Slide 1 Richest and most varied building material with endless colors, textures, Masonry and patterns.
Stone, Brick, Concrete, Terracotta, Adobe, Tabby [Plaster & Stucco]
Slide 2 STONE
Oldest building material Simplest building technique — stacked stone Most expensive – Traditionally, large public buildings built of stone – Less often used for residential buildings, except for facing or decoration. The high cost of transporting stone meant that it was advisable to use local stone
Egypt’s first Slide 3 pyramids ca. 3000 Pyramids: interior stones include low BCE. Built mostly from limestone; grade limestone at the core; fine white other stones used on interior. limestone for the outer casing; pink granite for the interior walls which had to withstand more stress; also basalt and alabaster. The casing stones were Sphinx, ca. 2500 BCE. Carved out of limestone removed about 1300. What you see outcrop. Granite facing applied later. today is about 700 years of weathering in a dry climate.
Great Wall of China, 7th- Slide 4 6th Centuries, BCE Sandstone, rammed earth, brick Longest human-made structure, approx. 3,948 miles
Slide 5
Parthenon, Athens, Greece, 447-432 BCE. Marble and limestone
Slide 6 Colosseum, Rome Tufa is a soft, porous CaCO3 limestone Vespasian, 70-82 CE from ambient temperature bodies of water. Do not confuse with tuff—an igneous rock composed of compacted volcanic ash. Travertine is limestone deposited from solution in hot, freshwater springs, aka Concrete and tufa faced with travertine flowstone. There are extensive deposits of travertine at Tivoli, Italy.
Slide 7
Taj Mahal Agra, India 1630-1653 Marble
Slide 8 http://3dparks.wr.usgs.gov/nyc/commo n/geologicbasics.htm
Slide 9 How to Distinguish Rocks Gabbro is a dark, coarse-grained, Lightness / Darkness plutonic igneous rock. It is the Coarseness / Fineness – Are the grains visible? chemical equivalent of basalt—a fine- grained volcanic igneous rock which Rhyolite cools too quickly for large mineral crystals to grow. The vast majority of Gabbro the earth’s surface is underlaid by
Basalt Granite gabbro. Granite is a light, coarse-grained, plutonic igneous rock. It is the chemical equivalent of rhyolite, a fine- grained volcanic igneous rock.
Slide 10 “Granite” Countertops? Drummond kitchen. Andesite is a volcanic igneous rock, the extrusive equivalent of plutonic diorite.
Marketing claims aside, these countertops are andesite
Slide 11 How not to Distinguish Rocks
Not by color: color often comes from impurities in the rock – Greens — chlorites, magnesium – Reds — iron oxides, esp. hematite (iron ore) – Yellows/tans — hydrated iron oxides
Chlorite Iron Ore Limonite
Slide 12 Igneous — rock deposited in a molten state Plutonic — formed deep beneath earth’s surface, when magma cools & hardens – Granite (light); diorite (dark); gabbro (very dark, mistakenly called black granite) – Granite: “grain”-y, non-porous, light colored (gray to pink), hard, durable, scratch- and chemical-resistant, takes a variety of finishes, low thermal expansion, can be used in contact with the ground or exposed to severe weathering Volcanic — formed close to the earth’s surface when lava cools & hardens – Rhyolite, andesite, basalt, pumice, tuff – Not often used for building in U.S. — few volcanoes
Slide 13
Slide 14 Boston Public Library Pink granite; 1888-1895; McKim, Mead & White
Slide 15 Rhodes Hall — 1516 Peachtree Street NW; http://archive.rebeccablacktech.com/b Stone Mtn. granite and Lithonia gneiss; 1904; W. F. Denny, II oards/cgl/img/0059/49/133971367861 2.jpg Rhodes Hall in midtown Atlanta, built of both Stone Mountain Granite and Lithonia Gneiss http://georgiarocks.us/gallery/AtlantaQ uarriesCuts/AtlantaQuarriesCuts- Pages/Image4.html
Slide 16 http://dbs.galib.uga.edu/cgi- Stone Mountain, GA, ca. 1916 bin/ultimate.cgi?dbs=vanga&ini=vanga _galileo.ini&userid=galileo&_cc=1 Vanishing Georgia DEK-4
Slide 17 Isotropy – identical properties in all Sedimentary — rock deposited on the earth’s surface by the directions action of wind and water Wood is also anisotropic—easier to split along the grain than against it
Anisotropic – directionally dependent – Specific bedding planes – Sandstone and limestone are examples
Slide 18 Sandstone Crossbeds Red Rock Canyon National Conservation Area, 17 miles west of Las Vegas strip. About 180 million years ago the area was completely arid, much as the Sahara Desert is today. A giant dune field stretched from this area eastward into Colorado, and windblown sand piled more than half-a-mile deep in some spots. As the wind shifted the sands back and forth, old dunes were leveled and new ones built up leaving a record of curving, angled lines in the sand known as "crossbeds". These shifting sands were buried by other sediments, and eventually cemented into sandstone by iron oxide with some calcium carbonate. This formation, known locally as the Aztec Sandstone, is quite hard and forms the prominent cliffs of the Red Rock escarpment. In some areas the iron minerals in the rocks have been altered and concentrated giving the rock it's red color. http://www.blm.gov/nv/st/en/fo/lvfo/b lm_programs/blm_special_areas/red_r ock_nca/red_rock_s_unique/red_rock_ geology.html
Slide 19 Sandstone Checkerboard Mesa is a mass of Crossbedding slickrock with crossbedding etched into and Jointing the north face of the rock. The imperfect vertical and horizontal fissures are a result of jointing and crossbedding. The checkerboard design has been created by weathering and erosion in the upper portion of the Navajo Formation. Weathering by rainwash and freeze-and-thaw cycles brings these grooves out in relief.
Slide 20 There are two types of sedimentary 1st Sedimentary Rock Type rocks: carbonates and silicates. We’ll
Carbonates: CaCO3 and Mg(CO3)2 look at carbonates first. – Composed of carbonate minerals which precipitate out of supersaturated waters, or Chemical sedimentary rock forms when are formed when the water evaporates – Limestone, travertine, tufa are precipitates mineral constituents in – Oolitic limestone, gypsum are evaporates solution become supersaturated and – Porous; will not accept a high polish; soluble in acid; very absorbent and susceptible to inorganically precipitate. Common staining not usually in contact with soil chemical sedimentary rocks include oolitic limestone and rocks composed of evaporite minerals such as halite (rock salt), and gypsum. Most other limestone, and travertine and tufa are evaporates. Oolitic limestone is also found in Indiana in the United States. The town of Oolitic, Indiana, was founded for the trade of limestone and bears its name. Quarries in Oolitic, Bedford, and Bloomington contributed the materials for such iconic U.S. landmarks as the Empire State Building in New York and the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia. Many of the buildings on the Indiana University campus in Bloomington are built with native oolitic limestone material, and the Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument in downtown Indianapolis, Indiana, is built mainly of grey oolitic limestone. The 1979 movie Breaking Away centers around the sons of quarry workers in Bloomington. Oolitic refers to the ooids from which the rock is formed— spherical grains made of concentric layers. Comes from the Greek word for “egg”. Pronounced Ho-olitic (long o’s).
Slide 21 Getty Centre in Brentwood, LA; Richard Meier & Partners, architects (1984- 1997); concrete and steel with either Tufa — Ostia, 1st travertine or aluminum cladding; 1.2 century BCE million square feet of travertine used to build the centre. Travertine — LA, 1984-1997 Image from: http://www.archdaily.com/103964/ad- classics-getty-center-richard-meier- partners-architects/96sf20-163/ Tufa stone work (NOT bricks) from the Ostia Synagogue (1st European synagogue discovered; dates between 1st century BCE and 1st century CE), in the city of Ostia, the harbor of Rome at the mouth of the Tiber River. Image from: http://www.utexas.edu/research/isac/ web/OSMAP/OSMAP_Masonry2.html
Slide 22 The most iconic visual feature of Lake Tufa Towers, Mono are tufa towers formed by Mono underwater springs rich in ionized Lake, CA calcium; these calcium rich waters mix with high carbonate lake waters, producing deposition of calcium
“Tufa” – a carbonate. Since the formation only sedimentary rock... occurs underwater, the emergent towers testify to the decline in surface level since 1941, the date when massive water diversions to the rapidly expanding human population of Southern California commenced. Top image from: http://www.oceanlight.com/spotlight.p hp?img=09931 Bottom right image from: http://www.grahamowengallery.com/p hotography/landscape_CA_inland.html
Slide 23 Not to be Two tuff buildings in Kirkland, AZ: confused with “Tuff” – an http://walkingprescott.blogspot.com/2 igneous rock 010/03/back-in-outback2-kirkland.html Tuff columns along the forum in Pompeii: Tuff buildings, Kirkland, AZ, ca. early 1900s http://www.flickr.com/photos/roger_ul rich/6057894758/ (Note modern Tuff columns, Pompeii forum, pre-79 CE concrete bases)
Slide 24 Georgia Capitol — Atlanta; Indiana oolitic limestone; 1889; Edbrooke & Burnham
Slide 25 http://ebooks.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/t ext/pageviewer- idx?c=manu;cc=manu;rgn=full%20text;i dno=manu0019-11;didno=manu0019- 11;view=image;seq=0258;node=manu0 019-11%3A37
Manufacturer and Builder, XIX, 11 (Nov. 1887), 253.
Slide 26 Georgia Capitol, West Exterior Stairs Bottom step is granite; other stairs are limestone. Limestone is porous, will not accept a high polish, soluble in acid, high absorption and susceptibility to staining not usually in contact with soil. Granite is more impervious to water and has great compressive strength, making it ideal for foundations.
Slide 27 2nd Sedimentary Rock Type
Silicates: SiO2 (quartz) + Fe2O3 or CaCO3 – Composed primarily of silicate minerals transported by moving fluids, and were deposited when the fluids came to rest – Sandstone (brownstone & bluestone are colored sandstones) – Highly stratified, durable good for paving, sills, hearths, mantels, copings
Slide 28 1858 view to northwest showing west side and south porch. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/service/pnp/cph/ 3b30000/3b32000/3b32800/3b32885r.j The White House; pg Washington, DC; sandstone façade over brick; 1798; James Hoban
Slide 29 Changes to 1948-1952: President Truman gathered the White engineers and architects together to House study the condition of the White House. They found that the house needed an enormous amount of work in order to save it. The president wrote to a congressman: "My suggestion is that we do not tear down the present building. The outside walls are in good condition . . . . We could put a steel and concrete structure inside the walls and restore the inside of the house to its original condition. We are saving all the doors, mantels, mirrors and things of that sort so that they will go back just as they were.“The outer walls — the same walls that James Hoban built — were saved, and so was the third floor. Otherwise, the entire interior was taken down. Bulldozers moved in and dug down two additional basement levels to provide more storage room and space for heating and air conditioning equipment. The White House was also fireproofed. The size and shape of the first and second floor rooms were rebuilt to appear as they did throughout the building’s history. This work took four years to complete. The Truman family moved across the street to Blair House. In 1952 the work was done, and the first family moved back to the White House. The President’s House was stronger, safer, and ready to serve the nation’s leader for years to come, and the image of the White House never changed.
Slide 30 2011-2014: Utilities construction April 4, 2011; not due to be complete until 2014. Of course, there are also rumors of new secret tunnels and bunkers Changes to beneath the White House. But GSA the White officials insist it is a project devoted just House to utilities, including new lines for water, sewer and electricity.
Slide 31 Austin Hall, Harvard University Law School Cambridge, MA; red sandstone; 1881-1884; H. H. Richardson
Slide 32 Mount Airy, Warsaw, Virginia, 1758; dark brown sandstone, trimmed in light-colored sandstone, projecting limestone pavilion; John Ariss (?)
Slide 33 Connecticut brownstone used to build the New York Brownstones
Slide 34 Italianate school with rusticated Brownstone Architectural brownstone first floor, decorative Details window hoods (pediments and arches), brownstone window sills, Originally PS 16, built in 1869 at 208 West 13th Street in northern Greenwich Village. Additions, with pediments, built in 1879 with bracketed pediments, brownstone keystones and imposts, arched windows. Became a vocational school of various types throughout 1920s-1970s. The Lesbian & Gay Community Services Center, Inc. purchased the old school building from the City’s Board of Estimates in December 1983 for $1.5 million. Architect Francois Bollack was commissioned to restore and convert the school building into the Center which is used today by at least 300 groups. Images from: http://daytoninmanhattan.blogspot.co m/2012/08/ps-no-16-lgbt-community- ctr-no-208-west.html
Slide 35 Bluestone — Bluestone wall coping and patio: used for http://www.bedfordstone.com/product coping and s/walls-&-coping/368/photo/370/ flagging Inground Gunite pool, bluestone coping, Mikonos pavers, raised water all of PA fieldstone veneer: http://www.poolrenovationsnj.com/po rtfolio/swimming-pool-renovations- nj/suffern-ny/#!prettyPhoto[pp_gal]/1/ Bluestone coping on limestone wall: http://www.charlesluck.com/products/ shoreline-buff Bluestone mantel: http://www.log- cabin-connection.com/fireplace- mantel.html
Slide 36 Terrigenous—derived from the erosion of rocks on land
Slide 37 Metamorphic Rock — formerly igneous or sedimentary rock, transformed by heat and/or pressure
Three Main Types: Gneiss, Slate, Marble
Slide 38 Types of Metamorphic Rocks
–Gneiss: formed from igneous or sedimentary rocks . Very hard . Good for foundations, walls, & other load- bearing applications –Slate –Marble
Slide 39 Washington Hall, U.S. Military Academy, West Point, NY; gneiss
Rock-faced, random ashlar
Slide 40 Dated to 3.5 billion years old, one of Morton Gneiss Stone is about 3.5 billion years old; oldest stones in the world. Quarried in quarried in Morton, MN since 1884 Morton, MN since 1884. The Morton Gneiss was widely used for buildings and monuments. It was highly valued for its swirling color patterns and great age. Because of the difficulty of extracting large, coherent blocks, it was expensive to produce compared with many other conventional granites and marbles. For these reasons, it commanded a high price in the commercial stone market. Morton Liquor store image: http://stories-in- stone.blogspot.com/2009/06/most- beautiful-building-stone-in.html The building was originally a mercantile built by JH McGowan and RB Hinton in the 1890s. Historic photo: http://stories-in- stone.blogspot.com/2010/03/morton- liquor-update.html
Slide 41 2010 Morton Pub & Eatery image: 2010 Update http://stories-in- stone.blogspot.com/2010/03/morton- liquor-update.html
Slide 42 McDonald’s Morton gneiss sink at the Redwood at Redwood Falls, MN McDonalds (about 7 miles Falls, MN away from Morton, MN, where the famous Morton Gneiss is quarried). Images: http://stories-in- Architectural stone.blogspot.com/2010/02/gneiss- use of Morton gneiss and-mcdonalds.html
Slide 43 Wedges used to break blocks along closely spaced drilled holes. Wedge quarry image: http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjam e/tectonic/morton_gneiss/morton05.jp g Morton, MN Gneiss Vertical cylinders were drilled to lower Quarry wire saws for cutting flat faces in the quarry walls. Cylinder quarry image: http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjam e/tectonic/morton_gneiss/morton08.jp g
Slide 44 Peachtree Center MARTA Station — Peachtree Center station is the deepest carved out of solid gneiss station in the MARTA rail system, at 120 feet or 36 meters below Peachtree Street. The walls and ceiling are carved out of solid gneiss rock. The length of the main hall is 900 feet. The Carnegie Way/Ellis Street escalator is 190’ long, one of the longest escalators in the Southeast. http://farm3.staticflickr.com/2066/227 5120367_5eaf733899_z.jpg?zz=1 http://collections.atlantahistorycenter.c om/export/get_item_viewer_image.ph p?alias=/Stupich&i=15&height=600&wi dth=600 ca. 1977
Slide 45 Gneiss in the Atlanta Area A block of amphibolite surrounded by
Clairmont Road gneiss in the Clairmont Formation at at I-85 Clairmont Road and I-85. http://georgiarocks.us/gallery/AtlantaQ uarriesCuts/AtlantaQuarriesCuts- Pages/Image2.html Mylonitic Long Island Gneiss exposed I-285 east of GA 400 along I-285 east of GA 400. http://georgiarocks.us/gallery/AtlantaQ uarriesCuts/AtlantaQuarriesCuts- Pages/Image11.html
Slide 46 Granite vs. Gneiss http://www.scottranger.com/geology- of-arabia-mountain.html Granite is a plutonic igneous rock. Its crystals form differentially upon cooling deep in the earth's crust. Granite’s visible crystals are randomly arranged. Gneiss is a metamorphic rock that shows obvious banding of light and dark minerals resulting from recrystallization of the original material due to high heat and pressure. If you can discern a pattern, it's not granite!
Slide 47 Arabia Mtn. gneiss among the http://www.scottranger.com/uploads/2 granite /9/6/0/2960231/8732807_orig.jpg
Slide 48 Arabia Mountain Migmatitic Gneiss http://www.scottranger.com/uploads/2 “Tidal Gray” /9/6/0/2960231/5375396_orig.jpg
Slide 49 Atlanta Area Rock Outcrops Rock outcrops, numbered in the order georgiarocks.us mentioned in the "Around Atlanta - Quarries and Roadcuts" section of Roadside Geology of Georgia - from Google Earth http://georgiarocks.us/gallery/AtlantaQ uarriesCuts/AtlantaQuarriesCuts- Pages/Image0.html
Slide 50 Distribution of Granites & Gneisses in http://quarriesandbeyond.org/states/g Georgia from quarriesandbeyond.org a/images/ga-granites- gneisses_1902_map_p_88_distrib_of_g eorgia.jpg Georgia - Map Showing the Distribution of the Granites and Gneisses of Georgia, from A Preliminary Report on a Part of the Granites and Gneisses of Georgia, Bulletin No. 9-A, by Thomas L. Watson, Ph.D., Assistant Geologist, Geological Survey of Georgia, 1902, pp. 88.
Slide 51 Vulcan Materials Gneiss Quarry, A quarry truck more than 15 feet high Norcross, GA carries a load of gneiss out of Vulcan Materials Norcross Quarry, one of the largest quarry operations in the country. http://georgiarocks.us/gallery/AtlantaQ uarriesCuts/AtlantaQuarriesCuts- Pages/Image1.html
Slide 52 Types of Metamorphic Rocks
–Gneiss –Slate: formed from shale (sedimentary rock) .Very dense and hard .Good for paving stones, roof shingles, water courses, and countertops –Marble
Slide 53
Slate
Slide 54 Pentagon, Arlington, VA, ca. 1943, George Bergstrom
September 11, 2001 attack destroyed more than an acre of the slate roof.
Slide 55 http://quarriesandbeyond.org/states/g a/images/ga- Slate- bearing rpt_slate_deposits_ga_p42_map_i_dist formations rib_slate-brng_forms.jpg in Georgia Georgia - Index Map Showing the Distribution of Slate-bearing Formations in Georgia (circa 1918), from Report on The Slate Deposits of Georgia, Bulletin No. 34, by H. K. Shearer, Assistant State Geologist, Geological Survey of Georgia, 1918, pp. 42.
Slide 56 Types of Metamorphic Rocks – Gneiss – Slate – Marble: recrystallized limestones (sedimentary), easily carved and polished . Carrera and Vermont marble — grains are smaller, more porous, metamorphic process did not go as far, chisel can go through it cleanly finely detailed carving, more susceptible to deterioration, especially granular disintegration . Georgia marble — larger grained, stronger, used as foundation stone
Slide 57 Taj Mahal; Agra, India; 1630-1653; marbles
Slide 58 Candler Atlanta, Georgia - the Candler Office Building Building - the Entrance, from A 127 Peachtree Preliminary Report on the Marbles of Street NE; 1906; George E. Georgia, Bulletin No. 1, by S. W. Murphy, architect; F. B. Miles, McCallie, Assistant State Geologist, sculptor; Georgia marble from the Geological Survey of Georgia, 2nd ed., Amicalola quarries in Pickens County 1907, pp. 120. Built by Asa Griggs Candler, Coca-Cola magnate. 17 stories high; at time, tallest building in Atlanta; Beaux Arts Classical Photo by LM Drummond 2013
Slide 59 Distribution of Marble in Northwest Georgia http://quarriesandbeyond.org/states/g a/images/ga- prelim_rpt_ga_marbles_1907_map_mr bl_nw_ga_p34.jpg Northwest, Georgia – Map Showing the Distribution of Marble in Northwest Georgia (circa 1907), from A Preliminary Report on the Marbles of Georgia, Bulletin No. 1, by S. W. McCallie, Assistant State Geologist, Geological Survey of Georgia, 2nd ed., 1907, pp. 34.
Slide 60 Igneous or Sedimentary Rock Type Metamorphic Rock Type
Almost any rock subjected to high-grade (high heat and pressure) regional metamorphism Gneiss Sandstone (Sedimentary) Quartzite Limestone (Sedimentary) Marble Shale (Sedimentary) Slate Basalt (Igneous) Greenstone
Slide 61 Forms of Stone Naturally occurring or human-made
Fieldstone — from riverbeds or fields Flagstone — thin slabs used for flooring, paving (stones split on a bedding plane) Rubble — irregular quarried fragments, unsquared Dimension stone — quarried and cut into rectangles – Cut stone: large slabs – Ashlar: smaller, rectangular blocks
Slide 62 Fieldstone house, Mackinac Island, MI, Fieldstone 1920s http://stoneplus.cst.cmich.edu/1,A,Stra its-ToEdit.html
Slide 63 Flagstone Bluestone: A dense, hard, fine-grained, Bluestone — a colored sandstone popular commonly feldspathic sandstone or for flagging siltstone of medium to dark or bluish- gray color that splits readily along original bedding planes to form thin slabs. Bluestone is not a technical geologic term. It is considered a variety of flagstone, with its thin relatively smooth-surfaced slabs suitable for use as flagging. Bluestone image: http://outdoorstones.blogspot.com/20 12/09/how-do-you-cut-bluestone.html
Slide 64 Rubble (unsquared) Coursed = continuous horizontal lines Uncoursed = discontinuous; no horizontal lines
Slide 65 Ashlar (squared)
Slide 66 Pronounced “with” or “withe” or Courses and Wythes “wythe”
Slide 67 Load-bearing Veneer
Weight of upper floors Skeletal framing system supported by walls of supports building lower floors – Wood Interior spaces smaller – Metal (steel) on lower floors – Reinforced concrete Arches, vaults, domes Masonry veneer opened up space, reduced weight Taller buildings possible Limited height due to By early 1900s, most volume and mass stone and brick necessary to support buildings in the U.S. the building were veneer
Slide 68 Load bearing Masonry http://www.understandconstruction.co Note to the class: This is just some additional info on load bearing masonry, which explains it a little more than I covered in m/load-bearing-masonry- class. This slide was not in Wednesday’s ppt presentation. construction.html Load bearing masonry construction was the most widely used form of construction for large buildings from the 1700s to the mid-1900s. It is very rarely used today for large buildings, but smaller residential-scale structures are being built. It essentially consists of thick, heavy masonry walls of brick or stone that support the entire structure, including the horizontal floor slabs, which could be made of reinforced concrete, wood, or steel members.
In contrast, most construction today is not load-bearing masonry but frame structures of light but strong materials, that support floor slabs and have very thin and light internal and external walls.
The key idea with this construction is that every wall acts as a load carrying element. In a load bearing structure, you cannot easily punch holes in a wall to connect two rooms - you would damage the structure if you did so. The immense weight of the walls actually helps to hold the building together and stabilize it against external forces such as wind and earthquake.
Slide 69 http://www.understandconstruction.co In traditional loadbearing masonry structures, the floor slabs were made of horizontal wood beams, joists, and planks. A joist is a smaller wood beam that rests on two larger beams. m/load-bearing-masonry-
The buildings were covered with sloping wood roofs, that could be finished with clay tile, wood or stone shingles, or metal plating such as thin sheets of construction.html copper. Other such buildings had flat terraces, that were built by pouring a concrete layer over a wood floor, and then finishing with some form of tile or stone to provide a strong, waterproof finish. Every wall had a simple continuous strip foundation below it.
Slide 70 http://www.understandconstruction.co Load bearing masonry construction is not used today for a number of reasons:
It does not perform very well in earthquakes. Most deaths in earthquakes around the m/load-bearing-masonry- world have occurred in load bearing masonry buildings. Earthquakes love heavy buildings, because that is where they can wreak the greatest havoc. construction.html It is extremely labor-intensive. This also makes for very slow construction speed in comparison with modern methods that are much more mechanized. It is extremely material-intensive. These buildings consume a lot of bricks or stones, and are very heavy. This means that they are not green, as all this material has to be trucked around from where it is produced to the site.
OK, Drummond speaking here now. I disagree with the last statement, because if local stone is used or if the bricks are manufactured on site, then the building is more “green”, that is, environmentally friendly.
Slide 71 Monadnock Building; Chicago; unreinforced brick; 16 stories; 1891, Burnham & Root
18”
6 ft.
Slide 72 Expensive ashlar face (veneer) over https://environment7.uwe.ac.uk/resour inexpensive brick or rubble wall ces/constructionsample/Conweb/walls/ (wall section diagrams) ashlar1abc.jpg In some forms of construction the facing stone is tied back to the brickwork/rubble with iron ties. These were quick to rust and could soon result in bulges appearing in the facework. The backing material would largely depend on the locality. In Bath and Bristol for example, there are several limestone quarries with cheap rubble stone available. In London, near to clay beds, brickwork was much cheaper.
Slide 73 More veneer examples
Dressed stone over Concrete block poured concrete over steel I-beam
Slide 74 Stainless steel tie in stone work: Modern https://environment7.uwe.ac.uk/resour ties ces/constructionsample/Conweb/walls/ sta4.jpg Tie diagram: https://environment7.uwe.ac.uk/resour ces/constructionsample/Conweb/walls/ ashlar1abd.jpg
Slide 75
Stone over concrete masonry units (CMUs)
Slide 76 Thin stone veneer over wood The framing should be in good shape framing for a masonry structure with studs spaced 16ʺ o.c. and rigid sheathing of gypsum wall board, plywood, OSB, concrete board or fiber board. OSB=oriented strand board
What is the error in the labelling?
Slide 77 Thin stone veneer over wood The framing should be in good shape framing for a masonry structure with studs spaced 16ʺ o.c. and rigid sheathing of gypsum wall board, plywood, OSB, concrete board or fiber board. OSB=oriented strand board
Slide 78 Stone Finishes Building stones are often faced an inch or so from their edges. This dressed Tooth chiseled strip is known as the margin, or draft line, to distinguish it from the rock-
Rock faced Point chiseled faced. Top image with hand is a tooled finish in progress: http://www.nps.gov/hps/tps/briefs/bri Broached Drove Crandalled ef42.htm Rock faced, split faced, pitch faced; image from underground Atlanta, Block Building, 1882 Tooth chiseled with margins: http://www.kopelovcutstone.com/carvi ng_and_finishes.htm Point chiseled and margined: http://www.kopelovcutstone.com/carvi ng_and_finishes.htm Hand broached and margined: http://www.kopelovcutstone.com/carvi ng_and_finishes.htm Drove work: http://www.kopelovcutstone.com/carvi ng_and_finishes.htm Crandalled and margined finish: http://www.kopelovcutstone.com/carvi ng_and_finishes.htm
Slide 79 More Stone Finishes Top image: https://environment7.uwe.ac.uk/resour Vermiculated Rusticated ces/constructionsample/Conweb/walls/
Bush sta2.jpg hammer Bush hammer tool: http://stonesavvy.blogspot.com/2012/ 04/counter-top-stone-surface- series_25.html Bush hammered Wire sawn Bush hammered bluestone: http://yyzxm1984.stonecontact.com/m ember-product/BlueStone-Tiles- Slabs/Bush-Hammered-Blue-Stone- Tiles_148912.htm Rusticated: Sunken or beveled. Surface of the stone projects beyond the wall face; the back of the rustication, which may be a V-groove (as in this image from https://environment7.uwe.ac.uk/resour ces/constructionsample/Conweb/walls/ stone_fin2.jpg) or straight sinking, represents the wall line. Rusticated may or may not have a rough face. Wire sawn: http://www.kopelovcutstone.com/carvi ng_and_finishes.htm
Slide 80 Washington Hall, U.S. Military Academy, West Point, NY; gneiss
Slide 81 Washington Hall, U.S. Military Academy, West Point, NY; gneiss
Rock-faced, random ashlar
Slide 82 Natural stone is one of our oldest Modes of Deterioration building materials, and is often Solution Weathering regarded as a symbol of permanence. Acid Rain Salt Weathering However, it is not absolutely durable Dry Deposition and exposure to the weather over Freeze-Thaw Cycle Hygric Swelling many thousands of years brings about Thermal Effects eventual disintegration. The speed with Biological Effects which disintegration occurs varies according to stone type and environmental conditions, and it must be remembered that cutting and placing a stone in a building does not immunize it from natural weathering processes. However, it has become apparent over the last century that in polluted environments stone decay rates have greatly accelerated, so that the natural lifespan of stone can be drastically reduced from thousands to in some cases only tens of years in urban environments. Finally, remember that stone is not immutable. Human actions can speed up decay, but even without pollution- induced damage, exterior stonework is still subject to natural weathering processes and sometimes you have to accept that it has a finite service life. From: http://www.qub.ac.uk/geomaterials/w eathering/usd.html
Slide 83 Solution Weathering Occurs when soluble chemicals in stones dissolve in rainwater and get washed off and re-deposited elsewhere Occurs naturally when rain falls – Rainwater is a weak carbonic acid formed by the reaction of CO2 with atmospheric moisture – Carbonic acid can dissolve calcium carbonate (primary component of limestones and marbles) In polluted environment, rainfall acidity is increased & solutional activity intensifies
Slide 84 Solution Weathering, cont. Marble headstone with lead lettering, 130 years old. Rainwater (carbonic acid) washes unevenly over the surface, causing pitting and wave-like deterioration patterns in the marble. The lead letters, originally even with the stone surface, now are “raised”, indicating how much stone surface has been lost.
Slide 85 The burning of coal, oil, and gasoline Acid Rain releases carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and Mostly sulfur dioxides and sulfur into the atmosphere, which react nitrous oxides Creates gypsum (hydrated with rainwater to form much calcium sulfate) on building surfaces stronger carbonic, nitric, and sulfuric Loss of material—gets acids that damage the environment washed off and re- deposited somewhere else ( acid rain). Gypsum—a soft, white sedimentary rock, hydrated calcium sulfate. Image is of Lincoln Castle carved figure in Lincolnshire, England
Slide 86 Acid Rain & Solution Weathering The stone types that are most obviously Processes prone to damage by acid rain are 1. Rainwater - naturally composed of carbonic acid formed by Rx of limestones and marbles made up CO2 with atmospheric moisture primarily of calcium carbonate. This is 2. Calcium carbonate is soluble in carbonic acid because two complementary 3. Sulfur oxides in atmospheric pollution + water in the air form weathering processes can act them sulfuric acid. When it “rains” on stone containing CaCO3, it upon. The first of these is solution forms gypsum weathering. Solution loss is not unique to polluted environments and is also accomplished by natural rainwater. This is because rainwater is, as shown in Equation 1, a weak carbonic acid formed by the reaction of carbon dioxide with atmospheric moisture. Calcium carbonate is soluble in carbonic acid and reacts as shown in Equation 2. In polluted environments, rainfall acidity is increased and solutional activity intensified. This is particularly the case when oxides of sulphur are present in the atmosphere and a weak sulphuric acid is formed (Equation 3). If this falls on stone containing calcium carbonate it reacts with it to produce the salt known as calcium sulphate, or gypsum. Typically most of the gypsum is removed in solution as rainfall runs off the building, but if some of the rainfall soaks into the stone or is held on the surface and subsequently evaporates, calcium sulphate can crystallize and contribute to the physical disintegration of stone by a process known as salt weathering. Although gypsum is the most common salt produced by acid deposition it is by no means the only one.
Slide 87 Salt Weathering Salt weathering is probably the most
Every salt has its own relative important agent of stone decay in humidity equilibrium point. Depending on the surrounding cities. This is because salt crystallization RH, the solution of salt can give up its water, forming salt and associated damage is possible crystals, which can split rock. every time a salt-contaminated stone is Marine environments De-icing salts wetted and dries out. Salt contained in Portland cement—alkalis can migrate There are several mechanisms by which into the surrounding stone salt damages stone. When stones are wetted by rain or condensation salts are dissolved and washed into pore spaces. When drying begins, evaporation causes crystals to grow and press against surrounding grains. As long as the salt solution at crystal tips remains saturated they will continue to grow against the confining pressure of the surrounding stone. Repeated wetting and drying and resultant expansion and contraction can eventually lead to physical breakdown.
Slide 88 Dry Deposition Settling, impactions, adsorption—
Occurs on carbonate rocks (e.g., attracting and holding particles on its limestone, marble) constantly surface Fly ash and sulfur dioxide in the air captured by the moisture that is NPS monitors wet and dry sulfur and always present in the stone formation of a crust nitrogen depositions in the US, gathers Occurs more often in winter – More particulates in the air weekly data on average atmospheric – Greater temperature differential more condensation, so the wet stone concentrations of sulfate, nitrate, captures more particulates ammonium, sulfur dioxide, and nitric acid. http://nature.nps.gov/air/monitoring/d rymon.cfm Total sulfur deposition is much higher in the Eastern U.S. than in the Western states. With few exceptions, wet deposition is the major contributor to total deposition of sulfur. Total deposition of nitrogen is also higher in the Eastern U.S., however higher rates are also estimated for the Rocky Mountains. Again, most sites are dominated by wet deposition, however the majority of nitrogen deposition to Joshua Tree NP and Death Valley NP in southern California occurs as dry deposition. Images from pubs.usgs.gov/gip/acidrain/5.html Organization of American States building in Washington, DC: marble balustrade has gypsum crust, which causes stone to blacken, blister, and spall. Marble column from Merchants’ Exchange, Philadelphia. Loss of material where exposed to weather; formation of gypsum crust where protected from the weather.
Slide 89 Freeze-Thaw Mechanical deterioration processes Cycle Mausoleum in Oakland cemetery,
More porous stones dressed surface of granite has spalled are more affected (e.g., limestone more off. susceptible than granite) Water experiences 10% volume increase when it goes from liquid to solid (freezes)
Slide 90 Stonework should be laid on the quarry bed (grain running horizontally) because stone is stronger and more weather- resistant in that orientation.
Slide 91
Photo courtesy of Ben Sutton, 2014
Slide 92 Sandstone—deteriorated, then 1767-1771 Town Hall (originally replaced market), built of local Scrabo sandstone [Newtownards, County Down, Ireland) Image from: http://www.flickriver.com/photos/kilwi rraarchitects/tags/conwaysquare/
Slide 93 Hygric Swelling Clay swells when it gets wet; differential strain between wet and dry areas causes deformation, stress, cracking Sedimentary rocks more susceptible: weaker mechanically, more porous, have layers, contain clay
Slide 94 Bio-deterioration Bacteria effectively digest minerals, and Physical and chemical processes colonization by algae and fungi Bacteria, algae, and fungi — cause mostly chemical effects; have a specialist identify enhance the dissolution of the stone. these Lichens — chemical and physical effects; can tear away surface of rock; hard to clean Mosses — mostly physical effects; easier to remove than lichens Higher Plants — can damage surface and retain moisture
Slide 95 Algal growth on sandstone two years Algae growth on sandstone after cleaning. Some algae live on the surface of limestone, while other types can live beneath the surface. Algae and Lichen fungi can form film over the stone, growth on stone wall which does not allow it to breathe. In particular, any moisture that does penetrate will dry out more slowly, the stone will stay wetter for longer and any dissolved salts could penetrate more deeply. Lichen growth on stone wall image at right: http://www.flickr.com/photos/smilla4/ 8007830976/
Slide 96 Plant-covered brick building Vancouver, Canada, July 2002. http://www.pbase.com/jb0707/image/ 2958246/original
Slide 97 Thermal Effects Step cracking following mortar joints Coefficient of linear thermal expansion = rate at which mineral expands with increasing near the building corners and where temperature Stone temperature can vary between 30%-50% the wall movement was resisted by first higher than air temperature Darker stones absorb more heat and give it up story intersecting brick walls abutting at more readily Daily and seasonal heating cause stress and right angles the middle section of the micro-fractures in and along mineral grains, eventually producing flaking long brick wall. Mable is particularly susceptive to thermal effects Creep or drift — building expands during day but Thermal expansion effect on brick: does not fully contract at night http://inspectapedia.com/structure/JC Cbrickfailure16DJFes.jpg
Slide 98 Before cleaning or repairing stone:
Know what the stone is, and its source Understand the nature of the stone: grain, chemical composition, crystal structure, water solubility Understand the structure: number of wythes, type of fasteners or dowels Analyze the mortar (composition, color, texture, type of joint) Know the chemical composition of pollution/salts
Slide 99 Cleaning Masonry
Water wash – fine spray directly onto element (removes gypsum crust) Chemical cleaners – acidic, alkaline – use extreme care; watch dwell time; rinse thoroughly. Environmental hazard, containment is essential. Hot water, steam – degreasing Particulate cleaning – more easily localized; can perform partial cleaning; can be used on different stones in juxtaposition; containment problems; requires trained operators Lasers – can clean extremely fragile surfaces; can only clean light surface with dark soiling; primary risk is yellowing
Slide 100 Cleaning Dry Deposition — Reconversion of Inversion of marble sulfation- gypsum films into calcite on the surfaces of monuments & statues reconversion of gypsum films into Gypsum on marble forms crust that preserves underlying design details calcite on the surfaces of monuments Gypsum crust itself is fragile Washing gypsum off stone surface causes loss and statues of historic material, esp. carving relief details Inversion of marble sulfation — chemically The work combines the authors' return gypsum to calcite (CaCO3) by spraying K2CO3 (potassium carbonate) on stone observation that the details of marble – Consolidates layers of stone, preserving design details – Calcite is five times harder than gypsum statues that have already been lost – Calcite is 29,000 times less soluble in water than gypsum from the calcite surface are preserved in the gypsum layer, with their research on the mechanism of marble sulfation, to lead to a consolidation of the gypsum, transforming it back to calcium carbonate (calcite) using carbonate ions in solution. The reproduction of the surface detail and the improvement of the mechanical properties were very satisfactory. https://www.iiconservation.org/node/6 04
Slide 101 http://www.ysma.gr/en/conservation- degradation-phenomena Marble sulfation
Slide 102 Traditional Modern Particulate Modern brick will lack the porous Sandblasting Cleaning “salmon” center known to be the Larger particulates, Smaller particulates, diameter = one mm diameter = tens of microns remaining condition of an historic brick Delivered at hundreds to Delivered at tens of psi thousands psi (pounds Particulates used: fired in a down-draft kiln. Modern per square inch) – Walnut shells Particulate used – Sodium bicarbonate (Armex) bricks are thoroughly fired in a tunnel – True sand (quartz) – Dry ice – Calcite or dolomite particles kiln which results in more uniform – Façade grommage . Glass beads . Aluminum oxide densification throughout. But even modern brick will become “pitted” by the sharp sand action of a sandblaster.
Slide 103 Power Washing / Sandblasting Power washing image: http://www.multipino.com/offer15834 0.html Sandblasting image: http://www.heritage- house.org/page.php?pageid=60
Slide 104 Sandblasted brick (to clean it) at Charles Sturt University, Albury, Australia: http://www.flickr.com/photos/heritagef utures/4961535999/in/photostream Sandblasted historic brick to create a Sandblasting mural in Quebec, delivered at 2000 Historic Brick ppsi, onto tenants’ stores, several hundred years old: http://www.william- mitchell.com/sandblasting.htm
Slide 105 Repairs to Stonework
Re-tool mortar joint Re-dress surface of the stone Re-attach using adhesives and pins, dowels, or staples Patching (Dutchman or composite) Use consolidants (alkaoxysilane monomers) Remove and replace stone Dismantle and rebuild wall Remove and replace corroded metal elements Do all work in accordance with the Secretary’s standards
Slide 106 Marble, in contact with inappropriate Inappropriate Portland cement, over time and with & Appropriate Repairs weathering, began the process of granular disintegration, a “sugaring” of the marble. Washington Park, Charleston, SC
Slide 107 Preservation Briefs
#1: Assessing Cleaning and Water- Repellent Treatments for Historic Masonry Buildings #2: Repointing Mortar Joints in Historic Masonry Buildings #6: Dangers of Abrasive Cleaning to Historic Buildings #38: Removing Graffiti from Historic Masonry
Slide 108 Brick Face Names
A stretcher is usually the equivalent of two headers plus one mortar joint
Slide 109 King & Queen Closers
A queen closer is shorter than a header.
Slide 110 Rebekah Scott Hall, 1905, Morgan & Queen Closers Dillon, Agnes Scott College, Decatur, GA used in the header course of the English bond pattern
Slide 111 Rebekah Scott Hall, 1905, Morgan & Dillon, Agnes Scott College, Decatur, GA King Closers used in the header courses of the English bond pattern
Slide 112 Brick Construction
Structural (load-bearing) brick — more than one wythe thick; usually at least three. The brick is holding up the building. Brick veneer (curtain-wall) — over skeletal framing of wood, steel, or concrete. The building is holding up the brick.
Slide 113 English Bond — used in North America through mid-1700s A very strong bond pattern; often used on rear & side facades, for bridges; considered less decorative
Slide 114 http://buildipedia.com/knowledgebase /division-04-masonry/04-20-00-unit- masonry/04-21-00-clay-unit- masonry/04-21-13-brick-masonry/04- 21-13-brick-masonry
Slide 115 Bridge ca. 1765 in England http://www.uwe.port.ac.uk/walls/bridg e.jpg
Slide 116 King & Queen Closers
A queen closer is shorter than a header.
Slide 117 Rebekah Scott Hall, 1905, Morgan & Queen Closers Dillon, Agnes Scott College, Decatur, GA used in the header course of the English bond pattern
Slide 118 Rebekah Scott Hall, 1905, Morgan & Dillon, Agnes Scott College, Decatur, GA King Closers used in the header courses of the English bond pattern
Slide 119 Flemish Bond — Popular from 1720s – 1800 Not as strong as English bond, but considered more decorative; used on front facades
Slide 120 http://buildipedia.com/knowledgebase /division-04-masonry/04-20-00-unit- masonry/04-21-00-clay-unit- masonry/04-21-13-brick-masonry/04- 21-13-brick-masonry
Slide 121 Note folds in brick— from hand-packing of 1780s Flemish bond brick wall; lime- the wood molds based mortar. Note folds in brick— from hand-packing of the wood molds. http://www.uwe.port.ac.uk/walls/weyfl em3.jpg
Slide 122 American Bond, aka Common Bond Mid-19th – early 20th centuries
American bond or Common bond Stretcher course
Header course
This one is a King closer.
Slide 123 You must always designate the number of stretcher courses between the header courses when referring to American bond. Below is “five course American bond”. If you just say “American bond”, that is incorrect. The number of stretcher courses can vary. I have seen from 3- 8 stretcher courses between the two header courses
Five Course American bond or Five course Common bond Stretcher course
Header course
This one is a King closer.
Slide 124 http://buildipedia.com/knowledgebase /division-04-masonry/04-20-00-unit- masonry/04-21-00-clay-unit- masonry/04-21-13-brick-masonry/04- 21-13-brick-masonry
Five course American or Five course Common Bond
Slide 125 Bulloch Hall, 1840, Willis Ball, Roswell, GA. South façade. Varies from 4-7 course American bond brick pattern.
Slide 126 Running Bond — 1920s - present
Slide 127 http://buildipedia.com/knowledgebase /division-04-masonry/04-20-00-unit- masonry/04-21-00-clay-unit- masonry/04-21-13-brick-masonry/04- 21-13-brick-masonry
Slide 128 Urban Life Plaza; J. H. Finch of Finch, Alexander, Barnes, Rothschild and Paschal (FABRAP), architects, Atlanta, GA; J. A. Jones Construction Co., builder; 1974; Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA
Slide 129 Running (Stretcher) Bond
Most often used today as a single-layer veneer over a structural backup wall (wood frame, metal frame, concrete block, poured concrete) – It is anchored into the structural wall with stainless steel ties (or anchors) – Specialized anchoring required in high wind or seismic areas Was used historically (pre-20th century) as the outer wythe of a load-bearing masonry structure, but was anchored into the rest of the wall in a variety of ways – Using iron ties (which rusted over time) – Using a variety of brick formations