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Arsenic and Fluoride: Two Major Ground Water Pollutants

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Arsenic and Fluoride: Two Major Ground Water Pollutants Indian Journal of Experimental Biology Vol. 48, July 2010, pp. 666-678 Review Article Arsenic and fluoride: Two major ground water pollutants Swapnila Chouhan & S J S Flora* Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Defence Research and Development Establishment, Gwalior 474 002, India Increasing human activities have modified the global cycle of heavy metals, non metals and metalloids. Both arsenic and fluoride are ubiquitous in the environment. Thousands of people are suffering from the toxic effects of arsenicals and fluorides in many countries all over the world. These two elements are recognized worldwide as the most serious inorganic contaminants in drinking water. Many studies have reported as regards to simple fluorosis and arsenicosis, but the knowledge of the joint action of these two elements is lacking and the results derived from previous studies were inconclusive. Contradictory results were reported in experimental studies in which different joint actions such as independent, synergistic and antagonistic effects were observed. This indicates that interaction mechanism of these two elements is considerable complicated and requires extensive studies. When two different types of toxicants are simultaneously going inside a human body they may function independently or can act as synergistic or antagonistic to one another. Thus there is an urge to resolve the question that how arsenic and fluoride act in condition of concomitant exposure. Although there have been reports in literature of individual toxicity of arsenic and fluoride however, there is very little known about the effects following the combined exposure to these toxicants. This review focused on recent developments in the research on the condition of individual exposure to arsenic and fluoride along with the recent updates of their combined exposure to better understand the joint action of these two toxicants. Keywords: Antioxidants, Arsenic, Chelators, Fluoride toxicity Global pollution is increasing due to variations in for use as a suicidal and homicidal agent. Fluorine- natural and anthropogenic activities leading to containing compounds are at the leading edge of contamination of various terrestrial and aquatic many new developments in the life science industry. ecosystems with metals, non metals, organic and Exposure to both arsenic and fluoride occurs inorganic compounds. Uncontrolled discharge of environmentally from natural and anthropogenic wastes, use of agricultural herbicides, pesticides, sources and occupationally in several industries, insecticides and sewage disposal is some of the major including mining, pesticide, pharmaceutical, contributors of contaminants. A large part of the beverages, food, glass and microelectronics. The population in the industrialized world is exposed daily cause of combined occurrence of arsenic and fluoride to a variety of chemicals. Industrial disposal contains in groundwater can be geogenic as well as many toxic metals which are health hazardous. The anthropogenic. Ingestion of drinking water containing pollution of groundwater by arsenic and fluoride high concentrations of F and As, primarily from has been identified in many developing and natural contamination is the main source of human some developed countries. The concurrent chronic environmental exposure worldwide 1,2 . There are poisonings with fluoride and arsenic is an emergent various fluoride compounds of arsenic which have endemic disease in India and many other countries been recognized as a super acid system for organic including China, Mexico, Argentina, and Bangladesh. synthesis e.g. HF/AsF 5, and also as an electrolyte in There are several places throughout the world where rechargeable gel batteries 3,4 . In addition to this arsenic and fluoride both are present in ground water improper discharge of waste water, also increases the at high concentration. Arsenic contamination of possibility of combined occurrence of arsenic and groundwater in the West Bengal basin in India is fluoride in ground water. Although there have been unfolding as one of the worst natural geo- reports in literature of individual toxicity of arsenic environmental disaster to date. Arsenic is well known and fluoride, however, there is very little known about the effects following the combined exposure to these —————— toxicants. This review attempts to provide a * Correspondent author–Telephone: 0751 2344301 comprehensive account of recent developments in the Fax: 0751 2341148 E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] research on the condition of individual exposure to CHOUHAN & FLORA: COMBINED EXPOSURE TO ARSENIC & FLUORIDE 667 arsenic and fluoride along with the recent updates of to cancer in kidney, liver, lungs, urinary bladder and, their combined exposure to better understand the joint skin 10 . Trivalent arsenicals, including sodium arsenite action of these two toxicants. and the more soluble arsenic trioxide, inhibit many enzymes by reacting with biological ligands which Arsenic posses available sulfur groups. Symptoms of acute Arsenic is 33 rd element in the periodic table. arsenic intoxication usually occur within 30 min of It exists in the metallic state in nature in exposure. Severe nausea and vomiting, colicky three allotropic forms and in several ionic forms. abdominal pain and profuse diarrhoea (bloody in Environmental arsenic exists mainly as sulphide some cases), due to vasodilation with transudation of complexes e.g. realgar (As 2S2), orpiment (As 2S3) and fluid into the bowel lumen and sloughing leading to iron pyrites. Arsenic is the 20 th most abundant increased peristalsis 11,12 . The clinical features of acute element in the earth crust known as a poison and arsenic poisoning include gastrointestinal discomfort human carcinogen. Arsenic is listed as the highest (nausea, diarrhea, and abdominal pain), haemolysis, priority contaminant on the ATSDR/EPA priority list central and peripheral nervous system disorders of hazardous substances at Superfund sites 5. In India, (headaches, weakness, delirium), and cardiovascular many areas from West Bengal have shown to be disorders (hypertension, shock). Major effects of affected, whereas Bihar is an emerging area with acute arsenic exposure in humans include haemolytic high arsenic contamination 6. The possible methods anaemia, hemoglobinuria, and jaundice that lead to of exposure to arsenic are contact, ingestion and renal failure. Chronic exposure to inorganic arsenic is inhalation. Ingestion of contaminated drinking associated with irritation of the skin and mucous water is the predominant source of significant membranes (dermatitis, conjunctivitis, pharyngitis, environmental exposure globally. and rhinitis). Bowen’s disease is a long-term Absorbed arsenic passes to bloodstream and complication of chronic arsenic. Chronic exposure distributed to organs/tissues after first passing through also results in fatigue and loss of energy, the liver. Once absorbed, arsenic rapidly combines inflammation of the stomach and intestines, kidney with the globin portion of haemoglobin and therefore degeneration, cirrhosis of the liver, bone-marrow localises in the blood within 24 h. Arsenic degeneration, and severe dermatitis. Death from acute redistributes itself to the liver, kidney, spleen, lung arsenic poisoning is usually caused by irreversible and gastrointestinal tract, with lesser accumulation in circulatory insufficiency. Chronic toxicity is much muscle and nervous tissue 7-9. After accumulation of more insidious and the diagnosis is often difficult to small dose of arsenic, it undergoes methylation establish. mainly in the liver to monomethylarsonic acid and dimethylarsinic acid which are excreted along with residual inorganic arsenic in the urine. Biologically, the trivalent arsenite is significantly more active than the pentavalent arsenate, including the ability to induce gene amplification in mammalian cells. Arsenate and arsenite have different fates in the body. Arsenate enters the cell via the phosphate carrier system. It can bind to polyphosphates like adenosine di-phoshate, after that it is rapidly hydrolyzed. Arsenite can bind to thiols such as glutathione (GSH) and thiol containing proteins. Arsenic is cleared from the body relatively rapidly and primarily through kidney. Urine is the primary route of elimination for both pentavalent and trivalent inorganic arsenicals. Major routes of exposure and various steps in the metabolism of arsenic is described in Fig. 1. Toxicity— Exposure to inorganic arsenic causes many adverse human health effects, including Fig. 1—Major routes of exposure and various steps in the cardiovascular, hepatic and renal diseases in addition metabolism of arsenic 668 INDIAN J EXP BIOL, JULY 2010 Mechanism of toxicity —Trivalent inorganic ROS, reactive nitrogen species (RNS) also are arsenite (As +3 ) acts as - thought to be directly involved in oxidative • React with molecules containing sulfhydryl damage to lipids, proteins and DNA in cells exposed groups such as glutathione (GSH), δ- to arsenic. Many recent studies have provided aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALAD) etc. experimental evidence that arsenic-induced and form strong complex with vicinal thiols generation of free radicals can cause cell damage groups thereby inhibiting the activity of and death through activation of oxidative sensitive 17 molecules. signalling pathways . These ROS and RNS are capable of damaging a wide variety of • Inhibits PDH activity, perhaps by binding to cellular macromolecules,
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