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P B B A i l w t o o e Z ( scale to measure personality. However, Aaker’s model with acknowledging the manipulating ability of mar - has severe limitations and despite the proposition of keters. Aaker that the scale is valid, its validity has yet to be Based on the notion that managers have a strong demonstrated (Azoulay & Kapferer, 2003). Despite the influence on the brand personality, are largely respon - large sample of brands that were used to develop this sible for creating one, and therefore should easily be scale, the spectrum of adjectives that were found to be a able to sum up the personality characteristics that lead part of the brand personality are limited and arguably them in their marketing strategy, it is proposed that only cover a small part of the universe of adjectives. In providing a set model for all brands is not only an contrast to the scale of Goldberg (1992), Aaker did not unnecessary exercise, it is also inherently flawed. The implement a synonym-antonym approach. For exam - use of factor analysis to develop a model to measure ple, Aaker argued that both contemporary and out - such a brand personality model should therefore be doorsy are part of the list, but likely antonyms to these regarded critically. The main purpose of factor analysis terms such as classic and urban are not present in the is to find patterns in relationships between observed model. Moreover, as Azoulay and Kapferer (2003) variables in order to measure these variables with a noted, this model failed to divide concepts of individual smaller amount of (unobserved) variables, called fac - psychology and social psychology, and assigned certain tors (Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, & Tatham, 2005). groups characteristics as a part of an individual’s per - However, while factor analysis assumes these latent sonality such as gender and social class. factors are present, Aaker (1997) never provides con - In addition to the criticism of Azoulay and Kapferer ceptual support for her five latent variables (sincerity, (2003), the author would like to propose the scale as excitement, competence, sophistication, and rugged - developed by Aaker (1997) lacks validity at a conceptu - ness.) and the five resulting factors found by her might al level, based on the notion that a brand cannot pos - be more of the result of schematic associations that sess personality traits. Claiming a brand has a consumers have with the brands in their respective personality, is an anthropomorphism . A brand can contexts, rather than these variables represent a latent only be given traits by people, and mainly originates as trait. It is likely that in certain cultures and contexts a a result of the marketing approach of the managers grouping exists that in other contexts is not there. within the company. The anthropomorphic associa - Smith, Graetz, and Westerbeek (2006) performed a tions consumers have of the brand are caused by mar - brand personality study for an Australian netball team keting strategies of the organization. Nike could be and their results provided a different model than Aaker regarded as an innovative, inspirational, and creative proposes. If the work of Aaker (1997) is compared company because the organization has spent billions of with the study of Smith et al. (2006), there are two dollars over time in creating that image through their dimensions that particularly stand out and indicate marketing strategies (Wieden, 1992). The argument that the factors Aaker found might be more schematic that the consumers’ perception of the brand personali - based, than true factors. Excitement, as proposed by ty is manipulated by the marketers is supported within Aaker, represents associations such as up-to-date, spir - the study of Johar, Sengupta, and Aaker (2005). They ited, exciting, cool, and young. A claim that for a sport examined the effects of an experiment (marketing team is counter-intuitive, since excitement in sport is strategies) on the consumers’ perception of the brand often referred to by fans as a close contest, offensive personality and acknowledge that those perceptions play or athletic ability (Wann, 1995), and might only only alter after exposure to new brand information. To have low correlations with associations such as cool a similar extent, Swaminathan, Stilley, and Ahluwalia and young. The other factor that might be particularly (2009) performed experiments in which manipulations troublesome is sophistication. Sophistication repre - were performed to alter and/or create a brand person - sents associations such as feminine, smooth, good- ality for (fictitious and non-fictitious) brands. Findings looking, upper class, and charming. Even though a of brand personality research so far are therefore not female netball team is unquestionably feminine (as only a simple reflection of what image the manage - Smith and colleagues found), and thus has a high cor - ment successfully or unsuccessfully marketed to the relation to the brand, the other associations were not outside world, they are often simply a confirmation of strongly related to a netball team brand. Research out - what brand image a company attempts to compose. side the realm of sport management indeed indicates Brand personality associations are the result of an end - that using Aaker’s scale in different contexts results in less line of experiments performed by marketers to different factors (Brakus, Schmitt, & Zarantello, 2009; manipulate the consumers’ perception of the brand, Rojas-Mendez, Erenchun-Podlech, & Silva-Olave, and any measurement of this perception should start 2004; Venable, Rose, Bush, & Gilbert, 2005).

18 Volume 19 • Number 1 • 2010 • Sport Marketing Quarterly Based on these limitations, it is argued in this study desired image to their consumer. Rather than measur - that for academics to examine the personality of a ing the personality of the brand, the author attempts to brand, a different technique should be implemented measure what personality associations managers imple - that acknowledges the ability of managers to create and ment in their marketing strategy, and how consumers manipulate the perceived personality associations of the perceive these associations. Using this strategy takes brand. Friedmann (1986) offered an alternative method into account that a brand does not possess an intrinsic to examine associations connected to an object. People personality, but is only given such traits by different have developed different strategies to create meaning of interest groups (manager, consumers), and allows for the world around them. According to Friedmann, the examination of discrepancy between the two groups. Psychological Meaning (PM) strategy is the one that To examine the efforts of the managers’ manipulation, best describes the relationship between consumer and consumers were asked to evaluate the associations in the product. Following Szalay and Deese (1978), he order of importance and representativeness. stated: “[PM]…is said to characterize those things that are most salient in the way an individual reacts to a Method given perceptual stimulus, as well as describing the direction and affection of these “things” or compo - Research Setting nents” (p. 4). PM can be measured by asking respon - New Zealand is a relatively young nation first colo - dents to provide a list of one-word associations with the nized by the Maori people at the beginning of the sec - object at hand (Friedmann & Jugenheimer, 1985). As ond millennium. The first European immigrants Friedmann (1986) stated: “As such, the PM procedure arrived centuries later and in 1840 the European set - represents a closer approximation to the “real” compo - tlers and the Maori chiefs signed the Treaty of nents of meaning that a consumer derives when per - Waitangi, which laid the foundation for the multi-cul - ceiving a product than do more traditional and tural society of New Zealand today (King, 2003). commonly used measurement tools” (p. 10). Using this Within this multi-cultural society, the Europeans and research method would allow us to grasp a better the Maori found each other in the sport of rugby, and understanding of the meaning of the brand, by asking this game has grown to become the national sport of the managers of the organization to use this free listing New Zealand (Higham & Hall, 2003). Although the technique to describe their own brand. different rugby leagues (Super 14, Air New Zealand This list of personality associations lies arguably at Cup, Heartland Cup) and certain teams (All Blacks, the foundation of the marketers’ attempts to create Vodafone Warriors) are the strongest players in the and manipulate a brand personality for their con - domestic sport entertainment market, different smaller sumers, and could then be used to assess the effective - sport leagues have found their niche in the market and ness of the marketers to shape this image within the are able to survive. One of these sport leagues was the minds of their consumers. By asking the consumers to professional female netball league, called the National evaluate how important these associations are to them, Bank Cup (National Bank Cup tribute book, 2007). and how well the organization represents them, the Traditionally, within New Zealand society, women author can gain a strong and valid insight into the per - were not supposed to participate in rugby because of ceived personality associations of the brand. its violent nature and were therefore directed towards more “feminine” sports such as field hockey and net - Purpose of Study ball (Nauright & Chandler, 1996). Netball is a game in In contrast to the factor modeling technique Aaker which physical contact is kept to a minimum and is the (1997) introduced, the purpose of this study is to use a most widely practiced sport for women in New research strategy that finds the associations managers Zealand (SPARC, 2001). Because of its popularity, the use to create the personality of the brand, and then to national association Netball New Zealand formed a evaluate these associations among the consumers of the female professional league of 10 teams in 1997. The brand. Using the free-listing PM approach of teams, each representing their own region, competed Friedmann (1986) acknowledges that managers are for the first National Bank Cup—a historic move in largely responsible for the creation of the brand person - New Zealand to promote the burgeoning sport. ality. Because this gives a clear picture on what person - However, much like other professional women’s ality associations are related to the brand (thereby leagues around the world (e.g., WUSA, PVL, etc.), they arguably accomplishing what the factor modeling tech - have struggled with sustainability. In 1999 and 2004, nique claims to do), the author can bypass this step the league dropped two teams, and in 2007 the refor - within the survey, and an assessment can be made matted six-team league saw its last season as the whether the managers are effective in marketing their National Bank Cup (National Bank Cup tribute book, Volume 19 • Number 1 • 2010 • Sport Marketing Quarterly 19 2007). Beginning in 2008, the league was again pared associations were given, to ensure a free-listing process. down (now consisting of only five teams), which will Even though the author was unable to check whether it compete in a transnational league combining New was the manager who filled in the list him/herself, it is Zealand teams with several teams from neighboring safe to assume they did so. Communication through e- Australia. With this move, the netball league is follow - mail was between author and manager directly and ing other leagues that have some format of transna - because of the limited resources within the franchises, tional competition within their league, such as neither of the managers had an assistant at their dis - basketball (New Zealand Breakers compete in the posal to do this on their behalf. Based on their NBL), rugby league (Vodafone Warriors compete in responses, a final list of 10 characteristics was com - the NRL), and football (Wellington Phoenix compete piled. The decision to collapse the different lists of the in the A-League). The data was collected during the managers was made because of the perceived brand 2006 season of the National Bank Cup among five of parity of the product, and to ensure a large enough the eight netball franchises. sample of consumers to evaluate the personality com - piled by the managers. To control for the validity of Research Design the list, the final list of adjectives was sent back to each This research was completed through several stages. In of the managers for approval and/or comment. Once the first stage, the purpose was to create a list of associ - the managers agreed with the final list stating it was a ations the managers had in their minds while market - fair representation on how they perceived their brand, ing their team. Managers of each of the eight teams the author was able to move to the next stage. were approached and asked to cooperate with this In the second stage, spectators of home games of the study. Five teams agreed to do so, providing a response five franchises were asked to evaluate how well the rate of 62.5%. The managers were asked to provide a organization represented each of the 10 adjectives. If list of personality adjectives that they felt their brand is the author would have asked them to compile their currently associated with. They were sent the following own list of adjectives, he would probably only have message: been able to look for discongruency with the list pro - Brand personality theory is based on the idea vided by the managers and therefore have limited feed - that people attach human characteristics to a back for the managers. However, by giving them a list brand in order to give meaning to the product. of set adjectives, the author was able to gain more in- Managers anticipate on this notion by providing depth knowledge on the perceived brand personality these human characteristics to their product in among consumers, and provide the organization with their marketing strategies. You probably have your a detailed view on how well they were able to represent own set of adjectives that you would like to have the image to their consumers, and how important people associate with your netball team. In order these associations were to them. to examine your brand more effectively among The results of the level of representation were then your fans, we would like you to share these adjec - used to perform an exploratory factor analysis. It is tives with us. Please think carefully about your important to note here that it was not the author’s choice of words, and see this exercise as a way to intention to create one or more latent variables, con - position your netball team on the market. sisting out of the different adjectives, rather the objec - tive was to examine what schematic associations the Because they are partly responsible for the creation consumers had of the different adjectives and how they of the personality, it is argued that they can create a would group them together. By exporting the score of better list of adjectives associated with the brand than these sets of schematics, regression analysis was then any set factor model. Five of the eight franchises agreed performed to discuss how the resulting factors would to cooperate, and their managers were sent a short predict behavioural outcomes such as merchandise questionnaire in which they were asked to rank the sales and attendance. personality characteristics they thought were associated In the final stage, consumers were asked to rank the with their brand (sport team). Using a variation on the adjectives in order of importance to them. Research on Psychological Meaning listing technique (Friedmann, brand personality so far has used representativeness as 1986), these five managers were asked to list the associ - the indicator to create a brand personality and because ations. While Friedmann requires a time limit on the of the technique they used, they were not able to grasp responses, the managers did not have such a limit. the importance of the different associations to the con - Since the communication with them went through e- sumers. Because the research method in this study mail, they were free to take as much time as they need - resulted in a given (more narrow) set of adjectives, the ed before they returned the form. No example author was able to collect this data. The author chose 20 Volume 19 • Number 1 • 2010 • Sport Marketing Quarterly to use a forced ranking technique to assess the impor - final list was compiled (see Table 1) and sent back to tance of the brand associations to the consumers. By the managers for approval. Since some of the managers using forced rankings the author could create a thresh - only mentioned five or six adjectives in their response, old to divide between what consumers perceived to be it was deemed important they took ownership of the an important association, and what is not important to overall list and agreed with the associations listed for them. Following schematic theory it is argued that all of the teams. Responses to the final list were unani - those associations that are most important to the con - mously positive and no revisions were made, indicat - sumers are the primary associations, while the less ing that according to the managers there was a important associations are secondary associations. For perceived brand parity among teams, and the author the purposes of this study, the author created the fol - could measure brand personality among five different lowing threshold: If a majority of the consumers brands, using a single listing. ranked the association in their top five, it was per - ceived to be important. If this percentage fell below Stage 2 50%, the association was deemed unimportant. The Once a final list of adjectives was compiled, the result - outcomes of these rankings were then assessed and ing survey was then distributed among the spectators of compared to the representativeness of each item. the five different professional netball teams in New Zealand who cooperated in this study (N=323). Results Questionnaires were given out to spectators prior to games. They were allowed to take the questionnaire Stage 1 with them, and return it to assigned drop boxes at the First, the managers were asked to compile a list of per - exit gates. It was acknowledged that this might have a sonality adjectives following the procedures described negative effect on the response rate (many question - in the method section. The author was careful not to naires were left behind in the stands, not filled out), but provide any direction to the managers and ensured the since this study was part of an overall consumer behav - reactions were the result of pure free listing methodol - ior study, the researchers wanted to provide the respon - ogy. One of the consequences of this technique was dents with sufficient time to fill out the survey. One of that managers did not stick with the adjectives the consequences of this strategy was that the approach, and came up with more freely associated researchers had to eliminate 99 respondents who did values. For instance, one of the managers listed ‘win - not fill out the survey completely, leading to a total ners’ as an adjective, and another one used ‘communi - sample of 224 respondents. The mean age of the ty.’ Since these terms cannot be regarded as adjectives, respondents was 33 years, and on average they attended they were not used, and the author made sure that 2.7 games a season. Ninety-five percent of the respon - these terms were accounted for in other adjectives. dents were female, only 12 of the 224 respondents were ‘Winners’ was represented by ‘competitive,’ ‘commu - men. This is fairly representative of the overall popula - nity’ was reflected in adjectives such as ‘warm,’ and tion as most spectators of these events are mothers who ‘accessible’, and ‘heart’ was reflected by ‘passionate.’ A attend these games with their daughters. Table 1. Strength of the Representation of the Adjectives Mean Score SD 95% C.I. of the difference Lower Upper

Competitive 6.51 1.01 6.38 6.64 Exciting 6.34 1.16 6.20 6.49 Professional 6.41 1.09 6.27 6.54 Dynamic 6.19 1.10 6.05 6.33 Passionate 6.20 1.29 6.04 6.36 Proud 6.28 1.25 6.13 6.44 Accessible 5.68 1.41 5.50 5.86 Warm 5.50 1.46 5.31 5.68 Cool 5.32 1.73 5.10 5.54 Attractive 4.81 1.83 4.58 5.05

Note: All t-values were significant at p < .01

Volume 19 • Number 1 • 2010 • Sport Marketing Quarterly 21 The next step was to assess how well the spectators the representativeness of the different associations and felt the brand represented each one of the adjectives. that the netball league teams do an adequate job mar - They were asked to rate the representativeness of the keting their brand to the fans. An exploratory factor adjective by the brand based on a 1 to 7 scale, with 1 analysis (EFA) was performed to examine the schemat - indicating a poor fit, 4 being the point of indifference, ic associations the consumers had between the differ - and 7 indicating a strong fit (Table 1). ent associations. Two factors were apparent from the All mean scores were well above the point of indif - EFA (Table 2), one clustering around associations that ference, indicating that in general, the fans agreed to are directly related to elite sport and the emotions resulting from the game, a second clustering was Table 2. formed around more generic associations that were Exploratory Factor Analysis. more event related. Components The scores of the factor analysis were then exported 12 to independent scores, and these scores (Factor 1: Game related, and Factor 2: Event related) were used Eigenvalues 5.481 1.405 to predict game attendance and merchandise sales Variance explained 43.211 25.650 implementing regression analysis. The individual Variables Factor loadings teams were coded as dummy variables. Combined, the Competitive .896 .086 two factors were able to predict only 5 % of the vari - Professional .859 .212 ance in merchandise sales, but only the event-related Exciting .824 .259 factor appeared to have a significant Beta score (B: Dynamic .815 .237 .174, p = .01), suggesting that it was those factors the Proud .786 .316 clubs were the least representative of, that could pre - Passionate .747 .360 dict merchandise sales. When the two factors were Cool .215 .783 used to predict attendance, a similar pattern came Warm .243 .776 through. Only 10.3 % of the variance in attendance Attractive .094 .770 was explained by the two factors, and it was again only Accessible .382 .592

Table 3. Order of Importance of the Adjectives Overall mean score Team 1 Team 2 Team 3 Team 4 Team 5 (1=highest, 10=lowest) Percentage of people who regarded this adjective as being important

Competitive 2.29 82.2 87.5 88.1 87.7 83.3

Exciting 3.62 75.6 82.1 75.8 84.2 79.2

Professional 3.87 71.1 75.0 79.0 82.5 83.3

Dynamic 4.63 60.0 73.2 74.2 68.4 75.0

Passionate 4.83 57.8 53.6 59.7 63.2 66.7

Proud 5.12 60.0 48.2 59.7 47.4 50.0

Accessible 6.30 31.1 41.1 29.0 24.6 29.2

Warm 7.30 22.2 19.6 14.5 12.3 20.8

Cool 7.74 24.4 12.5 9.7 19.3 20.8

Attractive 8.62 15.6 10.7 9.7 12.5 16.7

22 Volume 19 • Number 1 • 2010 • Sport Marketing Quarterly the factor of the event adjectives that had a significant for marketing managers of netball teams, and it cannot level of prediction (B: .118, p = .067). be surprising to the managers that their team brand The next step was to assess the importance the spec - had a strong association with competence and sincerity, tators attached to each one of the adjectives. Table 3 while scoring low on both sophistication and rugged - provides an overview of how important the different ness. It is argued that the results found in this study adjectives were to the respondents. Column 1 reflects provides the managers a much more in-depth view of the overall ranking of the adjectives. To ensure that how their brand is perceived among their consumers. this list of importance was similar across all five teams Based on the organizations’ ability to represent the incorporated in this study, the individual team scores different associations, the overall list of associations were examined to check for differences between the could be divided in two distinct sets of associations, teams. The researcher proposed that the top five adjec - game related and event related. A similar distinction tives were important to the respondent, and the rank - between game-related associations and event-related ing was compiled by using the percentage of the associations was apparent when the consumers were population who ranked that particular adjective in forced to rank the associations based on importance. their top five. The least important adjectives as perceived by the spec - The respondents appeared to have a very clear view tators was the set of event-related adjectives that reflect on the importance of the different adjectives to them, the community feel of the event (warm, accessible), and this list is similar across all teams. The two factors and the two adjectives of cool and attractive. That both that were apparent in the factor analysis (game-related cool and attractive end up being the lowest scoring and event-related factors) were classified similar when adjectives on both the representation ranking as well as asked about their importance. The game-related vari - the importance ranking is not surprising considering ables were all valued by their spectators as being the demographic of the spectators (mother/daughter). important (with the exception of proud for team 2 and The fact that attractive received low values might have 4, following the majority rule stated earlier in the to do with the fact that the respondents connected this methods section), while the event-related variables with the players (who are of the same sex as they are), (accessible, warm, cool, and attractive) were at the bot - rather than with the game (see the high score for excit - tom of the list for all five teams. ing). What is surprising though is that it was the less important event-related associations that had a signifi - Discussion cant level of prediction on consumer behavior, such as The method used in this study to examine brand per - merchandise sales and overall attendance, while the sonality associations allowed the researchers to not game-related associations seen as most important by only capture the perceived personality associations of the consumers did not predict attendance and mer - the brand, in addition it provided the researchers with chandise sales at all. valuable insights on both the organization’s ability to represent that particular association, as well as captur - Managerial Implications ing the relative importance of those associations to a The purpose of this study was to propose a new tech - particular set of consumers. It has to be noted that this nique to assist managers to examine the brand person - set of consumers was predominantly female, which ality associations of an organization. It is argued that does limit our ability to generalize the data. Since the the brand personality scale developed by Aaker (1997) purpose of this article was to explore a new method to lacks validity, creates a sense of anthropomorphism, measure brand personality associations among con - fails to acknowledge the power of the marketers to sumers, this should not be detrimental to the findings manipulate the perception of the brand personality of this study. associations by the consumers, and is not usable out - One of the few studies on brand personality in the side its primary setting. Rather than developing a new field of sport management was performed by Smith et factor scale, it is proposed that it is more useful to have al. (2006), and illustrated some of the issues raised in managers develop their own list of brand personality this study. They used Aaker’s brand personality scale to adjectives. Since managers “own” and manipulate the evaluate the brand of an Australian female netball team, brand personality, they have the most reliable insight and they found that the team’s brand personality was on what associations are related to the brand. This list strongly associated with competence, sincerity, and was then used to examine importance to the con - innovation (a new dimension they explored), moder - sumers, as well as measuring the representativeness of ately associated with excitement, and it had low associa - the organization towards these adjectives. This tech - tions with both sophistication and ruggedness. It is nique does not necessarily attempt to capture the per - questionable what the added value of these findings is sonality of the brand; instead it focuses on the gap Volume 19 • Number 1 • 2010 • Sport Marketing Quarterly 23 between the perceived brand personality by the man - Nauright, J., & Chandler, T. J. L. (Eds.). (1996). Making men: Rugby and ager and the consumer. Measuring the gap between masculine identity. London: Frank Cass. Participation rates women in sport (2001). SPARC. Retrieved from these two perceptions is a much stronger indication of http://www.sparc.org.nz/research-policy/research/participation/partici - the success of the marketing strategy than using the pation-nz-adults/participation-nz-women brand personality scale as developed by Aaker (1997). Raney, A. A., & Bryant, J. (Eds). (2006). Handbook of sports and media . Results indicate spectators have a strong preference in Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Rojas-Mendez, J. I., Erenchun-Podlech, I., & Silva-Olave, E. (2004). The what they believe is important to the brand, as well as Ford brand personality in Chile. Corporate Reputation Review, 7 (3), the level of representation of the association by the 232-351. organization. However, when those perceptions are Szalay, L., & Deese, J. (1978). Subjective meaning and culture: An assessment then used to predict self-reported merchandise sales through word associations. Hillsdale, NJ: L.E.A. Associates. Smith, A. C. T., Graetz, B. R., & Westerbeek, H. M. (2006). Brand personal - and attendance, it was those associations that were ity in a membership-based organization. International Journal of regarded as unimportant that were significant. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, 11 , 1-16. The two-stage brand personality approach provides Swaminathan, V., Stilley, K. M., & Ahluwalia, R. (2009). When brand per - managers with a more accurate instrument to evaluate sonality matters: The moderating role of attachment styles. Journal of their consumers perception of the brand, and gives in- Consumer Research, 35 (6), 985-1002. Venable, B. T., Rose, G. M., Bush, V. D., & Gilbert, F. W. (2005). The role depth information on what is important to the con - of brand personality in charitable giving: An assessment and validation. sumers, as well as how strongly the organization Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 33 (3), 295-312. represents the chosen association. Wann, D. L. (1995). Preliminary validation of the Sport Fan Motivation Scale. The Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 20 (4), 377-396. References Wieden, D. (1992, July-August). A sense of cool: Nike’s theory of advertis - ing. Harvard Business Review , 97. Aaker, D. A. (1991). Managing brand equity . New York: The Free Press. Aaker, J. L. (1997). Dimensions of brand personality. 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Gender dimensions of brand personality. Journal of Marketing Research, 46 (1), 105-119. Hair, J. F., Black, W., Babin, B., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2005). Multivariate data analysis (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Higham, J. E. S., & Hall, C. M. (2003). Sport tourism in Australia and New Zealand: Responding to a dynamic interface. Journal of Sport Tourism, 8(3), 131-143. Johar, G. V., Sengupta, J., & Aaker, J. L. (2005). Two roads to updating brand personality impressions: Trait versus evaluative inferencing. Journal of Marketing Research, 42 (4), 458-469. Keller, K. L. (1993). Conceptualizing, measuring and managing customer- based brand equity. Journal of Marketing, 57 , 1-22. King, G., Murray, C. J. L., Salomon, J. A., & Tandon, A. (2004). Enhancing the validity and cross-cultural comparability of measurement in survey research. American Political Science Review, 98 (1), 191-207. King, M. (2003). The Penguin history of New Zealand . New Zealand; Penguin Books. Matsumoto, D., & Yoo, S. H. (2006). Toward a new generation of cross- cultural research. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1 (3), 234-250. Muniz, A. M. Jr., & O’Guinn, T. C. (2001). Brand community. Journal of Consumer Research, 27 , 412-432. The National Bank Cup tribute book (2007). Retrieved from http://www.netballnz.co.nz

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