indices of cross-section and platolenia of the sub-adult skeletons (graves 378 and 385; see ulna. Tab. 40).863

Great femoral lengths in Sarmatian males are The parameters of male postcranial bones indi- achieved by a trend towards high values of the cate a relatively large and medium to massive lower epiphyseal width and of diaphyseal cir- build (Tabs. 37; 38). The female skeleton is of cumferences and diameters. The Sarmatians of intermediate size and relatively robust, given the Klin-Yar had higher indices for femoral massive- development of diaphyseal parameters and fem- ness (8 : 2), pilaster (6 : 7) and platymeria (10 : 9) oral heads (Tab. 39). than the Koban males. On the other hand, the femoral heads of Sarmatian men are more gra The stature of the male individual from grave cile than in the Koban group. Also, their tibiae 386 was 168.52 cm (calculated after Bounak), or are longer and wider; they are not so flattened as 168 cm, respectively (after Trotter/Gleser). This in the Koban male series. is a little below the typical stature of the Klin-Yar Sarmatians. The stature of the female from grave According to the ratio of the lengths of upper and 386 was 154.5 cm (after Trotter/Gleser). lower extremities, the Klin-Yar Sarmatians were a relatively long-legged group. They also show a lengthening of the distal segments in the upper 9.5.4 Alanic period and lower extremities. If the only clavicle in the sample is anything to go by, Sarmatian males The following individuals from Alanic graves had broad shoulders. were studied osteometrically: the males from Klin-Yar III graves 360 skeleton 1, 363B skele- The Sarmatians may be characterized as a ton 2, 381 skeleton 1, 382 skeleton 2, and Klin- dolichomorphic, tall population. For this reason, Yar IV graves 6 skeleton 1, and 7 skeleton 4; the the formulae of Trotter/Gleser and of Bounak females from Klin-Yar III graves 359, 360 skele- were used for the calculation of stature (Tab. 33). ton 2, 363B skeleton 1, 371 skeleton 1, 373, On average, Sarmatian males were 10 cm taller and 382 skeleton 1, and Klin-Yar IV graves 6 skel- (170.56 cm after Bounak, 173.78 cm after Trot- eton 2, 9 skeleton 3, and 10. The preservation of ter/Gleser) than Koban males. the bones was fragmentary, and the number of observations is limited. By contrast to the males, the Sarmatian females of Klin-Yar had a gracile constitution. It appears that the sexual dimorphism of this population was very remarkable. The lengths of 863 The transitional Sarmatian-Alanic sub-group (5th cent. AD) basic long bones in the female series are small was, on initial assessment, thought to comprise graves 378, (Tabs. 34; 35). The woman buried in grave 370 386, and possibly 385. Later chronological study showed these graves to be Late Sarmatian, with graves 383 and 387 was particularly small (Tab. 36). But the dia- now classified as transitional Sarmatian-Alanic. The physi- physeal circumferences and diameters of the cal-anthropological analysis in this chapter uses the original long bones of Sarmatian females at Klin-Yar are dating throughout because the loss of the original computer not as relatively small as the longitudinal pa- files has made it impossible to recalculate all statistics. This rameters. is not likely to skew the results because the transitional subgroup as identified here is closely similar to the Sarmatian group in all respects, and the two groups should be understood as belonging to one population.

163 Klin-Yar – A. P. Buzhilova et al.

Trait N MEAN STD.DEV. MINIMUM MAXIMUM Trait N MEAN STD.DEV. MINIMUM MAXIMUM

age 5 28.9 6.1 22.0 37.5 8 fem 3 78.6 1.5 77.0 80.0

1 hum 4 287.7 11.1 275.0 302.0 18 fem 3 41.5 1.8 40.0 43.5

2 hum 4 284.7 11.9 269.0 298.0 19 fem 3 41.3 1.1 40.0 42.0

3 hum 4 46.0 3.8 41.0 49.0 20 fem 3 133.3 5.6 127.0 138.0

4 hum 1 56.0 .0 56.0 56.0 8:2 3 19.9 1.7 18.7 22.0

5 hum 4 18.7 1.5 17.0 20.0 6:7a 3 97.3 2.2 96.0 100.0

6 hum 4 15.8 1.4 14.0 17.0 10:9 3 72.3 1.9 70.3 74.1

7 hum 4 55.7 4.5 51.0 62.0 (18+19)2 3 20.9 1.6 19.8 22.8

7a hum 4 58.5 4.6 52.0 63.0 1 tib 3 325.6 33.0 288.0 350.0

9 hum 2 37.5 3.5 35.0 40.0 1a tib 3 327.3 32.7 290.0 351.0

10 hum 3 39.8 4.3 35.0 43.5 5 tib 2 68.0 2.8 66.0 70.0

8 hum 1 112.0 .0 112.0 112.0 6 tib 2 45.5 3.5 43.0 48.0

7:1 4 19.3 .8 18.5 20.5 8 tib 3 24.0 1.7 23.0 26.0

6:5 4 84.8 7.1 77.5 94.4 9 tib 3 18.1 2.0 16.0 20.0

1 rad 2 208.0 2.8 206.0 210.0 8a tib 3 29.0 2.0 27.0 31.0

2 rad 1 195.0 .0 195.0 195.0 9a tib 3 21.3 2.0 19.0 23.0

4 rad 3 13.3 2.0 11.0 15.0 10 tib 3 69.6 7.6 63.0 78.0

5 rad 3 9.3 .5 9.0 10.0 10b tib 3 65.6 5.1 60.0 70.0

3 rad 3 36.0 4.0 32.0 40.0 9a:8a 3 73.4 2.8 70.3 75.8

3:2 rad 2 16.7 .5 16.4 17.1 10b:1 3 20.1 .5 19.7 20.8

5:4 rad 3 70.9 9.5 64.2 81.8 1 fib 1 286.0 .0 286.0 286.0

1 ul 1 245.0 .0 245.0 245.0 r1:h1 1 72.6 .0 72.6 72.6

2 ul 1 215.0 .0 215.0 215.0 r1:t1 1 61.9 .0 61.9 61.9

11 ul 1 11.5 .0 11.5 11.5 h1:f2 2 70.1 2.1 68.6 71.7

12 ul 1 16.0 .0 16.0 16.0 t1:f2 3 81.9 1.3 80.5 83.1

13 ul 1 20.0 .0 20.0 20.0 intmemb 9

14 ul 1 23.0 .0 23.0 23.0 1 pelv 1 185.0 .0 185.0 185.0

3 ul 1 36.0 .0 36.0 36.0 2 pelv 1 243.0 .0 243.0 243.0

11:12 1 71.8 .0 71.8 71.8 1:f2 1 52.8 .0 52.8 52.8

13:14 1 86.9 .0 86.9 86.9 15 pelv 1 66.0 .0 66.0 66.0

3:2 ul 1 16.7 .0 16.7 16.7 17 pelv 1 77.0 .0 77.0 77.0

1 fem 3 398.3 40.1 352.0 423.0 2 sacr 0

2 fem 3 397.3 40.9 350.0 421.0 5 sacr 0

21 fem 4 70.5 1.2 69.0 72.0 1 clav 3 133.3 7.3 125.0 139.0

6 fem 3 24.6 .5 24.0 25.0 6 clav 3 32.0 1.7 30.0 33.0

7a fem 3 25.3 .5 25.0 26.0 1:h1 3 47.0 1.6 45.4 48.7

9 fem 3 30.6 1.5 29.0 32.0 1 scap 0

10 fem 3 22.1 1.0 21.0 23.0 2 scap 1 103.0 .0 103.0 103.0

Table 34. Morphological patterns of Sarmatian females from Klin-Yar III and IV (1994−1996): Right side.

164 9 The human bones from Klin-Yar III and IV

Trait N MEAN STD.DEV. MINIMUM MAXIMUM Trait N MEAN STD.DEV. MINIMUM MAXIMUM

age 5 34.0 7.4 25.0 42.5 8 fem 4 78.7 3.3 75.0 82.0

1 hum 1 255.0 .0 255.0 255.0 18 fem 3 41.0 1.0 40.0 42.0

2 hum 1 251.0 .0 251.0 251.0 19 fem 3 38.3 4.6 33.0 41.0

3 hum 2 46.5 6.3 42.0 51.0 20 fem 3 130.6 7.5 123.0 138.0

4 hum 2 57.0 2.8 55.0 59.0 8:2 3 19.5 1.3 18.2 20.9

5 hum 3 20.3 2.5 18.0 23.0 6:7a 4 97.7 10.1 90.3 112.5

6 hum 3 15.0 1.0 14.0 16.0 10:9 4 70.5 1.1 69.3 71.8

7 hum 3 57.0 6.0 50.0 61.0 (18+19)2 3 19.8 .4 19.4 20.3

7a hum 2 60.5 6.3 56.0 65.0 1 tib 3 322.3 36.1 281.0 348.0

9 hum 2 38.0 2.8 36.0 40.0 1a tib 3 326.6 32.1 290.0 350.0

10 hum 2 40.7 3.8 38.0 43.5 5 tib 2 64.5 4.9 61.0 68.0

8 hum 1 117.0 .0 117.0 117.0 6 tib 2 46.0 4.2 43.0 49.0

7:1 1 19.6 .0 19.6 19.6 8 tib 3 25.3 1.1 24.0 26.0

6:5 3 74.3 7.8 69.5 83.3 9 tib 3 18.3 2.0 16.0 20.0

1 rad 0 8a tib 3 28.3 2.0 26.0 30.0

2 rad 0 9a tib 3 20.3 1.1 19.0 21.0

4 rad 1 15.0 .0 15.0 15.0 10 tib 3 70.0 5.5 64.0 75.0

5 rad 1 10.0 .0 10.0 10.0 10b tib 3 65.3 3.7 61.0 68.0

3 rad 0 9a:8a 3 71.8 1.6 70.0 73.0

3:2 rad 0 10b:1 3 20.3 1.1 19.5 21.7

5:4 rad 1 66.6 .0 66.6 66.6 1 fib 1 286.0 .0 286.0 286.0

1 ul 0 r1:h1 0

2 ul 0 r1:t1 0

11 ul 1 11.5 .0 11.5 11.5 h1:f2 1 71.2 .0 71.2 71.2

12 ul 1 13.0 .0 13.0 13.0 t1:f2 3 80.5 2.1 78.4 82.8

13 ul 1 20.0 .0 20.0 20.0 intmemb 0

14 ul 1 21.0 .0 21.0 21.0 1 pelv 2 191.0 12.7 182.0 200.0

3 ul 2 pelv 1 243.0 .0 243.0 243.0

11:12 1 88.4 .0 88.4 88.4 1:f2 1 50.8 .0 50.8 50.8

13:14 1 95.2 .0 95.2 95.2 15 pelv 1 63.0 .0 63.0 63.0

3:2 ul 0 17 pelv 1 84.0 .0 84.0 84.0

1 fem 3 405.0 34.6 365.0 427.0 2 sacr 0

2 fem 3 399.6 36.0 358.0 421.0 5 sacr 0

21 fem 1 69.0 .0 69.0 69.0 1 clav 1 137.0 .0 137.0 137.0

6 fem 4 24.6 1.7 23.0 27.0 6 clav 1 36.0 .0 36.0 36.0

7a fem 4 25.2 .9 24.0 26.0 1:h1 0

9 fem 4 31.0 .8 30.0 32.0 1 scap 0

10 fem 4 21.8 .8 21.0 23.0 2 scap 1 102.0 .0 102.0 102.0

Table 35. Morphological patterns of Sarmatian females from Klin-Yar III and IV (1994−1996): Left side.

165 Klin-Yar – A. P. Buzhilova et al.

stature after Trotter/Gleser Grave stature after Bounak (formula for Caucasoids) 342B 158.4 160.25 351B 157.44 157 361A 151 370 143.52 143.25 379 153.5 Table 36. Sarmatian female Mean stature 153 stature (in сms).

Trait N MEAN STD.DEV. MINIMUM MAXIMUM Trait N MEAN STD.DEV. MINIMUM MAXIMUM age 2 32.5 .0 32.5 32.5 age 2 32.5 .0 32.5 32.5 2 ul 1 244.0 .0 244.0 244.0 2 rad 1 242.0 .0 242.0 242.0 11 ul 1 15.0 .0 15.0 15.0 4 rad 1 16.0 .0 16.0 16.0 12 ul 1 18.0 .0 18.0 18.0 5 rad 1 13.0 .0 13.0 13.0 13 ul 1 22.0 .0 22.0 22.0 3 rad 1 45.0 .0 45.0 45.0 14 ul 1 24.0 .0 24.0 24.0 3:2 rad 1 18.6 .0 18.6 18.6 3 ul 1 40.0 .0 40.0 40.0 11:12 1 83.3 .0 83.3 83.3 5:4 rad 1 81.2 .0 81.2 81.2 13:14 1 93.7 .0 93.7 93.7 2 fem 1 450.0 .0 450.0 450.0 3:2 ul 1 16.3 .0 16.3 16.3 21 fem 1 85.0 .0 85.0 85.0 1 fem 2 451.0 4.2 448.0 454.0 6 fem 1 30.0 .0 30.0 30.0 2 fem 2 447.0 2.8 445.0 449.0 7a fem 1 29.0 .0 29.0 29.0 21 fem 2 82.0 4.2 79.0 85.0 9 fem 1 36.0 .0 36.0 36.0 6 fem 2 30.5 .7 30.0 31.0 7a fem 2 29.5 .7 29.0 30.0 10 fem 1 25.0 .0 25.0 25.0 9 fem 2 35.0 1.4 34.0 36.0 8 fem 1 94.0 .0 94.0 94.0 10 fem 2 26.5 .7 26.0 27.0 18 fem 1 49.0 .0 49.0 49.0 8 fem 2 94.5 .7 94.0 95.0 19 fem 1 48.0 .0 48.0 48.0 18 fem 1 50.0 .0 50.0 50.0 20 fem 1 156.0 .0 156.0 156.0 19 fem 1 48.0 .0 48.0 48.0 8:2 1 20.8 .0 20.8 20.8 20 fem 1 156.0 .0 156.0 156.0 8:2 2 21.1 .2 20.9 21.3 6:7a 1 103.4 .0 103.4 103.4 6:7a 2 103.4 4.8 100.0 106.9 10:9 1 69.4 .0 69.4 69.4 10:9 2 75.8 5.0 72.2 79.4 (18+19)2 1 21.5 .0 21.5 21.5 (18+19)2 1 21.8 .0 21.8 21.8 1 tib 2 369.5 13.4 360.0 379.0 1 tib 1 370.0 .0 370.0 370.0 1a tib 2 369.0 9.8 362.0 376.0 1a tib 1 372.0 .0 372.0 372.0 5 tib 1 68.0 .0 68.0 68.0 5 tib 2 76.0 7.0 71.0 81.0 6 tib 2 56.0 1.4 55.0 57.0 6 tib 2 56.0 2.8 54.0 58.0 8 tib 2 33.0 .0 33.0 33.0 8 tib 2 34.0 1.4 33.0 35.0 9 tib 2 22.5 2.1 21.0 24.0 9 tib 2 23.0 1.4 22.0 24.0 8a tib 2 35.0 .0 35.0 35.0 8a tib 1 37.0 .0 37.0 37.0 9a tib 2 23.0 .0 23.0 23.0 9a tib 1 25.0 .0 25.0 25.0 10 tib 2 87.5 .7 87.0 88.0 10b tib 2 80.5 4.9 77.0 84.0 10 tib 2 90.0 2.8 88.0 92.0 9a:8a 2 65.7 .0 65.7 65.7 10b tib 2 81.0 1.4 80.0 82.0 10b:1 1 22.7 .0 22.7 22.7 9a:8a 1 67.5 .0 67.5 67.5 1 clav 1 153.0 .0 153.0 153.0 10b:1 2 22.1 .9 21.4 22.7 6 clav 1 43.0 .0 43.0 43.0

Table 37. Morphological patterns of Sarmatian-Alanic males from Klin- Table 38. Morphological patterns of Sarmatian-Alanic males from Klin- Yar III and IV (1994−1996): Right side. Yar III and IV (1994−1996): Left side.

166 9 The human bones from Klin-Yar III and IV

Notwithstanding the bad bone preservation, the Trait key fact which emerges is the marked gracilisation of the postcranial skeleton in Alanic males Ulna compared with the Sarmatians (Tabs. 41; 42). 1. maximal length 239

This trend is reflected particularly in the marked 2. physiological length 211 reduction in the length of long bones, as well as in the reduction of the circumferences of humeri, 3. minimal circumference 34 femora and tibiae. By contrast, this trend is less 11. anterior-posterior diameter of diaphysis 12 marked in the circumferences of the forearm bones, the width of the lower femoral epiphy- 12. transversal diameter 14 ses, and the length of the clavicle. As a result, 13. upper transversal diameter 19 these parts of the skeleton were more massive in Alanic males than in Sarmatians. The indices 14. upper sagittal diameter 22.5 of platymeria and pilastria are very similar in the Sarmatian and Alanic samples, as is the index of 3:2 robustness index 16.11 massiveness of the femoral head. The flattening 11:12 transversal section index 85.71 of the tibia is slightly more pronounced in Alan- ic males than in Sarmatians. The Alans show a 13:14 platolenia index 84.44 relative shortening of forearm and lower leg, Femur reducing the ratio of the lengths of upper:lower extremities. 1. maximal length 417

2. length in natural position 415 Alanic women had a very gracile build, reflected in short long bones and in low means of the 21. width of lower epiphysis 70 parameters of diaphyses (Tabs. 43; 44). They are close in body size to the low-statured vari- 6. sagittal midshaft diameter 27 ant of the skeletal constitution which has been 7а. transversal diameter 23 noted among the Sarmatian females of Klin-Yar (Tab. 46). 9. upper transversal diameter 28 10. upper sagittal diameter 24 The sexual dimorphism in the Alanic population was very small, especially in comparison with 8. midshaft circumference 80 the Sarmatian period. The reduction of morphological differences between males and females 18. height of the head 45 was primarily the result of the low stature which 19. width of the head 44 was typical of Alanic males. The average stature of Alanic males at Klin-Yar was 164.85 cm 20. circumference of the head 140 (after Trotter/Gleser for Negroid populations), 8:2 robustness index 19.28 and for females 152.10 cm (after Trotter/Gleser; Tab. 45). 6:7а pilastria index 117.39 10:9 platymeric index 85.71 The relatively representative sample of child Table 39. Morphological ren’s and juvenile skeletons allowed us to ob- (18+19):2 index of head massiveness 21.45 patterns of Sarmatian-Alanic serve some patterns of ontogenetic develop- female (386/2): Right side. ment in the group (Tab. 47). It seems that by the age of 12 to 15 years, Alanic teenagers showed 385, both later re-dated to Sarmatian period) the characteristics which were typical of the aged 10 to 13, they had shorter humeri, and adult population. In comparison with the two shorter and more massive radii, ulnae and fem- Sarmatian-Alanic sub-adults (graves 378 and ora.

age Grave humerus radius ulna femur tibia (years)

circum- circum- circum- circum- circum- length length length length length ference ference ference ference ference

235 49 182 32 201 27 334 65 270 62 378 10–12 238 48 - 33 - 27 341 65 275 61 Table 40. Morphological patterns of Sarmatian-Alanic 200 45 160 45 180 23 289 55 239 55 385 10–13 children: Right side (upper 204 44 ------244 52 line) and left side (lower line).

167 Klin-Yar – A. P. Buzhilova et al.

Trait N MEAN STD.DEV. MINIMUM MAXIMUM Trait N MEAN STD.DEV. MINIMUM MAXIMUM

age 4 26.2 4.3 22.5 32.5 8 fem 4 87.0 5.4 80.0 93.0

1 hum 1 313.0 .0 313.0 313.0 18 fem 2 48.5 2.1 47.0 50.0

2 hum 1 310.0 .0 310.0 310.0 19 fem 2 47.5 .7 47.0 48.0

3 hum 1 55.0 .0 55.0 55.0 20 fem 2 155.0 5.6 151.0 159.0

4 hum 0 - - - - 8:2 2 20.2 .2 20.0 20.4

5 hum 1 25.0 .0 25.0 25.0 6:7a 4 108.3 7.0 103.4 118.5

6 hum 1 21.0 .0 21.0 21.0 10:9 4 75.5 8.4 66.6 87.1

7 hum 1 66.0 .0 66.0 66.0 (18+19)2 2 21.3 .3 21.0 21.5

7a hum 1 75.0 .0 75.0 75.0 1 tib 1 335.0 .0 335.0 335.0

9 hum 1 46.0 .0 46.0 46.0 1a tib 1 337.0 .0 337.0 337.0

10 hum 0 - - - - 5 tib 1 76.0 .0 76.0 76.0

8 hum 0 - - - - 6 tib 1 52.0 .0 52.0 52.0

7:1 1 21.0 .0 21.0 21.0 8 tib 2 29.5 .7 29.0 30.0

6:5 1 84.0 .0 84.0 84.0 9 tib 2 20.5 .7 20.0 21.0

1 rad 1 235.0 .0 235.0 235.0 8a tib 2 33.5 .7 33.0 34.0

2 rad 1 222.0 .0 222.0 222.0 9a tib 2 21.5 2.1 20.0 23.0

4 rad 1 16.0 .0 16.0 16.0 10 tib 1 81.0 .0 81.0 81.0

5 rad 1 13.0 .0 13.0 13.0 10b tib 1 73.0 .0 73.0 73.0

3 rad 1 45.0 .0 45.0 45.0 9a:8a 2 64.2 7.6 58.8 69.7

3:2 rad 1 20.2 .0 20.2 20.2 10b:1 1 21.7 .0 21.7 21.7

5:4 rad 1 81.2 .0 81.2 81.2 1 fib - - - - -

1 ul 1 260.0 .0 260.0 260.0 r1:h1 1 75.0 .0 75.0 75.0

2 ul 1 221.0 .0 221.0 221.0 r1:t1 1 70.1 .0 70.1 70.1

11 ul 3 14.5 1.3 13.5 16.0 h1:f2 1 71.7 .0 71.7 71.7

12 ul 3 15.8 1.6 14.0 17.0 t1:f2 1 76.8 .0 76.8 76.8

13 ul 3 18.3 .5 18.0 19.0 intmemb 1 71.0 .0 71.0 71.0

14 ul 3 23.0 3.6 20.0 27.0 1 pelv - - - - -

3 ul 2 39.5 2.1 38.0 41.0 2 pelv - - - - -

11:12 3 92.8 18.5 81.8 114.2 1:f2 - - - - -

13:14 3 80.7 9.8 70.3 90.0 15 pelv - - - - -

3:2 ul 1 17.1 .0 17.1 17.1 17 pelv - - - - -

1 fem 2 453.5 23.3 437.0 470.0 2 sacr - - - - -

2 fem 2 450.5 20.5 436.0 465.0 5 sacr - - - - -

21 fem 2 83.0 1.4 82.0 84.0 1 clav 1 147.0 .0 147.0 147.0

6 fem 4 29.5 2.0 27.0 32.0 6 clav 1 39.0 .0 39.0 39.0

7a fem 4 27.2 1.2 26.0 29.0 1:h1 1 46.9 .0 46.9 46.9

9 fem 4 33.2 2.2 31.0 36.0 1 scap - - - - -

10 fem 4 25.0 1.4 24.0 27.0 2 scap - - - - -

Table 41. Morphological patterns of Alanic males from Klin-Yar III and IV (1994−1996): Right side.

168 9 The human bones from Klin-Yar III and IV

Trait N MEAN STD.DEV. MINIMUM MAXIMUM Trait N MEAN STD.DEV. MINIMUM MAXIMUM

age 5 27.0 3.2 25.0 32.5 7a fem 4 27.7 1.7 26.0 30.0

1 hum 0 - - - - 9 fem 3 33.0 2.6 30.0 35.0

2 hum 0 - - - - 10 fem 3 25.6 1.1 25.0 27.0

3 hum 0 - - - - 8 fem 5 86.8 5.7 78.0 92.0

4 hum 3 64.3 1.5 63.0 66.0 18 fem 1 48.0 .0 48.0 48.0

5 hum 3 22.0 1.7 20.0 23.0 19 fem 1 47.0 .0 47.0 47.0

6 hum 3 18.3 2.0 16.0 20.0 20 fem 1 151.0 .0 151.0 151.0

7 hum 3 61.0 6.5 55.0 68.0 8:2 1 20.8 .0 20.8 20.8

7a hum 2 67.0 4.2 64.0 70.0 6:7a 4 106.3 7.5 100.0 114.8

9 hum 0 - - - - 10:9 3 78.3 10.1 71.4 90.0

10 hum 0 - - - - (18+19)2 1 21.5 .0 21.5 21.5

8 hum 0 - - - - 1 tib 2 341.5 2.1 340.0 343.0

7:1 0 - - - - 1a tib 2 346.0 1.4 345.0 347.0

6:5 3 83.1 3.5 80.0 86.9 5 tib 2 76.5 4.9 73.0 80.0

1 rad 1 244.0 .0 244.0 244.0 6 tib 2 52.5 4.9 49.0 56.0

2 rad 1 226.0 .0 226.0 226.0 8 tib 3 29.6 .5 29.0 30.0

4 rad 1 18.0 .0 18.0 18.0 9 tib 3 22.0 2.0 20.0 24.0

5 rad 1 11.0 .0 11.0 11.0 8a tib 3 34.6 1.5 33.0 36.0

3 rad 1 42.0 .0 42.0 42.0 9a tib 3 23.6 1.5 22.0 25.0

3:2 rad 1 18.5 .0 18.5 18.5 10 tib 2 85.0 .0 85.0 85.0

5:4 rad 1 61.1 .0 61.1 61.1 10b tib 3 74.3 1.1 73.0 75.0

1 ul 0 - - - - 9a:8a 3 68.4 6.3 61.1 72.7

2 ul 0 - - - - 10b:1 2 21.9 .1 21.8 22.0

11 ul 0 - - - - 1 fib - - - - -

12 ul 0 - - - - r1:h1 - - - - -

13 ul 0 - - - - r1:t1 - - - - -

14 ul 0 - - - - h1:f2 - - - - -

3 ul 0 - - - - t1:f2 1 77.1 .0 77.1 77.1

11:12 0 - - - - intmemb - - - - -

13:14 0 - - - - 1 pelv - - - - -

3:2 ul 0 - - - - 2 pelv - - - - -

1 fem 1 444.0 .0 444.0 444.0 1:f2 - - - - -

2 fem 1 441.0 .0 441.0 441.0 15 pelv - - - - -

21 fem 2 81.0 .0 81.0 81.0 17 pelv - - - - -

6 fem 4 29.5 2.3 26.0 31.0 2 sacr - - - - -

Table 42. Morphological patterns of Alanic males from Klin-Yar III and IV (1994−1996): Left side.

169 Klin-Yar – A. P. Buzhilova et al.

Trait N MEAN STD.DEV. MINIMUM MAXIMUM Trait N MEAN STD.DEV. MINIMUM MAXIMUM

age 8 28.7 5.6 22.5 37.5 18 fem 4 40.5 .5 40.0 41.0

1 hum 1 258.0 .0 258.0 258.0 19 fem 4 40.0 .8 39.0 41.0

2 hum 1 255.0 .0 255.0 255.0 20 fem 4 127.7 2.2 125.0 130.0

3 hum 2 43.5 2.1 42.0 45.0 8:2 4 19.1 .5 18.2 19.4

4 hum 1 55.0 .0 55.0 55.0 6:7a 6 95.0 7.0 88.0 108.3

5 hum 3 18.6 .5 18.0 19.0 10:9 4 70.1 3.4 67.6 75.0

6 hum 3 15.6 .5 15.0 16.0 (18+19)2 4 20.5 .7 20.1 21.6

7 hum 2 50.0 2.8 48.0 52.0 1 tib 2 341.5 19.0 328.0 355.0

7a hum 2 56.0 1.4 55.0 57.0 1a tib 2 342.5 19.0 329.0 356.0

9 hum 1 34.0 .0 34.0 34.0 5 tib 1 80.0 .0 80.0 80.0

10 hum 1 38.0 .0 38.0 38.0 6 tib 2 50.5 2.1 49.0 52.0

7:1 1 20.1 .0 20.1 20.1 8 tib 4 25.7 2.6 23.0 28.0

6:5 3 84.0 4.9 78.9 88.8 9 tib 4 17.2 .2 17.0 17.5

1 rad 1 225.0 .0 225.0 225.0 8a tib 4 28.2 3.5 24.0 32.0

2 rad 1 212.0 .0 212.0 212.0 9a tib 4 18.2 .9 17.0 19.0

4 rad 1 15.0 .0 15.0 15.0 10 tib 4 67.5 5.5 62.0 75.0

5 rad 1 9.0 .0 9.0 9.0 10b tib 2 60.5 6.3 56.0 65.0

3 rad 1 35.0 .0 35.0 35.0 9a:8a 4 65.0 4.8 59.3 70.8

3:2 rad 1 16.5 .0 16.5 16.5 10b:1 1 18.3 .0 18.3 18.3

5:4 rad 1 60.0 .0 60.0 60.0 t1:f2 1 82.6 .0 82.6 82.6

1 fem 4 397.5 9.0 386.0 408.0 1 pelv 1 191.0 .0 191.0 191.0

2 fem 4 392.0 11.8 375.0 402.0 2 pelv 1 253.0 .0 253.0 253.0

21 fem 5 69.6 3.2 67.0 75.0 1:f2 1 48.1 .0 48.1 48.1

6 fem 6 23.3 1.3 22.0 25.0 15 pelv 1 69.0 .0 69.0 69.0

7a fem 6 24.6 1.2 23.0 26.5 17 pelv 1 71.0 .0 71.0 71.0

9 fem 4 29.6 2.1 28.0 32.5 5 sacr 1 115.0 .0 115.0 115.0

10 fem 4 20.7 1.2 19.0 22.0 1 clav 1 141.0 .0 141.0 141.0

8 fem 6 77.0 4.6 72.0 85.0 6 clav 2 34.0 2.8 32.0 36.0

Table 43. Morphological patterns of Alanic females from Klin-Yar III and IV (1994−1996): Right side.

170 9 The human bones from Klin-Yar III and IV

Trait N MEAN STD.DEV. MINIMUM MAXIMUM Trait N MEAN STD.DEV. MINIMUM MAXIMUM age 5 28.0 5.7 22.5 35.0 9 fem 5 30.0 2.0 28.0 33.0

1 hum 3 284.0 8.5 275.0 292.0 10 fem 5 20.6 1.6 18.0 22.0

2 hum 3 281.6 5.5 276.0 287.0 8 fem 5 74.0 4.2 68.0 78.0

3 hum 3 44.0 1.7 42.0 45.0 18 fem 3 41.0 1.0 40.0 42.0

4 hum 3 52.3 3.7 48.0 55.0 19 fem 3 39.6 .5 39.0 40.0

5 hum 4 19.2 .5 19.0 20.0 20 fem 3 128.0 4.5 123.0 132.0

6 hum 4 15.2 1.5 14.0 17.0 8:2 5 18.4 1.4 16.0 19.4

7 hum 4 52.0 3.4 49.0 55.0 6:7a 5 95.1 9.6 80.7 106.8

7a hum 3 56.3 5.1 52.0 62.0 10:9 5 68.6 3.2 64.2 72.4

9 hum 1 42.0 .0 42.0 42.0 (18+19)2 3 20.1 .0 20.1 20.2

10 hum 1 41.0 .0 41.0 41.0 1 tib 2 318.0 1.4 317.0 319.0

8 hum 1 134.0 .0 134.0 134.0 1a tib 2 321.0 1.4 320.0 322.0

7:1 3 18.6 .7 17.7 19.3 5 tib 2 69.0 1.4 68.0 70.0

6:5 4 79.3 9.0 70.0 89.4 6 tib 2 48.5 .7 48.0 49.0

1 rad 3 216.6 11.1 204.0 225.0 8 tib 3 25.3 3.5 22.0 29.0

2 rad 3 206.3 9.8 195.0 213.0 9 tib 3 17.3 .5 17.0 18.0

4 rad 3 13.6 .5 13.0 14.0 8a tib 3 28.0 3.6 25.0 32.0

5 rad 3 12.3 5.7 9.0 19.0 9a tib 3 18.3 .5 18.0 19.0

3 rad 3 34.6 1.5 33.0 36.0 10 tib 3 67.6 4.6 65.0 73.0

3:2 rad 3 16.8 1.1 15.6 17.9 10b tib 3 62.0 4.5 58.0 67.0

5:4 rad 3 65.9 2.8 64.2 69.2 9a:8a 3 66.0 6.3 59.3 72.0

1 ul 3 234.6 13.7 219.0 245.0 10b:1 2 20.1 1.4 19.1 21.1

2 ul 4 208.7 8.9 196.0 215.0 r1:h1 2 75.4 2.2 73.9 77.0

11 ul 4 11.2 2.6 9.0 14.0 h1:f2 3 71.6 .5 71.0 72.2

12 ul 4 13.8 2.7 11.0 17.5 t1:f2 2 79.9 1.2 79.0 80.7

13 ul 4 18.7 .5 18.0 19.0 1 pelv 1 195.0 .0 195.0 195.0

14 ul 4 18.5 2.3 15.0 20.0 2 pelv 1 253.0 .0 253.0 253.0

3 ul 3 31.3 1.1 30.0 32.0 1:f2 1 48.6 .0 48.6 48.6

11:12 4 83.7 29.2 64.2 127.2 15 pelv 1 71.0 .0 71.0 71.0

13:14 4 102.8 15.8 94.7 126.6 17 pelv 1 86.0 .0 86.0 86.0

3:2 ul 3 59.6 77.2 14.8 148.8 5 sacr 1 115.0 .0 115.0 115.0

1 fem 5 404.0 15.1 386.0 425.0 1 clav 1 145.0 .0 145.0 145.0

2 fem 5 401.4 16.4 382.0 425.0 6 clav 1 35.0 .0 35.0 35.0

21 fem 4 70.5 2.3 67.0 72.0 1:h1 1 49.6 .0 49.6 49.6

6 fem 5 22.5 1.4 21.0 24.0 Table 44. Morphological patterns of Alanic females from Klin-Yar III and 7a fem 5 23.8 2.2 21.0 26.0 IV (1994−1996): Left side.

171 Klin-Yar – A. P. Buzhilova et al.

Grave stature after Bounak stature after Trotter/Gleser 360/1 169 363B/2 170 381/1 163.24 163.4 382/2 166 IV-7/4 160 Table 45. Alanic male stature Mean stature 165.68 (in сms).

Grave stature after Bounak stature after Trotter/Gleser 359 152.28 151.17 363B/1 144 371/1 155.13 373 155.67 382/1 147.25 IV-10 160 IV-9/3 153 151.5 Table 46. Alanic female Mean stature 152.10 stature (in сms).

age Grave humerus radius ulna femur tibia (years) length circumference length circumference length circumference length circumference length circumference 66 15 54 12 72 21 63 20 371/2 1 67 17 53 12 71 20 - - 66 15 74 100 29 380 1.5 67 15 - 101 27 - - - - - IV-7/1 1−1.5 28 73 19 78 20 173 40 147 36 382/3 2−3 - - - - 363А - 49 - - 13−15 ?Sarm. 220 48 170 30 218 50 160 31 310 70 - - 384 10−12 ------238 60 - - 300 58 374 15−19, ?F 361 63 300 57

Table 47. Morphological patterns of Alanic children: 9.6 Palaeopathology and indicators of physiological stress Right side (upper line) and left side (lower line). For the The analysis of the various categories of patho- all excavations at Klin-Yar III and IV, up to and in- stage before epiphyseal logical markers identifies the stress factors as cluding the 1994 – 1996 excavations. fusion, maximal diaphyseal they varied over time in their effect on the Klin- diameters were measured. Yar population (Tabs. 48 – 51). Dietary stress: There are only few cases of car- For humerus and femur, the ies among the adult individuals (one man, grave midshaft circumferences of 241, and two women, graves 189 and 201). An diaphyses were measured; for radial, ulnar and tibial 9.6.1 Koban period abscess (caused by severe caries) was found bones, the minimal circum- only once, in a male individual (grave 192). ferences were taken. The preservation of the skeletal material from Both, the loss of teeth during life (indicated by this period was bad. It was possible to study resorption of alveolar bone around the teeth) parts of the skulls from 32 individuals, and parts and calculus deposits on the teeth were found in of various long bones from 92 individuals from equal proportions in men and women (Tab. 48).

172 9 The human bones from Klin-Yar III and IV

Preservation (numbers of individuals) preservation male (49) female (33) child (15) unknown (1) total (98)

skulls 12 11 8 1 32

bones 46 32 14 0 92

Dental pathology Trauma Traits male female child Traits male female child

Caries 1/2.1 1/3.0 0 Skull trauma 0 1/3.0 0

Abscess 1/2.1 0 0 Skeletal trauma 1/2.1 1/3.0 1/6.7 Loss of teeth 3/6.1 3/9.1 0 Joint and spine diseases Calculus 2/4.1 3/9.1 0 Osteochondrosis 0 1/3.0 0 Crown fracture 2/4.1 1/3.0 0

Tailor’s tooth 0 0 0 Schmorl’s nodes 2/4.2 1/3.0 0

Growth arrest Arthropathy 0 1/3.0 0 Enamel hypoplasia 9/18.4 10/30.3 3/20 Indicators of physical activity Harris lines total 45% Cold stress 1/2.1 0 0

Metabolic disorders and anaemia Horse-riding 0 0 0 Anaemia 2/4.13 5/15.2 1/6.7

Rickets 1/2.1 0 0

Scurvy 0 0 0 Table 48. Indicators of stress in Koban series (N/%).

There are three cases of fractured crowns in the in childhood. Hypoplasia was found on 24.5 % sample (graves 190, 285 and 348). These could of the permanent teeth of the inspected Koban be the result of nuts in the food, which is typi- series. The highest incidence is found in fe- cal of a gathering element in the economy. There male adults (30.3 %), the lowest in male adults are no cases of the crown defect called ‘tailor’s (18.4 %) and in children (20.0 %). The incidence tooth’.864 The level of occlusal surface teeth of hypoplasia in contemporaneous populations wear is average, i. e. the diet was not character- in the Middle East reached about 14 %865, which ized by an excess of tough fibrous food (plant is considerably lower than in the Koban sample. and meat). In general, enamel hypoplasia indicates diet ary stress resulting from seasonal starvation, The types of dental lesions we looked for are in- low-quality food, and an abrupt transition of terconnected and mark the general processes children to an adult diet.866 We do not have any linked to various consequences of dietary stress. clear evidence of an unsuccessful mode of life The incidence of observed markers is low and in the Koban Culture which would suggest gen- shows no regularities. The results of compara- eral malnutrition in that period. In comparison tive analyses of caries highlight that this Koban with the high incidence of enamel hypoplasia series is a representative sample among Bronze found in specialised-economy groups,867 the in- Age and Early Iron Age groups from the Caucasus cidence in the Klin-Yar Koban series suggests a (Fig. 47). mixed economy. However, the high incidence of hypoplasia in the female group highlights a dif- Metabolic stress: Systemic metabolic stress ference between the sexes. The social position such as malnourishment and illness produ of women may have been inferior to that of men, ces enamel hypoplasia (deficiencies in enamel and girls may have received their food only after thickness), resulting from disturbances of enam- the boys had eaten. el growth. Therefore this marker, where noted on adult teeth, indicates stress which happened

865 Rathbun 1984. 866 Goodman et al. 1984. 864 Бужилова 1998. 867 Buzhilova/Mednikova 1999.

173 Klin-Yar – A. P. Buzhilova et al.

In conclusion, we can state that the Koban group is characterized by a low level of childhood stress and an insignificant level of caries, anaemia and metabolic disorders. In the series, we noted a few cases of spinal and joint diseases. This population shows the range of pathological markers typical for a population with a mixed economy. The nature of the trauma, particularly the cuts, testifies to the existence of violent, possibly military events, and both females and children were involved in these events. Clearly, the life of the Koban population was not entirely peaceful. Particularly noteworthy in the Klin-Yar series is the evidence of differences in stress Fig. 47. Incidence of caries Harris lines, transverse lines on the tibia result- indicators between the sexes. It is possible that in Bronze Age and Iron Age ing from arrested growth, have been used as the social position of men was higher than that populations. another measure of childhood stress. The inci- of women and that this was expressed in a tradi- dence in the Koban sample (circa 45 %) is the tion whereby men and boys eat first, followed by lowest of all periods at Klin-Yar. Sex differences the women and girls. were not analysed because of the small number of observed cases. 9.6.2 Sarmatian period Cribra orbitalia is one of the markers associated with chronic iron deficiency anaemia; it was not- The preservation of the bone and teeth tissues ed in both sexes and all age groups. The highest is much better than in the Koban group. We were incidence of cribra orbitalia is among females able to study skull parts from 11 individuals, (Tab. 48), a trend already observed for dental and bones and bone fragments from ten Sarma- enamel hypoplasia. tian-period graves.

Rickets, a metabolic disease, was noted only Dietary stress: The dental pathologies present once, in a male adult (grave 184). The degree the same picture we found for the Koban period, of curvature of the femora and tibiae is insig- but their incidence has increased (Tab. 49) and nificant, testifying to a mild form of rickets. We lies between the caries incidence in European did not find any evidence of Barlow’s disease Iron Age groups (circa 10 %), and that of Middle (scurvy in childhood) among the children of the Eastern populations (36 %).868 The range of den- sample. tal pathologies in the Sarmatian population is more or less identical for males and females. The Trauma cases were observed in all groups of most typical problems were caries, calculus and the Koban sample. We registered skull trau- ante-mortem broken crowns. ma once in the case of a female (grave 343), and skeletal trauma in two female adults and Metabolic stress: The frequency of enamel hy- a juvenile (possibly male). The three cases poplasia is the same for both sexes and all age (graves 343, 344 and 348) we found can only groups. It is higher than in the Koban series, and have been inflicted with edged weapons, and the frequency of Harris lines has also increased may therefore be the result of military events. (Tab. 49). Graves 343 and 344 (excavated 1994) were immediately adjacent in the main section of Cribra orbitalia only occurred in females from Klin-Yar III, therefore perhaps resulting from a the elite plot (graves 342B and 351B). Bowed single event, with 348 (a female adult) being tibiae indicative of possible rickets were found just under 10 m away. in one child, also from the elite plot (grave 378; Tab. 49). Occupational stress: The analysis of indicators of physical activity did not provide any evidence Trauma: In the Sarmatian series, there were for the inference of the economy of this popula- three cases of trauma: two cases of skull trauma tion. Diseases of the joints were found more of- in a male and a female (graves 372 and 370, re- ten in females, Schmorl’s nodes (the result of in- spectively), and one case of bone trauma (again, tervertebral disc pressure) more often in males, the male in grave 372). The skull injuries appear which is the usual picture of prehistoric and to be due to blunt trauma, so the nature of the early historical populations without economic traumata in the Sarmatian group differs from and occupational specialisation. We did not find any evidence of riding facets in the Koban series (Tab. 48). 868 Бужилова 2001; Rathbun 1984.

174 9 The human bones from Klin-Yar III and IV

Preservation (numbers of individuals) preservation male (3) female (6) child (2) unknown (1) total (12)

skull 3 5 2 1 11

bones 3 6 1 0 10

Dental pathology Trauma Traits male female child Traits male female child

Caries 1/33.3 1/20 0 Skull trauma 1/33.3 1/20 0

Abscess 1/33.3 0 0 Skeletal trauma 1/33.3 0 0

Loss of teeth 0 0 0 Joint and spine diseases Calculus 1/33.3 2/40 0 Osteochondrosis 2/66.7 2/40 0

Crown fracture 1/33.3 1/20 0 Schmorl’s nodes 0 1/20 0

Tailor’s tooth 0 0 0 Arthropathy 1/33.3 0 0

Growth arrest Indicators of physical activity Enamel hypoplasia 1/33.3 1/20 1/50 Cold stress 1/33.3 0 0

Harris lines total – 2/66.7 Horse-riding 2/66.7 1/20 0

Metabolic disorders Anaemia 0 2/40 0

Rickets 0 0 1/100

Scurvy 0 0 0 Table 49. Indicators of stress in Sarmatian series (N/%). that of the Koban series. The two individuals Dietary stress: Dental pathologies become with trauma are from the elite plot. more frequent in the later phases of the Klin- Yar population. On the whole, dental illness- Occupational stress: The indicators of physical es are more typical of males (Tab. 51, Fig. 48). activity are more frequent than in the Koban pop- The high incidence of dental calculus deposits ulation (Tab. 49). For the first time, riding facets among Alanic males is also noteworthy. There appear in the Klin-Yar sample, and they are more are no cases of fractured crowns in either sex. frequent with males than with females. It is note- These two observations may be related to a worthy that the female with riding facets is from different type of diet from the one we inferred the elite plot (grave 351B). for the Koban period, possibly with a larger component of proteins. There is, in the Alanic series, one case of a so-called ‘tailor’s tooth’; 9.6.3 Sarmatian-Alanic period the individual is from Klin-Yar IV (grave 9 skeleton 3; female adult), i. e. not from the elite The human remains from three individuals from plot. transitional Sarmatian-Alanic graves were studied, but the skeletal preservation was very bad. Metabolic stress: The Alanic series has the high- The trend of their pathological profile is the est incidence of hypoplasia (55.6 %) at Klin-Yar. same as that in the Sarmatian period. Typical The two sexes have similar frequencies of this features were calculus deposits, rickets in sub- stress indicator (Tab. 51). The Alanic series also adults, skull trauma, and riding facets (Tab. 50). has the largest number of cases of Harris lines (71.4 %) of all chronological groups at Klin-Yar. Rickets occur in both sexes and all age groups, 9.6.4 Alanic period but anaemia and scurvy were observed only once, in a child. The preservation of the human remains from the Alanic period is the best of all the chronological Trauma: Several cases of trauma were found in sub-samples from Klin-Yar. Skulls or skull frag- the Alanic series: two females (386 skeleton 2, ments of some 31 individuals were analysed, as and IV-10) with skeletal trauma, and one case of were the skeletal parts of 39 individuals. a male with skull trauma (381 skeleton 1).

175 Klin-Yar – A. P. Buzhilova et al.

Preservation (numbers of individuals) preservation male (1) female (1) child (1) unknown (0) total (3)

skulls 1 1 1 - 3

bones 1 1 1 - 3

Dental pathology Trauma Traits male female child Traits male female child

Caries 0 0 0 Skull trauma 0 1/100 0

Abscess 0 0 0 Skeletal trauma 0 0 0

Loss of teeth 0 0 0 Joint and spine diseases Calculus 1/100 0 0 Osteochondrosis 0 0 0

Crown fracture 0 0 0 Schmorl’s nodes 0 0 0

Tailor’s tooth 0 0 0 Arthropathy 0 0 0

Growth arrest Indicators of physical activity Enamel hypoplasia 0 0 0 Cold stress 0 0 0

Harris lines - Horse-riding 1/100 0 0

Metabolic disorders and anaemia Anaemia 0 0 0

Table 50. Indicators of stress Rickets 0 0 1/100 in transitional Sarma- Scurvy 0 0 0 tian-Alanic series (N/%).

Preservation (numbers of individuals) preservation male (14) female (14) child (13) unknown (3) total (44)

skulls 8 12 9 2 31

bones 13 12 11 3 39

Dental diseases Trauma Traits male female child Traits male female child

Caries 2/25 1/8.3 0 Skull trauma 2/25 1/8.3 0

Abscess 3/37.5 1/8.3 0 Skeletal trauma 1/7.7 1/8.3 0

Loss of teeth 1/12.5 1/8.3 0 Joint and spine diseases Calculus 4/50 1/8.3 1/11.1 Osteochondrosis 2/15.4 2/16.7 0

Crown fracture --- Schmorl’s nodes 1/7.7 1/8.3 0

Tailor’s tooth 0 1/8.3 0 Arthropathy 0 1/8.3 0

Growth arrest Indicators of physical activity Enamel hypoplasia 4/50 6/50 6/66.7 Cold stress 3/37.5 0 0

Harris lines total−5/71.4 Horse-riding 9/69.2 3/25 0

Metabolic disorders and anaemia Anaemia 0 0 1/11.1

Rickets 1/12.5 1/8.3 1/9.1 Table 51. Indicators of stress Scurvy 0 0 1/10 in Alanic series (N/%).

176 9 The human bones from Klin-Yar III and IV

Occupational stress: The indicators of physical activity present the same picture we found in the earlier Sarmatian group. The numerous cases of riding facets are particularly noteworthy. Of the 12 cases, nine are males and three are females; six are from the elite plot (grave 345 skeleton 2, male; grave 360 skeletons 1 and 2, male and female; grave 363B skeleton 2, male; grave 373, female; grave 381 skeleton 1, male).

The data presented here are complex in the sense that they are not the outcome of mono- causal factors; they demonstrate the consequences of various stresses resulting from the economic activities and lifestyle of the population. They may also be related to the influx of a new population, and the transition to a different economy. The detailed reconstruction of the causes of stress is possible by a synthesis of physical-anthropological, archaeological and historical data.

9.7 Non-metric traits and kinship

Non-metric traits were looked for as markers of genetic relationships.869 In addition, we analysed skeletal anomalies and genetically caused pathologies which are not part of the conventional programme of non-metric traits.870

In the Koban series, the frequency of ‘sabre-shaped tibiae’ in men is about 12 %, while only a single case (grave 191) was noted among women and children. Arachnoidosis, the traces of an inflammation of the arachnoid membrane in the skull, was found in two men (graves 184 and 354) and one woman (grave 181). Digiti- form pressure which leaves marks on the inside of the frontal and parietal bones suggests a high intracranial pressure during life.871 This was noted in the Koban series in three cases: two men (graves 194 and 354) and one child and 371 skeleton 1). It is interesting that both Fig. 48. Incidence of caries (grave 350). Metopism was observed in two individuals, a man and a woman, are from the in the Klin-Yar series (upper – cases: a man (grave 204) and a woman (grave elite plot, and their graves are not far apart. male, lower – female). 326). We did not find any other markers in the These rare features suggest that these individu- Koban group. als are probably relatives. Metopism was found in several adult individuals from Sarmatian In the Alanic series, we noted a single case and Alanic graves (Sarmatian: 363A; Alanic: each of the so-called Korabelli Höcker molar (in 237, 359, and 381 skeleton 1). It is important the mandible of the male in grave 357, skele- to note that this trait is present in individuals ton 1), and of the two-sided sacralization of from the elite plot where most individuals are the sacrum and the last spondylus of the spine probably related. (the female in grave 373). The intercondylar fo- ramen on the humerus was observed in two in- The markers of digitiform pressure are present in dividuals from Alanic graves (363B skeleton 2, the frontal and parietal regions of several skulls in the Sarmatian and Alanic groups (graves 234, 374, 381/1, 382/3, 384, IV-9/1 and 9/3). In the latter case, it may be suggested that the respec- 869 Мовсесян et al. 1975. 870 Бужилова 1998. tive individuals in grave 9 (a woman and a child) 871 Рохлин 1965. are relatives.

177 Klin-Yar – A. P. Buzhilova et al.

on a phalange of the foot of another individual (grave 12). This feature is, however, not a safe indicator of family relationships between the members of this group.

Arachnoidosis was observed three times in the Sarmatian series (graves 342B, 351 A and B), and three times in the Alanic series (graves 234, 360/1, 371/1). The distribution of this marker is clearly due to chance and does not suggest family relationships.

Thus, the analysis of non-metric traits and anomalies suggests that some of the individuals from Alanic graves of the elite plot were relatives (graves 359, 363B/2, 371/1, 381/1). If artificial skull deformation is an additional social indicator of kinship, then the two Sarmatian individuals in 342B and 351B may be relatives, as are possibly the Alanic woman and child in grave Fig. 49. Osteoma on the tem- Wormian bones (large bones in the occipital su- IV-9 (skeletons 1 and 3). The latter case high- poral bone of the individual ture) were found on the skulls of nine individu- lights the possibility that the Alanic catacombs in Klin-Yar grave 351B. als from Sarmatian and Alanic graves. Three of were family tombs. these were of Sarmatian date (graves 342B, 378, 387) and six of Alanic date (graves 363B/2, 373, It should be emphasized that the largest num- IV-7/3 and 7/4, IV-9/1 and 9/3). The suture pat- ber of non-metric traits and anomalies was ob- terns suggest that two individuals from grave served in the Alanic series. Some of these traits IV-7 (female 7/3 and male 7/4) and two individ- were found only in this group, and not in those uals from grave IV-9 (female 9/3 and child 9/2) of the other chronological periods. This obser- are possibly relatives. vation, as well as the results of the craniological and osteological analysis, suggest that the Osteomas, or benign tumours (Fig. 49) which are Alanic population consisted of immigrants and possibly a family trait, were found on the skulls differed from the populations of the earlier per of three individuals (351B, 360/1, 7/3), and iods.

9.8 Bone chemistry: a provisional reconstruction of the diet

Trace element analysis of human bone tissues consumption of plants, of muscle tissues of land from Klin-Yar skeletal material was carried out in vertebrates, and of marine animals (fish and order to reconstruct the diet. The methodological molluscs), respectively. basis of this approach is well established.872 This type of analysis requires well-preserved bones; The results suggest differences in the diet be- bones with broken surfaces cannot be used. The tween the cultural and chronological groups at trace element characteristics of badly preserved Klin-Yar, particularly between the Koban Period bone are closely connected with those of the diet, on the one hand, and Sarmatian and Alanic soil in which it was found. Diagenetic process- diet, on the other hand. es take place throughout the period of contact between bone and soil. A well-preserved bone Malnutrition or irregular, low-quality nutrition surface protects the internal parts of bone tis- causes stress to the body. The comparison of sue against active soil solutions. For reasons of stress markers (see above 9.6) and trace ele- preservation, samples from only 15 individuals ments allows us to assess the intensity of the could be analysed. The analytical method used dietary stress. Physiological stress is caused by was atomic absorption which has been widely several factors of which nutrition is only one. used in previous studies of this kind. The most Stress markers point to the presence or absence informative chemical elements (strontium, zinc, of some factors, the aetiology of which is usually copper) were used for the reconstruction of the unknown. diet (Tabs. 52 – 54). These elements indicate the In Koban skeletons at Klin-Yar, strontium concentrations, which result from the intake of plant 872 Gilbert 1985; Sandford 1992; Козловская 1998. food, vary widely from one skeleton to another

178 9 The human bones from Klin-Yar III and IV

Burial Sex Age Zn Cu Sr

353 F 25 – 29 89.31 5.87 138.85

355 M 40 – 49 75.15 2.68 59.31

358 M 30 – 39 92.93 4.38 47.30 Table 52. Concentrations of 369 М 30 – 39 100.34 3.22 67.30 chemical elements (1х10-4%, 377 ? 9 – 10 91.43 4.04 80.16 ррm) in mineral part of the bone: Koban individuals.

Burial Sex Age Zn Cu Sr

351B F 30 – 39 159.06 4.90 80.60 Table 53. Concentrations of 370 F 25 – 29 108.53 2.00 91.08 chemical elements (1х10-4%, 378 ? 10 – 12 69.56 3.73 193.39 ррm) in mineral part of the bone: Sarmatian individuals.

Burial Sex Age Zn Cu Sr

342B F 30 – 39 193.47 3.55 74.17

345/2 M 20 – 29 124.63 4.80 95.54

360/1 M 35 – 39 112.60 13.67 61.93

363A ? 13 – 15 96.29 5.93 204.96 Table 54. Concentrations of 371/1 F 20 – 24 122.34 4.39 136.90 chemical elements (1х10-4%, IV-7/1 ? 1 – 1.5 124.98 14.80 49.19 ррm) in mineral part of the bone: Alanic individuals.

(Tab. 55). There is no correlation between the ppm. The highest level of zinc (100.34 ppm) was level of this trace element and stress markers. found for an individual without stress markers We can therefore suggest that plant food did not (grave 369), and the lowest level (75.15 ppm) determine the overall quality of the diet in this for an individual with stress markers (grave 355). period. The same applies to the level of copper, The child from grave 377 is an interesting case: the concentration of which is an indicator of food he/she shows evidence of enamel hypoplasia made from invertebrates. The levels of this ele- and cribra orbitalia. The zinc levels in the bones ment vary widely at Klin-Yar, and there is no cor- of this skeleton are moderate given the age at relation with stress markers. death (9 – 10 years).

Another situation obtains for zinc which is an All these observations lead us to suggest that indicator of meat in the diet. Two Koban adults protein deficiency was the main factor of die- (graves 353 and 355) with clear stress markers tary stress in the Koban population at Klin-Yar. are characterized by low zinc levels, while two This may be additional evidence of the mixed adult individuals (graves 358 and 369) with few, economy of this period. The bone chemistry or no, stress markers show higher zinc levels. provides no information about the agricultural The average zinc level of individuals with the specialization of this population. Hunting and clear stress markers is about 82 ppm, the aver- fishing were probably important sources of age for those with few stress markers is about 97 food.

Sex Koban Sarmatian Alanic

Zn Cu Sr Zn Cu Sr Zn Cu Sr

Males 89.47 3.42 57.97 - - - 118.61 4.80 78.73

Females 89.31 5.87 138.85 133.79 3.45 85.84 176.26 4.22 68.05 Table 55. Comparative bone chemistry data of chronologi- Children 91.43 4.04 80.16 69.56 3.73 193.39 110.63 5.93 49.19 cal groups at Klin-Yar.

179 Klin-Yar – A. P. Buzhilova et al.

Site N Zn Cu Sr

1. Semilukij settlement 5 84.24 4.42 71.72

2. Kolbino-Ternovij (Scythian) 7 90.02 2.38 49.38

3. Kolbino-Ternovij (Bronze Age) 4 104.68 4.40 72.18

Table 56. Comparative bone 4. Klin-Yar (Koban) 4 89.39 3.92 78.21 chemistry data of some 5. Klin-Yar (Sarmatian) 2 133.75 3.45 85.85 Iron Age groups and Klin-Yar cemetery (concentrations 6. Klin-Yar (Alanic) 4 137.1 3.44 92.0 in ppm).

It has been noted above that the accumulation tian female skeletons point to an average meat of different chemical elements is determined by component in the diet (Tab. 55). Higher zinc lev- several factors, child-bearing being one of them. els were found in the older woman (grave 370), The calcium-strontium metabolism changes which may be connected with a high social po during pregnancy and breast-feeding when cal- sition of this individual. cium is taken out of the mother’s body with the milk, and is accumulated in the child’s body. In Similarly, the adolescent (13 – 15 years of age) reverse, strontium accumulates strongly in the from the destroyed Sarmatian grave 363A shows woman’s body. It is therefore possible to draw a high concentration of zinc. The child (10 – 12 wrong conclusions about the components of the years) from grave 378 is characterized by an ex- diet of female adults. There was only one female tremely high strontium level and a low zinc level. among the Koban cases which were analysed for This pattern is probably the result of a significant their bone chemistry; this individual (grave 353) proportion of plant food in the diet. This was was of child-bearing age (25 – 29 years of age). possibly a young female; at her age, pregnancy The strontium levels in her skeleton are twice would have been quite possible in this period. that of the males (taking the mean of the three However, the dynamics of the mineral content male adults from graves 355, 358 and 369). This of the bones during childhood and puberty have difference may be related to differences between not been studied extensively. We know that the male and female diet. On the other hand, the concentrations of chemical elements are chang- zinc levels are similar for males and females. As ing very markedly during the growth period. But zinc is a marker of the meat component, we sug- we really need more, and more broadly based, gest that the differences in strontium levels are research before we can fully understand the due to physiological factors (child-bearing), not bone chemistry pattern of such a young person. to differences in the diet. The Alanic sample is the largest of all three pe- The bone chemistry of the Klin-Yar Koban popu- riods analysed for bone chemistry (Tab. 55). The lation is comparable to that of the Late Bronze high meat content in the diet found for all Alanic Age cemetery of Ternovij and the Iron Age settle- individuals (except for adolescents) is remarka- ment of Semilukij (Tab. 56), both on the Middle ble. We did not find any evidence of sex differen Don.873 Both populations are characterized by a ces in the diet; animal protein was consumed by mixed economy without specialization. men and women in equal proportions. Particular- ly high levels of zinc were found in the skeleton A different type of diet is typical of the later pop- of the young woman of child-bearing age in grave ulations of Klin-Yar, with meat being more impor- 371 (skeleton 1, age 20 – 24 years); parts of an tant in the Iron Age and early medieval period. infant skeleton were found with this woman. But Sarmatian and Alanic food did not consist exclusively of meat; there is also evidence of the Thus, the results of the trace element analysis intake of plant food. It also seems that the food of the Klin-Yar skeletal material highlight the dif- of these periods was of better quality than that ferent diet of the Koban group, on the one hand, of the Koban period. and the Sarmatian and Alanic groups, on the other hand. It seems that the Koban population Only four individuals from the Sarmatian group had a mixed economy involving livestock-breed- were analysed: two female adults (graves 351B ing and agriculture. According to the bone chem- and 370) and two sub-adults (graves 378, and istry, the economy of the Sarmatians and Alans the destroyed, possibly Sarmatian grave 363A). was also mixed, but with a preponderance of the The bone chemistry patterns of the two Sarma- livestock element. Also, the food supply during the Koban period appears to have been less reliable than during the Sarmatian and Alanic pe- 873 Козловская/Зенкевич 2001. riods at Klin-Yar.

180 9 The human bones from Klin-Yar III and IV

9.9 Discussion and conclusion

The characteristics of the population buried in elite plot are characterised by an excess of male the cemeteries III and IV of Klin-Yar were studied adults, and a high proportion of children (33 % by several physical-anthropological methods. in Sarmatian, and about 30 % in Alanic graves). The Alanic group has quite a high proportion of The most representative sample is that of the males living to old age (about 18 %). Koban culture (101 individuals, incl. pre-1994 finds). Key demographic features of the Koban For the Sarmatian period, the pattern of child sample are the small proportion of children mortality is the same as that for the Koban pe- (about 9 %), and the preponderance of male over riod. The Alanic pattern is closer to the expected female adults (58 % and 42 %, respectively). child mortality, and it is not likely that there was Another feature which is also typical of compar- a tradition of separate child burial during this pe- ative populations is the small number of indi- riod. viduals in the older age group, and an average age at death of about 33 years. Female mortality The characteristics of the Sarmatian and Alanic peaks in the age group 30 – 39 years, and there elite-plot burials are unique and clearly point to are no females in the oldest age category. The a special social status (military aristocracy?) of male mortality curve is smoother by comparison. the individuals buried here, in contrast to the All this points to the presence of factors which population buried in the ‘ordinary’ parts of the determine gender differences in mortality. While cemetery. The similar patterns of mortality in the the distribution of children’s age at death be- Sarmatian and Alanic periods reflect negative tween 5 and 14 years of age appears to be close factors whose influence is more serious than is to theoretical expectations, there is a total ab- usual in other populations of the later Iron Age sence of infants and young children below the and early Middle Ages. After comparison with age of 5. This may be explained with a different other samples, we suggest that the characteris- burial rite for young children during the Koban tics of the Klin-Yar sample may be the result of period, as a result of which they do not appear military specialisation and migration.874 in the cemetery. Twenty skulls from different periods were meas- The patterns at Klin-Yar as they can be inferred ured as part of this study. The small number and from the available Koban data are comparable bad preservation of the skulls made a wider to those of other populations of the Late Bronze craniological analysis, and conclusions about Age/Early Iron Age in the south of Eastern Eu- craniological patterns at the population level im- rope. The demographic characteristics are as possible. Individual craniological descriptions expected, and reflect relatively favourable con- and skull types cannot be used for ethnic infer- ditions of life. The data suggest a mixed econo- ences. Conclusions about the physical type of a my, but the possibility of an entirely agricultural particular, past population must be based on the economy cannot be excluded. variability data of the skull characteristics. Our data comprise incomplete descriptions and few For the Sarmatian and Alanic samples (17 indi- measurements and cannot, therefore, be used viduals from 13 graves, and 64 individuals from to reconstruct the physical type(s) of the Klin- 31 graves, respectively), we have the opportuni- Yar population. Our work allowed us to describe ty to consider their features separately for differ- some individual characteristics, and to suggest ent plots of the cemeteries. Perhaps one of the some anthropological variants within the popu- most important points is that, while the overall lation under study. These suggestions are only proportion of Alanic male and female adults hypotheses which require confirmation on the across all sections excavated in 1994 – 1996 is basis of additional data from this site. skewed (27 male adults vs. 14 females), the sex proportion in the elite plot is balanced (8 males Two craniological types may be identified in the and 9 females). In the elite plot, both the Sarma- Northern Caucasus during the Bronze Age, one tian and the Alanic graves have a low proportion of them being gracile and dolichocranic. The pa- of children (about 9 % in Sarmatian, and 17 % rameters of three Koban-period male skulls from in Alanic graves), and a slight excess of female Klin-Yar allow some observations. They show adults over males (60 % and 53 %, respectively). polymorphic patterns, from mesocranic to hy- In both periods, elite-plot females have a low av- perdolichocranic; they have a moderately high erage age at death (about 29 years), and a peak skull, a pronounced horizontal relief, a low face, of mortality in the age group 20 – 34 years, most a moderately high and wide, clearly expressed likely a consequence of child-bearing. Elite-plot males of both periods have a marked peak of mortality at 20 – 24 years, and quite a low aver- 874 Малышев/Медникова 1995; Медникова/Бужилова 1996; age age at death. By contrast, areas outside the Buzhilova/Mednikova 1999.

181 Klin-Yar – A. P. Buzhilova et al.

comes more common in Alans (57 %). There is no evidence to suggest that the technique of deformation was different in Sarmatian and Alanic times, but the details of binding differed: the width of the bandages, and the numbers of vertical layers. It seems that artificial skull deformation had no negative consequences for human health, except for high intracranial pressure. However, traces of the latter were also found on undeformed skulls at Klin-Yar.

Hippocrates wrote about the aristocratic context of creating long-skulled humans. This suggests that only some families had the right to change the form of the head. It is therefore interesting Fig. 50. Long-term variability that at Klin-Yar, all Sarmatian cases of artificial- of stature in the Klin-Yar skel- ly deformed skulls were found in the elite plot etal series: 1 Koban; 2 Sar- matian; 3 Sarmatian-Alanic; (342B, 351B, 361A). It is also worth pointing 4 Alanic. out that that these cases are all females, and that they were buried in double graves. Of the 15 Alanic cases of artificial skull deformation, nose, a moderately narrow frontal bone, and seven were found in the elite plot (graves 356/1, orbits of moderate proportions and sizes. All 359, 360/1, 371/1, 380, 381/1). Moreover, two these features are typical of various Bronze Age individuals with deformed skulls were found to- groups. They can be associated with southern gether in one Alanic grave (IV-9/2 and 3), pos- populations, but they are quite different from sibly mother and child. Some of the individuals those of the hypermassive steppe variants of the with deformed skulls were buried in neighbour- Bronze Age. ing graves (359 and 360, and in cemetery IV graves 9 and 10). Perhaps the individuals in The skulls of the Sarmatian and Alanic males of these cases were related. Klin-Yar have a mesocranic shape, and the angles of their horizontal relief are rather steep. The morphometric study of the postcranial skel- The two female Sarmatian skulls are more doli- etons from Klin-Yar revealed changes over time chocranic; this is remarkable because female in the physical type of humans in this region skulls, as a rule, have a more rounded shape. It (Fig. 50). The male part of the population was is impossible to draw any conclusions on the ba- affected to a greater extent by this long-term sis of two skulls, but this dissimilarity between variability. The female samples of all periods of male and female skulls may be important for fu- Klin-Yar show a gracile complex of features which ture research. It may indicate that the males and remained stable over time. females belonged to different populations. In spite of the large number of Koban skeletons, The craniological patterns of the Klin-Yar series the fragmentary preservation and the bad con- point to the autochthonous status of the Koban dition of bone tissues prevent firm conclusions population, and to some similarities between about the linear proportions of Koban males. the Alanic and Sarmatian groups. But it should They may have had relatively long legs and short be noted that the physical-anthropological com- arms, and medium shoulder width. The most position of Sarmatian populations, in gener- marked change in postcranial morphology is al, was very diverse. Also, the small number of connected with the appearance of large, tall Sar- measured skulls rules out the possibility of firm matian males. As mentioned above, of all the conclusions on genetic links between Koban various geographical and chronological Sarma- people, Sarmatians and Alans at Klin-Yar. tian groups, it is the late Sarmatians of the Urals (e. g. cemetery of Bis-Oba) who show the great- The tradition of artificial skull deformation was est morphological similarity to the Klin-Yar ser widespread among some Sarmatian groups. ies. The post-Sarmatian male series underwent a Therefore, the occurrence at Klin-Yar of Sarma- process of gracilisation. tian skulls with traces of artificial deformation is not surprising. It seems that the close cultural Long-term changes also affected the degree of links between Sarmatians and Alans (as is ap- morphological differences between males and parent from the archaeological evidence) led to females. Sexual dimorphism was most pro- the latter adopting this tradition. Deformation is nounced in the Sarmatian group; the Koban and absent in Koban-period individuals, but appears Alanic samples show smaller skeletal differenc- in Sarmatians (18 % of measured skulls) and be- es between the sexes (Fig. 51). The low degree of

182 9 The human bones from Klin-Yar III and IV

sexual dimorphism observed in the Koban sample is in marked contrast to that of the broadly contemporaneous, early Scythian elite group buried at Novozavedennoe II (near Mineralnye Vody, North Caucasus) which has large males and gracile females. The latter is, of course, exactly the trend of the Sarmatian sample from Klin-Yar where all measured bones from the Sar- matian period derive from the elite plot.

In the case of Alanic stature, there are two inter- Fig. 51. Female stature in esting parallel patterns: a higher male stature in per cent of male stature at the elite plot than in the other parts of the cem- Klin-Yar. etery (although the latter sample is very small); and a greater sexual dimorphism in the elite plot than elsewhere, which mirrors the greater sexual quent in the Alanic group. Thus, various criteria dimorphism in the previous, Sarmatian period. indicate similar lifestyles of the Sarmatian and Alanic populations. The long-term trends of skeletal variability at Klin- Yar may be explained by a number of reasons. The The bone chemistry data highlight different diets long-term preponderance of gracility may have of the different populations. Zinc levels show been the outcome of microevolutionary process- that the sampled Koban people ate less meat es, i. e. the result of morphological adaptations protein than the Sarmatians and Alans. This is in immigrant populations to local climatic condi- supported by the chronological trends in dental tions. Another possible factor may have been a pathology. predominance of gracile female physiques which are present in all chronological groups and may The analysis of a wide range of parameters has have been perpetuated by intermarriage. allowed us to reconstruct the modes of life of the Klin-Yar population across the chronological peri- For the inference of palaeopathology, the distri- ods. The Koban group shows demographic, mor- bution of markers of lifestyle and social activi- phological, palaeopathological and palaeodiet ties was analysed across the various chronolog- patterns which probably reflect a mixed economy ical groups. The Koban group shows differences with a substantial agricultural component. The in dental pathology between men and women, Sarmatians and Alans belonged to a cultural and while Sarmatian males and females had similar economic tradition which was different from that frequencies of dental diseases. The more com- of the Koban Culture. The incidence of markers of mon pathologies in the Sarmatian period were physical and occupational stress suggests that caries, calculus and crown damage. The Alanic Sarmatians and Alans had similar lifestyles. series shows sex differences, with dental pathologies being more typical of males. The pathology Overall, the analysis of the Klin-Yar skeletal re- patterns of Sarmatian and Alanic males are clos- mains suggests that the Koban group represents er to one another than to that of Koban males. the autochthonous population which is fol- By contrast, Koban and Sarmatian females show lowed by two episodes of immigration. The first similar pathologies. Indicators of interrupted of these was associated with the Sarmatians, growth, reflecting episodes of physiological and was most likely a male-only migration. The stress in childhood, were found in all periods likelihood of intermarriage with local women, at Klin-Yar. Harris lines and enamel hypoplasia and the participation of the latter in the ethno- show higher frequencies in Sarmatian and Alan- genesis of the local Sarmatians is very high. The ic times than in the Koban period. This pattern second case was the immigration of the Alans. may reflect stress on the immigrants from occu- The Alanic females differed from the women of pational or environmental factors. Anaemia ap- the earlier periods, suggesting that they were pears sporadically in the sample whereas rickets also immigrants. The Alans may initially have en- were observed mainly in Alanic individuals. countered negative environmental factors, and this led to the indicators of physiological stress The incidence of cranial and postcranial trauma we noted in their skeletons. There also appear to is similar in the Sarmatian and Alanic males. be some differences in sexual dimorphism and Koban females have the highest frequency of bone chemistry between the Alanic populations traumatic lesions. The Sarmatian and Alanic in the elite plot of Klin-Yar cemetery III, on the samples have similar frequencies of arthropa- one hand, and Klin-Yar cemetery IV, on the other, thies, with that of the Koban sample being differ- which may reflect two successive episodes of im- ent. Riding facets were found on Sarmatian and migration, with the Klin-Yar IV population being Alanic skeletons, although they were more fre- the last to arrive.

183 10 Animal bones and horse burials from the Klin-Yar excavations 1994−1996

Anna K. Shvyryova

10.1 Introduction

During the archaeological excavations 1994 – the bones belong to one animal or several ani- 1996, rich animal bone material was collected in mals. At Klin-Yar, the finds included more or less the Klin-Yar cemetery. The main archaeological complete horse skeletons with bones in anatom- and osteological interest is focused here on the ical order. Such completeness of osteological horse burials and sacrificical deposits as they material helps to establish the ratios between are a special feature of the Klin-Yar graves exca- the skeleton’s main components, to reconstruct vated in these seasons. the animals’ appearances, to draw conclusions about the horses’ gait and potential uses, and Unfortunately, not all bones were well preserved, to compare them with both, horses from other which is explained by the local conditions of archaeological sites and modern breeds. The preservation and fossilization, on the one hand, height at the withers was calculated on the ba- and on the other hand by the low density of the sis of skulls and bone length, using the coef- bone tissue due to the young age of some of the ficients of Nehring, Kiesewalter, Cherskij, and animals found. During excavation and lifting, Vitt.876 Individual ages of horses were deter- skulls and lower jawbones of horses were fre- mined by the condition and wear of incisors and quently damaged due to their fragility; therefore, molars according to the method of Kuleshov and only four skulls and nine mandibles were se- Krasnikov.877 Where the individual age of a horse lected for close analysis. Among the leg bones, could be determined with sufficient accuracy, an the lower limb bones were preserved best, and attempt is made here to estimate the season of cortical bones (such as hipbone, humerus, etc.) the horse’s burial. survived worst of all. Along with the remains of horses, bones of other Of all animal bones collected during the excava- domestic animals were also collected during the tions, 270 horse teeth and 202 bones belonging excavations; these include cattle, ovicaprines to 27 animals were selected for analysis. This and pigs. However, this material is not covered involved more than 2000 measurements and ap- here in detail. Some of this material (cattle, ovi- proximately 1000 calculations. The description caprines, pigs), as well as a few horse bone frag- of bones uses the universally accepted anatom- ments and teeth, were recovered from the area of ical terminology. Description and processing of the Koban settlement in the main section (1/94 the bones were based on methodologies deve and 1/95). Of this, only the horse data are in- loped by Browner, Dyurst, Gromova, Tsalkin and cluded below for comparison. other researchers.875 The absence of remains of wild animals at Klin- The osteological material from Klin-Yar is of great Yar is notable, except for rodent bones. Howev- scientific interest and value. As a rule, excavat- er, given the biology of the rodents, there are no ed bone material is frequently incomplete, and grounds to assume that they were contemporary sometimes it is difficult to determine whether with the Klin-Yar burials.

10.2 Material from Klin-Yar III graves

Grave 341 (Alanic) and partially preserved maxillary bones; skull sutures are strong and easily traceable. Horse (deposition on dromos floor) 2. Mandible: articular and coronoid processes 1. Skull: heavily damaged, partially preserved, are damaged, the incisor section destroyed;

with fully preserved frontal and nasal bones, left and right dentitions Р2-М3, canines, and the left edge incisor are preserved.

875 Браунер 1916; Дюрст 1936; Громова 1949; Цалкин 876 Nehring 1884; Kiesewalter 1889; Черский 1891; Витт 1956; Цалкин 1958; Цалкин 1960; Цалкин 1961; Цалкин 1952. 1962; Цалкин 1966; Цалкин 1970; Цалкин 1972. 877 Кулешов/Красников 1952.

184 10 Animal bones and horse burials from Klin-Yar

3. Foreleg bones: scapula – two items (dam- of the northern steppes, suggesting that the aged), radius and ulna – two items, metacar- steppe breed was involved in the making of this pal – two items (the right one is damaged), breed. proximal phalanx – two items, coronoid – one item. By the proportions of metacarpal and meta- 4. Hind leg bones: femur – two items (epiphyses tarsal, the horse from grave 341 is similar to destroyed), tibia – two items, astragalus – the horses of ancient Khwarezm. However, it is one item, patella – one item, metatarsal – two more broad-boned while at the same time it is items, proximal phalanx (ph I) – two items, anatomically of better proportions because the coronoid (ph II) – one item. length of its metatarsal is half that of the parietal 5. Other bones: minor bones of the carpal and length of the skull (49.93 %), and the length of tarsal, four cervical vertebrae, including atlas the metacarpal is 42.49 %. In this regard, it re- and axis and one thoracic vertebra. sembles horses of the western type. Perhaps it was a local saddle-horse breed the making of The bones belong to a horse with an age of up which may have involved horses brought to the to 9 years (based on the wear of the dental cup Caucasus from Central Asia and Western Europe. of the edge incisors and lower molars). This is a semi-thin-legged, medium-high horse (in the classifiation system of Browner). Its height at the Grave 345 (Alanic) withers, calculated with several methods, was between 144 and 154 cm (average 146.94 cm). Horse (deposition on dromos floor) Calculated by the method of Gromova, this is an 1. Skull: damaged parts include the skull base, animal with a medium-sized head (foreleg in- palate bones, and the auditory opening area; dex 364.54; hind leg index 320.24). A complete the occipital bone is partly damaged; the up- craniological analysis of this animal was impos- per molar dentitions Р2-М3 (unattached), inci- sible because the fragmentation of the skull did sors, and canines are preserved. not allow all basic measurements. Nevertheless, 2. Mandible: well preserved, with rows of lower the available fragments make it possible to trace molars Р2-М3, incisors and canines. the skull profile: a slightly protruding vertex, a 3. Foreleg bones: scapula – two items, proxi- straight and flat forehead slightly retreating to mal phalanx – two items, coronoid, and third the orbits, with further straight profile, a visible phalange (hoof). concavity approximately at the center along the 4. Hind leg bones: femur – two items, coronoid. nasal bones, and a minor linear convexity. The 5. Other bones: cervical vertebra, atlas and axis, ends of the nasal bones are down-turned, which ribs, fragments of the pelvis, metacarpal II means that the profile is straight in the frontal and IV, metatarsal II and IV, minor bones of area and curved at the nose. In its general skull the carpal and tarsal. configuration, the animal resembles Arab hor ses. The bones belong to a stallion (upper and lower canines are present) approximately 6 years The presence of nearly all leg bones makes it old. The shape of the masticatory surface of the possible to infer the animal’s gait properties. incisors is cross-oval. The tooth cup is worn out The combined length of the humerus, radius and on the hitch incisors; its print is large and oval. metacarpal is 842 mm, of which 33.25 % is the The tooth cup is not worn on the middle and humerus, 40.02 % the radius, and 26.72 % the edge incisors, and it is not fully developed; this metacarpal. In addition, the ratio of metacarpal is why the lingual fold of enamel was not closed to radius was 66.76 %, that of metatarsal to tibia although both the labial and lingual folds were 77.02 %. In other words, the animal in question flattened. With the upper and lower incisors has a medium-long humerus, the medium-long closed, the dental arch is still smooth enough. leg segments (antebrachium and shank) are The canines are fairly mature, but little worn. The short, and the distal sections of legs (metacar- molars have high crowns; their roots are open, pal and metatarsal) are long, which is typical for but already divided into front and rear sections. racehorses. The horse is tall enough to be have The enamel pattern is of eastern type, i. e. sim- been used as a mount. ple.

As noted above, in its general skull configuration Even though the skull was considerably dam- this animal is similar to Arab horses. However, aged, it was still possible to make basic meas- considering that the horse was still an expen- urements and make a craniological analysis. sive import in 7th century Arabia, the origins of The stallion from grave 345 has a medium-sized the horse from grave 341 must be looked for in head because the basic length of the skull is the ancient horse-breeding areas of Central Asia, less than 500 mm while the parietal length particularly because the massive skeletal bones is 530 mm, the difference thus being 11.1 %. make the Arab horse somewhat similar to those Knowing the basic and parietal length of the

185 Klin-Yar – A. K. Shvyryova

skull, it is possible to calculate the stallion’s with large, wide-set orbits, which is a progres- height as 475 × 0.29 = 137.75 cm (according sive sign. Based on the orbital index (94.3 %), to Vitt); 475 × 0.3 = 142.5 cm (according to this is a horse of eastern type. The lower-jaw pa- Kiesewalter and Nehring); and 530 × 0.28 = rameters also characterize the animal as a horse 148.4 cm (according to Belonogov).878 Thus, the of eastern type: the height is 52.4 % of the full skull belongs to a horse of medium height, which length of the lower jawbone, the length of the is between 138 and 148 cm at the withers (aver- horizontal branch is 67.2 %, the length of the age height 143 cm). Visually, the skull is highly lower molar dentition is 40.5 %, and the length gracile and has harmonious proportions. This is of the diasteme is 20.8 %. confirmed by an analysis of the main structural components. The forehead is half-narrow (the There are a number of indicators whereby the frontal-base index is 241.1 %; frontal-parietal horse approaches Arab horses: a light head, a index 269.9 %; greatest frontal width 41.4 % of short muzzle, a concave or almost straight pro- the skull’s base length). The skull is very narrow file, and the height at the withers. At the same in the cerebral part (21.26 % of the main length). time, by Browner’s indices, it is close to Kyrgyz The same trend is evident in the occipital part: horses. In addition, by the proportions of the its width is 21.24 % at the foundation of the jug- proximal phalanx, it is within the modification ular processes, and 22.75 % of the main length range of the ancient Khwarezm and Akhal-Teke between the top edges of the auditory open- breeds; by the relative length of the cerebral ings. The facial width between the facial crests axis, it is also similar to the Akhal-Teke horses. is 35.57 %, which helps to place it in the nar- Nevertheless, because of its smaller height, row-faced category. head size, and proximal phalanx, the Klin-Yar stallion is unlikely to be related to the Akhal-Teke The skull face is short: the facial ratio according breed; and it differs from the horses of the Kyrgyz to Cherskij is an index of 63.5 %, while the fa- breed by its lighter head, large and wide-set or- cial-base index according to Cherskij is 157.3 %. bits, and taller stature. By the relative length of its cerebral axis (37.76 %), the skull is within the modification In many ways, the animal is closest to Arab hor range of the Akhal-Teke breed (36.7 – 40.0 %). ses. However, the Arab breed was shaped during However, the Klin-Yar skull is considerably small- the 4th to 7th centuries AD, and to complete the er in its absolute size. Browner has introduced breed, the best horses from all over the world three more indices for horse skulls: were imported into Arabia, including horses 1) facial-axial from Central Asia, which is the oldest centre of 2) cervical-axial horse-breeding. Given that the date of grave 345 3) facial-cervical. is within the formative period of the Arab breed, it is improbable that a pure Arab horse could Based on these indices, the stallion from grave have been brought to Klin-Yar at the time. It is 345 is close to Kyrgyz horses for which short fac- more likely that the stallion came to the North es are typical: Caucasus from Central Asia, and he had proper- Klin-Yar Kyrgyz breed ties which were later fixed in the Arab breed. 1) Facial-axial 134.2 130.0; 131.8 2) Cervical-axial 264.7 256.8; 263.8 Unfortunately, due to incomplete preservation of 3) Facial-cerebral 201.7 195 – 202.2 the leg bones, little can be said about the gait of the stallion from grave 345. Because the an- Among the general skull features, the profile is imal has a long and narrow scapula and short noteworthy: the vertex is located behind the femora, it was probably similar to trotters that post-orbital line, at a distance of more than have speed properties and are used as both, 50 mm, and slightly convex; the front profile is mounts and draught animals. If this suggestion somewhat concave, and the nasal bone profile is correct, then this is another point on which the is slightly curved. Therefore, the profile is of Klin-Yar stallion differs from the Arab horses that curved type, but close to straight (straight-head- are racers and have quite different leg segment ed). Because the parietal length exceeds the proportions. main length of the skull by 11.1 %, the back of the skull retreats, as is typical for horses of the steppe type since they have to survive on pas- Grave 357 (Alanic) ture fodder alone. Evart’s facial index879 (the facial to main length ratio is 76.2 %) also places it Horse (from dromos fill) with the horses of the steppes or open areas. The Material: metacarpal II and IV, metatarsal II and picture of the stallion from grave 345 is complete IV, and incisor of a horse 9 – 10 years old.

878 Белоногов 1957. 879 Браунер 1916.

186 10 Animal bones and horse burials from Klin-Yar

Ovicaprines of leg sections, the animal is close to riding hor Material: distal section of the metatarsal. The ses bred in Khwarezm since the beginnings of bone shows traces of burning. horse-breeding.

Horse 2 (‘skin’ on top of dromos) Grave 359 (Alanic) 1. Fragments of the skull too fragmentary for craniological analysis. Complete upper mo- Horse (from dromos fill) lar dentitions are preserved featuring simple Material: metacarpal II and IV, metatarsal II and enamel pattern (eastern type), heavy wear (al- IV. most to the root) and closed roots. The marks on the first and second molars have caved Cattle in; also, the width of the first molar exceeds Material: lower molar and a fragment of the pel- its length. Six incisors present in the incisor vis. bone, strongly advanced and straightened. The canines are heavily worn. Ovicaprines 2. Mandible: heavily damaged, but with com- Material: fragments of scapula and radius. plete lower molar dentitions preserved, the incisor bone with incisors (six) and canines present. The molars are heavily worn and their Grave 360 (Alanic) roots are closed. The hitch incisors have become triangular, and the middle incisors are This grave produced remains of five horses, close to triangular; the edges are rounded. which were found in and on the fill of the dromos The traces of the cups have disappeared on and in the chamber. In addition, remains of oth- both upper and lower incisors. On closing, the er domestic animals were also collected here. incisors of the upper and lower jaws form a wedge because the incisors had straightened Horse 1 (‘skin’ on top of dromos) as a result of wear. Based on these indicators, 1. A heavily damaged skull (not measurable) the estimated age of this animal is 15 years. with ten upper molars and five incisors. The 3. Foreleg bones: metacarpal – two items, one upper molars are heavily worn, their crowns proximal phalanx, one coronoid, and one are short, and the roots are closed; the marks third phalange (hoof). on the first and second molars have caved in; 4. Hind leg bones: metatarsal – two items, the enamel pattern is simple, as is typical for one proximal phalanx, two third phalanges horses of the eastern type. The upper incisors (hooves, heavily damaged). are heavily worn; the tooth cups are worn on 5. Other bones: hyoid bones (very rarely pre- all incisors, indicating that the animal is old. served in excavated materials). 2. Mandible: heavily damaged, with ascending branches and incisor section absent, but with The well-developed upper and lower canines all six incisors preserved, and full lower mo- show that the skeleton belongs to a stallion. His lar dentitions. Lower molars are heavily worn, age, based on the condition of the incisors, can- their crowns are low; the roots are closed. not be less than 15 years. Like all horses of the The incisors are heavily worn; the print of eastern type, it has a simple enamel pattern on the tooth cup on the hitches is gone, but still the upper molars. survives on the middle and edge incisors. All incisors are round. From the condition of the This is an undersized animal, of 136 – 137 cm dental system, the age of this horse is esti- at the withers. Judging by the massiveness of mated at 13 years. the metacarpal (15.36 %), it is semi-thin-leg- 3. Foreleg bones: metacarpal – two items, prox- ged, and by the massiveness of the metatarsal imal phalanx – two items, coronoid – one (11.62 %) it is a thin-legged animal, similar to item, and one third phalange (hoof). Kyrgyz horses in the proportions of the distal sec- 4. Hind leg bones: metatarsal – two items, proxi- tions of the legs and their massiveness. This is a mal phalanx – two items, and one coronoid. rather ancient breed from Central Asia, fit for use 5. Other bones: two pectoral and one lumbar in mountainous conditions, both for riding and vertebrae, fragments of ribs, small bones of as a packhorse; it can also be used in harness the carpal and tarsal. for light transport and in farming. Mares of the Kyrgyz breed have a high milk yield; their milk is The bones described above belong to a me- used to produce koumiss (fermented mare milk). dium-high (141 – 142 cm at the withers), half- thin-legged horse (massiveness index of the The similarity of this stallion to Kyrgyz horses metacarpal is 15.46, of the metatarsal 12.26) of does not necessarily mean that he was brought eastern type, at least 13 years old. Judged by the to the North Caucasus from the Kyrgyz region. proportions and massiveness of the distal bones He may be of a local breed produced specifically

187 Klin-Yar – A. K. Shvyryova

for use in mountainous areas, which may have Concerning its proportions, the animal in ques- led to properties which are also typical of Kyrgyz tion does not have a long metacarpal and meta horses. In other words, this may be a case of the tarsal, nor a long head: the length of the meta- convergent development of geographically sepa- tarsal is 50.15 %, and the metacarpal 42.11 %, rate populations. of the parietal length of the skull. By these factors, the stallion resembles horses of the west- Horse 3 (deposition on floor of dromos) ern type, but the proportions of the distal sec- 1. Fragments of skull and mandible: material is tions of its legs are within the modification range too fragmented for a craniological analysis. of the horses of ancient Khwarezm. Upper and lower molars, upper and lower incisors, and two pairs of canines are preserved. Horse 4 (fragments from fill of dromos; disturbed The molars are heavily worn; their crowns deposition from grave 359?) are low, in the final stage of root formation. 1. Fragments of mandible (too fragmented for Arcades of upper and lower incisors join at description). a sharper angle than would be the case in 2. Incisors of the upper jaw: the tooth cup is young animals because the incisors are worn heavily worn; its print is of cross-oval shape. down and begin to straighten with age. They 3. Hind leg bones: distal section of the metatar- are already rounded, the tooth cup is worn sal, right proximal phalanx, left and right cor- down, and its print approaches the lingual onoid bones, and third phalange (hoof, heavi- edge of the teeth. Considering the greatly ly damaged). worn-out upper canines and the condition of the molars, and the wear and shape of the Given the proportions of the proximal phalanx, incisors, the estimated age of this stallion is this horse is within the modification range of the 11 – 12 years. horses from Akhal-Teke and ancient Khwarezm. 2. Foreleg bones: scapula – two items (heavily It is, however, closer to the Khwarezm horse damaged), humerus – two items, radius and because the proximal phalanx is considerably ulna – two items, metacarpal – two items; shorter (77.5 mm) than that of the Akhal-Teke proximal phalanx, coronoid and third phal- horses (94.84 mm). The wear of the incisor sug- ange (hoof, heavily damaged) – one item each. gests an age of 8 – 9 years. 3. Hind leg bones: femur – two items, tibia – two items, metatarsal – two items, proximal pha- Horse 5 (in fill of chamber) lanx – two items, coronoid – two items, calca- Material: bones of the hind leg (calcaneus, as- neus – two items, astragalus – one item, pa- tragalus, metatarsal, proximal phalanx and coro- tella – two items, fragments of pelvic bones. noid, third phalange, pelvis fragments). 4. Other bones: hyoid bones, atlas, fragments of vertebrae of other spinal column sections, mi- The bones belong to a young animal because the nor carpal and tarsal bones. shaft of the calcaneus is not yet fused with the epiphysis of the calcanean tuber. Judging by the From the almost complete skeleton of the ani- massiveness of the metatarsal, this is a thin-leg- mal, it has been possible to calculate the size of ged horse (index 11.58) in the classification sys- its head (using Gromova’s method) and the ratio tem of Browner. Its height at the withers can be of leg segments, in order to find the height at the calculated as 142 – 143 cm using the coefficients withers, and to make inferences about its gait of Kiesewalter and Nehring; it is therefore of me- properties. dium height (in the classification of Cherskij). In the length of the metatarsal, the proximal pha- Well-developed canines in the upper and lower lanx and their proportions, the horse is close to jaws indicate that the skeleton belongs to a stal- Khwarezm horses. lion aged 11 – 12 years (to judge by the condition of the incisors). Metrical analysis makes it pos- Cattle sible to characterize the stallion as an animal The following material was found in the chamber with a medium-sized head, of medium height fill: fragments of the skull and lower jaw, with

(height at the withers just above 141 cm), with teeth Р1-Р3, М3; a fragment of the maxillary bone 1 3 sufficiently long legs (the combined length of with dentition Р -М , hitch incisor; vertebrae, the segments of the foreleg is 823.95 mm, of the small fragments of ribs, fragments of sternum; hind leg 972.15 mm). Judged by the massive- fragments of scapula and of long bones; meta- ness of the metacarpal and metatarsal, this is a carpal. medium-legged animal (metacarpal index 15.8, metatarsal index 12.78), with relatively short The bones belong to a young animal because the shoulders and thighs, and long antebrachium, vertebrae bodies are not yet fused with interver- shanks and metapodia (compared to the com- tebral disks, some of the long bones are free bined length of these segments). This ratio is from the epiphyses, and in others the diaphy- typical for trotter horses. ses and epiphyses are loosely connected. Tooth

188 10 Animal bones and horse burials from Klin-Yar

wear leads to an age estimate of 24 – 34 months, Judging by the enamel patterns of the upper mo- or approximately three years. Using the coeffi- lars, this is a horse of eastern type. The bones cient of Tsalkin, the height of the animal at the belong to a young animal because the interver- withers is calculated as 17.7 cm (length of the tebral disks are not yet fused with the vertebral metacarpal bone) × 5.98 = 105.8 cm; this means bodies, and the processes have no apical carti- that the animal is not large. This is supported by lage. the relatively small size of the astragalus. Horse (deposition on floor of dromos) Measurements of small bones (cattle) 1. Foreleg bones: scapula – two items (heavily Dentition: damaged), humerus – two items, radius and 1. Full length (Р1-М3) 17.4 mm ulna – two items, metacarpal – three items 2. Length of row Р1- Р3 47.0 mm (possibly, one of these belongs to the horse 3. Length of row М1-М3 71.8 mm skin deposition from the top of the dromos), Metacarpal: proximal phalanx – two items, coronoid – two 1. Full length 177.0 mm items (very poorly preserved), third phal- 2. Width of proximal end 5.4 mm ange – one (in several fragments), minor 3. Width at mid-diaphysis 30.0 mm bones of the carpal, metacarpal II and IV, met- 4. Width of distal end 53.8 mm atarsal II and IV). 5. Width of body 56.0 mm 2. Hind leg bones: femur – two items (with dam- Astragalus: aged epiphyses), tibia – two items (similarly 1. Length of lateral side 59.0 mm damaged), metatarsal – two items, proximal 2. Length of medial side 54.0 mm phalanx – two items (both damaged), calca- 3. Length between body crests 45.5 mm neus – two items (damaged), astragalus – 4. Width of upper body 40.4 mm two items (damaged), minor bones of the tar- 5. Width in the middle (broken) – sal, patella – one item. 6. Width of lower body 39.0 mm 7. Bone width (front to rear) 33.5 mm The sufficiently complete osteological material makes it possible to work out the skeletal In addition, the dromos fill also produced re- proportions on which to base a reconstruction mains of cattle (a heavily worn third molar, frag- of the horse’s physical appearance. For a more ments of the mandible with Р1-М1 dentition, third complete reconstruction, the main and parietal phalanx and fragments of sacrum and of two ver- length of the skull has been calculated from the tebrae), belonging to a mature animal. animal’s height (parietal length 525.27 mm, main length 474.5 mm). Pig Fragments of the upper jaw with molars М2 and This is a thin-legged horse (index of metacarpal М3 were found in the fill of the northern part of the 14.18, metatarsal 11.03), of medium height dromos. The second molar is slightly worn and is (142 – 143 cm at the withers), with a medi- at the stage of root formation and advancement um-sized head (from foreleg index of 358.28 to the tritor. Therefore, this upper jaw fragment and hind leg index of 311.02). Gait properties belongs to a young animal aged 7 – 9 months. are determined by the relative lengths of the various leg sections. The combined length of humerus, radius and metacarpal is 831.6 mm, Grave 361 (Sarmatian) 33.3 % of which is the humerus, 40.4 % the radius, and 26.28 % the metacarpal. Therefore, Horse (from access pit) the shoulder is of medium length while the dis- Material: upper hitch incisor from a very old tal segments of the legs are long, suggesting a horse, the masticatory surface has become in- fast-running ability. The combined length of fe- verse-oval in shape, which occurs at the age of mur, tibia and metatarsal is 979 mm, 37.58 % 18 – 20 years. of which is the femur, 35.85 % the tibia, and 26.55 % the metatarsal. This means that the Rodent (from chamber fill) thigh is long, the middle segment is short, and Material: mandible and humerus. the distal segment is long. According to Dyurst, a long thigh is functionally typical for horses of racing breeds. The leg segment ratio calculated Grave 363 (Alanic) using Gromova’s method indicates a relatively short antebrachium and shank, which is also Horse (from fill of dromos) typical for horses of racing breeds. This horse Material: second and third upper molars, right is of harmonious proportions because it has lower molars Р2-М3, third lower molar (left), atlas, a medium-sized head, with the length of the axis, small fragments of other vertebrae of cervi- metacarpal being 41.61 % of the parietal length cal and pectoral sections, and fragments of ribs. of the skull, while the metatarsal is almost half

189 Klin-Yar – A. K. Shvyryova

its length (49.49 %). With its height at the with- lars are heavily worn, their crowns are low, ers, massiveness and lengths of metacarpal and and the roots are closed. The incisors are metatarsal, it is close to Arab horses which are heavily worn; hitches are triangular, medium known as superb racers. incisors are rounded, and the edge incisors are oval. The trace of the dental cup is invis- Cattle ible on the hitches; it is a point on middle in- Material: two incisors and third lower molar. cisors, and rounded on the edge incisors. The lower canines are slightly worn. Ovicaprines 3. Foreleg bones: humerus – one, radius and Material: metacarpal, first phalanx, astragalus, ulna – two items, scapula – two items, left two vertebrae; from two animals. metacarpal. 4. Hind leg bones: femur and tibia of the left leg, Measurements of small bones (sheep) metatarsal, pelvis fragments. Metacarpal: 5. Other bones: five cervical and eight thoracic 1. Length 120.0 mm vertebrae, minor leg bones. 2. Width of proximal end 21.0 mm 3. Width at mid-diaphysis 13.8 mm On the thoracic vertebrae where the heads and 4. Width of distal end 26.0 mm tubercles of the ribs join with the vertebrae, and Astragalus: at the edges of the articular pits on the vertebra 1. Length 33.0 mm bodies, sharp and spiky bone protruberances 2. Width of proximal end 20.3 mm have developed (like ‘bumps’ on the legs). This 3. Width in the middle 19.3 mm suggests that the animal was diseased. 4. Width of distal end 21.0 mm The presence of upper and lower canines indi- The sheep is young because the lower epiphysis cates that the skeleton is that of a stallion. Dental is loosely attached to the diaphysis. Its height condition and the wear on the incisors suggest at the withers is 58.21 cm (12 cm × 4.86); it is, it was aged 13 – 14 years. This is an undersized thus, not a tall sheep. In its proportions it is clos- animal (height at the withers 135 – 136 cm), with est to the present-day Tsygaj sheep with semi- a medium-sized head (foreleg index 358.2, hind fine ool.w leg index 319.69). The skull proportions suggest that the stallion had a wide forehead and semi- Rodent wide head, which is typical for horses of eastern Material: lower jaw, half of pelvis, femur and type. tibia. The forelegs of the horse are more broad-boned than its hind legs (massiveness index of meta- Grave 366 (Koban) carpal 15.62, of metatarsal 11.9). The combined length of humerus, radius and metacarpal is Cattle 795 mm; of that, the shoulder is 32.76 %, radius

Material: fragment of mandible with Р3 - М3 den- 40.5 %, and metacarpal 26.72 %. The combined tition. The teeth are heavily worn, and belong to length of femur, tibia and metatarsal is 920 mm, an old animal. 36.41 % of which is the femur, 36.19 % the tibia, and 27.39 % the metatarsal. Therefore, the animal has a short shoulder and thigh, and long an- Grave 367 (?Alanic) tebrachium, shank, metacarpal and metatarsal, which is typical for trotter horses. The elongated Horse (in separate burial pit) shape of other leg sections indicates a fast-run- 1. Skull: the incisor part heavily damaged, ning ability. with base destroyed, but complete dentition preserved. The teeth are worn to the roots, and their roots are closed. The cup is Grave 368 (Alanic) worn on hitch incisors and middle incisors, its trace is small; the trace is cross-oval on Horse (from dromos fill, probably disturbed the edge incisors. The hitches are of trian- ‘skin’ deposition) gular shape, middle incisors are rounded, 1. Upper molars: left dentition Р2-М3, right М1- and the edge incisors are oval. The upper М3. The teeth are considerably worn and at canines are heavily worn; their diameter is the final stage of root formation. The pattern 12 mm. The enamel patterns of the upper of the enamel folds is of eastern type. The in- molars indicate that this is a horse of east- cisors of the upper jaw (six preserved) have ern type. worn cups. The upper canines are heavily 2. Mandible: in fragments; preserved: six inci- worn and protrude 12 mm from the jaw; their sors, two canines, 12 lower molars. The mo- diameter is 11 mm.

190 10 Animal bones and horse burials from Klin-Yar

2. Mandible with complete left and right denti- the rear external blade is barely marked. The

tion Р2- М3, six incisors and two canines, but third molar (М3) also has an open pulp end. with destroyed angular section and ascend- The masticatory surface just begins to show ing outgrowths. The molar crowns are still wear, and the double loop is represented by rather high, and the root-formation process is two separate elements; the rear loop and the nearly complete. The incisors of the lower jaw talonide have not emerged; the frontal inner are rounded. On the hitch incisors, the print and outer blades are shaped as narrow loops; of the dental cup is very small; on the middle the rear outer blade has an outer wall barely and edge incisors, it is rounded and close to touched by wear. the lingual edge of the teeth. The canines are 2. Foreleg bones: scapula – two items (poorly also rather worn. The upper and lower canines preserved, no measurements possible); hu- indicate that the bones belong to a stallion. merus – two items, epiphysis not yet fused The dental condition suggests that it was with the body; radius and ulna – two items, around 12 years old. distal epiphyses not yet fused with diaphy- 3. Foreleg bones: metacarpal – two items (both ses; metacarpal – two items. damaged), proximal phalanx – two items, 3. Hind leg bones: femur – two items, heavily third phalange (hoof) – heavily damaged. damaged, no measurements possible; tib- 4. Vertebrae: seven cervical, 14 pectoral, two ia – two items, also heavily damaged; meta- lumbar; rib fragments. tarsal; astragalus – two items, the right one heavily damaged; calcaneus – two items, the Despite the small number of bones preserved, it calcanean tuber of the right heel bone having is possible to infer that this is a stallion of me- no cartilage; proximal phalanx – one item; dium height; its height at the withers calculated fragments of pelvic bone. The bones are very from the metacarpal is 143.9 cm. It has a foreleg poorly preserved because they belong to a of medium massiveness (index of metacarpal very young animal and therefore have a low 15.47, of proximal phalanx 42.35). Judging by bone tissue density. the length of metacarpal and proximal phalanx, 4. Other bones: ribs, vertebrae. The bones are it is close to horses of ancient Khwarezm. porous and light; intervertebral discs are not yet fused with the vertebral bodies or are Ovicaprines loosely attached to them. These indicators Material: lower molar. suggest that this is a young animal.

By the condition of the dental system, the age Grave 370 (Sarmatian) of the horse is estimated to be no more than 48 – 51 months. This is also suggested by the low Horse (from access pit) density of the bone tissue, by the absence of epi Material: proximal phalanx – two items (from physes on long bones, and by vertebral bodies foreleg and hind leg); coronoid – one. being unattached to intervertebral discs.

Rodent In the case of a young horse, it is difficult to char- Bones. acterize and reconstruct the appearance of the animal, but by the time of its death this animal was probably 130 – 140 cm high at the withers Grave 376 (Koban) (calculated from metatarsal and radius). Based on the bone proportions, the animal has the Cattle (from grave pit; catalogue no. 4) makings of racehorse: long antebrachium, and Material: fragment of proximal end of metapodial. long thin metatarsal (massiveness index 11.6).

In this case, it is possible to infer the approximate Grave 378 (Sarmatian) season of death. Today, in natural or near-natural conditions such as in herds, foals are born in late Horse (deposition on floor of dromos) April to mid-July, but most often in May. It is prob-

1. Teeth: incisors, lower molars Р4 and М3 (left). able that in the Early Middle Ages foals were also The incisors have open roots; hitches and born at that time, at the start of the warm season. middle incisors begin to show wear, and the This would mean that the horse in grave 378 was edge incisors are fully formed, but still not buried in summer to early autumn, approximately protruding from the jaw. The fourth premolar between July and September.

(Р4) has a wide-open pulp end and undeveloped masticatory surface components: the Horse (from dromos fill) front, middle and back loops in form of three Material: Several fragments of mandible and isolated rounded elements; frontal and in- skull, ten upper molars and 11 lower molars, one ternal blades are in form of narrow loops; incisor.

191 Klin-Yar – A. K. Shvyryova

The incisor has an open root; the labial and lin- The bones belong to a young stallion (upper and gual enamel folds are barely touched by wear, lower fangs are present) aged 5 – 5.5 years (judging but not straightened; therefore, the tooth cup is by the development of the dental system). The ani- still immature and looks like a narrow gap, indi- mal is undersized, with a height of 129 – 133 cm at cating that the incisor has just recently emerged the withers (calculated from metacarpal and met- from the jaw and begun wearing down. The low- atarsal). This is a thin-legged horse (massiveness er and upper molars have open roots and high index of metacarpal 14.43, of metatarsal 11.22), crowns; therefore, they are at an early stage of with a semi-narrow upper proximal phalanx. These root formation. The masticatory surface of some indicators place it close to Arab horses. teeth is not entirely mature. For example, Р2 has an open rear mark, and both marks are open in Р3 while Р4 and М3, which normally emerge near- Grave 381 (Alanic) ly simultaneously, have wide-open pulp ends and undeveloped masticatory surface compo- Horse (from fill of chamber) nents. Material: heavily worn hitch incisor.

Judging by the dental condition and wear, the Pig (from fill of chamber) age of the horse was 4 – 4.5 years. Material: fragment of mandible with a canine and empty alveolar socket for first premolar. Cattle Material: tooth of a young animal. Ovicaprines (from bronze cauldron in chamber) Material: ribs covered with green copper oxides. Ovicaprines Material: ribs. Grave 383 (Sarmatian/Alanic)

Grave 379 (Sarmatian) Ovicaprines (from fill of dromos) Material: two astragali of ovicaprines. Horse (‘skin’ from top of dromos fill) 1. Teeth: upper incisors (two hitches, one cen- Ovicaprines (from chamber; catalogue no. 5) tral, one edge); upper canine; upper molars Material: 12 astragali from at least six animals; Р2-Р4; fragment of the incisor bone, with cen- one lower molar. tral incisor, edge incisor and lower canine;

lower molars М2-М3. The upper incisors have open roots; the tooth cups on the hitch- Grave 384 (Alanic) es show beginnings of wear, with the long axis parallel with the dental arcade. On the Ovicaprines (from fill of dromos) middle incisors, the labial and lingual edg- Material: 12 astragali from at least seven ani- es are growing even. On the edge incisors, mals. The astragali are of different sizes, small the tooth cup is still undeveloped: its lin- and large (probably reflecting different ages be- gual edge is below the labial edge, and the cause the bone tissue of the small astragali is cup is funnel-shaped. The six incisors of the less dense). lower jaw have open roots; their masticatory surfaces are shaped like an oval with the Ovicaprines (from chamber) long axis parallel to the dental arcade. The Material: 20 astragali from at least ten animals print of the dental cup has the same shape. of different ages. The upper canine is already of normal size; the root is open, its top is slightly worn. The Pig (from fill of dromos) root of the lower canine is also open; it has Material: four astragali from at least three ani- already emerged, but does not yet protrude mals. far enough to start wearing. Upper and lower molars have high crowns; their roots are Pig (from chamber) still open, but already divided in two to three Material: nine astragali from at least five animals. parts; an inclination to closure is visible, especially on the second premolar (Р2). 2. Foreleg bones: metacarpal – two items, proxi- Grave 387 (Sarmatian/Alanic) mal phalanx – two items, and coronoid – one item. Cattle (in dromos fill) 3. Hind leg bones: metatarsal – two items, prox- Material: lower molar. imal phalanx – one item, coronoid – one item, and third phalange (hoof) – one item. The Ovicaprines (on floor of chamber; catalogue no. 4) hoof is poorly preserved. Material: ribs.

192 10 Animal bones and horse burials from Klin-Yar

Grave 388 (Sarmatian or Alanic ‘cenotaph’) labial edge of which is above the lingual edge. The pulp end of the incisors is wide-open. The Horse (‘skin’ on top of dromos) preserved canine shows no traces of wear, but is 1. Fragments of the skull; middle and edge inci- completely shaped and at the phase when it pro- sors; canine; upper molars (left and right den- trudes from the jawbone. Molars are represent- tition Р2-М3). ed by the complete dentition Р2- М3. They are at 2. Lower jaw: heavily damaged, incisor section the initial stage of root formation. Their crowns missing; right and left dentition of lower mo- are high, the masticatory surface of the molars

lars Р2- М3 preserved. М3 is triangular, and the bottoms of marks are 3. Foreleg bones: metacarpal – two items, proxi- visible in the opening at the pulp end of the up- mal phalanx – two items, right coronoid. per teeth. The length of the fourth premolar (Р4) 4. Hind leg bones: metatarsal – two items, proxi- exceeds its width. Its masticatory surface is still mal phalanx– two items. incompletely developed.

The bones are poorly preserved because of the By comparing the order of dental eruption, low density of the bone tissue, which points to a dental wear and development of masticatory young age of the animal. They obviously belong surface components, it is possible to narrow to a stallion because the canine was found, un- down the estimate of the age of the animal to affected by wear, with the set of upper molars, 42 – 45 months. This means that it died in the and only stallions have upper canines; in mares, autumn to winter period, around November to canines are usually found in the lower jaw. February. Considering that age changes in bones are unpredictable, it is difficult to reconstruct This is a young animal, at the stage close to the completely the animal’s appearance. Howev- completion of primary incisor change. The tooth er, at the time of death it was a bit higher than cup of the hitch incisors is almost closed. The 125 cm at the withers (calculated from metacar- central incisors have barely emerged so that the pal and metatarsal). Its forelegs are rather more labial fold of enamel is already affected by wear, massive than its hind legs (metacarpal index but the lingual fold is not. This is why the tooth 14.87, metatarsal 10.63), which means that, to cup looks like a funnel-shaped depression, the an extent, this foal resembles adult Arab horses.

10.3 Material from Klin-Yar III ritual features

Sacrificial deposition 1/1995 to their combined length demonstrate that this (Sarmatian or Alanic?) animal had a short humerus (31.93 % of total) and femur (36.37 % of total), and long antebra- Horse (‘skin’ deposition between graves) chium (41.14 %), shank (36.15 %), metacarpal 1. Several fragments of skull (too fragmentary (26.92 %) and metatarsal (27.47 %); these pro- for description). portions are typical for trotter horses. 2. Pectoral bone (os sternum; fragments) and ribs. Cattle 3. Bones of right foreleg: humerus, radius and Material: distal end of tibia. ulna, metacarpal, proximal phalanx – two items, coronoid – two items, third phalange (hoof) – two items. Sacrificial deposition 2/1995 4. Bones of right hind leg: femur, tibia, metatar- (Sarmatian or Alanic?) sal, proximal phalanx, coronoid, third phalange (hoof) – two items, astragalus, calca- Horse (‘skin’ deposition between graves) neus, patella. 1. Skull (actually, half of a skull split lengthwise) 5. Other bones: atlas, lumbar vertebrae, sa- with complete dental set. There is a ‘wolf crum, minor bones of tarsal. tooth’, i. e. a rudimentary Р1. 2. Mandible with complete dental set. The inci- The analysis of the preserved bones shows that sors of upper and lower jaws are shaped like this is an undersized horse (height at the withers ovals, with their long axes parallel to the den- 135 – 136 cm), with a medium-sized head (in- tal arcade. The tooth cup is worn on the hitch dex from foreleg 351.21, from hind leg 315.0). incisors; the wear pattern is cross-oval. The Compared to the hind legs, its forelegs are some- roots of the incisors are open. On closure, the what more broad-boned (massiveness index dental arcades form a smooth arc. The molars of metacarpal 15.47, i. e. semi-thin-legged; of are at an early stage of root formation, and the metatarsal 11.85, i. e. thin-legged). The length crowns are high. М3 have a wide-open pulp ratios of the segments of forelegs and hind legs end, their crowns are strongly arched length-

193 Klin-Yar – A. K. Shvyryova

wise. The masticatory surface is nearly trian- 4. Hind leg bones: metatarsal – two items, proxi gular, with incompletely mature main com- mal phalanx – two items, coronoid – two ponents, suggesting the third molars have items, third phalanges (hooves) – two items, recently emerged. The canines are mature, but heavily damaged. but hardly worn. The condition of the dental system suggests an age of 5 – 6 years. The remains belong to a young stallion not 3. Bones of distal sections of legs: metacarpal – yet past the change of its milk teeth. This is one item, metatarsal – two items, proximal an animal of medium height, with an average phalanx of forelegs (two) and hind legs (one); calculated height of 142.26 cm at the withers minor bones of tarsal. (from metacarpal 143.29 cm, from metatarsal 141.24 cm). Judging by the size of the leg The presence of two pairs of canines indicates that bones, the base length of its skull should be the bones belong to a young stallion (to judge by about 470 mm; therefore, the skull was prob the condition of the dental system). This is an ani- ably medium-sized, as is typical for most med mal of medium height, with a height at the withers ium-height horses. of 138 – 145 cm (average 141.3 cm). The stallion has a small head (base length less than 50 cm) The roots of incisors, canines and molars are with backwards-inclined occiput (parietal length open. The upper and lower incisors are fully of the skull is 10.88 % more than base). mature; however, not all of them are out. For example, the edge incisors have still not emerged The craniological characteristics of the skull from the jawbone, and while the milk teeth in the merge morphological features of western and lower jaw are already gone, they are still present eastern types of horses. As with western horses, in the upper jaw. The middle incisors have al- the animal has a narrow forehead, cerebral part ready emerged, but have no traces of wear, and and face, while its dentition and face are of me- the tooth cups are not yet erased. But the hitch dium length, which is typical for eastern horses. incisors are already out, and the labial and lin- Its lower jaw has parameters of eastern horses: gual folds of enamel have already been leveled its height is 50.61 %, the length of the horizontal while the tooth cup is still immature and looks branch is 66.41 %, and the length of the denti- like a narrow gap, parallel to the incisor arcade. tion is 40.66 % of the total length of the mandi- The middle seam of the incisor bone is not solid. ble. Judging by the proportions, the stallion had Such a condition of the incisors is observed at a very gracile and light head. By the thickness the age of 3 – 3.5 years. The canines are not yet ratio of metacarpal to metatarsal, the stallion out; they appear at the age of 3.5. belongs to thin-legged horses (metacarpal index 14.5, metatarsal index 11.51). The molars have high crowns showing little wear; they are at the initial stage of root forma- Its height as calculated from the parietal length tion. The third molars М3 are barely affected by of the skull (139.56 cm) is almost 6 cm less than wear; therefore, not all their masticatory surface that calculated from the length of the metacarpal components have developed. The fourth premo- (145.5 cm); the animal is therefore to be classi- lars (Р4) are the lowest in the tritor, and the top- fied as long-legged. Its legs are obviously long most has not yet started to wear while the lowest because of the long metacarpal and metatarsal is barely affected by wear. (44.07 % and 51.68 %, respectively, of the parietal length of the skull). In this respect, it is simi The fourth premolars are protruding from the lar to Arab horses; and since it has like they do jawbone; they cut through and begin to wear at long distal leg sections, it was a superb racer. the age of 45 – 50 months. Because the upper premolar Р4 shows no wear at all, and also considering the changing order of the incisors and Sacrificial deposition 1/1996 the extent of their wear, and the developmental (Sarmatian or Alanic?) stage of the third molars (М3), the age of the stallion cannot be more than 42 months, or ap- Horse (‘skin’ deposition between graves) proximately three and a half years. This means 1. The skull is heavily damaged which makes a that the animal was sacrificed in late autumn to craniological analysis impossible. Dentition early winter, around October to December. is complete: six incisors, two canines, left and right dentition Р2-М3. Judging by the proportions of metacarpal, met- 2. The mandible is also heavily damaged and atarsal and proximal phalanx, this is a thin-leg- has complete dentition (six incisors, two ca- ged animal, within the modification range of nines, 12 lower molars). Khwarezm and Akhal-Teke horses. However, 3. Foreleg bones: metacarpal – two items, proxi- unlike the horses from Akhal-Teke, it has short mal phalanx – two items, coronoid – two items; distal leg sections and is smaller at the withers. third phalanges (hooves) are heavily damaged. From the Khwarezm horses, it differs by a less

194 10 Animal bones and horse burials from Klin-Yar

massive skeleton. This stallion appears to be Ovicaprines intermediate between the two, and most likely Material: fragments of humerus of a very young similar to the Turkmen horses which were also animal; epiphyses not present (they fuse with bred in ancient Khwarezm for use as mounts. the diaphysis at the age of 20 – 24 months.

10.4 Material from Klin-Yar IV graves

Grave 8 (Alanic) the head is shifted backwards, as is typical for eastern horses of steppe type. The mandible pa- Pig (from fill of dromos) rameters also characterize the animal as a horse Material: fragments of vertebrae, among them a of eastern type (lower jaw 50.95 %, length of nearly complete axis; metapodia. horizontal branch 66.38 %, length of row of lower molars 38.33 %). The animal has a relatively Ovicaprines (from fill of chamber) short row of upper molars (33.85 % of main skull Material: astragali. length).

Among the structural features of the skull, its Grave 9 (Alanic) medium-sized forehead should be noted. Its frontal base index is 239.1, and its greatest fron- Horse (from dromos fill; disturbed horse ‘skin’?) tal width is 41.82 % of the main length. Based on 1. Skull, well-preserved, with complete denti- the width between the upper ends of the auricu- tion: six incisors, two canines, left and right lar openings, it is to be classified as a semi-wide- upper molars Р2-М3. headed (index 24.63 %). The width in the facial 2. Mandible, complete, with complete dentition: crests is 38.92 % of the main length of the skull, six incisors, two canines, left and right lower putting it in the wide-faced category.

molars Р2-М3. 3. Foreleg bones: metacarpal – two items, prox- The face is long, probably due to a coarse diet. imal phalanx – two items, coronoid – two The facial ratio index (after Cherskij) is 66.8 items, third phalange (hoof) – two items. while the facial-parietal index is 140.62. These Proximal phalanx and coronoid bones show indices are close to those of the Akhal-Teke stal- traces of ochre-coloured spots. lions. A further point of similarity is the relative 4. Hind leg bones: metatarsal – two items, prox- length of the cerebral axis which in the Klin-Yar imal phalanx – two items, coronoid – two stallion is 36.93 % of the main length, while it items, third phalange (hoof) – two items. can be 36.7 % in Akhal-Teke horses. Overall, the 5. Other bones: minor bones of carpal and tarsal skull of the stallion from grave 9 has harmonious (metacarpal II and IV, metatarsal II and IV). proportions. In the skull profile, the vertex hardly protrudes; the forehead is straight and flat, On all lower incisors, the tooth cups are worn, slightly declining towards the malar processes; their prints are small and rounded, shifted to and the nose line is curved which means that the the lingual edge of the tooth. The hitch inci- profile is identical to that of horses of the Akhal- sors have begun to take on triangular shape. Teke breed. The roots of the incisors are closed. The upper molars are past root formation, their crowns are However, the post-cranial skeleton suggests that heavily worn, virtually to the root. The dental the Klin-Yar stallion is of a type of eastern horse cement on Р3-М2 is caved in, leaving the mark that has little in common with the Akhal-Teke bottoms bare. On М3, the rear third of the mas- horses. For example, it is lower at the withers, ticatory surface is affected by wear in such a way and has a shorter metacarpal and metatarsal. In that it descends as a ledge to the jawbone. The addition, its legs are more massive than those canines are heavily worn, their diameters are of the Akhal-Teke horses; the same is true of the 11 mm and 14 mm, and their lengths 17 and phalanges. 22 mm, respectively. Well-developed upper and lower canines indicate that this was a stallion There is a difference of 3 cm between the height 13 – 14 years old (to judge by the wear on inci- at the withers calaculated from the parietal sors and molars). This is a medium-high animal, length of the skull (146.34 cm) and from the its height at the withers, calculated by different length of the metacarpal and metatarsal (148 methods, would have been 145 – 151 cm (aver- and 149 cm), respectively. Therefore, the Klin- age 147 cm). It has a medium-sized head be- Yar stallion is long-legged, a characteristic, cause the base length of the skull is less than which is obviously due to the long distal sec- 500 mm. The parietal length exceeds the base tions of the legs, as is typical for racehorses. length by 11.18 %, due to which the back of With its bone proportions, the Klin-Yar stallion

195 Klin-Yar – A. K. Shvyryova

is within the modification range of the horse Ovicaprines of ancient Khwarezm; it shares properties with Material: rib fragments and astragalus. the Akhal-Teke breed, but differs from it by its more massive skeleton and smaller height at Rodent the withers. Material: pelvic bone.

10.5 Horse remains from the Koban settlement

Trench 1, building 1 Trench 1, occupation layer

Horse Horse 1. Upper molar Р3 (heavily worn, low crown, Material: hitch incisor, a broken upper canine, roots closed); metatarsals (left one complete, two upper molars Р2 and М3; front and rear long and distal end of right one preserved); coro- pastern bones. noid; minor bones of the tarsal. The remains belong to a young horse aged The remains belong to an old animal, thin-leg- 30 – 34 months, or approximately 3 years old (on ged, 141.24 cm tall at the withers. dental condition). Judging by the massiveness of the long pastern bones, it belongs to the med ium-legged group.

10.6 Conclusions

The analysis of the osteological material of hor 5. The analysis of the ratios of leg segments ses from Sarmatian and Alanic graves excavated identifies the following horse types: 1994 – 1996 at Klin-Yar leads to the following a) with fast-gait properties, i. e. mounts and conclusions: light-harness trotters; b) mounts and pack-horses for mountain con- 1. Only horses of eastern type with medium- ditions, and horses used for light draught sized heads are present; they have a simple and farm work, i. e. general workhorses enamel pattern on the upper molars, a skull similar to modern Kyrgyz horses. with a base length of less than 500 mm, and a reclinated occiput. 6. The horses at Klin-Yar include exemplars of steppe horses, mountain horses, and plains 2. Horses found in graves are of widely differing or desert horses. This suggests that the local ages, from very young (2.5 – 3 years old) to inhabitants considered not only usability for very old (18 – 20 years old). Most horses are work, but also suitability for the natural envi- older than 10 years, and the one from the ronment of the North Caucasus when deter- separate horse burial 367 is also diseased. mining the structure of their herds. By contrast, only young animals (3 – 6 years old) were found in ritual features (sacrificial 7. All analysed horses may be divided in two depositions of horse ‘skins’). Most of the hor broad groups: local and imported. Among the ses found at Klin-Yar are stallions; the others local breeds, it is possible to distinguish: could not be sexed. a) an undersized horse with broad-boned, med ium-sized head, and legs of different mas- 3. In terms of size, two groups of horses can siveness (front legs are semi-thin, back legs be identified: undersized and medium-tall. are thin), with obvious trotter properties sig- Among the medium-tall, a subgroup can be naled by the leg segment ratios, but also suit- isolated that is closer to tall horses (graves ed for use in a mountain environment (360/2, 341, 345, IV-9, and ritual feature 1/1995). horse burial 367, ritual feature 1/1995); b) a medium-tall horse of eastern type, with 4. Four groups of Klin-Yar horses can be identi- well-proportioned legs and head, and iden- fied on the basis of the massiveness of the tified as a fast riding horse (racehorse) by legs: thin-legged, semi-thin-legged, medium- its leg segment ratios. Apparently, the se- legged, and with forelegs more massive than lection for this breed involved local breeds the hind legs. Thin-legged horses are predom- of the steppe type, western horses, and inant (360/5, 363, 378, 379, ritual features horses from the oldest horse-breeding cen- 1/1995 and 2/1995). tre, ancient Khwarezm (341, 360/3, 368).

196 10 Animal bones and horse burials from Klin-Yar

Among the imported breeds, there are hor 8. The Koban graves produced few horse re- ses of Central Asian origin, similar to those mains, and these were not very informative. of Khwarezm (360/1, 360/4, 360/5, 368). In Small and medium-tall horses are present this group, horses stand out which have the among them. kind of features which later made Arab horses famous for their racing abilities and beauty 9. Overall, the horses from the Klin-Yar cem- (345, 363, 379, ritual feature 2/1995). Hor eteries are of great interest and use for re- ses of imported breeds were attractive be- search on the history of horse breeding in cause of their harmonious and slender build, the North Caucasus, and to elucidate the thin legs, and greater height; this made them origins, as yet little known, of the Caucasus assets gracing the stables of the wealthy. horse breeds.

10.7 Data tables of Klin-Yar horses

No. of grave or sacrificial deposition Measurements (in mm) sacrificial 345 367 IV-9 deposition 2/1995 1. Parietal length (total ) 530.0 499.9 515.0 540.0 2. Base length 475.0 458.6 459.0 483.0 3. Width of forehead (greatest width between outer edges of eye sockets) 197.0 209.3 176.0 202.0 4. Width between upper edges of auricular openings 108.0 113.2 98.5 119.0 5. Width of occipital part at the base of jugular processes 102.0 104.5 95.0 105.5 6. Width of facial part between facial crests (greatest) 169.0 196.8 158.0 188.0 7. Length of cerebral part after Ewart (anatomical cerebral axis) 179.4 158.0 171.0 178.4 8. Length of facial part after Ewart (anatomic cerebral axis) 362.0 – 355.0 384.0 9. Length of cerebral part after Zalenskij 234.5 – 229.0 234.5 10. Length of facial part after Zalenskij 295.0 292.0 328.0 11. Length of facial part after Cherskij (facial anatomical line) 301.8 – 297.0 323.0 12. Rear orbital line 179.4 182.0 171.0 178.4 13. Frontal orbital line 237.5 – 355.2 384.0 14. Upper jaw width (between outer edges of articular surface) 169.5 181.0 154.0 200.0 15. Front – rear diameter of orbit 60.0 62.0 59 .0 62.5 16. Diameter of orbit 57.0 52.0 55.0 58.6 17. Width of cerebral part (between temples) 101.0 – – 121.0 Indices – Frontal-base (2 : 3) 241.1 219.11 260.79 239.1 – Frontal-parietal (1 : 3) 269.9 238.8 292.61 267.32 – Width between auricular openings (4 : 1) 20.75 20.64 19.12 22.03 (4 : 2) 22.75 24.68 21.45 24.63 – Width at the base of jugular processes (5 : 2) 21.47 – – 21.84 – Width of the muzzle (6 : 2) 35.5 7 42.91 34.42 38.92 (6 : 1) 31.88 39.36 30.67 34.81 – Width of cerebral part (17 : 2) 21.26 25.05 – Width of forehead (3 : 2) 41.4 45.63 38.34 41.82 (3 : 1) 37.16 41.86 34.17 37.4 – Muzzle width after Ewart (8 : 2) 76.2 – 77.34 79.5 (8 : 1) 68.3 – 68.93 71.11 – Facial ratio after Cherskij (11 : 2) 63.5 – 64.7 66.87 (11 : 1) 56.9 – 57.66 59.81 – Width of cerebral axis after Ewart (7 : 2) 37.76 – 37.26 36.93 – Facial index after Zalenskij (1 : 10) 179.6 152.88 176.36 164.63 – Parietal index after Zalenskij (1 : 9) 217.6 – 224.89 230.27 – Facial-parietal index after Browner (1 : 8) 146.4 – 153.73 140.62 – Parietal-cervical index after Browner (1 :7) 295.4 316.39 301.16 302.69 – Facial-axial after Browner (2 : 8) 131.2 – 137.01 140.62 – Cervical-axial after Browner (2 : 7) 264.7 290.25 268.42 302.69 – Facial-cervical after Browner (8 : 7) 201.7 – 207.6 215.24 – Facial-base index after Cherskij (2 : 11) 157.3 – 154.54 149.53 – Upper jaw index (14 : 2) 35.68 39.46 33.55 41.4 – Eye index (13 : 12) 132.38 – 207.71 215.24 – Orbital index (16 : 15) 94.3 83.87 93.22 93.76 – Dentition width to base length – 36.26 35.14 33.85 Table 57. Horse skull data from Klin-Yar III.

197 Klin-Yar – A. K. Shvyryova

No. of grave or sacrificial deposition/no. of animal

Measurements (in mm) sacrif. dep. 341 345 360/1 360/2 360/3 368 388 IV-9 2/1995

1. L ength (from centre of articular head to base of 432.0 412.0 − − − 427.0 405.0 − 427.8 central incisors) 2. Height (from articular head to horizontal surface ) − 216.0 227.0 215.0 − 234.0 205.0 188.0 218.0 3. L ength of horizontal branch from rear edge of М3 − 277.0 − − 294.0 284.0 269.0 − 284.0 to base of central incisors 4. L ength from rear edge of branch to base of central − 382.0 − − − 392.0 387.0 − 392.0 incisors 5. Height from centre М3 to horizontal surface 92.0 88.0 90.0 92.0 95.0 87.0 85.0 86.0 95.0 6. Height from frontal edge of Р2 to horizontal sur- 57.0 51.1 55.0 52.0 52.0 50.0 45.0 45.0 49.0 face 7. Length of diasteme 93.5 86.0 − − 99.3 94.0 84.0 − 98.0 8. Height of diasteme (at the level of centre of the 47.0 41.0 45.0 41.0 52.0 35.0 36.0 38.0 34.0 lower-jaw opening) 9. L ength of dentition Р2–М3 (by alveolar sockets on 175.3 167.0 167.3 164.0 173.8 168.7 164.7 167.3 164.0 the outside) 10. Length of dentition Р2- Р4 90.0 86.5 86.6 83.6 86.0 87.4 84.0 89.0 84.0 11. Length of dentition М1-М3 84.9 80.8 82.2 80.0 85.5 80.0 79.6 79.0 80.0 12. Width between edges 59.6 60.0 − 59.0 65.4 57.5 56.5 − 63.0 13. Ditto, between frontal edges Р2 54.0 57.0 48.0 − 58.3 − 54.0 − 56.5 14. Ditto, between frontal edges М1 79.0 64.5 − − 74.0 − 72.0 − 70.0 15. Ditto, between frontal edges М3 84.5 69.0 − − − − 81.6 − 74.0 16. Ditto, between outer edges of articular heads − 139.0 − − − − 181.6 − 170.0 17. Ditto, of diasteme (least) 42.0 39.0 40.9 40.0 43.7 41.0 39.4 39.6 39.6 18. Length of symphysis (by central line) − 80.0 − − 92.6 84.0 70.4 − 90.0

Indices (in %) – Height (2 : 1) − 52.4 − − − 54.8 50.61 − 50.95 – Length horizontal branch (3 : 1) − 67.2 − − − 66.51 66.41 − 66.38 – Length of horizontal branch to height (3 : 2) − 128.2 − − − 121.36 131.21 − 130.27 – Length of lower jaw at cell level (4 : 1) − 92.7 − − − 91.8 95.55 − 91.63 – Height at the middle of М3 (5 : 1) 21.29 21.3 − − − 20.37 20.98 − 22.20 – Ditto at front edge Р2 (6 : 1) 13.19 12.40 − − − 11.70 11.11 − 11.45 – Length of diasteme (7 : 1) 21.64 20.8 − − − 22.01 20.74 − 22.90 – Length of dentition (9 : 1) 40.57 40.50 − − − 39.5 40.66 − 38.33 – Length of dentition to base skull length − 35.5 − − − − 35.88 − 33.95 – Length of molars to length of premolars (10 : 11) 106.0 107.05 105.35 104.5 100.58 109.25 105.52 112.65 105.0 (11 : 10) 94.33 93.41 94.91 95.69 99.41 91.53 94.76 88.76 95.23 – Length of molars to length of dentition (11 : 9) 48.43 48.38 49.13 48.78 49.19 47.42 48.33 47.22 48.78 – Length of symphysis (18 : 1) − 19.4 − − − 19.67 17.38 − 21.03 – Symphysis-diasteme (18 : 7) − 93.02 − − 93.25 89.36 83.80 − 91.83 – Diasteme-dental (7 : 9) 53.33 51.4 − − 57.13 55.72 51.0 − 59.75 – Width between edges to length of lower jaw (12 : 1) 13.79 14.56 − − − 13.46 13.95 − 14.72 – Incisor index (12 : 7) 63.74 69.7 − − 65.89 61.17 67.26 − 64.28

Table 58. Horse mandible data from Klin-Yar.

Table 59. Horse metacarpal III data from Klin-Yar.

198 10 Animal bones and horse burials from Klin-Yar

No. of grave or sacrificial deposition/no. of animal Measurements (in mm) 341 360/1 360/2 360/3 363 left right left right left right left right leftright 1. Full length 225.0 − 221.0 222.0 211.0 212.5 219.5 219.0 218.6 − 2. Width of upper end 50.0 50.0 48.6 48.7 44.4 45.3 49.7 50.7 45.0 45.8 3. Its diameter 34.0 34.0 32.5 31.0 31.2 30.0 33.0 34.0 34.0 33.3 4. Width of lower end in supra-articular tubers 47.6 − 44.2 43.7 44.0 43.5 46.9 47.0 42.0 − 5. Width of lower end in joint 48.5 − 47.5 47.0 47.0 48.0 49.3 49.5 45.0 − 6. Diameter of lower end on crest 37.2 − 34.4 35.0 34.0 34.0 36.0 36.0 36.5 − 7. Ditto in medial section of joint 31.1 − 30.0 28.5 28.0 28.0 31.0 31.4 29.4 − 8. Width of diaphysis in the middle 35.0 34.0 34.0 34.5 32.4 32.7 34.8 34.5 31.0 31.0 Indices (in %) − Width of upper end (2 : 1) 22.22 − 21.99 21.93 21.04 21.34 22.64 23.15 20.58 − − Width of lower end, greatest (4 : 1 or 5 : 1) 21.55 − 21.49 21.17 22.27 22.58 22.46 22.6 20.58 − − Width of diaphysis in the middle (massive- 15.55 − 15.38 15.54 15.35 15.38 15.85 15.75 14.18 − ness) (8 : 1) − Protrusion of lower end of crest (7 : 6) 83.60 − 87.2 81.42 82.35 82.35 86.11 87.22 80.54 −

No. of grave or sacrificial deposition sacrif. sacrif. Measurements (in mm) 367 368 dep. dep. 379 378 1/1995 2/1995 left right left right right left left right leftright 1. Full length 213.0 212.0 − 224.5 213.3 227.0 204.0 208.0 241.5 212.5 2. Width of upper end 47.0 − − − 47.0 50.1 45.5 46.4 46.3 46.3 3. Its diameter 32.0 34.0 − − 31.5 33.4 31.0 31.8 32.0 31.5 4. Width of lower end in supra-articular tubers 45.7 46.0 47.7 48.5 45.0 47.3 43.7 43.5 42.5 42.2 5. Width of lower end in joint 49.8 51.0 49.5 50.0 50.0 50.0 46.6 47.4 (lost) 45.0 6. Diameter of lower end on crest 35.5 36.5 36.3 36.4 36.0 36.2 34.0 33.7 32.0 33.0 7. Ditto in medial section 30.0 31.6 31.0 31.0 29.7 31.4 28.4 28.7 28.0 29.0 8. Width of diaphysis in the middle 33.0 33.4 34.0 34.5 33.0 33.1 29.3 30.2 31.5 31.0 Indices (in %) − Width of upper end (2 : 1) 22.06 − − − 22.03 22.07 3.0 22.3 21.58 21.8 − Width of lower end, greatest (4 : 1 or 5 : 1) 23.38 24.05 − 22.27 23.44 22.02 22.84 22.78 19.81 21.19 − Width of diaphysis (massiveness) (8 : 1) 15.49 15.75 − 15.36 15.47 14.58 14.36 14.51 14.68 14.6 − Protrusion of lower end of crest (7 : 8) 84.5 86.57 85.39 85.16 85.5 86.74 83.52 85.16 87.5 87.84

No. of grave, or sacrificial deposition, or sample sacrificial de- Measurements (in mm) 388 IV-9 position 1/1996 Ancient Khwarezm Akhal-Teke breed left left right left right 210 – 231 246 – 274 1. Full length 195.0 231.0 228.5 223.3 223.8 221.65 257.0 2. Width of upper end 40.0 52.7 51.7 − 47.0 − − 3. Its diameter 27.5 34.6 34.8 − 32.3 − − 4. Width of lower end in supra-articular tubers 30.5 48.4 47.5 45.0 46.0 − − 5. Width of lower end in joint − 51.0 49.8 47.4 47.8 − − 6. Diameter of lower end 29.0 38.3 36.5 34.5 34.3 − − 7. Ditto in medial section of joint − 31.7 31.0 29.7 29.8 − − 8. Width of diaphysis in the middle 29.0 34.5 34.0 31.6 31.6 − − Indices (in %) 20.6 – 24.1 20.0 – 22.7 − Width of upper end (2 : 1) 29.51 22.81 22.61 − 21.0 21.82 21.75 20.4 – 23.3 19.8 – 23.1 − Width of lower end, greatest (4 : 1 or 5 : 1) − 22.07 21.79 21.22 21.35 21.52 20.9 13.3 – 16.5 13.0 – 14.7 − Width of diaphysis (massiveness) (8 : 1) 14.87 14.93 14.87 14.15 14.11 14.69 13.66 − Protrusion of lower end of crest (7 : 6) − 82.76 86.84 86.84 86.88 − −

199 Klin-Yar – A. K. Shvyryova

No. of grave or sacrificial deposition/no. of animal Measurements (in mm) 341 360/1 360/2 360/5 360/4 360/3 left right left right left right right right left right 1. Full length 270.5 271.0 266.0 266.2 257.2 258.9 267.7 − 262.3 260.0 2. Width of upper end 48.0 48.5 50.0 49.9 45.0 45.4 46.0 − 52.0 51.7 3. Its diameter 48.2 47.7 − 45.0 40.2 40.2 44.4 − 44.6 45.0 4. Width of lower end in supra-articular tubers 48.5 47.4 48.5 49.0 45.4 43.8 45.2 44.2 49.0 48.8 5. Width of lower end in joint 49.6 49.0 49.0 47.4 47.2 47.2 47.0 46.5 50.5 49.4 6. Diameter of lower end on crest 38.0 37.5 38.5 36.2 35.0 34.7 38.5 35.3 37.8 37.0 7. Ditto in medial section of joint 32.0 32.0 31.6 31.2 29.5 28.5 31.8 28.0 32.0 30.8 6. Width of diaphysis in the middle 33.6 33.0 33.0 32.3 30.0 30.0 31.0 − 33.4 33.4 Indices (in %) – Width of upper end (2 : 1) 17.74 17.89 18.79 18.74 17.49 17.53 17.18 − 19.82 19.88 – Width of lower end, greatest (4 : 1 or 5 : 1) 18.33 18.08 18.42 18.40 18.35 18.23 17.55 − 19.25 19.0 – Width of diaphysis (massiveness) (8 : 1) 12.42 12.17 12.4 12.13 11.66 11.58 11.58 − 12.73 12.84 – Protrusions of lower end of crest 84.21 85.33 82.07 86.18 84.28 82.13 82.59 79.32 84.65 83.24

No. of grave or sacrificial deposition sacrif. sacrif. dep. Measurements (in mm) 363 367 dep. 378 379 2/1995 1/1995 left right left right left right left right leftright 1. Full length 260.0 260.0 252.0 253.0 265.4 267.0 243.0 247.0 242.0 243.5 2. Width of upper end 44.4 45.0 48.3 49.0 48.0 47.0 46.0 46.0 44.6 45.0 3. Its diameter 42.0 44.2 41.2 41.0 44.5 45.7 35.0 35.5 37.7 38.8 4. Width of lower end in supra-articular tubers 43.5 42.7 47.2 47.0 48.8 48.5 40.0 42.0 44.0 44.5 5. Width of lower end in joint 48.0 − 49.7 49.0 50.3 50.1 (lost) 45.3 46.3 46.0 6. Diameter of lower end on crest 37.8 37.5 36.4 36.0 36.0 36.7 (lost) 34.0 34.2 34.0 7. Ditto in medial section of joint 30.0 30.3 30.2 30.0 32.0 32.0 (lost) 29.8 28.0 28.2 8. Width of diaphysis in the middle 28.9 28.5 30.0 30.0 30.3 31.0 28.0 27.8 27.2 27.3 Indices (in %) – Width of upper end (2 : 1) 17.01 17.30 18.58 19.36 18.08 17.6 18.93 18.62 18.42 18.48 – Width of lower end, greatest (4 : 1 or 5 : 1) 18.46 − 18.73 18.57 18.38 18.16 − 17.0 19.13 18.89 – Width of diaphysis (massiveness) (8 : 1) 11.11 10.96 11.9 11.85 11.41 11.61 11.96 11.25 11.23 11.21 – Protrusion of lower end of crest (7 : 6) 79.36 80.8 82.96 83.33 88.88 87.19 − 87.64 81.87 82.94

No. of grave, sacrifical deposition, or sample Koban sacrificial depo- Measurements (in mm) 388 IV-9 settlement sition 1/1996 Ancient Akhal-Teke Khwarezm breeds right left right left right left right 254 – 276 290 – 319 1. Full length 235.0 279.4 277.5 265.0 − 265.0 265.0 270.6 302.1 2. Width of upper end 43.7 53.0 51.4 − − 48.4 − − − 3. Its diameter 36.7 41.5 42.0 − − 37.5 − − − 4. Width of lower end in supra-articular tubers 38.5 45.7 47.0 46.7 45.0 44.3 44.5 − − 5. Width of lower end in joint − 51.0 51.0 48.6 50.0 48.0 47.2 − − 6. Diameter of lower end on crest 30.4 39.2 38.0 37.0 40.0 36.8 36.3 − − 7. Ditto in medial section of joint 23.0 32.4 32.0 32.0 33.0 31.0 31.0 − − 8. Width of diaphysis in the middle 25.0 31.2 30.7 30.0 31.0 28.7 28.8 − −

Indices (in %) 17.5 – 19.0 17.8 – 19.7 – Width of upper end (2 : 1) 18.59 18.96 18.52 − − 18.26 − 18.2 18.44 16.8 – 18.6 16.0 – 18.7 – Width of lower end, greatest (4 : 1 or 5 : 1) 16.38 17.0 16.93 18.33 − 18.11 17.81 17.8 17.56 10.7 – 12.1 10 .6 – 11.6 – Width of diaphysis (massiveness) (8 : 1) 10.63 11.16 11.06 11.32 − 10.83 10.86 11.2 10.97 – Protrusion of lower crest (7 : 6) 75.65 82.65 84.21 86.48 82.5 84.23 85.39 − −

Table 60. Horse metatarsal III data from Klin-Yar.

200 10 Animal bones and horse burials from Klin-Yar

No. of grave/no. of animal

Measurements (in mm) 341 345 360/3 363 367

left right left right left right left right leftright

1. Full length − − 348.0 354.0 360.0 − − − 333.0 335.0 2. Greatest width of upper end − − 165.0 165.0 190.5 − − − − 170.0 3. Ditto of lower end 84.0 87.5 89.5 90.0 95.0 93.2 83.5 85.0 88.9 89.1 4. Width of neck, smallest − 65.0 62.0 61.8 63.5 64.0 56.0 56.0 56.6 56.0 5. Greatest diameter of articular depression 55.0 57.5 53.5 53.0 60.0 59.5 54.2 54.6 53.8 53.0 6. Its perpendicular diameter 45.0 44.3 47.0 48.0 53.4 54.0 46.0 44.3 46.2 48.5 7. Di stance from articular edge depression to 82.0 82.6 92.5 92.5 78.0 78.3 94.0 95.0 88.0 86.0 rough part of the bone

Indices (in %) – Greatest width to length (2 : 1) − − 47.41 46.61 52.91 − − − − 52.83 – Width of articular depression (5 : 3) 65.47 65.71 59.77 58.88 63.15 63.84 64.91 64.23 60.51 59.48 – Width of lower end (3 : 1) − − 25.71 25.42 26.38 − − − 26.69 26.59 – Width of articular depression (6 : 5) 81.81 77.04 87.85 90.56 89.0 90.75 84.87 81.13 85.87 91.5

Table 61. Horse scapula data from Klin-Yar.

No. of grave/no. of animal

Measurements (in mm) 341 360/3 363 367 371 378

left right left right left right left right leftright

1. Full length − − 290.5 290.5 289.0 − 275.0 275.0 − − 2. L ength from head to distal point of lower block 280.0 − 279.4 281.0 277.0 − 260.5 253.0 − − 3. Width of upper end 92.5 − 93.2 94.0 − − 86.0 86.5 − − 4. Its diameter 87.0 − 96.0 98.3 92.8 − 97.0 96.0 − − 5. Width of lower end 80.0 85.0 86.5 86.0 80.0 80.0 80.1 84.0 76.6 − 6. Width of lower block − 73.5 75.5 75.8 72.0 72.9 72.7 75.0 71.0 70.7 7. Diameter of lower end − 81.2 77.5 77.5 84.5 84.6 83.5 83.0 81.5 − 8. Diameter of lower block in medial section − 81.9 56.0 54.0 55.0 50.8 51.0 47.5 45.6 45.3 9. Ditto in lateral section − 52.5 40.6 40.1 40.5 42.0 51.8 41.0 39.6 41.0 10. Least width of bone in the middle 35.03 35.0 35.0 36.0 31.0 32.0 34.5 35.0 32.7 32.1

Indices (in %) – Width of upper end (3 : 2) 33.03 − 33.35 33.45 − − 33.01 34.18 − − – Ditto of lower end (5 : 2) 28.57 − 30.96 30.6 28.88 − 30.74 33.2 − − – Ditto in the middle (10 : 2) 12.5 − 12.52 12.81 11.19 − 13.24 13.83 − − – Width of block to its diameter (9 : 6) − 71.47 53.77 52.90 56.25 58.33 71.25 54.66 55.77 − – Ratio of diameters of lower block (9 : 8) − 64.1 72.5 74.25 73.63 82.67 101.56 86.31 86.84 −

Table 62. Horse humerus data from Klin-Yar.

Measurements (in mm) No. of grave or sacrificial deposition/no. of animal

sacrif. dep. 341 360/3 363 367 378 1/1995

left right left right left right left right leftright

1. Full length 337.5 330.0 325.0 324.0 337.0 335.0 322.0 326.0 322.0 320.0 2. Width of upper end 81.0 − 84.0 83.0 78.4 − 80.2 79.0 77.4 76.7 3. Diameter of upper end 43.5 44.5 47.3 48.0 45.8 − 44.4 45.0 44.0 43.5 4. Width of bone in the middle 38.0 39.5 39.2 40.0 34.0 34.0 33.3 38.5 35.5 35.5 5. Width of lower end 75.0 75.5 77.2 77.3 70.0 70.7 74.6 75.8 70.0 69.0 6. Diameter of lower end 42.5 − 48.0 48.0 42.5 42.0 45.0 44.0 41.5 42.0

Indices (in %) – Width of upper end (2 : 1) 24.03 − 25.84 25.61 23.26 − 24.9 24.23 24.03 23.96 – Width of lower end (5 : 1) 22.25 22.87 23.75 23.85 20.77 21.1 23.16 23.25 21.73 21.56 – Width of diaphysis (massiveness) (4 : 1) 11.27 11.96 12.06 12.34 10.09 10.14 10.34 11.8 11.02 11.09

Table 63. Horse radius data from Klin-Yar.

201 Klin-Yar – A. K. Shvyryova

No. of burial or sacrifical deposition/no. of animal

sacr. dep. Measurements (in mm) 341 345 360/3 363 367 1/1995

left right left right left right right left right

1. Full length − − − − 388.0 379.0 − 366.0 370.0 2. Length from head to distal point of medial condyle − − 348.0 349.0 360.0 360.0 368.0 335.0 334.0 3. Width of upper end − − − 116.3 119.0 115.0 112.0 113.7 115.0 4. Diameter of head − − 52.3 51.8 57.5 59.0 57.0 56.0 55.0 5. Width of lower end 91.3 − 88.0 88.6 94.5 92.0 − 89.0 87.0 6. Width of diaphysis at center 40.0 40.0 37.2 37.7 41.5 42.3 35.2 39.1 38.0

Indices (in %) – Width of upper end (3 : 2) − − − 32.32 33.05 31.94 30.43 33.94 34.43 – Width of lower end (5 : 2) − − 25. 28 25.38 26.25 25.55 − 26.56 26.04 – Width of bone in the middle (massiveness) (6 : 2) − − 10.68 10.80 11.52 11.75 9.56 11.67 11.37

Table 64. Horse femur data from Klin-Yar.

No. of grave or sacrificial deposition/no. of animal

sacrif. dep. Measurements (in mm) 360/5 360/3 363 378 1/1995

right left right left right left right

1. Full length with heel tuber 111.2 112.0 113.0 102.2 102.5 105.5 101.5 2. Full width 54.8 54.0 54.0 50.6 51.3 50.3 47.5 3. Width of heel tuber at top 27.0 35.0 35.0 30.0 32.5 32.0 29.0 4. Its diameter 47.0 50.8 50.5 47.0 44.5 48.7 45.0 5. Width of heel tuber at base (least) 17.6 21.0 21.5 17.9 18.6 18.5 18.0 6. Diameter over coracoid tuber 48.3 51.0 49.8 47.0 48.3 48.4 46.0

Indices (in %) – Width (2 : 1) 49.28 48.21 47.78 49.6 50.09 47.67 46.79

Table 65. Horse calcaneus data from Klin-Yar.

202 11 Results

The main aim of the project had been an explora- However, as so often in archaeology, the actual tion of the relationship between culture change fieldwork results shifted questions and perspec- and population change, facilitated by the pres- tives, and as a consequence of the discovery of ence at the site of three distinct cultural phases. an elite plot at Klin-Yar III and the evidence for For a number of reasons which hinged on the complex mortuary ritual, questions of social and bad preservation of the human bone material ritual change became the focus of the project. At excavated 1994 – 1996 at Klin-Yar (particular- the final stage of post-excavation work, the issue ly in the richest catacombs), this could only be of a radiocarbon ‘reservoir effect’ emerged, con- achieved to a limited extent, by means of skel- tributing an unexpected dimension to questions etal anthropology. Ancient DNA analysis did not of dating and diet. This chapter is not intended become available in time as had been envisaged as a summary of the various individual results, at the start of the project; and stable isotope but as an attempt to pull them together and to analysis offered itself as a viable alternative too work out some of the implications. For data, de- late to become part of the approach to the key tails and references, the reader should turn to question. the relevant chapters.

11.1 The cemeteries of Klin-Yar III and IV

The total extent of the Klin-Yar III and IV cemete Koban and Sarmatian phases of use of this site ries, around the central rock formation of the site is repeated elsewhere across the North Cauca- where much of the settlement had been located, sus, but it is quite possible that this is due to a can only roughly be estimated at 1000 to 3000 problem of recognition and dating rather than graves. Some 400 have been excavated over the to a temporary depopulation of the region. The years, most of them from the Koban period, but radiocarbon dates obtained from material from also about 100 from the Sarmatian and Alanic this site broadly confirm the artefactual dates, periods. To this total, our own excavations con- but they are more interesting for what they imply tributed 17 Koban burials, nine Late Sarmatian about the diet than about the chronology of the tombs, two transitional Sarmatian/Alanic and site (see below). 24 Early Alanic catacombs, as well as two ‘cenotaphs’ and three ‘horse skin’ depositions be- The new excavations have also added to our tween the graves. The 1994 – 1996 excavations knowledge of the spatial extent of the Klin-Yar have, thus, substantially expanded the sample cemeteries (see Fig. 2). On the southern slope, from the later two phases of the site, creating the sparse results from the easternmost trench what is probably the biggest corpus of high-qual- 2/1996 (a single Alanic catacomb), and two ity Sarmatian and Alanic burial data in the North empty trial trenches between this and the main Caucasus. trench show that the density of burials drops off markedly in this direction, and that our ex- In absolute terms, the Late Bronze Age/Early Iron cavations must have reached the vicinity of the Age Koban graves from our excavations span the eastern boundary of Klin-Yar III. To the north, the period from the 10th to the 6th centuries BC while central rock formation provides an obvious limit, graves from earlier excavations extend this peri- while previous excavations located Koban graves od to the 4th century BC. The Sarmatian burials as far south as the bottom of the slope where a excavated 1994 – 1996 all date to a narrow slot cattle farm had been built, and graves from all of the late 4th to early 5th centuries AD; previous three phases to the west along the slope. To excavations had shown that the Sarmatian use the north of the rock, our excavations have con- of the cemetery area started in the 2nd centu- firmed the existence of a separate, small Alanic ry BC. Alanic burials from the new excavations cemetery area (Klin-Yar IV), apparently without cover the period from the 5th to the late 7th/early Sarmatian graves and with few Koban graves. A 8th centuries, matching closely the dates of pre- trial trench on a neighbouring spur to the east of viously excavated Alanic burials at Klin Yar III. the 1996 excavations at Klin-Yar IV did not pro- The Alanic burials of cemetery IV are all dated to duce any finds or graves, suggesting that not the 7th century, or just possibly the beginning of all available areas to the north of the rock were the 8th century. The apparent gap between the used for burial.

203 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

11.2 Population and culture

Given the comparatively small sample size tory of the region between the Late Bronze Age and the limited range of analytical techniques and the end of the Early Middle Ages. It needs applied, all conclusions and suggestions pre- to be reconciled, however, with the archaeolog- sented here are necessarily tentative and provi- ical record of continuity and change at Klin-Yar. sional. From here on, the terms ‘Sarmatian’ and The partial Sarmatian immigration coincided ‘Alanic’, so far used only as chronological and with a marked cultural change in styles, artefact cultural labels, are also used for the populations types and mortuary ritual. On the other hand, of these respective periods. the choice by the immigrants of a burial site previously used by the local Koban population, Physical anthropological data suggest that the instead of burying their dead in barrows at new Koban population at Klin-Yar were local farmers locations as other Sarmatians in the North Cau- of a type found across the North Caucasus in casus did,883 is a strong indicator of some form the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages. Sarmatians of continuity. Also, the archaeological ‘black and Alans have long been known to have been hole’ of the 4th to 2nd centuries BC may well be an intrusive to the region, being offshoots of the indication of profound change that was already Iranian-speaking nomad complex of the Central under way within the local Koban Culture before Asian and North Pontic steppes; they continued any visible Sarmatian influx. By way of contrast, the ‘Iranicisation’ of the North Caucasus which the immigration of two successive Alanic popu- started with the Scythians.880 The Klin-Yar Sarma- lations happened against a background of cul- tians show close physical similarities to the Late tural, ritual, and apparently social, continuity Iron Age populations of the southern Urals, sug- from the Late Sarmatian period (see below). On gesting an immigration from there. But the Klin- the basis of the artefactual data, Malashev (in Yar data are interpreted as showing a male-only Chapter 4) suggests a ‘transition period’ in the immigration, followed by interbreeding with the late 4th/early 5th centuries AD. local Koban population. This is a partial confirmation of Abramova’s hypothesis which sees We therefore have to envisage a situation where- the origins of the North Caucasus Alans in a by the early Alanic immigrants merged into a mixing of local Koban and immigrant Sarmatian locally existing cultural framework, but their ar- populations.881 However, the Klin-Yar Alans show rival sparked an elaboration of mortuary ritual physical differences to the Sarmatians here to and culture as well as an accentuation of social such an extent that another immigration, this differences. In turn, the 7th century AD Alanic im- time of an entire population, is suggested for migrants buried at Klin-Yar IV seem to have been the Early Middle Ages. Archaeological data, in integrated into this social hierarchy without al- particular pottery types and grave architecture, tering it, but they emphasized, or were forced indicate that this immigration reached the Kislo- to keep, their own group identity by burying on vodsk Basin from further east, from the lowlands the other side of the main settlement. Long-term of the central North Caucasus. In addition, the economic change (from Koban farmers to Sarma- spatial separation of a group of 7th century AD tian livestock herders to Alanic mixed agricultur- Alans at Klin-Yar IV and their different stable iso- alists) may have played an important role in this tope patterns (though this needs confirmation overall process of adaptation, integration and from further stable isotope analysis, particularly social change. strontium) may imply a second Alanic influx from a different source region.882 This scenario does not contradict historically known processes of immigration and culture This picture of successive groups of incomers, change (or continuity). Thus, the partial, and whilst more complex and differentiated than often male-dominated, immigration of mostly previous scenarios, is not fundamentally at var- Spanish and Portuguese settlers and adminis- iance with current views of the population his- trators into Latin America led to marked culture change even before later immigration from other European countries. By way of contrast, succes- 880 Абрамова 1993, 191 – 201; Кузнецов 1993, 155 – 183; sive waves of immigrants from different parts of Kouznetsov/Lebedinsky 1997, 139 – 154. Europe, and later Africa, were integrated into, 881 Абрамова 1993. 882 A later, independent analysis of the biological (Ma- and contributed to, an emerging North Ameri- halanobis) distances between the Klin-Yar populations on can culture which, in spite of numerous sub-cul- the basis of tooth morphology has broadly confirmed the tures, developed strong underlying common original picture of successive immigrations constructed by the Moscow anthropologists’ team on the basis of conventional skeletal analysis, but has added the possibility that the Alanic immigration was also male-only or male-dominat- 883 Абрамова 1993, 15 – 38, 97 – 132; Kazanski/Mastykova ed; Rathmann 2013. 2003, 13 – 25.

204 11 Results

themes.884 But there is also a theoretical impli- lation change.885 The case of Klin-Yar may show cation in this scenario. It has been accepted in that cultural continuity cannot be taken to indi- archaeology since the 1960s that culture change cate population continuity, either. should not automatically be equated with popu-

11.3 Social structure

While social aspects cannot be completely sep- uncovered in the main trench of the 1994 – 1996 arated from the consideration of population and excavations, is undoubtedly one of the most im- ritual, they need their own emphasis here, not portant results of the fieldwork, and it signals least because of the discovery of an elite plot the first of two fundamental social changes from within Klin-Yar III. the Sarmatian to the Alanic period: the rise of a (probably hereditary) elite. Koban Culture society is envisaged as a ranked society in which status was expressed by warrior The existence of the elite plot itself is an indica- attributes in male burials,886 but surely also by tor of the nature of the elite who were presenting labour investment in grave construction which themselves here as a distinct group of one or two at Klin-Yar is correlated with burial wealth. As kin-groups or families (see Fig. 9). They include in later periods at Klin-Yar, the representation some of the richest Alanic burials ever excavated of long-distance connections and of access to in the North Caucasus, representing the highest prestige goods seems to have been an important social level of the region in this period. Korobov element in Koban graves which appear to have (in Chapter 7) has also pointed out that the pres- been at the top of the social hierarchy, such as ence of a rich juvenile burial in this plot argues the Assyrian helmets found at Klin-Yar before for a hereditary aristocracy from an early date. our excavations.887 The discovery in 1995 of two Burials in the elite plot certainly start in the Late wealthy Koban graves within a few metres of the Sarmatian period (period RZ, second half of 4th richest Sarmatian and Alanic tombs at this site to early 5th century AD) and continue through may just hint at an even greater time depth of the the Early Alanic period (until late in period III, elite plot; however, the even richer, albeit earlier i. e. the late 7th or early 8th century AD). While the Koban graves with Assyrian helmets were locat- richest graves excavated during the 1994 – 1996 ed at some distance to the southwest, though seasons date to the 7th century, this is not a re- still within cemetery III. On the evidence avail- liable indicator of increasing wealth and power. able so far, it is impossible to say if the single Other graves of the top rank date to the 6th cen- Koban grave north of the rock (Klin-Yar IV) points tury, and an exceptionally rich 5th-century grave to the existence of a burial area of a distinct sub- (catacomb 389) was uncovered during rescue group within the local Koban population. Burial excavations in 2006 just outside the previously in single graves as practised in the Koban Period excavated area of the elite plot, demonstrating at Klin-Yar may be taken to be the reflection of that the display of outstanding wealth was a fea- a particular social ideology (as well as, perhaps, ture of the local elite almost from its beginnings. religious ideas). The use of the elite plot over some three centuries also implies a degree of social stability and As in the Koban period, differential burial wealth cohesion, but at the same time – given the num- and labour investment suggest a marked so- ber of burials involved – it shows the small size cial hierarchy at Klin-Yar in the Sarmatian and of the highest-ranking social group here. Alanic periods, but with horizontal social differentiation such as family and gender also being It is unlikely that the local economy, based on prominently displayed in grave construction and livestock and agriculture, could have been the mortuary ritual. The concentration of the rich- basis for the rise of a long-lasting elite in the Kis- est Sarmatian and Alanic graves at Klin-Yar in lovodsk Basin. More likely factors are to be found an elite plot, most of which seems to have been in the wider economic and political context of the region, in particular the early medieval branch of the Silk Road which passed through the area, 884 This is the so-called ‘melting pot’ model of North Amer- and military service with the main powers of the ica. For North and Latin America, see Vigne/Littleton 2001; Pontic-Caspian region, the Byzantine Empire and Canny 1994; Vecoli/Sinke 1991; McAlister 1984; La emi- 888 gración 1979. its enemies, Iran and the Avars. These long-dis- 885 Essentially since Clark 1966; for a review of the debate, tance connections are displayed in some of the see Chapman and Hamerow 1997; for comments from an early medieval perspective on the state of the debate, see Härke 2004. 886 Белинский et al. 2001. 888 For the Silk Road branch through the Kislovodsk Basin, 887 Белинский 1990. see Иерусалимская 1967, 72 – 73; Кузнецов 1993, 26 – 31.

205 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

artefacts found in rich graves, such the Khwarezm Klin-Yar evidence, an interpretation in terms of horses among the sacrificed animals in the elite suttee or some other form of contemporaneous plot, possibly obtained from Central Asia; the ‘death wife’ sacrifice is highly unlikely, given Iranian glass bowl in catacomb 360; the Late the numerous cases of re-opening of chambers Roman glass vessel in grave 378; the Egyptian for the later insertion of a second body, and the faience beads in catacomb 379; the probably cases of single bodies in larger chambers with Byzantine-made, Avar-style sword in grave 360; space left for a second body. and the Byzantine coins in catacombs 341 and 363. Savenko (in Chapter 6.2) has argued that the One of the implications of recurrent burials of coins reached Klin-Yar as a result of the military a male and a female adult is the existence of service of local horsemen in the wars between monogamous marriage, an institution which fa- Byzantium, the Avars and Iran; the skeletal traits vours social cohesion;890 an alternative interpre- of several individuals in elite burials certainly tation may be polygamy, with only the main wife point to an active, and probably military, lifestyle. now being buried with her husband. The second implication is the obvious emphasis in such Mercenary employment may well have had its a burial pattern being put on family links, and origins in Sarmatian times, while protection and thereby kin groups and ancestry. The emergence exploitation of the Silk Road cannot have been a of this emphasis may, in turn, be linked to the factor before the 7th century. The series of early emergence of hereditary social patterns at elite stirrups from elite plot catacombs (341, 360 and level (see above); and indeed, the male-female 363; fragment from dromos of 345) of the early to double-burial pattern is clearest in the elite plot. mid/late 7th century, adopted in this region prob- Another factor which may have led to a greater ably via Central Asian and/or Avar contacts,889 emphasis on family links and ancestry is eco- fits perfectly into this picture of long-distance nomic change from a livestock economy, possi- contacts and military service of the Klin-Yar elite. bly nomadic, in the Sarmatian period to a sed- Whatever the basis for wealth and power at Klin- entary agricultural economy, possibly with some Yar (and there may have been changes over time transhumance, in the Alanic period. This hypoth- in the factors involved), the evidence from this esis is based on several strands of evidence, in- site may imply the rise of an Alanic hereditary cluding bone chemistry and settlement evidence elite at an earlier date than previously thought. (i.e the lack of Sarmatian evidence, and the density of Alanic settlement, in the Kislovodsk The appearance of ‘family tombs’ in the Alanic Basin; see below). Inheritance is a key factor in period, probably starting at the very end of the land ownership, and an increased emphasis on Sarmatian period, signals the second funda- family links and ancestry may therefore be ex- mental social change. The regular patterns of pected with a switch from livestock herding to joint male and female burials are clear enough, sedentary farming. As so often, social and eco- and the family hypothesis is supported by some nomic processes may have been interlinked to skeletal evidence of epigenetic traits. On the produce the patterns seen at Klin-Yar.

11.4 Ritual and society

One of the most interesting aspects of the Klin- the Late Sarmatian period increasingly by a short Yar evidence is the evolution of grave construc- dromos (a narrow access trench from one end of tion and mortuary ritual over several centuries, which the chamber was dug), in the Alanic period reaching its peak of complexity in the Alanic by a longer dromos which may have had steps at catacombs of the 7th century AD. While the the access end. At the other end, the entrance to practice of inhumation and the grave-goods a Sarmatian chamber was a comparatively sim- custom remained constant elements through- ple affair, with a boulder or flagstone covering out the three cultural phases of the site, there the entrance hole. In the Alanic period, the ent was a series of observable developments and rance cover could be quite complex, sometimes changes. consisting of a double layer of flagstones, or a dry-stone wall and a series of large stones, with In terms of grave construction, the simple (though clay being used to close gaps particularly around in some cases stone-lined and/or stone-covered) the edges. This impression of an evolving grave grave pits of the Koban period were replaced from architecture is further emphasized by the addi- the Sarmatian period by underground chambers tion, in Alanic burial chambers, of niches, and of (Fig. 52). Access to the chamber was by a pit, in shallow pits under the entrance.

889 See Curta 2008. 890 Henrich et al. 2012.

206 11 Results

The use of the graves proceeded from single burial in the Koban grave pits, to multiple burials in a single chamber from the Late Sarmatian period onwards, with an intriguing transitional type of linked single-burial chambers in the Sarmatian period. Multiple burial implied re- use of burial chambers, with the evidence for re-opening of chambers and later depositions of a body or bodies, sometimes with a clearing out of the chamber contents, being most complex in the Alanic period. Over the whole period of use of the cemetery, we see an elaboration of the grave-goods custom, culminating in the rich collections of artefacts from successive burials in Alanic chambers. This elaboration was accompanied by an increasing complexity of mortuary ritual, with evidence of a funerary feast (evidenced by animal bones) from the Sarmatian period, and dromos ritual (consisting of fire, and of artefact and horse depositions) in the Alanic catacombs. We also see the appearance of what was probably commemorative ritual, in the form of ‘horse skin’ depositions between the graves, most likely from the Sarmatian period onwards (but dating is by analogy here).

For some of these rituals and their changes, possible causes or contexts may be identified. The immigrant Sarmatians are likely to have brought with them their own beliefs, traditions and rituals, and these probably led to a change from crouched to extended body position and the introduction of horse-related ritual. The background of the former can only be guessed at, but the abandonment of the crouched, ‘foetus’ or ‘sleep’ position used in the Koban Period graves is an intriguing indicator of ideological change in the Sarmatian period. The introduction of horse-related ritual was probably rooted in the nomadic livestock economy and lifestyle of the Sarmatians, and was continued by the sedentary Alans for reasons of tradition, or because of a shift in the meaning of the horse, from an economic to a military symbol. The latter explanation may be supported by reference to the apparently exclusive use of stallions (preferred by military elites across the ages) for horse sacrifices, but this was the case from the Late Sarmatian with more marked changes from the Koban to Fig. 52. Isometric recon- period, at least. Economic and social changes in the Sarmatian period, and a more gradual de- structions of the grave types the Alanic period, such as the switch to agricul- velopment throughout the Sarmatian and Alan- of the three periods of use ture and the emergence of a more marked social ic periods. Another type of change is even more of the cemeteries of Klin-Yar. hierarchy, may have led to a greater complexity intriguing because it was not uni-directional: A – Koban; B – Sarmatian; C – Alanic of ritual, with an increasing emphasis on family from uniformity and standardization of grave or kin group.891 construction and ritual in the Koban period, to a greater diversity in the Sarmatian period, and The changes in mortuary and commemorative back to greater uniformity and standardization ritual discussed so far seem to have happened in the Alanic period. These broad patterns may in a slow process of evolution and elaboration, be interpreted as reflecting the degree of social control in the respective societies, and it is probably more than coincidence that the two socie- 891 See Binford 1971 for an ethnographic survey of the link ties with a more uniform ritual were sedentary between social and funerary complexity. agricultural societies while the more varied ritual

207 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

gender via grave-goods, the Koban Culture also expressed it through body position, the Alans through the use of space within the burial chamber (and partly through body position), but the Sarmatians through neither. In the Koban period, grave-goods were gendered along conventional lines found in many periods and cultures: weapons and tools with males, dress and body ornaments with females. A pottery vessel was put into almost every burial, irrespective of age or gender, but there is a gender preference for the actual vessel type supplied (cups and pots with females, bowls with either gender). The Sarmatians and Alans burying at the site continued the tradition of displaying gender roles via artefact kits. While this was a common tradition across much of Iron Age and early medieval Eu- rope, the distinctions here were not quite the Fig. 53. Gender space in Sar- same, and perhaps slightly more blurred, than matian and Alanic graves at in western and northern Europe, as is demon- Klin-Yar III. Top – Sarmatian; strated at Klin-Yar by the occasional single ear- bottom – Alanic. ring (but never two earrings) with Sarmatian and Alanic males, and the occasional provision of a belonged to a society which started out as pasto- large dagger or battle-knife (though not of a long ral nomads. The combination in Alanic mortuary sword) with Alanic females. We may be seeing ritual of great complexity with a high degree of here glimpses of the different gender tradition of normative standardization, where differences the Iranian nomad societies of the East Europe- were of a quantitative rather than a qualitative an and Central Asian steppes.893 nature, would fit the context of a highly ranked society, probably with a hereditary elite, and Crouched deposition was the same for male possibly in the process of early state formation. and female Koban individuals at Klin-Yar, but as a rule (though not without exceptions) males Age and gender differences were symbolized were deposited on the right side, and females on in the ritual of all three cemetery phases. Be- the left side. In this respect, the Koban Culture cause of the small sample size, age symbolism belongs to a long tradition of gender-distinct is difficult to infer for the Koban period. But it is crouched burial in prehistoric eastern Europe894. noteworthy that children were not excluded from The Sarmatians introduced burial in extended the grave-goods custom and that a child of 8 to body position at Klin-Yar, but throughout the Sar- 10 years of age (in grave 350) could have the matian and Alanic cemetery phases, a propor- same accessories (including spiral bracelets) tion of females tended to be buried flexed (rather as adults. On the other hand, the outstanding than crouched), more often on the right than on Koban artefact find of our excavations, the de the left side. corated bronze axe from grave 362, had been buried with a fully adult man of 40 to 50 years The use of space for symbolizing gender is an of age, i. e. a mature man by the standards of his intriguing aspect of later burial ritual at Klin-Yar time. Sarmatian and Alanic mortuary practices, (Fig. 53). While Sarmatian double burials of a both in grave-goods provision and burial loca- male and a female tended to consist of two sin- tion, seem to have recognized threshold ages gle-burial chambers linked by a common dromos around 2 to 3 years, and at 10 to 12 years which or access pit, Alanic paired burial usually hap- Korobov (in Chapter 7) has argued, on the basis pened in a shared chamber with distinct gender of regional ethnography, reflect distinctions be- zones: the female and her grave-goods at the tween infants and children, and between chil- far wall, away from the entrance (which, in Klin- dren and juveniles, respectively. Similar distinc- Yar III catacombs, usually meant that the female tions at approximately the same age levels are was buried in the northern half); the male and found in early medieval burial ritual in western his grave-goods close to the entrance (in the Europe.892 southern half); and neutral or shared spaces in the head end and foot end of the chamber, and Gender display is equally complex. While all in the shallow pit under the entrance. In terms three cultures present at the site expressed

893 Rolle 1980; Davis-Kimball 1997; Guliaev 2003. 892 See Härke 1997 for the case of early Anglo-Saxon society. 894 Häusler 2001; Häusler 2003; Sofaer-Derevenskij 1997.

208 11 Results

of both, social structure and mortuary symbol- found in the elite plot. At the regional level, this ism, it may well be significant that the clearest pattern is found in some other Alanic cemeter- manifestations of this gendered burial space are ies, but not in all of them.

11.5 Settlement and diet

Previous excavations had located the main mostly soft, low-quality vessels from graves, im- Koban Period settlement at Klin-Yar on the south- plying that the latter were specifically produced ern slope below the Parovoz rock formation, to for funerary purposes. the west of the 1994 – 1996 excavations in the Klin-Yar III cemetery (Fig. 2). Fragments of Koban The chronological relationship between Koban settlement pottery turned up in considerable settlement and cemetery in this part of the site quantities in the topsoil of the excavated areas is not entirely clear. One Koban grave (377) had and in the dromoi of Sarmatian and Alanic cat- been cut through the floor of Koban building acombs, though less often in their chamber fill. 1/96, with the body deposited below the level The frequency of stray Koban sherds decreased of the stones which were marking the floor level significantly from west to east along the slope. of the building. While it is not clear whether the The westernmost, main trench uncovered an house was occupied at the time or had already area of overlap of settlement and cemetery, and been deserted, the fact that the floor stones while the investigation of the settlements at this were not replaced seems to suggest that the site was not among the aims of the project, the building was not occupied after the burial. evidence for the Koban settlement uncovered during the cemetery excavations is important No Sarmatian settlement evidence of any kind enough to be summarized here.895 was found during the 1994 – 1996 excavations nor previously, which may or may not be an in- In 1994, a Koban stone floor was uncovered in dicator of a more nomadic economy and lifestyle the main trench (1/1994) over an area of 3 by during this period. 4 m, with burnt clay suggesting destruction by fire. In 1996, two further Koban structures were The existence of Alanic settlement on the flat observed about 25 metres north of this stone top of the Parovoz rock and on its northern lower floor. Building 1 was excavated over an area of slope had been established during earlier exca- 3 by 4 metres, with two outer walls (southern vations. Few stray sherds of Alanic pottery were and eastern) in the trench; two phases could be found in graves at Klin-Yar III south of the rock, identified. Building 2 was revealed by its south- but significantly more in Klin-Yar IV graves on the ern wall (2.70 m long) and a hearth at the north- other side. This may reflect the closer proximity ern edge of the trench; an extensive burnt layer of settlement and cemetery there, but it seems provided a clear indication that it had been de- that there are also elements of a different burial stroyed by fire. ritual involved, with sherds of entire, soot-covered pots spread through the dromoi of several These findings are significant because of the catacombs of Klin-Yar IV, possibly the remains of unsatisfactory state of research on Koban settle- a funeral feast. This pattern also suggests that ments in the North Caucasus. By the time of the the inhabitants of the northern settlement bur- excavation, the Klin-Yar structures were only the ied their dead in the adjacent cemetery of Klin- third Koban settlement in this region revealed by Yar IV while the Alanic burials in Klin-Yar III were more than narrow trial trenches; and the pottery probably those of the inhabitants of the central types found in 1994 – 1996 include some very settlement on top of the rock. rare types, in particular a large storage vessel from building 1/96 (second phase), and paint- The diet of the inhabitants of Klin-Yar was in- ed pottery from the same building (first phase) ferred from bone chemistry data obtained from which is the first such pottery found anywhere in skeletons from the 1994 – 1996 excavations. a Koban context.896 The comparison between the While the Koban people had a lifestyle and diet Koban settlement pottery and ceramics found typical of a farming population, the Sarmatian in graves at Klin Yar is instructive: it shows up lifestyle was that of mobile livestock breeders, a stark difference between the hard, well-made with a high proportion of meat in their diet. The and often burnished settlement pottery, and the Alanic diet, in turn, contained significantly less meat than that of the Sarmatians, implying a more mixed economy. A less expected element 895 It is planned that the Koban settlement evidence will be of the diet was illuminated by an initially puzz studied by S. Reinhold, Berlin. 896 Personal communication Ya. Berezin, Kislovodsk, and ling piece of evidence: an irregular offset in the S. Reinhold. radiocarbon dates obtained for Sarmatian and

209 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 54. Archaeological Alanic graves with coins or other import finds. canic region. The offset implies that freshwater map of the Kislovodsk Basin, Far from testing if these artefactual indicators animals, most likely fish, played a significant, Koban to Alanic period. provide reliable dates, the artefactual dates be- but variable role in the diet of the Late Sarma- came the standard by which the offset could be tian and Early Alanic population of Klin-Yar. This gauged. A control series of dates, together with may well reflect a diversification of food resourc- stable isotope data, identified a reservoir effect es, perhaps as a result of increasing population of old carbon in local water sources as the likely density in the Kislovodsk Basin during this pe- culprit – the North Caucasus is, after all, a vol- riod.

11.6 Regional context

A recent extensive survey programme has high- the possibility of additional income from mer- lighted quite how high the settlement densi- cenary service for Byzantium and other pow- ty in the Kislovodsk Basin had become by the ers, and the early medieval branch of the Silk Alanic period (Fig. 54).897 It has even been Road which is thought to have run along the suggested that the population in the Alanic pe- Podkumok valley (see above). This would have riod was close to that of today, or even great- led past the sites of Klin-Yar and Rim Gora (‘Ro- er.898 The reason for this concentration is not man Hill’), a site similar to Klin-Yar in location yet fully understood, but in the Alanic period and structure, though starting later, and locat- external factors may have contributed, such as ed some ten kilometres further upstream the Podkumok river, i. e. west along the valley overlooked by Klin-Yar899. Even in this regional con- 897 Афанасьев et al. 2004. I am grateful to the authors for text, however, Klin-Yar remains an exceptional permission to publish here a version of their archaeological map of the Kislovodsk Basin which was specially adapted by D. S. Korobov for this purpose and edited by M. Mathews. 898 Personal communication V. B. Kovalevkaya. 899 Рунич/Михайлов 1976; Кузнецов 1993, 28 – 29.

210 11 Results

site: it is the only Koban cemetery in the North was therefore part of the rise of the late Alanic Caucasus to have produced Assyrian helmets; state in the North Caucasus. There is, however, it represents the largest sample of undisturbed, no evidence that Klin-Yar was ever part of this po- excavated Alanic graves in the North Caucasus; litical, social and settlement evolution: as far as and it seems to be the only Alanic cemetery in we know, it was not settled beyond the early 8th the North Caucasus with a distinct elite plot century, the date of the latest Alanic burials ex- (although extensive grave robbery elsewhere cavated on the slopes of the Parovoz rock. That blurs the picture). happens to be the time when the Kislovodsk Basin, according to the archaeological evidence In the later Alanic period, the Kislovodsk Basin and its current dating, seems to have been aban- sees the development of an interconnected set- doned by the Alans, perhaps at the instigation tlement system, with a clear hierarchy of settle- of their Khazar overlords, before being resettled ment types and a system of outlying watchtow- here in the 10th century at a time when the Alanic ers.900 It is arguable that the operation of such a kingdom appears for the first time in the written system required a central authority, and that it sources of its neighbours.901

901 Кузнецов 1992, 213 – 245; Kouznetsov/Lebedinsky 1997, 900 Афанасьев et al. 2004; Korobov forthcoming. 79 – 100.

211 12 Summaries

12.1 Summary

Klin-Yar is a well-known, large cemetery of re- show marked age, gender and wealth patterns. gional importance, located outside the spa town Over time, grave construction, grave-goods pro- of Kislovodsk in the foothills of the North Cau- vision and burial ritual increased in complexity, casus (Russian Federation). Before 1993, some with depositions of ‘horse skins’ between the 350 graves had been excavated here, most of graves suggesting commemorative ritual from them belonging to the Late Bronze Age/Early the Sarmatian period onward. The horses de- Iron Age Koban Culture, but also around 70 Late posited here and in the access corridors of rich Iron Age Sarmatian and early medieval Alanic Alanic catacombs were stallions of high quality. graves. The six Alanic catacombs of cemetery IV, north of the rock, varied subtly in construction, ritual and The presence of three distinct cultural phases in grave-goods from the contemporary catacombs the cemetery led to a project which aimed to test in cemetery III. the accepted hypothesis that cultural change, here and in the region, was the consequence of On the southern slope of the site, in cemetery III, population change by immigration in the Late our excavations uncovered an elite plot with a Iron Age (Sarmatians) and the Early Middle Ages concentration of rich Sarmatian and Alanic cata- (Alans). A joint Anglo-Russian team carried out combs which appears to be unique in the North fieldwork on the site in 1994 – 1996. Excavations Caucasus. The ritual, cultural and biological south of the central rock formation, in cemetery indicators of elite status at Klin-Yar are all con- area III, produced graves of all three periods as centrated in this cemetery area. With two excep- well as some Koban settlement evidence; the tions, it contains the richest catacombs of these small cemetery area IV north of the rock pro- two phases at Klin-Yar. The man and woman bur- duced almost exclusively Alanic graves. In all, ied in catacomb 360 (mid-7th cent. AD) probably 52 graves with more than 100 individuals were belonged to the top level of early Alanic society uncovered; remains of 86 individuals were pre- in the North Caucasus. The numbers of burials served well enough for skeletal analysis. need not imply more than one high-status family, or at the most two families, over some 350 to In cemetery III, our excavations produced a 400 years. The increasing emphasis on family or scatter of 16 Koban graves of the 10th to 6th cent. kin-group burial in the elite plot during the Early BC; in cemetery IV only one grave of that period Alanic period may signal the emergence of a he- was uncovered. Koban burial ritual consisted of reditary aristocracy. single crouched inhumation with grave-goods in a grave pit, sometimes stone-lined and/ The human bones were too badly preserved or with stone cover. Grave construction, body for the analysis of ancient DNA. A detailed an- deposition and the provision of grave-goods thropological and bone chemistry study of all showed clear age and gender patterns. Burial available skeletons from the site (including wealth ranged from absent to rich, with some those from earlier excavations which signifi- notable artefact finds (such as the iron-inlaid cantly narrow the chronological gap between bronze axe in grave 362), although none quite the Koban and Sarmatian phases of the site) as outstanding as those found before 1993. has produced an overall picture of the succes- An interesting case is the possible ‘shaman’ in sive populations at Klin-Yar. According to the grave 355. skeletal data, the Koban people were a native farming population, with a lifestyle and diet Sarmatian and Alanic graves may be described typical of an agricultural economy. The Sarma- together because of their similarities in grave tians were immigrants at Klin-Yar, but this may construction and burial ritual, and because of have been a male-only immigration. Their life- their contiguous date spans. All of the 11 Sarma- style and diet were those of mobile livestock tian and transitional Sarmatian/Alanic graves ex- breeders. The Alans seem to represent another cavated 1994 – 1996 date to the 4th and early 5th immigration into the area, possibly from two cent. AD, the 24 Alanic graves from the 5th to the different origin areas, and with new male and end of the 7th/beginning of 8th cent. AD. The com- female phenotypes. Data on their diet and life- mon burial ritual was dressed inhumation with style point to a more mixed economy. Stable grave-goods in underground chambers (cata isotope data suggest a significant proportion combs) which held in each case the remains of of freshwater fish in the Sarmatian and Alanic one to four bodies in extended or slightly flexed diet, leading to an irregular offset in the radio- posture. Body depositions and artefact types carbon dates (reservoir effect).

212 12 Summaries

The key factors behind the observable patterns tian and Alanic periods), and along the early in the cemetery, and behind the changes in cul- medieval branch of the Silk Road to Iran and ture, ritual and lifestyle, appear to be a series Central Asia (Early Alanic period). From a the- of interlinked developments: two episodes of oretical and methodological point of view, the immigration each leading to economic and so- continuity and social stability from the Sarma- cial change. The social system was, at the same tian to the Alanic period, through a phase of ap- time, affected by the wider geo-political context parent immigration and economic change, is of of the region which expressed itself in links to great interest and requires more sophisticated the south across the Caucasus mountain range models than are generally used for the explana- (in the Koban period), to the Late Roman and tion of prehistoric and early historical popula- Byzantine neighbour in the west (Late Sarma- tion change.

12.2 Zusammenfassung

Das seit längerer Zeit bekannte Gräberfeld liegt Sarmatischer und alanischer Grabbrauch in Klin- in den Sandstein- und Kreidebergen des Nord- Jar sind sich grundsätzlich sehr ähnlich, aber kaukasus, nur wenige Kilometer außerhalb des über den Belegungszeitraum fand eine deutliche Kurorts Kislovodsk (Russische Föderation). Er- Entwicklung zu einem breiteren Beigabenspek- graben wurden dort bis 1993 fast 300 Gräber der trum und zu größerer Komplexität von Grabbau spätbronzezeitlich-früheisenzeitlichen Koban- und Ritual statt. Die 1994 – 1996 erfassten elf Kultur und etwa 70 sarmatische und alanische spätsarmatischen Gräber datieren alle in das 4. Gräber der späten bzw. römischen Eisenzeit und bis frühe 5. Jh. n. Chr., die frühalanischen Grä- des Frühmittelalters. ber in den Zeitraum vom 5. bis Ende 7./Anfang 8. Jh. n. Chr. Die gemeinsame Bestattungssitte Die Grabungen von 1994 bis 1996 in den Gräber- bestand in gestreckter Körperbestattung mit feldbereichen Klin-Jar III (südlich der zentralen Beigaben in unterirdischen Grabkammern (Kata- Felsformation) und IV (nördlich davon), durch- komben), die jeweils ein bis vier Bestattungen geführt in britisch-russischer Zusammenarbeit, enthielten. Alle Aspekte des Bestattungsrituals haben dieser Zahl noch einmal 52 kobanzeitliche und der Beigabensitte zeigen deutliche Differen- bis alanische Grabanlagen mit insgesamt über zierungen nach Alter, Geschlecht und erschlos- 100 bestatteten Individuen hinzugefügt, von senem Status der Bestatteten. Der auffallendste denen 86 anthropologisch untersucht werden Teil des Rituals waren die Pferdeopfer, die als konnten. Die Ausgrabungen waren Teil eines ‚Pferdehäute’ zwischen bzw. auf den Gräbern Projektes, in dem die weithin akzeptierte Hypo- lagen oder als ganze Pferdebestattungen in den these, dass der beobachtbare Kulturwandel hier Zugangskorridoren (Dromoi) reicher alanischer und im gesamten Nordkaukasus jeweils durch Katakomben plaziert waren. Diese Pferde waren Einwanderungen (zunächst der Sarmaten, dann ausnahmslos Hengste guter Qualität, aber under Alanen) verursacht wurde, anhand neuen Ma- terschiedlichen Alters und Typs. Die sechs ala- terials einer Prüfung unterzogen werden sollte. nischen Katakomben, die im Gräberfeldbereich IV nördlich der Felsformation freigelegt wurden, Die 17 freigelegten Gräber der Koban-Kultur unterschieden sich von den gleichzeitigen Kata- datieren in das 10. bis 6. Jahrhundert v. Chr. Die komben des Gräberfeldbereichs III in Einzelhei- meisten fanden sich im Gräberfeldbereich III, ten von Grabbau, Grabritual und Beigabenaus- nur ein einziges im kleinen Gräberfeldbereich IV. stattung. Grabbau und Bestattungsritual waren recht ein- heitlich und bestanden aus beigabenführender In einem Teil des Gräberfeldbereichs III wurden Hockerbestattung in Einzelgräbern. Einige der 1994 – 1996 eine ganze Reihe großer und reicher Grabgruben hatten eine Steineinfassung der Katakomben der spätsarmatischen und frühala- Grubenwände und/oder eine Steinplattenabde- nischen Zeit ausgegraben, die als regelrechter ckung. Deutliche Geschlechtsdifferenzierungen Elitebereich in dieser räumlichen Konzentration fanden sich in Grabbau, Totengestus und Beiga- bisher einmalig sind im Nordkaukasus. Hier benarten. Die Beigabenausstattung hatte eine waren – mit zwei Ausnahmen, die nicht weit ent- große Spannbreite, von beigabenlos bis reich. fernt lagen – die reichsten sarmatischen und Es gab auch einige besondere Funde, so die mit alanischen Gräber von Klin-Jar konzentriert. Sta- Eiseneinlage verzierte Bronzeaxt aus Grab 362, tussymbole und Reichtumsindikatoren finden allerdings keine Ausnahmefunde, wie sie vor sich im Elitebereich in einer ganz auffallenden 1993 z. B. mit einem assyrischen Helm gemacht Häufung. Im Fall von Grab 360 ist es höchst wurden. Einen interessanten Sonderfall stellt die wahrscheinlich, dass der Mann und die Frau in mögliche ‚Schamanenbestattung‘ in Grab 355 diesem Grab zur Spitze der alanischen Gesell- dar. schaftshierarchie des Nordkaukasus um die

213 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Mitte des 7. Jhs. gehörten. Die absolute Zahl der die sarmatische, was auf eine Mischwirtschaft Bestattungen im Elitebereich legt nahe, dass es schließen lässt. Stabile Isotopendaten lassen sich nur um eine Familie, später vielleicht zwei einen beträchtlichen Anteil an Süßwasserfisch Familien gehandelt haben kann, die ihre Toten in der Ernährung vermuten, was dann wegen hier über dreieinhalb bis vier Jahrhunderte be- des alten Kohlenstoffs im Wasser dieser vulka- statteten. Der Übergang zu Familiengrabstätten nischen Region zu einem verfälschenden Reser- ab dem 5. Jh. sowie der anthropologische Nach- voireffekt bei der Radiokarbondatierung führt. weis von Verwandtschaftsbeziehungen im Elite- Die bei der Erforschung dieses Effekts erhobe- bereich könnten Hinweise auf die frühe Entste- nen Isotopendaten enthalten auch Hinweise hung eines erblichen Adels darstellen. darauf, dass die alanische Population des Grä- berfeldes IV, nördlich der Felsformation, eine Die ursprünglich geplante DNS-Analyse konnte andere geographische Herkunft hatte als die im wegen der schlechten Knochenerhaltung sowie Gräberfeld III. des Entwicklungsstandes der Technik in den 1990er Jahren nicht realisiert werden. In der Aus dem im Gräberfeld von Klin-Jar zu beobach Beantwortung der Bevölkerungsfrage helfen tenden Wandel von Kultur, Ritual und Lebens- aber die Ergebnisse der anthropologischen Be- weise ergeben sich als wahrscheinlichste arbeitung der Skelettfunde von Klin-Jar weiter, kausale Faktoren zwei nacheinander erfolgte zumal auch frühere Funde in die Auswertung Einwanderungen, die jede zu neuen wirtschaft- einbezogen werden konnten. Demnach war die lichen und sozialen Strukturen führte. Zudem Koban-Population eine einheimische Bevölke- standen die örtlichen Gemeinschaften in allen rung, deren Ernährungsweise, Krankheitsmerk- Perioden unter dem Einfluss des größeren Kon- male und Stressmarker typisch sind für eine textes dieser geopolitisch bedeutsamen Region, bäuerliche Wirtschaftsweise. Die Sarmaten von deren Verbindungen sich in Importfunden aus Klin-Jar waren dagegen Einwanderer, doch die dem Süden (besonders in der Koban-Periode), Kombination von neuem männlichen Phänotyp dem Westen (sarmatische und alanische Perio- und dem aus der Koban-Periode durchlaufen- de) und Osten (alanische Periode) äußerten. Der den weiblichen Phänotyp bedeutet möglicher- methodisch vielleicht interessanteste Aspekt, weise, dass es sich um eine reine Männerein- der sich aus den Ergebnissen von Klin-Jar ergibt, wanderung handelte. Die Skelettmerkmale der ist die offenbare soziale Stabilität und Kontinui- sarmatischen Population sind diejenigen von tät von der spätsarmatischen zur frühalanischen Reiternomaden, und die Spurenelemente bele- Zeit – ein Zeitraum, der nach den anthropologi- gen einen hohen Anteil von tierischem Eiweiß schen Ergebnissen geprägt war von der Einwan- in der Ernährung. Die Alanen bildeten dann die derung der Alanen sowie der Umstellung der nächste Gruppe von Einwanderern in die Re- Wirtschaftsweise. Hier brauchen wir deutlich gion, mit neuem Phänotyp sowohl bei Männern komplexere Erklärungsmodelle als diejenigen, als auch bei Frauen. Die alanische Ernährung die gewöhnlich für vor- und frühgeschichtliche enthielt deutlich weniger tierisches Eiweiß als Wanderungen benutzt werden.

12.3 Резюме

Клин-Яр – хорошо известный могильник, рас- ниях на могильнике Клин-Яр и его окрестно- положенный в регионе Кавказских Минераль- стях вследствие смены этнического состава, ных Вод, недалеко от курортного города Кис- вызванного миграциями в позднем железном ловодска Ставропольского края в Российской веке (сарматы) и раннем средневековье (ала- Федерации. Этот регион находится в предгор- ны). ной зоне Северного Кавказа. К югу от него располагается главный Кавказский хребет. До Совместная российско-английская экспедиция 1993 года на Клин-Яре было раскопано около проводила исследования на этом могильнике 400 погребений, большая часть которых от- с 1994 по 1996 год. Раскопки к югу от скально- носится к кобанской культуре (поздний брон- го останца («Паровоз») на участке III некропо- зовый/ранний железный век). Так же было ля выявили захоронения всех трех периодов, исследовано около 100 захоронений, принад- а также поселение кобанской культуры. На лежащих сарматской (поздний железный век) небольшом участке IV, к северу от «Паровоза», и аланской культурам (раннее средневековье). были выявлены в основном аланские захоро- нения. В общей сложности совместной экспе- Наличие трех различных культур на этом па- дицией было вскрыто 52 погребения, содер- мятнике послужило основным поводом для на- жавшие более 100 костяков, 86 из которых чала проекта, целью которого была проверка были хорошей сохранности, что позволило общепринятой гипотезы о культурных измене- провести антропологические исследования.

214 12 Summaries

На участке III некрополя были выявлены 16 На южном склоне горы Паровоз (Клин-Яр III) захоронений кобанской культуры, датируемых экспедиция выявила элитный участок захоро- 10 – 6 вв. до н. э., в то время как на участке IV нений знати. Большая концентрация богатых обнаружено лишь одно погребение этой эпо- сарматских и аланских катакомб на небольшой хи. площади является уникальным явлением сре- ди известных могильников этого времени на Погребальный обряд кобанской культуры на Северном Кавказе. этом могильнике представлял собой в основ- ном захоронения одного или двух индивиду В этой части некрополя были сосредоточе- умов в каменном ящике или грунтовой могиле ны все основные атрибуты элитных захоро- с использованием перекрытия из каменных нений, имеющих ритуальные, культурные и плит. Конструкция могильной ямы, положе- биологические отличия. За исключением двух ние костяка и погребальный инвентарь четко захоронений, этот участок могильника содер- дифференцировали половозрастные отличия. жал самые богатые катакомбы сарматского и Наличие сопровождающего инвентаря варьи- аланского периодов на Клин-Яре. Мужчина и ровалось от почти полного его отсутствия до женщина, погребенные в катакомбе 360 (се- богатых захоронений с такими замечательны- редина 7 века н. э.), вероятно, принадлежали ми находками, как, например, инкрустирован- к высшему слою раннего аланского общества ный железом бронзовый топор (погребение на Северном Кавказе. Небольшое количество № 362), так же как и другие предметы погре- катакомб, скорее всего принадлежащих одной бального инвентаря. Интересно отметить захо- или двум семьям высокого статуса, погребен- ронение предположительно шамана в погре- ных на протяжении 350 – 400 лет на одном бении № 355. Однако на этом периферийном небольшом участке, возможно, указывает на участке кобанского могильника погребальный становление наследственной аристократии в инвентарь в целом был значительно беднее, этот период. чем на основной части могильника, исследо- ванном до 1993 года. Сохранность человеческих костей не позво- лила провести исследование ДНК. Детальное Сарматские и аланские погребения рассма- исследование антропологического материа- триваются вместе, ввиду схожести конструк- ла и химического состава костного материала тивных особенностей могильных конструкций, всех имеющихся костяков (включая костяки погребального обряда и хронологической бли- из более ранних раскопок), позволило зна- зости. Все 11 сарматских и сармато-аланских чительно сократить хронологический разрыв захоронений, раскопанных в 1994 – 1996 го- между кобанским и сарматским периодами и дах, датируются 4 – ранним 5 вв. н. э. 24 алан- создать общую картину меняющегося народо- ских захоронения датируются 5 – концом 7(на- населения на Клин-Яре. Согласно данным ан- чалом 8) вв. н. э. тропологического анализа, кобанцы являлись местным земледельческим народом с диетой и Схожесть погребальной обрядности выража- жизненным укладом, присущим сельскохозяй- лась в отдельных сохранившихся элементах ственной экономике. одежды, так же как и в другом сопровождаю- щем инвентаре. Практически все погребения Сарматы появились на Клин-Яре как пересе- были совершены в катакомбах (земляном ленцы, и, возможно, это была исключительно склепе), в которых находились от одного до мужская миграция. Их жизненный уклад и ди- четырех костяков в вытянутом или слабо скор- ета представляли собой уклад и диету подвиж- ченном положении. Поза погребенных, а так- ных скотоводов. же сопровождающий инвентарь отражают воз- растные, гендерные и социальные отличия. Со Аланы, по всей видимости, являлись предста- временем конструкция катакомб, погребаль- вителями еще одной миграции, возможно, из ный обряд и инвентарь менялись. Например, двух разных очагов и с новыми мужскими и появляется новый элемент обрядности – раз- женскими фенотипами. Данные об их диете и мещение «лошадиных шкур» между захороне- жизненном укладе указывают на более сме- ниями. шанную экономику.

Как показали исследования, в дромосах бога- Анализы стабильных изотопов позволяют выя- тых аланских катакомб были захоронены по- вить значительную долю пресноводной рыбы родистые жеребцы. Шесть аланских захороне- в диете алан и сарматов, что могло привести к ний на IV участке могильника, расположенного нерегулярным смещениям в радиокарбонной к северу от скалы, отличались по своему погре- датировке (резервуарный эффект). бальному обряду, конструкциям катакомб и сопровождающему инвентарю от захоронений Главными факторами, объясняющими наблю- того же периода на участке III. даемые закономерности в некрополе и из-

215 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

менениях в культуре, обрядах и жизненном вление Великого Шелкового Пути с Ираном и укладе, является ряд взаимосвязанных обсто- Центральной Азией (раннеаланский период). ятельств: два эпизода миграции, каждый из С теоретической и методологической точек которых вел к экономическим и социальным зрения, продолжительность и социальная ста- преобразованиям. На социальную систему в бильность от сарматского к аланскому перио- свою очередь влияла региональная геополи- ду, по-видимому, через фазу миграций и эко- тическая конъюнктура, которая выражалась в номических изменений, представляет собой связях с югом, через Кавказский хребет (в ко- большой интерес и требует более сложных мо- банский период), с поздним Римом и Византи- делей, чем обычно используемые для описа- ей на западе (поздний сарматский и аланский ния изменений в обществах доисторического периоды), и через раннесредневековое ответ- либо раннеисторического периодов.

216 13 Bibliography

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236 14 Catalogue

14.1 Introduction and conventions

The following catalogue consists of two parts, For the orientation of the dromos, the access end dealing with graves and ritual features, respec- is given first, and the entrance end second. In tively. For each grave, the textual description of the case of burial chambers and grave pits, the evidence and finds is supplemented by grave head end is listed first. North is magnetic north plans, grave sections, and artefact drawings. (for abbreviations of directions, see below). The catalogue entries and illustrations are largely self-explanatory, but a few explanations of Depth measurements are mostly depth below conventions, abbreviations and scales are given modern surface because the location of cem- below. etery III, in particular, on a slope would have made depth data in absolute terms or relative Numbers of graves are the same which were given to the reference level completely uninformative. during the excavation and used in the documenta- Depth below surface allows comparisons, and tion (including the field report). Graves and ritual is misleading only for graves far down the slope features without additional cemetery information where there has been a build-up of hillwash (in in the figure captions are from cemetery III; graves our excavations, mainly in section 2/1996, with from cemetery IV are identified as such. In cases Alanic catacomb 382). of double graves, the Cyrillic letters have been replaced with Latin letters in the same sequence In the artefact descriptions, information on ma- (A, B, etc.), not with the corresponding Latin let- terial is usually based on inspection, less of- ters in the transliteration convention. The dating ten on actual analysis; ‘bronze’ always means information of Alanic graves gives Latin and Cyril- ‘bronze or copper’. Measurements are given lic letters in the period designations (separated by in m (metres) and mm (millimetres). Weight is slash) because the latter have been used in this only given for objects of gold (or gold and silver) format elsewhere in specialist publications. where the precious metal clearly makes up most or all of the weight. In the case of gold artefacts, Numbers of skeletons in multiple burial cham- the respective accession numbers of Stavropol bers are, again, the same as in the field docu- Local History Museum are given where available; mentation and report (which, in turn, had been gold objects were accessioned and stored sepa- given in the order of discovery during cleaning); rately as required under Russian law. No further comparability with the original documentation accession numbers or information on locations has been judged to be more important than a of finds are given in the catalogue. The vast ma- uniform system of numbering. Age and sex infor- jority of artefacts from the 1994 – 1996 excava- mation on the skeletons is taken from the human tions are in Stavropol Local History Museum, as bones report unless otherwise stated; for further are most older finds from the site; the human details, readers are referred to Chapter 9 (this bone material is held in the Anthropology Lab- volume). oratory of the Institute of Archaeology, Russian Academy of Sciences (Moscow). Sequences of small finds numbers are separate for dromos (or access pit or shaft), burial chamber, and fill of chamber (where appropriate). Abbreviations used in the catalogue These numbers are largely the same as given in the field documentation and report; again, this acc.no. accession number has been done in the interest of comparability approx. approximate(ly) with the documentation. A few minor changes c. circa or additions have been made to accommodate diam. diameter unnumbered objects (usually from the fill of E east(ern) chambers or dromoi) and to reconcile different incl. including sequences of numbers. Finds from burial cham- max. maximum bers have no prefix; other finds are prefixed as min. minimum follows: N north(ern) D – finds from dromos (or access pit/shaft) orig. original(ly) F – finds from fill of chamber. poss. possibly The numbers given for individual items in the prob. probably figures with artefact drawings are the finds S south(ern) numbers used in the catalogue and in the grave SLHM Stavropol Local History Museum plans. W west(ern)

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Scales of plans and drawings (unless otherwise stated)

Grave plans and sections: Artefact drawings: Koban grave plans 1 : 20 gold, silver, bronze 1 : 1 sections 1 : 40 iron 1 : 2 Sarmatian and Alanic pottery 1 : 3 grave plans 1 : 30 sections 1 : 60

Conventions for grave plans

14.2 Klin-Yar cemetery III: Graves

Grave 341 (trench 1/1994) (Figs. 55 – 63; Pl. 7,1.2.6) Entrance hole 0.49 m wide, shape could not be deter- Alanic (period IIIb/IIIб, mid-7th – early 8th cent. AD). Cata- mined, length 0.49 – 0.52 m, drop of 1.04 m to chamber comb with dromos, with triple burial. floor. Two upright sandstone slabs closing entrance, two smaller stones in front of them; all stones resting on a Grave construction: Dromos SSE–NNW, length 3.70 m, thin layer of blue clay (40 – 50 mm thick); more blue clay width 0.40 m (southern end) to 0.55 m (middle and around stones, and some clay on stones. northern end), depth 1.96 m below modern surface, soft Chamber collapsed; max. size 2.65 × 1.60 m, depth 3.10 m fill with yellow specks, in fill tiny bronze fragments and below modern surface, orientation of long axis WSW–ENE. two beads; three steps at S end. Pit under entrance, sub-rectangular, 0.71 × 0.51 m, depth 0.13 – 0.15 m under floor of chamber. Level floor; a layer Depositions: horse and pottery vessels. Complete of brown decayed organic material, at least 6 mm thick, horse, with head to N, head resting on an entrance on floor of central and N part of chamber under skeletons, stone; skeleton articulated, on belly, legs folded under running against the E and W walls of the chamber; a num- body. ber of bronze rivets and staples in organic layer, particularly between skeletons 1 and 3, and in waist area of skeleton Pottery depositions on steps and floor behind horse’s 3; patch of clay W of entrance pit, under pottery vessels. hind legs, and on top of horse bones: Burials: three, all badly preserved. D1 Pottery cup, complete; globular body, straight Skeleton 1 (young adult, very badly preserved). Against neck, one handle; surface black, burnished, N wall. Extended on back(?), legs straight. Line of five with vertical grooves on body and two horizontal milk teeth between wall and skeleton; thigh bones of grooves on neck; height 79 mm. skeleton 2 prob. over pelvis of skeleton 1. D2 Pottery jar, broken, incomplete; rough grey sur- Skeleton 2 (only disarticulated leg bones). Thigh bone face, with traces of soot, one handle; diam. of over pelvis of skeleton 1, shin bone over right hand of mouth 147 mm. skeleton 3; skeleton 2 prob. moved for later deposition D3/4 Fragments of large pottery jar; grey surface; diam. of another skeleton, and some bones then replaced. of base 115 mm.

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Fig. 55. Cemetery III grave 341. Plan, detail, sections, and elevation of entrance.

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Fig. 56. Cemetery III grave 341. Finds from dromos.

Skeleton 3 (male adult). In middle of grave, S of skele- well-defined granulation and deep yellow colour ton 1. Extended on back, head slightly turned to left, of gold and with solid apex globule, length 51 mm, arms straight. weight 12.95 grams; the second (28667/3) with badly defined granulation and of pale yellow col- Finds in chamber: our, with hollow apex globule, length 52 mm, 1 Two silver fittings, fragmentary; made from thin weight 7.5 grams (later copy or replacement?). sheet; diam. 22 mm; with leather remains hold- Found together east of skull of skeleton 1, not ing a bronze staple. Found 0.10 m from mouth of worn, next to medallion (9) and coins (10). quiver (7), with buckle (2) and fittings (3). 9 Go ld medallion or brooch (SLHM acc. no. 2 Iron buckle, with oval loop and rectangular plate; 28667/17); flat, circular, with silver base plate; badly corroded; width of loop 28 mm; leather re- centre showing stylised tree, in pale gold, against mains in plate. Found next to quiver (7), with fit- translucent yellow glass on dark red paste in cut- tings (1 and 3). outs; concentric rings of decoration by gold granu- 3 11 bronze fittings, convex, made from stamped lation, cord decoration, and again gold granulation sheet; diam. 8 mm and 12 mm. Found next to around edge of medallion; diam. 34 mm, weight quiver (7), with fittings (1) and buckle (2). 8.9 grams; most of glass inlay missing, some of 4 Two or more bronze fittings, made from stamped outer granulation broken off, base plate damaged. sheet; diam. 22 mm. Found between horse bit Found next to earrings (8), and on coins (10). (48) and skeleton 3. 10 Two gold solidi (SLHM acc. nos. 28667/19 and 5 Two iron stirrups, strongly corroded and de- 20); Byzantine, Tiberius Mauritius (Maurice, formed; sub-rectangular outline, of oval-sec- AD 582 – 602); one close to mint, the other with tioned iron rod (11 × 9 mm), with wider tread abrasions; both showing traces of silver solder on (width 19 – 20 mm) and sub-rectangular sus- reverse, at two opposite points of edge; diam. 20 pension loop; one apparently in original shape, and 19 mm, weight 3.7 grams. Found together un- size 124 × 122, the other bent out of shape, der medallion (9), next to earrings (8). 122 × 157 mm. Found south of right lower leg of 11 Silver buckle, with elongated loop and scutiform skeleton 3, lying 0.05 – 0.06 m apart. plate, rivet on back of plate; 18 × 21 mm; iron 6 Three silver fittings, fragmentary; made from tongue lost during conservation. Found east of stamped sheet; diam. 26 – 32 mm. Found next to point of knife (31), with strap end (12). stirrups (5). 12 Silver strap end, tongue-shaped; made from two 7 Seven iron arrowheads, fragmentary; tanged trilo- sheets with silver edging, held together by three bate type, length of complete points 72 – 80 mm; rivets and a corrugated silver band at one end; wood remains on several tangs, best preserved 121 × 22 mm; metal analysis Ag 800; leather re- showing shaft diam. of 7.6 mm; two arrow- mains inside (from belt or strap, 15 mm wide and heads showing remains of binding on wood re- 4 mm thick). Found on left arm of skeleton 3, with mains (one sloping from left to right, total width buckle (11) and knife (31); prob. from a belt which preserved 17 mm, the other right to left, total was deposited separately (i. e. not worn). width 15 mm). Next to arrowheads iron remains 13 Iron buckle, strongly corroded, with round loop (plate, extant size 33 × 40 mm, and smaller iron and rectangular plate; 57 × 31 mm; with leather fragments (poss. of buckle loop). Found along remains, 5 mm thick, holding two bronze rivets. right lower leg of skeleton 3, together with birch Found at left waist of skeleton 3. bark fragments from quiver; size of quiver stain 14 Be ads and bronze fittings, at l. waist of skeleton 3: 0.82 × 0.12 – 0.15 cm; see quiver clasp (36). (a) four irregular amber beads, length 8 – 13 mm 8 Two gold earrings (SLHM acc. nos. 28667/3 and 4); (b) one carnelian bead, ‘tablet-shaped’, diam. pyramid-shaped, with gold granulation covering 14 mm the surfaces of the pyramid; one large and three (c) 15 carnelian beads, irregular shape, diam. small globules at apex; penannular suspension 7 – 11 mm loop, with beaded shank connecting it to the pyr- (d) one ?garnet bead, almost black, ‘tablet-shaped’, amid; one ring (28667/4) with well-executed and diam. 16 mm

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Fig. 57. Cemetery III grave 341. Finds from chamber.

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Fig. 58. Cemetery III grave 341. Finds from chamber.

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Fig. 59. Cemetery III grave 341. Finds from chamber.

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Fig. 60. Cemetery III grave 341. Finds from chamber.

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Fig. 61. Cemetery III grave 341. Finds from chamber.

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Fig. 62. Cemetery III grave 341. Finds from chamber.

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Fig. 63. Cemetery III grave 341. Finds from chamber.

(e) three glass beads, bright blue, diam. 6 mm 20 Pottery cup; flat base, cylindrical neck and slight- (f) three glass beads, melon-shaped, diam. 9 mm ly everted rim, one handle; rough, grey surface; (g) two glass beads, bright-green clear glass with on body vertical, slightly angled grooves; height yellow-green ‘eye’ decoration; diam. 14 and 9 mm 78 mm. Found in head end of grave on floor, (h) ten small bronze fittings, convex, cut from against wall. sheet bronze; fragmentary, diam. 7 mm. 21 Leather remains, badly preserved. Found close to 15 Beads, found S of right femur of skeleton 1: skeleton 1. (a) two amber beads, of irregular shape, diam. 6 22 Beads and bronze fittings, found at pelvis of skel- and 13 mm eton 1, on organic floor covering: (b) six glass beads, blue, disc-shaped, diam. 6 mm (a) two amber beads, irregular shape, diam. 7 and (c) one glass bead, blue, globular, diam. 9 mm 17 mm (d) one glass bead, green, disc-shaped, diam. 4 mm (b) four glass beads, blue, one round, diam. (e) one glass bead, black and white, globular, 8 mm, three flattened, diam. 6 mm diam. 10 mm. (c) bronze convex fitting, made from sheet bronze, 16 Bronze hook, made from thin bronze wire, length diam. 8 mm. 14 mm. Found on organic material at right femur 23 Bronze fittings, found near feet of skeleton 1: of skeleton 1. (a) bronze buckle, with round loop; 14 × 12 mm 17 Pottery jar; globular body, straight cylindrical (b) bronze fitting (strap end?), from U-bent sheet, neck, with spout, one handle; dark grey surface; with one rivet; 22 × 13 mm; leather remains inside on shoulder a band of incised grid decoration, on (c) bronze fitting, convex; diam. 9 mm. base a mark of cross-in-circle (diam. 35 mm); trac- 24 Bronze buckle with fixed plate; three rivets on un- es of secondary firing on body; height 241 mm. derside; 23 × 17 mm; with leather remains from Found on clay patch in head end, with jar (18); strap, 2.3 mm thick. Found near feet of skeleton inside the jar a fragment of pottery vessel (flat- 3; prob. from boots. based, light grey clay). 25 Bronze buckle with fixed plate and rectangular 18 Pottery jar; flat base, globular shape, cylindri- loop, with remains of iron tongue; one rivet on un- cal neck with seven to eight parallel grooves, derside; 20 × 16 mm. Found near feet of skeleton one large handle and two small lateral handles, 3; prob. from boots. semi-tubular spout; burnished black and grey sur- 26 Silver fitting, fragmentary, prob. orig. figure-of-8 face; height 331 mm. Found on clay patch in head shape; length c. 25 mm. Found near feet of skele- end, on side, mouth towards foot end, with jar ton 3, prob. from boots. (17); animal rib (sheep?) next to mouth. 27 Silver fitting, very fragmentary, and four bronze 19 P ottery cup; flat base, one handle, slightly everted rivets, length 6 mm. Found near feet of skeleton 3; rim; burnished black-grey surface; on body vertical prob. from boots. grooves, on base a mark in shape of eight-rayed star 28 Chain mail patch, prob. from tunic; iron, sub-rect in a circle (diam. 45 mm); height 75 mm. Found in angular to trapezoidal, with bronze clamps in two head end of grave, at right shoulder of skeleton 3. corners; diam. of individual rings 9 to 12 mm;

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around it remains of leather edging (16 mm wide, 35 Nine silver fittings, convex, stamped from sheet; with traces of stitching), with bronze rings attach- diam. 7 mm (five) and 15 mm (four). Found right ing the mail to the backing; size 160 × 155 mm; tex- and left of lumbar vertebrae of skeleton 3. tile remains preserved in corrosion layer of ?front 36 Iron quiver clasp; found on stain of quiver (7): of mail. Found in foot end of grave, next to stirrups (a) iron ring, made from round-sectioned wire; (5) and horse bit (46); covered by thick layer of or- diam. 25 mm ganic material (remains of the tunic?) of trapezoi- (b) buckle with circular loop and rectangular dal shape, 300 mm long x 130 (E) – 200 mm (W) plate, with leather preserved on plate; length wide; found on organic material: bronze staples 56 mm. (39 and 40) and two silver fittings (38). 37 Bronze fitting, round, stamped from thin sheet; 29 Bronze bell, cast, with suspension loop; two par- diam. 20 mm. Found between horse bit (46) and allel double grooves on outside, four indentations ?tunic stain (28). above upper groove; height 64 mm, weight 38 38 Two silver fittings, one fragmentary; round, con- grams. Found N of skull of skeleton 3; poss. in a vex, stamped from thin sheet; diam. 30 mm. cover made of organic material. Found on ?tunic stain (28). 30 Go ld earring, with cast globules soldered against 39 Bronze staple; made from round wire, and at- ring. Closely similar to grave 345 no. 34. Found tached to remains of leather base; length 25 mm. against N side of skull of skeleton 3; not now extant. Found on ?tunic stain (28). 31 Iron knife, with tang and straight edge; length 40 Bronze staple, made from thin wire, with leather 85 mm; wood remains on tang. Found with point fragment (not now extant); length 25 mm. Found to NE, together with medallion (9), earrings (8), on ?tunic stain (28). buckle (11) and strap end (12). 41/42 Two silver fittings, one of them fragmentary; rect 32 Bronze buckle, with round wire loop; diam. angular, made from thin sheet, with cut-outs in 15 mm. Found near feet of skeleton 1. shape of masks, and decorated with perpendic- 33 Belt fittings; found on floor in head end, near pot- ular and longitudinal grooves; size 71 × 30 mm; tery vessels: metal analysis Ag 600. Found in foot end of grave, (a) bronze buckle, with elongated oval loop and against eastern wall. fixed scutiform plate; one rivet on underside; 43 Leather fragments, with three bronze rivets with 23 × 18 mm pointed heads, 14 × 24 mm. Found next to stirrups (b) silver strap end, tongue-shaped; made from (5), together with bronze fittings (4, 37, 49), iron two sheets held together by one rivet; decorative buckle (47) and iron object (48). edging with fishbone pattern around strap open- 44/45 (a) Ten or more bronze fittings, round, made from ing; 12 × 45 mm; metal analysis Ag 875. thin sheet, orig. fitted on leather; diam. 14 mm. 34 Bag, prob. textile and bark, with leather decora- Found in two cross-shaped arrangements on a tion; on clay patch in head end, near pottery ves- leather base, immediately west of stirrups (5) sels. Contents: (b) Clinched rivet, bronze, length 12 mm; had (a) four bronze bracelets, made from thick bronze passed through a thickness of 6 mm of organic wire; one with flat terminals; diam. c. 68, 70, 73 and material. 74 mm; patch of textile remains on one bracelet 46 Iron horse bit, badly corroded and fragmen- (b) bronze fibula, cast; triangular bow section, tary; made from iron rod (section rectangular, rolled foot; iron spring (fragmentary) and pin (not 6.5 × 4.5 mm) bent into loop terminals; length ex- extant); length 65 mm tant 176 mm, orig. length c. 195 mm. Found next (c) three chalk beads, badly damaged; length 7, to stirrups (5) and ?tunic with chain mail patch 12 and 14 mm (28). (d) bronze object, from wire, deformed; length 47 Iron buckle, with rectangular loop; 28 × 41 mm. 22 mm Found next to horse bit (46). (e) two bronze fittings, convex, made from thin 48 Iron buckle, with rectangular loop; 23 × 30 mm. sheet; diam. 11 mm Found next to horse bit (46). (f) pendant (‘solar amulet’), cast; outer ring show- 49 Bronze fitting, round, made from thin sheet; diam. ing ten bulges; diam. 57 mm; with leather frag- 15 mm. Found next to horse bit (46). ment from suspension, width 8 mm 50 Iron rectangular plate; 25 × 85 mm. Found at right (g) bronze fitting, fragmentary; stamped from thin waist of skeleton 3, next to buckle (51). sheet, decorated along outside edge, concentric 51 Iron buckle, fragmentary; extant size 45 × 30 mm; bulge on front; diam. 28 mm; organic paste on in- leather remains. Found at right waist of skele- side ton 3. (h) bronze mirror, cast, with loop and concentric 52 Iron knife, tanged, with slightly curved edge; bulge on back, bronze ?decoration around edge; length 178 mm. Found at right waist of skeleton 3, diam. 46 mm with buckle (51) and iron object (50). (i) amber bead, of irregular shape; length 10 mm 53 Two carnelian beads; one shaped like a spin- (k) bronze toggle, spindle-shaped, with groove dle-whorl, length 11 mm; the other small and in the middle, and thickened terminals; length round, diam. 5 mm. Found in entrance pit. 73 mm; remains of two leather straps in and next 54 Dress fragments, location not recorded: to groove, width 1 and 2.5 mm (a) leather fragment, c. 42 × 14 mm, with textile (l) bronze strap end, tongue-shaped; made from border, width 5 mm, stitched spiral decoration, two plates and one edging strip; 12 × 46 mm; re- and one convex bronze fitting, diam. 11 mm mains of leather strap inside, width 7 mm (b) bronze ?button, globular, diam. 9 mm (m) bronze ring, penannular, of irregular shape; (c) leather button or clasp, width 10 mm bent from flat sheet; diam. 20 × 24 mm. (d) bronze hook and wire, length 7 and 13 mm.

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Grave 342 (trench 1/1994) (Figs. 64 – 65) Burial of one individual (badly preserved; adult on size). Extended on back, head to W, face turned to N, arms Sarmatian (period RZ, second half of 4th – beginning of along sides; legs mostly missing, disturbed by animal 5th cent. AD). Double grave with central dromos and two burrow (some bones in a small pile in the burrow running separate burial chambers, with two burials. into E wall).

Grave construction: Dromos E – W, length 1.97 m, width Finds in chamber: 0.73 – 0.85 m (incl. the stones), fill of loose yellow sand 1 Pottery jar, complete; with flat base, ovoid body, with some inclusions of black earth; level floor; lining of everted rim and one handle; black and grey sur- upright sandstone slabs along N and S sides, with slabs face, burnished, with traces of wear and tear and slightly inclined away from the dromos. No depositions secondary firing; on body shallow, wide vertical or stray finds in fill. grooves, around neck a horizontal ribbon with Chambers in form of niches to N and S of wall, closed by indentations accompanied by a groove on either the stone lining of the dromos. Chambers collaped; one side; height 158 mm. In disturbed E half of cham- burial in each, orientation W – E. ber, in area of right leg. 342A (north) Entrance closed by four large sandstone slabs and sever- 342B (south) al smaller ones; height of entrance 0.31 – 0.45 m. Entrance closed by four large sandstone slabs and sever- Chamber sub-oval, max. size 1.85 × 0.60 m. Traces of oral smaller ones; height of entrance 0.30 – 0.45 m. ganic matter in disturbed E half of chamber. Chamber of irregular form, max. size 1.98 × 0.70 m.

Fig. 64. Cemetery III grave 342. Plans, sections and elevations.

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Fig. 65. Cemetery III grave 342. Finds.

Burial of one individual (female adult). Extended on back, head to W, upper body half turned to left, right arm flexed (hand on pelvis), legs straight; left arm and left side of chest missing, disturbed by recent intrusion in N half of chamber.

Finds in chamber: 1 Pottery cup, complete; flat base, squashed-spherical body, everted rim, one handle; dark grey surface, smooth, with traces of soot; height 115 mm. Found in disturbed area N of lower left leg, high in fill. 2 Pottery bowl, complete; flat base, straight conical sides, inturned rim; light grey surface, smooth; diam. 253 mm. Found in fragments in disturbed area N of left leg.

Grave 343 (trench 1/1994) (Figs. 66 – 67)

Fig. 66. Cemetery III Koban Culture. Grave pit with one crouched burial (and grave 343. Plan and section. parts of second skeleton).

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Fig. 67. Cemetery III grave 343. Finds.

Grave construction: Grave pit sub-rectangular, Grave 344 (trench 1/1994) (Figs. 68 – 69) 0.99 × 0.73 m, long axis S–N, sides almost vertical; some Koban pottery sherds in fill. Koban Culture. Grave pit with stone cover, with one crouched burial. Burial of one individual (female adult, skeleton badly preserved), and parts of second skeleton (child). Depo- Grave construction: Grave pit sub-rectangular, max. size sition crouched on right side, skull pointing SW and al- 1.12 × 0.98 m, long axis E–W; S and N sides almost ver- most touching the knees, left arm bent back, right arm tical, E side vertical with a small ledge along part of it, W under legs, bent forward, with right hand against right side at a slight angle from vertical. Grave cover of three lower leg. Skull crushed, left lower arm disturbed by ani large limestone slabs, collapsed into the grave pit. mal burrow. Burial of one individual (juvenile, ?male; skeleton very Finds in grave: badly preserved). Deposition prob. crouched on right 1 Pottery cup, hand-made, fragmentary, incom- side, skull pointing N, pelvis and leg bones against S plete; flat base, everted rim; dark grey surface, side. Prob. crushed by collapse of stone cover. burnished; diam. of mouth 108 mm. Found in fragments in animal burrow above skull. Finds in grave: 2 Pottery bowl, fragmentary; flat base, everted 1 Pottery bowl, complete; flat base, marked shoul- rim; grey-brown surface, smooth; on shoulder a der and everted rim; surface grey-brown, smooth; decorative band consisting of two rows of shad- on shoulder incised decoration in form of lattices; ed triangles arranged like teeth; height 113 mm. diam. of mouth 180 mm. Standing on grave floor Standing on grave floor S of, and close to, skull. in front (W) of skull, crushed by grave cover. 3 Glass beads, c. 25 to 30, very fragmentary; made 2 Ir on knife, strongly corroded; tanged, single-edged, of light green glass; of spherical, toroid and bicon- with concave edge; extant length 47 mm. Traces of ical shape, diam. 6 – 11 mm. ?wood and ?leather on blade. Found in pottery bowl (1).

Fig. 68. Cemetery III grave 344. Plans and section.

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Fig. 69. Cemetery III grave 344. Finds and detail.

3 Iron fragment, prob. from knife (2). Found 0.10 m D3 Fragment of bronze sheet, probably from cauldron N of bowl (1). (see also D8, D21 and D22). Found in fill close to 4 Bone object, made from cattle vertebra; size entrance area, about 1 m above dromos floor. 47 × 43 × 18 mm. Found next to bowl (1), against D4 Pottery sherd. Found in fill in entrance area, c. W side of grave pit. 0.65 m above dromos floor. 5 Whetstone, from pink marl (limestone); burnt, D5 Bronze staple or hook, made from thin wire; cracked, nearly complete; parallel-sided, with length 23 mm. Found in fill close to entrance area, slightly tapering ends, and perforation (drilled c. 0.60 m above dromos floor. from both sides) at one end; length 109 mm. D6 Bronze fragment, badly corroded; irregular shape. On grave floor in centre, near rib and pelvis frag- Found in fill in N half of dromos, c. 0.65 m above ments. floor. D7 Human bones, from arm. Found in S end of dromos, just above and on lowermost step (see also Grave 345 (trench 1/1994) (Figs. 70 – 78; Pl. 7,4) D9). D8 Fragments of bronze sheet, probably from caul- Alanic (period IIIb/IIIб, mid-7th – early 8th cent. AD). Cata dron (see also D3, D21 and D22). Found in fill in N comb with dromos, with triple burial; chamber partly part of dromos. robbed and destroyed in modern times; dromos cutting, D9 Piece of human skull. Found in middle part of dro- and partly destroying, chamber of Alanic catacomb 347. mos, just above horse skeleton. D10 Bronze ?belt fitting; cast, rectangular, with oval Grave construction: Dromos SSE–NNW, length 4.98 m, cut-out, and transverse decorative lines at the width 0.39 – 0.85 m (maximum), depth 2.60 m below ends; four rivets which held material 2.3 mm modern surface, loose fill of yellow-brown sandy clay thick; size 14 × 26 mm. Found in fill in middle part with inclusions of black earth and yellow sand; floor of dromos, about 0.35 m above dromos floor. uneven in S end, even and horizontal in N end; at S end D11 Fragments of worked bone, poss. fitting from bow; five steps, close to N end (entrance) a sill across dromos, length 8 – 33 mm. Found in fill in middle part of with stones on top. In fill fragments of pottery, bronze dromos, c. 0.35 m above dromos floor. and iron objects, and horse and human bones. D12 – 13 Pottery sherds, prob. from large jar; flat base, surface grey, rough; diam. of base 114 mm. Found Depositions: horse, pottery vessels, charcoal and ochre. in fill between horse skull and sill, c. 0.40 m Complete horse in middle part of dromos, head to N (to- above grave floor (see also D17). wards entrance of chamber), hindquarters against low- D14 Pottery jar, fragmentary, incomplete; flat base, ermost step; skeleton articulated, on belly, legs folded globular body, cylindrical neck; surface grey, bur- under body. nished, with traces of soot; height 276 mm. Found on dromos floor, against entrance stones. Pottery depositions: jar (D14) in front of entrance, and D15 P ottery sherds, of at least two vessels; one large jar (D16/24) on sill across dromos; other pottery black-burnished, with handle and with grooved fragments (incl. a spouted jar, with decoration of incised ‘net’ decoration; the other grey-brown, rough sur- criss-cross lines) in fill and on floor (sherd concentra- face, with soot, diam. of base c. 135 mm. Found in tions D18, 12/13/17, 15) may be from destroyed earlier fill between sill and entrance, close to dromos floor. depositions, or may have been cleaned out of the cham- D16 Fragments of base of large pottery vessel; surface ber (cf. comment). Charcoal and red mineral (ochre?) on grey, rough, with soot. Found on sill across dro- dromos floor between 0.40 and 0.90 m S of entrance, mos, between horse and entrance, against W side under the sill (i. e. from an earlier phase). Fossil mussel of dromos (see also D24). on floor of dromos. D17 Pottery sherds. Found between horse skull and sill, close to dromos floor (see also D12 – 13). Finds in dromos: D18 P ottery fragments of at least two vessels, found in D1 Iron object. Found under left foreleg of horse. fill to right (E) of horse skull, close to dromos floor: D2 Pottery sherds. Found in fill in middle part of dro- (a) large jar, flat-based, with cylindrical neck and mos, near horse skull, c. 1.40 m above dromos spout, surface black, smooth; on body decoration floor. of criss-cross grooves and bands of short, deep

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Fig. 70. Cemetery III grave 345. Plan, details and sections.

253 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 71. Cemetery III grave 345. Finds from dromos.

incisions, on neck horizontal grooves; height c. (b) small cup, flat base, squat body, everted rim, 360 mm; on base a mark of cross in circle, diam. one handle; on body vertical grooves; height 40 mm 65 mm.

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Fig. 72. Cemetery III grave 345. Finds from dromos.

D19 Iron fragments, strongly corroded; max. length D24 Body sherds of large pottery vessel; grey-brown, 35 mm. Found in fill to right (E) of neck of horse, c. smooth surface, with much soot on outside. 0.35 m above dromos floor. Found on sill across dromos, between horse and D20 Iron fragments, strongly corroded; from bent rod entrance, against E side of dromos (see also D16). and flattened piece; max. length c. 60 mm. Found D25 Piece of burnt stone. Found on dromos floor next in fill in middle part of dromos, above shoulders to sill and charcoal concentration. of horse. D26 Silver and bronze fragments from belt fittings, D21 Iron object, poss. fragment of handle from bronze incl. pieces of a heraldic-style belt set; found in cauldron (see D3, D8 and D22); bent from tri fill: angular-sectioned rod, with flat terminal; length (a) silver scutiform fitting, fragmentary; extant 77 mm. Found above ribcage of horse skeleton, length 17 mm next to cauldron fragment (D22). (b) bronze scutiform fittings, length 10 and D22 Fragment of bronze cauldron; sheet bronze with 14 mm iron lug for handle; size 75 × 58 mm. Found above (c) two bronze belt stiffeners, length 27 mm ribcage of horse skeleton, next to iron ?handle (d) silver circular stud, diam. 12 mm, with rivet (D21). (free shank length 4.5 mm) D23 Silver belt fitting, scutiform, with four perfora- (e) approx. a dozen other fragments of bronze tions, and two rivets on the back (held material sheet and rivets. 3.6 mm thick); length 25 mm. Found near pelvis D27 Iron fragment, of ?stirrup; length 122 mm. Found bones of horse skeleton. in fill.

255 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 73. Cemetery III grave 345. Finds from chamber.

Entrance hole largely destroyed from the chamber side thick and dark brown in E end of chamber, absent in SW by modern robber trench; its shape could not be deter- corner (area of vessels) and along N wall of chamber; mined. Entrance hole closed by massive sandstone slab large charcoal patch to right (E) of entrance; chalk stain supported by another vertical slab standing at right ang under upper body area of skeleton 1. les to it (i. e. in line with dromos axis). Drop of 1.14 m from dromos floor to chamber floor (1.36 m to floor of pit Burials: three, all very badly preserved and/or disturbed. under entrance). Skeleton 1 (preserved only as bone matter). Along N wall Chamber collapsed; oval shape, max. size 2.35 × 1.80 m, of chamber. Poss. flexed on right side, head to W, arms orientation of long axis WSW – ENE (not quite at right bent, legs flexed. angle s to dromos axis). Pit under entrance, sub-rectan- Skeleton 2 (male adult; modern disturbance). In middle gular, 0.80 × 0.47 m, even floor, depth 0.22 – 0.23 m un- of chamber, S of skeleton 1. Skull and trunk destroyed der floor of chamber. Chamber floor in schistous subsoil, by robber trench, only parts of leg bones survive. Poss. even and level; layer of brown organic matter on floor, extended deposition, head to W.

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Skeleton 3 (ancient disturbance). Bones found in a com- together with other beads (15 and 16), in front pact heap in NE corner of chamber, limb bones against (SE) of trunk of skeleton 1. the wall, skull fragment 0.30 m from wall into the cham- 15 Three amber beads; one large round, diam. ber. 25 mm; one flat, length 15 mm; one small, irregular; length 5 mm. Found in front (SE) of trunk of Finds in chamber: skeleton 1, together with other beads (14 and 1 Charcoal concentration, on chamber floor E of en- 16). trance pit. 16 Beads, found together with other beads (14 and 2 – 3 T wo gold earrings (SLHM acc. nos 28667/6 – 7); in 15): shape of inturned pyramid, with penannular sus- (a) three amber beads, fragmentary; irregular pension ring; granulation along edges of pyramid, shapes; diam. 6 – 8 mm in decorative patterns on sides, and on top; four (b) four glass beads; two of dark blue glass, cy- hollow globules (one large, three small) soldered lindrical, length 6 mm; two of light green glass, to tip of pyramid; length 50 mm, weight 6.2 and spherical, diam. 6 mm. 5.1 grams. Found next to skull (2) and at upper 17 – 18 Seven jet beads; two cross-shaped, size arm (3) of skeleton 1. 10 × 10 mm and 8 × 12 mm; five tear-shaped, 4 – 5 Two gold disc brooches (SLHM acc. nos. length 11 – 15 mm. Found in shoulder area of skel- 28667/1 – 2); a stylized human face made up eton 1. of gold-partitioned cells filled with translucent 19 Two bronze rings, diam. 7 and 10 mm, with re- pink and dark purple glass; surrounded by two mains of braided string and organic substance concentric rings of granulation, a flat gold band (wood or bone?); from ?brooch. Found at skull of of fishbone patterns, and granulation all around skeleton 1. the edge; silver disc base with remains of bro- 20 Bronze chain, fragmentary; made from thin wire; ken-off pin(?) construction; diam. 33 mm, weight extant length 93 mm. Found at skull of skeleton 1. 9.1 grams; left ‘eye’ cell borders on one brooch 21 Bronze bracelet; made from bronze wire with cir- replaced with bronze bands, and colour scheme cular section; penannular terminals decorated of glass inlays (dark purple for eyes and mouth, with lozenge pattern created by slanting grooves; pink for rest of face) changed, probably as a result diam. 62 mm. Spiral binding of thin thread around of repair; on both brooches parts of glass inlays the bracelet preserved in the corrosion layer. missing, and damage to silver base plates and Found on bone remains in front (SE) of skeleton 1 their silver granulation imitation. Found on either (on wrist of bent arm?). side of upper arm of skeleton 1, one face up (4), 22 11 bronze fittings; boss-shaped, with small flang- the other face down (5). es and perforations (two each); diam. 11 – 13 mm. 6 Brush handle, silver; tube rolled from thin sheet; Found together with bead (23) in E end of cham- hair preserved inside; length 63 mm. Found in ber, on piece of skull of skeleton 3. front (SE) of trunk of skeleton 1, in a concentration 23 Glass bead; toroid shape, of translucent yellow of finds. glass; diam. 13 mm. Found in E end of chamber, 7 Bronze spoon; handle circular in section, diam. together with bronze fittings (22). 4 mm, with cast bronze around an iron core; ladle 24 Bronze fitting (strap end?); elongated, with one hammered into shape, with at least one perfora- rounded terminal; made from thin sheet, and with tion; extant overall length 160 mm. Textile pre- two rivets (one of them complete, with ?leather re- served on outside of ladle. Found in front (SE) of mains 3.5 mm thick); length 37 mm. Found in NE trunk of skeleton 1, under button (13). corner of chamber, among bones of skeleton 3. 8 Bronze artefacts found in front (SE) of trunk of 25 Bronze bracelet; penannular, cast, circular in sec- skeleton 1, in a concentration of finds: tion; diam. 65 mm. Found in NE corner of cham- (a) two bronze bracelets; penannular, made from ber, among bones of skeleton 3. thin wire, with circular section; diam. 58 mm 26 Bronze buckle; lyra-shaped loop; 17 × 22 mm. (b) small bronze buckle with beaded edge, length Found in NE corner of grave, among bones of skel- 18 mm, and fragments of beaded copper wire. eton 3. 9 Three chalk beads, incompletely preserved; 27 Five beads; found in NE corner of chamber, among ovoid; length 12 – 14 mm. Found in front (SE) of bones of skeleton 3. pelvis area of skeleton 1. (a) three amber beads, irregular shape; length 10 Carnelian bead, round flat; diam. 10 mm. Found 9 – 13 mm in front (SE) of trunk of skeleton 1, in concentra- (b) carnelian, ovoid, pink; diam. 10 mm tion of finds. (c) glass, dark blue; diam. 5 mm. 11 Bronze fibula; high bow, low pin rest, foot ending 28 Amber bead, flat; length 12 mm. Found in NE cor- in a knurl; row of punch marks on front of bow; ner of chamber, among bones of skeleton 3. length 62 mm. Found under bone matter in front 29 Two carnelian beads, round; diam. 7 and 11 mm. (SE) of trunk of skeleton 1, next to toggle (12). Found in NE corner of chamber, among bones of 12 Bronze toggle; spindle-shaped; length 44 mm. skeleton 3. Textile remains in groove in middle. Found under 30 Bronze fitting; made from thin sheet; length bone matter in front (SE) of trunk of skeleton 1, 9 mm. Found in NE corner of chamber, among next to fibula (11). bones of skeleton 3. 13 Silber button; round, with reinforced edge and 31 Beads; found in NE corner of chamber, among central loop; diam. 20 mm. Found in front (SE) of bones of skeleton 3: trunk of skeleton 1, in concentration of finds. (a) five amber beads, irregular and flat shapes; 14 26 carnelian beads; round, flat and irregular length 9 – 12 mm shapes; diam. 3 – 8 mm. Found in concentration, (b) two carnelian beads, round; diam. 4 mm.

257 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 74. Cemetery III grave 345. Finds from chamber.

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Fig. 75. Cemetery III grave 345. Finds from chamber.

259 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 76. Cemetery III grave 345. Finds from chamber.

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Fig. 77. Cemetery III grave 345. Finds from chamber.

261 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 78. Cemetery III grave 345. Finds from chamber.

32– 33 Glass beads; flat, from dark blue translucent 43 T wo bronze wire pieces, crescent-shaped (hooks?); glass; diam. 5 – 6 mm. Found in NE corner of diam. 12 mm. Found on floor cover in E end of chamber, among bones of skeleton 3. chamber. 34 Gold earring (SLMH acc. no. 28667/18); loop 44 Carnelian beads, round; diam. 7 mm. Found on with one large and three small globules soldered floor cover in E end of chamber. against it; length 18 mm, weight 2.1 grams. Found 45 Bronze toggle; length 31 mm. Found on floor cov- on floor cover in E end of chamber. er in E end of chamber. 35 Carnelian bead. Found on floor cover in E end of 46 Bronze fitting, boss-shaped; diam. 12 mm. Found chamber. on floor cover in E end of chamber. 36 Amber bead, flat; length 21 mm. Found on floor 47 Glass melon bead; from light blue translucent cover in E end of chamber. glass; diam. 17 mm; and amber bead, irregular 37 Go ld pendant or fitting (SLHM acc. no. 28667/9), shape, length 11 mm. Found on floor cover in E identical to 68; tear-shaped silver base with end of chamber. semi-opaque, purple and light green glass in- 48 Bronze fibula; cast, with knurled foot, and iron lay in gold sheet mount, with gold granulation spring and pin; length 65 mm. Found on floor cov- around the edges; on back remains of a bro- er in E end of chamber. ken-off suspension loop(?); length 18 mm, 49– 50 Beads and pendant; found on floor cover in E end weight 0.65 grams. Found on floor cover in E end of chamber: of chamber. (a) four carnelian beads, irregular and round 38 Iron knife; tanged, single-edged, straight blade; shapes; diam. 7 – 11 mm length 130 mm. Remains of wooden sheath on (b) amber bead, elongated irregular shape; length blade, and of ?wooden handle on tang. Found on 13 mm floor cover in E end of chamber, against wall. (c) glass bead; flat, from dark green glass; diam. 39– 40 Four bronze fittings; boss-shaped, with flange 6 mm and two perforations; diam. 12 mm. Found on (d) pendant; made of bronze ring with rock crystal floor cover in E end of chamber. inset; diam. 11 mm, diam. of rock crystal 7 mm. 41 Br onze ring; penannular, made from thin wire; 51 Gold disc pendant (SLHM acc. no. 28667/5); base 20 × 25 mm. Found on floor cover in E end of cham- plate of thin gold sheet, with two holes (diam. ber. 1.2 mm) punched in from the front; on disc sur- 42 Carnelian bead, irregular shape; diam. 8 mm. face granulation in triangular patterns between Found on floor cover in E end of chamber. three concentric rings of granulation; diam.

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19 mm, weight 1.8 grams. Found on floor cover in (f) polychrome bead, opaque blue, red and white, E end of chamber. with paste inlay on surface; diam. 20 mm 52 Three jet beads, fragmentary; irregular shapes; (g) bronze sleigh bell, fragmentary; with small length 7, 10 and 12 mm. Found on floor cover in E suspension lug; extant length 16 mm end of chamber. (h) three glass beads, tear-shaped, dark blue; 53 Carnelian beads. Found on floor cover in E end of length 12 – 13 mm chamber. (i) 12 chalk beads, irregular shapes; diam. 54 Iron knife, badly corroded; tanged, single-edged; 5 – 12 mm length 205 mm. With remains of wooden scab- (j) two carnelian beads, round to irregular shapes; bard on entire length of knife (incl. tang). Found diam. 7 mm and 11 mm under right lower leg of skeleton 2. (k) four amber beads, irregular shapes; diam. 55 Pottery cup, complete; flat base, squat body, al- 9 – 13 mm. most cylindrical neck, one handle; surface black, 65 Bronze buckle; lyra-shaped loop; size 17 × 20 mm. burnished; on body narrow vertical grooves; Found in NE corner of chamber, among bones of height 87 mm. Found on floor in SW corner of skeleton 3. chamber, with two jars (56 and 57). 66 Bronze objects; found in NE corner of chamber, 56 P ottery jar, fragmentary; flat base, globular body, among bones of skeleton 3: cylindrical neck, everted rim with semi-tubular (a) three fittings, made from U-bent strip of sheet spout; on neck horizontal grooves; on base a mark bronze; with one rivet; length 21 mm in form of cross in two concentric circles, diam. (b) fitting, boss-shaped; diam. 12 mm 42 mm; height 270 mm. Found on floor in SW cor- (c) clip, made from strip of sheet bronze; length ner of chamber, with cup (55) and another jar (57). 13 mm. 57 Pottery jar, complete; flat base, globular body, 67 Three or more bronze fittings, incl. one boss- straight neck, everted rim with spout, one bipar- shaped, with flanges and two perforations; diam. tite handle; on body three small conical bosses, 12 mm. Found on floor cover in E end of chamber. on neck horizontal grooves; surface grey, smooth; 68 Gold pendant or fitting (SLHM acc. no. 28667/13), height 294 mm. Found on floor in SW corner of identical to 37; length 17 mm, weight 0.6 grams. chamber, with cup (55) and another jar (56). Found on floor cover in E end of chamber. 58 Bronze object, fragmentary; small ?hook on 69 Bronze fitting (strap end?); elongated, made from bronze sheet, length extant 12 mm. Found on thin sheet, with two rivets; length 35 mm. Found floor cover in E end of chamber. on floor cover in E end of chamber. 59 Bone matter and chalk layer. On grave floor close 70 Gold pendant (SLHM acc. no. 28667/10); oval, to NW wall of chamber. with silver base, oval glass insert of colourless and 60 Silver mirror, broken; cast, flat, with ‘solar’ dec- opaque purple glass in gold mount, surrounded oration (three concentric circles with connecting by three concentric borders of gold granulation, a rays) and small suspension loop on back; diam. ribbed gold band, and again granulation; suspen- 82 mm. Found on floor in W end of chamber, close sion loops at both ends of long axis (one horizon- to pottery cup (55). tal, broken, the other vertical); size (incl. loops) 61 Wooden object, decayed; max. size of fragments 28 × 18 mm, weight 2.83 grams. Found on floor 22 mm, orig. shape cannot be determined. Found cover in E end of chamber. on floor in W end of chamber, close to pottery jar 71 Chalk bead, round; diam. 13 mm. Found near (56). skull of skeleton 1. 62 T wo animal ribs; from ?sheep. Found next to jar (57). 72 Bronze clasp or suspension loop, made from thin 63 Iron fragments from small ?knife (see 74); max. wire (from brooch 4?); 13 × 10 mm. Found near size of fragments 15 mm. Found in SW corner of shoulder of skeleton 1. chamber, next to animal ribs (62). 73 Bronze crossbow fibula, arm bent; narrow bow, 64 Leather bag, with textile, leather and wood re- globules at ends of arms, and knurled foot; length mains and traces of a leather cord, with contents; 34 mm. Remains of leather strap over arms, and found on floor in SW corner of chamber, close to binding of thin string above foot. Found in front wall, between pottery vessels (55 – 57) and en- (SE) of trunk of skeleton 1, in concentration of trance pit: finds. (a) bronze bell; conical, with suspension loop 74 Iron fragment. Found next to spoon (7), in front and iron tongue; on body two grooves, and four (SE) of trunk of skeleton 1. regular punch marks (one perforating the metal); 75 Finds from robber trench: height 58 mm (a) fragments of belt fittings, incl. two bronze (b) bronze bell; orig. conical, now squashed flat, ‘heraldic-style’ buckles (one fragmentary), length with suspension loop and iron tongue; on lower 22 mm body two parallel incised lines; height 46 mm (b) silver sheet fragment, poss. from strap end, (c) silver mirror, flat, with ‘solar’ ornament (two with edge ornament imitating cord; length 14 mm concentric circles with connecting rays) and small (c) five bronze fittings, boss-shaped, diam. loop on back; diam. 54 mm; much organic materi- 10 – 12 mm. al adhering to mirror (d) large amber pendant; irregular disc shape, Comment: with one convex side, and hole through centre; There is ample evidence of at least two phases in this diam. 42 mm grave. In the dromos, the sill in the northern half, close (e) bronze bracelet; of almost triangular outline, to the entrance, covers charcoal and ?ochre on the grave bent from round-sectioned rod, terminals touch- floor; and human bones as well as fragments of arte- ing; size 74 × 66 mm facts which are usually deposited in the chamber (e. g.

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bronze cauldron and bow with bone reinforcements) Comment: are found in the fill of the dromos, suggesting that the The stone cist was found in the NE corner of the 1994 chamber had been cleaned out at some stage for a later section, in an area previously excavated by Flyorov. deposition. The stratigraphic position of some of these The grave was covered with polythene and pieces of tin fragments (e. g. the skull fragment and the bronze caul- plate, suggesting that it had been found by Flyorov, but dron fragments above the rib cage of the horse) suggests for some reason had not been excavated. that the horse was already in place when the chamber was cleared, i. e. the horse must have belonged to the earlier deposition. The pottery depositions in front of the Grave 347 (trench 1/1994) (Figs. 81 – 82) entrance and on top of the sill are likely to be associated with the later phase; the pottery fragments found in con- Alanic. Catacomb with dromos, chamber cut by dromos centrations in the fill may be from earlier depositions, of 345, disturbed. Grave construction: or they may be from vessels cleared out of the chamber. Dromos SSE – NNW, length 2.10 m, width 0.40 m (NNW In the chamber, skeleton 3 had been moved into the NE end) – 0.50 m (SSE end), depth 1.10 m below surface; corner where the bones were stacked up, and numerous walls vertical, floor level, slightly undulating; fill of light finds (suggesting female associations) were scattered yellow clayey sand with inclusions of black earth; two over the floor cover in the eastern end of the chamber. steps (one badly defined) at SSE end. In addition, there is modern disturbance of skeleton 2 Entrance at NNW end of dromos, shape could not be de- and of the inside of the entrance area as a result of grave termined, width 0.34 m, extant height 0.48 m, length robbers digging vertically down into the chamber in a 0.20 m, drop of 0,53 m to floor of chamber. Closed by a night raid during the excavation season 1994. packing of sandstone blocks and small slabs; blue-grey clay between and around the stones. Chamber collapsed, sub-rectangular outline, extant Grave 346 (trench 1/1994) (Figs. 79 – 80) size 1.40 × 1.33 m (ENE end of chamber cut off), long axis WSW – ENE. Floor slightly sloping down from ENE Koban Culture. Stone cist with single burial. Grave con- to WSW, on the floor some traces of white matter (chalk struction: or salt?). In fill human bones, iron fragments, and frag- Square stone cist made up of four large limestone slabs, ments of a black pottery vessel. max. overall size 0.66 × 0.65 m (incl. the stones), orien- Burials: disturbed (poss. single burial, to judge from inspection of bones on site). Finds in chamber: 1 P ottery jar, fragmentary, incomplete; with flat base and spout; surface dark grey, smooth; two horizontal, impressed lines around shoulder; diam. of base 124 mm. Found in WSW end of chamber, on floor. Comment: The evidence did not allow to ascertain whether the thor- ough disturbance of the chamber contents happened when the dromos of 345 cut off the ENE end of the chamber, or if it was a later robbery. The evidence from 359 and 360 (cf. below) may well imply the former.

Grave 348 (trench 1/1994) (Figs. 83 – 84)

Koban Culture. Grave pit with partial stone lining, with single crouched burial. Grave construction: Grave pit not distinguishable from natural (grey-brown sandy clay), min. size c. 1.20 × 0.90 m (incl. stone lining), depth 0.60 m below modern surface, orientation of long Fig. 79. Cemetery III axis N – S. Lining of grave on W side by a low dry-stone wall grave 346. Plan and made up of three to four courses of horizontal sandstone elevation. slabs, and on N side by three smaller slabs set vertically. tation N–S/E–W. Large limestone slab leaning against Burial of single individual (female adult; skeleton bad- the outside on the S may have been the cover stone (re- ly preserved). Deposition crouched on left side, skull moved in previous excavation or even earlier?). pointing NE, shoulder blade and pelvis against W stone Burial of ?one individual (very badly preserved). Frag- lining, knees pulled up, legs sharply bent, with heels ments of skull in centre of grave pit, part of long bone against pelvis, arms bent in front of body (hands not pre- close to W wall slab; deposition of body impossible to served, but prob. on skull). reconstruct, but size of grave and location of skull bones Finds in grave: suggest crouched burial. 1 Pottery bowl, complete; flat base, marked shoul- Finds in grave: der, everted rim; surface dark grey, smooth, with 1 Three beads, found among skull fragments in cen- white salt or chalk accretions; decoration on tre of grave: shoulder by two interlocking zig-zag lines creat- (a) two glass beads, biconical, of light green ing rhomboid shapes, and on neck by groups of glass; diam. 9 and 11 mm vertical lines (5 – 7 in each group) and criss-cross Fig. 80. Cemetery III (b) stone bead, spherical, from ?limestone; diam. lines; height 114 mm. Found on grave floor in NW grave 346. Finds. 9 mm. corner, above shoulders of skeleton.

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Fig. 81. Cemetery III grave 347. Plan, sections, and elevation of entrance.

2 Pottery cup, fragmentary, almost complete; with 4 Beads, found against and under back of skull: round base and everted rim; surface grey-brown, (a) three carnelian beads, spherical to disc- smooth; diam. of mouth 112 mm. Found on grave shaped, diam. 6.5, 7.5 and 11 mm floor between skull and N stone lining. (b) three small ?glass beads, orange/light brown, 3 Two bronze fittings, fragmentary; slightly convex, diam. 3 mm. made from thin sheet bronze, with two punched 5 Bronze tubes, fragmentary; rolled from bronze perforations; diam. 29 mm. Found next to back of sheet, diam. 4 mm, extant length 14 mm and skull and on lower leg. 13 mm. Position not recorded.

265 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 82. Cemetery III grave 347. Finds.

Grave 349 (trench 1/1994) (Figs. 85 – 86) Finds in grave: 1 Pottery vessel, fragmentary; flat base, surface Koban Culture. Grave pit with stone lining, with single grey-brown, smooth; everted rim, thick lip; dec- crouched burial; disturbed by animal burrows. Grave orative band of indentations around shoulder; construction: height 192 mm, diam. of mouth 216 mm. Found Grave pit rectangular, max. size 1.53 × 1.25 m, depth on grave floor in NE corner, prob. in front of skull 1.10 m below modern surface, orientation of long axis and on hands; inside vessel: bronze disc (8), N – S, fill of brown clayey sand with humus. Grave floor small animal rib, and charcoal. even, with a slight slope from N down to S. Lining on 2 Pottery cup or small bowl, complete; round base, E and W sides by sandstone slabs set vertically on a carinated body, everted rim; surface grey with course of flat slabs (part of W lining had collapsed into brown patches, somewhat rough; on shoulder grave); lining on S side similar, but incomplete; N side narrow strip of rolled decoration; height 52 mm. vertical, without lining. Found next to large bowl (1). Burial of single individual (male adult; female on finds; 3 Bronze roll-headed pin (Rollenkopfnadel), with skeleton very badly preserved). Skeleton disturbed by tapering lower part (circular in section), upper animal burrows, particularly in upper body. Deposition part twisted, and head flattened and rolled in a prob. crouched on left side, skull pointing NE, arms bent spiral; length 179 mm. Found in animal burrow in in front of body(?). northwest corner, under the stones of the grave lining. 4 Five bronze discs, slightly convex, made from thin sheet, with two punched perforations near the edges on opposite sides; diam. 29 mm. Found in upper body area, between skull remains and lower ribs. 5 (a) Bronze button, conical; cast, with a transverse bar across the hollow back (integral on one side, soldered on the other); diam. 19 mm. Traces of textile binding preserved on transverse bar. Found close to W edge of grave, in angle between ribs and stone lining. (b) Bronze rivet or nail, head diam. 9 mm, extant shank length 4 mm. Traces of organic material (?leather) on shank. 6 Beads, found around upper body and in bowl (1): (a) 16 carnelian beads, spherical to disc-shaped; diam. 7 – 11 mm (b) glass bead, in shape of three stacked discs, light green, length 11 mm (c) 12 small glass beads, spherical; light blue, green, yellow and white, diam. 5 – 7 mm (d) ten small glass beads, toroid shape, green and brown; diam. 4 – 5 mm (e) ten small glass beads, cylindrical, green; diam. 2.5 mm. 7 Bronze frags., prob. from three or four small rings bent from narrow strip (2 mm wide). 8 Bronze disc, convex; made from thin sheet, with one punched hole close to the edge; diam. 53 mm. Found in pottery vessel (1). Fig. 83. Cemetery III 9 Animal bones; found between pottery vessel (1) grave 348. Plan and eleva- and stone lining of grave pit. tion.

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Fig. 84. Cemetery III grave 348. Finds and detail.

Fig. 85. Cemetery III grave 349. Plan, section and elevation.

267 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 86. Cemetery III grave 349. Finds.

Grave 350 (trench 1/1994) (Figs. 87 – 88) Burial of one individual (child; skeleton very badly preserved). Deposition prob. crouched on left side, skull Koban Culture. Grave pit with stone cover, with one pointing N, leg bones bent at sharp angle, one long bone crouched burial. Grave construction: of arm in front (E) of skull remains, running through a Grave pit sub-rectangular, with ledge all around, max. pair of bronze bracelets (3). size at top 1.37 × 1.20 m, at floor 0.91 × 0.84 m, depth Finds in grave: 1.20 m below modern surface, long axis N – S, fill of 1 Bronze button, hemispherical; cast, with a trans- brown clayey sand with inclusions of yellow sand. verse bar riveted across the hollow back; diam. Ledge, 0.10 – 0.12 m wide, around inside of grave pit, 14.5 mm. Found in NW corner of grave pit on grave 0.25 – 0.27 m above grave floor; grave cover consisting floor, in skull area. of a dozen small sandstone slabs, slanting from ledge 2 Bronze necklet (Ösenhalsring); penannular, sec- into grave pit (slabs had prob. covered a wooden grave tion circular, terminals flattened and rolled into cover supported on the ledge, and collapsed after de- spirals; size 114 × 95 mm. Found close to middle composition of wood). of E side of grave pit, on the floor, in front of skeleton.

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Fig. 87. Cemetery III grave 350. Plans and section.

3 Four bronze spiral bracelets; rectangular sec- the chambers. Chambers collaped; one burial in each, tion, terminals pointed; max. diam. 78 – 81 mm orientation S – N (in A) and W – E (in B). (two smaller ones) and 105 – 107 mm (two larger ones). Found in two pairs, one pair in situ on an 351A (west) arm bone, in front (E) of skull area (clearly worn on Entrance closed by one large sandstone slab and a small the arms which had been bent up to place hands one; shape and dimensions of entrance could not be rein front of face). constructed, but assumed to be small (on the evidence 4 Pottery vessel, fragmentary, incomplete; flat of the slabs); drop of 0.21 m from entrance to floor of base, ovoid body, everted rim; surface brown- burial chamber. grey-black, smooth on shoulder and neck; except Chamber oval, max. size 1.94 × 1.15 m, depth 2.13 – for lowermost part of body, entire vessel decorat- 2.18 m below modern surface (from E to W); floor even. ed with impressions made with a blunt-pointed Traces of dark brown organic matter over entire chamber instrument; height 159 mm. Found E of bracelets floor. (3), in front of skull area, crushed (prob. by col- Burial of one individual (male adult; skeleton well pre- lapsing grave cover). served). Extended on back, head to S, back of skull against 5 Glass or paste bead; spherical, white, diam. chamber wall, head turned left and down (facing NNW), 7 mm. Found among crushed pottery vessel (4). arms along sides with palms of hands downwards, legs 6 Two carnelian beads, spherical; diam. 11 and crossed at ankles (right over left). Wrist of left arm covered 13 mm. Found on femora, close to knees. by small sandstone slab (from collapsed entrance?). 7 String of four carnelian beads, spherical, diam. Finds in chamber: 6 mm. Found in skull area, west of bracelets (3), 1 Iron sword, badly corroded; blade two-edged and poss. worn in hair or around neck. lentoid in section, tang without fittings; overall length 940 mm, length of tang 110 mm, max. width of blade 60 mm. Found left (W) of left arm, Grave 351 (trench 1/1994) (Figs. 89 – 91) with tang close to left shoulder, and point close to W chamber wall. Sarmatian (period RZ/second half of 4th – beginning of 2 Iron knife; tanged, blade single-edged and con- 5th cent. AD). Two burial chambers with common access cave; wood on tang, bronze rivet through tang, pit, with one burial in each chamber. Grave construction: wood or leather on blade; extant length 134 mm. Access pit of irregular shape, 1.55 × 0.90 m, fill of brown Found outside left shoulder, between sword tang clayey sand with inclusions of black earth and yellow and shoulder. sand; S and E walls virtually vertical, floor horizontal. No 3 P ottery bowl, complete; wheel-turned, with flat base, depositions or stray finds in fill. straight conical sides and inturned rim; surface grey, Chambers in form of low side chambers to W and N of smoothened; diam. 263 mm. Found upside down on access pit, closed by stone slabs which had fallen into grave floor in foot end, close to W side of chamber.

269 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 88. Cemetery III grave 350. Finds.

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Fig. 89. Cemetery III grave 351. Plans and sections.

4 Pottery jar, complete; flat base, lentoid body, high 5 Bronze buckle, with oval loop and oval plate; two neck and everted rim, one handle (braided); sur- rivets through leaves of plate, leather remains be- face grey, orig. burnished, with traces of wear and tween them and in loop around pin; 21 × 27 mm. tear; height 121 mm. Found lying on its side on Found next to sword, on the opposite side of the grave floor in foot end of chamber, left of feet. blade from iron buckle (6).

271 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 90. Cemetery III grave 351A. Finds.

6 Iron buckle, with sub-rectangular loop; 30 × 28 mm. 0.60 m (on evidence of slabs); drop of 0.60 m from ac- Found next to sword, against its W side and about cess pit to floor of chamber. 0.25 m from tip of tang. Chamber of irregular shape, max. size 1.93 × 1.15 m, 7 Bronze buckle; small oval loop, 10 × 10 mm, with depth below surface 2.25 m, floor even, in schistous traces of leather strap. Found with larger bronze subsoil. Thin scatter of charcoal over entire chamber buckle (5) next to sword (1). floor, and brown organic matter under and around skele- 8 Ir on buckle; oval loop with tongue; 33 × 24 mm; ton, but absent from other parts of floor. piece of another object corroded against it. Burial of one individual (female adult, skeleton well pre- Found at tip of knife (2), next to tang of sword served). On back, half turned to right; head to SW, turned (1). to right (facing SE), left arm flexed, left hand on right 9 Wooden toggle; circular section, with hole pelvis, right arm pointing straight away from body, legs through the middle; remains of bark on outside; flexed to right, legs crossed at ankles (left over right). length 26 mm, diam. 9 mm. Found next to sword Finds in chamber: (1), just below tang, close to iron buckle (6) and 1 Iron object (?awl); circular section, with wood at on opposite side from bronze buckles (5 and 7). one end; length 37 mm. Found in front of skull, on chamber floor below entrance, next to ?resin (2). 351B (north) 2 Two fragments of a lump of ?resin; opaque, dark Entrance closed by two large sandstone slabs and sev- brown verging on black; length 46 and 44 mm, re- eral smaller ones; shape and dimensions of entrance spectively. Found in front of skull, below entrance, could not be reconstructed, but width poss. as much as next to ?awl (1).

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Fig. 91. Cemetery III grave 351B. Finds.

3 Bronze mirror; cast, with faceted edge, a central 6 Pottery jug, rim and handle damaged in antiqui- bulge on the back, and rectangular suspension ty; flat base, globular to ovoid body, conical neck, loop; 63 × 49 mm. Found with traces of a container one handle (broken off in antiquity); dark grey to made from organic material. Found on chamber black, with traces of soot on one side of body; floor between right hip and right elbow, next to horizontal grooves around body and shoulder; knife (4). height 135 mm. Found on floor in NW corner of 4 Iron knife, fragmentary; tanged, single-edged; chamber, against wall, with jug (7). remains of leather sheath (2 mm thick), with loz- 7 Pottery jug; flat base, globular body, high neck enge-patterned surface created by grooves; ex- and everted rim, one handle; surface grey, bur- tant length 62 mm. Found between right hip and nished, vertical bulges on body; on base a mark in right elbow, next to mirror (3). shape of a cross; height 118 mm. Found on floor, 5 T wo gold rings (SLHM acc. nos. 28667/21 and not quite upright, next to jar (6). 22); penannular, made from gold wire (section 8 Animal bones, from small ?cattle. Found on floor circular, thickness 2.0 mm); diam. 22.5 and between skeleton and N chamber wall, in a row 23 mm, weight 2.5 and 3 grams. Found under with pottery vessels (6, 7 and 9). skull.

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9 Pottery bowl, wheel-turned; flat base, inturned Access shaft located to NW of chamber, rectangular, rim; surface grey-brown, burnished; diam. c. max. size 1.05 × 1.53 m, orientation of long axis N – S, 240 mm. Found crushed in situ, on floor between depth of shaft floor 2.10 m below modern surface; fill of hip and N chamber wall, easternmost in a row of black earth; ledge around W, N and E sides of shaft, be- depositions (with 6, 7 and 8). tween 0.49 m and 0.56 m above floor of shaft. No depo- 10 Bronze fibula; length 23 mm. Found on floor sitions in shaft. above left shoulder, close to bronze buckle (11). Entrance to chamber collapsed, shape and size could 11 Bronze buckle; small oval loop; 13 × 11 mm. not be determined. Found on floor at left shoulder. Chamber collapsed; trapezoidal shape with rounded 12 Bronze pendant or hook, in shape of a loop with corners, max. size 2.20 × 1.95 m, depth 3.65 m below spiral terminals; 13 × 10 mm. Found at left elbow modern surface, orientation of long axis WSW – ENE. on chamber floor. Chamber wall on N side of shaft practically vertical, 13 Iron ring or curved clasp, round-sectioned with drop of 1.46 m from shaft floor to chamber floor. Floor one flattened terminal, with bronze spiral wire even and practically horizontal, in schistous sub-soil; a (flat) wound around the bow; 43 × 33 mm. Found pit in floor on southern side of chamber, nearly rectan- at right waist, on chamber floor. gular, size 0.88 × 0.44 m, depth 0.25 m below chamber floor; a layer of decayed organic material on floor of central and N part of chamber under skeletons. In cham- Grave 352 (trench 1/1994) (Figs. 92 – 99) ber wall, in NE corner, a niche of irregular outline, max. size 0.55 × 0.32 m, at a height of 0.31 m above chamber Alanic (period IIIa, mid-7th cent. AD). Catacomb with shaft, floor; containing a pottery vessel (81). with double burial; top of E wall of access shaft cut by Burials: two, both very badly preserved (almost only as edge of Flyorov’s 1983 excavation. Grave construction: powdery bone matter).

Fig. 92. Cemetery III grave 352. Plans and sections.

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Fig. 93. Cemetery III grave 352. Finds from fill (F) and floor of chamber.

Skeleton 1 (adult). In centre line of the chamber, S of covered by a layer of organic matter (leather and wood) skeleton 2. Extended on back, head to WSW, arms along on which are found two concentrations of metal fittings sides, legs ?crossed at ankles. Feet and lower shin bones (the S one probably being a leather belt with fittings).

275 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Skeleton 2 (female adult). In N part of chamber, between damage to lip; across base a bar (width 6 mm) in skeleton 1 and N wall. Extended on back, head to WSW, shallow relief; height 81 mm. Found lying on its arms slightly akimbo, left hand on left hip, legs opened side to left (N) of skull of skeleton 1. outwards and flexed in knees, giving legs a lozenge out- 8 Bead, cylindrical, with internal gilding; length line; right knee of skeleton 2 on left shin of skeleton 2. 11 mm. Found as part of first string of beads (10) Finds in fill: of skeleton 2. F1 Pottery jar; flat base, globular body, cylindrical 9 Bronze bracelet; bent from cast oval-sectioned neck, everted rim with spout, one handle (stuck rod (4.5 mm thick in middle, 5.5 mm thick at ter- on at a slight angle); surface dark-grey, bur- minals); terminals overlapping; size 77 × 70 mm. nished; on body three conical bosses, on neck Found on humerus fragments of right arm of skel- four horizontal grooves; neck and rim cracked, eton 2. small pieces flaked off body and handle; height 10 First string of beads; found in neck area (E of skull 270 mm. Found complete in fill in centre of cham- fragments) of skeleton 2, close to skull (see also ber, 0.25 m above grave floor (poss. from a niche 8): destroyed in the collapse of the chamber). (a) eight amber beads, of irregular shape; length Finds in chamber: 6 – 14 mm 1 Glass vessel, fragmentary; conical, with round (b) 27 carnelian beads, round forms; diam. base; made of translucent colourless glass, with- 5 – 8 mm out decoration; height 112 mm, diam. of mouth (c) two carnelian beads, round, with an ornament 80 mm. Found in fragments in fill between cham- of white paste; diam. 5 and 7 mm ber floor and 0.25 m above floor, in SW corner of (d) ?garnet bead, dark red, spherical, diam. chamber (poss. from a niche destroyed in the col- 8.5 mm (identical to 18a) lapse of the chamber). (e) one glass bead, round, of translucent white 2 Bronze bracelet; penannular, bent from cast rod, glass, diam. 6 mm. of circular section (5 mm thick in middle, 6 mm 11 Bronze bell with iron tongue; conical, with con- thick at terminals); incised lines on terminals; striction on body and loop at top; height 27 mm. 72 × 62 mm. With fragments of wooden case. Found with second string of beads (16) of skele- Found in SW corner of chamber, between bag (3) ton 2, on one pendant (13). and cauldron (5). 12 Gold pendant or fitting (SLHM acc. no. 28667/14); 3 Bag; found on floor in SW corner of chamber. Con- tear-shaped, with silver base, one large and one tents: small insert of translucent, colourless to light pur- (a) bronze mirror; cast, with ‘solar’ ornament and ple glass in gold mount; gold granulation around central loop on back; diam. 99 mm; textile from edge; length 19 mm, weight 0.97 grams. Found ?bag preserved on the front in neck area of skeleton 2, with second string of (b) wooden comb; double-sided, coarse teeth beads (16). on one side, fine teeth on the other; 89 × 66 mm; 13 Two gold pendants (SLHM acc. no. 28667/12 wood remains on one side, much textile from ?bag and 15); oval silver base plate, with oval inset of on other side (three layers: fine weave upper- purple glass; around this concentric rings of gold most, rougher weave in middle, ?felt underneath granulation, cord decoration, and again granula- textile). tion; 23 × 20 mm (26 × 20 mm incl. suspension 4 P ottery cup, fragmentary; surface black, burnished; loop), weight 3.2 and 3.4 grams (the latter with vertical grooves and conical bosses on body, grid loop); suspension loop of one pendant broken mark on base; height 72 mm. Found standing on off, base plate of other pendant damaged. Found floor next to right shoulder of skeleton 1. with second string of beads (16) of skeleton 2, 5 Bronze bowl with iron handle; round base made one pendant under bell (11). separately and riveted to cylindrical body made 14 Silver quiver clasp; plate with arm and dumb- from two bent strips of sheet bronze riveted to- bell-shaped cross-bar; with leather remains; gether side by side; iron handle fitted to inside(?) 47 × 20 mm. Found on quiver remains outside (S) of bowl; rim everted, lip bent upwards; diam. of right elbow of skeleton 1. 314 mm. Extensive traces of soot on outside of 15 Bronze rivet, with remains of leather; diam. 5 mm. bowl; marked dent in base, made from outside. With leather remains. Found on right elbow of Found on chamber floor in S part of chamber, part- skeleton 1. ly hanging over the NW corner of pit in the floor; 16 Second string of beads; found in neck area (E of iron handle lying inside the cauldron. skull fragments) of skeleton 2, between first (10) 6 Quiver with six iron arrowheads, corroded to- and third (18) string of beads, with bell (11) and gether; tanged trilobate type; on three points, pendants (13): traces of binding (running from upper left to low- (a) ten amber beads, round irregular forms; diam. er right; width of individual strips 1.5 – 2.2 mm, 9 – 18 mm extant length 26 – 32 mm) preserved on up- (b) three glass beads, round to cylindrical, of per tang and shaft remains, the latter showing opaque blue glass; diam. 7 – 10 mm diam. of 7.0 – 8.5 mm; length of complete points (c) two glass beads, spherical, with white ‘eye’ 90 – 100 mm. Conservation report: traces of bark decoration on dark blue base; diam. 10 and (prob. willow) and binding found on arrowheads 12 mm (from ?quiver). Found to right side (S) of skeleton (d) carnelian bead; diam. 8 mm 1, from elbow to knees. (e) bead of white paste, round; diam. 4 mm. 7 Pottery cup; round base, squat body, neck almost 17 Bronze crossbow fibula, with small knurl on foot; cylindrical, one handle; surface grey, smooth; foot bent slightly sideways; length 33 mm. Found on body vertical grooves; pieces flaked off body, inside left elbow of skeleton 2.

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Fig. 94. Cemetery III grave 352. Finds from floor of chamber.

277 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 95. Cemetery III grave 352. Finds from floor of chamber.

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Fig. 96. Cemetery III grave 352. Finds from floor of chamber.

279 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

18 Third string of beads; found in chest area of skel- 32 Silver fitting (strap end?), rectangular, with one eton 2, E of other strings of beads (10 and 16) edge reinforcement and one rivet; 17 × 15 mm; in neck area, with one outlying bead 0.15 m to leather remains on back. Found in organic layer south: covering feet of skeleton 1. (a) dark red ?garnet bead, spherical; diam. 33 Two iron plates, of irregular shape; 30 × 24 mm 8.5 mm and 25 × 22 mm; on underside traces of organic (b) two carnelian beads, spherical, orange-pink; matter (leather?). Found in organic layer covering diam. 11.5 mm feet of skeleton 1, lying on buckles (30) and stud (c) six amber beads, irregular shapes, length (31). 6 – 8 mm 34 Bronze buckles (closely similar to 30); from (d) 27 carnelian beads, small, round; diam. ?boots. Found in organic layer covering feet of 5 – 8 mm skeleton 1. (e) 31 glass beads, round and disc-shaped forms, 35 Iron plate, of rectangular shape; 26 × 22 mm; with of blue, yellow and translucent green glass; diam. traces of wood. Found in organic layer covering 4 – 7 mm. feet of skeleton 1. 19 Bronze fibula, with round perforated terminal of 36 Silver fitting; in five small fragments, badly dam- foot, and iron spring and pin (lost); length 37 mm. aged, original form cannot be determined; length Textile remains on back of head. Found on pelvis of largest fragment 16 mm. Found in organic layer of skeleton 2, with buckle (25). covering feet of skeleton 1. 20 Two bronze bracelets; one penannular, the oth- 37 Large iron knife; tanged, single-edged, tip miss- er with overlapping terminals; bent from cast ing; extant length 225 mm. Remains of wooden oval-sectioned rod; max. diam. 78 and 67 mm. handle, and of wooden sheath on blade. Found Found on wrist of left arm of skeleton 2. between skeletons 1 and 2, in hip area, tip point- 21 Gold earring (SLHM acc. no. 28667/16); pyra- ing NNE (towards feet), with a buckle (38) on its mid-shaped, made of thin sheets soldered to- handle. gether, with granulation on surface, and four 38 Bronze buckle; oval loop with groove for pin, fixed globules (one large, three small ones) soldered to trapezoidal plate with one rivet; length 25 mm. the tip; surfaces of granulation worn flat, marked On organic remains (leather with stitched border traces of wear on globules; length 30 mm, weight and wood). Found on handle of large knife (37). 2.8 grams. Found on right (S) skull fragments of 39 Two iron objects, of irregular shape; plate, skeleton 2. 22 × 21 mm, and hook(?), length 24 mm. Found 22 Bronze earring; pyramid-shaped, with globules between large knife (37) and left femur of skele- soldered to the tip; surface of pyramid imitating ton 1. granulation; length 40 mm. Found on left (N) skull 40 Silver buckle; oval loop and fixed trapezoidal fragments of skeleton 2. plate. Found on right pelvis of skeleton 1, with 23 Silver strap-end, tongue-shaped, plain; made iron buckle (45). from two sheets and an edging strip, held togeth- 41 Bronze fitting (strap end?); rectangular, made er by two silver rivets; 85 × 19 mm; fragmentary. from thin sheet, with a trefoil-shaped cut-out, Found in left waist area of skeleton 1, with silver fastened by two rivets to leather remains on the studs (24). back; size 15x18 mm. Found in organic layer cov- 24 16 silver studs, diam. 7 mm, shank length 3 mm. ering feet of skeleton 1. Found in left waist area of skeleton 1, with strap- 42 Silver fitting; broken up into tiny fragments, orig. end (23). form cannot be determined. Found in organic lay- 25 Iron buckle loop, badly corroded; length 42 mm. er covering feet of skeleton 1. Found on pelvis of skeleton 2, with fibula (19). 43 Bronze fitting, keyhole-shaped, with a cut-out in 26 Bronze fitting; rectangular sheet, fragmentary; the lower part; with two rivets and leather remains with one perforation near one end; extant size on the back; 23 × 15 mm. Found in organic matter 29 × 11 mm. Found in organic layer covering feet to right (S) of legs of skeleton 1; from ?belt. of skeleton 1. 44 Bronze belt fitting of double-scutiform shape, in 27 Bronze belt fitting of double-scutiform shape, in ‘heraldic style’; length 29 mm. On leather strip ‘heraldic style’; length 28 mm. On leather strip 12 mm wide and 3 mm thick. Found with similar 12 mm wide and 4 mm thick. Found in organic lay- fitting (46) in organic matter to right (S) of legs of er covering feet of skeleton 1. skeleton 1; from ?belt. 28 Bronze rivet, length 12 mm, with loop-shaped 45 Iron buckle, strongly corroded; with round loop head, diam. 11 mm. Penetrated organic material and ?rectangular plate; 30 × 35 mm. Found on of 4 mm thickness. Found in organic layer cover- right pelvis of skeleton 1, with silver buckle (40). ing feet of skeleton 1. 46 Bronze belt fitting of double-scutiform shape, in 29 Three studs, one silver, two bronze; diam. ‘heraldic style’; length 29 mm. On leather strip 8 – 9 mm. Found in organic layer covering feet of 11 mm wide and 5 mm thick. Found with similar skeleton 1. fitting (44) in organic matter to right (S) of legs of 30 Two identical bronze buckles; kidney-shaped skeleton 1; from ?belt. loop, fixed trapezoidal plate with one rivet (hold- 47 F ragment of leather strap or belt with three silver ing leather of 3 mm thickness); 18 × 16 mm. and bronze fittings: keyhole-shaped silver fitting, Found in organic layer covering feet of skeleton 1, length 23 mm; hexagonal bronze fitting, length lying under iron plates (33). 18 mm; and scutiform silver strap end, length 31 Silver stud, diam. 8 mm; with one rivet, length 37 mm, metal analysis Ag 700; total length of strap 4 mm. Found in organic layer covering feet of skel- 86 mm, width 11 mm, thickness 2.8 mm. Found in eton 1, lying under iron plates (33). organic matter to right (S) of legs of skeleton 1.

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Fig. 97. Cemetery III grave 352. Finds from floor of chamber.

48 Bronze fitting, keyhole-shaped, with cut-out dec- 49 Bronze belt fittings with leather remains on back. oration; one rivet on the back; length 23 mm. Found in organic matter to right (S) of legs of skel- Found in organic matter to right (S) of legs of skeleton 1; from ?belt: eton 1; from ?belt. (a) strap end, scutiform, length 33 mm; on leather strap 11 mm wide and 3 mm thick

281 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 98. Cemetery III grave 352. Finds from floor of chamber.

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Fig. 99. Cemetery III grave 352. Finds from floor of chamber.

(b) belt fitting, ‘heraldic style’, length 18 mm. 52– 53 Two bronze belt fittings, of double-scutiform 50 Silver strap end; tongue-shaped; made from two shape (?strap distributors); length 30 mm. thin sheets clamped together, between them leath- Found in organic matter to right (S) of legs of er strap remains; length 82 mm. Found in organic skeleton 1. matter to right (S) of legs of skeleton 1; from ?belt. 54 Iron object, in three fragments; rectangular plate, 51 Silver fitting, probably strap end, made from thin flat at one end, hemispherical in section at oth- sheet; fragmentary, extant length 45 mm. Found er end; length 54 mm. Found in organic matter to in organic matter to right (S) of legs of skeleton 1. right (S) of legs of skeleton 1.

283 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

55 Iron plate, in two fragments, each with one rivet, 76 Bronze fitting; keyhole-shaped (similar to 48); 16 mm long; 46 × 18 mm and 24 × 15 mm. Found two rivets on back, with leather remains; length next to horse bit (60). 23 mm. Found on middle part of quiver (6). 56 Silver strap end; fragmentary, prob. similar to 72; 77 Iron knife; tanged, single-edged; length 97 mm. extant length 43 mm. Found on horse bit (60). Traces of wooden sheath on entire knife, wooden 57 Silver object, very fragmentary; original form can- remains of handle on tang. Found on floor in E end not be determined. Found next to horse bit (60). of chamber, next to chain-mail patch (78). 58 Bronze fitting; keyhole-shaped (identical to 48); 78 Iron chain-mail patch; sub-rectangular, size length 23 mm. Found on bottom part of quiver (6), 140 × 168 mm, thickness 9.5 – 10.5 mm; diam. of next to horse bit (60). individual rings c. 12 mm; some leather remains 59 Leather remains with three small bronze studs, on front, leather remains on entire back, orig. circular, flat, diam. 9 mm; orig. form of leather leather trim around the edges. Found on floor of cannot be determined. Found on a stain of organic chamber, against E wall, with rivets (79) and ring matter, next to bottom part of quiver (6). (80), next to knife (77). 60 Iron horse bit, very corroded; linked bit with two 79 Si lver fitting and three rivets; found with chain- rings, with traces of wood (grain at right angles mail patch (78) on floor of chamber, against E wall: to bit) preserved on inside of rings; hinged tri (a) silver sheet fitting in ‘heraldic style’; scutiform angular eye attached to outer end of each ring, plate with central opening attached to a fixed with ?leather traces in eyes; bronze strip in corro- hinge in shape of dumbbell; on back remains of sion layer; length 232 mm. Separate ring and eye, two rivets; size 27 × 17 mm in form of figure-of-8; traces of ?leather in ring and (b) silver stud, with flat head, edges decorated eye; length 41 mm. Found on bottom part of quiv- with short incisions; diam. 16 mm er (6), to right (S) of knee of skeleton 1. (c) two bronze rivets, max. head diam. 7.5 mm. 61 Silver strap end; tongue-shaped, with ‘mask’ cut- 80 Iron ring, badly corroded; diam. 22 mm. Found on out; 12 × 35 mm. Found on horse bit (60). chain-mail patch (78) in E end of chamber. 62 Bronze fitting; keyhole-shaped (similar to 48); 81 Pottery cup, fragmentary; flat base, squat body, length 23 mm. cylindrical neck, one handle; surface grey, bur- 63 Two identical bronze buckles, with elongated oval nished; on body vertical grooves and three con- loop, groove for tongue, and small rectangular ical bosses; height 96 mm. Found in niche in NE plate; 17 × 17 mm. Found on middle part of quiver corner of chamber. (6). 82 Silver fitting, small, very fragmentary; orig. form 64 Iron quiver buckle, badly corroded; 20 × 25 mm; cannot be determined; extant length c. 30 mm. with wood remains of single grain direction, depth Found on left shin of skeleton 1. 11.5 mm. Found on middle part of quiver (6). 83 Iron buckle, badly corroded; rectangular loop, 65 Bronze quiver clasp (identical to 63). Found on bent; length 39 mm. middle part of quiver (6). 84 Iron knife, single-edged, tanged; wood remains 66 Bronze fitting, ‘heraldic style’. Found on middle on tang and blade; length 180 mm. part of quiver (6). 85 Iron buckle loop; trapezoidal shape; with organic 67 Bronze buckle (closely similar to 38). Found on remains; length 42 mm. middle part of quiver (6). 86 Iron plate; rectangular, with two rivets (one ex- 68 Silver fitting (strap end?), fragmentary; orig. tant, length 7 mm), with wood remains on under- ?scutiform, stamped from thin sheet; extant side; length 56 mm. length 35 mm. Found on middle part of quiver (6). 69 Bronze staple made from thin wire; length 20 mm; with leather remains; found on middle part of Grave 353 (trench 2/1994) (Figs. 100 – 101) quiver. 70 Silver strap end; long scutiform shape, with Koban Culture. Grave pit with ledges, with single crouched grooved decoration; bronze bracket soldered to burial. Grave construction: the back; length 44 mm. Found on middle part of Grave pit sub-rectangular, max. size at top 1.50 × 1.32 m, quiver (6). on floor 1.30 × 0.85 m, depth 1.60 m below modern sur- 71 Two silver fittings, ‘heraldic style’; made from thin face, long axis N–S; fill of sandy clay with inclusions of sheet; 19 × 15 mm. Found on middle part of quiver black earth and yellow sand; floor uneven, sloping down (6). from E to W; N and S sides of grave pit vertical, on W and E 72 Silver fitting; long scutiform shape; made from sides ledges 0.25 – 0.30 m wide (W ledge partly destroyed). thin sheet, with ‘face’ impression (made up Burial of one individual (female adult; skeleton well pre- of keyhole, dot, and crescent indentations); served). Deposition crouched on left side, head pointing 47 × 15 mm, metal analysis Ag 500. Found on mid- NNE (facing ESE), arms bent, hands in front of skull, legs dle part of quiver (6). bent to left. 73 Bronze buckle (closely similar to 63); 16 × 17 mm. Finds in grave: Found on middle part of quiver (6). 1 P ottery bowl, complete; flat base, carinated shoul- 74 Large iron knife; single-edged, tanged, tip of der, everted rim; surface black, burnished; on neck blade missing; extant length 183 mm. Wood re- decoration by a band of criss-cross lines creating a mains from sheath on both sides of blade, and mesh ornament; height 107 mm. Found in front (E) of wood of handle on tang. Found on top of upper lower body, between lower arms and E side of grave. part of quiver (6), to right (S) of elbow of skele- 2 Pottery cup, complete; round base, globular body, ton 1. slightly everted rim; surface grey-brown, smooth; 75 Silver fitting; annular, made from thin sheet; height 72 mm. Found lying on its side, in front (E) diam. 20 mm. Found on middle part of quiver (6). of skull, against N side of grave.

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3 Four bronze tubes; rolled from thin corrugated sheet; length 55 – 65 mm. Found in animal burrow in NE corner of grave, together with finger bones and some beads (4). 4 Beads, found in concentration near hands (between skull and lower arms), in pottery bowl, and in animal burrow in NE corner (see 3). (a) six ?limestone beads, tubular, length 15 – 20 mm (b) two ?limestone beads, spherical, diam. 7 mm (c) 15 glass beads, badly preserved; dull light- blue glass, diam. 3 – 4 mm.

Grave 354 (trench 2/1995) (Figs. 102 – 103)

Koban Culture. Grave disturbed and destroyed. Grave construction: Grave pit sub-rectangular, 0.75 × 0.50 m, long axis NNW– SSE; sides not quite vertical. Burial of ?one individual (male adult; completely disturbed by modern cable trench). Finds in fill of grave: 1 Several fragments of pottery bowl (poss. settlement pottery), incomplete; carinated shoulder, everted rim, surface black-brown, burnished, grid of incised lines on the shoulder; max. diam. c. 260 mm.

Grave 355 (trench 2/1995) (Pl. 3,1) (Figs. 104 – 105)

Koban Culture. Grave pit with single crouched burial. Grave construction: Grave pit sub-rectangular, 1.35 × 0.75 m, long axis SSE – NNW; sides almost vertical, grave floor slightly sloping upwards in S corner. In fill sherds from body, rim and base of red-black pottery bowl, with decoration of finger impressions on upper part of body. Burial of one individual (male adult; skeleton badly pre- Finds in grave: Fig. 100. Cemetery III served). Deposition crouched on right side, skull point- 1 Pottery bowl, complete; flat bottom, carinated grave 353. Plan and section. ing S, pelvis and legs against NNW edge of grave, left leg body, everted rim; surface red-brown, uneven and bent over pot, right arm bent in front of upper body and rough; diam. 206 mm. Found upside down under face(?). left femur of skeleton.

Fig. 101. Cemetery III grave 353. Finds.

285 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Grave 356 (trench 2/1995) (Figs. 106 – 108)

Alanic (period Ic/Iв, late 5th – first half of 6th cent. AD). Catacomb with dromos, with double burial. Grave construction: Dromos SSE–NNW, of slightly irregular shape, length 2.74 m, width 0.55 m (SSE end) – 0.72 m (NNW end), max. depth 1.65 m below modern surface; walls vertical, floor slightly sloping downwards towards the chamber entrance; fill of yellow clayey subsoil with inclusions of humus, small stones, charcoal and some pottery fragments; two steps at SSE end. Disturbance by modern cable trench of upper part of fill in SSE half of dromos. Depositions: patch of grey-blue clay, max. diam. 0.28 m, on dromos floor c. 0.30 m in front (SSE) of entrance stone; charcoal concentration on the clay. Entrance at N end of dromos, oval shape, height 0.63 m, max. width 0.55 m, length 0.30 m, drop of 0.81 m to floor of chamber. In front of entrance a small step or sill, 0.05 m high. Entrance closed by a large limestone slab wedged in with three smaller stones; grey-blue clay between and around the stones. Chamber collapsed, oval outline, size 1.95 × 1.30 m, internal height 1.41 m, depth 3.15 m below modern surface, long axis W–E. Floor horizontal, at the edges with a very slight slope towards the walls. Organic layer of brown colour over most of chamber floor, under both skeletons, but leaving strip on S (entrance) side free. On top of this layer, at the feet of the skeletons in the E half of the chamber, two patches of black-brown organic matter: the S one of roughly oval shape, size 0.33 × 0.27 m, Fig. 102. Cemetery III thickness 10 – 30 mm, with large pieces of charcoal; the grave 354. Plan and section. N one of sub-triangular shape, size 0.30 × 0.22 m. Burials: two, both badly preserved. Skeleton 1 (adult, ?male). In central part of chamber, S of skeleton 2. Disturbed, probably during deposition of skeleton 2 when skeleton 1 was still partly articulated: pelvis, vertebrae and some ribs next to skull, ribs in chest area disturbed, long bones of arms along left (N) side of skeleton. Orig. deposition extended on back, head to W, legs crossed at ankles (right over left). Skeleton 2 (juvenile). Against N and W walls, N of skeleton 1. Flexed on right side, head to SW, arms bent forward in elbows, knees pulled up against N side of skeleton 1. Finds in chamber: 1 Beads; found at neck of skeleton 2: (a) 40 glass beads of various shapes, round, toroi- Fig. 103. Cemetery III dal, cylindrical and irregular; of blue, whitish-yel- grave 354. Finds. low and red glass; diam. 3 – 10.5 mm 2 Glass beads; found in concentration in N corner of (b) carnelian bead, round shape, diam. 10 mm. grave, 0.20 – 0.25 m above grave floor: 2 Bag, textile; found with knife (6) and bead (7) be- (a) eight beads, round and disc-shaped, five from tween left femur (and arm bones) of skeleton 1 whitish glass, three from yellow glass; diam. and knees of skeleton 2; inside or next to bag: 4 – 6 mm (a) iron fibula; badly corroded; poss. used as (b) one biconical bead, from green glass; diam. clasp of bag; length 50 mm; remains of textile on 11 mm. top of spiral 3 Bronze pin; straight shaft, slightly tapering; (b) nine glass beads, round and irregular forms; of sub-circular section, with two grooves running dark blue glass, two with white ‘eye’ decoration; down the entire shaft on opposite sides; top end diam. 10 – 15 mm flattened, head missing; extant length 127 mm. (c) chalcedon pendant, biconical, of yellow-brown Found with bronze tubes (4) just outside the grave colour, length 21 mm pit in animal burrow running into the grave. (d) bronze mirror; on the back two concentric ridg- 4 Two bronze tubes, made from fluted, rolled es and a central suspension loop; diam. 58 mm bronze sheet; length 65 mm. Found with bronze (e) bronze tweezers, made from sheet bronze, pin (3) just outside the grave pit in animal burrow markedly tapering towards the top; length 38 mm. running into the grave. 3 Large iron knife or short sword, in five fragments 5 Shell of land-snail; length 10 mm. which do not join up; tanged, single-edged, blade

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of varying width; wood on tang, traces of wood on blade; total length of fragments 503 mm. Found in W end of chamber, above (W) of the two skulls, point to NNW. 4 Pottery jug; flat base, globular body, slightly conical neck, one handle; surface grey-brown, burnished; on body vertical grooves and three bosses surrounded by concentric grooves, at base of neck three horizontal grooves; height 153 mm. Found in SW corner of grave, between skull of skeleton 1 and S wall of chamber. 5 Two gold earrings, crescent-shaped, with central bulge and tapering terminals; 13 × 12 mm, weight 2.9 and 2.72 grams. Found under skull of skeleton 2. 6 Iron knife, in two fragments; single-edged, tanged, with wood remains on blade; poss. middle part of blade missing, extant length 105 mm. Found with bag (2) and bead (7) between left femur (and arm bones) of skeleton 1, and knees of skeleton 2. 7 Glass melon bead, of translucent light green glass; diam. 19 mm. Found next to bag (2). 8 Bronze buckle, heavy; oval loop, heart-shaped plate with kidney-shaped red glass inlay and one rivet; 33 × 26 mm. Found between femurs of skeleton 1. 9 Wooden object, small; disintegrated on cleaning and lifting; length of largest fragment 17 mm. Found in neck area of skeleton 2. Fig. 104. Cemetery III grave 355. Plan and section. 10 Beads; found under left knee of skeleton 1: (a) carnelian bead, spherical, diam. 13 mm (b) ceramic bead, round, pink, diam. 8 mm. 11– 12 Wooden object, poss. box with mother-of-pearl appliqués; disintegrated on cleaning and lifting. Found in NE corner of grave, E of feet of skeleton 1; contained shell pieces (13), resin (14) and glass beads (16). 13 F ragments of shell, with ?worked edges; 17 × 12 mm and 15 × 11 mm. Found in wooden ?box (11 – 12). 14 Lump of ?resin, of very dark brown colour; length 24 mm. Found in wooden ?box (11 – 12). 15 Glass bead, very fragmentary; prob. round, almost cylindrical shape; dark blue glass; diam. 6 mm. Found next to wooden ?box (11 – 12). 16 Glass beads; found in wooden ?box (11 – 12): (a) two round beads, of translucent dark blue glass, diam. 5 and 6 mm (b) four cylindrical glass beads, dark blue, length 6 – 8 mm. 17 Iron brooch, strongly corroded, S-shaped; length 42 mm. Found with bronze fragment (18) on patch of dark organic matter in NE corner of chamber. 18 Bronze sheet fragment; slightly concave strip, folded once; length 13 mm. Found with iron brooch (17) on patch of dark organic matter in NE corner of chamber. 19 Pottery cup, incomplete; flat base, globular body, conical neck, one handle (bifurcated); surface black, carefully burnished; around neck a line of impressed dots, on body shallow vertical grooves; base missing, piece of rim missing; height 110 mm. Found in E end of chamber, between feet of skeleton 1 and chamber wall, lying on its side. 20 Glass bead, flat toroid of translucent light green glass; diam. 13 mm. Found in NE corner of chamber. Fig. 105. Cemetery III grave 355. Finds.

287 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 106. Cemetery III grave 356. Plan, section, and elevations of entrance.

21 Iron object, very fragmentary; pieces of badly handled jar, and of large black-burnished handled jar corroded rod, one of them with an eye or a hook; with small bosses and lateral lugs, all three probably length of longest fragment 49 mm. Found with orig. from the chamber), and a large number of bro- wooden object (22) against E wall of chamber. ken artefacts, scattered throughout the dromos fill at 22 Fragment of wooden object, decayed; with two various depths, with a concentration in N and middle iron rivets, length 28 mm, with wood remains parts (i. e. towards the chamber entrance); on floor in of 14 mm thickness. Found with iron object (21) middle part a heap of limestone slabs, prob. from the against E wall of chamber. original closure of the chamber entrance. Depositions: sacrificial deposition 1/1995 (‘horse skin’) 0.45 m E of S end of dromos, at same level as top of dromos (ap- Grave 357 (trench 1/1995) (Figs. 109 – 118) prox. 0.80 m below modern surface); poss. connected with grave 357. Alanic (period Id – e/Iг–Iд, 6th cent. AD). Catacomb with Finds from dromos fill: dromos, disturbed, with remains of two individuals. D1 Bronze nail, length 11 mm. Grave construction: D2 Bone fragment, flat, triangular, worked on both Dromos S–N, of regular shape, length 2.96 m, width sides, from bow reinforcement; length 62 mm. 0.65 m (at S end), 0.59 m (in middle) and 0.69 m (at D3 Bronze nail or rivet, bent, length 8 mm. N end), depth 2.50 m below modern surface; three D4 Bronze belt fitting, with stamped scutiform plate steps at S end; fill of yellow clayey subsoil with inclu- hinged on cast dumbbell-shaped bar; metal al- sions of humus; in fill much charcoal, some animal most white, possibly high-tin bronze; one rivet on bones (small), many pottery sherds (incl. fragments back; 28 × 21 mm. of small black-burnished handled cup, of large grey D5,6,11 Pottery sherds, grey, from one vessel.

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Fig. 107. Cemetery III grave 356. Finds.

289 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 108. Cemetery III grave 356. Finds.

D7 Bronze sheet fragment, length 52 mm, thickness D21 Silver sheet fragment, rectangular, with four of sheet 0.5 mm. punched holes; made of very thin sheet (similar to D8 Silver sheet fragment, made of very thin sheet; D8); 22 × 19 mm. size 22 × 16 mm. D22 Bone piece of identical shape to D17, but its mir- D9,12,14 Three bronze nails, length 12 mm. ror image; tip and square end partly broken off, D10 Bronze buckle; circular loop, square plate with extant size 211 × 28 mm. repoussé dot ornament, tip of tongue bent down- D23 Bone reinforcement from bow, in two fragments; wards; metal almost white, poss. high-tin bronze; flat, worked, with notch for string; length 274 mm. 35 × 21 mm. D24 Bronze sheet fragment, from ?cauldron; D11 (see D5) 42 × 20 mm, thickness of sheet 0.5 mm. D12 (see D9) D25 Bone reinforcement from bow, in two fragments; D13 Wood fragments (from a board?); largest fragment curved shape, flat, with notch for string; worked 35 × 24 × 12 mm. on both sides; length 248 mm. D14 (see D9) D26 Bronze nail, length 15 mm. D15 Bone fragment, flat, rectangular, worked on both D27 Three bronze sheet fragments; length 12, 11 and sides, from bow reinforcement; 65 × 16 mm. 8 mm. D16 Bronze sheet fragment, folded over, possibly caul- D28 Bronze sheet fragment, 28 × 18 mm, thickness of dron fragment; 42 × 30 mm, thickness of sheet sheet 0.3 mm. 0.3 – 0.5 mm. D29 Two small fragments of pointed bone reinforce- D17 Bone pieces, in two fragments; flat, rectangular, ment (same type as D17), combined length tapering to a sharp tip at one end, worked on both 103 mm. sides; from bow reinforcement; 265 × 28 mm. D30 Br onze object; square plate tapering to a sharp D18 Bronze sheet fragment, 46 × 35 mm, thickness of point; one rivet at square end; length 37 mm. Orig- sheet 0.2 mm. inally probably attached to an iron object (corro- D19 Bronze sheet fragment, 70 × 30 mm, thickness of sion on back of square end, on and around rivet). sheet 0.4 mm. D31 Bronze nail or rivet, length 13 mm. D20 Bone fragment, flat, tapering to a tip; worked on D32 Bronze sheet fragment, from ?cauldron; size both sides; from bow reinforcement; length 53 mm. 28 × 25 mm, thickness of sheet 0.4 to 1.0 mm.

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Fig. 109. Cemetery III grave 357. Plans, sections, and elevations of entrance.

D33 Astragalus, unworked, blackened by fire on one D36 Bone fragment from bone reinforcement, flat, par- side; length 31 mm. allel-sided, broken off at both ends; extant length D34 Bronze fitting, near-scutiform, with three punched 63 mm. perforations (diam. 0.9 mm) at the square end; D37 Bronze nail, length 15 mm. length 17 mm. D38 Two bone reinforcements from bow, mirror im- D35 Bronze fitting (similar to 34), with two punched ages of one another, each with a notch for the perforations at the square end; length 17 mm. string; width of both 15 – 17 mm, length 147 and 146 mm.

291 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 110. Cemetery III grave 357. Finds from dromos.

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Fig. 111. Cemetery III grave 357. Finds from dromos.

D39 Bronze and silver objects: Entrance at N end, arc-shaped, height 0.48 m, width (a) two small fragments of thin silver sheet, length 0.40 m, length 0.42 m, drop of 1.05 m to chamber floor. 22 and 14 mm Closed by a packing of small limestones; next to it in NE (b) bronze fitting, hemispherical, made from thin corner a large limestone slab standing on edge; dark sheet; with two punched holes; diam. 9 mm blue clay over surface of, and around, stones, and in a (c) five bronze nails with square heads, length patch on the floor in front of entrance. 7 – 12 mm Chamber collapsed, oval outline, dimensions (d) bronze nail with round head, bent, length 1.97 × 1.25 m, depth 3.55 m below modern surface, 15 mm walls preserved to a height of 0.90 m, orientation of (e) bronze rivet with square head, for leather; long axis W – E; niche in wall of SW corner of chamber, max. length 12 mm. size 0.42 × 0.40 m, with a broken pottery vessel (1); ir-

293 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 112. Cemetery III grave 357. Finds from chamber.

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regular shallow depression in northern part of chamber a pendant (without pin, but with leather string, floor, 0.52 × 0.27 m, max. depth 0.07 m, empty; regu- 5.5 mm wide, around the bow); length 40 mm. larly shaped pit under entrance, 1.54 × 0.43 m, depth Found E of skull, near beads (9) and earring (13). 0.16 – 0.22 m under level of chamber floor, with finds 11 Melon bead, made from opaque blue glass; diam. and an oval patch of chalk (diam. c. 0.10 m, in W end of 18 mm. Found with chalk pendant (12) NE of skull, pit); in chamber fill fragments of animal bones, pottery c. 0.15 m N of bead concentration (9). (Koban) and charcoal. 12 Chalk pendant, circular, flat, with central perfora- Burials: ?two, disturbed. Human bones in W half of tion; diam. 29 mm. Found with melon bead (11) chamber, disturbed, probably during re-opening of the NE of skull. chamber which led to the displacement of broken arte- 13 (see 7) facts into the dromos. Skull in W end of chamber, lying 14 Glass fragment, of transparent colourless glass on left side, face to E, lower jaw 0.20 m away; some leg without bubbles or impurities, and without traces bones partly over, and next to, skull, with pelvis to the E of oxydization; length 38 mm, thickness 2.7 mm. of leg bones; vertebrae and ribs between the aforemen- Found inside elbow of articulated arm bones tioned bones and S wall of chamber. Further long bones close to N wall of chamber. of legs in centre of chamber, disarticulated. Skeletal 15 Iron chain-mail fragment, corroded into one mass; analysis separated out the following individuals: length 26 mm, diam. of individual rings 14 mm. Skeleton 1 (male adult). Found in W half of chamber, between leg bones Skeleton 2 (female adult). and entrance pit. Finds in chamber: 16 Iron knife, tanged, single-edged; length 115 mm; 1 Pottery jug, fragmentary, incomplete; flat base, with bronze binding from ?handle, ridged, ov- globular body, cylindrical neck, one handle; sur- al-sectioned; remains of wooden sheath on face dark brown, burnished; on body shallow slant- blade; separate bronze plate, 34 × 7 mm, with ing grooves and two bosses (third missing), each two rivets. Found in centre of chamber, near (and surrounded by three or four grooves, and three partly on) a concentration of beads (22) and other deep grooves around neck; height 117 mm. Found dress ornaments (17, 19 – 21). in niche in SW corner of chamber, lying on its side. 17 Pendant or fitting with bronze base plate, corrod- 2 Pottery jar, complete; flat base, ovoid body, nar- ed through from the back, and dark blue glass row expanding neck, pronounced spout, one han- inlay on white paste filling; diam. of inlay 17 mm. dle and two lugs; surface black, burnished; on Found in centre of chamber, with knife (16) and upper part of body decoration of grid of burnished other dress ornaments (18 – 22). lines; height 320 mm. Found in W end of chamber, 18 Iron fibula, badly corroded, length 45 mm. Found on its side, partly covering the skull. in centre of grave, with knife (16), dress orna- 3 Bronze mirror, fragmentary; circular, with concen- ments (17, 19 – 22) and tweezers (23). tric bulges on the back and a central loop; diam. 19 Bronze object, dumbbell-shaped, with textile re- 68 mm. Found at an angle under leg bones, close mains on one side, and leather remains on the to skull, on buckle (4). other; on the leather small glass beads, cylindri- 4 Iron buckle loop, oval, with tongue; badly cor- cal, of opaque, light yellow glass, diam. 3 – 4 mm. roded; 19 × 16 mm. Found under leg bones near Found in centre of chamber, with other dress or- skull, under mirror (3). naments (17, 19 – 22), tweezers (23) and knife 5 Be ad or pendant, of jasperised stone (identifi- (16). cation by Yu. P. Smirnov, SLHM); polished, cy- 20 Br onze pin, with twisted shaft and spiral head; lindrical, with round top; diam. 15 mm, height length 47 mm. Found in centre of chamber, near 19 mm. Found close to lower jaw of skull, near other dress ornaments (17, 21 – 22), tweezers (23) bead (6). and knife (16). 6 Glass bead or pendant, disc-shaped, of translu- 21 Glass beads on leather string; found in centre cent light green glass; diam. 27 mm. Found close of chamber, near other dress ornaments (17, to jaw of skull, near bead (5). 19 – 20, 22), tweezers (23) and knife (16): 7, 13 Two electron(?) earrings, penannular, with thick (a) round, of translucent, dark blue glass, diam. middle part and tapering terminals; 15 × 15 mm, 12 mm max. thickness 3.6 mm. One found N, the other E (b) oblong, of translucent light green glass, with of skull. ‘eye’ decoration; length 9 mm 8 Jet pendant, triangular, with central perforation; (c) cylindrical, polychrome (incl. red, yellow and 20 × 20 mm. Found N of skull, near earring (7). blue), length 11.5 mm. 9 Beads; found in a concentration E of skull (in neck 22 Beads in ?bag; found in a concentration in centre area): of chamber, with some beads under knife (16); (a) four amber beads, disc-shaped, cylindrical together with other dress ornaments (17, 19 – 21) and irregular forms; diam. 13 – 21 mm and tweezers (23): (b) carnelian bead, spherical, diam. 14 mm (a) 112 small glass beads, cylindrical, light blue (c) 23 glass beads; round, flat, cylindrical and and green; diam. 2 – 3 mm irregular forms; of blue, yellow and light green (b) amber bead, toroid, diam. 17.5 mm glass, some with ‘eye’ or wavy line decoration, (c) glass bead, biconical, of translucent, blue- diam. 6 – 14 mm green glass; diam. 15 mm (d) bronze suspension for ?pendant of organic (d) carnelian bead, ovoid, length 8 mm material; remains of leather string in perforation; (e) eight glass beads, round and irregular forms, length 17 mm. of dark blue and light green glass; diam. 5 – 10 mm 10 Electron(?) fibula, cast; semicircular head with (f ) glass bead, cylindrical, polychrome (incl. red, three knobs, scutiform foot; probably carried as blue and green); diam. 6 mm.

295 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 113. Cemetery III grave 357. Finds from chamber.

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Fig. 114 Cemetery III grave 357. Finds from chamber.

297 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 115. Cemetery III grave 357. Finds from chamber.

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Fig. 116. Cemetery III grave 357. Finds from chamber.

299 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 117. Cemetery III grave 357. Finds from chamber.

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Fig. 118. Cemetery III grave 357. Finds from chamber.

23 Bronze tweezers, made of sheet bronze; tapering 24 Bronze cylinder, made of sheet bronze, closed towards head; length 41 mm. With leather string at one end, with transverse perforation (finial or through the head, and textile remains on outside. brush handle?); length 23 mm; a thread (280 mm Found in centre of chamber, with knife (16) and long, very strong; horsehair?) preserved in- dress ornaments (17, 19 – 22). side. Found in entrance pit in W group of objects (24 – 26).

301 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

25 Iron knife, fragmentary; tanged, single-edged; 43 Bronze object (finial or handle?); tube from sheet length 172 mm. Found in entrance pit in W group bronze, diam. 10 mm, with wood inside; trans- of objects (24 – 26). verse bronze nail through tube and wood, with 26 Iron object, U-shaped (?clamp; probably not small iron strip (similar to 35) corroded to one of shears); length 135 mm. Found in entrance pit in the knob heads; object broken off at both ends, W concentration of finds (24 – 26). extant length 49 mm. Found in entrance pit in E 27 Chain-mail, iron, probably part of a folded mail concentration of finds (29 – 69). shirt; corroded into one big lump; size approx. 44 Bronze strip, rectangular, made from sheet; a riv- 130 × 80 × 55 mm, diam. of individual rings 14 et at each end; 77 × 14 mm. Small iron ring, diam. and 18 mm. Found in entrance pit, almost directly 12 mm, corroded against it. Found in entrance pit under entrance. in E concentration of finds (29 – 69). 28 Iron plate; rectangular, slightly convex; bent and 45 Bronze buckle loop, oval, with tongue (tip bent broken off at one end; length 58 mm. Found in en- downwards); 22 × 19 mm. Found in entrance pit in trance pit next to chain mail (27). E concentration of finds (29 – 69). 29 Bronze strip, from sheet bronze (similar to 36 and 46 Iron plate, rectangular, slightly convex (similar to 40); bent around oval-sectioned wood and closed 30, 50, 51, 54, 59, 61, 64 – 68); one end broken by one clinched rivet; width 33 mm. Found in en- off, at the other end remains of two rivets; extant trance pit in E concentration of finds (29 – 69). length 43 mm. Found in entrance pit in E concen- 30 Iron plate, rectangular, slightly convex (similar to tration of finds (29 – 69). 46, 50, 51, 54, 59, 61, 64 – 68); one end broken 47 Iron knife; tanged, single-edged, tip of blade bro- off, two rivets at other end; extant length 85 mm. ken off; extant length 95 mm. Found in entrance Leather remains adhering to the outside. Found in pit in E concentration of finds (29 – 69). entrance pit in E concentration of finds (29 – 69). 48 Bronze pseudo-buckle (similar to 41, 49, 55, 31 Glass bead, polychrome; not extant. Found in en- 58, 59 and 60), with one rivet on the back; trance pit in E concentration of finds (29 – 69). 41 × 28 mm. Found in entrance pit in E concentra- 32 Bronze fitting, cast, white metal (high-tin tion of finds (29 – 69). bronze?); rectangular, with four holes in corners 49 Bronze pseudo-buckle (similar to 41, 48, 55, 58, and a central ridge; 30 × 18 mm. Found in en- 59 and 60); 43 × 28 mm. Found in entrance pit in E trance pit in E concentration of finds (29 – 69). concentration of finds (29 – 69). 33 Iron plate, rectangular, slightly convex (similar to 50 Iron plate (similar to 30, 46, 51, 54, 59, 61, 30); both ends broken off, extant length 54 mm. 64 – 68); rectangular, slightly convex, two rivets Found in entrance pit in E concentration of finds at one end, broken off at other end; extant length (29 – 69). 72 mm. Found in entrance pit in E concentration of 34 Iron strip on sheet bronze, with bronze nails run- finds (29 – 69). ning through both, poss. edge binding of wooden 51 Iron plate (similar to 30, 46, 50, 54, 59, 61, object; extant length 107 mm, max. width 15 mm. 64 – 68); rectangular, slightly convex, both ends Found in entrance pit in E concentration of finds broken off; extant length 80 mm. Found in en- (29 – 69). trance pit in E concentration of finds (29 – 69). 35 Iron strip with bronze nails (similar to 34); both 52 Iron object, fragmentary; two linked iron loops ends broken off, extant length 92 mm, width (from chain or horse bit?); length 52 mm. Found in 7 mm. Textile remains adhering to the outside. entrance pit in E concentration of finds (29 – 69). Found in entrance pit in E concentration of finds 53 Iron strip, in two fragments; both ends broken off; (29 – 69). extant length 58 mm, width 7 mm. Found in en- 36 Bronze tube, oval section, with transverse fluting; trance pit in E concentration of finds (29 – 69). width 49 mm. Found in entrance pit in E concen- 54 Iron plate (similar to 30, 46, 50, 51, 59, 61, tration of finds (29 – 69). 64 – 68), in several fragments; sub-rectangular, 37 Bronze sheet fragment, length 39 mm. Found in ?tapering, slightly convex; broken off at one end, entrance pit in E concentration of finds (29 – 69). one rivet at other end; extant length c. 450 mm. 38 Fragment of chain mail, badly corroded; diam. Found in entrance pit in E concentration of finds 31 mm, diam. of individual rings 18 mm. Found in (29 – 69). entrance pit in E concentration of finds (29 – 69). 55 Bronze sheet and iron fragments (about 14 lar 39 Bronze fitting, prob. strap end, elongated, ger ones and numerous smaller ones) of bronze near-scutiform; made from thin sheet; two cauldron with everted mouth, vertical rim and punched holes at square end, one with remains of iron handle; size of largest sheet fragment bronze rivet; length 49 mm. Found in entrance pit 125 × 80 mm, thickness 0.4 – 0.5 mm; length of in E concentration of finds (29 – 69). largest rim fragment c. 200 mm, thickness 1 mm; 40 Bronze tube, oval section, with transverse fluting length of largest iron handle fragment 115 mm. (like 36); width 45 mm. Found in entrance pit in E One iron fragment from ?handle corroded togeth- concentration of finds (29 – 69). er with two bronze buckles (similar to 41, 48, 49, 41 Bronze pseudo-buckle (similar to 48, 49, 55, 58, 58, 59 and 60). Found in entrance pit in E concen- 59 and 60); kidney-shaped loop (with groove for tration of finds (29 – 69). tongue) and scutiform shield, without pin; one 56 Iron object; curved narrow strip, width 15 mm rivet on back; 42 × 28 mm. Found in entrance pit in (handle of cauldron?); extant length c. 170 mm. E concentration of finds (29 – 69). Found in entrance pit in E concentration of finds 42 Bronze sheet fragment, from ?cauldron; c. (29 – 69). 65 × 40 mm, thickness of sheet 0.5 – 0.8 mm. 57 Ir on sword, bent and broken; two-edged blade, Found in entrance pit in E concentration of finds width 30 – 35 mm, flat-lentoid section (with middle (29 – 69). groove?), thickness 3.9 – 4.3 mm; total length of

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fragments 1250 mm; one fragment of iron fitting 14 which looks modern rather than ancient), the care- with ?bronze terminal (opposite terminal broken ful closure of the chamber should argue against this. A off?), extant length 69 mm, with two iron suspen- deliberate disturbance for apotropaic purposes is also sion loops, length 43 and 37 mm. Found in 14 conceivable. fragments in entrance pit in E concentration of finds (29 – 69). 58 Bronze pseudo-buckle (similar to 41, 48, 49, 55, Grave 358 (trench 1/1995) (Figs. 119 – 120) 59 and 60); kidney-shaped loop (with groove for tongue), scutiform plate, without tongue; Koban Culture. Grave pit, with single crouched burial. 40 × 29 mm. Found in entrance pit in E concentra- Grave construction: tion of finds (29 – 69). Grave pit, outline not clearly visible and incompletely 59 Bronze pseudo-buckle (similar to 41, 48, 49, traced, depth 0.78 below modern surface. 55, 58 and 60), 39 × 29 mm; corroded together Burial of one individual (male adult, skeleton in good with an iron plate (similar to 30, 46, 50, 51, 54, condition). Deposition crouched on right side, head to 61, 64 – 68), rectangular, slightly convex, length NNW, face to W, upper body twisted into prone position, 73 mm, with two rivets. Found in entrance pit in E pelvis semi-prone, arms bent upwards at elbows, left concentration of finds (29 – 69). hand in front of face, legs flexed (left above right). 60 Bronze pseudo-buckle (similar to 41, 48, 49, 55, Finds in grave: 58 and 59); 45 × 29 mm. Found in entrance pit in E 1 Pottery bowl, complete; flat bottom, marked car- concentration of finds (29 – 69). ination, everted rim; hand-made, surface brown, 61 Bronze strip, curved, U-sectioned, with two riv- smooth; on upper part of body a decoration of ets (scabbard chape?); 78 × 36 mm. Corroded incised lines in form of grids, ladders etc.; height together with rectangular iron plate, slightly con- 120 mm. Found W of skull, in front of face, togeth- vex (similar to 30, 46, 50, 51 and 54). Found in er with spearhead (2). entrance pit in E concentration of finds (29 – 69). 2 Iron spearhead, badly corroded; socketed; blade 62 Bronze buckle with kidney-shaped loop and scuti- probably broad leaf-shaped, with ?lentoid sect form plate; heavy, cast; on tongue a circular cell ion; length 150 mm. Found in head end of grave, for insert; plate bent over and corroded in place; against and partly under W side of vessel (1). 44 × 33 mm. Found in entrance pit in E concentra- 3 Iron awl, corroded; tanged; point probably tion of finds (29 – 69). square-sectioned; traces of wood on tang; length 63 Bronze strip, fluted, bent to oval tube; width 77 mm. Found with iron object (4) at (behind) 22 mm. Found in entrance pit in E concentration of right shoulder blade, 0.05 m above grave floor, finds (29 – 69). point of awl pointing downwards. 64– 68 Iron plates (similar to 30, 46, 50, 51, 54, 59 and 4 Iron object, probably fragment of knife; extant 61), in approx. 12 fragments; parallel-sided, length 27 mm. Found with awl (3) at (behind) right slightly convex, two rivets each at square ends; shoulder blade. length of largest fragment 85 mm, width 17 mm. 5 Whetstone, made from grey marl (limestone); rec- Found in entrance pit in E concentration of finds tangular outline, slightly tapering in longitudinal (29 – 69). section; at one end a perforation which had been 69 Bone object, conical with obtuse tip, fragmentary, drilled from both sides; 88 × 25 × 15 mm. Found at burnt; length 38 mm. Found in entrance pit in E left waist of skeleton, pointing NNW – SSE. concentration of finds (29 – 69). 70 Bone or horn strip, with carving of herringbone pattern; broken off at both ends, extant length 23 mm. 71 Bone object (from bow reinforcement?); flat, parallel-sided, worked on back and at both ends; length 178 mm. Found in fill of chamber.

Comment: The chamber probably held the double burial of a female and a male, the former with a set of dress ornaments, a mirror and a bag, the latter with a long knife and a tunic with chain-mail patch; also present were several pottery vessels. The pit under the entrance appears to have contained a bronze cauldron, an iron sword in an ?iron scabbard with bronze fittings, and a mail shirt with buckles. There may have been, at least, two episodes of re-opening the chamber. The first is indicated by the broken artefacts in the dromos, among them fragments of a 5th century bowl, possibly cleared out of the chamber when the last occupants were deposited there in the 6th century. The second re-opening disturbed depositions in the dromos and both skeletons in the chamber before it was closed with a different set of closure stones, without a further burial or deposition having been made. While the absence of a final, undisturbed burial might suggest Fig. 119. Cemetery III grave robbery (possibly supported by glass fragment grave 358. Plan.

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Fig. 120. Cemetery III grave 358. Finds and detail.

Grave 359 (trench 1/1995) (Figs. 121 – 122; Pl. 4,2) Grave 360 (trench 1/1995) (Figs. 123 – 138); Pl. 4,1; 5)

Alanic (period Ib – Ic/Iб–Iв, mid-5th – first half of 6th cent. Alanic (period IIIa, mid-7th cent. AD). Catacomb with dro- AD). Catacomb with dromos, cutting Sarmatian chamber mos, with double burial; dromos cutting and destroying 361B, cut and disturbed by Alanic dromos 360. Grave chamber of Alanic grave 359. Grave construction: construction: Dromos S–N, length 5.60 m, width 0.54 m (S end) – Dromos S–N, length 3.27 m, width 0.48 m (S end) – 0.65 m (N end), max. depth 2.66 m below modern sur- 0.82 m (N end), max. depth c. 1.95 m below modern face; walls vertical, floor even and slightly sloping down surface, walls vertical, floor slightly uneven and sloping towards the entrance; fill with inclusions of sandstone slightly down towards the entrance; one step at S end; and slate pieces, as well as many Koban pottery sherds fill of clayey subsoil with humus, in the N part grey-yel- and some animal bone fragments; four steps at S end. low with pottery fragments. Middle section of dromos cuts through chamber of 359; Finds from fill: dromos widened by up to 0.90 m at this point, and dry- D1 Iron horse bit, fragmentary; extant length 79 mm. stone wall 1.55 m long built along E side of dromos to Entrance at N end of dromos, partly destroyed by dro- seal off the remaining E end of 359 chamber. Deposi- mos of 360; shape probably trapezoidal, approx. ditions: two head-and-hooves depositions (‘horse skins’) mensions: height 0.40 m, width 0.45 – 0.50 m, length together on top of N half of dromos, approx. 4.00 m N of 0.28 m; drop to chamber floor 0.57 m; closed by one S end and 1.73 m above dromos floor; complete horse large sandstone plate wedged in by seven smaller deposition, lying on its right side, head to N (towards en- stones from below, above and on E side; grey-blue clay trance), in middle of dromos, along dry-stone wall, rest- around the edges of the entrance. ing 0.12 – 0.20 m above dromos floor; parts of a fourth Chamber partly collapsed, outline sub-rectangular, size horse, possibly from disturbed dromos of 359; four char- 1.71 × 1.12 m, depth 2.78 m below modern surface, coal concentrations in fill of dromos, between 1.50 m walls preserved to a height of 0.90 m, long axis W – E; and 1.10 m above floor; remains of fire (charcoal, calci- floor cut into sandstone, even and horizontal, some or- nation) on dromos floor immediately underneath and N ganic matter on floor. W and central parts of chamber de- of skull of complete horse deposition; pottery jar (D1), stroyed by dromos of 360 the floor of which runs 0.08 m broken, on floor in front of entrance; gold fibula (D3) just higher than the chamber floor of 359; disturbed skeletal above the floor, 4.05 m N of S end (c. 0.50 m N of skull of parts and some objects in E end which was shut off from complete horse deposition, and c. 0.15 m N of fire). the dromos of 360 by a dry-stone wall. Finds in dromos: Burials: ?one (female adult, disturbed). Bones in a heap D1 Pottery jar, fragmentary, virtually complete; flat against E wall of chamber. base, globular body, conical neck with spout, one Finds in chamber: handle; surface smooth, grey; horizontal grooves 1 Pottery cup, fragmentary; flat base, squashed-glob- on lower part of neck; height 245 mm. Found in ular body, high cylindrical neck, one handle; sur- broken condition on floor in front of entrance face grey; on body vertical burnished grooves, at stones. base of neck two horizontal lines of indentations; D2 Bronze buckle; cast, with oval loop and fixed, height 95 mm. near-scutiform plate, tongue missing; two rivets 2 Br onze fibula, fragmentary; made from thin sheet, on back of the plate; 26 × 16 mm. Found in fill of without traces of pin or spring; on foot three circular dromos. glass inlays, colourless, on head two inlays (third D3 Gold fibula, cast; elongated rectangular head with probably lost with part of head); length 42 mm. three cells, square bow in shape of low pyramid,

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Fig. 121. Cemetery III grave 359. Plan, sections, and elevation of entrance.

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Fig. 122. Cemetery III grave 359. Finds from dromos (D) and chamber.

divided diagonally into four cells, and circular foot 3 Pottery cup; flat base, globular body, slightly con- with one cell; cell inlay of dark red smalt; pin and ical neck, one handle; surface grey with brown high catchplate also of gold; 20 × 15 mm, weight patches, smooth; vertical burnished strips on 6.4 grams. Found in fill just above floor, 0.50 m body; traces of wear and tear (pieces of surface north of skull of horse. flaked off, bits of lip broken off); height 92 mm. Entrance at northern end of dromos; collapsed, shape Found with other vessels (1 – 2, 4) in SW corner of and size could not be established; drop of 1.12 m to chamber. floor of chamber; closed by two large limestone slabs 4 Pottery jar with contents; found with other vessels one behind the other, supplemented by half a dozen (1 – 3) in SW corner of chamber, leaning at an an- smaller stones; dark blue clay around the edges of the gle; inside the jar an animal bone (?sheep), belt inner (N) slab. fittings and knife: Chamber collapsed, fill of grey clay, in top layers with (a) pottery jar; flat base, ovoid body, high neck, inclusions of dark humus; high in fill two stone heaps everted rim, spout and one handle; surface dark or packings (of unworked limestone and one large boul- grey, burnished, horizontal grooves on neck; on der), one packing close to entrance approx 0.70 – 1.20 m the base a hardly visible cross(?) in weak relief; above chamber floor (i. e. approximately at dromos two pieces broken off the lip; height 406 mm floor level), the other in W half and centre of chamber (b) silver belt fitting, scutiform, with stamped 0.35 – 0.65 m above floor; animal bones of horse and gold foil insert; centre of insert shows a stamped cattle (disarticulated long bones, ribs and vertebrae) swastika design of a woven cord or string, framed around and between the stone packings. by borders of imitated granulation and a serrat- Chamber outline oval, size 2.54 × 1.85 m, depth 4.10 m ed ridge (virtually identical to 34, 36 and 37); on below modern surface, walls preserved to a height of back two loop-headed rivets; 27 × 27 mm, metal max. 1.45 m, long axis W – E; floor markedly horizontal analysis Au 575, Ag 700 and even; organic matter covering much of floor; under (c) silver belt fitting, elongated, tongue-shaped; the entrance a sub-rectangular pit, size 1.50 × 0.60 m, with stamped gold foil insert showing a stamped orientation W–E, with level floor, depth 0.23 – 0.27 m ‘Gordian knot’ pattern of a cord or string, sur- below floor of chamber; niche in wall of W chamber end, rounded by a serrated border; on back two size 0.40 × 0.35 m, max. height 0.22 m, with level floor loop-headed rivets; 26 × 16 mm and arc-shaped roof. (d) silver belt fitting, square with one rounded Burials: two, both in extremely bad condition. side; with gold foil insert showing a stamped cord Skeleton 1 (female adult). Along N wall of chamber, N of twisted into a figure-of-8 pattern, surrounded skeleton 2; extended, slightly turned to right (prob. fac- by a serrated border (same as 32); on back two ing skeleton 2), head to W, right arm straight, legs flexed. loop-headed rivets (free shank length 3.5 mm, to- Skeleton 2 (male adult). In centre of chamber, S of skel- tal length 8 mm); 15 × 15 mm; metal analysis Au eton 1; extended on back, head to W, skull on left side 750, Ag 700, weight 4.2 grams (facing skeleton 1), left arm straight, legs crossed at ank (e) silver belt fitting, oval with pointed ends (‘al- les (right over left). mond-shaped’); with gold foil insert showing Finds in chamber: at centre a stamped cord in figure-of-8 shape, 1 Pottery cup; flat base, squashed-globular body, surrounded by three borders of a serrated-ridge high everted neck, one handle; black surface, bur- pattern, imitated granulation, and another ser- nished; three conical bosses on body, horizontal rated ridge; on back two loop-headed rivets; burnished grooves and strips on neck and body; 31 × 26 mm; metal analysis Au 570, Ag 700 small pieces broken out of lip; height 87 mm. (f) bronze buckle, with sub-rectangular loop and Found with other vessels (2 – 4) in SW corner of fixed trapezoidal plate; one bronze rivet on back chamber, lying on its side. of plate; iron tongue lost during conservation; 2 Gl ass vessel; palm cup, made of light green, 20 × 18 mm transparent glass, with a faceted surface; height (g) silver belt fitting, rectangular, with gold ap- 75 mm, diam. 100 mm. Found with other vessels pliqué showing a granulation pattern of two (1, 3 – 4) in SW corner of chamber, lying on its side. dots (each made up of three globules) in two

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Fig. 123. Cemetery III grave 360. Plans, sections, and elevations of entrance and wall.

307 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 124. Cemetery III grave 360. Section of dromos and detail of chamber.

Fig. 125. Cemetery III grave 360. Finds from dromos.

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Fig. 126. Cemetery III grave 360. Finds from chamber.

309 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 127. Cemetery III grave 360. Finds from chamber.

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Fig. 128. Cemetery III grave 360. Finds from chamber.

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Fig. 129. Cemetery III grave 360. Finds from chamber.

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Fig. 130. Cemetery III grave 360. Finds from chamber.

313 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 131. Cemetery III grave 360. Finds from chamber.

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granulation borders (virtually identical to 25); 13.5 × 11 mm, metal analysis Au 800+ (h) bronze buckle, cast; oval loop and fixed scutiform plate; 19 × 16 mm (i) U-shaped bronze fitting; bent from bronze sheet, held together by two rivets; designed to hold material (leather?) of 2.7 mm thickness; 13 × 12.5 mm (k) iron knife; single-edged, tanged; wood and leather on blade, traces of wood on tang; end of tang broken off, extant length 127 mm. 5 Bronze toggle, with groove in the middle and knobs at the ends; length 72 mm. Remains of leather string in groove. Found in W end of chamber, against W wall. 6 Two gold earrings; in shape of an inverted pyramid suspended from a penannular ring; surfaces completely covered with granulation, large hollow globule at the tip of the pyramid, and smaller globules around the tip and at the corners of the base; length 49 and 50 mm, weight 11.9 and 10.55 grams. Found in skull area of skeleton 1, 0.15 m apart. 7 Silver mirror; cast, flat, with ‘solar’ ornament (three concentric circles with connecting rays) and small suspension loop (with leather remains) on back; diam. 63 mm, weight 30 grams. Found in skull area of skeleton 1, front up, on textile remains, between one of the gold earrings (6) and beads (8). 8 Beads, first concentration; found in skull area of skeleton 1, next to mirror (7) and one gold earring (6): (a) rock crystal bead or pendant, round, flat; diam. 18 mm (b) 60 amber beads, flat and irregular forms; length 5 – 12 mm (c) 150 glass beads, disc-shaped and round forms, of blue, yellow and green glass; diam. 3 – 6.5 mm. 9 Gold brooch, oval; silver base plate with central glass insert (opaque, dark red, with blue specks), with successive borders of gold granulation, gold cord pattern, and again granulation; drilled hole for suspension at one end; on the back traces of silver solder, probably from broken-off pin; 40.5 × 30.5 mm, weight 11.2 grams. Found in ?right shoulder area of skeleton 1, with bronze pin (10). 10 Bronze pin and catchplate, with traces of solder; length 33 mm. Found next to gold brooch without pin (9). 11 Silver wire ring, trapezoidal with rounded corners, with imitation granulation; 29 × 21 mm. Found with stud (12) next to sword hilt (41), probably from pommel. 12 Silver stud, oval, with a small carnelian surrounded by a border of imitation granulation; 14 × 12 mm. Found with wire ring (11) next to sword hilt (41), probably from pommel. 13 Bronze sheet, fragmentary, with one nail; 33 × 24 mm; with wood remains; from ?bag. Found near skull of skeleton 1. 14 Bronze bracelet, with overlapping ends; from oval-sectioned rod (3.5 × 5 mm thick), with slightly thicker circular-sectioned terminals (6 mm thick); 64 × 57 mm. Found on ?right arm of skeleton 1, with second bracelet (17). Fig. 132. Cemetery III grave 360. Finds from chamber.

315 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 133. Cemetery III grave 360. Finds from chamber.

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Fig. 134. Cemetery III grave 360. Finds from chamber.

15 Silver bird brooch, in the shape of two crossed (a) amber pendant, toroid shape, with a bronze birds of prey, with one tail broken off; pin (iron?) wire around outside edge (probably repair of vis- missing; extant size 32 × 21 mm. Found at right ible fracture); diam. 26 mm arm of skeleton 1, between bracelets (14 and 17). (b) three amber beads, flat shapes, length 9 – 13 mm 16 Beads, second concentration; found S of bracelet (c) glass bead, polygonal, of opaque dark blue (14), on ?left arm of skeleton 2: glass, diam. 12 mm (d) paste bead, round, light blue, diam. 10 mm.

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17 Bronze bracelet, fragmentary; penannular, with 26 Five silver studs, carrying gold appliqué with two thicker terminals; made from oval-sectioned rod concentric rings of granulation around central sil- (5.5 × 4 mm thick); orig. c. 70 × 60 mm. Found on ver rivet head; prob. from sword scabbard (see 47 ?right arm of skeleton 1. and 73); diam. 9 mm, free shank length of rivet 18 Two silver and two bronze fittings, poss. strap 4.5 mm, weight 0.95 grams. Found next to sword distributors; trefoil-shaped, with one triangular (41) in complete series of belt fittings (21 – 39, aperture and three small circular perforations 42 – 43), prob. from sword belt. in the centre, and three rivets each; 27 × 27 mm. 27 Two bronze buckles, with oval, almost kid- One of the bronze fittings is smaller (25 × 25 mm), ney-shaped loop and fixed square plate; one rivet the other bronze fitting is without triangular per- on the back; iron tongues lost; 21 × 19 mm. Found foration in centre (replacements for lost silver fit- next to sword (41) in complete series of belt fittings?). Found at feet of of skeleton 1, with fittings tings (21 – 39, 42 – 43), prob. from sword belt. (19) and buckles (20); from footwear? 28 Silver strap-end with stamped gold foil insert 19 Four silver belt or strap fittings; two of dou- (identical to 22, 35, 40, 42 – 43), fragmentary; ble-scutiform shape, with two fixed rivets on the 38 × 17 mm, metal analysis Au 800, Ag 600. back and further rivets running through the holes, Found next to sword (41) in complete series of 29 × 14 mm; one strap-end, tongue-shaped, with belt fittings (21 – 39, 42 – 43), prob. from sword keyhole-shaped cut-out and two holes, and two belt. fixed rivets on back, 29 × 11.5 mm; one strap- 29 Bronze belt fitting consisting of a rectangular end, elongated scutiform, with triangular cut-out frame with two rivets; 22 × 15 mm. Found next and three holes, and two fixed rivets on back, to sword (41) in complete series of belt fittings 26.5 × 12 mm; metal analysis Ag 600. Found at (21 – 39, 42 – 43), prob. from sword belt. feet of skeleton 1, with strap distributors (18) and 30 Silver belt fitting in ‘heraldic style’, cast; made buckles (20); from footwear? of a scutiform plate (slightly irregularly shaped) 20 Two silver buckles, cast; rectangular loop, fixed hinged on a reel-shaped bar, with granula- scutiform plate, iron tongue extant on one buck- tion-bordered studs (diam. 5.5 mm) on ends of le, one rivet through centre of plate; 22 × 18 mm. bar (one stud lost); two rivets running through Found at feet of skeleton 1, with strap distributors the plate, and connected on the back by a bronze (18) and fittings (19). sheet; 25 × 15 mm; metal analysis Au 800, Ag 21 Silver buckle; kidney-shaped bronze loop, rectang 875. Found next to sword (41) in complete series ular silver plate with figure-of-8 cut-out and ar- of belt fittings (21 – 39, 42 – 43), prob. from sword row-shaped incision, tongue of triangular section belt. with raised shield; 47 × 35 mm, metal analysis 31 Silver plate, scutiform, from a buckle (loop broken Ag 875. Found next to sword (41) in complete se- off); two rivets on the back; 22 × 18 mm. Found ries of belt fittings (21 – 39, 42 – 43), prob. from next to sword (41) in complete series of belt fit- sword belt. tings (21 – 39, 42 – 43), prob. from sword belt. 22 Silver strap-end made of two U-sectioned plates 32 Silver belt fitting, near-scutiform, with gold foil in- (identical to 28, 35, 40, 42 – 43) held together by sert showing a stamped cord pattern in the shape a rivet (missing); on the front a stamped gold foil of a figure-of-8 within a serrated border (same as insert showing a ‘Gordian knot’ pattern of a cord 4d); on back two loop-headed rivets (total length or string, surrounded by a serrated border (same 6.5 mm); 17 × 15 mm, weight 3.1 grams, metal as on 4c); 38 × 18 mm, metal analysis Au 750, analysis Au 750, Ag 875. Found next to sword Ag 700; fragmentary. Found next to sword (41) in (41) in complete series of belt fittings (21 – 39, complete series of belt fittings (21 – 39, 42 – 43), 42 – 43), prob. from sword belt. prob. from sword belt. 33 Silver belt fitting with gold foil insert (identical to 23 Bronze belt fitting in ‘heraldic style’, made of a 39); consisting of a compartmented silver frame scutiform plate, with a central aperture, hinged holding a single gold foil sheet which shows in on a dumbbell-shaped bar; three rivets on back two separate windows; one section sub-rectang of plate, with leather remains; length 36 mm. ular with gold foil insert showing a ‘Gordian Found next to sword (41) in complete series of knot’ pattern (similar to 4c), the other section belt fittings (21 – 39, 42 – 43), prob. from sword near-scutiform with the insert showing stamped belt. decoration of two dots surrounded by a serrat- 24 Silver strap-end with gold appliqué (virtually ed border; on back two loop-headed rivets (to- identical to 54, 74 and 86; see 85); made of two tal length 6.5 mm), one broken off; 36 × 15 mm, plates connected by a decorative band and a rivet, weight 4.9 grams, metal analysis Au 750, Ag 700. with a smaller, decorated gold plate fitted on the Found next to sword (41) in complete series of front; decoration of granulation, consisting of dot belt fittings (21 – 39, 42 – 43), prob. from sword patterns (each dot made up of three globules) set belt. in two parallel borders; 51 × 14 mm, gold insert 34 Silver belt fitting, scutiform, with gold foil insert 34 × 9 mm; metal analysis Ag 875. Found next (virtually identical to 4b, 36 and 37); on the back to sword (41) in complete series of belt fittings two loop-headed rivets (closely similar to those (21 – 39, 42 – 43), prob. from sword belt. on 4b); 28 × 27 mm, metal analysis Au 575, Ag 25 Silver and gold belt fitting; made of silver sheet, 600. Found next to sword (41) in complete series with rectangular gold appliqué with granulation of belt fittings (21 – 39, 42 – 43), prob. from sword decoration (same as 4g); 14 × 10 mm, metal ana belt. lysis Au 800. Found next to sword (41) in com- 35 Silver strap end with gold appliqué (identical to plete series of belt fittings (21 – 39, 42 – 43), prob. 22, 28, 40, 42 – 43), fragmentary; 38 × 18 mm, from sword belt. metal analysis Au 750, Ag 600. Found next to

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sword (41) in complete series of belt fittings down 0.25 m E of sword chape (41), and 0.10 m (21 – 39, 42 – 43), prob. from sword belt. NE of stirrup (66); prob. from sword belt (21 – 39, 36 Silver belt fitting (virtually identical to 4b, 34 and 42 – 43). 37); 27 × 27 mm, weight 4.4 grams, metal analy- 46 Bronze buckle loop, trapezoidal, with remains of sis Au 575, Ag 600; one loop-headed rivet broken iron tongue; 28 × 19 mm. Found inside right femur off. Found next to sword (41) in complete series of skeleton 2. of belt fittings (21 – 39, 42 – 43), prob. from sword 47 Two silver scabbard mounts, P-shaped; sheet sil- belt. ver with sheet edging soldered on; 62 × 31 mm, 37 Silver belt fitting (virtually identical to 4b, 34 and height 5.5 to 6.0 mm; metal analysis Au 800, Ag 36), 27 × 26 mm, metal analysis Au 750, Ag 800; 900 (the one without studs: Ag 600). Each mount- one loop-headed rivet broken off. Found next ed with three silver rivets on leather, one of them to sword (41) in complete series of belt fittings with leather which holds two gold studs (as 26). (21 – 39, 42 – 43), prob. from sword belt. One found in chest area of skeleton 2, N of sword, 38 Bronze buckle, cast; with kidney-shaped loop and the other under neck of jar (4). fixed scutiform plate, with one rivet on the back; 48 Br onze buckle, with broad oval loop, fixed rectang tongue lost; 19 × 17 mm. Found next to sword ular plate and iron tongue; one rivet on back of (41) in complete series of belt fittings (21 – 39, plate, with ?leather remains; identical to buck- 42 – 43), prob. from sword belt. le (70); 25 × 19 mm. Found in a group of objects 39 Silver fitting with gold foil insert (identical to (48 – 54, 70 – 74) around feet and ankles of skele- 33); metal analysis Au 583, Ag 750. Found next ton 2, prob. from boots. to sword (41) in complete series of belt fittings 49 Gold fitting; subrectangular, slightly convex base (21 – 39, 42 – 43), prob. from sword belt. plate with granulation around the two silver rivet 40 Silver strap end with gold foil insert (identical to heads and in the shape of triangles, surrounded 22, 28, 35, 42 – 43); size 37 × 17 mm, metal anal- by a granulation border; back smooth; almost ysis Au 750, Ag 600. Found next to iron stirrup identical to fitting (50); 35 × 12 mm, weight 3.5 (66); may belong to horse harness or to sword belt grams. Found in a group of objects (48 – 54, (21 – 39, 42 – 43). 70 – 74) around feet and ankles of skeleton 2, 41 Iron sword, two-edged, tanged; section of blade prob. from boots. ?lentoid; overall length 1090 mm, length of hilt 50 Gold fitting, almost identical to 49, but varying in 165 mm, width of blade (incl. scabbard remains) details of decoration; weight 3.66 grams. Found 55 mm below hilt, 51 mm in middle, 41 mm in a group of objects (48 – 54, 70 – 74) around feet above chape, thickness of blade (incl. scabbard and ankles of skeleton 2, prob. from boots. remains) 24.5, 27.5 and 21.7 mm respectively; 51 Silver strap distributor, with a central loop and on pommel a silver wire ring with imitated gran- three fittings; identical to strap distributor (52); ulation (11) and silver lozenge stud with stone fittings with indented edges and central rivet; inset (12); on hilt a silver band (width 61 mm), a diam. of loop 11 mm, size of fittings 21 × 13 gold lozenge with two bands and two triangles of to 20.5 × 11 mm. Found in a group of objects granulation (24 × 12 mm), and another silver band (48 – 54, 70 – 74) around feet and ankles of skele- (width 47 mm); on blade the remains of scabbard, ton 2, prob. from boots. with silver mouth band (width 16 mm) decorat- 52 Silver strap distributor (identical to 51). Found in ed on show side with three gold roundels (diam. a group of objects (48 – 54, 70 – 74) around feet 8.5) mounted in cut-out holes in upper silver and ankles of skeleton 2, prob. from boots. band and showing two concentric circles of gran- 53 Bronze strap end (form similar to 57a); made of ulation each; wood and ?felt remains of scabbard folded bronze sheet, with one side showing two preserved in oxydization layer, but no remains of lateral notches and ending in a blunt triangle; binding or straps; bronze chape 79 mm long, size with one rivet; 27 × 15 mm. Iron corrosion traces at mouth 44.5 × 26.5 mm (see 44). Found togeth- on the underside. Found E of feet of skeleton 2, er with fittings from sword belt (21 – 39, 42 – 43) against E wall of chamber; may be from boot fit- along right (S) side of skeleton 2, hilt level with tings or horse harness. skull, point close to right knee. 54 Silver strap-end with gold appliqué (virtually 42– 43 Silver strap end with gold foil insert (identical to identical to 24, 74 and 86; see 85); fragmentary, 22, 28, 35 and 40), corroded together with a silver orig. 50 × 13 mm (after conservation), gold insert scutiform belt fitting with gold foil insert (identical 33 × 9.5 mm. Found in a group of objects (48 – 54, to 4b, 34, 36 and 37). Found under sword chape 70 – 74) around feet and ankles of skeleton 2, (41), prob. from sword belt (21 – 39). prob. from boots. 44 Bronze plate, oval, from tip of sword chape (see 55 Bronze tube; closed at one end, with suspension 41); 39 × 19 mm. loop; fibre remains inside; length 30 mm, max. 45 Silver strap end with three gold foil appliqués; diam. 16 mm. Found in a concentration of objects made from two U-shaped silver plates soldered (55, 63 – 64, 67 – 68) around horse bit in E end of together and held by a silver rivet; 68 × 27 mm, chamber. weight 17.4 grams; on the face a tongue-shaped 56 Bronze strips, subrectangular, with two rivets gold foil appliqué, 35 × 20 mm, with a stamped each; with leather strap remains (thickness c. decoration showing a complex cord pattern 3 mm); on some, a bronze sheet counterplate (‘Gordian knot’) within borders of serrated ridge, connecting the two rivets at the back of the strap; granulation and second serrated ridge; supple- found in a concentration of fittings (56 – 63, 65) mented by two circular gold foil appliqués (one in SE corner of chamber, most of them on a patch of them damaged) showing a four-dot pattern in of black organic material (?leather); prob. from a serrated border, diam. 8 mm. Found front side horse harness:

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(a) two fittings, 41 × 7 to 8 mm (identical to 59) tion of fittings (56 – 63, 65) in SE corner of cham- (b) 19 fittings, length 23 – 28 mm, width 8 – 11 mm. ber, most of them on a patch of black organic ma- 57 Silver and bronze strap fittings; found in a con- terial (?leather); prob. from horse harness. centration of fittings (56 – 63, 65) in SE corner of 66 Iron stirrup; made from round rod (9 – 10 mm chamber, most of them on a patch of black organ- thick), with widened tread (width 20 mm) and ic material (?leather); prob. from horse harness: round suspension loop; 143 × 128 mm. Found (a) silver strap end (form similar to 53), from 0.10 m SE of sword chape (41), outside (S) of right U-bent strip with lateral notches and serrated knee of skeleton 2. edge, size 27 × 15 mm, metal analysis Ag 700; for 67 Iron horse bit; linked bit with two rings, poss. with holding material 2.6 mm thick hinged eyes at the end of rings; wood remains in- (b) bronze strap fitting, fragmentary; bronze strip side iron ring (grain at right angles to bit), ?leather with one rivet, extant 17 × 10.5 mm, free shank traces through eye; extant length c. 290 mm, orig. length of rivet 5.7 mm. c. 340 mm. Found against E wall of chamber, one 58 Bronze harness buckle, with circular loop and end vertical and leaning against wall. Found in a fixed frame, attached to which are remains of concentration of objects (55, 63 – 64, 67 – 68) in E leather strap with two circular bronze rivets; end of chamber. length of buckle 31 mm, width of leather strap 68 Iron buckle, with lyra-shaped loop and fixed, 11 mm, diam. of rivets 9.5 mm. Found in a con- small semicircular plate (very similar to 82); centration of fittings (56 – 63, 65) in SE corner of tongue missing; 34 × 22 mm. Found in a concen- chamber, most of them on a patch of black organ- tration of objects (55, 63 – 64, 67 – 68) around ic material (?leather); prob. from horse harness. horse bit in E end of chamber. 59 Five bronze harness fittings (identical to 56a), on 69 Large iron knife, badly corroded; length 210 mm. leather; length 43 – 49 mm, width 7 – 8 mm, free Found between sword (41) and right hip area of shank length of rivets 4 – 5.5 mm; leather (with skeleton 2. stitching) on underside. Found in a concentration 70 Bronze buckle (identical to 48); size 22 × 18 mm. of fittings (56 – 63, 65) in SE corner of chamber, Found in a group of objects (48 – 54, 70 – 74) most of them on a patch of black organic material around feet and ankles of skeleton 2, prob. from (?leather); prob. from horse harness. boots. 60 Two silver fittings from harness; shape combines 71 Silver fitting with gold appliqué; sub-rectangu- a low four-sided pyramid with a hemispherical lar silver base, carrying gold foil appliqué with ‘brush’ (shell or paw?) shape; made from sil- granulation around the edges, around silver rivet ver sheet; 29 × 15 mm, metal analysis Ag 875. head, and in three dot patterns (identical to 72); Found in a concentration of fittings (56 – 63, 65) 13 × 12 mm; foil base slightly damaged. Found in in SE corner of chamber, most of them on a patch a group of objects (48 – 54, 70 – 74) around feet of black organic material (?leather); prob. from and ankles of skeleton 2, prob. from boots. horse harness. 72 Silver fitting with gold appliqué (identical to 71); 61 Six silver fittings (three complete, others 12 × 12 mm, weight 1.5 grams; silver base and fragmentary); shape of a stylized bunch of gold foil damaged, some granulation lost. Found grapes, made from thin sheet (identical to 88); in a group of objects (48 – 54, 70 – 74) around feet 29 – 30 × 13 – 14 mm, metal analysis Ag 875. and ankles of skeleton 2, prob. from boots. Found in a concentration of fittings (56 – 63, 65) 73 Gold stud (identical to 26 and 47); diam. 8.5 mm, in SE corner of chamber, most of them on a patch weight 0.75 grams, metal analysis Au 800+; rivet of black organic material (?leather); prob. from 3 mm long. Poss. from sword scabbard; found in a horse harness. group of objects (48 – 54, 70 – 74) around feet and 62 Four silver strap ends (two complete, two in frag- ankles of skeleton 2. ments); elongated scutiform shape, stamped from 74 Bronze strap end with gold appliqué (virtually thin sheet (identical to 65 and 87); length 42 mm. identical to 24, 54 and 86; see 85); fragmen- Found in a concentration of fittings (56 – 63, 65) tary, orig. 50 × 14 mm (after conservation, gold in SE corner of chamber, most of them on a patch insert 33 × 9.5 mm, metal analysis Au 800, Ag of black organic material (?leather); prob. from 875. Found in a group of objects (48 – 54, 70 – 74) horse harness. around feet and ankles of skeleton 2, prob. from 63 Three silver strap ends; rectangular, with key- boots. hole-shaped cut-out in the middle and two lateral 75 Iron objects, fragmentary; one rectangular strip holes (giving the impression of a face); four rivets with one rivet, extant length 187 mm; one pin on the back, connected in pairs by small bronze with remains of catchplate, prob. from a fibula, ex- plates and holding remains of leather strap (with tant length 41 mm. Found under skull of skeleton three longitudinal rows of stitching); 41 × 24 mm. 2, with gold ring (76). Two found in a concentration of objects (55, 76 Gold ring (earring?); penannular, ends overlap- 63 – 64, 67 – 68) around horse bit in east end of ping; max. diam. 7.5 mm, weight 0.4 grams. chamber; one found in a concentration of fittings Found under the skull of skeleton 2, together with (56 – 63, 65) in SE corner of chamber, most of iron objects (75). them on a patch of black organic material (?leath- 77 Two bronze clamps; length 16 and 15 mm. Found er); prob. from horse harness. in niche in western wall of chamber. 64 Silver fitting, fragmentary; extant 17 × 14 mm. 78 Iron tang or handle, oval-sectioned, diam. Found in a concentration of objects (55, 63 – 64, 5 × 4 mm, with wood remains; extant length 67 – 68) around horse bit in E end of chamber. 67 mm. Found S (at back) of skull of skeleton 2. 65 Silver strap end, fragmentary (identical to 62 and 79 Beads; found in a concentration N of skull area of 87); extant length 31 mm. Found in a concentra- skeleton 1, next to one of the gold earrings (6):

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Fig. 135. Cemetery III grave 360. Finds from chamber.

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Fig. 136. Cemetery III grave 360. Finds from chamber.

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Fig. 137. Cemetery III grave 360. Finds from chamber (enlarged cross section of 73 without scale).

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Fig. 138. Cemetery III grave 360. Finds from chamber.

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(a) seven carnelian beads, round and spherical; Grave 361 (trench 1/1995) (Figs. 139 – 141) two with white painted patterns; diam. 6 – 7 mm (b) seven amber beads, flat and irregular forms; Sarmatian (period RZ, second half of 4th – beginning of length 8 – 11 mm. 5th cent. AD). Two burial chambers with common access 80 Br onze cauldron (bowl); round base, everted pit, with one burial in each chamber; W chamber (B) cut rim and vertical lip; made from two separate and disturbed by Alanic dromos 359. Grave construc- sheets (upper and lower) soldered together; tion: height 155 mm, diam. 345 mm; with iron han- Access pit sub-rectangular, max. size 1.83 × 0.75 m, dle, flat in section, fixed to two holes in the rim. orientation WSW–ENE; floor horizontal, even, walls ver- Found in E end of entrance pit, against wall of tical; fill of clayey subsoil with inclusions of black earth chamber. and some Koban sherds. No depositions in fill or access 81 Chain-mail patch, rectangular; 138 × 101 mm, pit. thickness 7 mm, diam. of individual rings Chambers at W and E ends of access pit, closed by stone 9 – 11 mm; extensive remains of leather backing slabs. One burial in each chamber. on one side, some ?leather on other side; leather edging (stitched, width 7 – 12 mm) around all four 361A (east) edges. Found with iron buckle (82) and silver fit- Entrance closed by two large and four small stone slabs, tings (83) in E end of entrance pit, next to bronze among them bone fragments of medium-sized animal cauldron (80). (ovicaprine or pig?). Entrance collapsed, shape and di- 82 Iron buckle loop, lyra-shaped; tongue curved at mensions could not be established; drop of 0.22 m to tip (very similar to 68); 38 × 28 mm. Found with floor of chamber. chain-mail patch (81) in E end of entrance pit. Chamber of sub-rectangular to oval shape, max. size 83 Two or three silver fittings, practically disin- 1.35 × 0.88 m, max. depth 1.65 m below modern sur- tegrated; made from stamped foil; one prob. face, orientation of long axis WSW–ENE; floor even, round, diam. 15 mm, another oval or lozenge, c. sloping slightly upwards from entrance to ENE end. Re- 22 × 18 mm. Found at W edge of chain-mail patch mains of dark organic matter over entire floor; under the (81), in E end of entrance pit. floor cover some patches of chalk. Many rodent burrows 84 17 iron arrowheads; strongly corroded; tanged through chamber (see location of gold ring 6, and Koban trilobate type; length of four complete specimen sherds in fill of chamber). 89 – 105 mm; remains of binding on upper tang Burial of one individual (female adult), skeleton in good (diam. 9.6 mm) of one complete arrow, slanting condition; hands and feet partially disturbed by animal from upper left to lower right. Found in a bundle, burrows. Deposition crouched on right side, head to SW, some pointing W, others pointing downwards, on face turned upwards, right arm straight, right hand at chamber floor between sword (41) and W end of knees, left arm bent sharply, lower left arm across chest, entrance pit. knees pulled up, feet close to femurs. 85 Silver strap end with gold appliqué (design and Finds in chamber: construction similar to 24, 54 and 74, but larger, 1 Pottery vessel, with lid; found behind (N of) pel- and with a slightly more elaborate granulation vis, in WSW–ENE row of vessels (1 – 3): pattern); fragmentary; 75 × 19 mm, size of ap- (a) pot with flat base, squashed globular body, pliqué 51 × 10.5 – 12 mm, metal analysis Au 800+, low vertical neck, two horizontal lugs; surface Ag 875. Found in centre of entrance pit. brown, burnished; on the base a design in relief 86 Two silver strap ends with gold appliqués (virtual- (cross in circle); signs of wear and tear (pieces of ly identical to 24, 54 and 74; see 85), 51 × 14 mm surface flaked off, piece of lip missing); height and 49 × 14 mm, gold appliqué 33 × 9.5 mm, met- 82 mm al analysis Au 800+, Ag 875 and Au 800, Ag 600 (b) pottery lid; with convex top and vertical rim; respectively. Found in fill of entrance pit. surface black, burnished; central hole in top 87 Three bronze strap ends (identical to 62 and 65), (orig., not secondary); max. diam. 84 mm. one fragmentary; length 43 mm. Found in fill of 2 Pottery bowl, fragmentary, mostly complete; entrance pit. small flat base, round body, everted rim, broad 88 Silver fitting in form of stylized bunch of grapes horizontal lip; surface black, burnished; groove (identical to 61). Found in fill of entrance pit. around upper part of body, under rim; on the base a design in relief (cross in circle); marked traces of Comment: wear and tear (pieces of surface flaked off, much The gold fibula (D3) from the dromos may be a deliber- of rim missing etc.); diam. 192 mm. Found behind ate deposition or a stray inclusion in the fill, although back of skeleton, upside down on the chamber the latter seems less likely, given its weight, colour and floor, in WSW – ENE row of vessels (1 – 3); some position right above the dromos floor. It is also hardly charcoal under bowl. a coincidence that it was deposited on the floor in the 3 Pottery cup; flat base, globular body, conical neck, area where the dromos of 360 had cut and destroyed one handle with knob; surface black, burnished; the chamber of 359. Finally, the date of the brooch vertical grooves on upper body; on the base a de- would fit that of 359, but not the considerably later sign in relief (cross); height 87 mm. Found behind date of 360. On balance, it is likely that the brooch had (N of) shoulders of skeleton, in WSW–ENE row of been in 359, was disturbed from its context and found vessels (1 – 3). when 360 was built, and was deliberately deposited in 4 Bronze mirror; cast, almost circular (very slightly its final position (as excavated). This explanation would oval); on the back a central suspension loop and also fit the careful closure of 359 with a dry-stone wall a cast ‘solar’ ornament (circle with rays); diam. after the builders of 360 had cut off part of the chamber 47 mm. Found between right elbow and SSE wall of 359. of chamber.

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Fig. 139. Cemetery III 5 Beads; found in angle between pelvis, right femur 10 Iron object (awl or pin?); length 105 mm. Found grave 361. Plan, sections, and lower right arm: with chalk fragment (11) against middle of NNW and elevations of entrances. (a) pendant, bowl-shaped; made from mineral- wall of chamber. ized tooth of sturgeon, diam. 16 mm 11 Chalk fragment; length 27 mm. Found with iron (b) two glass melon beads, of opaque blue glass; object (10) against middle of NNW wall of cham- diam. 12 and 13 mm ber. (c) six glass beads, complete, and small fragments of one or two more; toroid, cylindrical and biconi- 361B (west) cal forms; of blue, purple and brown glass; three Entrance closed by two large stone slabs and sev- with ‘eye’ or line decoration; diam. 8 – 14 mm eral smaller stones. Entrance collapsed, width c. (d) two amber beads, elongated with constriction 0.50 – 0.55 m, height and shape could not be estab- in the middle, length 16 and 12 mm lished; drop of 0.20 m to bottom of chamber. (e) two carnelian beads, cylindrical and irregular, Chamber of irregular shape (close to sub-rectangular, pink, length 14 mm and diam. 10 mm with a triangular extension to SE), max. dimensions (f) stone or mineral bead, of brown and milky col- 1.52 × 1.30 m, depth 1.80 m below modern surface, our; cylindrical, length 13 mm. orientation of long axis WSW–ENE; floor horizontal and 6 Two gold rings or pendants, penannular, made even. Chamber cut and disturbed by Alanic dromos 359 of round-sectioned wire (thickness 2.5 mm); running across W end of chamber, dromos floor 0.13 m 27 × 24 mm and 26 × 24 mm, weight 6.7 and 6.6 higher than floor of chamber 361B. Deposition of long grams. One found on chest, the other in animal bone of cattle(?) in SE corner of grave; animal tooth (also burrow in ENE corner of chamber. cattle?) nearby. 7 Gold pendant with precious stone; oval gold Burial of one individual (adult ?female; male on finds), frame, with impressed waffle pattern on flat edge; badly disturbed by dromos of 359 and by rodents. Large in oval cell a red stone insert (diam. 6.4 mm); skull fragment in SW corner, ribs and vertebrae in middle at one end a suspension loop, soldered on; of W half of chamber, more vertebrae, pelvis fragments 13.5 × 11 mm, weight 0.88 grams. Found with and a femur in centre, long bones of arm in S half (east gold bead (8) in front of chest, at lower right arm, of skull), some foot bones in E end of chamber, close suspension loop to east (away from body). to entrance; orig. deposition prob. extended (on right 8 Gold bead, polyhedrical; of solid gold, with cen- side?), head to W. tral hole for suspension; diam. 7.0 mm, weight Finds in chamber: 5.12 grams. Found with gold pendant (7) in front 1 Iron sword, extremely corroded; tanged, two- of chest, at lower right arm. edged(?), with broad lentoid section (14 – 16 mm 9 Iron object (?fibula), fragmentary, corroded; ex- thick); wood on tang and on blade; length tant length 32 mm. Found at right femur. c. 810 mm (point missing?), width of blade

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Fig. 140. Cemetery III grave 361A. Finds.

38 – 40 mm. Found along NNW wall of chamber, to grooves around widest part of body separat- left of original position of skeleton, from shoulder ed by cord imitation, above them zig-zag strips level to pelvis or upper femur level. (11 groups of four each); on the base a design 2 P ottery jug; flat base, globular body, everted in weak relief (cross in circle); height 120 mm. neck, small spout, one handle; surface black Found with bowl (3) in NE corner of chamber, ly- with grey patches, burnished; two parallel ing at an angle.

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3 Pottery bowl, hand-made; flat base, conical body, (cross), carelessly executed and set off-centre; inturned rim; surface grey-brown, smoothened; some pieces broken out of lip; height 81 mm. traces of wear and tear (pieces broken out of lip); Found in E end of chamber, close to entrance and diam. 212 mm. Found with jug (2) in NE corner of next to animal bone (6). chamber. 5 Iron knife blade; fragmentary; single-edged, ex- 4 Pottery cup; flat base, biconical body, conical tant length 64 mm. Found between arm bones Fig. 141. Cemetery III neck, single handle with upper extension; surface and S wall of chamber. grave 361B. Finds. black, burnished; on the base a design in relief

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6 Animal bone; long bone of cattle; found in SE cor- Grave 362 (trench 1/1995) (Figs. 142 – 143; Pl. 1,1; 2) ner of chamber, next to cup (4). 7 Animal tooth (cattle?); found 0.24 m west of cattle Koban Culture. Grave pit with partial stone lining and bone (6). stone cover, with one crouched burial; adjoining the S edges of Koban graves 366 and 369. Grave construction:

Fig. 142. Cemetery III grave 362. Plan, sections and elevations.

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Fig. 143. Cemetery III grave 362. Finds and details.

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Grave pit rectangular, size 1.95 × 1.30 m, depth 1.35 m tion of three Koban graves in this corner (362, 366, 369) below modern surface, long axis N – S; floor horizontal, gives the impression of deliberate arrangement, but even. On E side a dry-stone wall, 1.80 m long and 0.48 m apart from the position of the needle there is no strati- high, consisting of six courses of unworked sandstone graphic evidence for the relative chronology for these blocks and slabs; N side of pit lined by two sandstone three graves. slabs standing upright on a step 0.20 – 0.24 m above grave floor; W and S sides without stone lining, prob. vertical. Partial grave cover, more complete on E side, Grave 363 (trench 1/1995) (Figs. 144 – 149; Pl. 7,3.5.7) consisting of a large number of sandstone slabs of various sizes; collapsed into the centre of the grave; if par- Alanic catacomb, with destroyed ?Sarmatian burial. tial character is orig. feature, then wooden cover and/or support construction for stone slabs likely. In fill many 363A Koban pottery sherds. ?Sarmatian; disturbed and destroyed by Alanic cata- Burial of one individual (male adult; skeleton in bad con- comb 363B. dition). Deposition crouched on right side, head to NW, Human bones (fragments of skull, ribs, pelvis and femur) arms bent at elbows, hands in front of face, knees pulled scattered around and above entrance stones of chamber up sharply, left knee touching elbows, left heel almost of 363B, with most bones to N of large stone (i. e. inside touching pelvis; left shoulder blade and upper arm dis- the chamber of 363B) and level with its top; soil around placed by collapse of grave cover. bones includes grey clay and much humus; possibly Finds in grave: from separate, small chamber destroyed in the process 1 Pottery bowl, fragmentary, incomplete; flat base, of building 363B, or by its collapse, or by the robber carinated body, everted rim; surface black with trench; radiocarbon dates suggest Sarmatian date. grey and brown patches, smooth; on the neck Burial: parts of one skeleton (juvenile). two horizontal lines of indentations, above them incised geometrical ornaments (grids, suspend- 363B ed triangles etc.), on body below carination a row Alanic (period IIIb/IIIб, mid-7th – early 8th cent. AD). of incised stylized animal figures (?deer); height Catacomb with dromos, with double burial, disturbed 127 mm. Found against N. wall, 0.10 m above (robbed?); dromos runs above Alanic chamber 371, floor. chamber 363B disturbed and destroyed 363A (see 2 Iron spearhead, blade almost entirely corroded above). A possibly related sacrifice complex (1995/2). away, socket fragmentary; extant length 145 mm; Grave construction: socket slightly oval, 25.5 × 24 mm, full of wood re- Dromos S–N, sub-rectangular, with a less regular W mains. Found in NW corner, pointing N. side; evidence of one or two phases of recutting(?) along 3 Bronze axe; with S-shaped profile (curve gen- the edges; length 4.65 m, max. width 0.71 m (S end), tle on top, marked on bottom), pronounced butt 0.78 m (middle) and 0.97 m (N end), max. depth 2.20 m and semicircular edge; shaft hole oval, max. below modern surface; floor even, very slightly sloping size 45 × 24 mm; three cast ribs on either side; down towards chamber entrance; one step at southern iron inlay (serpent-shaped, with triangular head) end; fill of yellow clay with inclusions of humus, anion both sides of blade, incised figures of fishes mal bone fragments and Koban pottery sherds; stone around shaft hole on upper and lower surface of packing on top of northern end of dromos, 0.40 – 0.50 m axe; length 174 mm, max. width of edge 59 mm. below modern surface and 1.50 – 1.60 m above dromos Found in front (W) of skull, at wrist of right arm, floor; further sandstone pieces and a boulder in fill of N edge towards face, 0.07 m above floor. half of dromos, between 0.60 and 0.90 m above dromos 4 Whetstone, from grey sandstone; sub-rectang floor. S end of dromos runs above W end of Alanic cham- ular, slightly tapering towards the ends; with ber 371, without disturbance. Depositions: iron horse- hole through one end, drilled from both sides; bit (D3) on step at S end; iron arrowheads (D2) in irregu- 132 × 27 mm, thickness 14 mm. Found on right lar arrangement, but with iron and bronze fragments as humerus and shoulder, close to knife (5). well as wood and ?leather remains of ?quiver, and burnt 5 Iron knife; single-edged, tanged; length 88 mm. fragments of bone reinforcements from bow, in middle Found at right elbow, point towards NNW, be- of dromos, 2.20 m from southern end, between 1.32 tween whetstone (4) and pin (6). and 1.46 m above dromos floor, directly above back 6 Bronze pin or awl, flat; length 65 mm. Found be- of horse skeleton; complete horse skeleton on floor in tween right elbow and left knee, close to knife (5) middle of dromos, deposited on stomach, legs folded and whetstone (6), point towards NW. under the body, head to N (chamber entrance), skull 7 Glass bead, disc-shaped, colourless; diam. 4 mm. and lower jaw detached and in front of the chamber ent Found in fill of grave. rance; pottery jar (1) under left pelvis of horse skeleton. 8 Iron object, fragmentary; possibly from knife; ex- Separate deposition of ‘horse skin’ (sacrificial deposi- tant length 36 mm. Found in fill of grave. tion 2/1995) with legs, but without skull, 0.50 m E of N 9 Bronze needle; round-sectioned (diam. 1.6 mm), end of dromos, level with and close to stone packing on head bent into an oval eye; length 116 mm. Found top of dromos. in NE corner, under stone lining of wall. Finds in dromos: Comment: D1 Pottery jar, fragmentary, complete; flat base, Given its position, the needle (9) is unlikely to be a de- slightly ovoid body, conical neck, one handle; liberate deposition in this grave. It is possible that the thick-walled heavy vessel, surface grey-black, adjacent grave to the north (369) was slightly cut and rough, traces of soot on surface; on base a mark disturbed during the building of grave 362, dislodging in shape of a carelessly executed cross; height the pin from its original context in 369 and redepositing 250 mm. Found under left pelvis of horse skele- it under the stone lining of 362. – The contiguous loca- ton.

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Fig. 144. Cemetery III grave 363. Plans, sections, detail of dromos and elevation of entrance.

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Fig. 145. Cemetery III grave 363. Finds from dromos.

D2 Arrowheads with wood and ?leather remains of (b) two broad-bladed arrowheads, tanged, length ?quiver; found in middle of dromos, 1.32 – 1.46 m 135 and 83 mm above floor: (c) iron fragment, rectangular; two strips corroded (a) 11 trilobate arrowheads, tanged, length 95 mm together; 34 × 18 mm

333 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 146. Cemetery III grave 363. Finds from chamber.

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Fig. 147. Cemetery III grave 363. Finds from chamber.

335 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

(d) four bronze sheet fragments (largest lines (inner one of small, outer one of large glob- 16 × 15 mm), and folded bronze strip, width 3 mm ules); diagonal gold wire soldered to the back, (e) 17 small fragments of flat bone, worked, burnt; with loops at both ends. Found in fill at N edge of size of largest fragment 38 × 20 mm; prob. from gold necklace scatter (13), next to mirror fragment bone reinforcement of bow. (1), 0.30 m above chamber floor. D3 Iron horse-bit; simple form made of two straight, 7 Iron knife; single-edged, tanged; with remains of linked halves with round loops; rectangular sec- wooden sheath; tip of blade and end of tang miss- tion (5.5 × 6.5 mm), length 176 mm. Found on ing, extant length 133 mm. Found in fill above step in S end of dromos. chamber floor. Entrance at N end of dromos; shape and dimensions 8 Bronze fibula, with bronze bow and foot, and iron could not be established because it had to be dug from pin and spring; longitudinally ridged bow, and a above to uncover the human bones (363A); drop of knob at each end of the spring; length 53 mm. 0.83 m to chamber floor; entrance closed by one very Found in fill above chamber floor, between skull large sandstone slab (with some traces of working), and and mirror fragment (1). a few small stones underneath and on E and W sides; 9 Iron object; fragment of iron plate or sword; length grey-blue clay on and around the stones. 70 mm, width 34 mm. Found in fill above chamber Chamber collapsed, and disturbed by robber trench floor, close to mirror fragment (1) in NW corner. or shaft; in fill humus inclusions, human bones, frag - 10 Byzantine gold solidus, Heraclius and sons (AD ments of mirror (1), bronze belt fittings (2) and other ar- 634 – 641); with a punched suspension hole tefacts as well as a complete pottery cup (17), between (diam. 1.5 mm); condition mint, with very slight 0.27 and 0.14 m above chamber floor. Chamber oval to wear on lower edge of both sides; max. diam. sub-rectangular, size 2.07 × 1.40 m, depth 3.30 m be- 20 mm, weight 4.28 grams. Prob. from gold neck- low modern surface, walls preserved to max. height of lace (13). Found under skull. 0.95 m, long axis W – E; floor even and horizontal; under 11 – 12 Two gold earrings; gold loop with rock crystal set the entrance a sub-rectangular pit, size 1.20 × 0.28 m, between two rings of granulation at top, and one long axis W – E, depth 0.05 m; lower part of chamber cut at bottom; length 43 mm, weight 8.25 grams; the into natural (sandstone).. second earring with a colourless glass drop in- Burials: two, badly disturbed and incomplete. stead of rock crystal, length 38 mm, weight 6.35 Skeleton 1 (female adult; disturbed). Skull in W end of grams. First earring found against back of N half chamber; lower jaw next to, and NE of, skull; sacrum be- of skull, second one at a distance of 0.30 m to the tween skull and W chamber wall; articulated leg bones NE, in fill 0.19 m above floor. in N half of chamber; right leg straight, left leg flexed to 13 Six gold pendants (identical to 6); from necklace; left (N). central inserts of red and light green glass (dam- Skeleton 2 (male adult; disarticulated). Skull in W end of aged on one pendant, lost from another). Found chamber; leg bones stacked in S half of chamber, N of in fill in a dense scatter NE of the skull, next to a entrance pit; among them a lower jaw. mirror fragment (1), c. 0.25 cm above chamber Finds in chamber: floor. 1 Bronze mirror, in two fragments; ‘white’ bronze, 14 Bronze ring, penannular, with flattened terminals; cast, with ‘solar’ ornament (three concentric cir- diam. 25 mm. Found in fill among gold pendant cles with connecting zig-zag lines) and central scatter (13), at same level. suspension loop, with leather string fragment 15 Glass bead; spherical, from translucent dark blue through the latter; deep dent close to fracture glass; diam. 9 mm. Found against back of S half of line; diam. 122 mm. Found in two halves in fill, skull. one in NW corner, 0.27 m above the floor, the 16 Pottery jar (16a); flat base, ovoid body, high cyl other against middle of N chamber wall, 0.19 m indrical neck, spout, three handles (two of them above the floor. lateral); surface black, burnished; on upper part 2 Belt fittings; found in centre of W half of chamber, of body decoration of applied standing arcs bor- 0.27 m above the floor: dered by rows of dots, and of suspended counter- (a) silver strap end; made of two sheets inserted parts (without accompanying rows of dots) on the into an edging strip and held together by a rivet; lower body, separated by a horizontal strip around length 107 mm widest part of body; four horizontal grooves (b) buckle, with lyra-shaped bronze loop and rect around neck; on the base a design in relief (cross angular iron plate (fragmentary), tongue missing; in circle); height 390 mm. In jar four glass beads, extant length 52 mm. diam. 9 – 13 mm, and bronze and iron fragments 3 Iron object, possibly large knife or parts of sword, (16b). Found lying at an angle on floor in SW cor- with iron ?guard or buckle loop; extant length ner of chamber, at W end of pit under entrance. c. 180 mm, size of ?guard/buckle 58 × 37 mm. 17 Pottery cup; flat base, squashed globular body, Found in fill close to NW wall of chamber, point high cylindrical neck, one handle in shape of slanting downwards, highest point 0.22 m above stylized animal; surface black, burnished; on floor. body three conical bosses, on neck five horizon- 4 Silver sheet fragment, 18 × 18 mm. Found in fill tal grooves; height 124 mm. Found lying at an above chamber floor in W end of grave. angle in fill in W half of chamber, close to jar (16), 5 Bronze strip fragment, length 24 mm. Found in fill 0.14 m above chamber floor. above chamber floor. 18 Glass bead, round, of opaque light blue glass, 6 Gold pendant, from gold necklace (13); square diam. 10 mm. Found NW of skull, next to lower base plate, 12 × 12 mm, with a central insert of jaw. red glass, set in granulation ornament, and sur- 19 Bronze strip, length 50 mm. Found close to N rounded by a border of two parallel granulation chamber wall, close to and below iron object (3).

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Fig. 148. Cemetery III grave 363. Finds from chamber.

337 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

27 Bronze ring, cast, flat, diam. 19 mm. Found on floor in N half of chamber, in left waist area of skeleton 1, in a concentration of artefacts (20 – 28) in a patch of dark organic matter (?bag). 28 Silver fibula; crossbow shape, with three knobs on head, low bow and lozenge foot; four transverse ribs on bow just below axis, and three ribs above junction with foot; spring and catchplate lost; length 33 mm. Found on floor in N half of chamber, in left waist area of skeleton 1, in a concentration of artefacts (20 – 28) in a patch of dark organic matter (?bag). 29 Iron stirrup; made from oval-sectioned rod, with flattened tread; suspension loop missing; extant size 144 × 132 mm. Found on floor in E end of grave.

Comment: The scattered child bones (363A) around the entrance of the chamber clearly do not belong in the context of Alanic depositions within the chamber. They are best explained in terms of an earlier grave above 363B, destroyed by the collapse of the chamber of 363B or by the robber trench; and the radiocarbon date for the bones, problematic though it is because of the reservoir effect at Klin-Yar, makes a Sarmatian date more likely than a Koban or early Alanic date. Within the chamber (363B), the broken and scattered artefacts low in the fill suggest a disturbance at a time when the long leg bones of both individuals were already in situ on the Fig. 149. Cemetery III 20 Bronze toggle, spindle-shaped, with hemispheri- grave floor, and the string of the gold necklace had grave 363. Finds from cal knobs at ends and a groove around the middle; decomposed. This may have been grave robbery, but chamber. length 41 mm; remains of leather strap (3.7 mm in that case the robbers left behind some precious ob- wide) in groove. Found on floor in northern half of jects, notably the gold necklace which they should have chamber, in left waist area of skeleton 1, in a con- seen. The evidence suggests the following sequence: centration of artefacts (20 – 28) in a patch of dark (1) construction of 363A in Sarmatian period; (2) con- organic matter (?bag). struction of 363B in Alanic period, and deposition of 21 Knif e, fragmentary; single-edged, tanged; first body; (3) collapse of 363A above the entrance of with remains of wooden sheath; extant length 363B; (4) re-opening of dromos and chamber entrance, 145 mm. Found on floor in N half of chamber, in and deposition of second body; (5) later intrusion into left waist area of skeleton 1, in a concentration chamber, probably by robber trench from the top (which of artefacts (20 – 28) in a patch of dark organic may have led to collapse of 363A at this stage rather matter (?bag). than earlier). 22 Glass fragment, flat, of light green translucent glass; from glass inlay(?); 6 × 3 mm. Found on floor in N half of chamber, in left waist area of skel- Grave 364 (trench 1/1995) (Figs. 150 – 151) eton 1, in a concentration of artefacts (20 – 28) in a patch of dark organic matter (?bag). Alanic catacomb with dromos, robbed and badly dis- 23 – 24 Bronze appliqué or fitting; circular body (23) turbed; dromos running across Sarmatian chamber 365 with one central and six peripheral cells for inlay without disturbance. Grave construction: (glass?), surrounded by an edge with imitated Dromos SSE–NNW, sub-rectangular, length 3.16 m, granulation; base plate (24) with three equi- width 0.55 m (S end) – 0.70 m (N end), depth 1.90 m distant loops; on back of base traces of a textile below modern surface; floor cut into dense yellow sand- string running through two loops; diam. of central stone, nearly horizontal, even; one step at SSE end; fill body 24 mm. Found in two parts on floor in N half of yellow clayey subsoil with humus inclusions, animal of chamber, in left waist area of skeleton 1, in a bone fragments and a few Koban pottery sherds. In fill of concentration of artefacts (20 – 28) in a patch of middle of dromos, resting 0.71 m above dromos floor, a dark organic matter (?bag). very large stone slab, plus several smaller stones at var- 25 Glass bead fragment, of translucent dark blue ious levels between this and the entrance. Middle part glass; diam. 7 mm. Found on floor in N half of of dromos runs across E (foot) end of Sarmatian cham- chamber, in left waist area of skeleton 1, in a con- ber 365 without disturbing the burial in it; level of 365 centration of artefacts (20 – 28) in a patch of dark chamber floor 0.49 m lower than 364 dromos floor at organic matter (?bag). this point. 26 Ir on tweezers, badly corroded; length 60 mm. Entrance at N end, sub-rectangular shape, height Found on floor in N half of chamber, in left waist 0.70 m, width 0.45 m (but poss. affected by the rob- area of skeleton 1, in a concentration of arte- bery), drop of 0.78 m to floor of chamber; entrance facts (20 – 28) in a patch of dark organic matter not closed, removed entrance stones in N half of dro- (?bag). mos.

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Fig. 150. Cemetery III grave 364. Plan, sections, and elevation of entrance.

Chamber not entirely collapsed, filled with soil to about 2 Amber bead or pendant, disc-shaped, polished; two thirds of its internal height; chamber sub-oval, diam. 24 mm. Found next to entrance, 0.14 m 2.20 × 1.44 m, max. internal height 1.52 m (reaching above floor. 0.06 m above top of entrance hole), depth 2.96 m below 3 Two iron knives; found in S half and centre of modern surface, long axis WSW–ENE; floor cut into sand- chamber, 0.15 to 0.20 m above floor: stone, even, with very slight dip to the centre; in S half (a) fragmentary; single-edged, tanged; wood on of chamber a straight narrow WSW–ENE channel (0.04 m tang and blade; extant length 172 mm wide, 0.05 m deep). Fill of loose yellow clay in lower N (b) single-edged, tanged; wood on tang and half of chamber, and of loose dark soil with much humus blade; length 124 mm. (indicative of the robbery) in S half and in upper levels. 4 Bone reinforcements from bow; found in S half of Burials: two, badly disturbed. Bones of both in a jumble chamber, close to entrance, on floor: (skull fragments and long limb bones) in central and S (a) long, curved, with notch for string, length parts of chamber, a femur against NE wall. Skeletal ana 257 mm lysis separated out two individuals: (b) straight, ending in triangular tip, other end Skeleton 1 (male adult). broken off, extant length 192 mm Skeleton 2 (female adult). (c) straight, with triangular tip(?); in two frag- Finds in chamber: ments, extant length 157 mm. 1 Bronze fitting, rectangular, with central cut-out 5 Five silver fittings, boss-shaped, stamped from and four rivets; 42 × 20 mm; leather remains on thin foil; diam. 8 mm. Found in fill in S half of the back (3.0 mm thick). Found in centre of cham- chamber. ber, 0.10 m above floor.

339 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 151. Cemetery III grave 364. Finds.

Grave 365 (trench 1/1995) (Figs. 152 – 153; Pl. 3,2) ments of pottery (Koban) and of human bones (skull, feet); on floor in NW part a bronze tube (D20); majority of Sarmatian (period RZ, second half of 4th – beginning of finds in fill are most likely from Koban grave 369 which is 5th cent. AD). Burial chamber with access pit, with single cut and partly destroyed by the 365 access pit. burial; access pit cutting Koban grave 369, contiguous Finds from access pit: with Koban grave 366 and with Alanic dromos 364; top D1 – 17, 21 Fragments of one or two pottery vessels; flat of E end of chamber 365 cut by dromos 364 without dis- base, diam. c. 90 mm, upright rim, slightly thickened; turbance. Grave construction: surface rough. Found scattered in fill. Access pit of very regular, rectangular shape, its E end cut D18 Fragment of small cup, grey clay; with ornament slightly by the S end of Alanic dromos 364; extant length of incised lines on shoulder; diam. of mouth c. 1.47 m, max. width 0.97 m, depth 1.70 m below modern 100 mm. Found in SW corner of access pit, 0.30 m surface, long axis W – E; walls vertical, floor horizontal, above floor. but somewhat uneven. Fill of yellow clayey subsoil with D19 Sherd of burnished, black pottery vessel, with humus; high in fill numerous pottery fragments, most of three horizontal incised lines. Found in fill, with them from one vessel (dark grey); lower in fill more frag- 1 – 17, 21.

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Fig. 152. Cemetery III grave 365. Plan, sections, and elevations of entrance.

D20 Bronze tube, cylindrical; rolled from thin sheet; 5 Belt fittings and beads; found in upper chest/low- one end broken off, extant length 19 mm. Found er neck area: on floor in W half of chamber. (a) Iron buckle loop, badly corroded; probably D21 (see 1 – 17, 19, 21). round loop; extant size 28 × 20 mm Entrance in middle of N wall of access pit, sub-oval, (b) three bronze rivets, length 9 mm closed by a large stone slab which is supplemented by a (c) three bronze fittings, boss-shaped, from thin few small stones (incl. one river pebble); drop of 0.72 m sheet; diam. 6.5 – 7 mm to floor of chamber. (d) two glass beads, round, dark blue, diam. Chamber prob. not collapsed; almost completely filled 6 mm. with loose grey clay containing humus inclusions and 6 Iron awl, fragmentary; sub-rectangular section small pottery fragments (Koban); chamber oval, size (2.0 × 1.5 mm); wood remains on tang, tip of 1.95 × 0.85 m, max. internal height 0.90 m (at entrance), blade broken off; extant length 61 mm. Found max. depth 2.40 m below modern surface, orientation of between left hip and lower left arm, close to knife long axis WSW–ENE (at an angle of 18 degrees to long (3 – 4). axis of access pit); floor even, slightly sloping downwards towards east (away from entrance). Some disturbance by animal burrows. Grave 366 (trench 1/1995) (Figs. 154 – 156) Burial of one individual (male adult, skeleton in reasonable condition). Extended on back, head to WSW, left Koban Culture. Stone cist, with one crouched burial; ad- arm straight (upper arm disturbed by animal burrow), left jacent to Koban graves 362 and 369. Grave construction: hand palm down, right arm flexed, right hand palm down Stone cist, rectangular, carefully built, with large sand- on upper right femur, legs straight, right foot turned out- stone slabs lining all four sides, on the N side supple- ward. mented by two courses of small sandstone plates on Finds in chamber: top; internal size 0.97 × 0.78 m, internal height 0.42 m 1 Pottery jug; flat base, globular body, high conical (in centre), depth 1.50 m below modern surface, long neck, one handle (bifurcated, mostly missing); axis almost N–S (10 degrees Wof N). Cover consisting of surface black, burnished; body decorated with two large slabs covered by a third, smaller one on top, grid of thin lines; on base a design in relief (cross and supplemented by a few smaller stones above the in circle); height 117 mm. Found against skull, at SW and SE corners; cover horizontal, hardly subsided. right neck. Fill of dense, yellow-grey subsoil; in fill pottery sherds 2 Iron sword, badly corroded; tanged, two-edged (Koban), and the jaw of a large animal (?cattle; in NW blade, lentoid section, max. thickness 11 mm, corner, 0.10 m above floor). max. width 42 – 45 mm, tapering towards point; Burial of one individual (adult; only bone fragments sur- wood remains on blade; length 836 mm. Found vive). Skull fragments in SW corner of grave; orig. deposi- along left side of skeleton, between shoulder lev- tion of skeleton unknown. el and level of upper femur. Finds in grave: 3 – 4 Ir on knife, fragmentary; tanged, single-edged; sub- 1 Pottery vessel, fragmentary, almost complete; stantial remains of leather and wooden sheath on flat base, ovoid body, everted rim; surface black- blade (total thickness 10.5 mm); length 106 mm. brown, rough; most of body covered with rows of Found on lower left arm, close to iron awl (6). fingertip impressions; height 175 mm. Found next

341 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 153. Cemetery III grave 365. Finds from access pit (D) and chamber.

to (W of) skull fragments in SW corner of grave, ly- 3 Bronze fittings or buttons, boss-shaped, with ing on its side. cross-bar on back; found in a concentration in S 2 Br onze necklet (Ösenhalsring); bent from half of grave, E of necklet (2): cast round-sectioned rod (9 mm thick) into (a) 12 domed, small fittings; heavy, thick-walled penannular shape, with flattened terminals (1 mm thick), probably cast; cross-bar in some cas- (width 21 mm) rolled into spirals (two turns); es cast in one piece and bent across hollow back, textile remains on outside near one terminal; in some cases inserted separately; textile remains 134 × 121 mm. Found next to (E of) skull frag- on the back of some fittings; diam. 13.5 – 14.5 mm ments in S end of grave. (b) one flat, larger fitting, diam. 19 mm.

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Fig. 154. Cemetery III grave 366. Plans and elevations. 4 Two bronze fittings or buttons; boat-shaped, with 9 Jet bead, biconical, slightly damaged, length 25 mm. cross-bar on back; heavy, thick-walled (1 mm Untypical of Koban assemblages; possibly brought thick), probably cast; textile remains on the back in by rodent activity (from Sarmatian grave 365?). of one item; length 24 and 25 mm. Found in S half Found with bronze ring (7) and bronze disc (8) next of grave, between round bronze fittings (3) and E to pottery vessel (1), in area of skull fragments. wall of grave. 10 Bronze sheet fragment, small; found on floor 5 Beads; found in S end of grave, E of skull frag- 0.04 m N of northernmost bracelet. ments, next to and under necklet (2): (a) 33 carnelian beads; round and irregular forms; colours from light translucent pink to dark red; Grave 367 (trench 1/1995) (Fig. 157) holes in smaller beads drilled from one side, in larger ones from both sides; diam. 6 – 10 mm Alanic(?) horse burial in dromos-like trench; cutting Sar- (b) 35 glass beads, light blue; small, cylindrical matian access pit 372 and Alanic dromos 371. Grave and macehead-shaped forms; diam. 1.5 – 2.5 mm construction: (c) 17 glass beads, dark blue and green; round, Trench N–S, of irregular shape, length 2.74 m, width cylindrical and irregular forms; diam. 5 – 9 mm. 0.47 m (S end) – 0.72 (N end), max. depth 1.78 m below 6 Nine bronze bracelets; made from rectangu- modern surface; walls vertical, floor horizontal, uneven; lar-sectioned rod (6.0 × 3.0 mm thick), with two to one long step (length 1.18 m) at S end; fill of yellow to five coils; terminals pointed; diam. 67 – 107 mm. brown clayey subsoil with humus, with pottery sherds Found in S central part of grave, N of skull frag- (Koban and ?Alanic). ments, in the angle between pottery vessel (1) Horse deposition: complete horse skeleton, lying on the and necklet (2). floor on its left side, hindquarters on step, back along 7 Bronze spiral ring; made from round-sectioned W wall, legs folded against E wall, head to N; skull de- wire (3.5 mm thick); terminals slightly pointed; tached and deposited separately N of the skeleton, in diam. 15 mm. Found with bronze disc (8) and jet a small pit dug into the floor and into the N wall of the bead (9) next to pottery vessel (1), in area of skull trench; skull lying on left side, facing E. No artefacts or fragments. other depositions with the horse. 8 Bronze disc, fragmentary; circular, from thin Comment: sheet, with four equidistant holes around the The horse deposition is stratigraphically later than Sar- edge; wood remains (worked, slightly convex) matian grave 372 and Alanic grave 371. It may have been on one side, organic remains on the other side; a sacrifice related to the latter, or it may not have related diam. 50 mm. Found with bronze ring (7) and jet to any grave in particular. Its construction and context bead (9) next to pottery vessel (1), in area of skull make it likely to be of Alanic date, but in the absence of fragments. datable finds, this cannot be confirmed.

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Fig. 155. Cemetery III grave 366. Finds.

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Fig. 156. Cemetery III grave 366. Finds.

345 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

among human bones in front of chamber ent rance, 0.14 m above floor. D3 – 4 Iron knife, fragmentary; tanged, single-edged; wood remains on tang; extant length 85 mm. Found among human bones in front of chamber entrance, 0.14 m above floor. D5 Bronze strip, bent; made from thin sheet, width 3 mm, length 21 mm. Found among human bones in front of chamber entrance, 0.14 m above floor. D6 Bronze wire fragment; on one side imitation of granulation; length 20 mm. Found among human bones in front of chamber entrance, 0.14 m above floor. D7 Fragment of pottery cup; flat base, globular body, cylindrical neck, one handle; surface black, burnished; vertical grooves on body, height 82 mm. Found among human bones, 0.14 m above floor, close to W wall of dromos. Entrance at N end of dromos, opened and destroyed in the course of grave robbing; entrance shape and size could not be established; stones from closure of ent rance found in dromos (see above). Chamber of irregular-oval shape, size 2.17 × 1.52 m, preserved height of walls 0.35 – 0.50 m, max. depth 3.07 m below modern surface, long axis W – E; lower walls and floor cut into subsoil of hard clay and stone; floor even, dipping from the walls to the centre of the chamber; sub-rectangular pit under the entrance, long axis W–E, size 0.71 × 0.24 m, depth 0.10 m below level of chamber Fig. 157. Cemetery III floor. Upper fill of yellow clayey subsoil (from the col- grave 367 (horse burial). lapsed chamber?); S part of lower fill with much humus Plan and sections. (from intrusion). Burials: remains of one skeleton (male adult; badly disturbed). Skull on floor in centre of chamber, face up; Grave 368 (trench 1/1995) (Figs. 158 – 159) lower jaw in fill of pit under entrance; leg bones in E end of chamber; more bones in dromos fill close to entrance Alanic (period IIIa – IIIc/IIIa–IIIв, first half of 7th – mid- (see above). 8th cent. AD). Catacomb with dromos, robbed; chamber Finds in chamber: running a bit under Sarmatian access pit 370. Grave con- 1 Pottery vessel, Koban Culture, complete; wide- struction: mouthed cooking pot, with flat base, near-bicon- Dromos S–N, sub-rectangular, slightly curving at S end, ical body, everted rim; surface grey with brown length 3.80 m, width at top between 0.63 m (S) and patches, smooth; on upper part of body an in- 0.85 m (middle), width at floor level between 0.50 m (S) cised decoration of geometric grid pattern; piec- and 0.78 (N), max. depth 2.00 m below modern surface, es of rim broken off, pieces of surface flaked off; with a slight dip in the middle; W wall vertical, upper sec- height 111 m. Found upside down over some tion of E wall sloping in the middle of dromos (probably bones on chamber floor, next to, and N of, skull; from collapse of wall), floor cut into grey schistous soil, probably deposited there by grave robbers. sloping down from S to N (towards chamber entrance); 2 Fragments of grey pottery vessel. On grave floor, two steps at S end; fill of yellow and grey-brown, clayey next to skull and long bones. subsoil with humus; pottery fragments (Koban) in fill. In Comment: N half of dromos, 0.60 m from chamber entrance, a large The evidence unambiguously points to this grave having sandstone slab leaning against W dromos wall, probably been opened and robbed. Given the size of the chamber the removed entrance stone; smaller stones on floor in and its location within the elite plot, it was quite possi- middle of dromos. In front of chamber entrance, between bly a rich grave, but all grave-goods were removed from the latter and the removed entrance stone, a jumble of the chamber, and a Koban pot of little value to robbers human bone fragments in the fill, 0.14 m above dromos left there. All this suggests that this was not a re-opening floor, with a number of artefacts (D1 – 6), probably from for the preparation of a second burial, nor an opening for the robbed chamber. Depositions: remains of a horse ritual or apotropaic purposes, but there is no indication skull and some long bones of a horse in S end of dromos, at all of the date of the robbery. high in fill (resting 1.62 m above floor); probably a disturbed ‘horse skin’ deposition from the top of the dromos. Finds from dromos: Grave 369 (trench 1/1995) (Fig. 160) D1 Bronze wire ring, round section (max. thickness 2.2 mm), 26 × 22 mm. Found among human bones Koban Culture. Grave pit, with remains of one crouched in front of chamber entrance, 0.14 m above floor. burial; partly cut by Sarmatian grave 365, and adjacent D2 Bronze fibula, fragmentary, pin and spring lost; to Koban graves 362 and 366. Grave construction: with knobs at ends of spring axis (one lost), bow Grave pit, sub-rectangular, extant size 1.19 × 0.58 m and narrow pointed foot; length 23 mm. Found (N half of grave destroyed by access pit of Sarmatian

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Fig. 158. Cemetery III grave 368. Plan and sections. grave 365); shallow grave in surface humus layer, edges S edge of 369, was dislodged from the latter when the and floor of grave badly defined. former was built, but there is no further supporting evi- Burial of one individual (male adult; partly destroyed). dence for this. If it is correct, then the sequence would Deposition probably crouched on left side, with head to have been: (1) grave 369; (2) grave 366 cutting the S N; only leg bones survive in situ, flexed. Skull fragment edge (foot end) of 369; (3) Sarmatian grave 365 access in fill of access pit of Sarmatian 365. pit destroying the head end of 369. Finds in grave: 1 see grave 362 (9), and comment below. 2 Fragments of pottery bowl; surface grey-brown, Grave 370 (trench 1/1995) (Figs. 161 – 162) with incised decoration. Found on grave floor, SW of feet and close to S grave edge. Sarmatian (period RZ, second half of 4th – beginning of Comment: 5th cent. AD). Burial chamber with access pit, with single This grave is immediately adjacent to two Koban graves burial; access pit overlapping slightly with Alanic cham- (362 and 366). The arrangement is conspicuous enough ber 368. Grave construction: to suggest that it may have been deliberate, but the dif- Access pit of irregularly oval to sub-rectangular shape; SE ferences in grave construction and grave-goods may ar- corner badly defined, poss. as a result of the collapse of gue against this. It is possible that the needle from under the underlying Alanic chamber 368; size 1.80 × 0.66 m, the stone lining of Koban 362, a mere 0.10 m from the long axis W–E; walls and floor uneven; fill of grey-brown

347 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 159. Cemetery III grave 368. Finds from dromos (D) and chamber.

clayey subsoil with humus, with charcoal and small pot- to 8 degrees to the access pit); floor even, sloping slightly tery sherds (Koban). downwards from E (feet) to W (head), traces of chalk layer Entrance in N wall of access pit; entrance of irregular under the skeleton. Some disturbance by animal burrows. shape, width 0.81 m, height 0.41 m; closed by a large Burial of one individual (female adult; skeleton in good stone slab, supplemented by several smaller stones; yel- condition); disturbance of arms and feet by animal bur- low clay around the edges of the stones; drop of 0.47 m rows. Deposition on back, head to WSW and very slightly to floor of chamber. turned to left, arm positions unknown, legs flexed to left Chamber not collapsed, but completely filled with loose (right leg very slightly, left leg more markedly). soil with much humus, a few animal bones and pottery Finds in chamber: sherds (Koban); chamber roof not rising above top of en- 1 Pottery jug; flat base, biconical body, high everted trance, E (foot) end built as a kind of lower, narrower an- rim, one handle (missing), possibly a small spout nex; bottom of chamber cut into hard, schistous subsoil; (missing); surface grey, burnished; between chamber sub-rectangular, size 1.62 × 0.95 m, max. inter- neck and body a ridge with indentations (imitat- nal height 0.82 m, max. depth 2.20 m below modern sur- ing cord), on the upper body slanting burnished face, orientation of long axis almost W–E (at an angle of 7 strips, on the widest part of the body two horizon-

Fig. 160. Cemetery III grave 369. Plan and section.

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Fig. 161. Cemetery III grave 370. Plan, sections, and elevations of entrance.

Fig. 162. Cemetery III grave 370. Finds.

tal burnished grooves with a cord imitation strip Grave 371 (trench 1/1995) (Figs. 163 – 164) in between, on the base a design in weak relief (cross in circle); signs of wear and tear on surface Alanic (period Ia – Ie/Ia–Iд, 5th/6th cent. AD). Catacomb and lip, handle broken off; height 142 mm. Found with dromos, with double burial; dromos cut by horse left of skull, almost touching it. burial 367, chamber running under Sarmatian chamber 2 Iron objects; found on upper right chest: 372. Grave construction: (a) iron object (quiver clasp?); textile remains on Dromos S–N, of sub-rectangular shape, length 2.10 m, one side; extant length 38 mm width 0.42 m (S end) – 0.51 m (N end), depth 1.66 m (b) iron object (fibula?); length 37 mm. below modern surface; walls vertical, floor sloping down 3 Two animal bones (probably cattle rib). Found on very slightly towards the chamber entrance, no steps; fill floor left of pelvis and left femur, close to N wall of of grey and yellow clay and some humus, with a few pot- chamber. tery sherds. 4 Ir on awl(?), fragmentary; section of blade sub-rect Entrance at N end of dromos; shape and height of ent angular (approx. 3.0 × 1.5 mm), traces of wood on rance could not be established because of its collapse; tang; extant length 40 mm. Found in fill. closed by a large sandstone slab; behind the slab a

349 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 163. Cemetery III grave 371. Plan, sections, and elevation of entrance.

marked entrance tunnel, length 0.36 m, max. width 34 mm. Found in a concentration of finds (3 – 6) in 0.45 m; drop of 1.03 m to floor of chamber. centre of chamber, 0.25 m S of shoulders of skele- Chamber collapsed; ovoid outline, size 1.85 × 1.18, ton 1. depth 2.57 m below modern surface, preserved height 4 Beads; found in a concentration of finds (3 – 6) in of walls max. 0.50 m, long axis WSW–ENE (at an angle of centre of chamber, 0.25 m S of shoulders of skele- 76 degrees to the dromos axis). ton 1: Burials: two, both skeletons in reasonable condition. (a) eight glass beads; large, round and toroid Skeleton 1 (female adult). Against N wall of chamber, forms; most of them polychrome, one light blue crouched on right side, head to W, position of arms un- with white and dark blue stripes, one dark blue known (disturbed), knees bent to S. with red and ?brown dots; diam. 13 – 19 mm Skeleton 2 (infant). Against E wall of chamber, crouched (b) 37 glass beads; small, cylindrical and flat on right side, head to S, arms bent at elbows, knees bent forms; light green, opaque; diam. 3 – 4.5 mm to W. (c) jet bead or pendant, trapezoidal, Finds in chamber: 26 × 17 × 13 mm. 1 Pottery cup, fragmentary, incomplete; flat base, 5 Cowrie shell, one half cut off; with bronze stain squashed-ovoid body, high cylindrical neck, one (prob. from pendant 3); 15 × 11 mm. Found in a handle; surface grey with brown patches, bur- concentration of finds (3 – 6) in centre of chamber, nished; on upper body an ornament of slanting 0.25 m S of shoulders of skeleton 1. crossed grooves above a horizontal groove; on 6 Iron fibula(?), length 52 mm. Found in a concen- base a design in relief (two parallel lines); pieces tration of finds (3 – 6) in centre of chamber, 0.25 m of neck and rim broken off, pieces of surface flaked S of shoulders of skeleton 1. off; height 119 mm. Found in WSW end of chamber, 7 Iron knife, tanged, single-edged; leather on lying on its side in front of the skull of skeleton 1. blade, wood on tang; length 90 mm. Found in 2 Two bronze earrings consisting of two interlinked front (S) of neck/shoulders of skeleton 1. rings each; all rings crescent-shaped (thick centres and thin terminals, closed); 18 × 13 mm (max. thickness 3.4 mm) – 14 × 13 mm (max. thickness Grave 372 (trench 1/1995) (Figs. 165 – 166) 4 mm). Found under the skull of skeleton 1. 3 Bronze pendant; bronze disc with foliform orna- Sarmatian (period RZ, second half of 4th – beginning of ment and small central glass insert (diam. 7 mm), 5th cent. AD). Burial chamber with short dromos and sin- of translucent light green glass; on the back a cen- gle burial; partly disturbed by Alanic chamber 371 and tral suspension loop with remains of string; diam. cut by horse burial 367. Grave construction:

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Fig. 164. Cemetery III grave 371. Finds.

Dromos of sub-rectangular shape, cut by Alanic horse Burial of one individual (male adult; skeleton in good burial 367; extant length 1.32 m (orig. c. 1.65 m), width condition); disturbed by Alanic chamber 371 and horse 0.82 m, depth 1.49 m below modern surface; long axis burial 367. On back, head to SW, skull face down, low- SE–NW; walls vertical (except at SE end), floor horizon- er jaw in E corner of chamber, trunk of skeleton (shoul- tal and exceptionally even (prob. the effect of a thin clay der blades, ribs and vertebrae, arms) disturbed, legs plaster on the floor); fill of light yellow sand with inclu- crossed at femurs (right over left), lower legs parallel; sions of humus. orig. prob. on back, upper body half turned to right, Entrance at NW end of dromos, destroyed (prob. as a legs slightly flexed. result of disturbance during the digging of horse grave Finds in chamber: 367); large sandstone slab, prob. the entrance stone, 1 P ottery jug; flat base, biconical body, high con- re-deposited horizontally just inside the chamber, rest- ical neck, small spout, one handle with depres- ing in fill 0.44 m above chamber floor level; drop of sion on top strap; surface grey, burnished; on 0.63 m from dromos floor to chamber floor. the base a design in weak relief (cross); pieces Chamber ceiling partly destroyed by 367, orig. proba- of rim broken off; height 140 mm. Found with bly cupola-shaped in section; fill of loose, mixed soil knife (2) on floor in S corner of grave, lying on its with humus, in fill small pottery sherds (Koban); cham- side. ber outline sub-rectangular to oval, size 1.80 × 0.85 m, 2 Ir on knife, fragmentary; single-edged, tanged; depth 2.50 m below modern surface, walls preserved to wood remains on tang; part of tang broken off, a max. height of 0.95 m, orientation of long axis SW–NE; extant length 104 mm. Found with vessel (1) on floor horizontal, even; on the floor a layer of dark brown, floor in S corner of grave, close to entrance. organic material, and charcoal in S corner, near vessel (1) and knife (2).

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Fig. 165. Cemetery III grave 372. Plan and sections.

Fig. 166. Cemetery III grave 372. Finds.

Grave 373 (trench 1/1996) (Figs. 167 – 169) Chamber collapsed, fill of grey-brown sand, in upper layers mixed with black earth; lower 0.10 – 0.15 m cut into Alanic (period Ic/Iв, late 5th – first half of 6th cent. AD). sandstone; sub-rectangular outline, size 1.51 × 0.98 m, Catacomb with dromos, with single burial. Grave con- depth 3.20 m below modern surface, long axis WSW – struction: ENE; floor horizontal, even. Niche in SW corner, 0.20 m Dromos SSE–NNW, sub-rectangular, length 3.16 m, above floor level, size 0.34 × 0.25 m, height 0.37 m, with width 0.55 m (at ends) – 0.60 m (in middle), depth (in horizontal floor, empty. middle) c. 2.10 m below modern surface; walls almost Burials: one (female adult; skeleton in good condition). vertical, floor even and horizontal; upper fill of sand and Skeleton in N half of chamber, on back, half turned to black earth with inclusions of sandstone fragments, low- right; head to SW (skull disturbed), right arm straight, er fill (lowest 0.20 – 0.25 m) almost entirely of sandstone left arm bent at elbow, legs flexed to S and crossed at fragments (probably from chamber construction); two ankles (right over left). steps at S end; no depositions in dromos. Finds in chamber: Entrance at N end of dromos, of semicircular shape, 1 Pottery jar; flat base, ovoid body, high cylindrical height 0.42 m, max. width 0.53 m, length 0.35 m, drop neck, everted thickened rim, long spout, one han- of 0.64 m to floor of chamber. Closed by a two-layer con- dle (stuck on at an oblique angle) and two lateral struction: the outer (S) consisting of three sandstone lugs; surface black, burnished; on upper part of slabs, the inner of a dry-stone wall of three to four cours- body two indented (‘corded’) horizontal ribs, from es of small sandstone slabs, filling almost the entire en- the lower one downward ten plain vertical ribs; trance hole. pieces flaked off, one small hole in body; height

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Fig. 167. Cemetery III grave 373. Plan, sections, and elevations of entrance.

418 mm. Found east of chamber entrance, lying 6 Lump of black, resin-like substance, of irregular on its side. shape; length 24 mm. Found in a concentration of 2 Pottery jar; flat base, globular body, high cylin- objects (4 – 7) on grave floor below entrance. drical neck, one handle; surface grey with light 7 Iron knife; tanged, single-edged; wood on tang, brown patches, smoothened; on neck horizontal leather on blade; length 99 mm. Found in a con- grooves, on shoulder burnished zig-zag strips, centration of objects (4 – 7) on grave floor below on body vertical grooves, and three conical boss- entrance. es surrounded by two concentric grooves each; 8 Bronze fibula; equal-armed, with triangular head height 175 mm. Found with cup (3) and bronze and foot, each with translucent green glass inlay fibula (8) W of chamber entrance, lying on its side. in two cells, and with rectangular straight bow 3 Pottery cup; flat base, globular squat body, cy- with dark blue glass inlay; catchplate broken off; lindrical neck, slightly everted rim, one handle; length 37 mm. Found next to pottery jar (2) west of surface grey-black, with light brown patches, bur- chamber entrance. nished; at base of neck two horizontal grooves, on 9 Three glass beads; toroidal-round forms; two dark body vertical burnished strips, and three conical blue with yellow and white dots, one dark blue; bosses surrounded by concentric grooves; height diam. 14, 19 and 22 mm. Found in front (SE) of 90 mm. Found with jug (2) and bronze fibula (8) skull. west of entrance, lying on its side. 10 – 11 Bronze earrings; crescent-shaped; diam. 13 and 4 Iron fragments (from scoop or strigil?); one frag- 14 mm. Found among skull fragments. ment with rectangular section (2.2 × 2.2 mm), with traces of ?wood, length 40 mm; other fragment flat (9 × 2 mm), no edge, slightly curved(?), Grave 374 (trench 1/1996) (Figs. 170 – 173) length 18 mm. Found in a concentration of objects (4 – 7) on grave floor below entrance. Alanic (period IIIb/IIIб, mid-7th – early 8th cent. AD). 5 Bronze mirror; circular, cast; on the back a ‘solar’ Catacomb with dromos, with single burial; dromos cut- decoration and central suspension loop (with re- ting Koban grave 376, chamber overlapping Sarmatian mains of ?leather strap); diam. 52 mm. Found in a chamber 379. Grave construction: concentration of objects (4 – 7) on grave floor be- Dromos SSW–NNE, of sub-rectangular, very slightly curved low entrance. shape, length 3.53 m, width 0.50 m (SSW end) – 0.60 m

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Fig. 168. Cemetery III grave 373. Finds.

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Fig. 169. Cemetery III grave 373. Finds.

(N end), depth (in middle) c. 2.20 m below modern sur- Chamber only partly collapsed, fill reaching to below face; walls vertical, floor even and sloping down from SSW level of entrance (dromos floor); upper fill of sandy to NNE by c. 0.17 m; one step at SSW end; fill of sandy sub- subsoil with inclusions of humus and a few pottery soil with humus, in NNE part with much fragmented sand- sherds (Koban), lower fill (up to approx. 0 .50 m above stone (probably from construction of chamber); no finds or floor) with fragmented sandstone; most of chamber depositions in dromos. SSW end of dromos cuts through cut into sandstone; outline oval to trapezoidal, size and destroys NW half of Koban grave 376; fragmentary 2.34 × 1.36 m, depth c. 3.20 m below modern surface, pottery bowl of 376 visible in eastern wall of dromos 374 walls preserved to a height of 0.80 m, long axis NW–SE; (the edge of which was difficult to trace at this point). floor horizontal, but uneven; organic material in patch- Entrance at NNE end of dromos, of well-preserved tri- es under skeleton and at hand of skeleton. Niche in NW angular shape, height 0.48 m, width 0.46 m, length wall, at floor level, size 0.36 × 0.25 m, with large pottery 0.18 m, drop of 0.72 m to floor of chamber; entrance set jar (1); pit under the entrance, sub-rectangular, size off-centre in SSW long side of chamber. Closed by one 0.87 × 0.24 m, long axis WNW–ESE, depth 0.13 m below large stone slab supplemented by a number of smaller chamber floor, with charcoal and an animal rib (?cattle). stones on the floor of the dromos; grey clay around the More animal ribs (?cattle) on floor of chamber, between edges of the entrance stone. pelvis of skeleton and NNW wall. N wall of chamber just

355 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 170. Cemetery III grave 374. Plan, detail, sections, and elevations of entrance.

touching S end of Sarmatian chamber 379, with some F2 Beads: overlap, but without cutting because of different levels (a) five carnelian beads, round and irregular (floor of chamber 0.75 m lower than that of 379). forms, diam. 4 – 7 mm Burials: one (juvenile; skeleton in bad condition). Skele- (b) six amber beads, made of unworked amber ton in N half of chamber, flexed on right side; head to W, fragments, length 7 – 16 mm face to S, arms bent, right hand at lower jaw, legs flexed (c) one glass bead, biconical, of opaque green to S and parallel to each other, feet disturbed by animal glass, length 14 mm burrow. (d) one glass bead, round, flat, diam. 4.5 mm. Finds from fill of chamber: F3 Iron awl, sub-rectangular section, with remains of F1 Pottery cup; flat base, globular body, cylindrical wooden handle; extant length 42 mm. neck, one handle; surface grey-black, burnished; F4 Bronze object; four bronze sheet fragments (larg- on the body vertical burnished grooves; on base est 14 × 9 mm); and pin with one end bent into an a design in relief (‘bird’s claw’ in sub-rectangular eye, other end broken off, extant length 24 mm. frame); ancient damage to lip, pieces flaked off Finds on floor of chamber: surface and handle; height 86 mm. Found upside 1 Pottery jar; globular body, high cylindrical neck, down, 0.20 m above chamber floor, in W (head) long spout, one handle; surface grey-brown, end of chamber. smoothened; two protruding ‘eyes’ flanking the

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Fig. 171. Cemetery III grave 374. Finds from fill (F) and floor of chamber.

357 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 172. Cemetery III grave 374. Finds from floor of chamber.

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Fig. 173. Cemetery III grave 374. Finds from floor of chamber.

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spout, on neck eight horizontal grooves, on the (i) bronze pin, made from flat wire, with one end base a ‘solar’ design in relief (two concentric cir- turned into a loop, other end broken off(?); length cles with connecting rays); ancient damage to 25 mm. lip, some wear and tear on surface, base cracked; 11 Beads; found in a string from lower jaw to right el- height 280 mm. Found in niche in W end of cham- bow, with fibula (23) in its middle part: ber, lying on its side, with its base broken off and (a) 59 carnelian beads; round, toroidal, spheri- lying next to it. cal and irregular forms; colours mostly light pink, 2 Bronze mirror; circular, cast, of whitish metal some dark red; diam. 5 – 9 mm (prob. high-tin bronze); on the back a cast ‘solar’ (b) 41 amber beads, irregular forms, from un- ornament (two concentric circles with connecting worked amber pieces; length 4 – 10 mm rays) and central suspension loop; diam. 73 mm. (c) jet bead, biconical, length 15 mm Found with fossil shell (3) in SW corner of grave. (d) three glass beads, hemispherical, from 3 Fossil mussel shell, unworked; probably from lo- opaque white glass, length 17 mm cal Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous sandstones at Klin (e) 16 glass beads, round and toroidal forms, from Yar; 120 × 115 × 55 mm. Found with mirror (2) in opaque grey-white glass; diam. 6 – 9 mm SW corner of grave. (f) 16 paste beads, with a white core and dark- 4 Leather headband with bronze fittings; found on brown surface; diam. 6 – 9 mm. and around skull remains, with strap end (24) and 12 – 13 Two bronze fittings, boss-shaped, with small iron object (28): flange and two perforations each (same as 4b); (a) leather band, width 8 – 10 mm, extant length of stamped from thin sheet; diam. 11 and 12 mm. largest fragment 67 mm Found at lower jaw. (b) 31 hemispherical bosses with a small flange; 14 Iron buckle loop, badly corroded; lyra-shaped; diam. 10 – 11 mm 35 × 23 mm. Found on right pelvis. (c) three flat discs from thin sheet, diam. 22 mm 15 Two iron knives, tanged, single-edged; found in (d) bronze pin with remains of worked stone a concentration of objects (15 – 22; bag?) at right (pumice), on the latter traces of bronze sheet with knee: granulation effect (as on 4e); extant length 22 mm (a) with curved back and slightly concave edge; (e) bronze decorative sheet, fragmentary; triang length 73 mm ular base plate, plain, and triangular cover sheet (b) with straight edge, wood on tang and blade; with granulation effect; traces of solder on both; length 108 mm. extant 16 × 12 mm. 16 Bronze ring (toggle ring, buckle loop or bag 5 Bronze bracelet; penannular, with sub-rectang clasp?); circular, with seven bulges and one nar- ular section and thicker terminals; 71 × 65 mm. row axis, cast; diam. 22 mm; remains of leather Found with bracelet (6) on right wrist of skeleton. strap around axis. Found in a concentration of ob- 6 Bronze bracelet; penannular, with oval section jects (15 – 22; bag?) at right knee. and flattened terminals; 62 × 57 mm. Found with 17 Bronze crossbow fibula, with three knobs on head bracelet (5) on right wrist of skeleton. and one on foot; length 57 mm; textile remains 7 – 8 T wo bronze bracelets (identical to 5); with textile on head. Found in a concentration of objects traces; 73 × 66 and 71 × 69 mm. Found together (15 – 22; bag?) at right knee. on left wrist of skeleton. 18 Bronze spiral, rolled from flat strip with slightly ex- 9 Bronze wire ring; diam. 20 mm. Found on ring fin- panded terminals; perforations on the terminals; ger of left hand. diam. 23 mm. Found in a concentration of objects 10 Bag; patch of dark organic matter at right elbow; (15 – 22; bag?) at right knee. found in it: 19 Bronze fitting, boss-shaped (identical to 12 and (a) jet bead, flat, round, diam. 22 mm 13); diam. 11 mm. Found in a concentration of ob- (b) seven amber beads of irregular shape, not jects (15 – 22; bag?) at right knee. worked, length 8 – 14 mm 20 Iron pin, circular section, length 37 mm. Found in (c) four glass beads, biconical; two from opaque a concentration of objects (15 – 22; bag?) at right yellow glass, two from opaque green glass, both knee. types with a transverse brown band in the middle; 21 Bronze fitting, toroidal (like boss-shaped fittings length 11 – 15 mm 12 and 13 with top cut off); diam. 11 mm. Found (d) two glass beads, bottle-shaped, from opaque in a concentration of objects (15 – 22; bag?) at green glass, fluted like melon beads; length 9 and right knee. 15 mm 22 Bronze toggle, spindle-shaped, with knobs at ter- (e) glass bead, in the shape of a truncated cone, minals and groove in the middle; length 45 mm. of opaque white glass with two parallel dark blue Found in a concentration of objects (15 – 22; bag?) bands; length 12 mm at right knee. (f ) glass bead, round, with a white core and a 23 Bronze fibula; with bow and curled foot; length translucent yellow glass surface, diam. 9.5 mm 29 mm; iron corrosion and textile remains on (g) brush handle, made of bronze cylinder, length spring. Found on right arm in middle of string of 42 mm, diam. (in middle) 14 mm, with wooden beads (11). tube inside; terminal bands with granulation ef- 24 Two bronze strap ends; made of two thin sheets fect, central band with herringbone pattern each, with bronze edging strip, and bronze cor- (h) bronze pendant; made from two sheet discs rugated clamp and one rivet at open end; length with organic material in between; on the front 53 mm; leather remains inside. Found under granulation effect (punched from the back) in spi- skull, together with iron object (28). ral shape; two small perforations for suspension; 25 Bronze fitting, boss-shaped, fragmentary; diam. diam. 19.5 mm 11 mm. Found at left shoulder.

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26 Bronze fitting, boss-shaped (as 12 – 13); diam. 11 mm. Found on left pelvis. 27 Amber bead, of unworked piece of amber; length 8 mm. Found on chest. 28 Iron and bronze object; found under skull, together with strap ends (24): (a) lump of ferrous corrosion products, with ample textile remains; 40 × 20 mm (b) bronze pin, length 19 mm, and bracket, length 10 mm.

Grave 375 (trench 1/1996) (Fig. 174)

Koban Culture(?). Single burial without recognizable Fig. 174. Cemetery III grave 375. Plan. grave pit; at SSW end of Alanic dromos 374. Grave construction: Burial directly under topsoil in dark brown, humified sandy subsoil. Level of deposition of skeleton 0.55 – 0.60 m below modern surface. Some disturbance from animal burrows and during construction of Alanic dromos 374 likely. Burial of one individual (child; skeleton in bad condition). Deposition crouched on left side, head to north, arms bent at elbows, knees sharply bent to east. Finds in grave: None (a piece of unworked sandstone next to skull is likely to be an accidental inclusion in the fill).

Grave 376 (trench 1/1996) (Figs. 175 – 176)

Koban Culture. Grave pit, with single crouched burial; cut by Alanic dromos 374 and animal burrows. Grave construction: Grave pit of unknown shape and size (only part of NNE side could be traced); level of deposition of skeleton 1.20 m below modern surface. Part of grave cut and destroyed by southern end of Alanic dromos 374. Burial of one skeleton (juvenile; skeleton in bad condition). Deposition crouched on right side, head to NNW (four teeth preserved), knees pulled up, pointing WNW, right leg bent above left knee, right foot tucked under lower left leg. Left foot appeared in situ to be patholo gically deformed. Finds in grave: 1 Pottery bowl, fragmentary; flat base, carinated body, angle of lip almost vertical; surface grey- Fig. 175. Cemetery III black, burnished; decoration by incised shaded grave 376. Plan. zig-zag bands on shoulder; height 89 mm. Found

Fig. 176. Cemetery III grave 376. Finds.

361 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

N of knees, probably in front of face; seen in E wall of S end of Alanic dromos 374. 2 Piece of flint, worked; light grey, 39 × 24 × 24 mm. Found with awl (5) between femurs and chest area, possibly near hands, on a small yellow stain (sulphur?). 3 Whetstone, made from black basalt; sub-rect angular, at one end a drilled hole (drilled from both sides at an oblique angle); 82 × 23 × 14 mm. Found in waist/lower chest area. 4 Two animal bones (cattle). Found behind (SE) of pelvis area. 5 Bronze awl; flat, with rectangular section; one end pointed, other broken off(?); length 55 mm. Found with flint (2) between femurs and chest area, poss. near hands.

Fig. 177. Cemetery III Grave 377 (trench 1/1996) (Figs. 177 – 178) grave 377. Plan. Koban Culture. Grave pit with single crouched burial; cut through the floor of Koban building 1. Grave construction: Grave pit prob. sub-rectangular, with stone lining of a sandstone slab on S side; E edge and part of W edge recognizable by the position of floor flagstones; approx. size 0.90 × 0.50 m, level of deposition of skeleton 0.73 m below modern surface. Charcoal on grave floor under skull and NE of it. Burial of one individual (child; skeleton in good condition). Deposition crouched on left side, head to NNE, arms bent at elbows, hands in front of face, knees sharply bent to E. Fig. 178. Cemetery III grave 377. Finds.

Fig. 179. Cemetery III grave 378. Plan, sections, and elevation of entrance.

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Fig. 180. Cemetery III grave 378. Finds.

Finds in grave: ered with several small stones; skeleton in good condi- 1 Pottery bowl; flat base, carinated body, slightly tion, but virtually all vertebrae and pelvis missing. everted rim; surface black, burnished; decoration Entrance at N end of dromos, shape and size unknown by incised shaded bands in geometric patterns on because of collapse; set markedly off-centre towards W neck; height 80 mm. end of chamber, opening into chamber without shaft or tunnel, drop of 0.79 m to chamber floor; closed by two large slabs supplemented by several smaller ones; grey- Grave 378 (trench 1/1996) (Figs. 179 – 180) green clay on and around entrance stones. Chamber collapsed, sub-rectangular outline, size Sarmatian (period RZ, second half of 4th – beginning of 1.87 × 1.31 m, walls preserved to a height of max. 5th cent. AD). Burial chamber with short dromos, with 0.25 m, depth 2.78 m below modern surface, orienta- single burial. Grave construction: tion of long axis WSW–ENE; fill of yellow sandy subsoil Dromos S–N, sub-rectangular, length 2.05 m, width with black earth, charcoal, small pottery sherds, bone 0.76 m (N end) – 0.84 m (S end), depth c. 1.55 m be- fragments (human and horse). Some disturbance from low modern surface; walls vertical but uneven, floor animal burrows. horizontal and even; fill of loose brown humified sandy Burial of one individual (child; skeleton in satisfacory subsoil, with small stones, pottery sherds and bone frag- condition). Skeleton in N half of chamber, on back, half ments (burnt and unburnt). Depositions: horse on floor turned to right; head to WSW, skull on right side (facing of dromos, filling almost entire dromos; horse skeleton SSE), arms straight along sides, right leg straight, left leg on right side, head to N (towards chamber entrance) and across right leg above knee, lower legs parallel; some lying on a stone in front of the entrance, back against W disturbance from animal burrows (in areas of lower jaw, wall, lower legs folded along W wall; lower forelegs cov- neck, hands and feet).

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Finds in chamber: its side in concentration of objects (1 – 4 and 6) 1 Pottery jug; flat base, globular body, short con- left (W) of entrance. ical neck, small spout, one handle (with knob); 5 Iron fragment; disintegrated during cleaning. surface black, burnished; around body two hori- Found in front (S) of skull. zontal grooves, above them decoration by shallow 6 Iron horse bit, fragmentary, drawn in situ; straight burnished zig-zag grooves; on base a design in bit, round section, with two loops; length approx. weak relief, hardly visible (cross in circle); height 160 mm. Found with vessels (1 – 4) left (W) of ent 100 mm. Found in concentration of objects (1 – 4 rance. and 6) left (W) of entrance. 7 Iron fragment; disintegrated during cleaning. 2 Pottery jar; flat base, ovoid body, high neck, Found right (S) of right shoulder of skeleton. thick everted rim with spout, one handle; surface 8 Animal bones (cattle ribs). Found south of, and grey with light grey-brown patches, smooth; two next to, skeleton, between it and entrance. grooves around base of neck; slight ancient dam- 9 Iron knife, fragmentary; single-edged, tang miss- age to lip and base; height 200 mm. Found lying ing; extant length 66 mm; remains of leather on its side in concentration of objects (1 – 4 and 6) sheath on blade, max. thickness 8.8 mm. Found left (W) of entrance. under right shoulder/upper humerus. 3 Pottery cup or handled bowl; flat base, squat round body, low everted rim, wide mouth, one handle (with knob); surface grey-black, bur- Grave 379 (trench 1/1996) (Figs. 181 – 183) nished, but much of it flaked off through wear and tear; on upper body vertical fluting; on base Sarmatian (period RZ, second half of 4th – beginning of a design in weak relief (cross in circle); height 5th cent. AD). Burial chamber with short dromos, with 100 mm. Found in concentration of objects (1 – 4 single burial; chamber overlapping with Alanic chamber and 6) left (W) of entrance. 374; disturbance from animal burrows. Grave construc- 4 Glass vessel, fragmentary and deformed, drawn in tion: situ; palm cup of whitish glass, with round base, Dromos E–W, of sub-rectangular shape, length 1.71 m, straight sides and slightly everted rim; on rim two average width 0.80 m, depth c. 1.90 m below modern horizontal painted(?) lines, dark brown; on body surface; walls vertical, floor horizontal, almost even; two horizontal rows of oval depressions; height fill of loose, light brown sandy subsoil; some charcoal 97 mm, diam. of mouth 109 mm. Found lying on on floor in W end (near entrance). Middle and W part of

Fig. 181. Cemetery III grave 379. Plans, sections, and elevation of entrance.

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Fig. 182. Cemetery III grave 379. Finds from fill of chamber.

dromos covered by two very large and heavy sandstone number of animal burrows which have also disturbed blocks of regular, disc-like shape, resting at a level of the skeleton; in the fill horse teeth, human bones, pot- 0.50 – 0.60 m above dromos floor; on top of them half a tery sherds (Koban) and a number of artefacts. S end dozen large sandstone blocks (showing traces of wind of chamber just overlaps and touches N wall of Alanic erosion; prob. from Paravos rock above site), in a con- chamber 374, but without disturbance because of differ- centration of 1.80 × 1.40 m. Deposition: ‘horse skin’ on ent levels (floor of chamber 0.75 m higher than that of dromos fill immediately below and next to (S of) stone 374). packing, resting at a level between 0.37 and 0.45 m Burial of one individual (female adult; skeleton in bad above dromos floor; horse skull at entrance, on right condition). Deposition in W half of chamber, crouched side, facing S; two sets of lower leg bones at, and paral- on right side, head to SSE, upper body disturbed by lel to, southern wall of dromos; some horse teeth in fill rodents, knees bent to east, left femur on right femur, just above floor of dromos, prob. from disturbance by lower left leg tucked under lower right leg. rodents. Separate deposition of ‘horse skin’ (sacrificial Finds from fill of chamber: deposition 1/1996) 0.15 m E of SE corner (access end) F1 Iron knife; single-edged, tanged; end of tang bro- of dromos, at same level as upper stone cover; poss. ken off, extant length 111 mm; wood traces on linked to 379. tang, leather remains on blade. Found near W wall Entrance at W end of dromos, width 0.49 m, height and of chamber, 0.26 m above floor level. shape could not be determined because of collapse, F2 Bronze nail cleaner; straight shaft with serrated length 0.25 m, drop of 0.64 m to chamber floor; closed edges and rectangular section, end turned into a by one large rectangular sandstone slab, around its small loop, tapering tip bent at an angle; length edges a few small stones and light blue-grey clay. 58 mm. Found near middle of W wall, 0.23 m Chamber collapsed; outline sub-rectangular, above floor level. 1.82 × 1.20 m, depth c. 2.50 m below modern surface, F3 Bronze ear scoop, straight shaft with rectangu- walls preserved to a height of max. 0.60 m, orientation lar section, end turned into a small loop (with of long axis S–N; lowermost 0.20 m of chamber cut into remains of leather string), tip with a tiny scoop; sandstone; floor nearly horizontal, slightly dropping length 57 mm. Found in animal burrow in N wall away from the entrance. Fill of yellow sandy subsoil, with of chamber, 0.15 m above floor level, with four a lot of loose black humus brought in through a large beads (4) and faïence pendant (5a).

365 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 183. Cemetery III grave 379. Finds from floor of chamber.

F4 Beads; found in fill, four of them in animal burrow F8 Silver sheet, rectangular, with three nails and one in N wall of chamber, 0.15 m above floor level, empty hole; one corner broken off, 14 × 8.5 mm. with ear scoop (F3) and faïence pendant (F5a): F9 Three silver nails, length 11 – 12.5 mm. (a) glass bead, disc-shaped, of opaque violet F10 Silver buckle loop, oval, 9 × 8 mm. glass, diam. 24 mm F11 Gold pendant, round, with round glass inlay; on (b) three glass beads, round, of translucent dark the back a central suspension loop; diam. 10 mm. blue glass, diam. 10 – 12 mm Finds from floor of chamber: (c) glass bead, fragmentary; biconical, made 1 Pottery cup; flat base, globular body, short conical of spiralling strips of opaque white, yellow and neck, one handle; surface black, burnished; on brown glass, length 14 mm upper body vertical grooves; slight damage to lip; (d) glass bead, toroid, of translucent colourless height 96 mm. Found lying at an angle in a con- glass, diam. 9 mm centration of artefacts (1 – 4 and 6) in SE corner of (e) amber bead, irregular flat shape, length 9 mm chamber, in front (E) of skull. (f) limestone bead, disc-shaped, diam. 21 mm 2 Pottery bowl; flat base, conical body, inverted (g) paste bead, white base with gold surface, with rim; surface grey with buff and black patches, bur- vertical white appliqué strips; diam. 8 mm. nished; max. diam. 246 mm; iron corrosion traces F5 Faïence pendants; one (5a) found in animal bur- on outside and on base. Found in a concentration row in N wall of chamber, 0.15 m above floor lev- of artefacts (1 – 4 and 6) in SE corner of chamber, el, with ear scoop (F3) and four beads (F4): in front (E) of skull. (a) pendant in the shape of a bunch of grapes, re- 3 Miniature pottery cup, fragmentary; flat base, verse side flat; of light blue faïence; length 21 mm globular body, ?conical neck, one handle (broken (b) melon bead, of light blue faïence, diam. off); hand-made, surface grey, rough; on widest 16 mm. part of body a horizontal strip (prob. cord impres- F6 Bronze mirror, fragmentary; circular, cast, on the sion); extant height 40 mm. Found in a concentra- back two concentric circles with connecting rays tion of artefacts (1 – 4 and 6) in SE corner of cham- (‘solar’ ornament), and a central suspension ber, in front (E) of skull. loop (broken off); diam. 50 mm. Found in S half 4 Iron shears, fragmentary; extant length 152 mm. of chamber, above shoulder area of skeleton, Found with iron awls (6) partly covered by bowl (2) 0.23 m above floor level. in SE corner of chamber, in front (E) of skull. F7 Lump of resin-like substance; of irregular 5 P ottery cup; flat base, biconical body, short con- shape, probably a fragment from a larger lump; ical neck, one handle with knob; surface dark- 36 × 29 × 19 mm. Found in centre of chamber, grey with black and buff patches, burnished; 0.15 m above floor level. on upper body two shallow horizontal grooves;

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Fig. 184. Cemetery III grave 380. Plan, sections, and elevation of entrance.

on base a cross mark in relief; height 114 mm. Found in NW corner of chamber, at the feet of the skeleton. 6 Two iron awls, with remains of wooden handle; length 80 and 83 mm. Found with iron shears (4) partly covered by bowl (2) in SE corner of chamber, in front (east) of skull.

Grave 380 (trench 1/1996) (Figs. 184 – 185)

Alanic (period Ic – Id/Iв–Iг, late 5th – mid-6th cent. AD). Catacomb with dromos, with single burial; overlap of chamber with Alanic dromos 381. Grave construction: Dromos SSE–NNW, trapezoidal, length 1.12 m, width 0.50 m (SSE end) – 0.65 m (NNW end), depth c. 1.80 m below modern surface (in middle); walls almost vertical, floor sloping from SSE to NNW (towards chamber ent rance) by 0.07 m; fill of light brown sandy subsoil with inclusions of yellow sand, with some pottery sherds (Koban). Depositions: two pottery vessels (D1 and D2) in front (S) of entrance stones. Finds from dromos: D1 Pottery jug, fragmentary; flat base, ovoid body, everted rim, one handle (missing); surface grey Fig. 185. Cemetery III with light brown patches, rough, with much soot; grave 380. Finds from on base a design in relief (diagonal cross in a dromos. square frame); height 167 mm. Found lying on its side on dromos floor, against outer entrance stone, together with cup (D2). D2 Pottery cup or small pot, hand-made, fragmentary, Chamber collapsed; lower fill of brown sand with hu- incomplete; flat base, biconical body, everted mus, small stones (with traces of fire) and pottery sherds rim; surface grey-black with light brown patches, (Koban), upper fill of yellow sandy subsoil; chamber out- rough; rim decorated with diagonal impressions; line sub-rectangular to oval, size 0.88 × 0.60 m, walls height 63 mm. Found in two parts, body next to preserved to a height of 0.40 m, depth 2.31 m below jug (D1) on dromos floor, and part of rim on neck modern surface, internal height max. 0.70 m, long axis of jug; prob. disturbed by an animal burrow which WSW–ENE; chamber floor cut into sandstone, floor even, was clearly traceable. with a slight dip from the sides to the centre. W end of Entrance at NNW end of dromos, shape and height could chamber runs under middle of Alanic dromos 381, but not be determined because of collapse, length 0.18 m, without disturbance of either because of difference in drop of 0.29 m to chamber floor. Closed by two sand- depth (floor of chamber 0.50 m below level of floor of stone slabs one behind the other, leaning at a marked dromos 381). angle to NNW; light blue-grey clay covering all of inner Burials: one (infant; skeleton in bad condition). Skeleton slab. Human skull fragment (child) and finger bone be- in W end of chamber, probably extended, head to WSW, tween the two slabs. right arm straight; left arm, ribs and legs missing. No finds in chamber.

367 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Comment: D1 Pottery jug, fragmentary, almost complete; flat The nature and stratification of the chamber fill suggests base, globular body, slightly conical high neck, that the chamber was partly filled with surface material one handle; surface grey with black and buff which included soil from the Koban settlement layer. patches, burnished; on body three conical boss- Subsequently, the chamber collapsed on top of this fill. es, each surrounded by three shallow narrow The human bones between the entrance stones may be grooves, descending from which are vertical from a disturbed grave, or from an earlier child burial grooves of same type; some traces of wear and which was removed for the deposition of the body found tear on surface; height 153 mm. Found in frag- in situ. ments on clay bed in middle of dromos. D2 Animal horn (prob. cattle), cut off cleanly, surface smoothened; length 69 mm. Found in fill in Grave 381 (trench 1/1996) (Figs. 186 – 190) middle of dromos, 0.36 m above dromos floor, and 0.17 m above level of jug. Alanic (period Id – Ie/ Iг–Iд, 6th cent. AD). Catacomb with Entrance at N end of dromos, of semicircular (arched) dromos, with double burial; dromos overlaps chamber of shape, width 0.51 m, height 0.32 m, length 0.25 m, drop 380. Grave construction: of 0.54 m to chamber floor. Closed by a multiple con- Dromos S–N, slightly curved to west (partly a conse- struction: outer closure by four small slabs arranged in a quence of the collapse of W wall of the dromos), length square and leaning towards entrance, with a fifth, smaller 2.10 m, width 0.45 m (S end) – 0.56 m (N end), depth stone at the centre and another one on top; inner closure (in middle) 1.87 m below modern surface; walls verti- made of a dry-stone wall consisting of five courses of flat cal, floor uneven and slightly sloping down towards stones, located directly in the entrance; between the two entrance by 0.09 m; fill of dark brown sandy subsoil stone constructions a layer of clay, 0.02 to 0.07 m thick; with humus and yellow sand, with many pottery sherds outer stones covered by light grey-green clay. (Koban). Deposition: in middle and N part of dromos a Chamber not collapsed, but filled with loose, soft black bed of light blue-grey clay, thickness 0.04 to 0.21 m; earth (intentional fill, or seeped in through animal bur- on its thickest part, in middle of dromos, a pottery jug rows); in fill a few pottery sherds (Koban); chamber out- (D1). line oval, size 2.13 × 1.21 m, depth 2.45 m below mod- Finds from dromos: ern surface, internal height 1.12 m, orientation of long

Fig. 186. Cemetery III grave 381. Plan, sections, and elevation of entrance.

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axis W–E; floor uneven, sloping down slightly from E 2 P ottery cup; flat base, globular body, high cylin- (foot end) to W (head end); dark organic matter on floor drical neck, one handle; surface grey with buff in NW corner of chamber, under skeleton 2. patches, burnished; at base of neck horizontal Burials: two; first in good, second in very bad condition. grooves; on body vertical grooves in groups, Skeleton 1 (male adult). Deposited on back almost diag- three of them forming triangles filled with deep onally across chamber, WSW–ENE, head to WSW, arms impressed dots; wall perforated in one of the straight or only slightly bent, hands under hips, femurs decorative dots, height 118 mm. Found in con- straight, legs slightly flexed, lower right leg and feet dis- centration of artefacts (1 – 3, 6 – 8) left (W) of ent turbed. rance, between skeleton 1 and S wall of cham- Skeleton 2 (female adult). Crouched on right side, head ber. to WSW; bones of skull and upper body almost decayed, 3 Iron short sword or large knife, fragmentary, in- leg bones disturbed. complete (tang not extant); single-edged blade, Finds from fill of chamber: width 30 mm; much wood on blade, with one iron F1 Cowry shell, length 13 mm. rivet across back of blade (prob. from scabbard); F2 Silver buckle with fixed semicircular (?scutiform) extant length 440 mm. Found in concentration of plate, fragmentary; extant size 23 × 15 mm. artefacts (1 – 3, 6 – 8) left (W) of entrance, between F3 Iron fragment; some remains of wood preserved skeleton 1 and S wall of chamber; at its hilt a sil- on iron; extant size 63 × 20 mm. ver buckle (8). F4 Silver and bronze fragments: 4 Br onze cauldron (bowl) with iron handle; round (a) silver sheet fragment, with ‘eye’ decoration; base, straight upright walls, everted rim, vertical extant size 7 × 7 mm lip; base made separately and riveted to cylin- (b) seven bronze sheet fragments, largest frag- drical body made from three bent strips of sheet ment 11 × 9 mm bronze riveted together side by side; iron handle, (c) bronze boss-shaped fitting, extant diam. 6 mm badly corroded, rectangular section, 12 mm (d) five bronze rivets, length 5 – 6 mm. wide, orig. fixed to outside; repair patch on base, Finds on chamber floor: two more on one wall; diam. of bowl 271 mm; 1 Pottery jug; virtually identical to jug (D1) from dark organic remains, probably leather, under dromos, but slightly larger; three conical bosses rim all around vessel. Found in E half of chamber, surrounded by spiral grooves; under handle a ver- next to (S of) feet of skeleton 1; iron handle (21) tical groove accompanied by two rows of inden- next to (E of) bowl; under the bowl some char- tations (imitating a seam?); slight damage to lip; coal pieces. height 165 mm; on base remains of iron, bronze 5 Silver bird brooch, with two opposed birds (one and wood, as well as a bright yellow patch (sul- of them fragmentary); bronze spiral and pin, with phur?). Found in concentration of artefacts (1 – 3, remains of iron axis; pin fragmentary, catchplate 6 – 8) left (W) of entrance, between skeleton 1 and missing; length 22 mm. Found next to right hip of S wall of chamber. skeleton 1.

Fig. 187. Cemetery III grave 381. Finds from dromos (D) and fill of chamber (F).

369 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 188. Cemetery III grave 381. Finds from floor of chamber.

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Fig. 189. Cemetery III grave 381. Finds from floor of chamber.

6 Silver belt or strap fittings, stamped from thin (d) fragments of three or more rectangular and sheet (very similar to 9); found with iron awl (7) trapezoidal fittings, with stamped circular ‘eye’ under jug (1) left (W) of entrance, between skele- decoration; largest fragment 17 × 13 mm ton 1 and S wall of chamber: (e) buckle with kidney-shaped loop and scutiform (a) one sub-triangular fitting, with ‘eye’ decora- plate, fragmentary; 24 × 22 mm. tion (imitating a bird’s face?); 14 × 14 mm (f) rivet, length 7 mm. (b) two scutiform fittings with dumbbell-shaped 7 Iron awl; oval section, with remains of wooden extensions, fragmentary, length 28 mm handle; length 44 mm. Found with silver fittings (c) scutiform plate with longitudinal ridge, (6) under jug (1) left (W) of entrance, between 23 × 23 mm skeleton 1 and S wall of chamber.

371 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 190. Cemetery III grave 381. Finds from floor of chamber.

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8 Silver buckle; with cast kidney-shaped loop and 19 Bronze toilet set, consisting of ear scoop and nail tongue, and stamped or hammered scutiform cleaner on bronze ring; length 74 and 79 mm. plate; on back two rivets, leather remains and Found at E end of string of beads (10), in front (S) white organic matter; 38 × 32 mm. Found at hilt of of waist area of skeleton 2. short sword (3) left (W) of entrance, between skel- 20 Iron knife; single-edged, tanged; with wood eton 1 and S wall of chamber. remains on tang and leather on blade; length 9 Silver belt or strap fittings, stamped from thin 83 mm. Found with fibula (16), mirror (17) and sheet (very similar to 6); found around feet of spoon (18) among disturbed leg bones of skele- skeleton 1 (probably from boots/footwear): ton 2. (a) three trefoil-shaped fittings, fragmentary, ex- 21 Iron handle of bronze bowl (see 4). tant size of largest item 30 × 18 mm (b) buckle loop, kidney-shaped, length 24 mm Comment: (c) sub-triangular fitting, with ‘eye’ decoration The bodies were most likely deposited with a time lag, (imitating a bird’s head?), 14 × 13 mm no. 1 probably well after no. 2. (d) five small fragments; one with curved edge and ‘eye’ decoration, size 7 × 7 mm. 10 Beads; found in a string from lower jaw to left hip Grave 382 (trench 2/1996) (Figs. 191 – 192) of skeleton 1 (orig. ?knee area of skeleton 2), together with brooch (11) and toilet set (19): Alanic (period Id/Iг, first half – mid-6th cent. AD). Cata- (a) four amber beads, disc-shaped, diam. comb with dromos, with three burials. Grave construc- 17 – 27 mm tion: (b) glass bead, spherical, diam. 22 mm Dromos S–N, shape sub-rectangular with a less regular (c) two carnelian beads; one elongated, length S end, length 2.40 m, width 0.60 m, depth 1.95 m be- 23 mm; one round, diam. 12 mm low modern surface (of which the top 0.80 m were hill- (d) limestone bead, of irregular shape, diam. wash); walls vertical, uneven; floor horizontal, uneven, 20 mm with a large patch of grey-blue clay (size c. 0.50 × 0.35 m, (e) 16 glass beads, round, cylindrical, bar- thickness 0.05 to 0.10 m) between pottery deposition rel-shaped and irregular forms, of opaque, and chamber entrance; several stones on floor at S end dark blue, green, yellow and white glass; diam. of clay patch; one step at S end; fill of loose brown sand 5 – 18 mm. with pottery sherds (Koban and Alanic). Deposition: two 11 Bronze brooch, equal-armed, with head and foot pottery vessels (D1 and D2) in fill of dromos at S end of consisting of two circular cells with light green clay patch, 0.19 m above floor and 0.40 m S of stones of glass inlay, and bow of one larger cell with glass chamber entrance. inlay of same type; length 30 mm. Found in string Finds from dromos: of beads (10) in front (SW) of upper body area of D1 Pottery jug, fragmentary, incomplete; flat base, skeleton 2. squashed-ovoid body, high cylindrical neck, 12 Two bronze earrings, crescent-shaped, 17 × 15 mm. one handle; surface grey with brown patches, Found with iron ring (13), fittings (14) and fibula smoothened; around base of neck two horizontal (15) on skull remains of skeleton 2. grooves, on body vertical grooves and three con- 13 Iron wire ring, flat, diam. 14 mm. Found with ear- ical bosses surrounded by burnished grooves; rings (12), fittings (14) and fibula (15) on skull re- height 151 mm. Found above floor in front of ent mains of skeleton 2. rance to chamber (see above). 14 Four bronze fittings, boss-shaped, made from thin D2 Pottery cup; flat base, ovoid body, slightly conical sheet; diam 8.5 mm; with two opposed perfora- high neck, one handle; surface grey with black tions (diam. 1 mm) each, in one perforation the and brown patches, burnished; on upper body a remains of a leather strap. Found with earrings horizontal band of indentations, below that slant- (12), iron ring (13) and fibula (15) on skull re- ing grooves; on the base a design in relief (grid); mains of skeleton 2. slight damage to lip; height 93 mm. Found above 15 Bronze crossbow fibula with iron spring and pin; floor in front of entrance to chamber (see above). knobs on ends of spring axis, with ridged bow Entrance at N end of dromos; size and shape cannot be and plain foot; length 32 mm. Found with earrings determined because of collapse of entrance, drop of (12), iron ring (13) and fittings (14) on skull re- 0.70 m to floor of chamber; closed by a three-layer con- mains of skeleton 2. struction standing on clay, with two lowermost layers of 16 Bronze fibula; bow bound with thin wire, pin and one large stone each, and top layer of three stones; in catchplate missing; length 30 mm. Found with dromos several more stones dislodged from closure. mirror (17), spoon (18) and knife (20) among dis- Chamber collapsed, oval outline, size 1.88 × 1.10 m, turbed leg bones of skeleton 2. walls preserved to a height of max. 0.15 m, depth 2.70 m 17 Br onze mirror; circular, cast; on the back an below modern surface (of which the top 0.80 m were hill- ornament of three concentric circles connect- wash), long axis W–E. Floor virtually horizontal and even, ed by rays, and central suspension loop; diam. with a very small slope (0.04 m) upwards from entrance 47 mm. Found with fibula (16), spoon (18) and to N wall of chamber. knife (20) among disturbed leg bones of skele- Burials: three, disturbed but in reasonably good condi- ton 2. tion. 18 Bronze perforated spoon, with twisted handle, Skeleton 1 (female adult). Deposited along N wall of end curled into a small loop; length 100 mm; chamber, originally probably flexed on right side, head textile remains on outside of spoon. Found with to W; skull on right side, facing E, lower jaw detached, fibula (16), mirror (17) and knife (20) among dis- upper body disturbed, left arm bent at elbow, leg bones turbed leg bones of skeleton 2. displaced.

373 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 191. Cemetery III grave 382. Plan, sections, and elevation of entrance.

Skeleton 2 (male adult). Deposited S of centre line of cham- (c) three glass beads, with one flat side, of opaque ber, between skeletons 1 and 3; orig. prob. extended on light blue glass, diam. 12 – 14 mm. back, head to W; skull and upper body disturbed and partly 4 Iron knife, single-edged; tang missing, extant destroyed by animal burrows, arms straight (left hand miss- length 110 mm. Found outside (N of) upper left ing, but must have been palm down), right hand under skull arm of skeleton 1. of skeleton 3, legs straight, ankles together, feet disturbed. 5 Pottery jug; flat base, round body, slightly coni- Skeleton 3 (child). Deposited under entrance of cham- cal neck, one handle; surface grey with black and ber, between skeleton 2 and S chamber wall; orig. prob. buff patches, burnished with some slightly rough extended on back, head to W; skull, chest area and arms patches; at base of neck and on upper body three disturbed or destroyed by animal burrows, legs crossed horizontal bands of impressed dots, on the body above ankles (right over left?). vertical bands of same type and vertical grooves, Finds in chamber: as well as three conical bosses surrounded by 1 Bronze fibula, fragmentary; with closed triangu- three circular grooves each; traces of wear and lar foot wound around bow giving a ribbed effect; tear on surface and lip; height 150 mm. Found iron spring and pin, not extant; length 34 mm. with astragalus (6) on floor in W end of chamber, Found at back of skull of skeleton 1. at left shoulder of skeleton 2. 2 Iron knife, tanged, single-edged; wood on tang, 6 Astragalus from sheep or cattle, without traces of leather on blade; tip missing, extant length working; 28 × 17 × 16 mm. Found between jug (5) 75 mm. Found on left wrist of skeleton 1, with iron and western wall of chamber, left of skull of skele- fibula (2a). ton 2. 2a Iron fibula, fragmentary; low bow, foot and most 7 Pottery cup; flat base, globular body, high conical of pin missing; length 23 mm; poss. textile thread neck, one handle; surface black, burnished; on around pin. Found on left wrist of skeleton 1, with body vertical grooves; slight damage to lip; height knife (2). 83 mm. Found at right foot of skeleton 2, in E end 3 Beads; found at upper right arm of skeleton 1, of chamber. with ?fibula fragment (9): 8 Iron buckle loop, of near-trapezoidal shape; (a) jet bead, triangular, size 14 × 14 mm 35 × 28 mm. Found below chamber entrance, be- (b) two glass beads, of translucent dark blue tween right waist of skeleton 3 and S chamber glass, diam. 8.5 and 11 mm wall.

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Fig. 192. Cemetery III grave 382. Finds from dromos (D) and chamber.

9 Iron object with bronze ring (fragment of ?fibula); ing; floor virtually horizontal, even; fill of dense yellow length 15 mm. Found at upper right arm of skele- sand with humus, in fill pottery sherds and two astragali ton 1, with beads (3). (sheep). Entrance at W end of dromos, shape and height not determined because of collapse (prob. as a result of Grave 383 (trench 3/1996) (Figs. 193 – 194) a robber trench running through it from above), width с. 0.35 m, drop of 0.80 m to chamber floor; entrance set Transitional Sarmatian/Alanic (late 4th – early 5th cent. off-centre in E wall of chamber. Closed by two large slabs AD). Catacomb with short dromos, with single burial; one behind the other, both leaning towards chamber; disturbed, prob. robbed; access end of dromos imme- grey-blue clay around edges of both slabs. diately W of chamber entrance of Alanic dromos 384. Chamber collapsed; fill of yellow sand and humus in Grave construction: upper layers, and of loose black earth with some yellow Dromos E–W, irregular to sub-rectangular shape, length sand in lowermost 0.30 – 0.40 m. Chamber outline oval, 1.40 m, width 0.40 – 0.50 m, depth 1.50 m below sur- size 1.37 × 0.74 m, walls preserved to a height of max. face; walls vertical, uneven, wall of E access side slop- 0.33 m, max. depth 2.40 m below modern surface, long

375 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 193. Cemetery III grave 383. Plan, sections, and elevations of entrance.

axis S–N; floor even and nearly horizontal, slightly dip- 1 Pottery cup or small jug; flat base, elongated ping towards the centre. ovoid body without distinct neck, everted rim, Burials: one (child; skeleton in bad condition). Depos- one small handle with double knob; surface black ited in middle of chamber, extended on back; head to with one buff-grey patch, burnished; on upper S, skull, upper body and arms disturbed and largely and middle part of body two decorative bands of destroyed, legs crossed at ankles (right over left), feet shallow, crossed and zig-zag grooves, bordered missing. by horizontal grooves; much wear and tear on Finds in chamber: surface (large pieces flaked off) and lip; height

Fig. 194. Cemetery III grave 383. Finds.

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165 mm. Found S of entrance, in SE corner of floor horizontal, even; three irregular steps at S end; fill chamber. of grey-brown sand with inclusions of yellow sand and 2 Iron knife; tanged, single-edged; bronze rivet humus. Depositions/inclusions: sixteen astragali (from through tang; wood on tang, remains of leather sheep and pig, without traces of working) in fill near sheath on blade; point missing, extant length chamber entrance, 0.23 – 0.41 m above dromos floor. 99 mm. Found under pottery vessel (1). Entrance at N end of dromos, near-trapezoidal shape, 3 Bronze buckle loop, circular, cast; tongue with a width 0.50 m, height 0.36 m, length 0.24 m, drop of thin tip, bent downwards; 25 × 21 mm. Found un- 0.66 m to floor of chamber; entrance meeting the cham- der entrance, close to E wall of chamber. ber slightly off-centre and at slightly oblique angle. 4 Whetstone; parallel-sided, one rectangular, one Closed by a massive limestone slab, leaning towards the pointed end; made of soft grey-yellow dolomite chamber, with several smaller stones against its W edge; (sandstone); 137 × 31 × 29 mm; Koban type, most grey-blue clay around the edges and over lower part of likely from a disturbed Koban grave. Found in NE slab. corner (foot end) of chamber, with astragali (5). Chamber partly collapsed, upper fill of yellow sand 5 Twelve astragali (sheep), without traces of work- with humus (from collapse), lowermost 0.30 – 0.40 m ing, and cattle teeth. Found in NE corner (foot end) of loose black earth with sand (either from deliberate of chamber, with whetstone (4). infill or seeped in through animal burrows); in fill 28 astragali (from sheep and pig); chamber outline oval, size 1.62 × 1.10 m, walls preserved to a height of max. 0.70 m, Grave 384 (trench 3/1996) (Figs. 195 – 196) internal height of chamber max. 1.10 m, depth 2.85 m below modern surface, long axis W–E; floor horizontal, with Alanic (period Ic – d/Iв–Iг, late 5th – mid-6th cent. AD). a slight dip towards the centre of the chamber. Catacomb with dromos, with single burial; chamber en- Burials: one (child; disturbed, but skeleton in good con- trance immediately W of access end of Sarmatian dro- dition). Deposition in middle of chamber, slightly diago- mos 383. Grave construction: nally; extended on back, head to WSW and turned right Dromos S–N, sub-rectangular, very slightly curved; (facing SSE), chest disturbed by animal burrow, arms length 2.45 m, width 0.55 – 0.60 m, max. depth 1.92 m straight (palms down), legs crossed at ankles (right over (N end) below modern surface; walls not quite vertical, left).

Fig. 195. Cemetery III grave 384. Plan, sections, and elevations of entrance.

377 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 196. Cemetery III grave 384. Finds from fill (F) and floor of chamber.

Finds from fill of chamber: floor, and c. 0.50 m below modern surface; highest point F1 Bronze fragment; flat, curved strip, length 19 mm. of skeleton 0.12 m below modern surface. F2 28 astragali (sheep and pig), without traces of Burial: one (child, poss. female; skeleton in good con- working. dition). Deposited on back, face upwards, arms slightly F3 Glass fragment; flat, colourless, length 25 mm. flexed, hands under hips and pelvis, right leg slightly Probably modern glass brought in by rodent. flexed, left leg bent at right angle across right knee. Finds from floor of chamber: No finds. 1 Pottery cup; flat base, globular body, high cylindrical neck, one handle; surface grey, with black and brown patches, smoothened; around base Grave 386 (trench 3/1996) (Figs. 198 – 200) of neck two horizontal grooves, on body vertical burnished grooves, and three conical bosses Sarmatian (period RZ, second half of 4th – beginning surrounded by three concentric grooves each; lip of 5th cent. AD). Catacomb with short dromos, with two with traces of wear and tear; height 99 mm. Found skeletons; dromos runs under skeleton 385. Grave con- left (W) of and below entrance, lying on its side, struction: 0.13 m above chamber floor. Dromos ESE–WNW, sub-rectangular, length 1.95 m, 2 Iron knife; single-edged, tanged; wood remains width 0.65 – 0.70 m, depth 1.10 – 1.15 m below mod- on tang, ?leather on blade; length 103 mm. Found ern surface; walls uneven and almost vertical, ESE wall at right hip, parallel to right wrist, with buckle (3). (access end) slightly sloping; floor uneven, and slight- 3 Bronze buckle loop, sub-rectangular, with iron ly sloping down (by 0.05 m) from access end towards tongue; 27 × 25 mm; textile remains on tongue. chamber entrance; on floor, in middle of dromos, a clay Found near knife (2) under bones of right wrist. band (length 0.85 m, max. width 0.37 m, max. thickness 0.10 m) running diagonally across dromos, with some stones directly on the clay; dromos fill of mixed subsoil Grave 385 (trench 3/1996) (Figs. 197; Pl. 6,2) with yellow sand, in fill stones and charcoal. Deposi- tions: pottery jar (D1) in ESE (access) end of dromos, Date uncertain (?Sarmatian). Skeleton on top of Sarma- standing 0.29 m above floor level in fill. tian dromos 386. Finds from dromos: No grave pit or other grave construction visible; skeleton 1 Pottery jar; flat base, ovoid body, conical neck, deposited in topsoil on top of ESE end of dromos 386, slightly thickened lip, spout, one handle with keeping within the outline of the dromos visible under- knob; surface grey with black patches, smooth- neath; level of deposition 0.92 – 0.94 m above dromos ened with rough patches; height 246 mm. Entrance at WNW end of dromos, sub-rectangular, width 0.51 m, height 0.41 m, opening directly into the chamber, drop of 0.72 m to chamber floor. Closed by one large stone slab, leaning towards chamber and supplemented by several smaller stones; clay around edges of slab. Chamber collapsed, ovoid outline, size 2.37 × 1.37 m, depth 2.55 m below modern surface, walls preserved to a max. height of 0.35 m, long axis SSW–NNE. Floor horizontal, even; on floor some chalk (under skeleton 1, less under 2), charcoal pieces (under skeleton 2, fewer under 1) and brown organic matter (under skeleton 2). Fig. 197. Cemetery III Extensive disturbance by animal burrows, with some grave 385 (burial in topsoil). charcoal in them. Plan. Burials: two, disturbed but in good condition.

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Fig. 198. Cemetery III grave 386. Plan, sections, and elevations of entrance.

Skeleton 1 (male adult). Deposited slightly diagonally in nished; around base of neck three horizontal E half of chamber, close to entrance; extended on back, grooves, on body slanting grooves; marked head to S and turned left (W), upper body disturbed by traces of wear and tear on lip and body, much animal burrows, left leg straight, lower right leg dis- of orig. surface flaked off, small hole in side of turbed (poss. legs crossed at ankles, right over left); body; on the base a design in relief (cross in chalk and charcoal under the skeleton. circle), hardly visible; height 123 mm. Found in Skeleton 2 (female adult). Deposited in W half of cham- deposition of pottery vessels (1 – 5) in NE corner ber, slightly diagonally; on back, half turned to left, head of chamber. to SSW and facing upwards, skull and upper body dis- 4 Pottery jar, neck fragmentary; flat base, ovoid turbed by animal burrows, legs flexed to left (NW); un- body, high conical neck, spout, one handle with der the skeleton some chalk, brown organic matter and transverse ridge; surface buff, with grey patch- much charcoal. es, slightly rough; at base of neck two horizontal Finds from fill of chamber: grooves; height 239 mm. Found in deposition of F1 Beads, of opaque dark blue glass: pottery vessels (1 – 5) in NE corner of chamber. (a) two round beads, diam. 10.5 and 12 mm 5 Pottery cup; flat base, squashed-globular body, (b) one bead of truncated conical shape, with high cylindrical neck, slightly everted rim, one groove around middle; length 9.5 mm. handle; surface black with grey-buff patches, Finds from floor of chamber: burnished; on neck shallow vertical grooves, on 1 Pottery bowl; flat base, conical body, inturned body pronounced vertical grooves; some pieces rim; surface grey-brown, smoothened with rough flaked off surface; height 100 mm. Found in de patches; cracked; max. diam. 223 mm. Found in position of pottery vessels (1 – 5) in NE corner of deposition of pottery vessels (1 – 5) in NE corner of chamber. chamber. 6 Iron knife, fragmentary, tip and most of tang miss- 2 Pottery bowl; form similar to 1, but thick-walled; ing; single-edged, tanged; wood on tang, leather on base a design in relief (cross); small pieces on blade; extant length 101 mm. Found with bead flaked off surface; max. diam. 222 mm. Found in (7) between left hip of skeleton 2 and NW wall of deposition of pottery vessels (1 – 5) in NE corner of chamber. chamber. 7 Glass bead, toroidal, of translucent light blue 3 P ottery cup; flat base, globular body, high con- glass; diam. 17 mm. Found with knife (6) between ical neck, one handle; surface orig. black, bur- left hip of skeleton 2 and NW wall of chamber.

379 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 199. Cemetery III grave 386. Finds from dromos (D), fill (F) and floor of chamber.

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8 Iron fragments (from large knife or short sword?); size of largest fragment 70 × 27 mm. Found at right hip of skeleton 1. Comment: The evidence suggests that the two bodies were either deposited simultaneously, or perhaps more likely, within a short time of one another.

Grave 387 (trench 3/1996) (Figs. 201 – 202)

Transitional Sarmatian/Alanic (late 4th – early 5th cent. AD). Catacomb with dromos, with single burial. Grave construction: Dromos E–W, sub-rectangular, length 2.20 m, width 0.55 – 0.60 m, depth c. 2.40 m below modern surface; walls vertical, floor even, sloping by 0.08 m from E (access) to W (chamber entrance); fill varying, but generally of mixed sandy subsoil, including much yellow sand and some humus, with one area of loose black earth close to entrance stone. Deposition: pottery jar (D1) on dromos floor, leaning against outer (E) side of entrance stone, in area of loose black earth (suggesting partial backfill after deposition of jug, or its later deposition some time after construction of dromos). Fig. 200. Cemetery III grave 386. Finds from floor of Finds from dromos: chamber.

Fig. 201. Cemetery III grave 387. Plan, sections, and elevation of entrance.

381 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 202. Cemetery III grave 387. Finds from dromos (D), fill (F) and floor of chamber.

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D1 Pottery jar; flat base, ovoid body, conical neck, with grey patches, burnished; on neck and on thick lip, spout, one handle with double knob; upper part of body two bands of three horizontal surface grey with one black patch, rough; on body grooves each, on body vertical grooves; height two impressed, wavy lines; height 275 mm. 137 mm. Found in group of vessels (1 – 3), with Entrance at W end of dromos; shape and height cannot animal ribs (4), left (S) of entrance. be established because of partial collapse; width 0.42 m, 4 Animal bones (sheep ribs). Found next to group of length 0.28 m, floor 0.09 m higher than dromos floor, drop vessels (1 – 3) left (S) of entrance. of 0.66 m to chamber floor. Closed by large sandstone slab 5 Iron knife, tanged, single-edged; traces of wood which touched both sides of dromos, with smaller stones on tang, ?leather on blade; length 100 mm. Found closing the gaps, and clay around the edges. in SE corner of grave, point against wall. Chamber collapsed; upper fill of yellow sandy subsoil, 6 Bronze buckle loop; round, cast; tip of tongue lowermost fill (up to max. height of 0.15 m) of grey- bent downwards; diam. 27 × 23 mm. Found be- brown humified soil, probably brought in by rodent activ- tween upper left femur and pelvis. ity; chamber outline sub-rectangular, size 1.97 × 1.35 m, 7 Bronze fitting; crescent-shaped; on back three riv- depth c. 3.15 m below modern surface, long axis S–N; ets with leather remains; size 23 × 14 mm. Found floor even, horizontal; thin cover of dark brown, almost in fill, close to concentration of footwear fittings black organic matter over entire floor, on this matter a (9 – 11) and buckles (8, 12) around feet. thin sprinkling of chalk. 8 Bronze buckle; broad oval loop, cast, tip of tongue Burials: one (male adult; skeleton in good condition). bent downwards, oval plate with one rivet; leather Deposited slightly diagonally in SW half of chamber; remains on the back; size 26 × 16 mm. Found in extended on back, head to SSE, facing straight up, arms concentration of footwear fittings (7, 9 – 11) and straight, both hands with palms down, legs straight; low- buckles (8, 12) around feet. er left leg and feet disturbed, orig. prob. legs crossed at 9 – 11 Three bronze fittings (identical to 7); leather on ankles (right over left). back. Found in concentration of footwear fittings Finds from fill of chamber: (7, 9 – 11) and buckles (8, 12) around feet. F1 Iron awl; wood remains on tang; tip broken off, ex- 12 Bronze buckle (identical to 8). Found in concen- tant length 35 mm. tration of footwear fittings (7, 9 – 11) and buckles F2 Ir on fragment; strip 9 × 7 mm, with iron rivet through (8, 12) around feet. it. Finds from floor of chamber: 1 Pottery bowl, cracked; flat base, conical body, in- Grave 388 (trench 3/1996) (Fig. 203; Pl. 6,1) turned rim, almost vertical lip; surface black with grey and buff patches, burnished; max. diam. Date uncertain (prob. Sarmatian or Alanic). Dromos with 215 mm. Found in group of vessels (1 – 3), with mock entrance, without chamber (‘cenotaph’). Grave animal ribs (4), left (S) of entrance. construction: 2 Pottery jug; flat base, squat ovoid body, slightly Dromos E–W, of irregular to sub-rectangular shape, conical low neck, one handle; surface grey with length 2.22 m, width 0.70 – 0.75 m, depth 2.18 m be- black and buff patches, burnished; around base low modern surface, two irregularly shaped steps in SE of neck three horizontal grooves, below them corner; walls even and vertical, except for slope at E (ac- shallow vertical grooves in groups of three; height cess) end, floor horizontal, even; fill of loose, grey sandy 178 mm. Found in group of vessels (1 – 3), with subsoil with plenty of humus. Deposition: ‘horse skin’ animal ribs (4), left (S) of entrance. on top of W end of dromos, between 0.87 and 1.10 m 3 Pottery cup or small jug; flat base, ovoid body, above dromos floor; skull lying on left side, pointing to- high cylindrical neck, one handle; surface black wards SSW, leg bones in no particular order.

Fig. 203. Cemetery III grave 388 (‘cenotaph’). Plan, sections, and elevation of entrance.

383 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Mock entrance at W end of dromos, sub-triangular, width Chamber: none (checked by extensive control trench). 0.47 m, height 0.40 m; not closed by slab or any other con- Burials: none. struction. Short shaft extending W from entrance, length Finds: none. 0.44 m, inclined slightly downwards and with a dead end.

14.3 Klin-Yar cemetery III: Ritual features

Ritual feature 1/1995 (trench 1/1995) (Fig. 204) (0.80 m below modern surface); proximity and level suggest a link between sacrificial deposition 1/1995 and ?Alanic. ‘Horse skin’ deposition. Skull and lower leg Alanic grave 357. bones of horse on old surface or in shallow pit (not observed); skull lying on left side, pointing NW; leg bones to S of skull, aligned N – S, hooves to south; Ritual feature 2/1995 (trench 1/1995) (Fig. 205) no further structured deposition, but part of a cattle tibia and a few stray sherds of Koban pottery in same ?Alanic. Disturbed ‘horse skin’ deposition(?). Three low- context. er legs of horse, without hooves, on old surface or in Context: depth between c. 0.60 – 0.80 m below modern shallow pit (not seen); alignment of long bones approx. surface; location 0.45 m E of S end of Alanic dromos NW – SE; no skull, no further finds. 357, resting at the same level as the top of the latter Context: depth c. 0.54 – 0.94 m below modern surface; location 0.50 m E of N end of Alanic dromos 363, at same level as, and close to, stone packing on top of the latter; proximity and level suggest a link between sacrificial deposition 2/1995 and Alanic grave 363.

Ritual feature 1/1996 (trench 1/1996) (Fig. 206)

Sarmatian or Alanic. ‘Horse skin’ deposition. Skull and lower leg bones of horse on old surface or in shallow pit (not observed); skull lying on right side, pointing NW; leg bones and hooves to S of skull, aligned N – S to NW – SE; sheep humerus among the bones, no other finds. Context: depth c. 1.00 m below modern surface; location 0.15 m E of SE corner (access end) of Sarmatian dromos 379, resting at the level of the upper stone cover of the dromos; proximity and level make a link between sacrificial deposition 1/1996 and Sarmatian grave 379 seem possible.

Fig. 204. Ritual feature 1/1995. Plan.

Fig. 205. Ritual feature 2/1995. Plan. Fig. 206. Ritual feature 1/1996. Plan.

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14.4 Klin-Yar cemetery IV: Graves

Grave 6 (trench 1/1996) (Figs. 207 – 209 ) D2 Limestone bead, cylindrical, diam. 9 mm. Found on floor, in ENE end of dromos. Alanic (period IIb2/IIб2, mid-7th cent. AD). Catacomb D3 Two cowry shells, one side cut off; length 18 and with dromos, with double burial; part of chamber under 19 mm (similar to 13). One found high in fill, the Alanic dromos 12. Grave construction: other in middle of dromos 0.05 m above floor. Dromos ENE–WSW, almost trapezoidal outline, length Entrance at WSW end of dromos, sub-rectangular shape, 2.48 m, width 0.40 m (ENE end) – 0.65 m (WSW end), max. width 0.64 m, height 0.50 m, length 0.47 m, drop depth 1.90 m below modern surface; lower part of walls of 0.74 m to chamber floor. Closed by three overlapping and floor cut into sandstone; walls vertical and even, stone slabs one behind the other, all of them leaning to- floor even, sloping slightly downwards by 0.05 m from wards chamber; innermost slab supplemented by three ENE (access) end to middle of dromos; one sloping step smaller stones, with clay on upper edge of inner slab and in ENE end; fill of loose grey-brown humified soil with on smaller stones. yellow sand; in fill stones, pottery sherds, two cowry Chamber collapsed, oval outline, size c. 1.90 × 1.15 m, shells, and human foot bones (the latter in an animal walls preserved to max. height of 0.30 m, depth 2.74 m burrow). below modern surface, long axis SSE–NNW. Floor in sandy Finds from dromos: subsoil, horizontal, even; on floor brown organic matter D1 P ottery cup, fragmentary, incomplete; cylindrical under skeleton 2. W half of chamber running under dromos neck, surface black, burnished; on body conical of grave 12, but no disturbance (chamber floor of grave 6 bosses surrounded by grooves; diam. of mouth between 0.68 and 0.76 m below level of dromos 12). orig. c. 105 mm. Fragments found scattered in Burials: two, first in good condition, second in very bad fill. condition; some additional human bone material.

Fig. 207. Cemetery IV grave 6. Plan, sections, and elevations of entrance.

385 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 208. Cemetery IV grave 6. Finds from dromos (D) and fill of chamber (F).

Skeleton 1 (male adult). A heap of bones, quite careful- (e) glass bead, biconical, of translucent dark blue ly stacked, under and slightly left (S) of the entrance; in glass; diam. 9 mm heap skull fragments, long bones, vertebrae and ribs. (f) carnelian bead, polygonal, length 8 mm Skeleton 2 (female adult). Deposited in middle of S half (g) 160 small glass beads, round and flat forms, of chamber, flexed on right side, head to SE. of opaque dark blue, light blue, brown and yellow Finds from fill of chamber: glass, diam. 4 – 6 mm. F1 Bronze pendant or fitting, round, with round inlay 6 Bronze bracelet; penannular, with oval section of translucent yellow glass; edging indented, imi- and expanding terminals; 67 × 56 mm. Found at tating granulation; diam. 13 mm. left elbow of skeleton 2. F2 Two lumps of resin, dark brown, broken off from a 7 Beads; found with knife (8) near left wrist/hand larger piece; 32 × 23 × 8 m and 13 × 10 × 6 mm. area of skeleton 2 in the following sequence (from F3 Iron fragments, prob. from fibula; one fragment S to N): with textile remains; lengths 34, 26 and 21 mm.. (a) carnelian bead, round form, pink, diam. Finds from floor of chamber: 17 mm 1 Pottery jug, small, parts of rim and body missing; (b) glass bead, cylindrical, polychrome, matrix flat base, globular body, high conical neck, small of opaque yellow-green glass with red and blue spout, one handle; surface grey-black, burnished, dots, length 24 mm with pieces flaked off; extant height 124 mm. (c) glass bead, round, of opaque black glass, with Found in SE corner of grave against chamber wall, very faint yellow and red dots, diam. 13 mm next to bones of skeleton 1. (d) glass bead, round, of opaque dark blue glass, 2 Pottery cup; flat base, globular body, high cylin- with three yellow dots, diam. 12 mm drical neck, one handle with knob; surface black, (e) glass bead, round, of opaque dark blue glass with small brown patches, burnished; on body with white wavy lines, diam. 11 mm. wide vertical grooves, slightly slanting; height 8 Iron knife, fragmentary; single-edged, tanged, 74 mm. Found in S corner close to wall, behind with ample remains of wood and leather on blade; back of skeleton 2. extant length 77 mm. Found at N end of string of 3 Two bronze earrings, crescent-shaped; diam. beads (7), W of bones of skeleton 1. 20 mm. Found with bronze beads (10) on and 9 Bronze pendant; flat, tear-shaped, with flat, col- close to skull remains of skeleton 2. ourless glass insert; small suspension loop (de- 4 Bronze bird brooch, showing two schematic tached) and fragment of edging imitating granula- bird figures crossed at right angles; ?iron pin; tion; 20 × 14 mm. Found with small patch of textile 35 × 30 mm. Found on left shoulder of skeleton 2, near elbow of skeleton 2, at one end of string of near one end of string of beads (5). beads (5). 5 Beads; found in two concentrations (amber beads 10 Seven bronze globules or beads, slightly lentoid, separately) under left humerus, from shoulder to possibly from earrings (3); diam. 3 – 5.5 mm. near elbow, between bird brooch (4) and pendant Found with earrings (3) on skull remains of skele- (9): ton 2. (a) 35 amber beads, polygonal, round, flat and ir- 11 Iron fragment, poss. from ring; extant size regular forms, diam. 5 – 11 mm 20 × 8 mm. Found among bones of skeleton 1. (b) glass bead, in shape of long hexagonal cylin- 12 Bronze buckle, cast; oval loop, with groove for der, of translucent light-blue glass; length 15 mm tongue, tip of tongue bent downwards, small bi- (c) glass bead, cigar-shaped, of translucent furcated plate; 33 × 27 mm; with leather remains dark blue glass with narrow white bands; length on underside, and small detached leather frag- 15 mm ment. Found among bones of skeleton 1. (d) glass bead, cigar-shaped, of opaque dark blue 13 Cowry shell, with one side cut off; 20 × 15 mm glass; length 10 mm (similar to D3). Found among bones of skeleton 1.

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Fig. 209. Cemetery IV grave 6. Finds from floor of chamber.

387 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Grave 7 (trench 1/1996) (Figs. 210 – 215) three steps at E end of dromos. Fill of mixed subsoil with much yellow sand; in fill many small Alanic pot- Alanic (period IIIa, mid-7th cent. AD). Catacomb with dro- tery sherds, many with soot, from at least three ves- mos, with triple burial; chamber running under Koban sels (prob. settlement pottery). Deposition: small pot- grave 11. Grave construction: tery jug (D1) at steps. Dromos E–W, sub-rectangular outline at top, trapezoi- Finds from dromos: dal at floor level; length 2.57 m, width at top 0.48 m D1 Pottery jug or large cup, part of neck missing; (E) – 0.57 (W), depth 2.22 m below modern surface; flat base, globular body, high conical neck, one walls even, undercut incrementally towards W end handle; surface brown, smooth; between body (width on floor 0.74 m, at top 0.47 m); floor even, and neck several incised lines around vessel; sloping gently down from E (access) to W (chamber much soot on surface, piece flaked off base; entrance) by 0.18 m; niche in middle of N wall, size height 127 mm. Found lying on its side on floor of 0.40 × 0.25 m, depth 0.04 m below dromos floor; dromos at bottom of the steps in E end.

Fig. 210. Cemetery IV grave 7. Plan, detail, sections, and elevations of entrance.

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Fig. 211. Cemetery IV grave 7. Finds from dromos (D) and fill of chamber (F).

D2 Pottery vessel, probably cooking pot, fragmentary, 0.25 m, drop of 0.80 m to chamber floor. Closed by a large incomplete; globular body, short everted rim; sur- sandstone slab, supplemented by smaller stones and face grey-brown, slightly rough, with much soot; covered with grey-green clay; at N edge of entrance stone on upper part of body shallow horizontal grooves; a piece of human skull, at S edge a long bone (cattle). diam. of mouth 145 mm. Found scattered in fill. Chamber mostly intact, only small part of top collapsed; D3 Fragments of two pottery vessels, found in fill: skeletons and finds covered with a thin layer of humus (a) with short everted rim and handle, surface (prob. seeped in through animal burrows); ovoid outline, black size 2.26 × 1.22 m, max. internal height 1.43 m, depth (b) crudely tempered, rough surface, grey-brown, 2.86 m below modern surface, long axis S – N (at slightly with wall perforations (diam. 4 mm; made after fir- oblique angle to dromos axis); floor even, horizontal; in ing, prob. for repair binding). floor, under entrance, an elongated sub-rectangular pit, D4 Pottery vessel, poss. jar; flat base, ovoid body, max. size 0.72 × 0.11 m, depth 0.10 m below chamber high conical neck; surface grey-black, slightly floor; in fill beads, iron fragments, bronze rivets, small rough, with some soot; height c. 320 mm. Found pieces of wood, extensive leather fragments and small scattered in fill. pieces of textile (?silk). N end of chamber running under Entrance at W end of dromos, arched, in the shape of a S end of Koban grave 11, without disturbance (floor of truncated circle, max. width 0.61 m, height 0.53 m, length the latter 1.21 m above floor of chamber 7).

389 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Burials: three, partly disturbed, in variable condition. 9 Beads; found with fittings (8) on skull fragments Skeleton 1 (infant; in very bad condition). Close to ent of skeleton 1: rance, E of two larger skeletons; extended on back, head (a) glass bead, flat, opaque yellow-green, to S, arms flexed, hands at hips. 15 × 11 mm Skeleton 2 (child; disturbed, in bad condition). In centre (b) melon bead, glass, opaque yellow, with thin, of chamber, extended on back, head to S; skull on left horizontal green and orange bands; length 10 mm side, face to S, arms probably straight, legs straight, feet (c) glass bead, barrel-shaped, with spiral bands of together. opaque white, translucent light blue and opaque Skeleton 3 (female adult, badly disturbed, skeleton in dark blue; length 12 mm good condition). Along W wall of chamber, orig. prob. ex- (d) seven glass beads, small disc-shaped forms, tended, poss. on right side, head to SSE; skull on right translucent green and opaque dark blue; diam. side, next to skull of skeleton 2; bones of upper body, 3 – 4 mm. pelvis and legs close to their anatomical positions, but 10 Bronze ring or bracelet (similar to 17); penannu- dislodged and mixed up. lar, flat oval section, terminals rounded; diam. Finds from fill of chamber: 37 mm. Found near skull remains of skeleton 1. F1 17 glass beads, round, disc-shaped and cylindri- 11 Gold earring; simple ring, circular section, three cal forms, of translucent light blue, opaque green, gold globules soldered in cluster to outside; dark blue and violet glass; diam. 3 – 5 mm. length 19 mm. Found between ribs and skull of F2 Four iron fragments; three prob. from knife tang skeleton 2. and blade, one from pin. Length of knife frag- 12 Iron knife, tanged, single-edged; wood on tang, ments 27, 21 and 16 mm, length of pin fragment and wood and leather remains on blade; length 28 mm. 80 mm. Found between elbow and left waist of F3 Silver stud, flat, diam. 11 mm. skeleton 2, point to N. F4 Bronze fragments, incl. three nails with domed 13 Eight bronze nails with dome-shaped heads, heads, diam. 6 mm; two rivets, length 6 to 7 mm; diam. 6 mm. Found at right hip of skeleton 2. and other small fragments. 14 Bronze buckle, with lyra-shaped loop, tongue Finds from floor of chamber: bent; 28 × 22 mm. Found with a small fragment 1 Pottery jug or large cup, part of neck missing; of textile (?silk) inside upper right femur of skele- flat base, globular body, short conical neck, one ton 2. handle; surface black, smooth; on body vertical 15 Two bronze fittings, oval, made from thin sheet; grooves; many pieces flaked off body, some soot stamped imitation of brooch with oval insert sur- on lower body; height 138 mm. Found in southern rounded by two concentric borders of imitated (head) end of chamber, against wall, partly cov- granulation; 25 × 22 mm. One found among pelvis ered by wooden dish. remains of skeleton 2, the other outside its left 2 Pottery jar; flat base, ovoid body, high cylindrical hip. neck, everted rim, spout, one handle with knob; 16 Two bronze hooks, bent from bronze wire; pos- surface grey, carelessly burnished; on the neck sibly fasteners for bronze fittings (15); length wide horizontal grooves, on upper body vertical 23 mm. Found among pelvis remains of skele- burnished strips; on the base a hardly visible de- ton 2. sign in relief (prob. ‘bird’s claw’); several pieces 17 Bronze ring or bracelet (similar to 10); max. diam. flaked off body; height 260 mm. Found lying on its 38 mm. Found with leather belt (18) N of skull of side next to skull of skeleton 2, between the latter skeleton 2. and the entrance. 18 L eather belt fragment with bronze fittings (sim- 3 Pottery cup; flat base, squashed-globular body, ilar to 22 and 36); end of leather belt or strap, conical neck, one handle; surface grey, burnished; tongue-shaped, length 45 mm, width 15 mm; on body vertical, narrow burnished grooves; many with two detached bronze studs, diam. 9 and pieces flaked off body and handle; height 82 mm. 10 mm. Found with ring (17) N of skull of skele- Found under left (S) side of entrance. ton 2. 4 Pottery jar; flat base, ovoid body, high cylindri- 19 Wooden object (button?); in the shape of a flat cal neck, everted rim, spout, one handle; surface sphere, diam. 13 mm. Found with bracelet (28) black, with brown patches, burnished; on lower below (NNW of) jaw of skeleton 3. neck two horizontal grooves; crack on lower neck, 20 Wooden ball, surface peeling off; diam. 44 mm. and many pieces flaked off body; height 255 mm. Found in front (S) of skull of skeleton 1. Found in N (foot) end of chamber, at feet of skele- 21 Beads; found with leather belt (22) under skull of ton 2. skeleton 2: 5 Pendant from upper eye tooth of deer, with perfo- (a) two jet beads, cruciform, 13 × 10 × 3.5 mm ration for suspension; length 23 mm. Found with (b) seven amber beads, flat, length 7 – 8 mm bronze loop (6) 0.15 m NNW of ribs of skeleton 1. (c) 113 glass beads, small, round and disc- 6 Bronze loop, bent from thick wire with rectangu- shaped forms, of opaque yellow and green glass, lar section; 21 × 15 mm. Found with pendant (5) and translucent dark blue and purple glass; diam. 0.15 m NNW of ribs of skeleton 1. 4 – 6 mm. 7 Bronze object; sheet fragments, curved, largest 22 Leather belt fragment with bronze studs (similar fragment 10 × 7 mm; and pin, one end bent into a to 18 and 36); length 96 mm, width 15 mm; diam. loop, shank bent, length 20 mm. Found in chest of studs 9 – 10 mm. Found with beads (21) under area of skeleton 1. skull of skeleton 2. 8 Three bronze fittings, boss-shaped, diam. 10 mm. 23 Iron knife; single-edged, tanged; wood on tang; Found with beads (9) on skull fragments of skele- length 135 mm. Found between skulls of skeleton ton 1. 2 and 3, point to N.

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Fig. 212. Cemetery IV grave 7. Finds from floor of chamber.

391 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 213. Cemetery IV grave 7. Finds from floor of chamber.

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Fig. 214. Cemetery IV grave 7. Finds from floor of chamber.

24 Ir on awl; square section, length 30 mm. Found (a) melon bead, of opaque blue glass, diam. with earring (25) under skull of skeleton 3. 18 mm 25 – 26 Two bronze earrings; slightly oval ring, terminals (b) two amber beads, of irregular shape, length 11 bent together, with bronze globules soldered to and 13 mm the outside; 29 × 23 mm. One found with awl (24) (c) two carnelian beads, pink, diam. 7 and 8 mm under skull of skeleton 3, the other immediately (d) glass bead, irregular shape, of opaque dark NW of base of skull. blue glass with a core of translucent colourless 27 Be ads; found concentrated in scatter of artefacts glass; diam. 11 mm (27, 29 – 34) among disturbed bones NW of, and (e) glass bead, elongated, of translucent green close to, skull of skeleton 3: glass, length 13 mm

393 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 215. Cemetery IV grave 7. Finds from floor of chamber.

(f) glass bead, polygonal, of opaque dark blue front (showing mask or face); on the back remains glass with ‘eye’ decoration (yellow dots with of organic fill (paste) and a bronze hook; diam. green and brown centres), length 12 mm 24 mm; with four fragments of stitched leather (g) glass bead, round, of translucent green glass, border. Found in scatter of artefacts (27, 29 – 34) with ‘eye’ decoration (yellow dots with brown cen- among disturbed bones NW of, and close to, skull tres); diam. 12 mm of skeleton 3. (h) five glass beads, small, round and cylindrical 32 Bronze pendant; round, with red glass insert with forms, of translucent blue and green glass, diam. convex surface, set in two concentric borders of 4.5 mm. imitated granulation, and suspension loop; diam. 28 Bronze bracelet; penannular form, sub-rectangu- 25 mm. Found in scatter of artefacts (27, 29 – 34) lar section, terminals slightly thicker; 68 × 65 mm. among disturbed bones NW of, and close to, skull Found with wooden ?button (19) below (NNW of) of skeleton 3. jaw of skeleton 3. 33 (see 30 – 31) 29 Amber pendant, fragmentary; orig. of lentoid 34 Iron fragment with bronze rivet; length 26 mm. form, with perforation; 40 × 24 × 19 mm. Found in Found in scatter of artefacts (27, 29 – 34) among scatter of artefacts (27, 29 – 34) among disturbed disturbed bones NW of, and close to, skull of skel- bones NW of, and close to, skull of skeleton 3. eton 3. 30 – 31, 33 Four bronze discs or brooches; round, 35 Bronze fibula, with high bow and short foot; stamped sheet bronze, embossed ornament on length 33 mm; remains of leather strip around

394 14 Catalogue

lower part of bow. Found in a scatter of artefacts D2 Pottery cup, fragmentary, incomplete; globular (35 – 41) next to, and among, disturbed bones of body, low conical neck, one handle; on body ver- skeleton 3, W of left hip of skeleton 2. tical shallow grooves; surface grey-black, rough, 36 Leather belt fragment with vertical suspension with soot; extant height 98 mm, diam. of mouth c. strap and bronze studs (similar to 18 and 22); ex- 75 mm. Found in fragments scattered in fill. tant length 70 mm, width of belt 14 mm, of sus- D3 Pottery jug, fragmentary, incomplete; flat base, pension strap 11 m, diam. of studs 6.5 – 11 mm. ovoid body, everted neck, one handle; surface Found in a scatter of artefacts (35 – 41) next to, grey, rough; around upper part of body narrow and among, disturbed bones of skeleton 3, W of horizontal grooves; some soot on body. Found in left hip of skeleton 2. fragments scattered in fill. 37 Iron knife with sheath fitting; found with point to D4 Pottery cup, fragmentary, incomplete; globular NE in a scatter of artefacts (35 – 41) next to, and body, conical neck, prob. one handle; surface among, disturbed bones of skeleton 3, W of left grey-black, rough; some soot on body; diam. of hip of skeleton 2: mouth orig. c. 90 mm. Found in fragments scat- (a) iron knife; single-edged, tanged; wood re- tered in fill. mains on tang and blade; length 158 mm D5 Pottery jug, fragmentary, incomplete; flat base, (b) iron strip, flat, with loops at both ends; poss. globular body, everted neck, one handle; surface from knife sheath; length 65 mm. light grey, smoothened, crudely tempered; orig. 38 Iron object (knife fragment and awl?); rectangu- height c. 190 mm. Found in fragments scattered lar plate, c. 80 × 14 mm, with other iron pieces in fill. and wood remains corroded against it. Found in a Entrance at WSW end of dromos, of sub-rectangular scatter of artefacts (35 – 41) next to, and among, shape, width 0.44 m, height 0.32 m, length 0.20 m, drop disturbed bones of skeleton 3, W of left hip of of 0.69 m to floor of chamber. Closed by large sandstone skeleton 2. slab covered with grey-green clay, and supplemented by 39 Iron buckle loop; lyra-shaped, tip of tongue bent several smaller stones, with one slab leaning against it downwards; size 35 × 28 mm. Found in a scatter of from the front. artefacts (35 – 41) next to, and among, disturbed Chamber partly collapsed, and filled about two-thirds bones of skeleton 3, W of left hip of skeleton 2. with soil; outline of irregular oval, 1.96 × 1.37 m, max. 40 Iron buckle loop; sub-rectangular, elongat- height at entrance 1.05 m, depth 3.08 m below modern ed; 29 × 20 mm. Found in a scatter of artefacts surface, long axis SSE–NNW. Floor in sandy subsoil, hori- (35 – 41) next to, and among, disturbed bones of zontal, even; on floor white powdery substance (chalk? skeleton 3, W of left hip of skeleton 2. mineral translocations?) and a few specks of charcoal. In 41 Bronze buckle loop; cast, oval loop, tip of tongue fill of chamber bronze fragments, glass fragments (from bent downwards; 32 × 23 mm. Found in a scatter jewellery inlay), leather and astragali (sheep). of artefacts (35 – 41) next to, and among, dis- Burials: two, disturbed, in bad condition; additional turbed bones of skeleton 3, W of left hip of skele- bone material. ton 2. Skeleton 1 (male adult, badly disturbed). Deposited in 42 W ooden dish or plate; observed in situ, but E half of chamber; skull at SE wall, bones of upper body strongly decayed; probably oval, with flat base, mixed up, orig. deposition prob. extended on back, head 17 – 18 mm thick; length in situ c. 300 mm. Found to SSE. in S (head) end of chamber, partly covering jug (1). Skeleton 2 (female adult, slightly disturbed). Deposit- ed in W half of chamber, extended, half turned to right, head to SSE, arms bent at elbows, left hand in front of Grave 8 (trench 1/1996) (Figs. 216 – 220) skull, right hand on pelvis, legs slightly flexed to right, legs side by side. Alanic (period IIIa, mid-7th cent. AD). Catacomb with dro- Finds from chamber: mos, with double burial. Grave construction: 1 Pottery cup; flat base, globular body, conical Dromos ENE – WSW, rectangular, length 3.07 m, width neck, one handle; surface grey-black, smooth; 0.55 m (ENE end) – 0.68 m (WSW end), depth 2.30 m be- on body three conical bosses, around neck three low modern surface; walls vertical, floor horizontal and horizontal grooves; ancient damage to lip; height slightly concave (dipping from the sides to the middle); 80 mm. Found close to SE wall of chamber, next to three steps at ENE end; fill of yellow sandy soil; in fill wooden ?dish (28). pottery depositions, pottery sherds (Koban and Alanic 2 Pottery cup; flat base, globular body, cylindrical settlement pottery), and three sandstone slabs, two in neck, one handle; surface grey-black, burnished; middle of dromos and 1.45 m above dromos floor (about on body vertical burnished strips, around lower 0.15 m below top of dromos), the third partly under- part of neck two shallow grooves; on base a circu- neath the first two, 0.56 m above floor. Depositions: re- lar design (wheel, or star in circle; diam. 50 mm) mains of at least four broken pottery vessels scattered in in relief; height 77 mm. Found against E wall of fill, at various depths, and mainly in WSW (entrance) end chamber, with other vessels (3 – 5) and animal and middle of dromos; complete pottery jug (D1) close bone (29). to dromos floor near entrance stones. 3 Pottery jar; flat base, ovoid body, cylindrical neck, Finds from dromos: slightly everted rim with spout, one handle; sur- D1 Pottery jug, most of neck and rim missing; flat face grey-black, burnished; on either side of spout base, ovoid body, everted neck, one handle; sur- an ‘eye’ boss (creating the impression of a bird’s face grey-black, rough, with thick layer of soot head); around neck five grooves, around upper over much of body; cracks on base, and pieces body a band of slanting, crisscrossed lines; on flaked off; height 185 mm. Found 0.18 m above base a design in relief (‘bird’s claw’ in oval; length dromos floor, 0.20 m E of entrance stones. 35 mm); some pieces flaked off body, ancient

395 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 216. Cemetery IV grave 8. Plans, detail, sections, and elevations of entrance.

damage to lip; height 278 mm. Found against E 5 Pottery cup, fragmentary, incomplete; flat base, wall of chamber, with other vessels (2, 4, 5) and round body, conical neck; surface black, bur- animal bone (29). nished; diam. of base 57 mm. Found against E 4 P ottery jug; flat base, globular body, high conical wall of chamber, with other vessels (2 – 4) and ani- neck, tubular spout, one handle; surface dark grey mal bone (29). with black and buff patches, burnished; on body 6 Bronze sheet object, fragmentary, with clear three conical bosses and vertical, narrow bur- glass inlay (now detached); one bronze frag- nished strip, around lower neck a narrow groove; ment with imitated granulation; diam. of glass pieces flaked off body, ancient damage to lip; 11.5 × 9.5 mm. Found in scatter of objects (6 – 8, height 165 mm. Found against E wall of chamber, 10 – 12, 14 – 27) in disturbed abdomen/pelvis with other vessels (2, 3, 5) and animal bone (29). area of skeleton 1.

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Fig. 217. Cemetery IV grave 8. Finds from dromos.

7 Bronze bow fibula with iron pin; remains of leath- length 141 mm. Found with other knife (13) be- er strip around bow; length 46 mm. Found in scat- tween skeletons 1 and 2. ter of objects (6 – 8, 10 – 12, 14 – 27) in disturbed 10 Iron block or bar, sub-rectangular; 96 × 24 mm; abdomen/pelvis area of skeleton 1. leather(?) preserved in corrosion layer on one 8 Bronze fittings and leather remains; found in scat- side. Found in scatter of objects (6 – 8, 10 – 12, ter of objects (6 – 8, 10 – 12, 14 – 27) in disturbed 14 – 27) in disturbed abdomen/pelvis area of abdomen/pelvis area of skeleton 1: skeleton 1. (a) scutiform fitting, with apertures giving impres- 11 Bronze strap end; tongue-shaped, made of thin sion of face; on back leather remains held by one sheet, with leather held against underside by a rivet; 17 × 17 mm rivet and a splint; on one side a narrow groove (b) scutiform fitting with dumbbell-shaped, fixed creating a tongue-shaped outline; 41 × 20 mm. axis (closely similar to 12); on back traces of Found in scatter of objects (6 – 8, 10 – 12, 14 – 27) leather and two rivets; 23 × 17 mm. in disturbed abdomen/pelvis area of skeleton 1. 9 Iron knife, single-edged, tanged; with wood re- 12 Bronze scutiform fitting with dumbbell-shaped, mains on tang, and wood and leather on blade; fixed axis (closely similar to 8b), cast; length

397 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 218. Cemetery IV grave 8. Finds from chamber.

398 14 Catalogue

Fig. 219. Cemetery IV grave 8. Finds from chamber.

399 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

27 mm; on back leather remains held by two riv- 25 Bronze fitting, tear-shaped, with imitated granula- ets. Found in scatter of objects (6 – 8, 10 – 12, tion on outer edging; prob. the frame for an insert; 14 – 27) in disturbed abdomen/pelvis area of length 14 mm. Found in scatter of objects (6 – 8, skeleton 1. 10 – 12, 14 – 27) in disturbed abdomen/pelvis 13 Iron knife, fragmentary; single-edged, tanged; area of skeleton 1. extant length 85 mm. Found with other knife (9) 26 Bronze fitting, fragmentary (poss. similar to 22); between skeletons 1 and 2. 22 × 18 mm. Found in scatter of objects (6 – 8, 14 Four wooden buttons; lentoid shape; with re- 10 – 12, 14 – 27) in disturbed abdomen/pelvis mains of a thin leather cover; diam. 15 mm. Found area of skeleton 1. in scatter of objects (6 – 8, 10 – 12, 14 – 27) in dis- 27 Bronze pendant, round, with circular glass inlay of turbed abdomen/pelvis area of skeleton 1. light green (almost colourless) glass; edging imi- 15 Bronze buckle, cast; oval loop with groove for tating granulation; diam. 11 mm. Found in scatter tongue; fixed, rectangular plate; tongue (prob. of objects (6 – 8, 10 – 12, 14 – 27) in disturbed ab- iron) lost; on underside leather strap held by two domen/pelvis area of skeleton 1. rivets; 35 × 26 mm. Found in scatter of objects 28 Wooden remains of ?dish, very fragmentary; orig. (6 – 8, 10 – 12, 14 – 27) in disturbed abdomen/pel- form and size could not be established. Found vis area of skeleton 1. close to SE wall of chamber, between pottery cup 16 Bronze strap end, cast; of elongated scutiform (1) and skull area of skeleton 1; on wood remains shape, with two small perforations at the point of a wooden comb (30). lateral extensions (identical to 20 and 24); length 29 Animal bone, prob. cattle rib. Found against E wall 38 mm; on underside leather strap, 10 mm wide, of chamber, with pottery vessels (2 – 5). held by two rivets. Found in scatter of objects 30 Wooden comb; rectangular centre, with remains (6 – 8, 10 – 12, 14 – 27) in disturbed abdomen/pel- of teeth on both sides; width 50 mm. Found on vis area of skeleton 1. wood remains (28) in SE corner of chamber. 17 Bronze sheet fitting, cruciform, stamped; 31 20 bronze fittings; boss-shaped, flanged, with 17 × 18 mm. Found in scatter of objects (6 – 8, two small, punched holes on opposite sides 10 – 12, 14 – 27) in disturbed abdomen/pelvis above the flange; stamped from thin sheet; diam. area of skeleton 1. 10 – 13 mm. Found with some leather fragments 18 Bronze fittings; found with organic material under skull and along front (E side) of skeleton. (prob. leather) in scatter of objects (6 – 8, 10 – 12, 32, 34 Two bronze earrings; penannular ring with large 14 – 27) in disturbed abdomen/pelvis area of globule suspended below three small globules; skeleton 1: length 30 mm. Found among skull remains of (a) scutiform fitting, with ‘eye’ slits; on back two skeleton 2. rivets; 21 × 19 mm 33 Beads; found in neck area of skeleton 2: (b) two eyes bent from flat bronze wire; width (a) three carnelian beads, round, flat, diam. 11 mm. 7 – 10 mm 19 Bronze strap end, cast; tongue-shaped, with key- (b) four glass beads, opaque dark blue and trans- hole-shaped opening along the middle; with two lucent blue, round, diam. 5 – 6.5 mm. rivets, and leather remains on back; 51 × 20 mm. 34 (see 32) Found in scatter of objects (6 – 8, 10 – 12, 14 – 27) 35 Beads; found in front of neck area/at left hand of in disturbed abdomen/pelvis area of skeleton 1. skeleton 2, close to chain (36), brush (37) and 20 Bronze sheet strap end, elongated scutiform brooch (38): (identical to 16 and 24); length of metal fitting (a) three amber beads, irregular flat forms, length 37 mm, with leather remains 41 mm. Found in 7 – 12 mm scatter of objects (6 – 8, 10 – 12, 14 – 27) in dis- (b) two carnelian beads, round, diam. 5 and turbed abdomen/pelvis area of skeleton 1. 10 mm 21 Br onze sheet buckle, with oval loop and (c) three glass beads, translucent blue, cylindrical semicircular fixed plate; tongue missing; and round forms, diam. 4 – 6 mm 45 × 38 mm. Found in scatter of objects (6 – 8, (c) 51 glass beads, opaque dark blue, flat, round 10 – 12, 14 – 27) in disturbed abdomen/pelvis and dumbbell-shaped forms, diam. 3 – 4 mm. area of skeleton 1. 36 Bronze chain, fragmentary; made from thin wire; 22 Bronze sheet fitting with glass inlay; fitting with total extant length 87 mm. Found with brush (37) round centre and four horn-shaped extensions, and brooch (38) among textile remains (from holding a circular inlay of translucent, light green ?bag) in neck area/at left hand of skeleton 2. (colourless) glass in a circle of repoussé dots im- 37 Bronze brush-holder; cylindrical, closed at one itating granulation; 30 × 20 mm. Found with or- end, remains of brush at other end; length of ganic material (prob. leather) in scatter of objects bronze tube 31 mm, diam. 10 mm, total length (6 – 8, 10 – 12, 14 – 27) in disturbed abdomen/pel- with brush remains 36 mm. Found with chain vis area of skeleton 1. (36) and brooch (38) among textile remains (from 23 Iron knife, single-edged, tanged; wood on tang, ?bag) in neck area/at left hand of skeleton 2. and wood and leather on blade; length 111 mm. 38 Bronze bird brooch representing two crossed Found in scatter of objects (6 – 8, 10 – 12, 14 – 27) birds; on central body a round glass inlay of trans- in disturbed abdomen/pelvis area of skeleton 1. parent light green glass, set in imitated granula- 24 Bronze fitting of elongated scutiform shape (iden- tion and soldered with silver solder onto base tical to 16 and 20); length 38 mm, with leather plate; catch for pin on back (now detached), pin remains 40 mm long. Found in scatter of objects missing; 43 × 38 mm. Found with chain (36) and (6 – 8, 10 – 12, 14 – 27) in disturbed abdomen/pel- brush (37) among textile remains (from ?bag) in vis area of skeleton 1. neck area of skeleton 2.

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Fig. 220. Cemetery IV grave 8. Finds from chamber.

401 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

39 Two beads; found with ring (40) at right hip of 41 Iron buckle loop, fragmentary; oval, extant size skeleton 2: 24 × 23 mm. Found between skeletons 1 and 2. (a) amber bead, round, flat, diam. 23 mm (b) glass bead, opaque dark blue, in shape of cube; 13 × 12 × 10 mm. Grave 9 (trench 1/1996) (Figs. 221 – 225) 40 Bronze wire ring; made from flat wire; diam. 24 mm. Found with fragments of string and with Alanic (period IIIa, mid-7th cent. AD). Catacomb with dro- beads (39) at right hip of skeleton 2. mos, with triple burial; overlap of chamber with Alanic chamber 10. Grave construction:

Fig. 221. Cemetery IV grave 9. Plans, detail, sections, and elevations of entrance.

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Fig. 222. Cemetery IV grave 9. Finds from dromos.

403 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Dromos E–W, slightly trapezoidal, length 3.50 m (E end D16 Bronze fitting, with scutiform and semicircular cut off slightly by 1991 trench), width 0.53 m (E end) to halves, with several small apertures and holes 0.66 m (W end), depth 1.84 m below modern surface; (similar to D9 and D19); on back a raised bar held walls vertical, floor even, but slightly higher in middle by two pins, and leather traces; length 26 mm. than at ends; one low, sloping step in E end of dromos; Found in concentration III of small finds. fill of humus and yellow sand (the latter particularly in W D17 Bronze buckle; with rectangular loop and fixed end); in fill two sandstone slabs flat in middle of dromos scutiform plate; one rivet on back; 22 × 18 mm. (0.20 – 0.35 m above floor), horse bones (see below), a Found 0.09 m above stones of chamber entrance. lot of charcoal, soot-covered fragments of at least three D18 Silver buckle, cast; with truncated-oval loop and pottery vessels (D47 – 49) broken in antiquity, small pot- fixed, small trapezoidal plate, tongue missing; tery sherds (Koban and Alanic), numerous small finds, length 28 mm. Found in concentration I of small and remains of textile and of a basket. Concentration finds. of small finds in three groups: (I) slightly W of middle of D19 Bronze fitting (similar to D9 and D16); length dromos, 0.47 – 0.80 m above floor, directly above area of 26 mm. Found in concentration I of small finds. horse skull (D18 – 20); (II) slightly E of middle of dromos, D20 Bronze fitting, boss-shaped, made from thin 0.47 – 0.98 m above floor (D2 – 8, 10 – 11, 14, 21 – 36); sheet; with two opposed small holes; diam. (III) in E end of dromos, 0.43 – 0.83 m above floor (D1, 10 mm. Found in concentration I of small finds. 9, 12 – 13, 15 – 16, 37 – 40). Deposition: horse bones in D21 Bronze buckle, with oval loop and straight tongue fill of dromos; skull in front of entrance against S wall, (similar to D8 and D27); made from round wire; 0.16 m above floor; lower jaw and hoof on top of sand- 11 × 11 mm. Found in concentration II of small stone slabs in middle of dromos, 0.28 m above floor; leg finds. bones and hoof in same (W) end of dromos close to N D22 Bronze clip, made from thin sheet bent in U-shape wall, between 1.11 and 0.60 m above floor; and a hoof and held together by a rivet; 10 × 10 mm. Found in in other (E) end of dromos, 0.43 m above floor. Probably concentration II of small finds. remains of a disturbed ‘horse skin’ deposition. D23 Bronze fragment; disintegrated when lifted. Finds from fill of dromos: Found in concentration II of small finds. D1 Iron fragment, poss. from horse bit; length D24 Polished stone, round, of translucent red colour 29 mm. Found in concentration III of small finds. (prob. carnelian); 10 × 8 mm. Found in concentra- D2 Bronze fitting, circular; sheet bronze base with tion II of small finds. triple edging imitating granulation; central insert D25 Bronze ring or clamp (for D24?); diam. 11 mm. missing; diam. 21 mm. Found in concentration II Found in concentration II of small finds. of small finds. D26 Textile fragments, badly preserved. Found in con- D3 Bronze fitting of double-scutiform shape, with centration II of small finds. one large aperture in the middle and two in each D27 Bronze buckle, with round loop (similar to D8 and shield; on the back two rivets and leather re- D21); made from bronze wire; diam. 8 mm. Found mains; length 29 mm. Found in concentration II of in concentration II of small finds. small finds. D28 Two bronze fragments, prob. the catchplate of a D4 Silver sheet fragments, prob. from scutiform fit- brooch; 9 × 7 mm and 8 × 6 mm. Found in concen- ting; extant length 27.5 mm. Found in concentra- tration II of small finds. tion II of small finds. D29 Carnelian bead or insert, fragmentary; opaque D5 Bronze fitting, key-shaped, prob. from belt or pink; length 12 mm. Found in concentration II of horse harness; on back two rivets with leather re- small finds. mains; length 42 mm. Found in concentration II of D30 Beads; found in concentration II of small finds: small finds. (a) glass bead, fragmentary; matrix opaque, D6 Bronze fitting, key-shaped, prob. from belt or white, with banding (orig. polychrome?); length horse harness; length 35 mm. Found in concen- 13 mm tration II of small finds. (b) small glass bead, round, diam. 3 mm. D7 Silver sheet fragment, burnt; 10 × 9 mm. Found in D31 Iron object, extremely corroded; length 17 mm. concentration II of small finds. Found in concentration II of small finds. D8 Bronze buckle, with oval loop and straight tongue D32 Carnelian bead or insert, fragmentary; opaque (similar to D21 and D27); made from bronze wire; pink; length 9 mm. Found in concentration II of 13 × 11 mm. Found in concentration II of small small finds. finds. D33 Glass bead, cylindrical, from opaque dark blue D9 Bronze fitting, badly corroded (similar to D16 and glass; length 11 mm. Found in concentration II of D19); on back a raised bar and leather remains; small finds. length 26 mm. Found in concentration III of small D34 Amber pendant or large bead; toroidal, with hole finds. located off-centre; with cracks of ancient damage, D10 – 11 Six silver sheet fragments; two largest ones and held together by bronze wire around the cir- 19 × 10 mm and 12 × 6 mm. Found in concentra- cumference; diam. 26 mm. Found in concentration II of small finds. tion II of small finds. D12 Bronze strip, narrow, length 30 mm (similar to D35 Glass bead, cylindrical, from opaque grey-white D14). Found in concentration III of small finds. glass, with bands and dots of pale blue; length D13 Bronze sheet fragment, bent; 13 × 10 mm. Found 13 mm. Found in concentration II of small finds. in concentration III of small finds. D36 Beads, bead fragments, animal tooth and bronze D14 Bronze strip (similar to D12); length 24 mm. fragments; found in concentration II of small Found in concentration II of small finds. finds: D15 Silver sheet fragment; 12 × 9 mm. Found in con- (a) carnelian bead, round, fragmentary; opaque centration III of small finds. red, diam. 12 mm

404 14 Catalogue

Fig. 223. Cemetery IV grave 9. Finds from dromos.

405 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

(b) carnelian bead, of double-pyramid shape; D48 Pottery vessel, fragmentary, incomplete; flat translucent pink, length 16 mm base, ovoid body, sharply everted horizontal rim; (c) glass bead, toroidal, from opaque dark brown surface grey, smooth; some soot on body; height glass, with white dots; diam. 16 mm c. 112 mm. Found scattered in dromos fill. (d) glass bead, damaged; round, opaque dark D49 Pottery cup, fragmentary, incomplete; flat base, grey, diam. 12 mm globular body, conical neck, one handle; surface (e) 78 glass beads; cylindrical, round, flat, and black with grey patches, burnished; on body at dumbbell-shaped forms; from translucent green, least one conical boss; some soot on body. Found opaque green, dark blue, green, and yellow glass; scattered in dromos fill. sizes 3 – 6 mm D50 Amber pendant or large bead, slightly damaged; (f) glass bead fragments; round forms, opaque hemispherical, with central hole; diam. 39 mm. grey and white, and translucent blue and light Found in dromos fill. green; diam. 5 – 13 mm Entrance at W end of dromos, partly destroyed by col- (g) animal tooth (canine), length 22 mm lapse, prob. width 0.50 m, height 0.40 m, opening di- (h) two brooch pins, 23 and 26 mm rectly into chamber, drop of 0.80 m to chamber floor. (i) bronze wire fragment with granulation imita- Closed by two-layer construction: inner massive sand- tion (similar to 39b); extant length 11 mm stone slab leaning at a slight angle, supplemented by (k) bronze strip, with one end bent into an eye, several smaller stones and covered with yellow clay; fragmentary; extant length 13 mm outer two sandstone slabs overlapping, and leaning at a (l) bronze strip bent double; extant length 10 mm. more marked angle. D37 Three bronze roundels with dark red glass inlays; Chamber collapsed, fill of mixed yellow subsoil and bronze wire border around inlay with imitated loose humus with a few pottery sherds (prob. from ani- granulation; one roundel has lost its inlay, show- mal burrows); oval outline, size 1.92 × 1.38 m, walls pre- ing organic fill inside; diam. 13 mm. Found in con- served to a max. height of 0.65 m, depth c. 2.74 m below centration III of small finds. modern surface, long axis S – N. Floor in dense yellow D38 Iron fragments. Found in concentration III of small subsoil, quite even, sloping by 0.08 m from W to E; on finds. floor, under skeletons, a thin, light grey layer of unidenti- D39 Beads and bronze fragment; found in concentra- fied material; organic material under right arms of skele- tion III of small finds: tons 2 and 3. Two niches in walls, both empty; first niche (a) six small glass beads, round, flat, and dumb- in SE corner at floor level, half-oval, size 0.26 × 0.35 m, bell-shaped, from opaque white yellow and violet depth 0.12 m; second niche in NE corner, 0.20 m above glass; diam. 4 – 5 mm floor, sub-rectangular, size 0.30 × 0.27 m, depth 0.12 m. (b) bronze wire fragment with granulation imita- SSW corner of chamber running marginally under NNE tion (similar to 36i); length 14 mm. corner of Alanic chamber 10, without disturbance (floor D40 Bronze ring, flat, knobbly, with nine spherical of latter 0.27 m higher). bulges; diam. 45 mm. Found in concentration III Burials: three, in variable condition, and disturbed. of small finds. Skeleton 1 (child; skeleton in very bad condition). De- D41 Textile fragments, charred, in a round patch of c. posited on E side of chamber, closest to entrance; prob. 0.25 m diam. Found in E (access) end of dromos, extended on back, head to S. on floor and against step. Skeleton 2 (child; skeleton in satisfactory condition, D42 Lower jaw of horse skull. Found close to entrance disturbed). Deposited in middle of chamber, between stones in W end of dromos, 0.16 m above floor. skeletons 1 and 3; prob. extended on back, head to SSW D43 Three iron chain mail fragments, strongly corroded, (next to skull of skeleton 3), right arm flexed, upper body with textile remains; largest fragment 102 × 68 mm. disturbed and bones mixed with those of skeleton 3, Found on dromos floor in middle of dromos. right leg bones disturbed, left leg bones not in anatom- D44 Patch of woven twigs (prob. from basket) and ical position. textile fragments, both charred, with small glass Skeleton 3 (female adult; skeleton in good condition, beads and bronze fragments; found slightly E of disturbed). Deposited on W side of chamber, along W middle of dromos, 0.23 m above floor, under con- wall, and W of skeletons 1 and 2; head to S, on right side centration II of small finds: facing W, right arm straight and overlying bones of skele- (a) 18 glass beads, some fragmentary; round, ton 2, ribs mixed up with bones of skeleton 2, pelvis flat, cylindrical and dumbbell-shaped forms, from legs flexed to right (E) and parallel to one another; orig. translucent purple, opaque white and blue glass; flexed on right side(?). diam. 2.5 – 12 mm Finds from chamber: (b) bronze fragments, incl. a splint, an eye, a 1 Pottery cup; flat base, carinated body, high con- sheet fragment, and two unidentifiable globules; ical neck, one handle; surface black, burnished; length 4 – 12 mm. on body four conical bosses; height 90 mm. D45 Glass pendant, hemispherical, of translucent Found standing in SE corner, between entrance white glass, with bronze wire suspension; height and skull of skeleton 1. 23 mm, diam. 18 mm. Found on dromos floor 2 Pottery jug; broad flat base, squat round body, slightly E of middle of dromos, against S wall. short conical neck, one handle; surface grey- D46 Bronze earring, crescent-shaped, penannular; black, rough; ancient damage to lip, body exten- diam. 21 mm. Found on dromos floor in front (E) of sively covered with soot; height 130 mm. Found entrance stones. standing in SE corner, between empty niche and D47 Pottery jar, fragmentary, incomplete; flat base, skull of skeleton 1; cup (3) on top of it. prob. ovoid body; surface grey with light-grey and 3 Pottery cup or small jug; flat base, globular body, black patches, smooth; diam. of base 125 mm. conical neck (much of it missing), one handle; Found scattered in dromos fill. crudely tempered; surface grey; on base a design

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Fig. 224. Cemetery IV grave 9. Finds from chamber.

407 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

in relief (cross, diam. c. 65 mm); ancient damage (a) wire with imitated granulation; length 27 mm to lip, much soot on body; height 125 mm. Found (b) flat strip, poss. an edge broken off a sheet; on top of jug (2). length 18 mm. 4 – 5 P ottery jug, fragmentary, incomplete; high cyl 23 Bronze finger ring with glass roundel (detached); indrical neck, small spout, one handle; surface ring with two grooves; roundel of translucent, pale grey, rough; some soot on surface; diam. of mouth glass, on flat bronze base; size of ring 23 × 21 mm, 108 mm. One fragment (4) found in head end, the diam. of roundel 10 mm. Found in left pelvis area other (5) in foot end against N wall. of skeleton 2. 6 Wooden object, fragmentary, prob. base of a ves- 24 Bronze finger ring (identical to 23, roundel miss- sel; diam. of base 58 mm. Found with wooden ing). Found with fibula (25) in pelvis/upper leg ?dish (7) W. of skull of skeleton 1. area of skeleton 2. 7 Wooden object, fragmentary, flat, poss. from a 25 Bronze fibula with closed triangular foot, ham- dish; extant size 134 × 47 mm. Found with wood- mered; broad flat bow, and iron spring and pin; en ?vessel (6) W of skull of skeleton 1. leather strap tied around top of bow; length 8 108 glass beads, toroidal and round flat forms; 54 mm. Found with ring (24) in pelvis/upper leg from opaque yellow-green glass; diam. 3.5 – 6 mm. area of skeleton 2. Found in chest area of skeleton 1. 26 Silver ring; penannular, bent from flat strip; diam. 9 Bronze disc, damaged; from thin sheet, slightly 17 mm. Found among and under bones in chest oval, 37 × 33 mm. Found in lower chest/abdomen area of skeletons 2 and 3, in a group of objects area of skeleton 1. (26 – 30). 10 Iron knife; single-edged, tanged; wood remains 27 Silver ?brooch; square plate, with bronze pin and on tang, wood and leather on blade; length catchplate soldered onto the back, and a lateral 112 mm. Found in right pelvis/right upper leg hole with a piece of leather string; 31 × 27 mm. area of skeleton 1, point to NE. Found among and under bones in chest area of 11 Piece of felt, light brown; 70 × 57 mm. Found right skeletons 2 and 3, in a group of objects (26 – 30). of pelvis area of skeleton 2. 28 Bronze buckle; with rectangular loop and fixed 12 Two bronze fragments, one a disc-headed rivet, scutiform plate; tip of tongue bent downwards; head diam. 9.5 mm, the other from a boss-shaped 23 × 18 mm; on back a rivet holding a piece of fitting, diam. 10 mm. Found in left shoulder/arm leather strap 10 mm wide. Found among and un- area of skeleton 1. der bones in chest area of skeletons 2 and 3, in a 13 Four silver globules; two of diam. 6 mm, other two group of objects (26 – 30). of diam. 3 mm. Found immediately W of skull of 29 Bronze strip; narrow, bent at one end; length skeleton 1. 27 mm. Found among and under bones in chest 14 Glass bead, of irregular toroidal shape; from area of skeletons 2 and 3, in a group of objects opaque dark brown glass, with three appliqué (26 – 30). dots of light brown glass; diam. 10 mm. Found 30 Iron pin or nail; length 46 mm; textile remains in with beads (16, 17) and strap fragment (15) E of corrosion layer. Found among and under bones in right arm of skeleton 2. chest area of skeletons 2 and 3, in a group of ob- 15 Bronze fitting, boss-shaped, diam. 11 mm, on a jects (26 – 30). leather fragment. Found with beads (14, 16, 17) E 31 Silver strap end, tongue-shaped; made from sheet of right arm of skeleton 2. silver, with small hole at square end; 32 × 14 mm. 16 Bead, ?coral; cylindrical, diam. 12 mm. Found Found in shoulder area of skeleton 2 and 3, above with beads (14, 17) and strap fragment (15) E of group of other objects (26 – 30). right arm of skeleton 2. 32 Br onze earring, crescent-shaped; diam. 20 mm. 17 Glass bead, round, flat; from opaque black glass, Found in angle between skulls of skeletons 2 and 3. with one yellow dot decoration; diam. 11 mm. 33 Wooden object, of uncertain shape. Found be- Found with beads (14, 16) and strap fragment tween NW chamber wall and legs of skeleton 3. (15) E of right arm of skeleton 2. 34 Beads; found with belt (35) in pelvis area of skele- 18 Bronze fittings; found along right arm of skeleton 2: ton 3: (a) amber bead, of irregular round shape, (a) eight boss-shaped fittings, with small flange, 20 × 18 × 14 mm diam. 11 mm (b) glass bead, of double-pyramidal shape, from (b) small strip of sheet bronze, bent, length 18 mm. translucent light blue glass, length 12 mm 19 Br onze strip, bent at right angles, with triangular (c) glass bead, polygonal, from opaque light piece of leather fitting into the angle; max. width green glass, length 10 mm 23 mm. Found between elbows of skeletons 2 (d) glass bead, round, from translucent dark blue and 3. glass, diam. 9 mm. 20 Silver disc, diam. 15 mm, with silver pin, length 35 Leather belt fragment with bronze rivets (similar 18 mm. Found in shoulder area of skeletons 2 and to 21). Found with beads in pelvis area of skele- 3, above a group of other objects (26 – 30). ton 2. 21 Two leather straps, width 11 and 8.5 mm, cross- 36 Obsidian piece, 37 × 32 × 13 mm. Found at right ing at right angles, with three bronze rivets (two of hip of skeleton 3. which connect the straps); rivet heads serrated at 37 Animal bone, prob. from cattle. Found in head end edges, diam. 6 – 7 mm. Found in shoulder area of of chamber, against S. wall. skeletons 2 and 3, above a group of other objects (26 – 30). Comment: 22 Two small bronze fragments; found in chest area The findings suggest at least two, possibly three pe- of skeletons 2 and 3: riods of deposition. Skeleton 2 appears to have been

408 14 Catalogue

Fig. 225. Cemetery IV grave 9. Finds from chamber.

disturbed when skeleton 3 was deposited partly next Grave 10 (trench 1/1996) (Figs. 226 – 228) to, and partly across, skeleton 2. The clearing out of the chamber and the disturbance of a ‘horse skin’ deposi- Alanic (period IIIa, mid-7th cent. AD). Catacomb with dro- tion suggested by the dromos findings may have hap- mos, with single burial; dromos cutting Koban grave 11, pened at this stage. The stratigraphic position of skele- chamber overlapping Alanic chamber 9. Grave construc- ton 1 is unclear; given that it is not disturbed at all, it may tion: have been deposited at the same time as skeleton 3, or Dromos E–W, of roughly rectangular shape, length even later than that. The possible sequences look like 3.20 m, max. width 0.54 m (E end) – 0.58 m (W. end), this: either (1) skeleton 2 and ‘horse skin’, (2) clearing depth c. 1.75 m below modern surface; walls uneven, out of chamber (prob. because of its collapse) and depo- carelessly cut, sloping inwards at E end (width at floor sition of skeleton 3 and 1; or (1) skeleton 2, (2) skeleton 0.37 m), and outwards at W end (to 0.80 m); floor even, 3 and ‘horse skin’, (3) clearing out of chamber and depo- slightly sloping down from E to W by 0.11 m; one step in sition of skeleton 1. E end; dense fill of grey-brown soil with small inclusions

409 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 226. Cemetery IV grave 10. Plan, sections, and elevation of entrance.

of yellow sandy subsoil; in fill a large stone (in W half). W Chamber collapsed(?), oval outline, size 1.77 × 1.10 m, half of dromos cutting through Koban grave 11, running walls preserved to a max. height of 0.64 m, depth 2.60 m above legs of Koban burial, with some disturbance; floor below modern surface, long axis S – N. Floor in yellow of dromos on average 0.07 m above floor of grave 11. sandy subsoil, even, horizontal; white organic matter Depositions: fragments of three pottery vessels, includ- (poss. birch bark) over entire floor. Niche in NE corner at ing an almost complete jar (D1) in E end close to step, floor level, half-oval, 0.30 × 0.26 m, depth 0.14 m. NNE 0.04 – 0.13 m above dromos floor. corner of chamber running marginally above SSW corner Finds from dromos: of Alanic chamber 9, without disturbance (floor of latter D1 Pottery jar, fragmentary, incomplete; flat base, 0.27 m lower). ovoid body, neck and handle missing; hand-made Burial: one (female adult; in good condition, slightly vessel, surface grey with black and grey patches, disturbed). Skeleton extended on back, head to SSE and rough; much soot on body; extant height 222 mm. half turned to right, both arms straight with hands palms D2 Pottery jug, only body sherds extant; surface light down, legs straight; lower left leg disturbed and moved grey, burnished, with decoration of grooves, and against W wall by animal burrow. of bands or circles of triangular impressions. Finds from fill of chamber: D3 P ottery vessel, only base fragments extant; sur- F1 Ir on buckle, with sub-rectangular loop; 32 × 30 mm. face grey, smooth; on base a mark in relief (cross F2 Iron plate, thin, rectangular; four rivet heads on in circle, asymmetric; diam. 42 mm); diam. of base one side; 26 × 13 mm; leather remains attached 85 mm. to iron. Entrance at W. end of dromos, shape and height could Finds from floor of chamber: not be determined because of collapse, width 0.40 m, 1 Pottery jar; flat base, ovoid body, low cylindrical length 0.27 m, drop of 0.80 m to chamber floor. Closed neck, spout, one handle; crudely tempered; sur- by a large limestone slab leaning slightly towards the face buff and grey, with black patches, rough; on chamber, and covered with yellow-green clay around the body slanting shallow grooves; slight damage to edges; smaller stones around the slab, and two medium- rim; height 258 mm. Found in SE corner, together sized sandstones horizontally in front of it. with other vessels (2, 3) and wooden object (4).

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Fig. 227. Cemetery IV grave 10. Finds from dromos (D) and chamber.

411 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Fig. 228. Cemetery IV grave 10. Finds from chamber.

2 P ottery cup; flat base, globular body, conical diam. 40 mm); height 72 mm. Found in SE corner, neck, one handle; surface black, burnished; on together with other vessels (1, 2) and wooden ob- lower part of body vertical, narrow burnished ject (4). strips; ancient damage to lip, pieces flaked off 4 Four wooden fragments, size of largest 21 × 8 body; height 81 mm. Found in SE corner, togeth- x 3 mm; in-situ observations suggest possible er with other vessels (1, 3) and wooden object wooden dish. Found in SE corner, in angle be- (4). tween skull and pottery vessels. 3 Pottery cup; flat base, squat lentoid body, cyl 5 Beads; found between upper left arm and SW indrical neck, vertical lip, one handle with low wall: knob; surface buff with black patches, smooth; (a) two chalk beads, one flat, 14 × 9 mm, the other on body slightly curving and slanting shallow round, max. diam. 9 mm grooves; on base a mark in relief (star in circle;

412 14 Catalogue

(b) 19 glass beads, round and disc-shaped, from opaque dark blue and violet glass, diam. 4 – 6 mm. 6 Iron buckle, badly corroded; lyra-shaped, 50 × 36 mm;with remains of leather belt or strap, 18 mm wide. Found on sacrum. 7 Iron knife; single-edged, tanged; wood on tang, wood and ?leather on blade; length 165 mm. Found at left hip, tang against pelvis, tip pointing NNW. 8 Leather belt, with grooves and stitching, width 13 – 17 mm, extant length 330 mm; decorated with domed bronze studs with silver-plated heads in single settings (diam. 12 mm) and in settings of two and three (diam. each 6 mm); two positions for suspended straps visible. Found around waist area, with two smaller pieces (prob. suspended straps) between femora. 9 Silver strap end; tongue-shaped, made of two sheets and an edging strap, held together at one end by two rivets; length 69 mm; with remains of leather belt or strap, with stitching and grooves, width 13.5 mm; remains of thick, coarse textile on one side of metal surface. Found outside left wrist, in extension of the belt. 10 Iron object, prob. iron awl corroded against knife blade fragment; wood remains on tang of awl, leather on blade; length of awl 57 mm, length of blade fragment 60 mm. Found against outside of left femur, above bead (11). 11 Chalk bead, flat; 13 × 7 x 5 mm. Found under iron object (10) against outside of left femur.

Grave 11 (trench 1/1996) (Figs. 229 – 230)

Koban Culture; cut by dromos of Alanic grave 10. Grave pit with one crouched burial. Grave construction: Grave pit trapezoidal, 1.50 × 1.06 m, depth 1.82 m behalf of grave cut by Alanic dromos 10, running above legs Fig. 229. Cemetery IV low modern surface, long axis S–N, sides vertical, floor of skeleton with some disturbance (left femur missing); grave 11. Plan and section. even, horizontal, cut into dense, yellow sandy subsoil; floor of grave on average 0.07 m below floor of Alanic fill of loose sand with humus, without pottery sherds. N dromos 10.

Fig. 230. Cemetery IV grave 11. Finds.

413 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

Burial of one individual (male adult; skeleton in good Grave 12 (trench 1/1996) (Figs. 231 – 232) condition). Deposition crouched on right side, head to S, face to E, arms bent at elbows, hands in front of face, left Alanic (period IIIb – IIIc/IIIб–IIIв, mid-7th – mid-8th cent. leg over right. AD). Catacomb with dromos, with single burial; dromos Finds in grave: overlapping Alanic chamber 6. Grave construction: 1 Pottery bowl, hand-made; flat base, carinated Dromos SSW–NNE, sub-rectangular, length 2.67 m, body, everted rim; surface dark grey, smooth; on width 0.62 – 0.67 m, depth c. 2.05 m below modern sur- neck a band of incised slanting crisscrossed lines; face; lower part of walls and floor in dense, yellow sandy a few cracks, and pieces flaked off (post-depo- subsoil, walls vertical, NE wall slightly undercut, floor sitional root action); diam. of mouth 235 mm. even, sloping slightly downwards by 0.08 m from SSW Found in front (E) of skull, in SE corner of grave, to NNE; one step in SSW end; fill of mixed humus and together with spearhead (2). yellow sandy subsoil, very loose in N part; no finds in fill. 2 Iron spearhead, fragmentary, badly corroded; NNE half of dromos running above W half of Alanic cham- socketed, with wood remains in socket; max. ber 6, without disturbance (dromos between 0.68 and length of extant fragments 172 mm. Found in SE 0.76 m above floor level of chamber 6). corner of grave, partly covered by bowl (1), point Entrance at NNE end of dromos, shape sub-rectangular, to S. max. width 0.46 m, height 0.45 m, length 0.52 m, drop 3 Whetstone, sub-rectangular, made from dark red of 0.89 m to chamber floor. Closed by two large sand- sandstone; 112 × 36 × 19 mm. Found in angle be- stone slabs one in front of the other, supplemented by tween right shoulder, hands and lower jaw. several smaller stones around the edges, and by a large 4 Iron knife blade fragment; single-edged, extant stone leaning against them from the front (SSE); no trace length 69 mm. Found at right elbow. of clay cover.

Fig. 231. Cemetery IV grave 12. Plan, sections, and elevations of entrance.

414 14 Catalogue

Fig. 232. Cemetery IV grave 12. Finds from fill (F) and floor of chamber.

Chamber collapsed and three-quarters filled with sandy Burial: one (male adult; skeleton in extremely bad con- subsoil; outline near oval, size 1.80 × 1.22 m, walls pre- dition, extensive disturbance by animal burrows). De served to max. height of 0.70 m, depth c. 3.06 m below position extended on back, head to WNW (skull miss- modern surface, long axis WNW–ESE. Floor and lower part ing), lower left arm bent across stomach, lower right arm of walls cut into extremely hard subsoil (almost sand- bent sharply upwards to lie parallel to humerus, pelvis stone); floor even, sloping down by 0.09 m from S to N. missing, legs straight.

415 Ritual, society and population at Klin-Yar

4 Bronze crossbow fibula, cast, with iron pin; head with three knobs, high bow, lozenge foot; length 41 mm; two bronze wire rings, diam. 14 – 15 mm, attached to bow; textile remains on back. Found against inside (N) of right arm, with iron fibula (5) and bead (6). 5 Iron fibula, with high bow; length 49 mm; ?textile remains in corrosion layer. Found against inside (N) of right arm, with bronze fibula (4) and bead (6). 6 Glass bead, toroid, from translucent dark blue Fig. 233. Cemetery IV glass, decorated with three yellow-green dots; grave 13 (‘cenotaph’). Plan. diam. 16 mm. Found against inside (N) of right arm, with fibulae (4 and 5).

Finds from fill of chamber (head end): F1 Iron knife; single-edged, tanged; wood on tang, Grave 13 (trench 1/1996) (Fig. 233) wood and leather on blade; length 140 mm. F2 Glass bead; irregular shape, of opaque yellow Date uncertain (prob. Iron Age/Koban Culture). Mini glass, with two dots of buff colour; diam. 13 mm. ature stone cist, empty (‘cenotaph’). Grave construc- F3 Amber bead, of irregular shape, length 19 mm. tion: F4 Glass bead fragment, round, of translucent green Stone cist, rectangular, size 0.65 × 0.45 m, depth of glass, extant length 5.5 mm. base of stone lining 0.70 m below modern surface (in Finds from floor of chamber: transition from topsoil to grey sandy subsoil), long axis 1 Pottery cup; flat base, squashed-globular body, NNW–SSE; built of five upright sandstone slabs, slightly high conical neck, one handle; surface black, bur- leaning outwards, without cover; fill of loose humus with nished; on body vertical shallow grooves, at base grey sand. Immediately north of Alanic grave 9, without of neck two horizontal grooves; on base a design intersection. in relief (cross in circle; diam. c. 27 mm); ancient Burial: none. damage to lip and handle, pieces flaked off body; Finds: none. height 82 mm. Found standing in SW corner of grave, outside (S) of right arm. Comment: 2 – 3 T wo bronze bracelets; bent from round-sectioned This ‘cenotaph’ is right at the edge of the spur on which rods, terminals overlapping; max. diam. 63 and cemetery IV is located; beyond it, the ground drops off 67 mm. Found on left elbow and lower right arm. sharply into the ravine below the spur.

416 Plates

Archäologie in Eurasien 36 Plate 1

Klin-Yar. 1 View of Klin-Yar in 1996 from the southeast. In the foreground the buildings of the cattle farm where rescue excavations revealed the extent of the cemetery area, in the middle the sandstone rock (Paravos) at the centre of the site, and in the background – beyond the valley of the river Pod- kumok – the chalk hills of the Borgustan range. On the right, between cattle farm and the rock, the location of the main trench in cemetery III is indicated by spoil heaps; 2 Stone-lined Koban grave 362, with the richly decorated axe visible in the angle between face and hands (Fotos: H. Härke). Plate 2 A. B. Belinskij and H. Härke – Klin-Yar

Klin-Yar. The decorated bronze axe from Koban grave 362 (catalogue no. 3), with a snaking iron inlay and incised decoration showing fishes (Fotos: I. Kozhevnikov). Archäologie in Eurasien 36 Plate 3

Klin-Yar. 1 The possible ‘shaman’s burial’ in Koban grave 355, showing the peculiar deposition of the body and the upturned vessel under the upper legs; 2 Male burial with iron long sword in Late Sarma- tian catacomb grave 365 (Fotos: H. Härke). Plate 4 A. B. Belinskij and H. Härke – Klin-Yar

Klin-Yar. 1 The rich 7th century Alanic grave 360 with a double burial, looking north from the entrance. Grave-goods are visible south of the male (sword, gold-decorated belt fittings, stirrup), between the male and the female (mirror, gold earring), in the head end (vessels) and foot end (silver-decorated horse harness); 2 the horse sacrifice in the dromos of grave 360. After death, the body of the kneel- ing horse seems to have sagged against the dry-stone wall closing off the disturbed Alanic grave 359 (Fotos: H. Härke). Archäologie in Eurasien 36 Plate 5

Klin-Yar grave 360. 1 Boot fittings (catalogue nos. 49−50); 2 belt fittings (nos. 33, 39); 3 belt -fit tings (nos. 4c, e); 4 Iranian glass vessel (no. 2); 5 gold brooch with inlay of semi-precious stone (no. D3); 6 pyramid-shaped gold earrings (no. 6), with gold granulation covering the entire surfaces; 7 hilt and scabbard mouth band of the sword (no. 41). The iron hilt is decorated with a silver band and a gold lozenge with granulation, the silver mouth band with gold studs with granulation (Fotos: I. Kozhevnikov). Plate 6 A. B. Belinskij and H. Härke – Klin-Yar

Klin-Yar. 1 The ‘horse skin’ on top of the refilled dromos of ‘cenotaph’ grave 388. The positions of the skull and the lower leg bones (head-and-hooves deposition) suggest that the skin had been deposited as a bundle; 2 the possible human sacrifice in grave 385. The semi-contorted skeleton of a juvenile had been deposited in the topsoil right on top of the dromos of Late Sarmatian catacomb grave 386 (Fotos: H. Härke). Archäologie in Eurasien 36 Plate 7

Klin-Yar. 1, 2 Two Byzantine solidi of Emperor Tiberius Mauritius from Alanic grave 341 (no. 10); 3 Byzantine solidus of Emperor Heraclius and Sons from Alanic grave 363 (no. 10). The perforated coin was probably part of a necklace together with gold plates (nos. 6 and 13); 4 gold disc brooch from Alanic grave 345 (no. 5); 5 earrings from Alanic grave 363 (nos. 11 and 12), with a rock crystal bead suspended from a gold loop; 6 silver strap end from Alanic grave 341 (no. 41/42), with cut-outs giving the impression of a human face; 7 gold plates from the elaborate necklace found in Alanic grave 363 (nos. 6 and 13) (Fotos: I. Kozhevnikov).

Bisher in der Reihe Archäologie in Eurasien erschienen

Band 1 (nicht mehr lieferbar) Band 11 (nicht mehr lieferbar) I Vladimir G. Zbenovič: Siedlungen der frühen Valentina Mordvinceva: Sarmatische Phaleren r q Tripol’e-Kultur zwischen Dnestr und Südlichem (Rahden/Westf. 2001). Bug (Espelkamp 1996). ISBN 3-89646-260-1 ISBN 3-89646-250-4 Band 12 (nicht mehr lieferbar) Band 2 Klaus-Peter Wechler: Studien zum Neolithikum ¢¢ Thomas Götzelt: Ansichten der Archäologie der osteuropäischen Steppe (Mainz 2001). A ¢ ¢ Süd-Turkmenistans bei der Erforschung der ISBN 3-8053-2868-0 vm¡ tm mm „mittleren Bronzezeit“ („Periode“ „Namazga V“) (Espelkamp 1996). Band 13 (nicht mehr lieferbar) ISBN 3-89646-251-2 Nikolaj V. Leont’ev/Vladimir F. Kapel’ko: Stein- stelen der Okunev-Kultur (Mainz 2002). Band 3 ISBN 3-8053-2926-1 Anatoli Nagler: Kurgane der Mozdok-Steppe in ARCHÄOLOGIE IN Nordkaukasien (Espelkamp 1996). Band 14 (nicht mehr lieferbar) EURASIEN 33 ISBN 3-89646-252-0 Elke Kaiser: Studien zur Katakombengrab-Kul- tur zwischen Dnepr und Prut (Mainz 2003). Band 4 ISBN 3-8053-3152-5 Konstantin Picchelauri: Waffen der Bronzezeit aus Ost-Georgien (Espelkamp 1997). Band 15 (nicht mehr lieferbar) GLEB V. KUBAREV Alttürkische Gräber des Altaj ISBN 3-89646-253-9 Necmi Karul/Hermann Parzinger u. a.: Aşaği Pinar I. Studien im Thrakien-Marmara-Raum 1 Band 5 (Mainz 2003). Sofija S. Berezanskaja/Viktor I. Kločko: Das Grä- ISBN 3-8053-3269-6 berfeld von Hordeevka (Rahden/Westf. 1998). ISBN 3-89646-254-7 Band 16 (nicht mehr lieferbar) Hermann Parzinger u. a.: Der große Kurgan von Band 6 (nicht mehr lieferbar) Bajkara. Studien zu einem skythischen Heilig- Norbert Benecke (Ed.): The Holocene History of tum (Mainz 2003). the European Vertebrate Fauna (Rahden/Westf. ISBN 3-8053-3273-4 1999). ISBN 3-89646-255-5 Band 17 (nicht mehr lieferbar) Jurij Ja. Rassamakin: Die nordpontische Steppe Band 7 in der Kupferzeit. Gräber aus der Mitte des 5. Jts. Jakov Petrovič Gerškovič: Studien zur spätbron- bis Ende des 4. Jts. v. Chr. (Mainz 2004). zezeitlichen Sabatinovka-Kultur am unteren ISBN 3-8053-3486-9 Dnepr und an der Westküste des Azov’schen Meeres (Rahden/Westf. 1999). Band 18 (nicht mehr lieferbar) ISBN 3-89646-256-3 Hermann Parzinger/Heiner Schwarzberg: Aşăgı Pınar II. Die mittel- und spätneolithische Band 8 Keramik. Studien im Thrakien-Marmara-Raum 2 Valerij S. Zubkov/Aleksandr I. Posel’janin: Das (Mainz 2005). tagarzeitliche Gräberfeld Belyj Jar I in Chakas- ISBN 3-8053-3541-5 sien (Rahden/Westf. 1999). ISBN 3-89646-257-1 Band 19 (nicht mehr lieferbar) Maria A. Očir-Gorjaeva: Pferdegeschirr aus Band 9 Chošeutovo. Skythischer Tierstil an der Unteren Tivadar Vida/Thomas Völling: Das slawische Wolga (Mainz 2005). Brandgräberfeld von Olympia (Rahden/Westf. ISBN 3-8053-3574-1 2000). ISBN 3-89646-258-X Band 20 (nicht mehr lieferbar) Svend Hansen: Bilder vom Menschen der Stein- Band 10 (nicht mehr lieferbar) zeit. Untersuchungen zur anthropomorphen Alexej D. Rezepkin: Das frühbronzezeitliche Plastik der Jungsteinzeit und Kupferzeit in Süd- Gräberfeld von Klady und die Majkop-Kultur in osteuropa (Mainz 2007). Nordwestkaukasien (Rahden/Westf. 2000). ISBN 978-3-8053-3773-1 ISBN 3-89646-259-8 Band 21 (nicht mehr lieferbar) Band 29 ARCHÄOLOGIE IN EURASIEN 34 Mayke Wagner: Neolithikum und Frühe Bronze- Raiko Krauss: Ovčarovo Gorata. Eine frühneo- zeit in Nordchina vor 8000 bis 3500 Jahren. Die lithische Siedlung in Nordostbulgarien (Bonn Nordöstliche Tiefebene (Südteil) (Mainz 2006). 2014). ISBN-10: 3-8053-3668-3 ISBN 978-3-7749-3914-1 ISBN-13: 978-3-8053-3668-0 FLORIAN KLIMSCHA Band 30 Pietrele 1: Beile und Äxte ausStein Band 22 (nicht mehr lieferbar) Henny Piezonka: Jäger, Fischer, Töpfer. Wild-

Distinktion und Kommunikation während der Kupferzeit im östlichen Balkangebiet Jens Schneeweiss: Die Siedlung Čiča in der beutergruppen mit früher Keramik in Nordost- westsibirischen Waldsteppe I. Untersuchungen europa im 6. und 5. Jahrtausend v. Chr. (Bonn zur spätbronze- bis früheisenzeitlichen Keramik, 2015). Chronologie und kulturellen Stellung (Mainz ISBN 978-3-7749-3932-5 2007). ISBN 978-3-8053-3883-7 Band 31 Svend Hansen/Pál Raczky/Alexandra Anders/ ARCHÄOLOGIE IN EURASIEN 38 Band 23 (nicht mehr lieferbar) Agathe Reingruber (eds.): Neolithic and Copper Mayke Wagner: Nomadenkunst. Ordosbronzen Age between the Carpathians and the Aegean der Ostasiatischen Kunstsammlung. Museum für Sea. Chronology and Technologies from the 6th to Asiatische Kunst, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin the 4th Millenium BCE (Bonn 2015). (Mainz 2007). ISBN 978-3-7749-3972-1 SABINE REINHOLD, DMITRIJ S. KOROBOV, ANDREJ B. BELINSKIJ ISBN 978-3-8053-3812-7 Landschaftsarchäologie im Nordkaukasus Band 32

Studien zu einer neu entdeckten bronzezeitlichen Kulturlandschaft im Hochgebirge des Nordkaukasus Band 24 (nicht mehr lieferbar) Jochen Fornasier: Die griechische Kolonisation Svend Hansen/Johannes Müller (Hrsg.): Sozial- und im nördlichen Schwarzmeerraum vom 7. bis archäologische Perspektiven: Gesellschaft- 5. Jahrhundert v. Chr. (Bonn 2016). licher Wandel 5000–1500 v. Chr. zwischen ISBN 978-3-7749-4028-4 Atlantik und Kaukasus. Internationale Tagung 15.–18. Oktober 2007 in Kiel (Mainz 2011). Band 33 ISBN 978-3-8053-4386-2 Gleb V. Kubarev, Alttürkische Gräber des Altaj (Bonn 2017). Band 25 (nicht mehr lieferbar) ISBN 978-3-7749-4114-4 Aleksandr Simonenko/Ivan I. Marčenko/ Natal´ja Ju. Limberis: Römische Importe in sar- Band 34 matischen und maiotischen Gräbern zwischen Florian Klimscha, Pietrele 1: Beile und Äxte aus Unterer Donau und Kuban (Mainz 2008). Stein. Distinktion und Kommunikation während ISBN 978-3-8053-3954-4 der Kupferzeit im östlichen Balkangebiet (Bonn 2016). Band 26 (nicht mehr lieferbar) ISBN 978-3-7749-4040-6 Konstantin V. Čugunov/Hermann Parzinger/ Anatoli Nagler: Der skythenzeitliche Fürsten- Band 35 kurgan Aržan 2 in Tuva (Mainz 2010). Aleksandra Gudkova/Erdmute Schultze, Grä- ISBN 978-3-8053-4223-0 berfeld und Siedlung Nagornoe 2. Ein Fundplatz der Sântana de Mureş-Černjachov-Kultur (Bonn Band 27 (nicht mehr lieferbar) 2017). Mehmet Özdoğan/Hermann Parzinger: Die ISBN 978-3-7749-4072-7 frühbronzezeitliche Siedlung von Kanlıgeçit bei Kırklareli. Studien im Thrakien-Marmara-Raum 3 Band 38 (Darmstadt, Mainz 2012). Sabine Reinhold, Dmitrij S. Korobov, Andrej B. ISBN 978-3-8053-4513-2 Belinskij (Hrsg.), Landschaftsarchäologie im Nordkaukasus. Studien zu einer neu entdeckten Band 28 (nicht mehr lieferbar) bronzezeitlichen Kulturlandschaft im Hochgebir- Sven Rausch: Bilder des Nordens. Vorstellungen ge des Nordkaukasus (Bonn 2017). vom Norden in der griechischen Literatur von ISBN 978-3-7749-4119-9 Homer bis zum Ende des Hellenismus (Darm- stadt, Mainz 2013). BESTELLUNGEN RICHTEN SIE BITTE AN IHRE BUCHHANDLUNG. ISBN 978-3-8053-4658-0