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Stability Over Time: Is Behavior Analysis a Trait Psychology? Stuart Vyse Connecticut College

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Stability Over Time: Is Behavior Analysis a Trait Psychology? Stuart Vyse Connecticut College The Behavior Analyst 2004, 27, 43-53 No. 1 (Spring) Stability Over Time: Is Behavior Analysis a Trait Psychology? Stuart Vyse Connecticut College Historically, behavior analysis and trait psychology have had little in common; however, recent developments in behavior analysis bring it closer to one of the core assumptions of the trait ap- proach: the stability of behavior over time and, to a lesser extent, environments. The introduction of the concept of behavioral momentum and, in particular, the development of molar theories have produced some common features and concerns. Behavior-analytic theories of stability provide im- proved explanations of many everyday phenomena and make possible the expansion of behavior analysis into areas that have been inadequately addressed. Key words: traits, dispositions, behavioral momentum, molar theory, teleological behaviorism, moral attribution, behavioral stability On the surface, the subtitle of this cial and cultural implications than paper poses a silly question. It is hard those that follow from traditional trait to think of two theoretical viewpoints approaches. more widely separated than behavior analysis and trait psychology (Skinner, Trait Theory 1953). Yet on close examination, con- temporary behavior analysis has in- In their various forms, dispositional creasingly focused on the stability of theories have the longest history and behavior across time and environ- remain among the most popular of all ments, a central concern of trait theo- explanations of human behavior (Carv- ries. In this paper, I argue that, despite er & Scheier, 2004). Dispositional the- their many differences, it is entirely ap- ories hold the common view that peo- propriate for behavior analysts to share ple exhibit relatively stable character- an interest in stable forms of behavior istics across environments and time with trait theorists. Furthermore, I hope (Carver & Scheier). The varieties of to show that, in a social context, be- dispositional accounts include type havior that is relatively stable across theories, which attempt to separate time and environments is viewed dif- people into groups representing dis- ferently than behavior that is less sta- continuous personality categories (e.g., ble. As observers we make different Jung, 1933), and trait theories, which judgments about people whose actions attempt to describe people with respect are consistent than we do about those to continuous dimensions of personal- whose actions are inconsistent, and ity. In addition, the word temperament these judgments often have important is sometimes used in the singular form consequences. Finally, I suggest that a to describe a person's essential char- behavior-analytic interpretation of sta- acter (Allport, 1961), but it is also used ble behavior has somewhat different in the plural form to describe traits that and, in some cases, more optimistic so- are present in early childhood (e.g., Buss & Plomin, 1975; Kagan, 1994). I thank Carol Pilgrim, Jefferson Singer, and Finally, consistent dimensions of per- the anonymous reviewers for their comments on sonality that are labeled traits (e.g., ex- earlier versions of this article. troversion) are contrasted with more Correspondence should be addressed to the temporary responses to the environ- author at the Department of Psychology, Box 5621, Connecticut College, 270 Mohegan Ave- ment, called states (Revelle, 1995). nue, New London, Connecticut 06320 (e-mail: Thus, anger can be a trait, if it is a savys @conncoll.edu). longer lasting disposition, as well as a 43 44 STUART VYSE state, if it is a relatively momentary re- the proper balance of bodily fluids. The sponse to a current situation (Spielber- colonial doctor Benjamin Rush was a ger, Sydeman, Owen, & Marsh, 1999). major proponent of bloodletting in The trait approach has been chal- America, and the methods of heroic lenged by other personality theorists medicine remained the dominant west- (e.g., Mischel, 1968), but today trait ern medical practice from medieval theories are experiencing renewed pop- times well into the 19th century (Duf- ularity, with a five-factor model of per- fy, 1976). sonality emerging as the most widely Before discussing more contempo- endorsed (e.g., Costa & McCrae, rary trait psychologies, it is worth not- 1992a; Digman, 1990). Among the ing that astrology, the theory of per- general public, trait explanations of hu- sonality that is probably endorsed by man behavior have never lost their ap- the greatest number of people world- peal and, indeed, appear to be an in- wide, is also a trait theory. The deter- tegral feature of western culture (Hine- mining factor in this case is purported line, 1992; Moore, 2003; Ross & Nis- to be an astronomical event, rather than bett, 1991). genetics or some other terrestrial pro- The origins of the dispositional ap- cess, but the result is said to be a stable proach are attributed to the ancient personality type that is similar for peo- Greeks. In 400 B.C.E. Hippocrates in- ple born during the same sun-sign pe- troduced the earliest known theory of riod (Guiley, 1991). temperaments. According to Hippoc- Modern trait theories of personality rates, the four humors (blood, phlegm, come in different forms. Gordon All- yellow bile, and black bile) determined port, an important figure in the history one's temperament, and excesses or def- of trait psychology, adopted the ideo- icits of these fluids produced one of graphic view that each person is a dis- four personality types: sanguine, mel- tinct individual. He proposed a hierar- ancholic, choleric, or phlegmatic. Ga- chical organization of traits, with some len refined this theory in the 2nd cen- more central than others. He also be- tury B.C.E., and it remained popular lieved that some traits were shared for two millennia, gaining particularly among members of the general popu- widespread acceptance in Europe dur- lation, whereas others-perhaps as ing the period of the Renaissance many as a thousand-were unique to a through the 19th century. given person (Allport, 1931). For the An interesting variation on the the- present discussion, it is important to ory of humors, which was also intro- note that, in a classic paper in which duced in ancient Greece, is physiog- he outlined the defining features of a nomy, which claimed that personality trait, Allport strove to distinguish traits types could be identified from facial. from habits, suggesting that traits were features (Wells, 1866). Physiognomy more generalized than habits and that experienced a revival in the 19th cen- traits were often the source of habits. tury after the publication of Johann La- (An unusual contribution to learning vater's Essays on Physiognomy in theory, indeed.) Other trait theorists, 1789. This book became "a basic re- including the majority of contemporary source in a gentleman's home, to be trait psychologists, have taken a more consulted when hiring staff, making nomothetic approach-searching for a friends and establishing business rela- relatively small set of universal traits tions" (Wechsler, 1982, p. 24). that are held in varying degrees by ev- The theory of humors also informed eryone. medical practice and led to the devel- Trait psychologists also differ on- opment of heroic medicine, which in- or in some cases appear ambivalent volved methods such as bloodletting about-the important issue of whether and the use of leeches and purgatives traits are causes or effects (Pervin, in an effort to achieve health through 1994). Some believe that traits, as mea- IS BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS A TRAIT PSYCHOLOGY? 45 TABLE 1 Trait psychology versus behavior analysis Theory Characteristic Trait psychology Behavior analysis Measurement among participants within participants Research design correlational studies experiments N large small Data analysis factor analysis, correlations graphic displays, descriptive statistics Observed relations behavior-behavior environment-behavior Causal variables phylogenic or hypothetical phylogenic and ontogenic Scientific goal prediction control sured by personality psychologists, are Is Behavior Analysis a Trait dependent variables or phenotypes that Psychology? simply summarize a person's average behavior and have no causal power The answer to this question is, of (Caprara & Cervone, 2000; Epstein, course, no. Behavior analysis is not a 1994; Pervin, 1994). Others assert that trait psychology. As Table 1 indicates, traits are inherited genotypes that de- the two approaches have more differ- termine an individual's behavior (Costa ences than similarities. However, in- & McCrae, 1992a; Eysenck, 1990). creasingly, behavior analysts have be- Recently, a five-factor model of per- gun to concern themselves with behav- sonality has gained widespread support ior that is stable over time. Few behav- (Digman, 1990). According to this the- ior analysts would say that one's ory, the traits of extroversion, agree- personality is set in plaster. Of course, ableness, conscientiousness, neuroti- the word personality rarely appears in cism, and openness to experience are the literature of behavior analysis, but central to everyone's personality and more important, despite recognizing can be reliably measured by question- the influence of genetics, few would naires, the most popular of which is the say that anything at all is set in plaster. NEO Personality Inventory developed To be fair, although Costa and McCrae by Costa and McCrae (1992b). Interest (1994) believe that, for most people, in the five-factor model increased
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