The Nochta Site: The Early^ Middle^ and Late Archaic Occupations

Michael J. Higgins with contributions by Andrew C. Fortier, Douglas K. Jackson, Kathryn E. Parker, and Mary Simon

American Bottom Archaeology FAI-270 Site Reports ARCHAEOLOGY FAI-270 Site Reports

Edited by Walthall Charles J. Bareis and James A.

regions This multi-volume series on one of the-most significant archaeological Administration and in North America is co-sponsored by the Federal Highway report on excavation the Illinois Department of Transportation. The volumes floodplain of sites affected by the construction of Interstate Highway 270 on the across the of the Mississippi River in Monroe, St. Clair, and Madison counties river from St. Louis.

of the anthropology department at the University Charles J. Bareis is a member Archaeologist of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and John A. Walthall is Chief actively involved for the Illinois Department of Transportation. Both have been in the excavations of the American Bottom.

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Series Editors: Coordinator) and Charles J. Bareis (Principal Investigator and Program John A. Walthall (Chief Archaeologist, Illinois Department of Transportation)

Project Director: Andrew C. Fortier

Copy Editors:

Barbara E. Cohen and Kathryn Koldehoff

Investigations conducted under the auspices of the Illinois Archaeological Survey in cooperation with:

The Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration

The United States Department of the Interior

The State of Illinois Department of Transportation

J. Paul Biggers (Chief of Environment) John A. Walthall, Ph.D. (Chief Archaeologist) The Nochta Site: The Early, Middle, and Late Archaic Occupations (ll-Ms-128)

Michael J. Higgins

with contributions by Andrew C. Fortier, Douglas K. Jackson, Kathryn E. Parker, and Mary Simon

Published for the Illinois Department of Transportation

by the University of Illinois Press Urbana and Chicago 1990 1990 by the Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois Manufactured in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Higgins, Michael J. (Michael John)

The Nochta site (11-Ms-128) : the early, middle, and late Archaic

occupations / Michael J. Higgins : with contributions by Andrew C.

Fortier . . . [et al.].

p. cm. — (American Bottom archaeology : FAI-270 site reports

: V. 21) Bibliography: p. ISBN 0-252-06079-2

1. Nochta Site (III.) 2. Indians of North America— Illinois- American Bottom— Antiquities. 3. American Bottom (III.)—

Antiquities. 4. Illinois— Antiquities. I. Fortier, Andrew C,

1947- . II. Title. III. Series: American Bottom archaeology : v. 21. E78.I3A58 1983 vol. 21 970 s— dc20 [977.3'81 89-34661 CIP To Dick Flanders, From one bricklayer to another- this one's for you, Doc

CONTENTS

List of Tables ix

List of Figures xi

List of Plates xiii

Preface xv Acknowledgments xvii

Part 1 Early and Middle Archaic Occupations at the Nochta Site, 1 Michael ). Higgins

1 Introduction 3 2 The Dalton Occupation 31 3 The Early Archaic Occupations 59 4 The Middle Archaic Occupation 79 5 General Archaic 115 6 The Middle Woodland Occupation 143 7 Summary and Conclusions 159

Part 2 Investigations in the Mainline Portion of the Nochta Site, Andrew C. Fortier 163 8 Introduction 165 9 Local Environment 167 10 History of Site Investigations 171 11 Research Design and Excavation Strategy 177 12 Analytical Methods, Andrew C. Fortier and Douglas K. Jackson 179 13 Results of Survey and Excavation 183 14 Interpretation 225 15 Significance 229

Appendix A: Early Archaic Archaeobotany, Kathryn E. Parker 231 Appendix B: Middle Archaic Archaeobotany, Mary Simon 237 Appendix C: Archaeobotanical Remains from Middle Woodland 51, Mary Simon 261 Appendix D: Metric Data for Nochta Site Features 265 Appendix E: Description of Types 271

References 273

LIST OF TABLES

1. Vertical Mixing of Diagnostic Projectile Points 21 2. Basal Concavity Depths for Dalton Points 34 3. Middle Archaic Chert Types 80 4. Middle Archaic Radiocarbon Dates 108 5. Ceramic Materials from Areas A and B 187 6. (^hert Debitagc from Area B 189 7. ( hcrt r

LIST OF FIGURES

1. FAI-27ft Projecf with 5.8-Milc Extension 4 2. Coomorphological Features in the Noehta Site Locality 5 3. Geographical Location of the Nochia Site 6 4. Ihe Noehta Site and the Locations of the Borrow Pits 7 5. Schematic (ieomorphological Fransect Across the Central Portion of the Noehta Site 10 6. Surface ("oncentrations of Cultural Material 15 7. INIeasurenients and lerniinology 27 8. Feature Types 29 9. Pit Volume Formulas 30 10. Dalton 42

1 1. Possible Dalton Feature ("luster 51 12. Distribution of Dalton Artifacts 54 13. Distribution of Agate Basin Points 63 14. Distribution of Kirk Points 66 15. Distribution of Hardin Barbed Points and Related Artifacts 69 16. Middle Archaic Feature Complex 98 17. Middle Archaic Feature Clusters 103 18. Feature Diversity by Clusters 106 19. ( obble Percentages by Rock Type 131 20. Feature Clusters 140 21. Test Excavations in the Middle W(MKlland Portion of Ihe Noehta Site 153 22. Original Limits of Noehta Mainline, Borrow Pit #72, and Borrow Pit //75 166 23. Transect of the Noehta Site Sand Ridge 168 24. Profile of the Geomorphological Trench (CiT7) at the North Fnd of the Noehta Mainline Area of Investigation 168 25. Surface Scatters within Noehta Mainline as Defined by the FAP-413 Survey in 1977 and ISIJ Survey in 1979 .' 172 26. Limits of the 1984-1985 Machine Excavations within Noehta Mainline 175 27. Material Concentrations (A-L) within the Noehta Site 176 28. 1985 10 X 10 m Surface Collection Blocks 185 29. Distribution of Materials in Area B 10 x 10 m Surface Collection Blocks 186 30. C hert Debitage lypes Recovered from Areas B and C 190 31. A Guide to Projectile Point Attribute Measurements 193 32. Distribution of Materials in Area C 10 x 10 m Surface Collection Blocks 209 33. Model of Nineteenth-Century Vegetation /.ones in the American Bottom 239

.

LIST OF PLATES

Locality 9 1 . Aerial Photograph of the Nochf a Site 13 2. Test Unit 2, Wall Profile and Burietl A Horizon 3. Aerial Photograph of Borrow Pit PLxcavations 18 4. Hc2i\j Machinery Stripping and Piece I*lotting Artifacts 20 5. Dalton Points: Preform Stages 33 6. Dalton Points: Initial, Advanced, and I'inal Stages 36 7. Miscellaneous Pointetl Bifaces, Dalton ( omponent 38 8. Dalton 40 9. Possible Adze Blanks 44 10. Dalton End Scrapers 46

1 1 Dalton Flake Knives 48 12. Feature 55 50 13. Agate Basin Points 60 14. Kirk Corner-Notched Points 64 15. Hardin Barbetl and Related Points 67 16. Bifurcate-Based Points 70 17. Miscellaneous Farly Archaic Points 72 18. Middle Archaic Projectile Points: Robinson and Brannon Side-Notched 82 19. Middle Archaic Projectile Points: Miscellaneous 84 20. Middle Archaic Chert Tools 86 21. Bipolar Artifacts Middle Archaic Component 87 22. Recovered from Middle Archaic Pit 91 23. Pitted Cobbles from the Middle Archaic Component 92 24. Cobble Tools from Rock Cluster, Feature 202 93 25. Miscellaneous Middle Archaic Nonchert Artifacts 97 26. Chert Blanks H7 27. Preforms from the Archaic levels 118 28. Drills from the Archaic levels 119 29. Steep-Angled Scrapers 121 30. Flake Knives 122 31. Pieces F^squillees from the Archaic Levels 123 32. Cores 124 33. Ground-Stone 126 34. Miscellaneous Ground-Stone 129 35. Manos 133 36. 134 37. Pitted ( obbles 135 38. Metatcs 137 39. Choppers from the Archaic Ixvels 138 40. Early and Middle Woodland Ceramics 145 41. Middle Woodland Ceramics 148 42. Middle Woodland ( hert Artifacts 151 43. Lithic Artifacts from Middle Woodland Features 154 44. Projectile Points from Area B 192 45. IJnhafted Bifaces (Knives/Scrapers) from Area B 196 46. Unifacial Scrapers from Area B 198 47. Gravers and Denticulate from Area B 199 48. Notched Plakcs/Spokeshaves from Area B 200 49. Core Scrapers/Edge Tools from Area B 202 50. Biface Fragments from Area B 203 51. Hoe from Area A 204 52. Projectile Points and Microdrills from Area C 216 53. Unifacial Flake Scrapers and Gravers/Spurs from Area C 217 54. Notched Flakes, Biface Fragments, Pick and Bifacial // Perforator from Area C 220 Preface

In June of 1977, the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign signed an agreement with the Illinois Department of Transportation for the mitigation of archaeological resources within the right-of-way of Federal Aid Interstate 270 (redesignated 255) in the American Bottom in Monroe, St. Clair, and Madison counties, Illinois. As part of this agreement, the University in cooperation with the state and the Illinois Archaeological Survey, has the right to publish the results of these archaeological investigations. This volume represents revised versions of Report #78 and Report #80, which were originally submitted by the FAI-270 Archaeological Mitigation Project to the Illinois Department of Transportation in partial fulfillment of contractual obligations of the agreement. This volume also represents one of a series of major site reports that have been selected by the Project for publication by the University of Illinois Press. Each of the descriptive site reports will present a detailed summary of the archaeography of particular sites investigated by the Project. These volumes will not attempt to make regional comparisons or interpretations, since such syntheses are presented in a summary volume of the FAI-270 Archaeological Mitigation

Project entitled American Bottom Archaeology , edited by Charles J. Bareis and James W. Porter, and published by the University of Illinois Press (1984). For the Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, I would like to acknowledge the support and cooperation of the United States Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration; the State of Illinois, Illinois Department of Transportation; the Illinois Archaeological Survey; and the University of Illinois Press.

Charles J. Bareis Principal Investigator and Program Coordinator

Acknowledgments

Imagine if you will that you have six months and $30,000 to excavate a buried site that is larger than many people's hometown, and you have just taken heat for the umpteenth time from concerned parties wanting to know what is taking so long and costing so much; an extremely large piece of heavy earth-moving equipment has just gobbled up and carried away a good-sized chunk of that nice-looking pit feature you were about to flag; you are informed that you have $12.17 left in your field budget--four hours after you have uncovered 50 features; and you hope and pray that your nimble-footed crew can survive the day without getting run over by heavy machinery. Imagine if you will an average day at the Nochta borrow pits (Part 1, this volume). Somewhere in the hustle and bustle of working in salvage-like conditions, the romance of archaeology was sometimes lost. It is to the credit of many people that while working in a less-than-ideal situation we were able to obtain the vast quantity of data from the site that we did. I would first like to thank my field supervisors, Thomas Berres, Ned Hanenberger, Charles Witty, and for a short time, Roger Williamson. Their advice, hard work, and good spirits under adverse conditions were always greatly appreciated. I would also like to thank Professor Charles J. Bareis and Dr. Andrew C. Fortier for their advice and support throughout the field season and during the laboratory analysis and write-up. Appreciation is extended to the landowners, Raymond Nochta and the entire Keller family, for allowing archaeologists to conduct research on their property; and to the contractors, William Gardner and John Keefer from Luhr Bros., Inc., and to various representatives from S. J. Groves and Sons Company. Mr. Keefer was very helpful in furnishing heavy machinery for our use in Borrow Pit #72. Thanks to Bud Frey and his crew of surveyors for placing the UTM points across the site. I would also like to acknowledge the help of Dr. John Walthall, Chief Archaeologist for the Illinois Department of Transportation. Dr. Walthall's assistance and support throughout the field season allowed us to recover the quality and quantity of data that was collected. I would also like to thank Kathryn Parker and Mary Simon for their respective botanical analyses and their contributions to this report. Special thanks to Mark Mehrer for writing the computer programs that helped make sense of the raw piece-plot data. Thomas Maher graciously lent his expertise on Middle Woodland ceramics and allowed the author to examine a draft copy of his report on the Holding site ceramics. Thanks also go to Joan Meinkoth, the lone Nochta site laboratory assistant for a portion of 1986. Thanks to Maria Hajic for identifying the tooth from Feature 235. Special thanks to Edwin Hajic for his constructive comments on the site geomorphology. The text for Part 1 was initially typed by Barbara S. McCall, Chandler Burpee, and Connie M. Rodgers. Entry and correction of the final manuscript was accomplished by Barbara S. McCall and Michael Lewis using the IBM Document Composition Facility and the Virtual Machine/System Product at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. The original feature maps were drafted by Craig Volkert, and the final maps and graphics were prepared by Scott Forbes, Lily Pan, and Mona Kendrick. The lithic illustrations were drawn by Linda Alexander and Scott Forbes. Dean Meador produced the excellent photographic plates. Raw-data entry was accomplished by Marlene Moshage and Anna Fernyhough. The report was edited by Kathryn Koldehoff and Barbara E. Cohen, and the initial production was supervised by Ms. Cohen. A number of individuals participated in the fieldwork conducted in the mainline portion of the Nochta site, and others contributed to the completion of the analysis and report. I (Andrew Fortier) would like to acknowledge the efforts of Douglas Jackson who served as site director in 1985, and Roger Williamson, Charlie Witty, and Tom Berres who functioned as field supervisors. These individuals oversaw the heavy-machinery excavation, supervised the controlled survey, and created the topographic map of this site. The author gratefully acknowledges the help during the analysis and the sharing of ideas by Douglas Jackson, Dale McElrath, Michael Higgins, Tom Berres, Joyce Williams, and Joseph Rissing. I would also like to thank George M. Lammers, the FAI-270 Project IDOT Coordinator, for clearing the way for our investigations and coordinating our efforts with the resident engineer. Thanks go to Bud Frey, District 8 Chief Supervisor, who established our UTM grid and elevations. The maps and graphs for Part 2 were completed by Lily Pan, Melissa Records, and Mona Kendrick under the supervision of Scott Forbes. Illustrations were drawn by Linda S. Alexander, and photographs were taken and processed by Dean J. Meador. The initial text was entered into computer files by Connie M. Rodgers. The entry and correction of the final manuscript was accomplished by Barbara S. McCall and Michael Lewis using the IBM Document Composition Facility and the Virtual Machine/System Product at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. The initial editing of this manuscript was accomplished by Kathryn Koldehoff. Final editing and production of the original IDOT report were accomplished and supervised by Barbara E. Cohen. The contents of this volume reflect the views of the authors, who are responsible for the facts and accuracy of the data presented below. The contents do not necessarily reflect the official views or policies of the Illinois Department of Transportation or of the federal government. The Nochta Borrow Pit FielcLCrew

Site Director

Michael J. Higgins

Field Supervisors

Thomas E. Berres Roger T. Williamson Ned Hanenberger Charles 0. Witty

Crew Members

The following individuals worked at least one day on the site;

Rick Alvey Denise Hall Randy Ballard Robert Hall John Bovinette Eva Holder Kenneth Buckman Elizabeth Kane James Burns Cecelia Kassly Christopher Burruto Matthew Kolodziej Cheryl Busuttil Robert Kruger Christine Chapman Aimee Lesieutre Mark Cloud John Lloyd Susan Colvin Joan Meinkoth Christopher Delehanty Michael Meinkoth Scott Detwiler Craig Neidig Mary Doyle Eric Petersen Sandra Dunavan Steven Sanderson Jon Dunkel Jennifer Sunderland Elizabeth Ecker Wayne Todd Amy Evenson Laura Turiano Andrew Frey Larry Vogt Elaine Geller Craig Volkert Tim Good Randall Webb Maria Mercer Hajic Gary Wockner The Nochta Mainline Field Crew

Site Directors

Andrew C. Fortier (1984) Douglas K. Jackson (1985)

Field Supervisors

Thomas E. Berres Char]es 0. Witty Roger T. Williamson

Crew Members

Kenneth Buckman Elizabeth Kane Susan Colvin Cecelia Kassly David Danks Joan Meinkoth Scott Detwiler Marcia Schulmeister Jeffrey Groethe Randall Webb Robert Hall Part 1

Early and Middle Archaic Occupations at the Nochta Site

Michael J. Higgins American Bottom Chronology

Period Phase Phase Period

Historic 1

Introduction

The Nochta site is located within the floodplain of the Mississippi River on a long sandy ridge approximately 5 km north of Collinsville, Madison County, Illinois (Figures 1-3). Archaeological investigations of the site were undertaken in 1985 to mitigate the effects of the construction and associated borrowing activities for Interstate Highway 255. The portion of the site directly impacted by highway construction lies off the ridge proper to the west and represents a small percentage of the total site area. Archaeological investigations conducted there in 1984-1985 revealed Late Archaic, Middle Woodland, and Mississippian components, but no associated features. These investigations are discussed in Part 2 of this report. Investigations undertaken in conjunction with borrowing activities involved the entire ridge and were conducted in two separate borrow pits operated by two different contractors. Borrow Pit #72 comprises the northern half of the ridge and was operated by Luhr Bros., Inc. Borrow Pit #75 is directly south of Borrow Pit #72 and was operated by S. J. Groves and Sons Co. Together, these two borrow pits comprise an area of approximately 41 ha, of which about 22.3 ha or 54.4% is site (Figure 4). The FAI-270 Archaeological Mitigation Project has been involved in archaeological research in the American Bottom since 1977. This research has generated a wealth of data concerning the prehistoric occupation of this area for the Late Archaic through the Mississippian and cultures. Evidence of earlier cultures has, until recently, been limited to isolated surface finds. The recovery of substantial quantities of Early and Middle Archaic cultural remains at the Nochta site is significant in that it provides data on heretofore little known aspects of the culture history of the American Bottom. The Nochta site represents one of the largest sites excavated by the FAI-270 Project and is the earliest open-air site investigated to date within the American Bottom. The following is a report of the 1985 archaeological investigations conducted in association with the two borrow pits. The abbreviated nature of this report was necessitated by the lack of funding for analysis. The resulting budgetary and time constraints placed severe restrictions upon the amount and types of analyses that could be undertaken. It is hoped that the Nochta site data can someday receive the complete analysis that befits a site of such significance. mi CollinsvilleK-S.VV'V^'

Figure 1. FAI-270 Project with 5.8-Mile Extension Figure 2. Geomorphological Features in the Nochta Site Locality Figure 3. Geographical Location of the Nochta Site Nochta Site 11-MS-128

^mmmim:

Figure 4. The Nochta Site and the Locations of the Borrow Pits Site Description and Geomorphology

The Nochta sand ridge, approximately 1.1 km long and 0.25 km wide, is situated between two former meanders of the Mississippi River, McDonough Lake meander to the east and Edelhardt Lake meander to the west (Plate 1). The formation of the ridge, however, involved neither of these meanders. Geomorphological investigations of this area were conducted by Joseph M. Rissing (1987) of the FAI-270 Project staff, and the following is a summary of his findings.

The Sand Ridge

In conjunction with the geomorphological investigations, a series of deep cores were placed along an east-west transect across the central portion of the ridge and the areas adjacent to the ridge. The data recovered from this transect and other sources are presented schematically in Figure 5. The site area can easily be defined by the large ridge of sand. Away from the apex of the ridge, the sand is buried by alluvial sediments, primarily clay. The majority of these sediments are believed to have been deposited by the Edelhardt Lake meander, which moved into the area immediately west of the ridge subsequent to the Middle Archaic occupation. Below these deposits, a red clay overlying sand has been observed approximately 7 m below the surface. This clay does not occur below the sand ridge, only adjacent to it; and it has only been noted in engineering borings and observed in a deep cut made by the contractor in the northwest portion of Borrow Pit #72. Because of its depth, the red clay was not encountered in the transect cores adjacent to the ridge. A radiocarbon date of 9,250 + 200 years: 7,300 B.C. (ISGS-1559) was obtained from a wood sample collected from an organically rich gray clay zone immediately above the red clay in the northwest portion of Borrow Pit #72. This red clay is derived from the Lake Superior area and is an associated deposit of the East Chouteau Terrace described by Hajic (1987). This terrace is a low, relatively flat geomorphic feature occurring immediately north of the Nochta site. Much of this terrace is currently overlain with more recent sediments associated with Mississippi River flooding. Similar red clay has been observed in the lower Illinois valley and in the Mississippi valley north of the American Bottom in identical stratigraphic sequence. Radiocarbon data from these areas indicate that the red clay was deposited between 9,950 and 9,800 B.P. (Hajic 1987). The textural change form the underlying sand and the overlying clay, observed in various locations within the Mississippi valley, indicates a major shift in the regime of the Mississippi River at this time; from a braided stream environment to a more stable pattern (Hajic 1987). Major meandering activity, therefore, postdates 9,800 B.P. The red clay occurs only adjacent to, and not below or within, the sand ridge, which indicates that the sand ridge itself was formed prior I

y t

Plate 1. Aerial Photograph of the Nochta Site Locality: a, route of 1-255; b. Borrow Pit #72; c. Borrow Pit #75; d, Canal; e, McDonough Lake; f, bluff line; g, mainline portion

11 to the deposition of the red clay. Hissing (1987) believes that the Nochta sand ridge is an eroded remnant of the Wood River Terrace, which can presently be observed some 13 km north of the site (Figure 2). The period in which this terrace was formed has not been precisely determined. Rissing (1987) suggests that the Wood River Terrace may be late Woodfordian or Twocreekan in age (22,000-11,000 B.P.). A date of 23,000 + 2,300 years: 21,050 B.C. (ISGS-1469) was obtained from organic material collected within cross-bedded sand from 2 m below the surface at Borrow Pit #72. This sample, however, has probably been contaminated by naturally occurring coal within the sand (Joseph M. Rissing, personal communication, 1986). Hajic (1987:6) suggests that the Wood River Terrace may be equivalent to the Savanna (Deer Plain) Terrace. A stratigraphic marker for this latter terrace is a red clay interstratified with gray clay and sand (Flock 1983). This red clay is not to be confused with the similar red clay associated with the East Chouteau Terrace described above, because--although derived from the same source--they represent two unrelated events. A red clay has been observed in core samples taken on the Wood River Terrace (Hajic 1987), strongly suggesting a correlation between the Savanna and Wood River terraces. Radiocarbon dates from the lower Illinois valley indicate that the Savanna Terrace dates between 12,300 and 12,000 B.P. (Hajic 1985). The Wood River Terrace, therefore, is believed to date between 12,200 and 12,000 B.P., at the time the Mississippi River incised. The surface of the Nochta sand ridge, because it represents an eroded surface of the Wood River Terrace, may be slightly younger than 12,000 B.P.

Meander Scars

The McDonough Lake meander scar is located immediately east of the sand ridge. At this time the temporal history of the McDonough Lake channel is unclear. It must postdate 9,800 B.P. because it cuts into the East Chouteau Terrace deposits. The degree to which it postdates 9,800 B.P. is, at present, not known. Munson (1974) has stated that the cutoff of the McDonough Lake meander must predate 2,800 B.P. based on the position of a Late Archaic site along its outside margin. The channel morphology of the McDonough Lake meander is markedly different from Edelhardt Lake, Horseshoe Lake, and modern Mississippi River channels. The curvature and width of the McDonough Lake meander indicate that it did not carry as large a water volume as these other channels. It is possible, therefore, that the McDonough Lake meander is not directly related to the Edelhardt Lake/Horseshoe Lake meander system, but instead represents an earlier meander perhaps dating anywhere between 9,000 and 7,000 B.P. This interval of time encompasses a portion of the Hypsithermal, a climatic episode marked by a considerably warmer and drier environment. The smaller channel indicated by the McDonough Lake meander scar may be a reflection of this drier period. Alternatively, the smaller channel may indicate that it was part of a braided stream. The other branch of this braided stream may have flowed west of the site. Any evidence of this has been destroyed by the Edelhardt Lake channel. The physical environment of the Nochta site during the Dalton and Early Archaic periods was characterized by a long ridge of sand situated up to 15 m above the existing floodplain as a consequence of the river downcutting. The nature of the immediate environment surrounding the site is problematical due to the subsequent scouring by McDonough Lake and Edelhardt Lake meanders. During the Dalton period (10,500 to 9,900 B.P.), the area surrounding the sand ridge was no doubt subjected to periodic inundation by backwater flooding, as evidenced in the deposition of the red and gray clays associated with the East Choutaeu Terrace. In the area subsequently occupied by the McDonough Lake meander there may have been a small stream occupying a swale on the eroded Wood River Terrace surface. Such a pattern has been observed in eroded surfaces on the Wood River Terrace to the north of the site (Hajic 1987:4). The McDonough Lake meander may gave been an active channel during the latter portion of the Early Archaic period. The environmental situation west ot the site during this time is not clear, but was probably low and wet. From 9,500 to 5,000 B.P. the river maintained a relatively constant flow, and this period is marked by aggradation of ^he floodplain. During this time, the Mississippi was slowly moving east in this area, eventually reaching its easternmost extent marked by the Edelhardt Lake channel around 5,000 B.P. As the elevation of the valley rose due to aggradation, and as the river moved to the east, silts and clays were deposited along the margins of the ridge. At the time of the Middle Archaic occupation at the Nochta site (6,500 to 6,100 B.P.), the surface of the ridge was still primarily sandy, with clay and silt deposits along the margins. During this period, Cahokia Creek may have been flowing west of the ridge, perhaps occupying the channel of the other branch of the braided stream mentioned above. This area west of the ridge was, at this time, probably wet and inundated periodically by floods from the Mississippi River and Cahokia Creek. East of the ridge, the McDonough Lake meander was probably an oxbow at this time. The Middle Archaic occupation in the northwest portion of the site was, at the time of habitation, situated upon a clayey surface overlying the sand. Following the Middle Archaic occupation, alluvial deposits began to cover the former occupational surface. When the river reached the western edge of the ridge with the Edelhardt Lake of I channel, portions of the site became buried by as much as 1.5 m sediment. The ridge had more or less reached its present form by 4,000 B.P. with the abandonment of the Edelhardt Lake I channel. Presently, the ridge at its apex is sandy, whereas clay and silt dominate the surface away from high ground. As one moves farther from the apex, these latter deposits become thicker. It is believed that the cultural deposits near the apex of the ridge were buried as a result of eolian mechanisms acting upon the sand. The surface of the ridge, at least at its apex, appears to have been relatively stable at some point in time following the Middle Archaic occupation. A fairly well developed A horizon was observed below the plowzone in this area (Plate 2). This soil is considerably darker than the overlying plowzone (lOYR 3/3, dark brown versus lOYR 4/4, dark portion of the yellowish brown) , which has apparently truncated the upper A 14 dark A horizon. This zone is relatively free of cultural material (except for Middle Woodland material in the central portion of the ridge), indicating that this soil formed after the Archaic occupations. Almost all of the Archaic artifacts and all of the features were recovered below this zone. Isolated Archaic artifacts recovered from this zone can probably be accounted for by bioturbation. In a small area of the apex of the ridge, this A horizon has been eroded. A concentration of lithic debris in this area was noted during surveys of the site. In addition, this zone did not occur at all away from the apex, either having been eroded or perhaps never having formed. The soil types presently listed for the Nochta ridge, Onarga sandy loam and La Hogue loam (Goddard and Sabata 1986), were developed under grassland conditions. These grassland or prairie soils were probably responsible for the formation of the buried A horizon described above. Darwin silty clay, which is formed from alluvial sediments (Goddard and Sabata 1986), is found in the lower elevations off of the ridge.

History of Investigations

The Nochta site was originally recorded by Patrick Munson in 1963 in conjunction with a survey of the Wood River Terrace area. At that time, only Middle Woodland and Mississippian components were noted, and the extent of the site could not be determined owing to ground cover. Munson also recorded another small, possible Mississippian occupation (the Keller Workshop site, ll-Ms-129) north of the Nochta site. The area was more intensively investigated in 1976 and 1977 during a survey of the proposed routes of FAP-413 (Linder et al. 1978). At that time, the site was defined as a continuous scatter of cultural material along the entire ridge, with 11 localized concentrations, covering an area of 37.5 ha. Also during this time, the Keller Workshop site was incorporated into the now-larger Nochta site. Material collected by surveyors allowed the recognition of several additional components to the Middle Woodland and Mississippian occupations noted by Munson, including Early Archaic, Middle Archaic, Late Archaic, and Emergent Mississippian. The Early Archaic component was identified by the recovery of Agate Basin and Hardin Barbed projectile points. A Hidden Valley Stemmed projectile point was also recovered at this time (Linder et al. 1978). The survey of 1976 and 1977 resulted in the delineation of 11 localized surface concentrations of cultural material. The locations of these concentrations are shown in Figure 6. The results of the earlier survey were duplicated in a survey of the ridge conducted in 1985. Area A was not listed in the original survey report, as it represents a concentration uncovered during testing of the mainline portion of the site. Areas B and C are also in the highway right-of-way. These areas contain Late Archaic, Middle Woodland, and Mississippian remains and are discussed in Part 2 of this report. The diagnostic Early Archaic material was recovered from the central portion of the ridge, in Areas F, G, and Figure 6. Surface Concentrations of Cultural Material in these H. The existence of Early Archaic materials on the surface areas, while it is buried over a meter deep in others, is probably due of to erosional factors. Areas F and H are located along the outer bank the Edelhardt Lake meander, which entered the area over 4,000 years after the Early Archaic occupations. The Edelhardt Lake channel, therefore, probably eroded an undetermined portion of the western side of the ridge and exposed these deposits. Area G is at the apex of the ridge and this slightly higher, sandy area could have been eroded by a combination of wind, water, and agricultural activities. It is in this area that the aforementioned buried A horizon is absent. It is possible that this area, being somewhat higher, never became buried as deeply as adjacent, slightly lower areas. A "Labras Lake" point was reported to have been recovered from Area G. Although this point could not be immediately located for reexamination, analysis notes from 1977 indicate that this point may have been Early Archaic, possibly a Kirk Corner-Notched projectile point. Areas D and E to the northeast are light scatters for which no component could be identified. The survey conducted in 1985 in these areas also could not determine the nature of these occupations. Investigators were prevented from observing the subsurface deposits in this area because of the large-scale excavation methods employed there for borrow removal, except to note the presence of some buried chert debris and cobble tools. Areas H and I represent one continuous heavy scatter of Middle Woodland and Mississippian remains, which was observed in 1976 and 1977 and confirmed in 1985. Middle Woodland ceramics recovered from this area include Hopewell and Pike wares as well as a small amount of earlier Liverpool series sherds. The Mississippian material, very light in overall density, appears to be related to the Stirling phase. Both of these components will be discussed in greater detail in this volume. Area J, located along the eastern slope of the ridge (inner bank of McDonough Lake meander) represents a moderate surface scatter that appears to be related to the Middle Woodland occupation to the west. Areas K and L are diffuse surface scatters, and cultural affiliations could not be determined from the survey materials. The most recent investigations of the Nochta site began in late December 1984, when the area was proposed to the Illinois Department of Transportation (IDOT) as a possible borrow site for use in the construction of FAI-255. On 19 December 1984, the site was visited by personnel from the FAI-270 Archaeological Mitigation Project, along with representatives of the contractor, Luhr Bros., Inc. Although this visit constituted only a cursory walkover of the area, a heavy scatter of lithic debris and several sand-tempered sherds were observed on the surface in the central portion of the site. As these data indicated the presence of a substantial Middle Woodland component, the contractor was advised that the expenditures of time and money required to excavate such a site would be high, and that they would do better to avoid it altogether. The contractor expressed continued interest in the northern half of the ridge, north of the Middle Woodland site. This area was subsequently surveyed by a field crew from the FAT-270 Project in January 1985. The results of this survey confirmed the observations noted for this area in 1976 and 1977, indicating two distinct areas of concentration (Areas F 17

and G). The first of these was located in the east-central part of the ridge at its apex and contained two Early Archaic projectile points among the 500 items flagged. The second area of concentration was more diffuse and followed the western slope of the ridge. Based upon these surface indicators, it was agreed that the area north of the Middle Woodland scatter could be cleared following the excavation of any features uncovered within this area. It was only during the excavation of test trenches by heavy machinery that the buried nature of the Early and Middle Archaic components was discovered. Recent archaeological investigations of the southern half of the Nochta site began in March 1985 when this portion of the ridge was also proposed as a borrow area to be used in the construction of FAI-255, this one to be operated by S. J. Groves and Sons Co. Again, the area was surveyed and the results were similar to the surveys of 1976 and 1977, indicating four areas of surface concentration. One of these scatters (Area I) is associated with the aforementioned Middle Woodland site. Area K follows the western slope of the ridge, whereas Areas J and L occur along the eastern slope. Material densities within these latter areas were relatively low, and only a few artifacts were recovered between these concentrations. Test units dug in the southern half of the ridge revealed that the buried Archaic components extended into this area.

Field Procedures

For those unfamiliar with highway contract archaeology in Illinois, mitigation of archaeological sites within borrow areas is to be paid for by the private contractor conducting borrow operations. Thus funding for excavations at the Nochta site was provided primarily by the contractors Luhr Bros, and S. J. Groves and Sons. In addition, IDOT provided some additional support, which allowed the archaeologists to conclude their excavations. Serious time and budgetary constraints forced a near salvage-type situation from the start. The primary goal was to recover as much information about the site as possible in the few months available. Testing had revealed that the buried Archaic deposits were unstratified. Thus it was felt that heavy earth-moving equipment could be employed in the excavation of this site without damaging any stratigraphy. The primary excavation tool at the Nochta site, therefore, was the paddlewheel scraper/belly scraper, which cut thin slices off the unstratified Early and Middle Archaic deposits below the plowzone (Plate 3). All tools observed were piece plotted using transit and stadia rod, and the scraped area was observed for features. A test unit excavation strategy was not feasible at the Nochta site due to its labor-intensive nature, which involves relatively large quantities of time and money. Admittedly, many of the smaller tools were probably lost by the use of such large-scale excavating techniques, but the gain was in the delineation of feature patterns across the site. Such complete patterning can rarely be observed solely through the excavation of test units. The iHk..'!!^ 19 use of heavy equipment in investigating large areas of a site has been a standard of the FAI-270 Project from the start, and reflects the preference for total site excavation. Although the use of this technique in the past has been primarily in the removal of plowzone, its use at the Nochta site provided the same advantages of total site excavation, along with the drawbacks mentioned above. In this manner, approximately 4,500 artifacts were piece plotted, and 396 features were identified and excavated. In addition, a 4 x 6 m test unit was excavated on the apex of the ridge, and all material was piece plotted. Actual archaeological investigations at the Nochta borrow pit site commenced in March 1985 with topographic mapping and a controlled surface collection. The controlled surface collection was accomplished by dividing the site into 50-m squares and then further dividing each of these squares into four 25 x 25-m collection units. Areas that had low densities of material were piece plotted with transit and stadia rod. The central portion of the ridge, containing the Middle Woodland and Mississippian materials, was surface collected in July 1985 in 10 x 10-m units. The decision to use a smaller collection unit for this area was based primarily on the higher densities of material here, as well as a smaller overall collection area. Excavations of the site began in May 1985 and were concluded in November, a period of six months in which approximately 180,000 m^ of site area was examined. As previously stated, the primary excavation tool at the Nochta site was the paddlewheel scraper/belly scraper. As the machine scraped away from 5 to 10 cm of soil, archaeologists followed behind, marking the locations of tools and features with wire-pin flags (Plate 4). The artifacts were then piece plotted with transit and stadia rod and placed in bags with the appropriate piece-plot number. This process was repeated in an area until no artifacts or features were uncovered in two passes of the scraper. In this manner, the archaeologists were able to clear relatively large sections of the borrow pit at a time. In addition, these sections were periodically checked for further buried deposits but none were ever encountered. There were generally three transits in operation simultaneously across the site piece plotting artifacts, two at Borrow Pit #72 and one at Borrow Pit #75. When a feature was encountered, its location was mapped using either a grid system or a transit and tape. This latter system of ray mapping was employed when features occurred in a more diffuse manner, a situation in which grid mapping would have been inefficient. Following this, the plan view was drawn and the feature was cross-sectioned, usually along its long axis. The subsequent feature profile was photographed and drawn, and the second half of the feature was removed. Flotation samples were collected in 10-liter samples from each half or zone; more soil was taken if the feature contained abundant charcoal or any culturally diagnostic material. All material recovered was bagged by zone. 20

Plate 4. Borrow Pit Excavations; a, heavy machinery stripping; b, piece plotting artifacts Analytical Approaches

Analysis of material recovered from the Nochta site is, at present, incomplete. One of the problems in the analysis is that of mixed components. Occupational debris spanning at least 4,000 years had been recovered from sandy deposits only 0.5 m thick. Although certain diagnostic elements can be sorted out of the estimated 2.7 metric tons of material recovered, the majority of the tools cannot be readily placed within a specific component. An attempt has been made to correlate certain diagnostic artifacts and specific levels or elevations. It is clear that some degree of vertical mixing took place. Table 1 illustrates that artifacts from the Middle Archaic occupation are often found below Early Archaic artifacts, even when two such artifacts are in proximity to each other horizontally. The sandy nature of the Nochta soil may have contributed to this mixing. An alternative explanation to these vertical discrepancies is that they reflect fluctuations in the elevation of the original site surface or are perhaps a consequence of localized post depositional disturbances. A complete examination of the spatial distribution of all piece-plotted artifacts at the Nochta site might reveal the extent of vertical mixing on the site. Unfortunatley this could not be undertaken due to the aforementioned time and budgetary constraints. The problem of mixed components also presents itself in feature analysis. Only a small percentage of the features from the Nochta site contain diagnostic artifacts, and some of these may have resulted from redeposition. Attempts to find some correlation between feature contents (e.g., chert types, ethnobotanical remains) and components with those features

Table 1. Vertical Mixing of Diagnostic Projectile Points

UTM Coordinates

Artifact No. 22 containing diagnostics have so far proved inconclusive. Thus, for this report, only a relatively small number of artifacts and features can be assigned to specific components. The remainder, representing the majority of tools and features, will be discussed in a more general manner.

Lithic Analysis

Tools recovered from the Archaic components at the Nochta site are made exclusively of lithic materials. Environmental factors at the site precluded the preservation of any bone or wood tools that may have been used there. The stone tools (and the subsequent ) can be divided into two categories, chert and nonchert. The nonchert tool category includes glacial cobbles and fragments of sandstone/siltstone that have been fashioned into or utilized as tools. At the Nochta site this category represents a substantial percentage of the tool assemblage. Both categories also include large quantities of nontools in the form of chert debitage and rock fragments.

Raw Materials . Identification of lithic raw materials was accomplished by examining various morphological and structural traits contained within the rocks. For chert these characteristics include texture, color, luster, translucence , and the presence or absence of inclusions and banding. These characteristics were noted through both macroscopic and low-power microscopic observations. In addition, specimens were often compared with the chert type collection originally set up and described by Moshage (1983) and expanded since (Appendix E). The identification of nonchert lithics involved the recognition of the various rock types present among the numerous cobble tools recovered from the site. This was generally accomplished through macroscopic and microscopic observations of mineral content, the presence or absence of sedimentary and metamorphic characteristics, and reference to identification manuals such as Bell and Wright (1985).

Chert Types . Burlington chert comprises the single-most prevalent chert type in the Nochta site lithic assemblage. Most or all of this material was probably procured from the Crescent Hills quarries located some 80 km west of the American Bottom in St. Louis and Jefferson counties, Missouri (Ives 1975). This chert varies in color from shades of white and gray to brown, and in texture from very fine with a semilustrous appearance to heavily fossiliferous and grainy. Thermally altered Burlington chert turns a distinctive pink color with a concomitant change in luster and workability (Rick 1978). Salem chert outcrops in the southern portion of the American Bottom in Monroe County. The chert is characteristically tan or gray, medium to fine grained, nonlustrous, and often exhibits light to heavy banding. Another form that is believed to originate from the Salem formation is very fine grained and semiglossy. The Salem limestone formation currently outcrops in northern Madison County near Alton (Willman et 23 al. 1975:Figure M-20). Although no chert has been located in this outcrop, it is possible that Salem chert was available from this source, which is closer to the Nochta site, during the Early and Middle Archaic periods and that it has since been buried or eroded. Ste. Genevieve outcrop in Randolph and Monroe counties at the southern end of the American Bottom. Although variable in color from bluish gray to olive green and reddish brown, this chert is characterized by a medium-grained whitish cortex and a microcrystalline texture with an opaque, glossy appearance. Light banding often occurs in this chert. Varieties of Ste. Genevieve chert have been referred to as "Root Beer" and "Old Blue" in the past, based primarily on differences in color. A number of nonlocal cherts have also been recovered from the Nochta site in small quantities. These are generally cherts originating from southern Illinois, specifically from Union County. Cobden/Dongola is a dark-colored nodular chert exhibiting concentric banding. Its color ranges from black to brown and various shades in between. This chert originates from the St. Louis formation, with one of the largest outcrops located on Clear Creek near Cobden, Illinois. Kaolin is a distinctive

translucent chert that is fine grained and highly fossiliferous . The color of Kaolin chert is highly variable, from white to dark brown, and it is generally dull to semiglossy in appearance. The source area for this chert is in Union County, Illinois, and one of the better-known quarries is at Iron Mountain (Billings 1984). Blair chert outcrops in eastern Randolph County and is found within the St. David formation. This chert is highly variable in appearance and texture, but the higher-quality material is gray or bluish gray in color and is nearly translucent with a fine-grained texture. Glacial till cherts account for a substantial percentage of the chert types found at the Nochta site. These cherts generally represent pebbles and cobbles from the Illinoian till, which is often found eroding into streams dissecting the bluffs of the American Bottom area. This material is believed to have been locally procured and was probably only minimally processed— if at all--before being brought back to the site.

Nonchert Raw Materials . The same till source that provided chert no doubt also furnished cobbles that were eventually used as tools at the site. The rock types identified in the Nochta site assemblage include some of the various igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic varieties that occur naturally in the till of this area (John M. Fox, Illinois State Geological Survey [ISGS], personal communication, 1986). These rock types include granite, diabase, gabbro, basalt, varieties of hard and soft sandstone, graywacke, limestone, quartzite, gneiss, and schist. Descriptions of each one of the types that occur at the site are beyond the scope of this report. The reader is referred to any of the many rock identification manuals that exist for such descriptions.

icatory Chert Assemblage . Inherent in any lithic analysis is a classif scheme that allows a researcher to categorize a variety of sizes, shapes, and types of chert. Perhaps the most useful schemes are those thought to reflect the actual processes by which stone tools are manufactured. Flint knapping is a reductive process, meaning simply that the piece of chert becomes smaller as it is worked. Certain stages can be observed during this process that reflect the range of reductive techniques employed to reach a desired product. The use of different reductive techniques is reflected in the morphology of the respective flakes produced. These morphological characteristics, in turn, can be observed and classified by archaeologists. This concept of stages in a reductive process provides the fundamental basis for the analysis of chipped-stone material from the Nochta site. The classif icatory scheme employed here focuses upon a core and the associated reductive techniques utilized in the manufacture of both formalized and unformalized tool types. Formalized tools are chert flakes that have been intentionally modified and shaped into distinctive forms. Formalized tools include bifaces, such as projectile points, drills, knives, and hafted scrapers, as well as some unifacially worked items. Unformalized tools are primarily flakes that were used "as is" with little or no modification, and include all utilized and retouched flakes. The stages of manufacture or reduction, as outlined below, are generally those used in other FAI-270 reports (McElrath 1986; McElrath and Finney 1987; McElrath and Fortier 1983). The terminology used here follows that of Geier (1973) and Crabtree (1972). Stage I involves the initial processing of the chert following the procurement of the raw material. Some processing may occur at the source area, particularly if the chert is procured from a bedrock source. Chert cobbles collected from streambeds may simply be brought back to the occupation area unmodified. Stage I processing involves the removal of cortex or weathered rind from the chert. The by-products of this process are block fractures, primary decortication flakes, and secondary decortication flakes. Block fractures are angular pieces of chert lacking bulbs of percussion or other flake characteristics and are produced by the use of heavy percussion techniques and by impurities and old fracture planes within the raw material. A primary decortication flake exhibits cortex on 80% to 100% of the dorsal surface. Sec ondary decortication flakes exhibit 20% to 80% cortex on the dorsal surface. It should be emphasized that flakes may be used or modified into tools at any point in this or any succeeding stage. Secondary decortication flakes are often used as knives because of the natural backing of cortex along the edge opposite that being utilized. These three flake types are thought to be by-products of the same general reduction technique, i.e., the removal or trimming of cortex from the chert nodule with a heavy percussor. While tools may be manufactured from flakes produced by this process, this stage is generally preparatory for one or more subsequent stages. Stages II and III in the reductive process involve the production of usable flakes from cores. Stage II is the production of cores. A core is a block or nodule from which flakes are detached (White 1963). Cores are the products of Stage I reduction and represent an intermediary stage. Stage III is the production of usable flakes. Usable flakes are those that can either be utilized as tools "as is" (unformalized tools) or be modified and shaped (formalized tools) depending upon the desired product. Two types of flakes are produced in this stage, reflecting two separate but related techniques: primary flakes and blades. Primary flakes are produced by heavy percussion (e.g., flakes detached from a core), which usually exhibit large, well-defined bulbs of percussion and 25 steep platform angles. Flake scars present on dorsal surfaces of primary flakes are relatively few in number and exhibit pronounced ridges. Blades are produced by a more specialized technique. A great deal has been written about technology. Put simply, a blade is a long, narrow flake removed from a prepared core. The length of a blade usually exceeds twice its width. The dorsal surface exhibits long parallel or nearly parallel longitudinal ridges formed by previous blade removals, and the platform usually shows evidence of grinding or some other preparation performed on the core prior to removal. Platform angles on blades are ordinarily steep (>60°). Blades are generally detached from a core using an indirect percussion technique. Possessing thin, sharp edges, blades are often utilized in an unmodified state. The fourth stage of reduction reflects manufacturing techniques oriented toward the production of bifacial tools. The by-products of this stage are secondary flakes, bifacial thinning flakes, and tertiary flakes. A secondary flake is a flake produced by shaping, thinning, and otherwise modifying a preform (Geier 1973:10). Secondary flakes vary in size, are usually relatively thin, and exhibit low platform angles. Dorsal flake scars on secondary flakes are more numerous, and the dorsal ridges are much flatter than in primary flakes. A bifacial thinning flake is a distinctive type of secondary flake and represents a flake produced by thinning or resharpening a bifacial edge. The platform is faceted and frequently ground and exhibits a pronounced lip, which represents a small portion of the former edge of a biface. A tertiary flake is a small flake produced by low-intensity percussion or pressure-flaking techniques during final edge thinning or modification. The process is perhaps best thought of as a continuum with Stages I through IV as points along this continuum. As previously stated, tools can be produced at any point in this process. The of any given group may employ several trajectories in the manufacture of stone tools. One may be oriented only toward the production of flake tools, thus this specific trajectory would end at Stage III. Another may be oriented toward the production of bifacial tools (Stage IV), with perhaps an offshoot trajectory aimed at the utilization of certain Stage IV by-products. The composition of flakes and tools within a given assemblage can reveal the reductive processes employed by a group in the manufacture of stone tools. In addition to the reductive techniques described above, the bipolar method can also be used to produce usable flakes. The bipolar technique involves placing a piece of chert (often a small cobble or pebble) on an anvil and striking it with a percussor (Crabtree 1972). While a somewhat uncontrollable process, it is perhaps the best way to reduce small pieces of chert. The terminology used in this report is primarily used in a descriptive manner only. The term projectile points has become nearly standardized in the archaeological literature as referring to tools that share certain morphological characteristics. Only through microscopic examination of tool edges can one make meaningful statements regarding tool function. Only gross observations on certain flake tools have as yet been recorded for the Nochta site assemblage. Using low-power magnification (20X and 25X), certain types of edge damage and wear could 26 be observed, generally reflecting activities that would cause moderate to severe damage along a tool edge. Use of this low-power magnification has probably precluded the identification of tools used in activities that resulted in only minor degrees of wear along an edge. The functional interpretation of tools presented in this volume should be viewed with this bias in mind. Measurements of projectile points follow established standards and are self-explanatory. Because various measurements may occasionally differ among researchers, the locations of measurements taken for the Nochta site projectile points are presented in Figure 7. In addition to quantifying metric attributes, several nonmetric attributes are observed for the projectile points. These include base shape, base treatment (ground, thinned, etc.), element (side notched, corner notched, etc.), stem edge treatment, shoulder shape, blade shape, blade edge treatment (serrated, beveled, etc.), and blade flaking pattern (collateral, parallel, nonpatterned [see Crabtree 1972:87]). In the absence of stratigraphy and radiocarbon dating at the Nochta site, much of the discussion of the various Early Archaic occupations is based on projectile point types. Thus a brief statement about typology is appropriate. Coe , recognizing the diagnostic value of projectile points, observes that "when an occupation zone can be found that represents a relatively short period of time the usual hodgepodge of projectile point types are not found--only variations of one specific theme" (1964:9). The diagnostic value of projectile points has been confirmed again and again at various stratified sites in the eastern United States. At the St. Albans site in West Virginia, a dated stratigraphic sequence provided some of the initial dating of Early Archaic point types and showed the evolution and change of certain point styles through time. The validity of projectile points as cultural markers was emphasized in excavations in the lower Little valley (J. Chapman 1975, 1976, 1977, 1980). Stratified deposits from several sites in this area produced a dated sequence similar to that at St. Albans, also indicating that certain projectile point styles were temporally specific. This pattern has been observed at various rock-shelters as well (DeJarnette et al. 1962; Fowler 1959a, 1959b; Klippel 1971a; Logan 1952; Wood and McMillan 1976). A valuable aspect of such dated point sequences is their applicability to unstratified sites. Applying data from stratified deposits to material recovered from unstratified contexts allows discrimination of point styles and establishment of relative chronologies. However, one must be aware of the problems associated with transferring absolute chronologies from hundreds of miles away, as the occurrence of point styles may vary temporally from region to region. Also, although some researchers have advocated a "one point-one culture" stance in examining projectile point sequences, the question of one culture p.ossessing multiple point types cannot be addressed at this time from the Nochta site data.

Nonchert Lithics . The nonchert artifacts represent a substantial portion of the lithic assemblage at the Nochta site. This category includes glacial cobbles and fragments of sandstone and siltstone probably recovered from streambeds. Many of these were used as tools. 27

Terminology

Metric Attributes

Widths

a. Width of base

b. Width of stem

c. Width of shoulder

d. Maximum width of blade

Lengths

e. Axial length

f. Stem length

g. Blade length

h. Basal concavity depth

Thickness

i. Thickness

Adapted Irom Bintord (1963). C Chapman 1 1975). and Emerson IW84)

Figure 7. Projectile Point Measurements and Terminology 28 both formalized and unformalized. Formalized nonchert tools are those that have been substantially modified prior to use, such as groundstone implements. Unformalized tools generally represent cobbles or rocks that became modified as a result of use, such as hammerstones, pitted cobbles, and grinding stones. The identification and classification of unformalized nonchert tools has been determined by observations of morphological characteristics (damage/wear) resulting from particular types of usage. The artifacts have been examined for the following attributes: battering, pitting, smoothing, discoloration of a weathered surface, and faceted or grooved surfaces. Often a rock exhibits more than one type of modification or damage, indicating that the tool was used for multiple functions. In these cases, each attribute indicating a different damage/wear type has been recorded. This places emphasis on specific attributes (reflective of function) and avoids the problems associated with pigeonholing a multifunctional artifact into one tool category. Additional observations recorded for these nonchert tools include material (rock) type, number of sides utilized (or number of pits), and weight. In addition, the grinding surfaces of have been recorded as either concave or planar in cross section.

Feature Analysis

Analysis of cultural remains recovered from the features at the Nochta site has not been completed. To date, only those features that yielded diagnostic artifacts, as well as a random sample of Middle Archaic features, have been examined. All features from the site have been given type designations based on overall feature morphology (Appendix D). These feature types are illustrated in Figure 8. In addition, the volume of each feature has been determined using standard formulas (Figure 9). A number of feature clusters have been delineated as an aid to sampling and analysis. Only those features containing diagnostic artifacts could be assigned to specific components. Most of the features uncovered at the Nochta site could not readily be assigned to components. It is hoped that further analysis of feature-related materials will reveal some correlation between feature contents and components. 29

Pit Feature Categories at the Noctita Site

Type C Type A Type B ^349 ^'"_^ F219 T

single zone Basin shape / Single zone /Inslantlng sides/ Single zone / Parallel sides / Flat bottom Flat bottom

Type D TypeF F235 F182

Multiple zones / Multiple zones /Inslantlng sides / Basin shape Flat bottom

Multiple zones /Parallel sides / Flat bottom

Type G Type I F132

Single or multiple zones / Multiple zones / Bell shape Compound pit

Multiple zones/ Inslantlng to parallel sides / Rounded bottom

Figure 8. Feature Types 30

Portion of a cone

V = ° (a, + aa)

a, = area of base (-rrr')

ag = area of surface (irr^) h = height (depth)

Circular or eliptical basin

V = .16TTh(3ab + h^)

a = maximum length of surface radius b = maximum width of surface radius h = height (depth)

Cylinder

Tir^h

surface radius height (depth)

Compound pit

V = volume of cylinder plus volume of basin

Figure 9. Pit Volume Formulas 2

The Dalton Occupation

The earliest definable occupation of the Nochta sand ridge is represented by artifacts belonging to the Dalton culture. The term Dalton culture was initially used by Carl Chapman (1948:138) to describe a lithic complex of lanceolate and notched projectile points collected from a single location in central Missouri by Judge S. P. Dalton. Although at this time it is obvious that later point types were included in this complex, it is important to note that Chapman (1948) recognized the probable antiquity of the Dalton point because of its similarity to Paleoindian artifacts. Up until the early 1970s, however, the term Dalton referred only to a specific style of biface. Although the antiquity of this projectile point type had been demonstrated by its occurrence in the lowest levels of several stratified sites (Coe 1964; DeJarnette et al. 1962; Fowler 1959a, 1959b; Logan 1952), details of the culture that produced it remained unclear. Much of our present knowledge of the Dalton culture comes from archaeological investigations conducted in northeast Arkansas since 1970. An inventory of the Dalton tool assemblage was made possible by the discovery of the Hawkins Cache in 1970 (Morse 1971a). Excavations of the Brand site, also in 1970, produced discrete artifact concentrations interpreted as separate activity areas (Goodyear 1974). Archaeological investigations of the Sloan site, located near the Cache River in Arkansas, were conducted in 1974. The recovery of 448 Dalton artifacts within an 11 x 12 m area, along with some linear groupings of artifacts, has led researchers to conclude that this site may represent a Dalton cemetery (Morse 1975b:137). Data from these sites, along with those from surveys in northeastern Arkansas, have aided the development of hypothetical settlement models for the Dalton culture in this area that involve semipermanent base camps and associated ancillary or hunting camps (Morse 1971b, 1975a)--a settlement model that has been questioned by Schiffer (1975). There is ample evidence of the Dalton occupation at the Nochta site, which sheds some light on Dalton settlement in the American Bottom area and will eventually lead to a clearer understanding of this culture in this area.

Dalton Tool Assemblage

Perhaps the most diagnostic artifact of the Dalton culture is the Dalton point, which for some time was the only artifact known to be associated with this horizon. More recent evidence, however, has allowed 32

the delineation of a complex of tool types associated with the Dalton culture. Excavations of Dalton sites in Arkansas have revealed a diverse tool assemblage of both chert and nonchert artifacts, reflecting a variety of activities (Goodyear 1974; Morse 1973, 1975a). In 1970 the Hawkins Cache of 40 artifacts was discovered in northeast Arkansas and included 18 Dalton projectile points. The cache confirmed the association of certain tool types with the Dalton culture (Morse 1971a). Determining this association was important because defining Dalton tool types promoted a discussion of the activities that these tools represented, a first step in gaining knowledge of the behavioral aspects of Dalton. This elevated the conception of Dalton from basically a point type to a culture definable by a discrete set of attributes reflective of certain cultural activities. Dalton tools, as used in this report, reflect the tool types defined by Goodyear (1974), Morse (1971a, 1973), and Morse and Morse (1983).

Dalton Points

The Dalton point is a readily distinguishable biface diagnostic of the Dalton culture. In describing the morphological characteristics of the Dalton point, Goodyear (1974:19) emphasizes that the hafting element is the most diagnostic portion, as it is subject to much less alteration by resharpening than is the blade portion. The basic attributes of the Dalton base, or hafting element are (1) parallel to concave stem edges, almost always heavily ground; (2) the presence of small projections, or ears on the corners of the base, usually projecting slightly outward but sometimes parallel to the point's axis; (3) a concave base of varying depth ground along its entire margin; and (4) basal thinning (Goodyear 1974:19). The blade portion of the Dalton point is subject to much variation resulting from maintenance and resharpening. Examining samples from both the Brand site and the Hawkins Cache, Goodyear (1974) defines five stages of manufacture and resharpening based on observed clustering of blade widths: preform, completed preform, initial, advanced, and final. Although the sample of Dalton points from the Nochta site is relatively small, all of the above stages have been observed in the assemblage.

Preform Stage . Only one example of the preform stage was recovered from the Nochta site. It was found in a small pit feature in the northwest portion of the site, an area heavily dominated by Middle Archaic materials and features. The preform (Plate 5a) is characterized by a thinned and somewhat-beveled straight base, relatively large secondary flake scars, no evidence of basal grinding or blade serration, and a triangular shape. The material is a white Burlington fossiliferous chert, which is the most common chert type for Dalton artifacts. The preform retains some evidence of a bulb of percussion on the distal portion, indicating that this item was manufactured from a flake blank. The width at the base is 34.3 mm, which is near the wide end of the 25.5-33.0 mm range of similar measurements taken for preforms from the Brand site (Goodyear 1974:23), 33

a

>-^v ^ m

Plate 5. Dalton Points: a, preform stage; b-f, completed preform stage and compares favorably with the 33.9 mm average for the "Group B" preforms from the Hawkins cache (Morse 1971a: Table 2). This item also exhibits evidence of utilization in the form of moderate to severe edge damage along approximately two-thirds of the blade. These edges also appear to have been nominally resharpened. Utilization of preform edges was also noted for some Brand site specimens (Goodyear 1974:24). It is possible that, given the location of the Nochta site preform in a predominantly Middle Archaic area, this item was picked up, utilized, and resharpened by inhabitants of this later occupation. There is no direct evidence to support this contention however, and other Dalton materials have been recovered from this area.

Nochta site are placed Completed Preform Stage . Five specimens from the in the completed preform stage, all of them fragmentary. In this stage, the preforms have been modified into the desired form, but the basal concavity and stem edges have not yet been ground, and the pressure-flaked serrations have not yet been applied to the blade edges. Only two items (Plate 5b and c) were complete enough to observe this latter trait. Two other specimens (Plate 5d and e), exhibiting diagonal, parallel pressure-flaking scars, are basal fragments only and are unground. All of the bases on the specimens have been thinned, but the basal concavities are noticeably shallower than those of completed points. Table 2 lists the basal concavity depth measurements for all Dalton points from the Nochta site. Although the sample is too small to draw any statistically

Table 2. Basal Concavity Depths for Dalton Points

S tage Artifact No. Depth(mm) Mean(mm) Completed Preforms 3343 2285 2334 800-13 800-90

Initial Stage

Advanced Stage

Final Stage

Indeterminate 35 valid conclusions, the figures seem to indicate an increase in basal concavity depth with each resharpening stage. Item number 2285 (Plate 5d) skews the average upward for the completed preforms, as it is the largest point (by basal width) in the collection, measuring 32.0 mm across. Excluding this point reduces the average basal depth of the completed preforms to 3.75 mm. This point may be related to the larger variety of Dalton points described by Morse and Morse (1983:75, 92). All of the above points were manufactured from white Burlington chert.

points were Initial Stage . Five examples of the initial stage of Dalton recovered from the Nochta site, only one complete (Plate 6a-e). This stage is characterized by serrated blades and ground bases. The most important trait of this stage, however, is the lack of any indentation of the blade compared to the shoulder. The blade and the shoulder combine to form a generally convex edge with no distinct break or indentation at the blade/shoulder juncture, which would indicate resharpening. It is in this stage that the initial serration of the blade occurs. The only complete specimen at the Nochta site (Plate 6a) exhibits right-sided beveling. This results from the removal of small pressure flakes for serration from the right side of the artifact with the pointed tip oriented away from the knapper. The point was then turned over and the opposite side sharpened similarly, resulting in the characteristic lopsided look of the blade when viewed in cross section from the pointed tip. It has been suggested that, because of the serrations, the Dalton point functioned as a knife, primarily in a butchering capacity whenever a heavy cutting tool was required (Morse 1971a: 10). The degree of beveling along the blade reflects the various resharpening stages discussed below. The basal widths for the two specimens in this category that can be measured are 23.5 and 23.6 mm--considerably smaller than the 26.6 mm average for items in the completed preform stage, which suggests that additional preparation of the base was undertaken to bring the tool to its prospective form. Two of the initial stage Dalton points from the Nochta site are manufactured from a fossiliferous Burlington chert; one from a white Burlington chert; one from a gray-blue oolitic chert, probably Mansker from southern Illinois; and one from an as-yet-unidentified dark gray, slightly grainy chert with small white impurities. Two points (Plate 6c-d) have been reworked distally into scrapers.

point is characterized Advanced Stage . As the initial stage Dalton by the lack of any indentation at the blade/shoulder juncture, the presence of this trait identifies the advanced stage Dalton point. This indentation indicates that the blade has been resharpened at least once. Experimentation has suggested that advanced stage points have been resharpened only once or twice (Goodyear 1974:28). Two examples of advanced stage Dalton points were recovered from the Nochta site (Plate 6f-g). One is manufactured from a white Burlington chert; the other, a multicolored Crescent Hills chert. The relative degree of resharpening is reflected in the edge angle of the blade. Goodyear (1974:25) used a wire bent firmly to the blade edge to take the edge-angle measurements for the Brand site points. This 36

4"

I

^^" V

Plate 6. Dalton Points: a-e, initial stage; f-g, advanced stage; h-i, final stage 37

same measurement was taken with a goniometer for the Nochta site specimens. The edge angle for the complete initial stage Dalton point from the Nochta site is 47°, which is slightly steeper than the 43° average for initial stage points from the Brand site (Goodyear 1974:25). Although this difference may reflect a sampling bias related to the larger sample of Brand site artifacts, it could also reflect differences in measurement techniques. Or it may simply indicate that edge angles for Nochta site Dalton points are slightly steeper than those from the Brand site. Edge angles for the completed preforms from the Nochta site average 39°, which is again 4° steeper than the Brand site average of 35° for this stage. This holds true for the advanced stage Dalton points as well, 58.5° versus 54° for Nochta and Brand site artifacts, respectively. The consistency in differences of edge angles between the Nochta and Brand site Dalton points seems to suggest that these differences may be due to the differences in measurement techniques. The point here is not so much that slight differences occur among the various methods of measuring edge angles, or among measurers (Dibble and Bernard 1980), but that the same extents of resharpening can be observed between Nochta and Brand site Dalton points. Although actual measurements may differ, the difference between stages is consistently about 11°. This suggests that similar methods of resharpening occurred at the two sites.

Final Stage . Final stage Dalton points are identified by a characteristic drill-like appearance caused by extensive resharpening of the blade. Two such artifacts were recovered from the Nochta site (Plate 6h-i), one complete and one fragmentary. Microscopic examination of the blade edges on the complete specimen shows edge damage inconsistent with that expected for drilling. The edge exhibits bifacial damage that seems to be concentrated along the proximal three-fourths of the blade, with the tip exhibiting the least amount of damage. The bifacial edge wear on this specimen indicates that it was used in a cutting capacity and was probably discarded after becoming dull, no longer capable of being resharpened. The edge angle on this item is 71°, which is steep for a cutting implement. The severe edge damage exhibited on this specimen, however, suggests that it was used for cutting hard materials, perhaps bone or antler, and that a strong edge may have been necessary for such work. Horse has suggested that these final stage Dalton points (his "Group C") are functionally different from the two preceding groups (1971a:10). The extremely steep edge angle and the lack of serration on the blade are cited as evidence for this contention, these traits being more conducive to scraping than to cutting activities. Although this cannot be supported by evidence from the Nochta site, this single artifact (admittedly somewhat aberrant in basal morphology) certainly does not rule out the possibility that other items in this category were used for scraping. The two items in this category were manufactured from white Burlington and fossiliferous Burlington cherts.

Miscellaneous Pointed Difaces . A number of pointed bifaces have been grouped into a miscellaneous category. This category includes basal fragments that lack the necessary traits to make stage designations possible (Plate 7a-e). All of the points exhibit well-ground bases, 38

g 3 cm 1

r^ 39 indicating that they were used beyond the completed preform stage. Also included within this category are artifacts that share certain morphological characteristics with Dalton points, such as lanceolate blades and concave bases, but that lack the traditional overall form of this point type (Plate 7f-j). Three items (Plate 7f-h) exhibit pressure-flaking scars on both sides indicating that they were sharpened bifacially rather than in the traditional unifacial method. The other items (Plate 7i-j) have the basically completed preform morphology but exhibit heavily ground bases. It is possible that these specimens are intermediate between the completed preform stage and the initial stage and may have been broken during manufacture. Item j has been reworked distally into a scraper. One particularly large biface (Plate 7k) appears to have functioned in the same cutting capacity as a traditional Dalton point. The blade has been resharpened to a drill-like point reminiscent of the final stage Dalton points described above.

Adzes

The association of adzes with the Dalton culture, although suspected for some time, had not been confirmed until the recovery of the Hawkins Cache in 1970 (Morse 1971a) and the excavation of the Brand site, also in 1970 (Goodyear 1974). The 12 adzes recovered from the Nochta site are similar in most respects to those recovered from these Arkansas sites (Plate 8). The adzes can be described as ovoid to rectangular in outline, and generally plano-convex in lateral cross section. The planar, or ventral, side is beveled down to form the bit. The bit end, when viewed straight on, exhibits the characteristic curved, beveled edge that distinguishes this tool type (Figure 10). The lateral edges are heavily ground, probably for hafting. Grinding is also present on the polls of six of the eight complete specimens. Light polish can be observed on the convex surface near the bits of seven of the adzes. This polish, usually extending no more than 1 cm from the bit, is thought to have been caused by this portion of the tool hitting and rubbing against the wood being adzed. One item (Plate 8a) exhibits heavy polish on the edge, extending only about 2 mm on each side, which is visible to the naked eye. The adzes from the Nochta site range in size from 63.5 x 37 .3 x 16 .9 mm to 120.2 X 53.5 X 24.9 mm. One particularly aberrant adze was manufactured from a cherty limestone (Plate 8d) . The surface of this item appears smoothed and is chalky to the touch. There appear to be some faint relic flake scars on the ventral surface of the tool. It is possible that this item was chipped and ground or that it was chipped only and weathered to its present smoothed condition. Evidence for the stages and methods of manufacture of Dalton adzes is indicated by specimens recovered from the Hawkins Cache. Two adze preforms appear to have been manufactured from large thick flakes (Morse 1971a: 13). At the Brand site, many of the adzes appear to have been manufactured from chert cobbles, as evidenced by the presence of cortex 40

Iff

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^

Plate 8. Dalton Adzes m"m. s , ^

Plate 8. continued Figure 10. Dalton Adze 43 on the planar side and the poll of 19 of 34 specimens on which this trait was determinable (Goodyear 1974:41; Morse and Goodyear 1973:318). All of the adzes from the Nochta site appear to have been manufactured from large, thick flakes. Although a small area of cortex is present on three specimens, there is no evidence to suggest that these were manufactured from chert cobbles. No adze preforms were positively identified in the Nochta site assemblage, but a cache of four large, thick chert blanks was recovered from the Borrow Pit #72 area below the plowzone (Plate 9). Three of these blanks (Plate 9a-c) appear to represent slightly modified large flakes. One of these (Plate 9c) has been formed into the basic adze shape at the bit end and has been slightly beveled. The largest of these blanks (Plate 9d) does not appear to be a flake, but merely a large chunk of chert that has been shaped into an adzelike form. Three flakes have been removed from the bit area on the ventral, or planar, side to create a slight bevel. All four of these blanks are made of Burlington chert. The Dalton adze probably functioned as a woodworking tool (Goodyear 1974; Morse and Goodyear 1973; Morse and Morse 1983). The overall morphological characteristics and observed wear patterns described above support this contention. The adze operates in a chopping and gouging capacity when used in a downward motion, the bit striking the material at an angle with the ventral side up. Goodyear (1974:41) notes that the tool could also be used unhafted in a dragging, planing, or scraping manner for woodworking. Morse and Goodyear (1973:320) suggest that, because of the inferred heavy-woodworking function of the adze, its use may have been in the construction of relatively permanent structures or in the manufacture of . Morse (1983:78) includes the manufacture of bowls and other wooden utensils as possible adze functions. The use of adzes in the construction of dwellings certainly cannot be demonstrated at the Nochta site, where no structural remains were observed. However, their absence does not rule out the possibility that structures existed at the Nochta site, but that evidence for such could not be identified. In northeast Arkansas, sites designated as base settlements contain large numbers of complete and usable adzes (Morse and Goodyear 1973:320). In contrast, the Brand site--interpreted as a hunting/butchering camp--contains no whole or usable adzes. The suggestion that adzes were used in the construction of dwellings agrees with the base-settlement/hunting-camp-settlement system proposed for this area. Although the Nochta site may have functioned within a different type of settlement system, the presence of adzes at this site might have significant implications for determining the site's function during the Dalton occupation.

Flake Tools

The Dalton point and adze are two artifact types diagnostic of the Dalton culture. Although numerous other tool types have been identified with this culture, they are perhaps not as temporally or culturally specific as the two aforementioned tools. Later cultures share certain '"% IP

'^'•^ftfcfc

-A. %

Plate 9. Possible Adze Blanks 45 tool types, specifically in the unformalized tool categories, and as a result, the problem of mixed components at the Nochta site makes identification of the other implements in the Dalton tool kit difficult and, at best, tentative. In examining possible Dalton tools, specific and primary attention was given to morphological characteristics of tool types described at single-component Dalton sites, such as the Hawkins Cache (Morse 1971a) and the Brand site (Goodyear 1974), and secondarily to chert type. This resulted in a rather conservative number of artifacts being identified as possible Dalton tools; many more may be associated with this occupation but cannot be separated from the other Archaic components.

End Scrapers with Steep- Angled Retouch . End scrapers are perhaps the most common type of unifacial tool recovered from Dalton sites. These tools are most frequently primary flakes that exhibit extensive retouch on the distal portion, which creates a steep scraping edge. The steepness of the retouching is almost always complemented by a slightly recurved edge that occurs naturally on the flake preform. Many specimens are retouched laterally, often to form a teardrop shape, which is thought to facilitate hafting (Goodyear 1974:44). At the Nochta site, several of these scrapers exhibit grinding along the lateral edges, which also suggests that many of these tools were hafted. The spine angles of the working edges of the tools are all steep, ranging from 67° to 87° with an average of 80°. This compares favorably with the 75° to 77° average for steep-angled end scrapers at the Brand site (Goodyear 1974:48). Microscopic (20X and 25X) examination of the working edges of these tools reveals moderate to heavy glossy polish. This polish generally begins on the very edge of the ventral aspect and continues around to the dorsal side. This type of polish has been found to be associated with hide scraping (Keeley 1980:49-50). Five items (Plate lOa-e) exhibit so-called graver spurs along their lateral working edges. Morse and Morse (1983:78) have suggested that projections such as these may also be the consequence of a desire to retain a specific working-edge width. The specimens from the Nochta site do appear to have been used as gravers. Five of the six spurs exhibit microscopic edge damage in the form of small step fractures and light polish. The double-spurred variety (Plate lOe) occurs at other Dalton sites (Morse and Morse 1983:Figure 4.2m) and shows some continuity with double-spurred scrapers recovered from Paleoindian sites (e.g., MacDonald 1968:90-91). Gramly (1982:40) refers to this tool form as a type of "cutter," a broad category of tools defined for the Paleoindian Vail site that exhibits sharp pointed or spurred edges. Scrapers with graver points were also recovered from the Dalton levels of the (Coe 1964:75). The function of gravers such as these is problematical but likely involves the carving or incising of wood or bone.

Nochta site Flake Knives . Many of the flake knives recovered from the share similar morphological characteristics, specifically with regard to knives on blades, to those from the Brand site, at which knives constitute the largest single tool category (Goodyear 1974:59). A small number of blades were recovered from the Archaic deposits at the Nochta site 46

fl^

i.

'^^k

m i

Plate 10. Dalton End Scrapers: a-e, with graver spurs 47

(Plate lla-e). It is believed that these were manufactured during the Dalton occupation of the site, primarily because blades are commonly recovered from single-component Dalton sites (Goodyear 1974:56; Morse 1971a: 18), and secondarily, all are manufactured from Burlington chert, the apparent "chert of choice" among the Nochta site Dalton inhabitants. All of these blades are long, ranging in length from 79.3 to 63.9 mm. None of these blades show any evidence of retouch, and all exhibit bifacial edge damage characteristic of tools used in a cutting capacity. Other flake knives (Plate llf-k) have been retouched. Item llf has been ground along the side opposite the cutting edge, probably for hafting or perhaps to facilitate hand-held use. Items llg-i also exhibit scraping edges. The average edge angle for the retouched specimens is 44° whereas that for the unretouched blades is 39°. The 44° average for the retouched items compares favorably with the 47° average for cutting edges on initial stage Dalton points from the site and suggests that these tools may have had similar functions. The blades may have functioned when a more acute cutting edge was preferred.

Other Chert Tools . Although several other tool types have been identified from Dalton contexts, these simply could not be distinguished among the several Archaic components identified at the Nochta site. These include miscellaneous bifaces and flake tools. A tool form frequently encountered on Dalton sites is the piece esquillee . This tool type is characterized by heavy battering and crushing along opposite margins and was probably used as a wedge to split wood or bone (Lothrop and Gramly 1982). Although not strictly diagnostic of early cultures, pieces esquillees are common in Early Archaic and Paleoindian tool assemblages. The exact number of pieces esquillees from the Nochta site has as yet not been compiled; but to date, over 200 such tools have been identified from the site assemblage. A complete discussion of the pieces esquillees recovered from the Nochta site is presented in the Middle Archaic chapter.

Features

Only three features from the Nochta site contain diagnostic Dalton artifacts, two pit features and one . All of these features contain Dalton point fragments. The two Dalton pit features are located in the northwest portion of the site, an area heavily dominated by Middle Archaic features and material. One of these features (Feature 267) superimposes Feature 268. Therefore, if Feature 267 does indeed represent a Dalton pit, then Feature 268 must also because of the superpositioning. Another Dalton point fragment was recovered approximately 20 m north of these features, outside of feature context, and may indicate that more of the features in this area may be related to the Dalton occupation. The other feature containing Dalton material (Feature 71) is a large oval hearth located in the east-central portion of Borrow Pit #72. This feature is among the largest uncovered at the site, measuring 3.4 x 48

^ fW^ I ^•^^; -

•^'^

»

^*. ^ •-,

( "i

Plate 11. Dalton Flake Knives: a-e, on blades; f-k, retouched 49

2.6 m. Feature 71 is characterized by a large burned area containing abundant burned siltstone. Tools from this feature include six biface fragments and numerous utilized flakes; the biface fragments include the ear of a Dalton point. Significantly, two blades were also recovered from Feature 71; both were retouched and utilized as knives. Three cores recovered, however, do not indicate blade production. Various grades of Crescent Hills Burlington predominate, comprising over 90% of the chert from this feature. Also present, in small quantities, are Salem, Ste. Genevieve, and local gravel cherts. Interestingly, one flake was recovered that appears to be Kaolin chert, the source of which is located in Union County in southern Illinois. Only about 3% of the chert from this feature has been heat treated. This is consistent with other Early Archaic assemblages, in which heat treatment is rare (Struever 1973). Despite floating 90 liters of fill from Feature 71, insufficient charcoal was recovered for conventional radiocarbon dating. The general area in which Feature 71 was uncovered also contains three and burned areas. Feature 55 is located only 2 m east of Feature 71. It is a large hearth, over 2 m in diameter, which contains several kilograms of burned sandstone (Plate 12). The chert types from this feature are remarkably similar to those of Feature 71, with Burlington chert dominating and Salem, Ste. Genevieve, and gravel cherts occurring in small amounts. Again, one flake of Kaolin chert was recovered from Feature 55. No diagnostic artifacts were recovered from this feature, and despite floating 100 liters of fill, insufficient charcoal was recovered for conventional radiocarbon dating. Another small hearth (Feature 137) is located only 3.5m south of the two larger ones. This feature is approximately 60 x 70 cm and contains about 0.9 km of burned siltstone. Only a small amount of chert was recovered from this feature, all of it Burlington. Because of the lack of culturally diagnostic artifacts from Features 55 and 137, the contemporaneity of these three hearths cannot be demonstrated. The proximity of these features to each other, however, along with the similarity of morphological characteristics and chert composition, suggests that these hearths may be contemporaneous. These three hearths are only part of a cluster of features in this area (Figure 11). Although it cannot presently be demonstrated that all or any of the features in this cluster are related to the Dalton occupation, further analysis of the features in this area may reveal possible connections with one another and with specific components. The diversity of pits and hearths is unique to this portion of the site. Unfortunately, the area immediately to the east was removed for borrow in the early spring of 1986 without the archaeologists' knowledge or consent, creating an unknown loss. Another class of features that has been uncovered at Dalton sites is the rock cluster. At the Nochta site, 86 of these features were found scattered throughout the site. They are characterized by a small cluster of cobbles, usually three to five in number but sometimes containing up to eight. Nearly all of these cobbles exhibit some evidence of utilization in the form of battering, pitting, smoothing, or grinding. There is never any evidence of burning in these features, and pit outlines are never observed. It is believed that these represent caches of tools 50

If.

% '!^

/ ^

Plate 12. Feature 55

52 placed at certain locations for recovery and use at a later time. At the Brand site, most of the cobble tools were recovered from such rock clusters (Goodyear 1974). While it is thought that at least some of these features are related to the Dalton occupation at the Nochta site, the lack of diagnostics from any of these clusters precludes their identification.

The Dalton Occupation at the Nochta Site

Analysis of excavated material from the Nochta site has revealed the presence of artifacts related to the Dalton culture. The nature and variety of these artifacts should reflect the nature and range of activities conducted at the site during the Dalton occupation. The problem of mixed components has complicated site interpretation by masking certain associations between tools and components and, therefore, making associations of certain activities with specific components difficult, if not impossible. Nevertheless, the tools that can be identified as belonging to the Dalton component reveal significant insights into the nature of this occupation at the Nochta site.

Chronological Position

In the absence of radiocarbon dates from the Dalton component at the Nochta site, the determination of age for this occupation must rely exclusively upon radiocarbon dates from other Dalton sites. An excellent discussion of the chronological position of Dalton has been presented by Goodyear (1982) and will be briefly summarized here. Goodyear argues that the Dalton culture dates between 10,500 and 9,900 B.P. He contends that the Dalton point is the only point diagnostic of the Dalton culture, and that the assumed association of Dalton points with various notched points at several rock-shelters (e.g., Modoc, Graham , Stanfield-Worley Bluff Shelter) is merely an indication of disturbance. He argues that single-component sites, such as Brand (Goodyear 1974), contain no notched points, only Dalton. The terminal date for Dalton, 9,900 B.P., was arrived at by Goodyear through an examination of dated sequences for notched Early Archaic points, which may date as early as 9,850 B.P. (Broyles 1971:48). The beginning date for the Dalton culture is believed to be approximately 10,500 B.P., based on slightly earlier dates for Paleoindian sites in the east (Gramly 1982; MacDonald 1968). Goodyear believes that dates from Rodgers Shelter in Missouri are the most reliable for dating the Dalton culture. These dates, from a sealed zone containing only Dalton artifacts, are 10,530 + 650 B.P. and 10,200 + 330 B.P. (Wood and McMillan 1976). Thus it is believed that the Dalton occupation at the Nochta site dates between 10,500 and 9,900 B.P. 53

Distribution of Dalton Artifacts at the Nochta Site

Figure 12 shows the distribution of piece-plotted Dalton artifacts across the site. The southern half of the site (Borrow Pit #75) contained only one item--a large adze--that could be linked with the Dalton occupation. Figure 11 indicates that the Dalton people occupied the central portion of the ridge fairly extensively and the northern portion somewhat less so. This distribution pattern indicates a small concentration of Dalton artifacts in the east-central portion of the site and another in the west-central. It is thought that this distribution reflects the exploitation of two separate resource zones located along either side of the ridge. As previously stated, the nature of the environment both east and west of the ridge is problematical due to the subsequent scouring of these areas by the McDonough Lake and Edelhardt Lake meanders. A small active stream channel may have been present in the east, providing a source of fresh water. The area to the west was no doubt low and wet, being periodically inundated by backwater flooding, and may have offered a different set of resources to the site inhabitants. The tools recovered from both of these areas do not indicate any major functional differences between them, however. It is probable that the two exploitation strategies practiced in these areas were too similar to necessitate any major differences in tool kits.

Settlement

Analysis of the Dalton lithic assemblage from the Nochta site indicates that chert-tool production trajectories were aimed at the manufacture of bifacial and flake tools. A core technology was evidently employed to produce the large primary flakes used in the manufacture of these tools. Morphological variations in the tool assemblage suggest that a wide range of activities took place at the site during the Dalton occupation. The presence of complete adzes on Dalton sites has been one of the criteria upon which Dalton base camps have been identified in northeast Arkansas (Morse and Goodyear 1973). It has been suggested that the prevalence of adzes on Dalton sites may indicate the use of this implement to build structures of a permanent or semipermanent nature (Morse and Goodyear 1973:320). To date, no Dalton structures have been uncovered at any site, including the Nochta site. It is possible that the nature of Dalton structures was such that physical remains were minimal, especially if they were constructed in sand and did not burn. Although it is not yet possible to correlate Dalton adzes and structural remains, the adze implies a specialized heavy-woodworking function beyond simple tree cutting, be it the construction of houses, the manufacture of dugouts, or the production of wooden implements such as bowls or other containers. These activities are not often thought of as short-term extractive-camp activities. These activities are generally associated with an extended settlement, or base camp. The intention here is not to Figure 12. Distribution of Dalton Artifacts 55 imply that the mere presence of complete adzes at a site indicates a base camp, but that such occurrences, when combined with other data, are important in determining site function. Binford (1980) has discussed two major types of settlement strategies that may operate within hunter-gatherer societies. The first of these is that of residential mobility, which is associated with foraging. Foragers gather food daily and return to residential bases nightly (Binford 1980:5). Food is generally not stored, and such groups make a series of residential moves throughout the year to various resource concentrations. Archaeologically , such a settlement strategy would exhibit several residential base-camp sites distributed fairly evenly throughout a given area as well as many small extractive-camp sites of generally low archaeological visibility. This is contrasted with a logistically mobile strategy characteristic of collectors. A collecting strategy involves the use of logistically organized food-procurement parties who leave the permanent or semipermanent base camp and establish field camps from which procurement strategies are planned and executed (Binford 1980:10). A logistically mobile strategy, therefore, moves the resources to the consumer. This strategy will exhibit a few large, high-density base camps, several field camps, and many extractive loci in the archaeological record. Site function can generally be inferred by examining the quantity and variety of cultural remains left behind at a particular site. This permits a general discussion of occupational intensity and functional diversity. Determining precisely how a given site operated within a specific settlement system, however, must take into account the nature of the other sites that operated within that same system. Any discussion of a settlement system, based on one site with little or no knowledge of how other sites operated within the same system, must be viewed with qualification. Nonetheless, some important observations can be made concerning site function for the Nochta site Dalton occupation. Clearly, this occupation does not fit the pattern of a large, high-density base camp associated with the logistically mobile strategy of collectors, but may represent a residential camp for residentially mobile foragers. If the Nochta site represents a residential base camp for the Dalton occupation, the Dalton tool assemblage from the site should reflect functional diversity indicative of a variety of activities. The presence of eight complete adzes at the Nochta site indicates that these tools were used at the site. The range of activities implied by these tools involves specialized woodworking tasks, possibly even construction of shelters. It has been demonstrated that toolmaking activities took place during the Dalton occupation of the Nochta site. The presence of the various stages of Dalton point production indicates that this specific tool type was manufactured, utilized, and reworked at the site. The flake-tool assemblage, comprised of scrapers, knives, gravers, and pieces implements employed in a variety esquillees , reflects a functional set of of tasks, which presumably included the manufacture of wood and bone tools. Features apparently associated with the Dalton occupation are in the form of pits, large prepared hearths, and burned areas. If some of the many rock clusters are related to this component, then the manos and metates contained therein indicate that plant-processing activities took 56 place and that these tools were being cached with the expectation of recovery and use at a later time. All of the above factors indicate that a wide range of activities were undertaken at the site during the Dalton occupation. Such variation is generally interpreted as reflecting an extended settlement in which the associated activities involved the entire social group rather than one specific segment. It is, therefore, proposed that the Nochta site functioned as an extended settlement during the Dalton period, and will be interpreted--at least tentatively--as a residential base camp for a foraging group practicing a residentially mobile settlement strategy. Such an interpretation is consistent with the Dalton settlement strategy discussed by Abler (1984) for the Modoc rock-shelter locality in the southern American Bottom. The duration of such a settlement as proposed above is, at present, difficult to ascertain. The intensity of a particular occupation can often be judged by the guantity of cultural material left behind. At the Nochta site, 37 bifacial tools were recovered that can be identified with the Dalton component. The number of unifacial and flake tools is undeterminable owing to the low visibility of these items in the multicomponent lithic assemblage. Debitage relating to this component is even more dif f icult--if not impossible--to identify. These problems are compounded by the possibility (or probability) that the site was occupied several times during the Dalton period. However, the relatively low number of identifiable Dalton tools does not indicate a permanent settlement, but perhaps a short-term or seasonal camp. This would be consistent with a foraging strategy. If the Nochta site represents a residential base camp, there should be other residential camps located elsewhere, as well as numerous extractive loci representing relatively brief foraging activities. Relatively little is known about the Dalton occupation of the American Bottom area compared to the data that exist for later time periods. Much of what is known about Dalton sites in this area is part of the oral tradition of artifact collectors. Systematic archaeological surveys of this region have identified few Dalton period sites. Munson reports only one Dalton point for the Wood River Terrace area surveyed in 1963, and this was in a private collection (Munson 1971:4). Dalton points have been recovered from upland contexts by private collectors in the American Bottom area, but the author is unaware of any site that has yielded more than one or two such artifacts. One Dalton point was recovered from the plowzone at the Karol Rekas site (Hanenberger 1987), located on the bluffs only 2.2 km southeast of the Nochta site. These isolated finds may represent the extractive loci mentioned above. It is expected that such short-term sites have low artifact densities and, subseguently, low visibility in the archaeological record. It is also expected that residential base camps were fairly evenly distributed throughout the area. Other Dalton base camps have not been identified in the American Bottom or the surrounding uplands. It is possible that some of these sites may be buried, similar to the Nochta site. A buried site was discovered 4.5 km north of the Nochta site in sandy deposits 1-2 m below the surface. Unfortunately, the site was destroyed before the nature of the component(s) could be determined. It is believed that there are other buried sites in the Wood River Terrace locality, some of which could be 57

associated with the Dalton culture. A settlement-pattern model for the Dalton period may be warm-weather base camps on the terraces and the higher floodplain localities from which both the bottomland resources and the resources of the immediate uplands could be effectively exploited. The location of winter settlements is somewhat problematical. It may be that these sites were located farther into the uplands along the smaller tributaries for greater hunting returns. Additional data from survey and excavation are required to adequately test this hypothesis.

3

The Early Archaic Occupations

The roster of diagnostic Early Archaic projectile points from the Nochta site reads like the "Who's Who in Early Archaic points," and emphasizes the fact that the sand ridge was occupied for a period of several thousand years. At this stage in the analysis, it is difficult to correlate anything more than projectile points with specific components; the mixing of components makes the task of associating nondiagnostic items with specific components arduous and in most cases impossible.

Agate Basin

The Agate Basin point is the namesake of the Agate Basin site in eastern Wyoming and is a relatively common type found on Paleoindian sites in the Plains. The point is characterized by a long, narrow lanceolate shape that is tapered considerably toward the base. The base is usually slightly concave and unground. The lateral edges of the base are heavily ground, usually one-fourth to one-third the length of the artifact. The flaking pattern exhibited on the blade is characteristically collateral, sometimes approaching a diagonally parallel pattern. One trait, which is common on specimens recovered from the Nochta site but does not appear often on those from the Plains, is a serrated blade. Serration, however, is common on the similar-looking Angostura points found on the Plains (Perino 1985). This trait occurs on six of the seven Agate Basin specimens from the Nochta site where this attribute can be observed (Plate 13a-f). In Plate 13, item a is resharpened bifacially with small pressure flakes to form a serrated blade edge. As was the case with the Dalton points, it is believed that the serrated blades of the Agate Basin points functioned in a cutting capacity. A major technological difference between the two point types is that the Agate Basin points were resharpened bifacially as opposed to the unifacially resharpened Daltons. The Agate Basin points from the Nochta site are manufactured predominantly of Burlington chert. Two are made of heat-treated Crescent Hills chert and six are manufactured from a fossiliferous Burlington, one of these heat treated; the remaining two specimens are of Salem chert, one of them heated. Heat treatment appears to be another technological difference between the Agate Basin and Dalton points. None of the Dalton points from the Nochta site are manufactured from heat-treated chert. Evidence for 60

h «^^.^/. tf

J

^jJiBij

Plate 13. Agate Basin Points heat treatment is also exhibited by many of the Agate Basin specimens from Arnold Research Cave in northeastern Missouri (C. Chapman 1975:241). Agate Basin points occur most frequently in the High Plains, where radiocarbon dating has placed them between 10,430 + 570 B.P. and 9,350 + 450 B.P. (Prison 1978:23, 1982:179). The distribution of this point type extends eastward into the Midwest, where it is fairly common, to the Mississippi River valley. East of the Mississippi Valley, the distribution of Agate Basin points seems to become more localized, and the points themselves relatively scarce. These points do occur, however, farther to the east in (Pi-Sunyer et al. 1967) and even as far east as New York (Funk and Schambach 1964). Some comparisons of Agate Basin points have been made with Guilford points in the Southeast (Coe 1952, 1964). Although similar in general outline, Guilford points lack the distinctive collateral or parallel-flaking patterns present on Agate Basins. At the Doerschuk site (Coe 1964), Guilford points are located in the level above the level containing the Morrow Mountain phase, suggesting a date of approximately 6,000 B.P. Closer to the American Bottom, Agate Basin points have been recovered from Rodgers Shelter in west-central Missouri. They are found above the Dalton stratum, which has been firmly dated to 10,500 to 9,500 B.P., and may be associated with the Middle Archaic I levels dated to 8,000 to 8,600 B.P. (McMillan 1976). Agate Basin points were recovered from Arnold Research Cave (Shippee 1966) in the lower levels, but dates associated with these levels appear to be too late. A Dalton point recovered from this site was dated to 8,120 B.P., which appears to be approximately 1,700 years too late. Other radiocarbon dates from the site indicate some mixing of components (Shippee 1966:18). Some mixing probably exists at the Rice site as well (Bray 1956), although there are no radiocarbon dates to support this. Agate Basin points were recovered from this site in the middle and lower levels. Establishing a firm date for these points in the Midwest has been difficult. Agate Basin points recovered from the Midwest are morphologically similar to those found in the Plains, where they date to 10,000 B.P. A date this early in the Midwest would make them contemporaneous with Dalton, but it is believed that Agate Basin and Dalton are not contemporaneous. Agate Basin points in the Midwest may occur slightly later than those in the Plains, and their appearance in the central United States may be related to the Hypsithermal Interval, which began about 9,000 B.P. and extended to approximately 5,700 B.P. a (J. King 1980). This period was characterized by a warmer climate and marked decrease in precipitation, which was a causal factor in the expansion of the prairie eastward (Prairie Peninsula). The relationship between climatic changes and the distribution of certain projectile point styles has been examined by various researchers (e.g., Klippel 1971a, 1971b; Tuck 1974:76-77) and will not be reiterated here. If the appearance of Agate Basin points is related to the expansion of grasslands or to the eastward expansion of the woodland-prairie border, then these points may date to approximately 9,000 B.P. in the American Bottom; this date coincides with the marked increase of grass pollens from cores taken in Missouri and Illinois (J. King 1980). 62

The distribution of piece-plotted Agate Basin points at the Nochta site is shown in Figure 13. Only two points were recovered from the southern portion of the site in Borrow Pit tt75. The central portion of the site seems to have been the main occupation area for this culture and the majority of the artifacts were recovered in the eastern half, which is thought to be associated with either a small stream or perhaps an active McDonough Lake channel. This distribution pattern is in contrast to that of the Dalton component, which exhibited an east-west clustering on this same portion of ridge. This indicates a difference in occupational history between the two components and may relate to differences in exploitation patterns or seasonality.

Kirk Cluster

Twenty projectile points recovered from the Nochta site have been classified as belonging to the Kirk Corner-Notched cluster. No attempt has been made to categorize any of these artifacts into the various Early Archaic corner-notched varieties that can be found in the literature (e.g.. Palmer Corner-Notched, Kirk Corner-Notched Large Variety, Kirk Corner-Notched Small Variety, Charleston Corner-Notched). Investigations in the lower valley, specifically at the Rose Island and sites (J. Chapman 1975, 1977), have concluded that there is very little temporal difference among the various corner-notched varieties, and many of the morphological differences merely reflect resharpening stages (J. Chapman 1975:122, 1980:127). Such attributes as basal grinding, supposedly diagnostic of Palmer Corner-Notched points, are not found to be stratigraphically distinct (J. Chapman 1977:53). This author has to agree with Chapman: it is perhaps more meaningful to recognize a cluster of points that share certain basic attributes than to mask these similarities by the proliferation of separate types that now clog the literature (J. Chapman 1977:53). The Kirk points recovered from the Nochta site (Plate 14) all share certain morphological characteristics. All are deeply corner notched and exhibit heavily ground bases. Except for those specimens that have been reworked, the blade forms are generally broad with excurvate edges. Blade serration is present on nine specimens, and resharpening is unifacial, leaving a distinct right-handed bevel. Length is variable, ranging from 39.2 to 69.1 mm. Chert utilization seems slightly different from that of the Dalton and Agate Basin components. Burlington and Crescent Hills cherts still dominate (with 12 out of 20 specimens), but there is a refreshing splash of color (or non-white) in the assemblage. Other recognizable cherts are included: one item is manufactured from Cobden/Dongola; three appear to be made of Blair chert; one point is of blue-gray Ste. Genevieve; one is of a banded Salem chert; and two are manufactured from unidentified cherts. The Kirk Corner-Notched point type was originally defined by Coe (1964) for specimens recovered from . The distribution of

i 63

4-S

Figure 13. Distribution of Agate Basin Points M^ %> 'Mi ^

Plate 14, Kirk Corner-Notched Points 65

Kirk cluster projectile points is widespread throughout the eastern United States, from the Southeast north to Maine and from New York to the Mississippi River. West of the Mississippi, artifacts associated with the Kirk cluster are rarely encountered. Tuck (1974:76) believes that this distributional pattern reflects the climatic changes associated with the Hypsithermal Interval beginning about 9,000 B.P. In the same way that certain Plains-type artifacts (e.g.. Agate Basin) may reflect movements east following an expanding prairie-woodland border, the paucity of Kirk-related artifacts to the west may indicate an environment inappropriate for this cultural system. The Kirk component at the Nochta site may represent one of the westernmost occurrences of this cultural horizon. The Kirk horizon has been firmly dated at various sites in the eastern United States. From its originally defined area in North Carolina (Coe 1964:69), various Early Archaic corner-notched points at the St. Albans site in West Virginia (Broyles 1971) date from 9,850 B.P. to 8,850 B.P. In Tennessee, Jefferson Chapman's work in the lower Little Tennessee River valley has produced several radiocarbon dates for the Kirk horizon in this area, ranging from 9,435 + 270 B.P. to 9,110 + 145 B.P. (J. Chapman 1976:3). It is believed that the Kirk component at the Nochta site dates between 9,400 B.P. and 9,000 B.P., based on the Tennessee data. The distribution of piece-plotted Kirk artifacts at the Nochta site is concentrated in the central portion of the site (Figure 14). A clustering of artifacts occurs in the western half of the site; only two artifacts were recovered from the east. This distribution pattern is different from that of the Dalton and Agate Basin components and may indicate differential resource exploitation patterns.

Hardin Barbed

Nine examples of Hardin Barbed projectile points were recovered from the Nochta site (Plate 15a-h). These are generally medium to large, slightly expanding stemmed points with small sharp barbs. The blades are long and narrow, and all specimens exhibit unifacially sharpened or resharpened edges, resulting in right-handed bevels. All of the points recovered from the Nochta site exhibit basal and lateral grinding on the stem, and five specimens have been finely serrated along the blade edges. These points exhibit varying degrees of resharpening (in Plate 15 items a and b represent two ends of the spectrum) . Five of the nine specimens are manufactured from Burlington and Crescent Hills cherts, while four are made of Salem chert. Hardin Barbed points are fairly common in the Midwest. Several researchers have noted the similarities between this point type and the Scottsbluff point () found in the Plains (Behm 1981; Luchterhand 1970:27-28; Munson 1967:17-18). Both point types exhibit long, narrow blades with relatively long stems. The stems on Scottsbluff points are usually straight with flat bases. Hardin points exhibit * * » kA-'.''AT#'

66

Figure 14. Distribution of Kirk Points ,

67

%

J

v^^

Barbed; i- possible Cody Plate 15. Hardin Barbed and Related Points: a-h, Hardin j , Complex artifacts 68

expanding stems with either convex or flat bases. Perhaps the major differences between the two point types are the presence of barbs on the Hardin specimens and the apparent lack of serrations and beveling on the Scottsbluff type. The association of Hardin Barbed and Scottsbluff points may have been confirmed at the Bass site in Wisconsin (Stoltman et al. 1984), where both types have been recovered. The chronological positioning of the Hardin Barbed point has not been reliably confirmed. Most of the estimates of the age of this point have relied on the radiocarbon dates for the Cody Complex in the Great Plains. Dates for this complex in Wyoming range from 8,750 + 120 B.P. and 9,026 + 118 B.P. (Prison 1978:23). If the Hardin Barbed and Scottsbluff points are truly related, it is expected that the Hardin Barbed point will be of similar age. In regard to the Cody Complex, two artifacts were recovered from the Nochta site that bear striking similarities to artifacts recovered on the Plains (Plate 15i-j). The first item (Plate 15i) appears to be a Scottsbluff point. It is well made and exhibits the characteristic small right-angle projections at the stem/blade juncture. This point is also similar to a Holland point (Perino 1971:56), which appears to be an eastern expression of the Scottsbluff type. The other specimen (Plate 15 j) is a square-stemmed base of a presumably lanceolate point. This artifact is well made and thinned along the base and sides and may be a basal fragment of a large Scottsbluff or . The presence of these two artifacts at the Nochta site is enigmatic but may indicate an association between Hardin Barbed and the Cody Complex, and it may support the aforementioned relationship between the occurrence of Plains-type artifacts in the central United States and the Hypsithermal Interval. The distribution of Hardin Barbed points and related artifacts is shown in Figure 15.

Bifurcate-Based Points

A small sample of bifurcate-based points was recovered from the Nochta site. Four of these (Plate 16a-d) are similar to the MacCorkle Stemmed points described by Broyles (1971:71) for the St. Albans site. These points are characterized by generally broad triangular blades with slightly excurvate edges. One specimen (Plate 16a) is deeply serrated, the others only slightly serrated. The stem is bilobed with a relatively shallow concavity at the base. These lobes flare out slightly and are rounded. Grinding is present on two specimens. The MacCorkle Stemmed point seems to be analogous to the Rice Lobed type in Missouri (Bray 1956:128). Two specimens are manufactured from Burlington chert, and two are made from Ste. Genevieve chert. The remaining two points (Plate 16e and f) appear to be St. Albans Side-Notched points (Broyles 1971:73-75). They are small points with deeply notched bases and narrow blades. Both specimens exhibit light grinding along the lateral edges of the stem. Grinding is also noted for 69

+;

+ 1

• Hardin Barbed point + Scottsbiuff-like point ir Cody Complex (?) square stem point

Figure 15. Distribution of Hardin Barbed Points and Related Artifacts 70

f-

Plate 16. Bifurcate-Based Points: a-d, MacCorkle Stemmed; e-f, St. Albans Side Notched 71 some specimens from the St. Albans site (Broyles 1971:73). The chert types for these points from the Nochta site are Burlington and Ste. Genevieve. Broyles (1971:71) has suggested that MacCorkle Stemmed points are a transitional type between Kirk Corner-Notched and St. Albans Side-Notched. The stratigraphic position of MacCorkle Stemmed points at the St. Albans site supports this contention, as do the overall morphological characteristics of the point. Broyles (1971:71) estimates the date of MacCorkle Stemmed between 8,800 and 8,700 B.P,, but based on subsequent radiocarbon dates from Tennessee for St. Albans Side-Notched (J. Chapman 1976:3), they may date as far back as 8,900 B.P. Dates for the St. Albans type at the St. Albans site are 8,830 + 700 B.P. and 8,820 + 500 B.P. (Broyles 1971:73, 75). Dates from the Rose Island site in eastern Tennessee are very similar, ranging from 8,800 + 270 B.P. to 8,660 + 180 B.P. (J. Chapman 1975:211). The distribution of bifurcate-based points has been examined in detail by Jefferson Chapman (1975). He notes that the distribution of the various types of bifurcates is fairly widespread throughout the eastern United States. The distribution map constructed from available data at that time (J. Chapman 1975:Figure 16) placed the westernmost extension of the bifurcate tradition in central Illinois. Subsequent data from western Illinois (Conrad 1981) and the Nochta site indicate that this tradition extends at least as far west as the Mississippi River. It may be significant, however, that only the two early bifurcate types, MacCorkle Stemmed and St. Albans Side-Notched, are present at the Nochta site. No points were recovered that could be attributed to the later bifurcate types, Lecroy and Kanawha Stemmed. It is as yet unclear why these latter point types are absent, as the author has observed them in collections from central and eastern Illinois, and Conrad (1981) has recovered specimens from west-central Illinois.

Miscellaneous Early Archaic Points

One example of a Rice Lanceolate point was recovered from the Nochta site (Plate 17a). The point is named for the Rice site in Missouri, where it was recovered in the lowest level of tlv shelter (Bray 1956). The point measures 29.5 x 80.0 mm and is lanceolate in form with a relatively long, broad contracting stem. The base is concave and is, along with the stem edges, lightly ground. Rice Lanceolate points have not been securely dated, but one specimen apparently of this type was recovered from Modoc (Fowler 1959a:Figure 2) from a stratum dating to 8,546 + 380 B.P. Two examples of Hidden Valley Stemmed points were recovered from the site. Named for the Hidden Valley Shelter in Missouri (C. Chapman 1948:140), the type is characterized by a long, broad, triangular blade with a relatively narrow contracting stem. The bases of the two specimens from the Nochta site (Plate 17b, c) are unground and slightly concave. 72

a 4.\

Plate 17. Miscellaneous Early Archaic Points: a, Rice Lanceolate; b-c, Hidden Valley

Stemmed; d-e, Thebes; f, Side Notched; g, Rice Lobed; h- j , pos- sible broken Kirk Corner Notched; k, stemmed point; 1-m, blade fragments 73

Points of this type were recovered from in a stratum dating to 8,546 + 380 B.P. and 7,800 + 900 B.P. (Fowler 1959b:18). Hidden Valley points have also been recovered in the lower levels of the Hidden Valley Shelter and the Rodgers Shelter in Missouri (C. Chapman 1948:140, 1975:250). Only two Thebes points were found at the Nochta site, both fragmentary (Plate 17d-e). Thebes points are part of the so-called Thebes cluster (Winters 1967) and have been described in detail by Luchterhand (1970). This point type is characterized by a relatively thick, triangular blade with a hafting element that is diagonally notched 10-15 mm from the base. Grinding is usually present along the base and the rounded ears. Points of this type have been recovered from Graham Cave (Logan 1952) in levels subsequently dated to 9,700 + 500 B.P. and 8,830 + 500 B.P. (Crane 1956:667). The scarcity of these points at the Nochta site is puzzling, as they are a common Early Archaic point type in southern Illinois, but their scarcity may relate to differences in site function over time. Two Graham Cave Notched points were recovered from the Nochta site (Plate 17f). These are relatively large, deeply side-notched points with concave bases. The thickness of these points averages 0.8 mm. This point type has been recovered from the lowest levels of Graham Cave (Klippel 1971a; Logan 1952) and from the lowest levels of the Modoc Rock Shelter (Fowler 1959a :258). May (1982:1358) places this point type in the Middle Archaic.

One Rice Lobed point was recovered from the Nochta site (Plate 17g) . This point was defined at the Rice site in Missouri (Bray 1956:128). It has a triangular blade with straight to slightly incurving edges, and the blade on this item is serrated. The hafting element is an expanding-stem form with lateral grinding. The base of a Rice Lobed point is typically bilobed with a shallow concavity in the middle and is usually ground (Bray 1956:128). The specimen from the Nochta site exhibits an irregularly shaped base that is unground. It appears that the base may have been broken and reworked. This point also bears similarities to Kirk Stemmed (Coe 1964:70-71) and MacCorkle Stemmed (Broyles 1971:71) and may date similarly (9,000-8,800 B.P.). Other miscellaneous points and bifaces that may relate to the Early Archaic component at the Nochta site are shown in Plate 17. Items h-j appear to be broken Kirk Corner-Notched points. Item h has been reworked. Item k is a small, stemmed point with a steeply beveled blade and a ground base. Items 1 and m are blade fragments of serrated points. Item m is manufactured from red Ste. Genevieve chert.

Features

Because of a general lack of diagnostic material within features, the correlation of features with the various Early Archaic components cannot be established with the analyzed data available at this time. In 74

general, it is believed that most of the features within the east central portion of the ridge are related to the Early Archaic occupations of the site. This is based primarily on the predominance of diagnostic Early Archaic points recovered from outside of feature contexts in this area. However, a few Middle Archaic artifacts were also recovered from this portion of the site, suggesting that at least some of these features may be associated with this later component. A more thorough analysis of feature morphology and contents than could be undertaken for this report may reveal differences that could allow for the discrimination of features between these two major components. This is presently beyond the scope of this volume, however. A discussion of the features in this portion of the site is presented in the general Archaic chapter of this report. For purposes of sampling, the Early Archaic ethnobotanical analysis presented in Appendix A is derived from features located within this east central portion of the ridge.

Summary of the Early Archaic Occupations

An analysis of the diagnostic material from the Nochta site has indicated the presence of several Early Archaic components. In the absence of radiocarbon dates, the chronological placement of these components is based on radiocarbon dates from other sites containing similar artifacts. Using these dates, an occupational sequence dating back approximately 10,000 years is indicated. Apparently, the sand ridge was repeatedly occupied throughout the entire Early Archaic period. The nature of specific occupations and components is difficult to assess owing to the mixing of nondiagnostic artifacts, but some general observations regarding site function during the Early Archaic can be made.

Chronological Summary

Following the Dalton period, the Nochta site may have been occupied by groups associated with the Agate Basin points recovered from the site. Such points have not been reliably dated east of the Mississippi River and, as previously stated, appear to have origins in the Plains, where they date between 10,500 and 10,000 B.P. Although it is possible that Agate Basin and Dalton were contemporaneous, there are no hard data to support this. The appearance of Agate Basin points east of the Mississippi may relate to the climatological changes associated with the Hypsithermal and the concomitant shift in the woodland-prairie border. The groups associated with Agate Basin points were not necessarily following the expansion of the prairie but were perhaps following the woodland-prairie border as it moved slowly eastward. 75

It is believed that the Kirk Corner-Notched cluster of projectile points at the Nochta site date from approximately 9,400 to 9,000 B.P. based on Jefferson Chapman's dates from the lower Little Tennessee River (J. Chapman 1976, 1980). The appearance of this projectile point category at the Nochta site and at other areas of western Illinois (Conrad 1981) may mark the westernmost expansion of the Early Archaic corner-notched point tradition. As previously mentioned, environmental factors may have played a role in this distributional pattern. Only two Thebes points were recovered from the Nochta site. Thebes points at Graham Cave were recovered in levels dating to 9,700 + 500 B.P. and 8,830 + 500 B.P. (Crane 1956:667). Establishing a firm chronological position for Hardin Barbed points has been elusive. The similarities between these points and Scottsbluff points from the Plains have been discussed. Dates for the Cody Complex in Wyoming are between 9,000 and 8,750 B.P. (Prison 1978). It is expected that Hardin Barbed points date similarly. The bifurcate-based point tradition has been firmly dated at several stratified sites in the eastern United States (Broyles 1971; J. Chapman 1975). Only two of the early types of bifurcates are present at the Nochta site, MacCorkle Stemmed and St. Albans Side-Notched. MacCorkle Stemmed points date between 8,900 and 8,800 B.P. at the St. Albans site (Broyles 1971). St. Albans Side-Notched points were recovered from levels above the MacCorkle Stemmed points at St. Albans. At the Rose Island site in Tennessee, St. Albans Side-Notched points have been dated between 8,650 and 8,000 B.P. (J. Chapman 1975:211).

Early Archaic Settlement at the Nochta Site

Determining the nature of settlement type for each Early Archaic component at the Nochta site is impossible at this time. The mixing of components precludes the identification of culturally specific tool assemblages. Some relative degree of occupational intensity may be gleaned from the number of diagnostic artifacts recovered for each component, assuming the one-point-one-culture stance. As stated earlier, it is difficult to assess the role a specific site played in a given settlement system with little or no knowledge of the nature of other sites that operated within the same system. Thus the mere quantity of a given type of projectile point present at a site is of little help in an assessment of site function in a particular settlement system when nothing is known of the numbers of points recovered from other sites in the system. Such numbers may only be meaningful in a general, diachronic examination of relative changes in occupational intensity through time, being perhaps more a consequence of reoccupation than of site function. Thus the fact that Agate Basin, Kirk, and Hardin Barbed points are well represented relative to Thebes and bifurcate-based points may not necessarily relate to site function but only to the relative number of times that the Nochta sand ridge was reoccupied by specific groups. 76

Except for the Nochta site, little is known about the Early Archaic occupation of the northern portion of the American Bottom. Farther south, patterns Ahler (1984) has made an assessment of the Archaic settlement that observed in the Modoc Rock Shelter locality. Ahler contends settlement patterning for the Early Archaic (including Dalton) indicates Binford (1980) a settlement strategy of "residential mobility," which associates with foraging strategies. Foragers gather food daily, on an "encounter" basis, and return to the residential base each afternoon or evening (Binford 1980:5). Foragers generally do not store food, but make concentrations or a series of residential moves to various resource This patches. Foraging strategies move consumers to resources. settlement strategy is contrasted with the logistically mobile strategy Binford of collectors. Collectors move resources to the consumers. and (1980:10) characterizes collecting strategies as having food storage logistically organized food-procurement parties. Such parties leave the main residential base to establish field camps from which procurement strategies are planned and executed (Binford 1980:10). Foraging strategies are generally found in areas where resources are nearly evenly distributed throughout the environment (Binford 1980). Collecting strategies represent responses to unequal distributions of critical resources, in which task groups leave the residential base, range some distance, and exploit a specific resource or set of resources. Archaeologically, a foraging settlement pattern will be represented by a series of residential camps distributed fairly evenly throughout a given area with many small "locations" (Binford 1980) representing very short-term extractive activities. Residential camps will be midsized to large with low artifact densities but diverse tool assemblages (Ahler 1984:36). These tool assemblages should differ among the residential camps, corresponding to varying resource exploitation. The extractive locations in such a settlement pattern will appear as very small sites with extremely low densities of material and tool assemblages that are resource specific (Ahler 1984:37). Such extractive loci will have very low visibility in the archaeological record. A collecting settlement pattern will exhibit a few large base camps, several field camps, and many extractive locations. Base camps will be large sites with high artifact densities and diverse tool assemblages (Ahler 1984:36). Field camps will be small sites with low artifact densities and moderate tool diversity (Ahler 1984:37). The extractive loci will be similar in appearance to those described for the foraging pattern. Ahler (1984) examined the sizes, locations, distribution, and artifact assemblages for the Early Archaic sites in the Modoc locality. These sites were found to be midsized and fairly evenly distributed across the physiographic zones established by Ahler (1984:251). The extractive locations identified seem larger and have higher artifact densities than would be expected for sites occupied only a matter of hours, which Ahler interprets as representing reoccupation or reutilization of favorable locations. An alternative explanation may be that these sites represent somewhat-extended occupations similar to field camps. The settlement strategy employed by Early Archaic groups may have had elements of both foraging and collecting. Binford states that "logistical and residential 77 variability are not viewed as opposing principles (although trends may be recognized) but as organizational alternatives which may be employed in varying mixes in different settings" (1980:19). The general trend of the Early Archaic settlement strategy for the Modoc locality may have been that of foraging, or residential mobility. This does not preclude the possibility, however, of certain elements of a collecting strategy (such as the establishment of field camps as the need for specific resources warrants) being incorporated into a procurement strategy geared specifically to this area. How this proposed settlement pattern for the Modoc locality relates to the Early Archaic settlement in the northern American Bottom is unclear. At the Nochta site, there does not appear to be evidence of a large base camp for any of the Early Archaic components present at the site. It is possible that the site functioned as a residential camp during the Early Archaic similar to that described by Abler (1984) for the Modoc locality to the south. The exact nature of Early Archaic settlement in the Nochta site locality cannot be fully assessed until the nature of other sites that operated within the system is uncovered. It is probable that the settlement strategy incorporated elements of both residential mobility and logistical mobility. Although the trend may have been toward the foraging pattern, the collecting strategy may have been employed to offset any unequal distribution of key resources.

4

The Middle Archaic Occupation

Although isolated artifacts of Middle Archaic affiliation had been recovered from the central portion of the Nochta site, the extent and intensity of this occupation was not surmised until a small backhoe trench was opened in the northwestern part of the site, and five features were uncovered. The features were encountered in a 25 m^ area approximately 1.2 m below the surface in a thick clayey silt. Subsequent machine scraping in this area uncovered 223 features and several diagnostic Middle Archaic artifacts found outside of feature context. The presence of this many features in such a relatively small area (approximately 4000 m^) was somewhat surprising given the complete lack of cultural material on the surface in this part of the site. As previously stated, it is believed that the overburden represents sediments deposited by the subsequent movement into this area of the Edelhardt Lake meander of the Mississippi River from approximately 5,000 to 4,000 B.P. Although some Dalton material was recovered from this area, it is believed that most of the features relate to the Middle Archaic occupation.

Lithic Assemblage

The Middle Archaic tool assemblage recovered from the Nochta site is comprised entirely of lithic materials. Although the inhabitants no doubt manufactured and used tools of bone and wood, poor preservation prevents their recovery. As analysis of feature-related material is incomplete, only a percentage of the total Middle Archaic assemblage is discussed below.

Raw Materials

Chert was the primary material used in the manufacture of tools at the Nochta site. The utilization of various chert types during the Middle Archaic occupation reflects a slight change from that of the Early Archaic occupation. Table 3 lists the composition by chert type of a sample of 39 features from the northwestern portion of the site. Although Crescent Hills Burlington chert is still the predominant type, as was the case in the Early Archaic assemblages, there is an increase in the use of Salem Table 3. Middle Archaic Chert Types 81 also be indicative of off-site projectile point manufacture. This may have important implications for site function, as will be discussed below. Another important technological difference between the Early and Middle Archaic assemblages at the Nochta site is the increase in the incidence of heat treatment of chert material. Twenty-five percent of the chert debitage examined from Middle Archaic features to date has been thermally altered, most of this is Crescent Hills Burlington chert. This compares with a higher figure of 37.1% for the projectile points. In contrast, only the Agate Basin points show any degree of heat treatment during the Early Archaic. The higher incidence of heat treatment among projectile points compared with debitage, again, may reflect a technological difference in the treatment of chert between formalized and unformalized tools or may indicate that projectile point manufacture was not taking place at the site.

Chipped Stone

to Projectile Points . Thirty-seven projectile points that are believed be associated with the Middle Archaic component were recovered from the Nochta site. Eleven of these were recovered from feature contexts, the remainder represent predominantly piece-plotted items. The majority point type for the Nochta site Middle Archaic occupation is a small side-notched variety (Plate 18a-n) tentatively identified as the Robinson point (Perino 1985:327). These points are consistently small, varying in length from 28.1 to 37.6 mm. The widest portion of the point is frequently at the base and varies from 13.6 to 21.0 mm. The hafting element for this group of points is characterized by small shallow (mean =1.4 mm) notches on the sides approximately 3.5 mm above the base. These points are relatively thick for their small size, averaging 6.3 mm. Seven of the 14 specimens are broken distally, only two of which have been reworked into scrapers. Twelve of the 14 points exhibit ground bases. Two radiocarbon dates have been obtained that date three points from this group: a date of 6,180 + 120 years: 4230 B.C. (ISGS-1490) was obtained radiocarbon date of from Feature 306 (Plate 18a-b) , and an additional 6,450 + 120 years: 4500 B.C. (ISGS-1494) was obtained from Feature 288 (Plate 18c). The group of points described above is very similar to what Ahler the Brannon calls Brannon Side-Notched (1984 :Figure 6e) . However, Side-Notched point as defined by Cook (1976) exhibits deeper and somewhat narrower notches than those described above. The Brannon Side-Notched points from the Nochta site (Plate 18o-s) are all characterized by this deeper notching (2.5 mm in depth compared to 1.4 mm for the Robinson points). The points are otherwise similar in many respects. All of the Brannon Side-Notched points are basally ground and average 6.0 mm thick. It is possible that the shallow side-notched group (Robinson points) represents Brannon Side-Notched points that were sharpened or reworked to their maximum extent and were subsequently discarded. If this is true, the degree of resharpening should be reflected in the blade edge angles. 82

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Notched Plate 18. Middle Archaic Projectile Points: a-n, Robinson; o-s, Brannon Side 83 with the shallow side-notched points exhibiting edge angles considerably steeper than those of Brannon Side-Notched points. The blade edges on all points complete enough to measure were measured with a goniometer. The average blade edge angle for the Brannon Side-Notched points is 58.8°, with a range from 52° to 64°. The average blade edge angle for the Robinson points is 63°, with a range from 50° to 78". With only a difference of 4.2° in the average blade edge angles of these two groups of points, it does not appear that the Robinson points represent reworked Brannon Side-Notched points, but are instead a distinct type. Whatever the relationship of Brannon Side-Notched points to Robinson points, both share the lineage of the widespread (and often confusing) Middle Archaic side-notched point tradition. Side-notched points dominate most Middle Archaic haf ted-biface assemblages and appear in a wide variety of sizes. Other Middle Archaic point types recovered from the Nochta site are the Matanzas and the Godar, or Big Sandy, points. Seven artifacts have been identified as Matanzas points, named for the Matanzas site (Munson and Harn 1966). These points (Plate 19a-g) vary in length from 39.8 to 49.2 mm, with a mean of 45.2 mm. Four points are basally ground and three have been manufactured from thermally altered cherts. Matanzas points were abundant in the Helton phase levels of the Koster site (Cook 1976) and appear to be most common in the latter half of the Middle Archaic (Brown and Vierra 1983; Odell 1985). Four broad side-notched points were also recovered from the Nochta site (Plate 19h-k) . These points resemble the Godar and Big Sandy points, two ubiquitous artifacts of the Middle Archaic side-notched point tradition. Corner-notched points were recovered from the Nochta site that are believed to be associated with the Middle Archaic component (Plate 191-o). Such points have been referred to in the literature as Jakie Stemmed, Table Rock (C. Chapman 1975), and Apple Blossom Stemmed (Cook 1976). Corner-notched points such as these, like many of the side-notched points described above, seem to be generically Middle Archaic, as they persist throughout this time period. The Middle Archaic projectile point assemblage at the Nochta site is dominated by side-notched varieties. Side-notched points seem to be the most prevalent type at Middle Archaic sites in the Midwest (Brown and Vierra 1983; Cook 1976; Fowler 1957, 1959b; Morrow 1982; O'Brien and Warren 1983). Furthermore, the various types of side-notched points do not appear to be temporally specific, but occur throughout the Middle Archaic period. Hafted bifaces similar to Robinson points have been recovered from the Carrier Mills site (Morrow 1982:Plate 155) and the Napoleon Hollow site (Odell 1985:Figure 2), which together span more than a millennium. Matanzas points, while occurring throughout the Middle Archaic, seem to reach their greatest abundance during the latter half of that period. Thus the Middle Archaic point assemblage at the Nochta site does not appear to be temporally specific, except perhaps on a large scale. The assemblage is similar in composition to the Middle Archaic 2 phase (7,300-6,850 B.P.) and possibly to the early Helton phase (5,800-4,900 B.P.) identified in the lower Illinois River valley (Brown and Vierra 1983; Wiant et al. 1983). I g

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Plate 19. Middle Archaic Projectile Points: a-g, Matanzas; h-k, broad side notched; 1-0, corner notched 85

Other Chert Tools. Bifacial tools other than projectile points or hafted scrapers are extremely rare in the Middle Archaic tool assemblage from the Nochta site. Only three other bifaces have been recovered from the 39 features so far examined in the northwestern portion of the site. Two of these are fragments (Plate 20a-b), and one is a small tool manufactured from pebble chert that has a gougelike bit at one end (Plate 20c). Interestingly, this tool appears to be waterworn over its entire surface. This is the only tool from the site that exhibits this trait, and it remains an enigma. The majority of the Middle Archaic tool assemblage is comprised of utilized and retouched flakes. These are generally small and are often fragmentary. To date, 45 of these flake tools have been identified from the Middle Archaic area of the site. The working edges of these artifacts exhibit variable morphologies. Edge angles vary from steep to acute and tool edges are straight, incurvate, excurvate, and irregular, reflecting a variety of cutting and scraping tasks. In addition, two artifacts have been identified as perforators, both of them flake tools. One of these (Plate 20d) has been shaped by unifacial edge retouch and is broken distally. The other (Plate 20e) is merely a three-sided columnar block flake that has been utilized in a clockwise twisting motion, as evidenced by the edge damage and polish observed along its lateral edges. There is considerable evidence for a bipolar for the Nochta site Middle Archaic. Three types of artifacts were recovered that indicate that this technique was employed: bipolar cores, bipolar flakes, and pieces esquillees ; the first two relate to a reduction technique, the third is a specific tool type. The bipolar technique involves placing the chert on an anvil and striking it with a percussor. Although a somewhat uncontrollable process, it is perhaps the best (or only) way to reduce small pebble cherts. The author has observed hundreds of bipolar cores from sites in Michigan, where the local availability of chert was restricted to what could be gathered from till sources. At the Nochta site, the recognition of bipolar cores follows the descriptions given by Binford and Quimby (1963), although no attempt was made to separate the cores into the six varieties they defined. Bipolar cores possess opposing areas of battering or crushing, exhibit evidence of primary-flake removal, are relatively thick, show no evidence of originating as a flake, and often exhibit areas of cortex, indicating their pebble origin (Hayden 1980:3). At the Nochta site, five of the seven cores identified to date from Middle Archaic features exhibit small amounts of pebble cortex, and one appears to be made of Crescent Hills Burlington chert (Plate 21a-f). None of the cores appears to be thermally altered. Flake scars are generally small but represent flakes large enough to utilize. A sample of the bipolar flakes recovered from Middle Archaic features is shown in Plate 21 (g-i). All of the bipolar flakes recovered are relatively large, but this is probably a consequence of recovery. Flotation samples from selected features contain several small block fractures and chert splinters, which may be debris associated with the bipolar process. The items shown in Plate 21g-h have been utilized; item g as a scraper and item h as a cutting implement, which indicates that flakes produced by the bipolar technique are usable. 86

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Plate 20. Middle Archaic Chert Tools: a-c, bifaces; d-e, flake perforators 87

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cores; g-i, bipolar flakes; Plate 21. Middle Archaic Bipolar Artifacts: a-f, bipolar j-o, pieces esquillees Pieces esquillees are, from a technological standpoint, similar to bipolar cores but are morphologically and functionally distinct. The major difference between the two is that bipolar cores are just that--cores--while pieces esquillees are tools. The tool form can be described as follows: a roughly square or rectangular shape, a biconvex cross section, one or more bipolar axes of percussion, flake scars exhibiting heavy concentric rings of percussion, and large step fractures along both aspects (Lothrop and Gramly 1982:8). Pieces esquillees (literally translated, "splintered pieces") had been recognized in the Old World for decades before MacDonald (1968) used the term to describe similar artifacts recovered from the Paleoindian Debert site in Nova Scotia. In describing the form of this tool type, MacDonald (1968:86) notes that there is no stage at which a piece esquillee can be considered completed. Spalls and fragments are constantly removed from the tool as it is used. Along these same lines, this tool type is not actually manufactured in the traditional sense, but derives its characteristic morphology from utilization (Lothrop and Gramly 1982:8). This usage appears to be in the form of wedging for splitting bone, wood, or antler. The piece esquillee is placed in an incised slot or groove and hammered into the material until the wood or bone splits (Lothrop and Gramly 1982). The splintered material could then be fashioned into tools, such as awls and needles. There has been some debate concerning the legitimacy of the piece esquillee as a tool type. Much of the argument stems from the confusion over bipolar core versus piece esquillee , with some suggesting that all pieces esquillees are actually bipolar cores and some suggesting the opposite. Hayden (1980) has emphasized the existence of both bipolar cores and pieces esquillees as similar, but mutually exclusive artifact types, and the two should not be lumped together. To date, 13 pieces esquillees have been identified from the 39 Middle Archaic features analyzed at the Nochta site (Plate 21j-o), all of which appear to have originated as flakes. Interestingly, the chert types for these tools are Crescent Hills Burlington, Salem, and one that appears to be Cobden/Dongola. No pieces esquillees made of local gravel cherts have as yet been identified from the Middle Archaic features. This compares with the bipolar cores, of which five out of the seven are gravel cherts, again emphasizing the utility of the bipolar technique in reducing small pebbles. It may be significant that the bipolar artifacts appear to cluster in two distinct areas of the Middle Archaic area of the site. Although this may be the result of sampling bias, bipolar cores, flakes, and pieces esquillees are found in significant numbers only in the central and north-central portions of the area. This clustering may indicate specific activity areas or may identify functional differences among occupations.

Debitage. Analysis of 39 features in the Middle Archaic area of the site has identified only 247 pieces of chert debitage. This figure includes utilized and retouched flakes as well as nonutilized chert. Astonishingly, 40% of the debitage (by count) is comprised of block fractures. These pieces and splinters of chert are by-products of the initial stages of reduction and are particularly common in bipolar debris. The large proportion of block fractures indicates a reduction sequence employing a hard-hammer percussor, such as is used in the bipolar technique. Primary flakes make up approximately 18% of the debitage. All of these flakes are relatively small, averaging only about 2 g per item, but many (68%) have been utilized. The relatively small size and the high percentage of utilized primary flakes in the Middle Archaic assemblage strongly suggest a core and/or bipolar technology with a trajectory aimed toward the production of flake tools rather than of bifaces. The presence of secondary and tertiary flakes in the assemblage (15% and 8%, respectively) may reflect maintenance activities as well as some biface production.

Discussion

Based on a preliminary analysis of the chipped-stone assemblage from the Middle Archaic component at the Nochta site, several conclusions can be drawn. The projectile points recovered from the site are typical of other Middle Archaic assemblages, but because these point styles persist over hundreds, sometimes thousands of years, they are perhaps not as temporally sensitive as some Early Archaic points. The best that can be said about such points as Robinson and Matanzas is that they appear to be most common during the latter half of the Middle Archaic period, which is based on radiocarbon dates from the Nochta site, as well as on dates from the Koster and Napoleon Hollow sites in the lower Illinois River valley (Brown and Vierra 1983; Wiant et al. 1983). The Robinson point, as described above, exhibits morphological attributes comparable to those of small side-notched points recovered from Middle Archaic levels at these sites. There is a paucity of bifacial tools other than projectile points in the Middle Archaic assemblage at the Nochta site. The predominance of flake tools over bifacial tools indicates a technology geared toward the production of usable flakes rather than the production of bifaces. Such a technology is reflected in the debitage, which is dominated by the splintered and shattered fragments of chert that are the by-products of the initial stages of reduction. The use of the bipolar technique also indicates the production of flake tools. The use of this method of reduction, along with the general lack of debitage from the features, suggests an overall conservation of chert. The scarcity of debitage, the conservation of chert, and the predominance of expedient tools in the assemblage may relate to short-term deficiences in the availability of raw material. It is believed, however, that these same factors may also be indicative of seasonal, short-term site occupation. 90

Nonchert Lithic Tools

The nonchert lithic tool assemblage from the entire Nochta site contains an impressive array of both formalized and unformalized tools. The nonchert lithic artifacts from the Middle Archaic component represent a significant part of the Middle Archaic tool assemblage. Cobble tools of various functions were the most common nonchert lithic artifacts recovered from both feature and nonfeature contexts in the northwest portion of the site. Also recovered in feature context only were three groundstone implements.

Cobble Tools . The cobble tools recovered from the Middle Archaic features analyzed to date exhibit a variety of morphological characteristics that reflect a range of functions. Many of the tools exhibit more than one type of wear and damage, indicating multiple functions. Two large grinding stones, or metates, were recovered from pit features in the north-central portion of the Middle Archaic cluster. These artifacts are characterized by flat to slightly concave surfaces that have been worn relatively smooth either intentionally or as a consequence of utilization. The largest of these grinding stones weighs over 5 kg and is made of a dense graywacke or tillite (Plate 22). Both metates exhibit small pits indicating their use as anvils. Other pitted stones (Plate 23) were primarily recovered from the rock clusters and from nonfeature contexts. The majority of these stones also exhibit battering along the ends and sides, indicating a hammering function. The association of battering and pitting may not be coincidental. Pitting may result from flintknapping or food processing when a particular rock is used as an anvil. The crushing or fracturing of this material is accomplished through the use of another rock, which consequently becomes battered. The combination of battering and pitting exhibited on a particular rock may indicate that the implement was one-half of a functional set of tools that were similar enough to be used interchangeably. The contention that the pits functioned as "thumb holds" (Ritchie 1929) has little supportive evidence. Small grinding stones, or manos, are believed to be the functional counterpart to metates and are thought to relate to food-processing activities. Three small grinding stones were recovered from Feature 202, a rock cluster and the westernmost feature on the entire site. This concentration of rocks also contained cobbles exhibiting battering and pitting as well as two metates (Plate 24). Interestingly, there is one large metate and one small one. The two large manos match the size of the large metate, and the small fits the small metate. This seems to indicate that this collection of tools represents a functional set of food-processing implements. The nature of the food that was processed is unknown. Such implements are often associated with seed grinding. Almost no seeds were recovered in the flotation samples taken from the features, but nut and acorn fragments were. It is possible that these foodstuffs were being processed with this equipment, and the absence of seeds from flotation samples may reflect a preservational bias caused by both environmental and cultural factors. m.

Plate 22. Metate Recovered from Middle Archaic Pit 92

Plate 23. Pitted Cobbles from the Middle Archaic Component 93 1

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Among the other cobble tools recovered from the Middle Archaic cluster is a rock that has been used as a (Plate 25a). The cobble of dense graywacke is roughly triangular in cross section with one acute-angled edge. This edge exhibits heavy battering and numerous small flake scars on both faces of the working edge. This edge was apparently used to pound or chop a relatively hard material. As no battering could be observed on the end of the rock opposite the working edge, it is not believed to have functioned as a wedge.

Groundstone Tools . Only three groundstone artifacts were found to be directly associated with Middle Archaic features at the Nochta site (Plate

25b-d) . One, a fully grooved , was recovered from Feature 308. This specimen is relatively small, measuring only 93.6 mm in length, and may have been reworked. The bit is somewhat asymmetrical when viewed from the top or bottom, and the edge is slightly battered from use. The edge angle of the bit measures approximately 55°. The material is a fine-grained diabase. Fully grooved axes have been recovered from the Middle Archaic horizons at the Koster site (Brown and Vierra 1983), Modoc Rock Shelter (Fowler 1959b), and the Carrier Mills site (Jeffries and Lynch 1983). Several other grooved axes recovered from other portions of the Nochta site may also be associated with the Middle Archaic component. One bit fragment of a groundstone tool was recovered in Feature 259. This artifact (Plate 25c) exhibits a slightly curved bit, which may indicate an adze function. The specimen, however, lacks the completeness to make such a designation definite. A chunk of ground and polished hematite was recovered from Feature 368 (Plate 25d). This is an amorphous piece with three ground and faceted faces. It is possible that this item was ground for .

Features

Two hundred twenty features have been assigned to the Middle Archaic component in the northwestern portion of the site (Figure 16). Three other features uncovered in this area have been assigned to the Early Archaic component based on diagnostic artifacts recovered in feature fill. Because of the unstratified nature of the deposits, the possibility exists that some of the remaining 220 features are affiliated with Early Archaic components. Only 39 of the Middle Archaic features have been initially analyzed. This sample was selected to cross-cut the various feature clusters and to examine possible differences within the various feature types, and more or less corresponds to the sample selected for ethnobotanical analysis by Mary Simon (Appendix B). 97

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Plate 25. Miscellaneous Middle Archaic Nonchert Lithic Artifacts: a, cobble chopping tool, b, fully grooved axe; c, ground- fragment; d, ground hematite 98

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Feature Classes

The largest feature class encountered in the Middle Archaic area of

the site is that of pit features (N = 214) , which have been subdivided into seven types. Included in this discussion are three burials that were uncovered in otherwise domestic pits. In addition, four rock clusters, one postmold, and a unique, large, rectangular feature were also uncovered.

Pit Features . All pit features have been classified into seven distinct

types based upon morphology and internal stratigraphy (Figure 8a-g) . Type A pits have a single zone and are basin shaped. This type constitutes the majority of the features, with 131 examples. Type B pits have a single zone with flat bottoms and outslanting sides. There are 32 features of this type. Type C pits exhibit parallel sides and have a single zone (N = 3). Type D pits are multizoned with flat bottoms and outslanting sides (N = 15). Type E pits are also multizoned, but are distinctively basin shaped (N = 28). Type F pits are multizoned with flat bottoms and parallel sides (N = 2), and Type G is a multizoned, bell-shaped pit (N = 1). In addition, two other pits located in this area could not be typed because of heavy rodent disturbance. The diversity of feature types is often thought to reflect functional diversity. The difficulty arises when selecting criteria to distinguish functionally distinct types. Does the difference in the shape of the sides and bottoms of two given pits reflect a fundamental difference in the manner in which these features functioned? Or does it merely reflect the idiosyncratic behavior of the individuals who dug these pits? Does the presence or absence of distinctive zonation within pit features reflect functional differences or merely layers of dirt thrown over refuse? With this in mind, the pit feature designations are presented primarily as a heuristic device for sampling and analysis, and are not intended to imply any identification of emic categories. Further analysis of the contents and contextual data of these features may reveal functional differences, but this is presently beyond the scope of this preliminary report.

Other Feature Classes . The rock clusters uncovered in the Middle Archaic area are similar to those found in other portions of the site. These are usually characterized by three to seven rocks (Feature 202, however, contained 12), the majority of which exhibit evidence of utilization as tools. As previously stated for the Early Archaic components, it is believed that this particular class of features represents caching of functional sets of tools for recovery at a later date. This would be an expected form of behavior for a mobile hunting and gathering group, which could not or would not transport large numbers of heavy tools, some of which may have been functionally specific to a given resource or locale. Feature 376 is a large rectangular feature located in the north-central portion of the Middle Archaic area of the site. The feature, 3.13 x 4.7 m and 0.4 m deep, is superimposed by two large pits. Features 307 and 377. The exact nature of Feature 376 is puzzling. The size and shape suggest a structure, but no postmolds could be found 101 despite careful troweling. In addition, the feature matrix contained very little cultural debris: only 15 flakes, two pieces esquillees , and seven pieces of fire-cracked rock. For its size, this feature has one of the lowest material densities at the entire site (0.06 g/dm^). Because of the symmetrical shape of the feature in plan view, and the near-vertical wall on one side of the profile, it is believed to be cultural in origin. If this feature represents the remains of a structure, the large size is comparable to that of house platforms recovered from the Middle Archaic 2 horizon at the Koster site, which measured 4.5 x 5.0 m (Brown and Vierra 1983:184). The Koster structures differ from Feature 376 at the Nochta site in their slightly larger size, their abundance of cultural debris, and in the presence of deep postmolds, which were found to outline the features.

Burials . Three pit features contain human burials (Features 235, 238, and 253). The physical condition of the bone in these burials was little more than a white chalky powder and could not be analyzed. Feature 235 is a small circular pit 66 cm in diameter and 36 cm deep with two zones. The feature fill is similar to that of other pit features on the site, characterized by moderate amounts of carbonized wood and nutshell. At the bottom of the pit, an as-yet-undetermined number of human teeth were found; all but one are highly fragmented. The tooth and tooth fragments appear to have been burned. Tiny fragments of calcined bone were noted in the fill above the teeth. It has not yet been determined if these fragments are related to the teeth because tiny fragments of bone are common in the Middle Archaic feature fills. The tooth is a third maxillary molar and exhibits very little occlusal wear. The third molar generally appears at the age of 18-21 years. Because this tooth shows very little occlusal attrition, it is believed that this individual died soon after the tooth erupted. Feature 235 may represent part of or an entire of an individual approximately 18-22 years old. No long bones (or traces) were observed in the feature, and the other tiny fragments of calcined bone may represent the remainder of the cremated body. Feature 238 is also a small circular pit feature, measuring approximately 70 cm in diameter and 35 cm deep. The base of the single-zoned pit contained what appear to be long bones. Only vague outlines of the severely decomposed bones could be discerned. No cranial bones or teeth could be observed, suggesting that this feature represents a secondary burial. The shape of the bones present suggest a tibia and perhaps a radius and an ulna. Other bones were too fragmentary or decomposed to identify. The size of the long bones suggests that the individual was an adult. No were recovered in this or the other two burials. Again, the feature fill was similar to other pit features in this area: some carbonized nutshell, small fragments of bone (fish and mammal), a few chert flakes, and a grinding stone fragment. Feature 253 is a large oval pit measuring approximately 75 x 140 cm and 45 cm deep. Two irregularly shaped zones were observed in profile and severely decomposed bones were found at the bottom of the pit. The outline of a cranium could be observed, as could the traces of four long bones located approximately 20 cm to the north. The size of these bones 102

suggests this was a child; the observed incompleteness of the skeleton suggests a secondary burial. No grave goods are associated with this burial, and the feature fill contained contents similar to those of the other two burials. None of the three burials is a complete skeleton. Although the extremely poor state of preservation may be a factor in the incomplete state of these burials, the position and orientation of the bones present do not indicate anatomically articulated individuals. Feature 235 is probably a cremation; the other two appear to be secondary burials. These latter two burials may also have been , but no evidence of burning or calcination could be observed on the poorly preserved material. One of the individuals buried was probably a child and the others were probably adults. The manner in which these people were buried, internment in otherwise domestically functional pits, was also noted at the Koster site for the Helton phase (5,800-4,900 B.P.). Both adolescents and adults were found interred in a relatively haphazard manner within roasting pits and earth ovens. Other apparently more carefully placed burials were found in a separate part of the site (Brown and Vierra 1983:185). All the Koster burials seem to have been primary, yet the burials at Nochta seem to have been secondary. The mere presence of secondary burials on a site would seem to have broader implications for site function, as will be discussed in the section on site function and settlement below.

Feature Clusters

Five clusters of features have been identified in the Middle Archaic portion of the site, based on orientational and spatial patterning (Figure 17). These clusters appear to follow a generally north- to-south line that roughly follows the orientation of the ridge. Although smaller individual clusters could have been drawn, the purpose of defining any clusters at this stage is primarily to provide a means for sampling. It should be emphasized that these clusters do not necessarily represent distinct cultural patterns. There are several possible explanations for the spatial patterning of features observed in the northwest portion of the Nochta site: (1) the individual clusters represent discrete social or functional units of one large contemporaneous social group; (2) each cluster represents a distinct area of reoccupation of this portion of the site through time by smaller social groups; and (3) the clusters do not reflect any social or occupational patterning, but are merely the coincidental result of numerous, nonspatially distinct reoccupations of the site over time. If these clusters represent discrete social or functional units of one large contemporaneous social group, observable differences in feature types and contents should be present. If these clusters reflect various activity areas of one large social group, the artifacts contained within a cluster should exhibit minimal diversity, and the maximum diversity should occur among the tool assemblages of the various clusters. If the clusters reflect social grouping, the tool assemblages within these 103

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X Rock cluster O Pit feature

Figure 17. Middle Archaic Feature Clusters 1 clusters should exhibit some internal diversity and the composition of feature types would be ejcpected to be quite similar among the various clusters, A further characteristic that would be expected if the observed clustering reflects social or functional units of a large group would be the accumulation of relatively large amounts of cultural debris. If each of these feature clusters represents a distinct area of reoccupation, minimal superpositioning of features would be expected--especially if these occupations were of short duration. Tool assemblages and feature types should be similar among the various clusters if overall site function remained the same throughout these reoccupations. The amount of cultural debris recovered from the various clusters should, at least in part, reflect the duration of these occupations. The third possible explanation for the observed clustering of features, that they do not reflect distinct social or occupation patterning, is perhaps the most difficult to prove or disprove. If the clusters are merely the coincidental result of numerous, nonspatially distinct reoccupations, the superpositioning of features should be fairly common, and specific artifact types and matching fragments of artifacts should cross cut the various cluster boundaries. Due to the low material density in this portion of the site, however, this latter trait could not be investigated. In addition, the proportion of feature types among the various clusters should not reflect any patterns if the numerous reoccupations of the site were not spatially distinct. In examining the features within the various clusters, both by contents and by morphology, one of the most striking aspects is the low material densities within each cluster. Of the features analyzed to date. Cluster III has the highest density, with a 1.18 g/dm^ average for the features within that cluster. Cluster IV features have the lowest density, averaging only 0.01 g/dm^. Indeed, only three features within this cluster contained any material at all. The average density for all of the features analyzed to date from the Middle Archaic occupation is only 0.91 g/dm^. These low densities of material seem to argue against a large group of people occupying the site, at least for any length of time. Feature diversity, while an admittedly questionable measure of functional diversity (at least when using pit features), is used to provide a rough estimate of variation in the number of feature types within and among the clusters. As might be expected, the largest clusters contain the greatest variation in feature types. Cluster III, with 83 features, contains eight different feature types. Cluster I, with 71 features, contains five types. Cluster II (N = 39) contains five types; Cluster IV (N = 10), three types; and Cluster V, with 10 features, contains only two feature types. Single-zoned, basin Type A pits dominate all clusters, comprising from 56% to 80% of the features within the various clusters. The feature types represented among the three largest clusters are proportionally similar in number within each cluster, taking into account the variation in sample size. It is also interesting to note that each of these three clusters contains one burial. The overall composition of the various types of features within the three clusters is also similar (Figure 18). There seems to be little variation in the 106

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it B=r-l ^& QfcB C D E F G Cluster IV Cluster V

Figure 18. Feature Diversity by Clusters

contents of the features among the five clusters, with the exception of Cluster IV, which contained only a few flakes and fire-cracked rocks in three of the ten features. As previously mentioned, bipolar lithics appear to cluster in the central portion of the site and cross cut the two major feature clusters. Consequently, there is probably not a functional difference between the two. Thus the clustering observed in the Middle Archaic area of the site does not appear to be related to differential function. Although it may reflect social grouping, the overall paucity of cultural debris argues against such an interpretation. It is believed, therefore, that this clustering is the result of multiple occupations of this portion of the site through time. Some of the clustering may be indicative of discrete occupations, but the superpositioning of features implies that there was some overlap in the locations of these reoccupations. 107

Subsistence

Subsistence remains were recovered from many of the Middle Archaic features, the majority of which are carbonized plant materials. An analysis of the ethnobotanical remains for the Nochta site Middle Archaic component has been undertaken by Mary Simon and the results are presented in Appendix B. The botanical assemblage is dominated by nutshell, primarily hickory, but there are significant amounts of acorn and walnut. Although preservational biases may have favored the recovery of nutshell, for the it is believed that nuts may have been the targeted resource Middle Archaic occupation of the site. Faunal remains were recovered from flotation samples of several Middle Archaic features at the Nochta site, although generally in very small quantities. A cursory examination of these remains was undertaken by the author. All of the faunal material observed was calcined and highly fragmented. Nearly all fragments were less than 4 mm in size. No remains could be identified beyond the class level and, the majority of the bone fragments appear to be from small fish and small mammals. This may partly reflect an analytical bias. Because of the highly fragmentary nature of the faunal assemblage and the concomitant small size of the bone fragments, the remains of larger species may not be as visible or identifiable as those of smaller species.

Middle Archaic Settlement

Research into the Middle Archaic in the American Bottom area to date has been concentrated approximately 80 km south of the Nochta site in the region of the Modoc Rock Shelter (Abler 1984; Fowler 1959a, 1959b; Styles et al. 1983). Excavations of the stratified Archaic deposits within the shelter and Abler 's survey of the surrounding upland and bottomland areas have provided a substantial data base from which settlement-pattern studies may be conducted (e.g.. Abler 1984). The lower Illinois River valley, located 100 km to the north of the Nochta site, has produced a wealth of data concerning Middle Archaic subsistence and settlement, primarily from such excavated stratified sites as Koster, Napoleon Hollow, and Campbell Hollow (Brown and Vierra 1983; Stafford 1985; Wiant et al. 1983). The stratified nature of these sites permits an examination of temporal changes in subsistence and settlement patterns for this particular area. Except for occasional isolated finds in the bottoms and some collectors' data on sites in the uplands, little was known about the nature of Middle Archaic settlement in the northern portion of the American Bottom prior to the Nochta site excavations. As the Nochta site is the first excavated Middle Archaic site in this portion of the American Bottom, the discussion of settlement patterns will draw heavily upon data from these other areas. 108

Radiocarbon Dates

Four radiocarbon assays that date to the Middle Archaic period have been obtained from features at the Nochta site (Table 4). Feature 68, which is located southeast of the Middle Archaic feature concentration, contains a bifurcate-based point, and the radiocarbon date from this feature must be considered suspect. The two dates from Features 173 and 288 are very similar and are in contrast to the slightly later date from Feature 306. The range of deviation for this feature does not overlap the other two, suggesting perhaps that this feature represents a later occupation. All of these dates are within the latter portion of the Middle Archaic. Interestingly, the three dates from the Middle Archaic

Table 4. Middle Archaic Radiocarbon Dates

Sample No. B.C. Date Calibrated Date(s)" 109 area of the Nochta site span a time period that represents a temporal hiatus in the chronological sequence of the lower Illinois River valley. The Nochta site dates postdate the Middle Archaic 2 phase defined for that area (7,300-6,850 B.P.) and precede the Helton phase (5,800-4,900 B.P.) (Brown and Vierra 1983). Similarly, the radiocarbon dates from Modoc also fall earlier and later than the Nochta site Middle Archaic dates (Ahler the Nochta site material 1984:112; Styles et al. 1983). Typologically , bears similarities with early Helton phase assemblages identified in the lower Illinois River valley. Table 4 also indicates the corrected age of these radiocarbon dates using tree-ring calibration data. In Table 4, the calibrated dates are in parentheses between the one sigma ranges, following the method advocated by Stuiver and Reimer (1986). It is interesting to note that in each case the calibrated date is several hundred years to nearly a millennium earlier than is indicated by the uncorrected radiocarbon age.

Site Function

Examination of the archaeological data from the Nochta site Middle Archaic provides some contradictory indications about how the site functioned in the settlement system of that period. An analysis of the lithic material indicates a lack of bifacial tools other than projectile points and a predominance of such expedient tools as utilized and tools. The debitage in retouched flakes, pieces esquillees , and cobble this area of the site is not abundant and is dominated by categories representative of the initial stages of reduction, primary flakes and shatter, which indicates the use of a technology aimed at the production of usable flakes rather than of bifaces. The use of the bipolar technique, evidenced by bipolar cores and flakes, is also indicative of a flake-tool technology. The use of such a technology, along with the general paucity of chert and the predominance of expedient tools, suggests an overall conservation of chert. This may be supported by the diminutive Such a size of the utilized primary flakes (averaging 2.0 g) . conservation of chert is believed to reflect deficiencies representative of a short-term occupation, in which major toolmaking activities took place away from the site area, perhaps at a more permanent location. This may be reflected in the differences in chert types between projectile points and debitage. Thus an analysis of the Nochta site Middle Archaic lithic assemblage indicates short-term occupation(s) of the site. Two factors seem to contradict (or at least not to support) this interpretation. These are the presence of the potential structure (Feature 376) and the presence of three secondary burials. The presence of domestic structures on a site suggests a more permanent settlement. However, the presence of only one structure at the Nochta site may indicate some type of short-term shelter. The Middle Archaic occupation at the Koster site (Horizon 8C) was notable for the multiple structures present--many of the house floors repeatedly excavated--as well as the abundance of debris within them (Brown and Vierra 1983). These are 110 contrasted with Feature 376 at the Nochta site, which has one of the lowest densities of material on the site. It is not believed that the presence of one possible (low material density) structure at the Nochta site is a strong indicator of long-term settlement. The presence of the three burials, while not overpowering evidence for long-term occupation, is perplexing. If the interpretation that these are secondary burials is correct, then these remains may have been brought specifically to the site for reinterment. The manner in which these individuals were buried, in otherwise domestic-appearing pits, may indicate that they were of low status. Differential disposal of the dead has been observed at the Koster site for Helton phase burials (Brown and Vierra 1983; Charles and Buikstra 1983). It is possible that the Nochta site burials represent individuals of low social status who died during some period of mobility and were subsequently reinterred at a temporary camp rather than at the base camp. There is no evidence to suggest that the Nochta site area was used as a primary burial location, such as that described by Charles and Buikstra (1983) and Hassen and Farnsworth (1987), and there is no indication of any formal cemetery area on the site. While the presence of these three burials at the Nochta site is, at this time, not completely understood, they do not strongly argue for long-term occupation of the site. As previously discussed, the feature clusters observed in the Middle Archaic portion of the site probably reflect repeated reoccupation of this area rather than discrete social or functional units of one large group. The compositions of feature types within the clusters are similar, as are the composition of tool types, indicating no major functional differences among the clusters. All of the clusters are characterized by low densities of cultural material, indicative of low-intensity occupations. The evidence indicates that the Nochta site was utilized as a temporary camp during the Middle Archaic. The presence of 220 features concentrated in one area of the site indicates that this was a favorable location that was repeatedly occupied over time.

Settlement Patterns

When we speak of the Archaic in the Midwest, we are talking primarily about hunters and gatherers. Recent hunter-gatherer studies have focused on developing models of subsistence and settlement strategies (Binford 1980; Jochim 1976, 1981; Winterhalder 1981). As Bettinger (1980:242) has noted, the term "hunter-gatherer" cannot be used to refer to a single, specific adaptive system because it encompasses a multitude of possible subsistence and settlement strategies. Subsistence and settlement studies of the Midwest Archaic have been a focus of research in recent years (e.g., Neusius 1986a; Phillips and Brown 1983). The application of optimal-foraging models to archaeological data has resulted in the establishment of subsistence and settlement models specific to given environments and time periods (e.g., Ahler 1984; Brown and Vierra 1983; Emerson et al. 1986; Keene 1981; Reidhead 1981). Such models often attempt to explain changes in settlement patterns through time, from both ecological and cultural viewpoints. Models of Middle Archaic subsistence and settlement patterning have been proposed for the lower Illinois River valley (Brown 1985; Brown and Vierra 1983; Carlson 1979) and the Modoc locality in southwestern Illinois (Abler 1984). These models combine archaeological data with dynamic models of optimal-foraging strategies in attempts to delineate specific patterns and explain changes in patterning through time. Brown and Vierra (1983), using data from the Koster site, have proposed that Middle Archaic settlement is marked by an increased tendency toward sedentism. This increase is believed to reflect the growth and increased productivity of floodplain resources, brought about by the natural development of extensive, food-rich, slack-water environments in that zone. Growth in the overall richness of this environmental zone "pulled hunter-gatherer subsistence and settlement strategies predominantly toward this area to the exclusion of alternatives" (Brown and Vierra 1983:190). With the dominance of this zone over others, sedentism followed. Carlson (1979) has defined three site types for the lower Illinois River valley Archaic that are based upon group mobility and composition and the duration of occupations. A base camp is defined as a large site with generally high densities of cultural debris. Both feature classes and material assemblages exhibit a wide variety of functional and technological types. Substantial housing facilities are expected, as well as a complex spatial organization (Brown and Vierra 1983:188). A residential camp is considerably smaller and exhibits low artifact densities. Features and tools show only a moderate degree of functional diversity, with no evidence of permanent structures. The spatial organization of the site is simple, with little or no functional variability among areas of the site. The third proposed site type is the with very low artifact extractive camp . This is an extremely small site densities; so low that such a site often has a low visibility in the archaeological record. Functionally, an extractive camp exhibits a very restricted tool assemblage, reflecting a narrow range of tasks. Few, if any, features are present. The site types described above are differentiated primarily on the basis of group mobility and duration of occupation. Binford (1980) has distinguished two major hunter-gatherer strategies: foraging and collecting. As these strategies were discussed in a previous chapter, they will only be briefly described here. Foragers move from resource to resource, with food procured on an encounter basis (Binford 1980:5). Such a strategy results in two site types, the residential camp and the extractive camp. Differences among the various residential camps of a given system should reflect seasonal differences rather than fundamental hand, represent a functional differences. Collectors , on the other logistically organized system in which task-specific groups procure resources and bring them back to the main group. Goods, therefore, are brought to the consumer rather than the consumer to the goods, as is the case with the foraging strategy (Binford 1980:10). A wider variation of site types occurs with this strategy. The base camp is the location at which the group stays for a good part of the year, if not year-round. ,

112

Hunting and collecting parties are sent from and return to this site. In addition, field camps are set up as temporary bases of operations for these logistical parties (Binford 1980:10). Archaeologically, the field camps of collectors may resemble the residential camps of foragers. Field camps, however, may reflect a narrower range of variability in terms of tools and facilities because of the task- and/or resource-specific nature of that particular site type. In addition to these two major site types, a collecting strategy may also produce extractive camps, hunting stations, and caches as minor site types. As Binford has pointed out, the extractive camps of collectors may be very different from those of foragers. Because the logistical parties of the collectors are gathering resources for a substantially larger group than themselves, extractive locations may be of high visibility in the archaeological record (e.g., bison- jump sites or fish weirs [Binford 1980:10]). These are in contrast to the generally low visibility of extractive camps of the foraging strategy. Any given subsistence-settlement system may employ parts of both of the strategies described above. The foraging strategy is perhaps best utilized in an environment where resources are fairly evenly distributed. The collecting strategy is best employed in an environment of patchy or unevenly distributed resources, where concentrations of various resources are widely distributed (Winterhalder 1981). Using Binford' s model of hunter-gatherer subsistence and settlement strategies. Abler (1984) has developed settlement-pattern models for the Archaic of the Modoc locality in southwestern Illinois. He proposes that the settlement pattern for the Middle Archaic in this area is logistically organized (Ahler 1984:485). Using survey and excavation data, Abler (1984) identifies three site types for the Middle Archaic: base campr field camps, and locations (extractive loci). Base camps are characterized by a high artifact density and a wide diversity in tools and facilities. "Base camps are clearly the most heavily occupied and long-term settlements in the system" (Ahler 1984:486). In contrast, the field camps have moderate densities of material exhibiting moderate diversity. These camps are usually located away from the base camps and in a variety of environments (Ahler 1984:486-487). The extractive loci for this pattern are characterized by low artifact density and low functional diversity. Thus Ahler 's research indicates a logistical, or collecting, strategy for the Middle Archaic in the Modoc locality. This strategy is reflected in a settlement pattern characterized by large, heavily occupied base camps; logistical field camps of moderate density,- and low-density extractive camps. This settlement model compares favorably to that observed in the lower Illinois River valley. The Middle Archaic 2 and 3 phases at the Koster site are characterized by large base camps with substantial structures and abundant accumulations of debris (Brown and Vierra 1983). The Middle Archaic component at the Campbell Hollow site (Stafford 1985), which dates considerably earlier than the Nochta site Middle Archaic, has been interpreted as a short-term residential camp (Stafford 1985:251). Clearly, the base camps described by Ahler (1984) and Brown and Vierra (1983) are not similar to the Nochta site Middle Archaic occupation. This component is believed to represent a temporary camp that 113 had been repeatedly occupied over time. It remains to be determined how this site operated within the subsistence-settlement system of that time for the northern American Bottom area. Is the site a field camp (as this term is defined above) for a logistically organized group? Or does it represent a residential camp for an essentially foraging group? As stated previously, it is difficult to assess the role of one particular site within a settlement system when it is the only site identified within that system. Isolated Middle Archaic points have been found on sites in both floodplain and upland contexts in the American Bottom area, suggestive of extractive loci. And while sites containing substantial numbers of Middle Archaic diagnostics have been located in the uplands by collectors and formal surveys (Emerson et al. 1986), these have yet to be tested to determine the nature of settlement. Thus until more Middle Archaic sites have been investigated in the northern American Bottom area, settlement-pattern models must rely heavily upon adjacent research areas. Middle Archaic settlement, both south and north of the Nochta site, is dominated by large base camps. Moderate-density field camps have also been identified by Ahler (1984) for the Modoc locality. If the Nochta site is incorporated within a settlement system similar to that of the Modoc locality to the south, the site must represent a logistical field camp. The subsistence remains at the Nochta site are dominated by nutshell, with acorns, fish, and small mammals comprising smaller, but substantial elements of these remains. It is probable that some or all of these resources were the targeted goods of the field camp. If the Nochta site does indeed represent a Middle Archaic field camp, then the base camps that operated within this settlement system have yet to be identified. Two sites which may represent Middle Archaic base camps are the Poag Road site and the south Roxanna site, both located less than 15 km north of the Nochta site. The Poag Road site is located on the Wood River Terrace and contains abundant diagnostic Middle Archaic artifacts (Harn 1971) that appear to be analagous to material recovered from the Nochta site. The South Roxanna site is located along the outer bank of the Grassy Lake Meander scar and also contains several Middle Archaic points (Harn 1971). In addition, a buried Middle Archaic site was recently identified along this same meander scar only a few hundred meters to the south (William Woods, personal communication, 1988). Only testing will reveal the exact nature of settlement types for these sites. Survey data in the American Bottom area indicate a decrease in the number of sites from Early Archaic to Middle Archaic, particularly in the uplands (Emerson et al. 1986). Larger Middle Archaic sites, which have been interpreted as base camps, are all located in the uplands (Emerson et al. 1986:261). The decrease in the number of sites from the Early to the Middle Archaic period may reflect a fundamental shift in subsistence and settlement strategies, toward a logistically organized system dominated by larger, more permanent base camps. Most of the Middle Archaic sites have been located in the uplands, but this fact may be a matter of sampling and visibility. Such sites may be buried, as the Nochta site was, under alluvial deposits. The Brockmeier site, located only 4.5 km north of the Nochta site, contained cultural deposits 1.5 m below the surface. The site was destroyed before the nature of these deposits could be identified, but the point to be made is that the 114 potential for buried sites (Middle Archaic and otherwise) in at least the northern American Bottom is extremely high. It will not be surprising if further research in this area identifies a buried Middle Archaic base camp. It is entirely possible that Middle Archaic peoples of the American Bottom began to rely heavily upon a growing, food-rich floodplain environment much the same as that which has been proposed for the lower Illinois River valley Middle Archaic (Brown and Vierra 1983). If the settlement pattern described above holds true, further research in the northern American Bottom area should reveal the existence of large Middle Archaic base camps, moderately sized field camps, and small extractive locations. Presently, only one segment of this system has been identified, the field camp at the Nochta site. The term "Nochta phase" will tentatively identify that period of time between 6,500 and 6,100 B.P. in the northern American Bottom. It is expected that further research will expand the time span of this phase a few hundred years in both directions. Diagnostic artifacts of this phase are dominated by small side-notched point varieties, including Robinson and Brannon, with Matanzas, Godar, and Apple Blossom Stemmed points constituting a minor segment of the assemblage. The Nochta phase appears to be equivalent to the early part of the Helton phase identified in the lower Illinois River valley. It is hoped that future work in the northern American Bottom and Wood River Terrace area will reveal the exact nature of the subsistence and settlement patterns for the Nochta phase. 5

General Archaic

As previously stated, one of the major problems encountered during analysis involved the mixing of components. With debris spanning four thousand years of occupation deposited in only a 0.5-m-thick lens, the assignment of specific nondiagnostic artifacts to individual components was rarely possible. This chapter describes artifacts from the Nochta site that could not readily be assigned to specific components. It is believed that all of the materials described below relate to the Early or Middle Archaic occupations of the site. Most probably relate to the Early Archaic components, as many of these tool types were not recovered from identified Middle Archaic features. Many of these artifacts have been individually piece plotted, but spatial analysis is incomplete.

Lithic Tools

Lithic tools are divided into two categories based on raw materials--chert versus nonchert. Both of these categories include both formalized and unformalized tools representing a variety of functional tasks.

Chert Tools

Chert tools and tool fragments were among the most common artifact types recovered from nonfeature contexts at the Nochta site. Included here are flake tools, , and bifacially worked items in various stages of manufacture and utilization, reflective of a variety of toolmaking trajectories.

Unhafted Bifaces . Unhafted bifaces in the general lithic assemblage from the Nochta site are divided into blanks and preforms. A blank is a usable piece of chert suitable for the manufacture of a lithic artifact (Crabtree 1972:42). Blanks are generally large primary flakes exhibiting little modification. Any modification is in the form of large thinning flakes, reflecting an initial shaping of the artifact. They represent the early stages of biface manufacture, and the shape of the final form of the tool is not disclosed in the blank (Crabtree 1972:42). A representative sample of the blanks recovered from the Nochta site is shown in Plate 26. The majority of these artifacts exhibit remnant platform areas indicating that they originated as large primary flakes. Raw material types for the Nochta site blanks include Crescent Hills Burlington, Salem, and Ste. Genevieve, and local gravel cherts. Preforms are unfinished and unused forms of the proposed artifacts (Crabtree 1972:85). Preforms, although lacking the refinements of the finished tools, exhibit more secondary flaking and overall shaping than do the blanks. As these two artifact types represent two points on a continuum, there will necessarily be some specimens that fall in between. A sample of the Nochta site preforms is shown in Plate 27. Of particular interest are two artifacts that were recovered together in the central portion of the ridge (Plate 27a-b). The raw material is a local gravel chert exhibiting a dark yellowish brown rind (lOYR 4/6) and a very pale brown interior (lOYR 7/3). The presence of weathered rind on both faces of the artifacts indicates that both of these preforms were manufactured from flat cobbles of chert. The artifacts were formed simply by the removal of portions of cortex as opposed to originating as flake blanks. The nature of all of the preforms from the Nochta site is such that the final form of the proposed tool cannot be discerned.

Drills/Perforators . Thirty-three drills were recovered from the Archaic deposits at the Nochta site. Although the term drill is used here in a descriptive manner, microscopic examination of the edges and tips of several specimens reveals distinct areas of bright polish along the higher points of the edge. This polish is similar to that described by Keeley (1980:35) for wood polish. Higher magnification would be required, however, to confirm this. The drills recovered at the Nochta site vary in workmanship from fine bifacially worked specimens to retouched flakes (Plate 28). Some of the bifacial drills appear to represent the reworking of other bifacial tools, whereas others exhibit a curved longitudinal profile reminiscent of flake morphology. It is clear that drills were manufactured at various stages in the reduction sequence and were the product of multiple toolmaking trajectories.

Biface Fragments . To date, 113 biface fragments have been identified from the lithic assemblage at the Nochta site. The majority of these are tips and midsection fragments of pointed bifaces. Also included in this category are fragments of thick bifaces (possibly adzes), thin bifaces (probably knives), and bifacial scraper fragments. No attempt has yet been made to fit any of these fragments together as spatial analysis has not been initiated.

implements Flake Tools . Flake tools constitute the largest category of in the Nochta site lithic assemblage. Included in this category are unifaces, retouched flakes, and utilized flakes. A sample of 691 flake tools from the general lithic assemblage indicates that scraping and cutting implements are the most common tool types with 52.8% and 27.3% of all flake tools, respectively. In the scraper category, 61.9% exhibit some form of edge retouch, compared with only 25.4% of the flake knives. This suggests that an unmodified edge of a chert flake was preferred to a retouched edge for providing a sharp cutting implement, and that 117

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Plate 28. Drills from the Archaic Levels 120 scraping edges were more likely to be modified either prior to utilization is or as a result of tool maintenance. The shape of scraping edges variable, with incurvate, excurvate, straight, and irregular edges observed. Edge angles of scrapers also vary, from 50° to 89°. A sample of the steep-angled scrapers from the Archaic levels of the site is shown in Plate 29. All of these represent unifacially modified primary flakes. The majority exhibit edge angles between 60° and 70°, but some examples have angles of 80°-85°. The robustness of many of these artifacts implies a heavy-duty scraping function. Edge damage in the form of small step fractures along the leading edges of these tools is consistent with such conjecture. Light polish, of as-yet-undetermined origin(s), can be observed along many of these same edges with low-power magnification. It is expected that edge-wear analysis with high-power magnification will reveal traces of hide and wood polish. A sample of flake knives from the Nochta site lithic assemblage is shown in Plate 30, which includes both retouched flakes (Plate 30a-d) and tool with utilized flakes (Plate 30e-h) . Item 30i is a large unifacial both cutting and scraping edges. Pieces esquillees (Plate 31) comprise 13.9% of the flake tools at the Nochta site. This tool type has been described in the preceding chapter; briefly, it is a roughly square or rectangular flake tool with one or more bipolar axes of percussion. As previously stated it is believed that these tools functioned as wedges for splitting wood and bone. The presence of over 200 such artifacts at the Nochta site implies a fairly substantial bone and woodworking industry. Other flake tools recovered in small numbers from the site include burins, accounting for a total of 6% gouges, denticulates , gravers, and of the lithic tool assemblage. The presence of gravers and burins in the assemblage also indicates a bone and woodworking industry.

identified from the Cores . One hundred eighty-four cores have been general lithic assemblage from the Nochta site to date. These cores take several forms: unidirectional, multidirectional, plano-convex, and split cobbles (Plate 32). The latter category represents chert cobbles that have been split in half and exhibit little or no subsequent reduction. It is suggested that these are stream cobbles that were tested for chert quality and were then rejected for one reason or another. The majority = of the cores from the Nochta site are of the multidirectional type (N 164). The most common raw material (56.5%) is glacial cobble chert, indicating a heavy reliance upon locally procured material. Other chert types represented in the core assemblage at the Nochta site are Crescent Hills Burlington, Salem, and Ste. Genevieve cherts. No cores were recovered that were made of any of the exotic cherts (Cobden, Mansker, assemblage and in the tertiary Kaolin) , which had been noted in the tool flakes recovered from features. This suggests that such exotic cherts were brought onto the site in the form of finished tools rather than as raw material to be worked on the site. In addition to the traditional cores mentioned above, 17 bipolar 32e-h) As cores have been identified in the assemblage to date (Plate . previously discussed, the bipolar technique is best utilized in reducing pebbles too small to be (safely) held in the hand. The average weight 121

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Plate 29. Steep-Angled Scrapers 122

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I 125 of the bipolar cores from the Nochta site is only 16.7 g, and 12 of the 17 specimens originated as small glacial cobbles or pebbles. This supports the contention that the bipolar technique is used to produce usable flakes from small pebbles of chert. Overall, the recovery of over 200 cores from the site indicates a substantial toolmaking industry at the site. Because the Middle Archaic area (the northwest portion of the site) exhibited little evidence of major toolmaking activities, it is possible that the majority of these cores are affiliated with the various Early Archaic components at the site.

Nonchert Lithic Tools

Nonchert lithics comprise a major percentage of the tool assemblage at the Nochta site. Most of the tools in this category are utilized cobbles that received no modification prior to use. Also in this category are a relatively few groundstone implements fashioned from cobbles.

Groundstone Tools . Seven groundstone axes were recovered from the Archaic deposits at the Nochta site (Plate 33). Six of these are fully grooved axes and one is a three-quarter-grooved axe (Plate 33a). Sizes of these specimens range from 1,361 g to 167.5 g, with a mean of 591 g. The preferred material from which these implements were fashioned appears to be a fine-grained mafic rock (diabase); five of the seven items were manufactured from this material. The dense crystalline structure of this rock type no doubt provided a relatively durable material for the heavy-duty use to which such tools were presumably subjected. The other two items were manufactured from granite and gabbro cobbles. The use of granite in the manufacture of a stone axe is puzzling given the phaneritic texture and, therefore, more brittle nature of this rock type compared to diabase. This fact may have been (belatedly) discerned by the individual using this tool, as a large fragment, originating at the bit, has broken off of one face of the implement. One specimen from the Nochta site (Plate 33f) represents an axe in the initial stages of manufacture. The cobble has been pecked, but the groove has not been completed and there is no evidence of grinding. The bit also exhibits only initial shaping and does not appear to have been used. In the other extreme, one item (Plate 33g) is an axe that could no longer be effectively sharpened. This tool may have been broken and reworked several times before reaching this stage. An aborted attempt at one final sharpening is evidenced by pecking along both faces of the tool to form a rudimentary bit. The poll of this artifact exhibits battering, which suggests that it may have had a secondary function as a hafted . An elongated, partially pecked and ground miscellaneous artifact of

unknown function was also recovered from the site (Plate 34) . This may have functioned as a pestle.

Cobble Tools . Cobble tools comprise one of the largest categories of artifacts recovered from the Nochta site. These tools represent cobbles a

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Plate 33. Ground-Stone Axes: a, three-quarter grooved; b-g, fully grooved 127

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Plate 34. Miscellaneous Ground-Stone Artifact 130 that have not been modified, or that have been modified only minimally prior to use. As previously discussed, the cobble tools have been classified according to the nature of the wear or damage exhibited, which is reflective of the types of activities for which they were used. The categories of damage and wear observed include battering, localized battering (pitting), smoothed and/or faceted surfaces, and discoloration of a weathered surface. Any one cobble may exhibit multiple forms of damage and wear, indicating more than one function. For this reason, each wear-damage type exhibited on a particular specimen was recorded. Thus the number of tools within the categories presented below refer to the occurrences of a particular damage or wear type and do not necessarily refer to single-function implements.

Raw Materials . It is believed that the raw materials for the cobble tools are Illinoian till collected from upland streambeds. This till presently outcrops in the dissected bluffs bordering the American Bottom, and cobbles similar in size to those recovered from the Nochta site have been observed in creeks in this area. A study of the various Illinoian gravels in Madison County has been conducted by John M. Fox of the Illinois State Geological Survey. A comparison between the cobble tools recovered from the Nochta site and the naturally occurring tills in this area should reveal aboriginal selection processes that favored certain types of rocks. Figure 19e illustrates the rock types included in a sample of 1,397 pebbles collected from Paddock Creek approximately 13 km north of Edwardsville (John M. Fox, letter to the author, 1986). Only 18% of the till from this sample is comprised of igneous and metamorphic rocks. In contrast, 72%-90% of the various types of cobble tools from

the Nochta site are igneous and metamorphic rocks (Figure 19a-d) . This indicates a definite selection process in favor of the more durable igneous and metamorphic rocks. The higher percentage of sandstone in the mano category is expected for tools used in grinding and abrading activities. There is also a difference in the percentages of igneous and metamorphic rocks between the Nochta site cobble tools and the naturally occurring till. Figure 19 shows the respective percentages of various igneous and metamorphic rocks within the till and the cobble tool categories. The mafic rocks, such as diabase and gabbro, dominate both the till and the cobble-tool categories, with the exception of hammerstones in which quartzite comprises 35% of all of this category and 43.2% of the igneous/metamorphic specimens. The predominance of quartzite hammerstones is not surprising given its hard, dense nature. It is interesting that graywacke was also being selected, primarily for use as hammerstones and manos. The graywacke at the Nochta site is generally hard and dense and apparently has been somewhat metamorphosed into what is often referred to as tillite. The hard, dense nature of this rock may have made it highly suitable for hammering activities, whereas the small, coarse rock inclusions probably made it attractive for use as grinding stones.

Tool Types . Implements that have been classified as manos have one or more planar surfaces that exhibit discoloration of the weathered cortex. This discoloration in the flat areas represents the attrition 131

Percentage

10 20 30 40 50

J L Mafic Quartzi Granite:3 Manos Greywacke Sandstone Gneiss

Mafic Quartzite Granite Metates Greywacke Sandstone Gneiss

Mafic Quartzite Granite Hammerstones Greywacke Sandstone Gneiss

Mafic

Quartzite Granite Pitted Cobbles Greywacke Sandstone Gneiss

Mafic Quartzite Gran ::r Greywacke Till, Paddock Creek Sandstone Gneiss 1 Carbonates m Chert Rhyolite

Figure 19. Cobble Tool Percentages by Rock Type 132

of the weathered surface of the rock through use in ? grinding motion, which exposed the unweathered interior. This trait is useful in distinguishing flat cobbles used in grinding activities from those produced through glacial actions. Other wear patterns that have been observed on manos from the Nochta site include polish, faint striations, and faceted edges. It is believed that variations in wear patterns on these grinding stones reflects the nature of the various materials being processed as well as the longevity of the tools. If the tools were used in conjunction with other implements (e.g., metates), the hardness and coarseness of these associated tools would be a factor in determining the nature of wear patterns exhibited on the manos. One hundred sixty-six cobbles that exhibit wear patterns associated with grinding have been recovered from nonfeature contexts (Plate 35). Hammerstones are identified by the presence of concentrated areas of battering along the edges of cobbles. Some of the specimens from the Nochta site exhibit battering along the entire edge (Plate 36a-b). The battering is the result of the implement repeatedly striking some other hard material. While hammerstones are most often associated with flintknapping, these tools no doubt functioned in a variety of activities including nut processing and the breaking up of animal bone for the extraction of marrow (Ritchie 1929). Seventeen chert hammerstones have also been identified in the assemblage (Plate 36d-f). The experimental work conducted by Halvor L. Skavlem (Pond 1930) has shown the effectiveness of chert hammerstones for pecking and shaping cobbles in the manufacture of groundstone implements. It is believed that bits of chert are constantly removed as the hammer strikes the rock. These sharp edges act as tiny chisels that cut into the crystalline structure of the rock and remove small fragments (Pond 1930). The edges of the chert hammerstone, therefore, are constantly being renewed through utilization. The author has observed similar results in informal experimentation. Chert hammerstones were found to be more efficient in shaping a cobble by pecking than were hammerstones of quartzite or basalt. To date, 375 artifacts have been identified from the Nochta site that exhibit the battered wear patterns characteristic of hammerstones. Pitted cobbles exhibit localized areas of battering on their faces rather than on their edges as on hammerstones (House 1975:71). Morphologically, this category includes cobbles with localized battering and cobbles exhibiting pits resulting from the repeated battering on a small area of the cobble face (Plate 37). These two wear patterns are believed to represent two ends of a continuum separated only by the degree or intensity of utilization. It is believed that this battering or pitting is the result of indirect percussion, in which an object is placed on the cobble and struck with a percussor. The nature of the object(s) being struck has been open to some debate. Winters (1969:64) refers to such artifacts as "nutting stones," suggesting that they were used to crack nuts. Chapman is of the opinion that such artifacts were used as anvils in bipolar lithic reduction, noting the presence of linear scars on the faces of many specimens from the Rose Island site (J. Chapman 1975:162). At Rodgers Shelter in Missouri, the distinction has been made between pitted cobbles small enough to be held in the hand and those too large to be hand held (Abler and McMillan 1976:194). This distinction Plate 35. Manos 134 b .^:..^m \

.1>>>

Plate 36. Hammerstones 135

,r '^: T ^

i

;.^ : ^K;v, ?=

Plate 37, Pitted Cobbles is thought to reflect the difference between percussors and anvils, respectively. Two types of pitted cobbles have been distinguished by House (1975:71): the first is the type described above, pits resulting from repeated battering in small, localized areas; the second is characterized by relatively large, smooth-sided, U-shaped pits, which appear to represent intentional modification in the form of drilling prior to use rather than utilization (Ritchie 1929:11). The first of these two types is believed to have functioned as an anvil for bipolar lithic reduction. The function of the second type is more problematical. Traditionally, these "" have been interpreted as nut-cracking implements. Others have suggested their use as small mortars for paint (Ritchie 1929:13). At the Nochta site, only two artifacts were recovered that exhibit the deep, U-shaped pits described above. The remaining pitted cobbles, 581 identified to date, are of the battered variety. Many of these display other wear patterns; specifically, edge battering and smoothing and discoloration of the weathered surface. The association of pitting and edge battering is the most common combination (N = 218, or 37.5% of all pitted cobbles). Pits in association with hammerstones have been interpreted as "thumbholds" for grasping the implement firmly (Ritchie 1929:7 and Figure 2). There is, however, no evidence to support such a contention. The coincidence of edge battering and pitting, though, may not be fortuitous. Hammerstones and anvils form a tool set in which the function of the two implements is both similar and complementary, allowing, perhaps, some interchangeability. It is believed that many of the pitted cobbles from the Nochta site also represent hammerstones in which the faces of the cobbles, rather than the edges, were utilized. Metates are the functional counterparts to manos. At the Nochta site, these artifacts are characteristically large cobbles exhibiting one or two smooth planar or concave surfaces. The weathered exterior of these surfaces is almost always worn down to expose the unweathered interior of the cobble in the same manner as observed for the working surfaces of manos. The metates from the Nochta site (Plate 38) vary in weight from 1.0 to 7.2 kg. Of the 40 specimens so far identified from the site, 13 are double-sided; and of the 53 surfaces, 22 are concave and 31 are planar. Twenty-three metates (57.5%) also exhibit pitted surfaces, suggesting a secondary function as anvils. Manos and metates are associated with grinding functions. The nature of the material(s) being ground at the Nochta site is unknown. As seeds are most often believed to be processed by these implements, the relative lack of such remains from the features at the Nochta site may be a reflection of preservational biases. Another cobble- tool type recovered from the Nochta site is the (Plate 39). The working edge of this tool is characterized by the removal of one to four flakes from one end of a cobble, producing a thinner, sharper edge. This edge is also characterized by the presence of battering and numerous small, bifacial fractures resulting from utilization. This tool type was identified at the Brand site by Goodyear (1974:65) for the Dalton culture. It cannot as yet be determined if any or all of the seven specimens from the Nochta site are related to the Dalton occupation. 137

Plate 38. Metates 138

^*\

Plate 39. Choppers from the Archaic Levels 139

Features

Outside of the Middle Archaic portion of the Nochta site, 168 features were uncovered. Of these, six have been classified as Middle Woodland, five as Dalton, and one as Early/Middle Archaic. This leaves 156 features assigned to the general Archaic component at the site. Most of the features in the east-central portion of the site are believed to be related to the various Early Archaic occupations, based on the predominance of Early Archaic points recovered from this area. However, because these points were not found in feature context, and because Middle Archaic material was also recovered there, this assumed association cannot be readily confirmed. The majority of these features were uncovered in the central portion of the site. The southern portion (Borrow Pit #75) contained only 15 features, all of them rock clusters.

Feature Clusters

Features appear to occur in clusters in the central portion of the site. Five clusters have been drawn in this area (Figure 20) with the number of features contained within these clusters varying from 4 to 35. As stated previously, these clusters are loosely defined and are used primarily as a heuristic device for sampling. As feature analysis is presently incomplete, it cannot yet be determined how this patterning relates to the occupational history of the site, or even if these clusters are a phenomenon reflecting actual cultural patterning. It is believed that Cluster VIII may relate to the Dalton occupation based on the recovery of a Dalton point fragment from Feature 71 and the proximity of similar hearth features in this area. Analysis of feature-related materials is only in the initial stage, so comparisons of the contents among the various clusters cannot yet be undertaken, except to say that material densities are generally light in all clusters. Metric attributes of features in the various clusters are presented in Appendix D, along with the morphological types (refer to Figure 7). The cluster exhibiting the widest variety of feature types is Cluster VII with seven types, including two cultural stains. The term stain refers to an amorphous area of soil discoloration without depth. The exact cause of these stains is unknown but may be related to surface hearths. Cluster XI is unique in that it is comprised entirely of rock clusters. If the interpretation is correct that this feature type represents caching of cobble tools, this small cluster may reflect a collecting and initial processing area that was revisited seasonally. The sizes of the pit features within the various clusters, measured by volume, are highly variable. The differences in size, however, do not appear to relate to the other morphological traits that define the various pit types, but may merely reflect the idiosyncratic behavior of the individuals who initially dug them. 140

XIII

XIV

X Rock cluster

O Pit feature

Figure 20. Feature Clusters 141

Figure 20. continued 142

In addition to the eight clusters, there were 14 features that did not occur in any clusters. Nine of these are isolated rock clusters. The isolated pit features may represent brief occupations of the site, or perhaps isolated activity areas related to more extensive occupations. 6

The Middle Woodland Occupation

Surveys of the Nochta sand ridge revealed the presence of Mississippian and Middle Woodland components in the central portion of the ridge. The nature of the Mississippian occupation is poorly understood at this time as no features were encountered in testing that could be attributed to this component. Only a few small shell-tempered sherds were recovered from the surface, including two rim sherds. These rim sherds are of the extruded-lip variety indicative of the early Mississippian Lohmann and Stirling phases. It is probable that these artifacts relate to a small one- or two-structure farmstead located on the west-central portion of the ridge. Evidence of the Middle Woodland component at the Nochta site indicates a fairly substantial occupation. The extent of this occupation is primarily restricted to Areas H, I, and J (Figure 6). Although Areas H and I were subsequently removed from consideration as borrow areas, archaeological investigations included a controlled surface collection of both areas and the excavation of three test trenches with heavy machinery in Area H. The test trenches uncovered six features and revealed the presence of a substantial on a portion of the ridge. This midden appeared as a dark grayish brown to black soil (probably relating to the previously mentioned buried A horizon encountered in other portions of the ridge) from 5 to 15 cm thick containing abundant small fragments of , charcoal, and calcined bone. The midden was encountered only in the eastern half of this area, where the ground surface is relatively level. The midden was not found in the west-facing slope (the outer bank of the Edelhardt Lake meander scar), where it has probably been eroded. Subsurface testing in Area H also revealed the presence of Archaic deposits below this dark midden. As analysis of the Middle Woodland material from the Nochta site is presently in the initial stages, this report will necessarily be preliminary in nature and primarily descriptive in extent. Comparisons and discussion will draw heavily on the recent research conducted at the Middle Woodland Holding site (Fortier et al. 1989) located 3 km south of the Nochta site.

Material Assemblage

The following descriptions are based on a small sample of artifacts selected from surface and feature contexts. Much of the surface-related 144 material remains unanalyzed; consequently, final totals for the respective artifact categories are as yet undetermined.

Ceramics

The ceramic categories described below follow those developed by Thomas Maher for the Holding site ceramic assemblage. Maher uses the type-variety system of classification to describe and categorize the large number of sherds recovered from the site. The type-variety system of ceramic classification is used to recognize similarities among ceramics recovered from a relatively large geographic area (types) and to identify minor regional differences within these groups (varieties). The temporal distribution of the following ceramic categories in the American Bottom is incompletely understood (Maher 1989). As only one radiocarbon date was obtained from Middle Woodland contexts at the Nochta site, a ceramic chronology based solely on the Nochta material is not possible. Much of the temporal information for these ceramics stems from data recovered from the Illinois River valley. The relatively narrow range of radiocarbon dates obtained from the Holding site (Fortier et al. 1989) may indicate contemporaneity for many of the types, or at least short spans of time between them. The following is a description of the ceramic types and varieties present in the Nochta site assemblage.

Black Sand Incised . Black Sand Incised pottery is characterized by the presence of incisions on a cordmarked surface (Plate 40a-c). The specimens from the Nochta site exhibit incisions crossing at oblique angles on three sherds and nearly parallel incisions on one sherd. All of these sherds exhibit a sandy paste with small- to medium-sized grit particles. The one rim sherd (Plate 40a) is slightly eroded and inslanting with an exteriorly beveled lip. The lip is somewhat thickened at the exterior lip/rim juncture, and on it there appear to be superior stick impressions or oblique slashes. Vessel-wall thickness is relatively thin for all of the sherds, averaging approximately 7.5 mm. This is similar to the 7.9 mm average for the specimens from the Holding site (Maher 1989). This type was originally defined by Cole and Deuel (1937:40, Plate 1:1-6) as their Type 1 ceramics, and the term Black Sand Incised was used by Griffin (1952:98) in a more detailed description. Farnsworth and Asch (1986) have recently proposed placing Black Sand tradition ceramic types within the Liverpool ceramic series, with types based primarily upon variations in surface modification and design. From the descriptions given by Farnsworth and Asch (1986), the sherds from the Nochta site appear to fall within the Liverpool Parallel Incised and Liverpool Rectilinear Incised decorative types. Munson (1986) has argued that Black Sand represents a distinct cultural tradition that is separate from but contemporaneous with the Marion-Havana tradition. Likewise, Farnsworth and Asch (1986:446) see no evidence for any developmental stage between Black Sand and Havana in the lower Illinois River valley, but they do not 145

j^ f 9 -f %

Plate 40. Early and Middle Woodland Ceramics: a-c, Black Sand Incised; d, Crab Orchard Fabric Marked; e, Havana Cordmarked; f, Havana Zoned; g-h. Holding Cordmarked .

146 rule out the possibility that the Black Sand culture in other regions was the source from which the Havana ceramic tradition arose.

were Crab Orchard Fabric Marked . Crab Orchard Fabric Marked ceramics originally described by Maxwell (1951:274-275) from material recovered in southern Illinois. The major defining characteristic of Crab Orchard Fabric Marked is the presence of fabric or cordwrapped-dowel impressions over the exterior of the vessel. Maher (1989) assigns this pottery, when recovered from the American Bottom, to the type Crab Orchard Fabric identified Marked, var. Crab Orchard . At the Nochta site, the one sherd to date (Plate 40d) is a small rim sherd. This rim has a vertical profile with an exteriorly beveled lip. There appears to be some superior lip modification in the form of diagonal notches or stick impressions. The body of the vessel is decorated with cordwrapped-dowel impressions beginning 5-7 mm below the top of the rim. The sherd is grog tempered and 7 .4 mm thick.

Havana Cordmarked . One Havana Cordmarked rim sherd has been identified in the Nochta site assemblage (Plate 40e). This type has been described by Griffin (1952:101) as having the exterior surface covered with vertical cord impressions from lip to base. The Nochta site specimen exhibits cordwrapped-dowel impressions along the exterior of the lip. The lip is beveled toward the interior and exhibits no superior or interior modification. The paste is tempered with angular grit and abundant sand, and 35 mm below the lip, the vessel wall thickness is 11.9 mm

described Havana Zoned . Havana Zoned pottery has been extensively by Griffin (1952:102-103) and recently by Maher (1989). The defining characteristic of Havana Zoned is broad incisions, often curvilinear, which divide the exterior vessel surface into decorative zones. The nature of any further decoration within these zones is dealt with by type-variety nomenclature. At the Nochta site, the one body sherd identified to date (Plate 40f) exhibits dentate stamping within a zone bounded by broad incisions, thus falling within the type Havana Zoned, angular grit and a var. Dentate Stamped . This sherd is tempered with considerable amount of sand, giving the surface a coarse texture. No rims of this type have as yet been encountered in the Nochta site assemblage.

Holding Cordmarked . Initially defined by Maher (1989), Holding Cordmarked is similar to Havana Cordmarked but is markedly thinner. Maher

has designated this type Holding Cordmarked, var. Bottoms . The paste of Bottoms sherds is more heavily tempered with sand than is that of Havana Cordmarked, and Bottoms 's lips are more likely to be rounded than interiorly beveled. The two rim sherds from the Nochta site, however, are both interiorly beveled (Plate 40g and h). Item 40g has no lip modification, whereas item 40h exhibits broad diagonal notches along the exterior of the lip. Both sherds are relatively thin, 8.0 mm and 6.3 mm, respectively. The relationship between Holding Cordmarked and Havana Cordmarked is unclear. Maher (1989) states that the differences between the two may warrant distinction on the variety level and not the type level. 147

Holding Plain . Six body sherds of Holding Plain, var . Collinsville (Maher 1989) were recovered from Feature 51 during testing of the Middle Woodland portion of the site. Holding Plain is very similar to Holding Cordmarked except for the difference in surface treatment. Other major differences appear in the upper rim and lip modifications. Collinsville rims are more likely to be notched with plain sticks than with cordwrapped sticks as is the case with Bottoms rims, and the notching is more often vertical on Collinsville sherds and diagonal on Bottoms rims (Maher 1989). No Holding Plain rims have been identified as yet in the Nochta site assemblage.

Hopewell Crosshatched . Griffin's (1952:116) description of the Hopewell rim, which is characterized by fine crosshatched incisions on the upper, somewhat thickened portion of the rim, is the basis for the development of the type Hopewell Crosshatched. Below this band of cross-hatching is a row of small hemiconical punctates. This upper rim treatment occurs on other Middle Woodland ceramic types (e.g., Baehr and Pike wares) as well as on different types within the Hopewell series that are defined by surface modifications other than upper-rim treatment (e.g., rocker stamping, zoned incisions). Thus the type Hopewell Crosshatched is used to identify rims possessing the upper rim treatment described above, but lacking evidence of further surface modification that would allow placement into other decorative types (Maher 1989; Morgan 1985). Maher (1989) has defined three varieties of Hopewell Crosshatched ceramics based upon tempering material. All three of these varieties are present

in the Nochta site assemblage. Hopewell Crosshatched, var . Illinois is

predominantly limestone tempered, var . Mississippi is grog tempered, and

var . Snyder is grit and/or sand tempered (Plate 41a-c).

Hopewell Zoned Stamped . Hopewell Zoned Stamped has been described by Griffin (1952:116). The defining characteristics are narrow to medium (2.5-4.0 mm) curvilinear incisions that divide the surface of the vessel into decorative zones, with the foreground areas left plain and the background areas covered with varying types of stamped impressions (Griffin 1952:116). It is on this ceramic type that bird motifs are most commonly found. The varieties described by Maher (1989) are differentiated on the basis of temper and stamped impressions. Two of these three varieties are present in the Nochta site assemblage. Hopewell

Zoned Stamped, var . Casey is characterized by grog tempering and by decorative zones that are filled with rocker stamping (Plate 41d-e).

Hopewell Zoned Stamped, var . Scott is limestone tempered with straight, bar-dentate stamping within the decorative zones (Plate 41f-g). All of the Hopewell Zoned Stamped sherds are small body sherds whose decorative motifs could not be discerned.

Pike Rocker Stamped . The term Pike was used to describe ceramics from the lower Illinois River valley that are similar to the Hopewell types but are "degenerative" (Griffin 1952:119) or less well manufactured. Vessels are generally thicker and may have brushed, rocker-stamped, or zoned exterior surfaces. Maher (1989) uses the term Pike Rocker Stamped to identify the similarities between such ceramics from the northern American Bottom and those from the lower Illinois River valley. In his 148

^n

^ w

:«fe

lll^l^l

Plate 41. Middle Woodland Ceramics: a-c, Hopewell Crosshatched; d-g, Hopewell Zone

Stamped; h- j , Pike Rocker Stamped; k-l, untyped rims 149 definition, the Pike Rocker Stamped vessels are not zoned, but exhibit plain or dentate rocker stamping in multiple horizontal bands covering the entire vessel surface. Maher (1989) identifies two varieties based on temper. Only one variety has been identified in the Nochta assemblage, Pike Rocker Stamped, var. Black Lane, which is grog tempered. Two of the three body sherds recovered exhibit dentate rocker stamping, whereas the other is plain rocker stamped (Plate 41h-j).

Untyped Rims . Two as yet untyped rims are shown in Plate 41(k-i). Item 41k is heavily tempered with grit and sand, has a flat lip, and is decorated with cordwrapped-stick impressions approximately 10 mm below the lip. One series of horizontal cordwrapped-stick impressions parallels the top of the rim. Beneath this band is a series of oblique cordwrapped-stick impressions. The other rim (Plate 41/) is grog tempered and exhibits narrow oblique cordwrapped-stick impressions, which extend 15.5 mm below the lip, beneath which is one row of small punctates. The lip is modified interiorly with wide cordwrapped-stick impressions.

Lithics

Lithic artifacts constitute the largest category of cultural remains from the Middle Woodland component at the Nochta site. This portion of the site has been heavily collected over the years, which may explain the relative lack of projectile points and formalized tools recovered in archaeological investigations of this area. Nevertheless, the material recovered indicates an extensive industry geared toward the production of blades and flake tools.

Raw Materials . The Middle Woodland chert assemblage is dominated by Crescent Hills Burlington varieties. Although exact percentages are not yet available, analysis of approximately 500 flakes and flake tools (422 g) indicates that varieties of Crescent Hills Burlington chert comprise 74%, by weight, of the assemblage. Evidence of heat treatment occurs on 34% of the Burlington chert, and the presence of multicolored Crescent Hills chert (18% of the Burlington chert) adds to the multihued nature that is common to Middle Woodland chert assemblages. Other chert types indentified in this assemblage at the Nochta site are: Cobden/Dongola, 5.2%; Salem, 6.3%; and Ste. Genevieve, 1.7%. In addition, Mansker, Kaolin, and Blair cherts were observed in very small amounts, and local gravel and unidentified cherts comprise 11.6% of the assemblage. It should be emphasized that this is a preliminary analysis of the chert types present in the Middle Woodland assemblage and is based on a small percentage of the recovered material. Thus actual percentages of the various chert types may change, and more chert types will, no doubt, be identified, but it is believed that the relative proportions will be similar. Only one extraregional material has been identified in the Middle Woodland lithic assemblage from the Nochta site. One flake of obsidian, weighing approximately 5 g, was recovered from the surface in Area H. 150

Obsidian is ubiquitous but not abundant on Middle Woodland sites in the Midwest.

technology in the Nochta Blades . There is ample evidence for a blade site Middle Woodland lithic assemblage. A large blade core measuring 37.9 X 70.6 X 116.8 mm was recovered just below the plowzone during machine stripping of the southern portion of Area G. This area, immediately adjacent to the Middle Woodland concentration, also contained a few Middle Woodland sherds. The core (Plate 42a) is manufactured from heat-treated Burlington chert and exhibits longitudinal flake scars around the entire margin. The platform has been prepared by grinding, and the flake scars range from 17 to 35 mm in length and from 8 to 13 mm in width. The exact number of blades recovered from the Middle Woodland portion of the site has not yet been determined. The aforementioned analysis of 500 flakes has identified 12 blades. As this sample of 500 flakes probably represents less than 5% of the total number of lithic items, the final count of blades will number in the hundreds. A sample of the blades identified to date is shown in Plate 42b-e, as are two bladelike flakes (Plate 42f-g). All of these artifacts have been utilized and/or retouched. Items 42b and c have apparently been utilized as knives, items 42d and e have been used in a scraping or shaving capacity. Items 42f scraping and g, the bladelike flakes, have been used in cutting and capacities, respectively. All of the true blades are manufactured from Burlington chert. Evidence of blade is a hallmark of the Middle Woodland culture in Illinois and throughout the Midwest (C. Chapman 1980; Griffin 1967; White 1963, 1968). Williams (1989), in her examination of the blade assemblage from the Holding site, contends that blades manufactured at the Holding site were exported via existing exchange networks to Middle Woodland (Holding phase time period) communities in southern Illinois. The relative lack of unbroken blades at the Holding site, coupled with the increased incidence of Burlington chert in southern Illinois during this time period are cited as evidence to support this contention. Data from the Nochta site cannot as yet support or refute the contention that blades were being traded.

relate to the Early Projectile Points . Only two projectile points that Woodland/Middle Woodland component were recovered from the Nochta site, both from surface contexts. The points exhibit contracting stems and belong to the Belknap type cluster (Farnsworth and Asch 1986; Winters 1967). The first of these (Plate 42h) can be described as a Dickson Contracting-Stem point (White 1968:64-65; Winters 1967). The point is 81.3 mm long and 33.9 mm wide at the shoulders. The contracting stem is lightly ground along the lateral edges, and the base is truncated, appearing as a remnant of the original platform of the flake from which the point was manufactured. The material is Salem chert. The other artifact (Plate 42i) may also be a small Dickson point. The contracting stem exhibits straight edges and a small rounded base. These lateral edges are lightly ground, and the point appears to have been manufactured primarily by percussion flaking. Farnsworth and Asch (1986) have placed all of the numerous types of contracting-stem points into the Belknap type cluster, which is primarily associated with Black Sand ceramics 151

#' ^ w H

Plate 42. Middle Woodland Chert Artifacts from the Nochta Site: a, blade core; b-e, blades; f-g, blade-like flakes; h-i, Belknap Type projectile points 152

(Farnsworth and Asch 1986:366). These two points may relate to the Black Sand Incised pottery that was recovered from the Nochta site. No projectile points were recovered that could be associated with the Middle Woodland points described by White (1965, 1968). These points, such as Snyders, Norton, Hanker, and Ansell, were recovered from the Holding site (Williams 1989), and their absence at the Nochta site may be related to the activities of artifact collectors.

Features

As previously stated, six features were uncovered as a result of excavating three machine-stripped test trenches in Area H of the Nochta site (Figure 21). These features represent three pits, two rock clusters, and one pottery concentration. All of the features, except Feature 51, were identified immediately below the plowzone, and in the case of Feature 51, below a thin (5 cm) layer of midden. The three pits are all medium-sized basins. The largest of these (Feature 47) was approximately 90.8 dm^ in volume, and contained debitage, three flake tools, one blade, and a large fragment of hematite. This feature is single zoned (Type A) and oval in plan view. Feature 48 is a single-zoned pit (Type A), 64.75 dm^ in volume, which contained five small sherds of Holding Plain, var. Collinsville ceramics, four blades, one large bifacial scraper (Plate 43a), one small core, and several pieces of limestone. Feature 51 is a circular, basin exhibiting two fill zones (Type E), 61.6 dm^ in volume, which contained several large sherds of Holding Plain, var. Collinsville ceramics, one blade fragment, debitage, and limestone. In addition, fragments of daub with thatch impressions were also recovered from Feature 51, as were several mud dauber nests. The presence of daub is often used to argue for the presence of structures of this on a site. While this was not confirmed by the limited testing portion of the Nochta site, there is a strong possibility that Middle Woodland structures existed. Carbonized nutshell from Feature 51 was submitted for radiocarbon dating, and a date of 1,970 + 120 years: 20 B.C. (ISGS-1574) was obtained. This date is consistent with the material associated with this feature and with the radiocarbon dates from the nearby Holding site (Fortier et al. 1989). The rock clusters each contain two rocks. As was the case for the Archaic rock clusters, these too seem to represent tool caches. Feature 52 consisted of one mano and one metate (Plate 43b-c). Feature 53 contained two pitted cobbles. There is little doubt that these two features are associated with the Middle Woodland component, given their occurrence immediately below the plowzone at the same level as diagnostic-bearing Middle Woodland pit features. This underscores the enormous time span that this particular feature type has at the Nochta site, from Early Archaic to Middle Woodland. Feature 49 represents a small pit containing what was probably once a complete ceramic vessel. The vessel. Holding Cordmarked, var. 153

X Rock cluiter O Pit feature

49°l

the Nochta Site Figure 21. Test Excavations in the Middle Woodland Portion of 154

Plate 43, Lithic Artifacts from Middle Woodland Features at the Nochta Site; a, bifacial scraper; b, mano 155

mn

.;>, <*• •.' :-.••, •',,/ '-r-^/

Plate 43. continued: c, metate 156

Bottoms , was found in a broken, but nearly complete state. No rim sherds were recovered with the vessel, which was found in an upright position. It is probable that its top has been removed by a plow.

Subsistence

To date, analysis of subsistence remains has been undertaken for only one Middle Woodland feature. Feature 51. The ethnobotanical material from this feature has been examined by Mary Simon and the results of her analysis are presented in Appendix C. To summarize, the ethnobotanical remains are dominated by nutshell. The walnut family, Juglandaceae , which comprises 65.3%, by weight, of all nutshell remains from this feature dominates. Hazelnut fragments are also prominent, comprising 21.3% of all nutshell. This is consistent with other Middle Woodland sites, where hazelnut often comprises over 50% of the nutshell remains (D. Asch and N. Asch 1985b). Acorn and hickory nut fragments account for relatively small percentages of the remains. Only a few seeds were recovered: grape

(Vitus sp.), knotweed ( Polygonum sp.), pawpaw ( Asimina triloba), and water lotus (Nelumbo lutea ) . In addition, one Cucurbitaceae fragment, probably Lagenaria sp. (gourd), was also recovered from Feature 51. Faunal remains from Feature 51 are scarce and highly fragmented, and none can be identified beyond the class level. The faunal material from this feature is comprised of indeterminate large mammal, indeterminate mammal, and indeterminate fish. The large mammal is probably white-tailed deer. The subsistence remains from Feature 51 indicate at least some exploitation of aquatic resources. The presence of water lotus suggests the possible utilization of a backwater environment, as do the fish remains. This is consistent with the proposed environmental situation for this area during the Middle Woodland time period. The Edelhardt Lake meander had been cut off by this time and was probably a backwater lake seasonally renewed by flow from Cahokia Creek.

Middle Woodland Settlement

At this point it is difficult to assess the nature of the Middle Woodland occupation at the Nochta site. The limited testing of this area revealed six features and abundant surface material. Although structural remains were not encountered, their presence certainly cannot be ruled out. The one radiocarbon date, 1,970 B.P., places the occupation within the Holding phase of the American Bottom chronology. The Holding site contained evidence of several structures as well as a substantial midden, indicative of a certain degree of sedentism (Fortier et al. 1989). A similar situation may exist at the Nochta site where a midden was also 157 encountered. The Holding site has been interpreted as a horticultural hamlet occupied for no more than one or two years (Fortier et al. 1989). The proximity of the Holding and Nochta sites would seem to argue that the two groups of people occupying these areas were related or the same. Thus it is believed that the two sites represent similar types of settlement, perhaps occupied at different points in time within the Holding phase.

7

Summarv and Conclusions

Archaeological investigations at the Nochta site indicate that the sand ridge had been occupied for several thousand years, beginning approximately 10,000 years ago. The site was initially occupied by individuals associated with the Dalton culture. This occupation is believed to represent a residential base camp for a group generally practicing a foraging subsistence strategy. Such a strategy involves a series of residential moves throughout the year to various resource concentrations or patches, moves that involve the entire social group. Likewise, the Early Archaic occupations--represented by the various point types recovered from the site--are believed to reflect similar settlement strategies, although the mixing of components within the site has precluded the identification of specific Early Archaic tool asssemblages and their correlation with specific components. The Middle Archaic occupation of the Nochta site, however, seems markedly different from these earlier occupations, exhibiting seemingly contradictory evidence of settlement type. On one hand, the feature density of the Nochta site Middle Archaic occupation is very high, but on the other hand, the overall material density is very low and the tool assemblage is dominated by such expedient tools as utilized and retouched flakes, pieces esquillees , and utilized cobbles. While there appears to be a structure present, it is virtually devoid of material. Secondary burials were uncovered at the Nochta site, but these were found in otherwise domestic pits. The interpretation of the Middle Archaic occupation at this site is that it represents a repeatedly occupied field camp for a logistically organized group of collectors. Collecting strategies involve the movement of goods (resources) to the consumers through the use of task-specific groups that procured resources and brought them back to the main group (Binford 1980). A field camp represents a temporary base of operation for these task-specific groups. If the above interpretations are correct, there was a definite change in subsistence-settlement strategies from the Early Archaic to the Middle Archaic. This shift in strategies has been noted by others in the Midwest (Ahler 1984; Brown 1985; Brown and Vierra 1983; McMillan and Klippel 1981; Neusius 1986b; Stafford 1985). The overall trend observed is one of increasing sedentism through time. One of the major arguments about the reasons for such changes concerns the role of the Hypsithermal. The traditional model is that this warm and dry period, beginning approximately 9,000 years ago, resulted in the expansion of the prairie and the subsequent depletion of upland resources. This model contends that an environmental "push" forced hunters and gatherers (following a foraging strategy) out of the uplands and into the river valleys, and necessitated concomitant changes in subsistence-settlement strategies. The debate over the role the Hypsithermal played in settlement-strategy 160 shifts centers around the degree to which to this climatic period affected upland resources. McMillan and Klippel (1981) have examined the evidence for climatic effects at Rodgers Shelter and Graham Cave in Missouri by looking at the depositional and cultural records of these sites. Both sites exhibit an increase in the deposition of silts and clays peaking at approximately 8,000 B.P., which is interpreted as representing erosion of upland soils. Both sites also exhibit a decrease in the percentage of forest-dwelling animal species, with a corresponding increase in the number of grassland and edge species. This latter pattern was more evident at Rodgers Shelter than at Graham Cave. This is thought to reflect the more xeric environment of the Ozark Highland border in which Rodgers Shelter is located (McMillan and Klippel 1981:238) and emphasizes that the Hypsithermal' s effects were not uniform. The effects of the Hypsithermal on a given area and its inhabitants probably depended upon the geomorphology of that area as well as on the nature of existing subsistence strategies. Data from central Illinois indicate that there were no major changes in occupational intensity of this area from the Early Archaic to the Middle Archaic periods (Lewis 1983:105). However, low-relief upland areas were probably always resource poor, and the foci of settlement were always the wooded stream valleys (Lewis 1983:105-106). Thus while certain subsistence strategies were no doubt altered by the expansion of prairie in central Illinois, the existing settlement systems remained basically the same. In the lower Illinois River valley, both the Koster and Napoleon Hollow sites exhibit evidence for an increase in upland erosion during the Hypsithermal, marked by rapid deposition of colluvial sediments (Wiant et al. 1983). These erosional episodes have been related to climatic changes and to the concomitant biogeomorphic responses that such changes brought about. Styles 's (1986) attempt to correlate changes in proportions of silt-intolerant taxa from the Koster site with periods of increased water turbidity proved inconclusive. What she has observed is a drastic increase in the proportion of freshwater mussels in the faunal assemblage beginning in the early Middle Archaic, approximately 7,300 B.P. This may mark the relative stabilization and enhancement of the aquatic resources in this area, but it is prior to the development of extensive backwater lakes (Styles 1986:167). Brown and Vierra (1983) have proposed that the growth of these food-rich backwater environments was the key to the increased sedentism observed for the Middle Archaic in the lower Illinois River valley. Rather than being "pushed" off the uplands by detrimental climatic conditions, these prehistoric groups were "pulled" toward an increasingly rich floodplain environment (Brown and Vierra 1983:190). In a later article. Brown (1985) expands upon this premise and contends that the factors affecting sedentism go beyond environmental pulls. Brown states that sedentism lagged far behind the environmental pulls offered by the rich floodplain resources. While there is evidence from the Koster site of increased sedentism in the presence of structures and in some of the Middle Archaic horizons, other intervening and later occupations are interpreted as representing camps of a residential mobility (foraging) pattern, leading to the conclusion that residential mobility often replaced logistical mobility (collecting) during the Middle Archaic 161

(Brown 1985:215). Brown believes that the resource pulls were not strong enough to compensate for the noneconomic problems associated with the loss of mobility (Brown 1985:223). Sedentism, therefore, was just as much a consequence of groups maintaining intergroup spacing and avoiding conflict as it was a result of environmental pulls (Brown 1985). The major factor in Brown's argument centers upon the perceived lengthy transition from a residentially mobile strategy to a fully logistically mobile strategy. Such a long, drawn-out process is thought to remove such response-oriented factors as environmental pulls from consideration as primary forces affecting sedentism (Brown 1985:224). Evidence for this lengthy transition comes primarily from the Koster site data summarized above. Is it possible that the observed differences in site utilization through time at Koster reflect differential use of this area within the same settlement strategy? Could these occupations, which have been interpreted as residential camps, actually be the site types (e.g., field camps perhaps) described by Binford (1980) for logistically mobile groups? Binford (1982) has discussed the differential use of a given area by a logistically organized system. Such variable site utilization can occur seasonally or within a relatively long period of time and may not necessarily mark systemic shifts in settlement strategies. The latter interval may reflect changes in the economic potential of a given area (Binford 1982:19). Thus, the area of the Koster site, for one reason or another, may not have been a suitable location for a base camp at certain periods of time during the Middle Archaic, but may have been utilized in some other capacity within a logistically organized system. If this is true, then the Middle Archaic settlement system within the lower Illinois River valley may be interpreted as logistically mobile. This would indicate that the shift toward sedentism was not as lengthy a process as Brown (1985) has suggested and might, in turn, argue for environmental factors as key variables in this shift. Abler 's observations of Middle Archaic settlement patterns within the Modoc locality have led him to conclude that this system is markedly different from that which has been observed for the Dalton/Early Archaic, and appears to have been logistically organized (Abler 1984:485). It is suggested that the large base camps were multiseasonal and represent larger groups of people than the Early Archaic residential camps. A prolonged shift toward this logistically mobile pattern is not observed in the Modoc locality. Abler (1984:568-570) believes that the Hypsithermal was a primary factor in the shift of settlement strategies from Early to Middle Archaic. The decrease in upland settlement intensity during the Middle Archaic in the Modoc locality and an increase in valley-edge settlement are cited as evidence of changes in upland resource availability brought about by the Hypsithermal (Abler 1984:567). The Hypsithermal may also have been the cause for the increase in floodplain resources discussed above. It is believed that this climatic period increased erosion (as has been noted in the lower Illinois River valley) and increased the rate of sedimentation within major rivers. The sedimentation of rivers could have led to increased river meandering, over-bank flooding, and the resulting increase in floodplain resource abundance and diversity (Abler 1984:569). In the northern American Bottom, a backwater floodplain environment (McDonough Lake meander) may have been available to the occupants of the 162

Nochta site as early as the Early Archaic period. The occupations of the site during this time period are thought to reflect a residentially mobile system. If this is true, it may indicate that the resource base in this area was relatively fine grained, or evenly distributed; and that the environmental pull toward the floodplain environment was not sufficient to cause abandonment of this mobile strategy. With the onset of the Hypsithermal, upland resources (with the notable exception of the creek valleys) may have been adversely affected. At the same time, the aggradation of the river valley may have led to an increase in floodplain resource abundance and diversity similar to that proposed by Abler (1984). The combined effects of the upland resource decline and the enhancement of the floodplain environment would have led to a coarse-grained, or patchy, resource base and may have provided the push/pull toward a more sedentary settlement strategy. Such an interpretation is hampered by the uncertainty concerning the nature of Middle Archaic settlement patterns within the northern American Bottom area. The settlement strategy suggested would require Middle Archaic base camps to be located within the floodplain. None have been identified to date, but this fact may relate to visibility factors; these sites, like the Nochta site, may be buried. It is also possible that some of these sites have been destroyed by subsequent meandering of the Mississippi River. The settlement pattern suggested for this area during the Middle Archaic by Emerson et al. (1986) does not include an abandonment of the uplands. Sites that have been designated Middle Archaic base camps are all located in the uplands (Emerson et al. 1986:261). Such designations, however, have been determined from survey data alone. None have been excavated to determine the exact nature of settlement. These authors also note a 59.1% decrease in the number of Middle Archaic upland sites compared with Early Archaic sites (Emerson et al. 1986:261). Such a decrease could be related to a shift in population aggregation or a shift to other physiographic zones, perhaps reflecting a fundamental change in settlement strategies. The observed concentration of upland Middle Archaic sites compared with those of the floodplain may again relate to differences in archaeological visibility. As previously stated, the Poag Road and South Roxanna sites may represent Middle Archaic base camps. These sites are located on the Wood River Terrace and floodplain respectively. More sites of Middle Archaic affiliation need to be identified and excavated before a clearer understanding of Middle Archaic settlement in this area can be accomplished. Clearly, any surveys in the American Bottom should incorporate subsurface and deep testing within the research designs. At present, only two relatively small portions of the Nochta site remain, the Mississippian occupation between the borrow pit and the highway in the northwest part of the site, and the Middle Woodland area in the central part of the ridge. While these areas are currently in cultivation, the accelerated rate of urban development taking place in the American Bottom places these last remaining parcels of the Nochta site in continued jeopardy. Perhaps the lesson to be learned here is that--given this rapid rate of urban development--every opportunity to excavate an archaeological site in the American Bottom area should be realized before much of the resource base is irretrievably lost. Part 2

Investigations in the Mainline Portion of the Nochta Site

Andrew C. Fortier

with a contribution by

Douglas K. Jackson

8

Introduction

Part 2 describes the archaeological investigations conducted by the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC) FAI-270 Archaeological Mitigation Project during 1984-1985 within the proposed construction is designated limits of FAI-270(255) . This portion of the Nochta site as Nochta Mainline to distinguish it from the UIUC investigations undertaken at this site in two adjacent borrow pit excavations: Borrow Pit #72 and Borrow Pit #75 (Figure 22). The results of those borrow pit investigations, which involved the excavation of extensive Early and Middle Archaic occupations, are presented in Part 1. The Nochta Mainline site was first located in 1963 by Patrick Munson, who designated a portion of this area the "Keller Workshop" (Linder et al. 1978:A11-A12). During the 1976-1977 FAP-413 survey through this area, the Keller Workshop site and the Nochta site proper, which lay several hundred meters to the southeast and east, were combined into a single site. The Nochta Mainline area was surveyed again and tested in 1979 by Illinois State University (ISU). The Nochta Mainline site was subdivided into three surface concentration areas, and testing was conducted in each of those locations. A single feature was found in the central scatter, which could not be relocated during subsequent investigations. The survey indicated the possibility of locating Archaic, Middle Woodland, Mississippian, and Historic period subsurface occupations within the Nochta Mainline area. In 1984-1985 UIUC resurveyed the Nochta Mainline site, and extensive machine excavation was accomplished. Although a large surface collection was gathered, investigations failed to produce evidence of subsurface occupation in this area. Two major material concentrations were identified. The northernmost concentration contained few diagnostics, but its component affiliation is probably Late Archaic. Because most of the scatter area was excavated, it appears that this was a plowzone occupation without features. The southern concentration also produced no subsurface features, but in this case, it was felt that features probably were present to the east, outside the right-of-way limits. This area was coincident with the heaviest concentration of surface material and lay at a higher elevation. Diagnostic material in this area indicated the presence of a possible late Emergent Mississippian or early to middle Mississippian household complex. The density of surface material in that area may indicate the presence of a multiple-structure household cluster. Because this area fell outside the right-of-way, this prediction could not be tested. 166

Nochta Site

,.^ Borrow Pit 72

Keller Lane

Pit and Borrow Pit #75 Figure 22. Original Limits of Nochta Mainline, Borrow #72, 9

Local Environment

The Nochta Mainline area occupies only a small portion of the total site, which includes 12 distinct areas of material concentration. Nochta Mainline, which lies along the northwest periphery of the overall site area, contains three separate areas of surface material (see Figure 27). Construction of FAI-270(255) had an impact on portions of the entire site--this includes an approximately 100 x 700 m transect through these three areas. The Nochta site is situated on a high sand ridge between the old Edelhardt Lake meander scar and McDonough Lake (Figure 23). The historical development of this ridge, its adjacent meander, and associated physiographic features is quite complex and has been detailed in Part 1 of this volume and in the geomorphological report for the FAI-270 5.8-Mile Extension Project (Rissing 1987). The mainline portion of the Nochta site has its own unique geomorphic history and is worth noting here. As previously discussed in Chapter 1, sometime between 4,000 and 3,600 B.P. the Edelhardt Lake channel moved southward (Phase II) and eventually became cut off altogether. By 3,600 B.P. the area west of Nochta became a large marsh through which meandered Cahokia Creek. Cahokia Creek deposited bluff silts along the edge of the sand ridge. These deposits were identified in the northern and westernmost portions of the Nochta Mainline area. A radiocarbon sample was taken from a UIUC geomorphological trench in this area at the base of these sediments; the date was 250 + 80 B.P. (ISGS-1287) or A.C. 1700. The clays in this location, approximately 1 m below the surface, were clearly deposited in historic times. A combination of Cahokia Creek and the Edelhardt Lake meander eventually scoured out an unknown portion of the sandy ridge and a clay ridge in the area defined as the Nochta Mainline site (Figure 24). Additional Cahokia Creek deposition no doubt took place up to modern times prior to the channelization of Cahokia Creek in the early twentieth century. A 1915 15' USGS quadrangle of this area shows Cahokia Creek flowing directly against the Nochta sand ridge. The interpretation of the north-to-south trending clay ridge is still unclear. It is coincident with the outer-bank arc of the nearby Edelhardt Lake meander scar and, therefore, may represent natural levee deposits formed when this channel was still active (i.e., 5,500-3,600 B.P.). This ridge may also represent bank deposits of Cahokia Creek laid over the natural levee deposits of the Edelhardt Lake channel. The problem with this interpretation is that the ridge does not contain the kind of loessial silt carried by Cahokia Creek. The interpretation preferred here is that this ridge represents the final backswamp deposits of the Edelhardt Lake meander. They may not represent actual bank deposits; they 168

Figure 23. Transect of the Nochta Site Sand Ridge

Meters amsl

Y/^ Plowzone (Ap): Very dark gray (TO YR 3/1) silty loam

^^ Cahokia Creek stratified deposits: Wliite (10 YR 8/2) silts and h£^ very dark grayish brown (TO YR 3/2.5) clay loam

Alb: Dark gray (10 YR 4/1) silty loam [ I

111 Edelhardt Lake natural levee bank (Btb): Very dark gray (10 YR 3/V Mm clay loam

[SS: C3: Dark grayish brown (10 YR 4/2) clay loam to clay (gray clay zone)

Figure 24. Profile of the Geomorphological Trench (GT7) at the North End of the Nochta Mainline Area of Investigation 169 are probably transverse-depositional ridge deposits laid down east of the actual natural levee bank, but occur within the natural levee locale. As previously mentioned, three distinct areas of material concentration were identified within the Nochta Mainline site. Area A, which lies at the northern end near the Cahokia Canal bridge cone, occurs above recent Cahokia Creek deposits. The material in this area was probably redeposited or eroded into this area from the nearby clay backswamp ridge. Area B is the central concentration, and it lies along the higher clay ridge. Some material was also found downslope from the ridge apex. Area C is the southern concentration, and it also lies along the ridge apex. Most of the highway transect crosses through this concentration below the ridge apex. Therefore, most of these site areas are not affected by highway construction. Of significance is the occurrence of a buried Middle Archaic occupation located approximately 100 m east of Area C and over 1 m below the present surface. This occupation lies on a sandy clay surface and dates to ca. 6,500 B.P. In other words, this occupation precedes the appearance of the Edelhardt Lake channel. Backswamp clays were laid down above this horizon following 5,500 B.P. The Middle Archaic occupation may have been abandoned just after the appearance of the Edelhardt Lake meander. The instability of this area, in terms of backswamp deposition, no doubt precluded any major occupation of the bank edge of the Edelhardt Lake channel. It was not until after the final cutoff of this channel in 3,600 B.P. that the newly formed ridge area could support human occupation. After that point, physiographic factors no longer obstructed the settlement of this area, and in fact, the proximity of this ridge to Cahokia Creek and the Edelhardt Lake marsh actually may have attracted prehistoric occupants to this location. The first occupants of this ridge following the cutoff of the Edelhardt Lake meander were situated in Area B and date to the early to middle portions of the Late Archaic period.

,

10

History of Site Investigations

The history of the mainline investigations is closely related to the history of the overall site discussed in Chapter 1, but bears repeating here in somewhat more detail. The Nochta site was first identified by Patrick Munson in 1963 (Munson 1971). At that time, three primary areas of material concentration were recognized. The southern and central concentrations were designated the Nochta site, while the northern con- centration was called the Keller Workshop site. The former concentrations were thought to represent Hopewell and Mississippian occupations, whereas the Keller Workshop related to a Mississippian occupation. As a result of the FAP-413 survey, the Nochta and Keller Workshop sites were combined, and both areas became the Nochta site. Only the previously designated Keller Workshop site fell within the highway right-of-way limits. The Nochta site was resurveyed in May 1976 and February and April 1977 as part of the FAP-413 survey. A large site area covering 37.5 ha was surveyed. Ten area collections were made, resulting in the recovery of over 1,450 lithic items and 47 sherds. Diagnostic Early Archaic, Middle Archaic, Late Archaic, Middle Woodland, "Early Bluff," "Late Bluff," Mississippian, and Historic period materials were recovered. The old Keller Workshop area within the right-of-way limits was subdivided into field areas MM-47 and MM-48. MM-48 represented the northernmost concentration, whereas MM-47 was the southernmost concentration of the previously defined Keller Workshop (Figure 25). The two areas were separated by a small erosional gully. The initial survey of this mainline portion of the Nochta site was accomplished in May 1976 under 0% field visibility. It was not until April 1977 that, under 100% visibility, the surface concentrations could be delineated. Continued surface collection and limited testing was undertaken in 1978 by ISU at a number of sites along several proposed segments of the Collinsville-to-Edwardsville section of the FAI-270(255) highway project. ISU was initially denied permission in 1978 to work at the Nochta site but returned in July 1979. Between 30 July and 19 November surface collections were conducted in MM-47 and MM-48. In the northern concentration (MM-48) a scatter of material covering approximately 15,000 m^ was defined. Two 1 x 1 m test squares and a series of Ditch Witch trenches were placed in this area. These test units comprised an area of 286.5 m^. In the southern concentration, an area of debris encompassing approximately 31,000 m^ was defined. Three test units and 35, 50-cm wide Ditch Witch trenches were placed in this area. The total tested area in MM-47 was 93.5 m^. Finally, a single 1 x 1 m unit and six test units were placed in the area that lay between MM-47 and MM-48. These tests included 125 m^ of excavation. Of the nearly 50,000 m^ of site to be affected within the proposed mainline limits of FAI-270(255) ISU tested 505 m^, or 1% (Hawks and Phillippe 1984:70-73). Figure 25. Surface Scatters within Nochta Mainline as Defined by the FAP-413 Survey in 1977 and ISU Survey in 1979 173

The results of ISU's surface collection and testing within MM-47 and MM-48 included the recovery of one possible feature (Feature 1) in MM-48. This was described as a pit nearly 3 m in diameter and 32 cm in depth, but only 25% of this pit was excavated. It yielded seven chert flakes. Occasional materials were also found below the plowzone in other test units, but no other features were identified. Largely on the basis of the one recovered feature and the relatively dense and diverse surface collection, ISU recommended that the Nochta site (MM-47 and MM-48 areas) be monitored during initial construction of the proposed highway (Hawks and Phillippe 1984:82). The surface collection indicated a high probability of uncovering Mississippian, Archaic, and Middle subsurface occupations. The UIUC FAI-270 Archaeological Mitigation Project became involved with the Nochta site in 1984. The Nochta site represents one of eight archaeological sites lying within the right-of-way limits of a proposed 5.8-mile segment extension of FAI-270(255) extending north of existing 1-55/70. Permission to survey and test the Nochta site was granted in August 1984. Because of standing crops in the main areas of material concentration (i.e., in areas MM-47 and MM-48), initial investigations were restricted to the area at the far north end of the site. A number of backhoe test units were placed near the east side of the existing Cahokia Canal. One of the landowners, Louis Keller, indicated that a portion of this area had been altered thirty years ago by land-leveling operations. There were materials, however, found on the surface in this area. The test trenches were also placed in this area to obtain geomorphological information about the nearby ridge on which areas MM-47 and MM-48 were situated. The radiocarbon sample and subsequent date from one of these trenches are discussed in Chapter 9. The date and soils from this portion of the site basically indicate that this area was filled in by relatively recent creek deposits, probably stemming from Cahokia Creek itself, prior to channelization of that creek and levee construction around it. These creek deposits were not found, however, on the apex of the nearby clay ridge; therefore, the possibility of an unaltered prehistoric subsurface occupation in several areas of the ridge still existed at the end of the 1984 season. In October 1984 a contour map and a general surface collection were made in the MM-47 and MM-48 areas. Heavy rains terminated further investigations during 1984. Work continued during the spring of 1985 with a postwinter controlled surface collection in the MM-47 and MM-48 areas. This consisted of a grid of 10 X 10 m units placed within and just outside the right-of-way limits. All historic and prehistoric material was collected. Given the quantity of material collected from this controlled sample, machine excavation was deemed necessary to evaluate potential subsurface occupations. The southernmost scatter of material, which mostly fell outside of the right-of-way limits to the east, indicated the presence of a late Emergent Mississippian or Mississippian occupation. A significant number of lithic artifacts and diagnostic sherds suggested a possible multiple-structure household cluster. The northern area (MM-48) also produced a dense scatter of material, primarily within the right-of-way limits, but virtually no diagnostic sherds or lithics were recovered to indicate what component might be in this area. The materials differed 174 significantly from those found in the southern concentration (see Chapter 13). On 26 April backhoe excavation was resumed in the Nochta Mainline area. Machine excavation was conducted for approximately 18 days between 26 April and 2 July 1985. All excavation and mapping was completed on 2 July. At that time, a total of 8,770 m^ was excavated, including 7,401 m^ in areas MM-47 and MM-48, and 1,371 m^ in the geomorphologically related trenches at the north end of the site (Figure 26). Despite the extensive surface collection from the Nochta Mainline site, no subsurface features were recovered. The area within the right-of-way was therefore cleared for highway construction on 3 July 1985. Subsequent work in the Nochta site area was focused east of the mainline portion of the site within the limits of two large borrow pits, which were designated Borrow Pit #72 and Borrow Pit #75. Borrow Pit #72, owned by Luhr Brothers, Inc., covered the northern portion of the sandy ridge. Borrow Pit #75, owned by S. J. Groves and Sons Company, extended south of Borrow Pit #72 (see Figure 22). Both of these borrow pits encompassed the majority of the originally defined Nochta site and, therefore, required monitoring by FAI-270 UIUC personnel. The mainline portion of this site, as well as the site areas within Borrow Pits #72 and #75, were kept distinct in the field to control the horizontal distribution of materials and components. During analysis of site materials, it was decided that specific material concentration areas could be determined within the entire Nochta site. As a result, 12 specific material concentration areas were identified and given A-L letter designations (Figure 27). Three of these areas (A-C) fall within the mainline portion of the Nochta site and are analyzed in this part. Area A includes the small scatter of material found in the bridge-cone area at the far northwestern end of the site. This is the area in which the geomorphological trenches were placed. Area B represents the northern concentration of surface materials, originally designated area MM-48. Area C includes the southern concentration of surface materials, originally identified as area MM-47. In the subsequent discussion of materials found within the Nochta Mainline site, the Area A-C designations replace the older field numbers established during the original FAP-413 survey. 175

Or

Nochta Site Ms-128

Geomorphologjcal trenches (1984)

Machine excavated areas (1985)

Figure 26. Limits of the 1984-1985 Machine Excavations within Nochta Mainline 176

Figure 27. Material Concentrations (A-L) within the Nochta Site 11

Research Design and Excavation Strategy

The overall research design for the UIUC FAI-270 Archaeological Mitigation Project has been outlined by Bareis and Porter (1984:1-14). Essentially, the goal of this project is to expose and excavate entire community plans and to describe material assemblages obtained from those specific feature contexts (pits, houses, postmolds). The delineation of community function, duration, and subsistence are among the primary objectives of excavation and analysis at each site. To expose entire communities or even major portions of communities requires an aggressive excavation strategy, which includes the use of heavy machinery and large crews. Excavation strategy is therefore developed around the exposure (i.e., stripping of the plowzone) of a majority or large portion of areas producing surface material. Following plowzone removal, areas producing potential fills or suspicious soil discolorations are shovel scraped. If features are located, they are mapped in plan and excavated by hand in halves. Feature fills are not normally screened, but soil samples (10-liter samples) are taken for flotation. Notes, floated fills, and recovered artifacts are taken to the main laboratory at UIUC, where analysis and report preparation are undertaken. The specific excavation strategy at the Nochta Mainline site followed several stages. Initial stripping was conducted in the bridge-cone area in Area A. Work was conducted here first because crops still stood over Areas B and C. In 1984, by the time the crops in those areas were harvested, heavy rains throughout the fall precluded heavy-machinery excavation. The work in the bridge-cone area was undertaken (1) to test Area A, which had produced a small scatter of material; (2) to provide initial information about the geomorphology of the ridge and adjacent Cahokia Creek deposits; and (3) to test the degree to which this area had been altered by recent borrowing and leveling. This was also the first area in which the Illinois Department of Transportation (IDOT) engineers wished to work; accommodation of the IDOT construction schedule has always played a significant role in the development of excavation strategies at sites within this project. During the following spring, heavy-machinery (backhoe) excavation was initiated in Areas B and C, and in the intervening areas. Excavation was focused in the area of heaviest material concentration and expanded outward to the peripheries of the surface scatters. An attempt was made to relocate Feature 1 in Area B, a pit that ISU had partially excavated in 1979. No precise provenience was given in the testing report, and for this reason UIUC field personnel were unable to relocate this unit (Hawks and Phillippe 1984:80-81). However, it is very likely that this unit did not represent a prehistoric feature. Stripping in this area revealed a large number of dark, circular-to-oval and irregular stains that 178 represented natural soil texture differences and in some cases old tree stains. Because features could not be located within the FAI-270(255) right-of-way limits of the Nochta site, excavation was terminated. The excavations reveal that (1) the Area A scatter represents redeposited materials; (2) Area B is strictly a plowzone site whose original occupation surface had been obliterated by plowing; and (3) Area C probably contains features, but they occur outside of the right-of-way limits to the east. Because of the size of the surface collection, further analysis was deemed warranted (despite the absence of a related community plan). The Area B material and occupation is particularly intriguing because plowzone sites are extremely rare in the American Bottom, particularly where large surface collections are present. It is hoped that the analysis of Area C will aid any further investigation of the Mississippian household unit lying just east of our excavation area. Finally, analysis of these plowzone materials augments the complex settlement history of this sand ridge and contributes to our understanding of the network of Mississippian small communities operating outside of Cahokia. 12

Analytical Methods

Andrew C. Fortier and Douglas K. Jackson

The materials recovered from the surveys and the excavation of the mainline portion of the Nochta site are grouped into three general categories: ceramics, lithics, and historic. The main goals of analysis are to describe all of these materials and to identify any diagnostic materials that could be associated with known cultural entities or phases in this area. In the absence of cultural features or community plans, material remains constitute the only evidence for the occupation of this portion of the site. Artifacts recovered from Area B represent the final documentation of human activity in this portion of the ridge. The remains from Area C, however, provide a useful predictor of what may lie just a short distance away, outside of the right-of-way. Analysis of the historic materials was confined to a simple inventory.

Ceramics

Investigations within the portion of the Nochta site impacted by the interstate alignment produced ceramic material from both plowzone and subplowzone contexts. The material from our investigations was recovered variously via general surface collections, controlled surface collections, and monitored heavy-machinery excavations. Because the majority of the ceramic material was recovered from surface contexts, individual sherds for the most part were small, eroded, and in generally poor condition. However, certain temper and paste characteristics along with sherds with intact surfaces allow the definition of at least two cultural components, Middle Woodland and Mississippian. The analytical procedure utilized for the ceramic material, owing to the size and condition of the ceramic sample, consists of a simple sherd inventory. Each sherd was counted and weighed. Attributes recorded for each sherd, when possible, are temper type, surface treatment, and decoration. Temper determinations were made macroscopically, occasionally aided by a hand lens. The apparent dominant type (e.g., shell, grit, etc.) was recorded; minor temper or paste inclusions were ignored. For examples in which two temper types appear to be present in equal proportions, both temper designations were used (e.g., grit/grog). A variety of surface treatments are present and most are self-explanatory. The two types of slipped surfaces designated are red 180 and dark, although even in the small sample recovered at this site, the range of slip color represents a continuum, a fact commonly noted at other sites (Milner 1983:115). In this report "red slip" is used as a catchall category for all light tan, orangeish, or red slips, whereas "dark slip" is utilized for the dark brown and black slips. Indeterminate describes sherds with eroded or broken surfaces. A small number of decorated sherds are present in the assemblage, including trailed and incised decorated categories. Although sometimes used interchangeably, the two categories in this report represent distinct decorative techniques. Both are applied to a vessel prior to firing while the paste remains workable. Trailing is produced by a blunt instrument leaving a broad, U-shaped trough, whereas incising is performed by a sharper, more precise instrument leaving a narrow, V-shaped line. Cultural components have been assigned to individual sherds in certain cases based on these attributes and some generalizations concerning paste types. A Middle Woodland component is delineated on the basis of two decorated sherds and other sherds with characteristic grit-tempered sandy pastes or finely grog- tempered, grayish pastes. Both of these paste types are associated with the Middle Woodland period in the American Bottom. All of the shell-tempered sherds have been assigned to the Mississippian component. Shell tempering, however, is not found exclusively in the Mississippian period and has its origin locally in the latter half of the Emergent Mississippian period (Kelly et al. 1984). Earlier investigations (Hawks and Phillippe 1984) had defined a Late Bluff (Emergent Mississippian) component for this portion of the Nochta site. It is conceivable that some of the shell-tempered sherds, in addition to some of the grog-, grit-, and limestone-tempered sherds, could date to this period. Our investigations did not recover any of the distinctive upland clay-paste ceramics commonly referred to as Madison County shale pastes, typical of the Emergent Mississippian occupations in this locality of the American Bottom. Therefore, it is felt that many of the unassigned grit- and grog-tempered sherds are more than likely related to the Middle Woodland occupation rather than to an Emergent Mississippian Mississippian or Late Woodland occupation.

Lithics

Analysis of the lithics recovered from this portion of the Nochta site initially involved a simple inventory of items, including a general description of the item and its weight. Chert material was separated from such nonchert materials as limonite, limestone, or any groundstone tool. The chert was then divided into utilized and nonutilized items. This differentiation was based on a macroscopic evaluation of retouch, edge gloss, or use wear. A lOx power hand lens was utilized in many cases to observe less-obvious utilization evidence. The chert artifact groupings. 181

discussed in Chapter 6, are intended strictly as formal categories. In some cases, general function can be directly inferred from shape, such as for the "drill" category, but in others, such as for "scrapers and knives," function can be only conjectured. Funding was not available for microwear analysis. All of the chert was identified, where possible, for chert type and stage of manufacture. This project has been gradually developing a chert type key for cherts recovered from American Bottom sites. Certain cherts have been given a number designation and have been described by color, luster, presence or absence of fossil impurities, and possible formation source. This has become a useful comparative tool for studying chert utilization through time in this area; however, the authors of this key are aware of the need to refine the study and confirm many of the sources. A portion of this key is presented in the appendix for the cherts recovered from this site (see Appendix E). Chert was also identified according to its manufacturing stage, which refers to its position in a manufacturing trajectory. Stages along this trajectory include cores, primary and secondary reduction flakes, thinning and shatter flakes, and the final artifact itself. Detailing this aspect of benefits studies of raw material utilization and the level of involvement in toolmaking at a given site. It also provides a means for inferring local or regional interaction. For example, the occurrence of artifacts of a particular chert type and the corresponding absence of debitage of that chert type suggests importation of completed artifacts to a site. Debitage can, conversely, provide clues to what is exported from a site, for example, when tools of a given chert type represented in the debitage are not found.

13

Results of Survey and Excavation

The mainline portion of the Nochta site was divided into three areas designated A, B, and C. Survey and excavations were conducted in each area. No features were exposed, but a relatively substantial material assemblage was collected from Areas B and C. Area A was situated in a swale at the far northwestern portion of the site. Materials were probably redeposited into this swale from Area B or from an occupation on the main clay ridge above the swale. For analysis, Areas A and B were combined, and the conclusion is that Areas A/B and C represent two distinct occupational components. The discussion of these components in the following sections is, therefore, organized by thp area designation and within each, by material type.

Areas A and B

Area A represents a light scatter of redeposited materials located between Cahokia Canal and Area B. Area A was heavily tested during the 1984 excavation of a series of geomorphological trenches in that area. These trenches revealed deep deposits of Cahokia Creek alluvium that were essentially sterile. Any materials recovered within these deposits are thought to have originated from a source either farther upstream, or from the nearby concentration of material situated within Area B. Area B, which was designated MM-48 in the original FAP-413 survey (Linder et al. 1978), encompasses a large portion of a natural levee ridge and its western downslope portion. The area consists of a dense concentration of chert debitage and chert tools, with an occasional ceramic fragment. There are also some historic brick and slag materials distributed in this area, although these materials are scarcer here than in the areas immediately south of this scatter. The extent of this material concentration is imprecise, but covers an area of approximately 30,000 m^ based on the UIUC survey of this area in 1984. The original survey in 1976 calculated the MM-48 area to be 146 x 195 m, or 33,500 m^. The area of densest concentration is located in the central portion of the scatter and covers an oval area 50 x 60 m, or about 2,500 m^ Most of the material collected from Area B came from a one- or two-person general survey of this area during various times in 1984. Most of the area was planted in corn during 1984, so the survey was conducted between corn rows. All corn rows were covered within a 100 x 100 m area 184 and all material types were collected. During that period, the most extensive portion of the scatter occurred within 25 m west of the eastern right-of-way limits. During 1985, a systematic 10 x 10 m grid pick-up was conducted in Area B, which basically duplicated the earlier survey results (Figure 28). This survey was carried out after the corn crop had been harvested. Because the land had been sold to IDOT for the highway, the soil had not been disked prior to the survey. Visibility was estimated to be between 30% and 50%. The grid collection did not reveal any spatially significant clusters of tools or debitage types. It is obvious that continual plowing throughout the past century has disturbed potentially discrete activity concentrations. Because features were not recovered in this area during machine excavation, it is probable that plowing also may have obliterated any pits or hearths present in this area. That such features were here at one time can only be inferred from the small percentage of recovered heat-altered and smudged debitage. Combining all survey materials. Area B produced nearly 2,400 items, including 201 chert tools, 26 ceramic sherds, 335 pieces of historic debris, and much nonchert and chert debitage. Very little of this collection is actually diagnostic to a specific component or phase except the ceramics, which indicate both Middle Woodland and Mississippian components. Some of the projectile points, particularly the contracting-stemmed varieties, are probably Early or Middle Woodland types. Some types, however, appear to represent the Late Archaic period. As a whole, the chert tool assemblage from Area B resembles the Late Archaic period late Titterington phase collection recovered at the George Reeves site (ll-S-650) in northern St. Clair County (McElrath and Finney 1987:47-115).

Ceramics , by Douglas K. Jackson

The Area A and Area B portions of the Nochta site produced only a small amount of widely scattered ceramic material, in contrast to the quantities of lithic material present. For reasons given below and in the discussion of Areas A and B, it is believed that this small ceramic scatter is not associated with the main concentration of lithic artifacts. The ceramic sample was retrieved through the controlled surface collection of Area B and through the monitoring of machine excavations in Areas A and B. A total of 32 sherds were collected, six from Area A and 26 from Area B. As stated earlier, the materials from Area A are probably redeposited and may have originated from the Nochta site ridge directly to the east, or they may have been transported to this area via Cahokia Creek. Twelve of the Area B sherds were recovered from the controlled surface collection; these sherds were well distributed throughout the collection units (Figure 29). Only one square contained more than a single sherd. The remaining Area B sherds were found during machine excavations, with the majority (N = 8) originating from below the plowzone-redeposited context from an excavation block at the base of the 185

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ridge. All of the ceramic materials are summarized by temper, surface treatment, and cultural component (when possible) in Table 5. Two cultural components are identifiable from the small ceramic assemblage. Middle Woodland and Mississippian, but the evidence for both of these components is meager. Middle Woodland sherds predominate, with 17 sherds assigned to this component. This assignment is tenuous as most of the sherds are small, eroded, and all lack distinctive Middle Woodland decorative elements. However, the sherds exhibit temper and paste characteristics that are most often found in Middle Woodland ceramic assemblages. There are diagnostic Middle Woodland lithics from this area and there is a large Middle Woodland settlement farther south in a different area (Area H) of the Nochta site (Linder et al. 1978), which supports this component assignment for the ceramics. The Mississippian component is represented by two shell-tempered sherds recovered from Area B. A single shell-tempered sherd was also recovered from this general area during the earlier FAP-413 survey of the site (Linder et al. 1978). Shell-tempered sherds are not restricted to the Mississippian period, having had their origin locally in the Emergent Mississippian period (Kelly et al. 1984) and continuing through the Oneota manifestations (Milner et al. 1984). However, a Mississippian assignment seems most likely. One of the recovered sherds is red slipped, which may suggest an occupation within the earlier half of the Mississippian period where such surface treatments are more common, as in the occupation of Area C of the Nochta site to be described later in this report.

Table 5. Ceramic Materials from Areas A and

Temper Lithic Debitage

Of the nearly 2,400 cultural items recovered from Area B, 1,826 items consist of nonutilized chert debitage and 53 items are nonutilized nonchert items. The significance of studying assemblage debitage has been clear for some time in the American Bottom. The selection of materials as well as the manufacturing techniques have varied through time, and a collection can often be placed in an appropriate time pe-iod or phase based on the recovered debitage alone. The presence or absence of certain chert types, intentional heat alteration, bifacial or unifacial flake tools, and certain manufacturing rejectage can provide rough chronological markers for collections. This kind of analysis is still in its infancy, but it is based on the observation of dozens of recently excavated assemblages from the American Bottom, most of which also contain other diagnostic materials and a series of good radiocarbon dates.

various Chert Resources . The FAI-270 Project has been categorizing chert types over the past decade, and a system of individual types with assigned numbers has been developed. A full description of these types can be found in previous UIUC reports (McElrath and Finney 1987; McElrath and Fortier 1983). A shortened version of this type list is presented in Appendix E. Sourcing cherts in the American Bottom is far from being finalized, but a simple description of cherts (by color, luster, oolitic inclusion, etc.) can serve as a preliminary comparative tool and can aid in the observation of chert utilization through time in this area. The chert types recovered from Area B include glossy white Burlington (type 1), Crescent Hills Burlington (type 6), Ste. Genevieve red (type 7), Mill Creek (type 9), Cobden Ball (type 13), and Ste. Genevieve (Old Blue) (type 11). There are also a number of untyped or unknown cherts. The Burlington cherts comprise 83% by number of the debitage. The unknown cherts comprise 16.5% by number of the total debitage. The remaining chert types constitute less than 1% of the collection by number (Table 6; Figure 30). The Burlington cherts recovered from Area B are regarded as having come from local sources. The type 1, white glossy Burlington variety can be obtained within a 25-mile radius of the site, whereas the type 6 variety, known as Crescent Hills, is found in Missouri, southwest of St. Louis. Within this latter type is a high-quality chert, characterized by brown to tan banding and a high luster. Approximately 95% of the chert tools found in Area B are made from these two types of Burlington chert. These chert types are the most popular varieties for the entire prehistoric continuum.

various The ManufacturinR Trajectory . The debitage from Area B represents products of a toolmaking process, or manufacturing trajectory (McElrath 1986; McElrath and Fortier 1983). This trajectory includes initial reduction of raw core material (expended cores, block fractures, primary decortication flakes), secondary reduction of major flakes (secondary decortication flakes, reduction flakes), and final trimming of the anticipated tool (thinning flakes). Further modification of the tool 189

label 6. Chert Debitage from Area B

Primary Secondary Block Decortication Decortication Expended Fractures Flakes Flakes Cores chert Type Wt(g) Wt(g) Wt(g) Wt(g)

Burlington (Type 1) 99.7 8.5 Burlington (Type 6) 87.2 40.0

Hill Creek (Type 9) Cobden Ball (Type 13)

Ste. Genevieve Red (Type 7) Old Blue (Type 11) Unknown

Total 12 66.7 10 683.6 Area B Area C

Type 1 : Burlington (white glossy) el. 3: Burlington (while oolitic) 6: Burlington (Crescent Hills quarry) 191

through use, reuse, or accidental breakage relates to a tool's use trajectory. The Area B debitage contains examples from each stage of the manufacturing trajectory, including expended cores, block fractures, primary and secondary decortication flakes, reduction flakes, and thinning flakes. In short, tool manufacturing was a very important activity during the occupation of this site area. Nearly 98% of the debitage by number is represented by large reduction flakes and thinning flakes. By weight, reduction flakes constitute 51% of the debitage assemblage. Nearly 90% of the chert tools from this area are made from reduction flakes; therefore, it appears that the preferred end product of manufacture was this kind of flake rather than the more numerous thinning flake (see Table 6). The majority of the thinning flakes no doubt represent tool maintenance (resharpening) activity and final tool trimming. One aspect of the trajectory that is probably underrepresented in this sample is the stage represented by small sharpening flakes. Materials from Area B did come primarily from surface surveys, and it is likely that the smallest items could have been overlooked during collection. One striking aspect of the Area B collection is the relatively large size of the flakes recovered. The largest flakes, of course, tended to be used as tools; as a result, their weights do not appear within Table 6. The majority of the nonflake tools are bifacial. This is not a typical trait of post-600 A.C. technologies in this area. For this reason, an association between Area B and Area C, which contains a Mississippian assemblage of materials, is not postulated. Based on the manufacturing trajectory, with its primary emphasis on large-flake manufacture, and the almost-exclusive selection of Burlington cherts, and the production of bifacial tools, a date in the Archaic period is suggested for the Area B assemblage. Some specific tool types found in this area, discussed below, may support this hypothesis.

Chert Tools

Area B yielded 201 chert tools or tool fragments (Table 7). Nearly one-half of these tools are classified as retouched/utilized flakes. Approximately 10% of all chert items recovered from Area B exhibit evidence of utilization or retouch and are categorized as tools. This is a relatively high percentage of utilization for an assemblage, but the biased collection techniques mentioned above may be responsible for this apparent anomaly. The following sections describe the individual tool categories recovered from Area B.

Projectile Points . There are five projectile points, weighing 70.0 g, from Area B (Plate 44). Two of these were reworked into scrapers, but are discussed in this section because of their diagnostic forms. Table 8 summarizes the attributes of each tool (see also. Figure 31). A variety of types is present, including one Matanzas, one Godar Side-Notched, and two Mule Road (Class I). A fifth type remains uncategorized, but bears 192

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Plate 44. Projectile Points from Area B 193

Table 8. some resemblance to a Middle Woodland Snyders type or to an expanding-base, corner-notched Titterington phase point type recognized previously at the Go-Kart North site (ll-Mo-552 N) (Fortier 1984). The other types are associated with the early Late Archaic or Middle Archaic periods in the American Bottom. The Mule Road type, defined by McElrath at the George Reeves site (McElrath and Finney 1987:62-71), dates to around 1700 B.C. and occurs with a Late Archaic Titterington-like assemblage of artifacts at that site. The Matanzas and Godar Side-Notched types usually date to the Middle Archaic period, and at this site they may be associated with the buried Middle Archaic occupation located just 150 m southeast of Area B. It is not possible to make a positive association between these point types and the remaining concentration of chert tools and debitage in Area vicinity. B. However, the points do reflect an Archaic occupation in this It should also be pointed out that the points are widely scattered and, with the exception of the Matanzas point, do not occur within the main area of material concentration. Several of the points were found in the northernmost periphery of this scatter within soils that may have been secondarily deposited. This is much the same situation as the occurrence of Middle Woodland pottery in this area.

bifacial Unhafted Bifaces (Knives/Scrapers) . There are seven knives/scrapers, weighing 281.9 g, from Area B (Table 9; Plate 43). These are relatively large tools characterized by modification on both the dorsal and ventral surfaces of large reduction flakes. Retouch usually occurs on 100% of the tool's circumference. Three of the tools are made from brown-banded Crescent Hills quarry chert (type 6); one is made from white glossy Burlington (type 1); the remaining tools are made from white oolitic Burlington chert (type 3). Three of the knives/scrapers have been heat treated. Tool shapes vary and include ovate, laurel leaf, crescent, rectangular, and irregular forms. A contracting or oval base occurs on five of the seven tools. One of the tools may represent a Mule Road point failure (McElrath and Finney 1987:84-97). This tool has a contracting base, but the upper portion of the tool has been broken, probably during manufacture (Plate 45a). Another of the contracting base tools probably represents a Mule Road Class II point (Plate 45b). These "points" appear to resemble the Ledbetter points defined by Lewis and Lewis (1961) for the . Several occur at the George Reeves site, where they date to about 1700 B.C. However, those examples are better regarded as unhafted bifaces than as points and may represent failures along a trajectory toward the classic Ledbetter point type. The items from Area B represent a final tool form. The one Mule Road point failure mentioned above exhibits retouch along edges that normally would have been trimmed if it were a classic Ledbetter type. One item, which has a contracting base, is broken at the midsection (Plate 45c). Its ovate form resembles the kind of base found on small Wadlow knives from the Titterington phase. This form is associated with assemblages dating from 2000 to 1700 B.C. in this area and is associated with the Mule Road unhafted biface forms. 195

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Unifacial Flake Scrapers . Twenty unifacial flake scrapers, weighing 595.6 g, were recovered from Area B (Plate 46). These artifacts are characterized by continuous unifacial edge retouch along at least 25% of the artifact. These tools are all made from relatively large reduction flakes. Of the 20 artifacts, 11 are made from Crescent Hills quarry chert (type 6), seven from white oolitic Burlington chert (type 3), one from white glossy Burlington (type 1), and one from an unknown chert type. Only two tools exhibit evidence of heat alteration. Presumably, these tools were utilized as small knives and scrapers and suggest meat- or hide-processing activities at the site.

(iravcrs/Spurs and Notched Graver . Fourteen gravers/spurs, weighing 123.5 g, were recover??d from Area B (Plate 47a-i). These tools are characterized by a sharp triangular point or spur modified on one end of a small reduction flake. ' A continuous pattern of retouch is found along one edge of the graver/spur. In several cases, flake scars along this edge appear to have come from actual use. Nine of these tools are made from white oolitic Burlington chert (type 3); four are made from Crescent Hills quarry chert (type 6); one is made from Cobden Ball chert (type 13). None of the artifacts appear to have been thermally altered. Presumably, these tools served as cutting or incising tools, perhaps for cutting bone. There is also one notched graver, weighing 10.0 g. It is made from Crescent Hills quarry chert (type 6) and is also not heat treated. This is the only tool exhibiting a graver-like spur and a patterned notch. Notched flakes form a separate tool category.

Notched Flakes/Spokeshaves . There are 33 notched f lakes/spokeshaves weighing 197.4 g, from Area B (Plate 48). This is the second largest tool category recognized in this area. Each artifact is characterized by one or more intentional notches along one or more lateral edges of a small reduction flake. Approximately 50%-60% of the notches appear to have resulted from utilization. The flake scars within the notches have both jagged and ground edges indicating their use on both soft and hard materials. Keeley has suggested that edge notches or concavities can be produced by whittling or scraping wood or bone (Keeley 1980). Microwear analysis was not conducted on these tools so comments about wear are only conjecture Of these artifacts, 11 are made from white oolitic Burlington chert (type 3); 13 are from Crescent Hills quarry chert (type 6); eight are from white glossy Burlington chert (type 1); one is made from an unknown chert type. Approximately 24% of these artifacts are thermally altered. Some of these are smudged. None of the Crescent Hills quarry artifacts exhibit heat alteration.

from Denticulates . Two denticulates , weighing 62.4 g, were recovered Area B. These artifacts are characterized by a single serrated edge located on a thick reduction flake. They are made from Crescent Hills quarry chert (type 6) and white oolitic Burlington chert (type 3). Neither artifact is thermally altered. The Crescent Hills quarry denticulate contains approximately six or seven small notches placed on the ventral side of the flake; the opposing lateral edge exhibits occasional retouch, but no notching (Plate 47j). The other denticulate 198

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Plate 46. Unifacial Scrapers from Area B 199

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tools, weighing Core Scrapers/Edse Tools . Nine core scrapers/edge tools are made 1,002.8 g, were recovered from Area B (Plate 49). These from cores or expended cores and are characterized by the presence of one or several blunted edges, which are sometimes trimmed down further through use or by patterned retouch (sharpening). Three or possibly four of these artifacts have been heat treated. Six of the tools are made from white oolitic Burlington chert (type 3); three are made from white glossy Burlington (type 1). These artifacts have multiple flake facets and are mostly ovate to irregular in shape. One of the artifacts resembles the kind of steep-edged crescentic scrapers often found on Middle Woodland sites in this area. However, steeped-scrapers can also appear in Archaic assemblages. Moreover, core scrapers/edge tools occur during virtually every time period in the American Bottom, although they are somewhat scarcer in Mississippian assemblages.

weighing 121.5 Biface Fragments . There were 12 biface fragments, g, recovered from Area B (Plate 50). All but two of these fragments represent the tips and midsections of bifacial knives or projectile points. One fragment represents a contracting basal portion of perhaps portion a Mule Road point failure (Plate 50a). The other fragment is a forms of a midsection. The tips and upper blades range from narrow, ovate to broad, triangular forms. Three fragments are made of white glossy Burlington chert (type 1); three are made of white oolitic Burlington two are (type 3); three are made of Crescent Hills quarry chert (type 6); of an unknown, local chert type; one is made from Fern Glen chert (type fragments 10). Five of the fragments have been heat treated. All of the determine exhibit a horizontal break across the blade. It is difficult to whether these breaks occurred from usage or as a result of manufacture. Biface fragments are very common artifacts in Archaic assemblages in this area and are usually assumed to have been part of hunting or meat-processing activities at a site. However, it is also possible that at least some of these fragments represent manufacturing rejectage.

159.1 was recovered from Area A (ISU Hoe . Only one hoe, weighing g, assemblage. Area B) (Plate 51). It is not associated with the Area B the Middle It is probably a Middle Woodland artifact and associated with Woodland pottery found in this area. It is too small to be associated hoes with the Mississippian occupation in Area C. Similar Middle Woodland and hoe fragments have been found at the Holding site (Williams 1989). reduction It is made from a large white oolitic Burlington chert (type 3) flake. On the dorsal surface of the hoe, gloss occurs from the midpoint ventral of the artifact to the broadest end. Gloss occurs over the entire surface. The most intense area of gloss on either surface occurs along hoe is the edge of the broadest end-portion of the artifact. The 11.7 cm long, and 6.8 cm wide at the broadest end. It has a maximum thickness of 1.9 cm. 202

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Plate 51. Hoe from Area A 205

flakes, Retouched/Utilized Makes . There were 97 retouched/utilized weighing 728.6 g, recovered from Area B. This represents nearly 50% of the tools recovered from this area. These artifacts are characterized by one or more irregularly retouched or utilized areas. There is a relatively high percentage (10%) of large reduction flakes in this category, but most items are small, irregular, triangular secondary flakes. Of these flakes, 33 are made from white oolitic Burlington chert (type 3); 39 are made from Crescent Hills quarry chert (type 6); 18 are made from white glossy Burlington chert (type 1); seven are made from unknown or unidentifiable chert types. Only 13 retouched flakes display heat alteration.

Nonchert Lithic Resources

A variety of nonchert lithic debitage was recovered from Area B and is enumerated in Table 10. All of this material can be procured from local streambeds criss-crossing and exiting the nearby bluffs. The rough rock, igneous cobbles, and waterworn pebbles derive from glacial till deposits. Clay ironstone, which is a kind of hematitic or limonitic mudstone, occurs in several of the local streams near this site (Joyce A. Williams, personal communication, 1987). This material commonly occurs at sites in the Edelhardt Lake locality but is rare south of the Cahokia site area. Clay ironstone was probably utilized as a pigment. Sandstone also outcrops in the nearby uplands, although it is rare in the Area B assemblage. Finally, the origin of the fossiliferous breccia is enigmatic, but it can occur either in limestone formations or in sinkholes in the surrounding uplands. These pieces may be associated with the historic lime gravel found in this area.

lithics, Utilized Nonchert Lithics . Only four items of utilized nonchert weighing 203.7 g, were recovered from Area B (see Table 10). These artifacts include a piece of ground sandstone, a ground igneous rock fragment, a ground igneous fragment, and a piece of burned clay. None of these artifacts are diagnostic, but several indicate possible plant-processing activities in this vicinity (mano and metate).

Discussion

Over 10,000 g of material (nearly 2,400 items) were recovered from the various IDOT, ISU, and UIUC surveys conducted in Area B (previously MM-48) between 1976 and 1985. It is probable that some of this material has been redeposited and/or represents debris from several different time periods or occupations. The pottery and the hoe are probably associated with a Middle Woodland occupation in this vicinity. Middle Woodland materials occur sporadically along most of the Edelhardt Lake meander bank. A large Hopewell site lies approximately 500 m southeast of Area 206

Table 10. Nonchert Lithic Materials from Area B

Material N Wt(g)

UTILIZED 207

B, and the Edelhardt Lake locality has yielded several other Middle Woodland occupation areas (Jackson 1987, 1988). The majority of the material from Area B, however, is related to one component or occupation. The rather ubiquitous use of Burlington cherts, the similarity in tool form and manufacture (bifacial industry), and the co-occurrence of diagnostic projectile point types and manufacturing failures points toward a single community effort. The nature of this community is unknown. They did not leave behind pits, hearths, or structures, so their presence along this bank may have been ephemeral. They did leave behind an unusually high number of tools for an occupation without features. Some of these tools and a small percentage of the debitage were thermally altered, either intentionally or unintentionally. This suggests that hearths or fires were present but have not survived. Most of the tools appear to have functioned as scrapers or knives, perhaps for processing meat or hides, and one category--the notched flakes--may have been utilized for cutting through bone or whittling wood. Tool preparation is evinced by the full trajectory of manufacture, including expended cores at one end of the spectrum and small thinning flakes at the other end. Several grinding-stone fragments occur and may indicate plant-processing activities. All in all, these tools suggest a generalized, multiple-activity locus of short duration. The date of this occupation is more difficult to determine. It is probably a Late Archaic occupation based on the small handful of Late Archaic projectile points, the bifacial tool industry, and the Mule Road point failures, which McElrath has identified as being associated with the Late Archaic Titterington phase (McElrath and Finney 1987:47). Very little is known of this phase, which dates in the American Bottom to 2300-1900 B.C., and may have persisted as late as 1700 B.C. in the form recognized at the George Reeves site and at this site. There are a number of large Titterington phase sites present on or adjacent to the Wood River Terrace, north of this site (Thomas E. Berres, personal communication, 1986). It is possible that this occupation represents a short-term extractive camp tied to those larger settlements. The more characteristic artifacts of this phase, such as Etley knives or Wadlow knives, may not have been utilized at extractive camps, or perhaps by the end of the Titterington phase such diagnostic artifacts had dropped out of the tool assemblage.

Area C

Area C lies approximately 100 m south of Area B and 50-75 m north of a dirt field road demarcating the Keller-Nochta properties. The original concentration of material, which was designated MM-47, was identified as being adjacent to the field road, but UIUC surveys found a more focused distribution 50-75 m to the north. A small east-to-west trending ravine generally marks the northern boundary of Area C. A limited scatter of material was found just north of the ravine and has 208 been included with the main concentration in Area C. The main concentration lies east of the eastern right-of-way limits, in the higher portion of the old Edelhardt Lake natural levee bank. General surveys in 1984 were conducted outside of the right-of-way, but a controlled grid survey and machine excavation in 1985 were restricted to areas within the right-of-way. No features were encountered within the right-of-way. The site area covers approximately 6,400 m^, or about 70% less area than defined by the 1978 ISU investigations (Hawks and Phillippe 1984:73). Nearly 2,000 items, including historic debris, were collected during various surveys of Area C. It was obvious from the initial UIUC 1984 general survey that this area was clearly distinguishable from Area B to the north, both spatially and in terms of the recovered materials. Small flake points, hoe flakes, and Mississippian ceramics found in Area C indicated the presence of a Mississippian component. Also, large reduction flakes and bifacial tools were scarce in this area. Area C yielded 173 chert tools and 164 ceramic sherds.

Ceramics , by Douglas K. Jackson

Area C, despite its small areal extent, is characterized by a high density of ceramic material, but interstate right-of-way plans affected only the far western edge of the dense Area C material scatter. Ceramic material was recovered from Area C by two methods: general collections from the surface and 10 x 10 m controlled surface survey units. General collection material was gathered on several occasions by different individuals in the fall of 1984 and spring of 1985. This material originated from the portion of the Area C scatter that lies outside of the interstate alignment. The controlled surface collection conducted in the spring of 1985 consisted of fifty 10 x 10 m sguares extending well to the north of the main debris scatter in Area C (see Figure 28). These collection units were situated primarily within the low-lying swale area and extended only to the lower portions of the ridge. Eleven of the controlled surface collection units, concentrated at the southern end of the scatter (Figure 32), contained ceramic material. Sherds were not found more than 20 m inside the right-of-way, but the density increased rapidly to the east. Two squares higher on the ridge than the other squares contained 25 and 28 sherds each, thereby giving an approximation of the sherd densities that could be expected to occur outside of the right-of-way in the main scatter area. As a whole, the types of ceramics recovered by the controlled and general collections are nearly identical; each consists of approximately 80% shell-tempered sherds. Most of the sherds are small; however, the sherds from the general collections tend to be larger and in better condition as can be expected given the selective process of retrieval. Table 11 lists the combined ceramic materials from both of the collections. Cultural components, either Middle Woodland or Mississippian, were assigned to 136 (82,9%) of the 164 total sherds collected; the remaining sherds could not be positively assigned to either 209

Area C 210

Table 11. Ceramic Materials from Area C

Surface Temper Treatment Wt(g) Component

Shell 211 of these two components or any other component. Linder et al. (1978) state that Late Bluff (Emergent Mississippian) ceramics are present in this area of the site. It may be that some of the grit- or grog- tempered sherds are in fact Emergent Mississippian but our collections lack definitive diagnostic sherds from this period. The Middle Woodland component is represented by only three sherds, two decorated and one plain. All three sherds originate from the general surface collections. Decorations on the sherds consist of incised lines; one sherd has a single incised line and the other, both horizontally and diagonally incised lines (zone incised). The plain sherd is assigned to this component because of the heavily sand- tempered paste. The limited number of Middle Woodland sherds and the small size of the decorated sherds prevents any discussion of the temporal placement of this component within the Middle Woodland period. Other portions of the large Nochta site did produce evidence of Middle Woodland occupation, and one area in particular, situated approximately 500 m to the southeast, was described as a base camp or village (Linder et al. 1978). Havana and Hopewell ceramics were reported from surface contexts. Limited excavations were conducted here in association with potential borrow activity and ceramics were recovered from below the plowzone. More than likely, the limited Area C Middle Woodland occupation is related to this larger' occupation, which appears to date to the middle of the Middle Woodland period. The main occupation of Area C belongs to the Mississippian component. Of all the sherds recovered, 133 (81.19%), have been assigned to this component. Although a large number of sherds lack intact surfaces, sherds with discernible surface treatments are dominated by plain and slipped (red and dark) surfaces, which, in conjunction with the presence of one Ramey Incised body sherd, appear to indicate a Stirling phase occupation. A small portion of a rolled lip from the UIUC investigations and another from the ISU investigations (Hawks and Phillippe 1984) also support a Stirling phase designation. The main scatter of Area C contains a high density of ceramic debris an as well as other debris from the Mississippian component, and clearly intensive or extended settlement occurred at this location. This area is in contrast to Area B and other areas of the site affected by borrow pit activities, where Mississippian ceramics occur only sparsely. The soils of Area C are similar to most other areas of the site; therefore, differential preservation of ceramic material does not seem to be a factor in the abundance of ceramic remains in Area C versus other aress.

Lithic Debitage

Chert and nonchert materials comprise 90% of the materials recovered up from Area C. Of these materials, nonutilized chert debitage makes 82% of of the lithic assemblage. The Area C Mississippian collection nonutilized chert weighs nearly twice as much as the Archaic assemblage of nonutilized chert from Area B. However, this is due to the rather 212

remarkable recovery of 49 expended cores from Area C. All in all. Area C produced an unexpectedly large surface assemblage for such a small Mississippian site.

assemblage duplicates in kind, Sources . For the most part, the Area C if not in quantity, the same resources as in the Area B assemblage. For example, nearly 78% of the chert debitage by number from Area C is made from local white Burlington cherts (types 1 and 3). Unique to Area C, = however, is a relatively high quantity of (type 9) (N 96). This chert is imported from southern Illinois. In Mississippian contexts, it usually appears in the form of hoes or as hoe flakes. Other tool forms from this chert are rare. Other cherts from Area C, not found in Area B, are Fern Glen (type 10) and Mansker (type 16) (see Figure 30). Fern Glen is a local chert associated with Fern Glen formations located primarily in eastern Missouri, and Mansker is a southern Illinoian chert. The only nonlocal nonchert materials recovered from Area C are one fragment of ground hematite and a single cube of galena. These items will be discussed in a later section. Local nonchert debitage consists of rough rock, clay ironstone, waterworn pebbles, sandstone, igneous rock, and a quartz cobble. All of these items could have been procured from sources within a 5-km radius of the site.

range of chert Chert Manufacturing Trajectory . Area C yielded a full production stages (Table 12), including block fractures, expended multidirectional cores, secondary and primary decortication flakes, reduction flakes, and thinning flakes. In addition, a single blade was recovered that probably does not relate to the Mississippian assemblage. Nearly 94% of the debitage consists of reduction and thinning flakes. As previously mentioned, there are 49 expended cores from Area C; all but seven of these are made from Burlington cherts (types 1, 3, and 6) (see Table 12). Five of these seven are made from Mill Creek chert (type 9) and two from an unknown chert type. The recovery of Mill Creek expended cores, as well as larger reduction flakes, is unusual at Mississippian sites in this area. Usually, Mill Creek chert appears either as a completed tool (hoes) or as a by-product of tool sharpening or usage (hoe flakes). It is conceivable that the production of bifacial tools occurred at this site. The quantity of debitage, particularly the rejectage at the initial stage of production, was no doubt the reason Munson referred to this site originally as the Keller Workshop (Linder et al. 1978:A-11). A relatively low number of primary and secondary decortication flakes were recovered, suggesting that cores had been imported into the site after initial cortical trimming at another location. Reduction of these cores and final thinning or sharpening of artifacts appear to have been the major manufacturing activities at this site.

Chert Tools

Area C yielded 173 chert tools weighing 975.4 g. Just over 50% of these tools are retouched/utilized flakes (Table 13). In contrast to the 213

Table 12, Chert Debitage from Area C

Primary Secondary , Block Decortication Decortication Expended Fractures Flakes Flakes Cores

Chert Type N Wt(g) Wt(g) N Wt(g) N Wt(g)

Burlington (Type 1) 1 4.5 34 760.7

Burlington (Type 3) 2 26.7 1 11.9 5 127.4 Mill Creek (Type 9) 2 63.2 5 148.8

Burlington (Type 6) 3 95.0 Ste. Genevieve Red (Type 7) - Fern Glen (Type 10) Mansker (Type 16) 4.4 Unknown 3 38.7

Total 7 49 1,174.2 214

Table 13. Chert Tools from Area C

Category Wt(g)

Retouched flake (less than 10% edge ret 254.3 Retouched flake (10%-50% edge retouch) 204.0 Hoe flakes 116.3 Unifacial flake scrapers 181.3 Gravers/spurs 49.0 Microdrills and fragments 12.7 Biface fragments 67.8 Projectile points/fragments 13.1 Notched flakes 16.4 Core scrapers/edge tools 47.0 Bifacial knife/scraper/perforator Retouched blade

Total

Table 14. Attributes of Projectile Points from Area C

Expanding Expandi Expanding Expanding Straight Expanding Completeness Complete Complet Fragment Complete Complete Fragment Notching Side Side Side Side Side Unmodified Chert type* Type 1 Type 1 Type 1 Type 3 Type 1 Type 3 Heat alteration Yes Yes Basal width (cm) 1.1 Stem width (cm) 0.9 Stem length cm) 0.6 Shoulder width (c Blade length (cm) Max. thickness (c Max. length (cm)

*See Appendix E.

Note: See Figure 31 for a guide to projectile point attribute measurements. 215 collection from Area B, there are very few bifacial tools: only three notched flakes, a possible pick fragment, and 32 hoe flakes. In addition, there are a number of small-flake projectile points and nine microdrill fragments. On the whole, this represents a typical Mississippian chert tool assemblage. The only unusual aspect of this assemblage is the occurrence of so many tools on the surface, which suggests either that pits and structures have been heavily disrupted by plowing in this area, or that this occupation indeed functioned as an intensive production site. The answer to this question lies buried outside the right-of-way, in the heart of the material concentration.

rrojectile Points/ Fragments . There are seven projectile points/fragments, weighing 13.1 g, from Area C (Table 14; Plate 52a-g) . Five of these are unifacially flaked points or point fragments. These points are generally diagnostic of Late Woodland, Emergent Mississippian, and Mississippian cultures in this area. Four of the five unifacial points are heat treated. All five are made from white Burlington chert (types 1 and 3). The remaining two points are bifacial artifacts. One is a contracting-stemmed variety made of white oolitic Burlington chert (type 3). It is not heat treated and is broken at the midsection (Plate 52a). These points are part of the Belknap type cluster recognized in the lower Illinois River valley but are generally designated Dickson/Waubesa types in the American Bottom (Farnsworth and Asch 1986:371). They are associated with Early and Middle Woodland cultures in Illinois. The other bifacial point may represent a Merom expanding-stemmed variety, associated with terminal Late Archaic groups in the American Bottom (Plate 52b). This artifact has been heat altered and is made from white Burlington chert (type 1). Small bifacial points are not, however, unknown in the Mississippian period, and it is possible that this point is associated with the Mississippian assemblage at this site. Two of the small flake points (Plate 52c-d) represent Wanda types (Kelly et al. 1987:319-322; Munson 1971:11). These points are characterized by wide side notches and slightly expanding bases. Both have been heat treated. This type occurs initially in Late Woodland Patrick phase assemblages in this area and persists through the Mississippian period.

Unifacial F'lake Scrapers . There are 13 unifacial flake scrapers, weighing 181.3 g, in the Area C assemblage (Plate 53a-e). These artifacts are characterized by the occurrence of unifacially patterned edge retouch along 50% or more of the tool. They range in shape from irregular to oval. One artifact is rectangular. All of the flake scrapers are made from Burlington cherts: six of type 1, four of type 3, and three of type 6. Five of the 13 artifacts have been heat treated or secondarily burned.

Gravers/Spurs . There are nine gravers/spurs, weighing 49.0 g, from Area C (Plate 53f-j). These tools are characterized by the presence of a sharp, accentuated spur on the end of a reduction flake. Utilization or retouch scars are visible along one side of the spur and sometimes extend down the flake on that same side. Three of the gravers are made from white Burlington glossy (type 1); two are made from white Burlington oolitic (type 3); two are made from Crescent Hills quarry (type 6); the 216

^ C 217

^V#

.4* .

218 other two types are indeterminate. Three of the artifacts are heat treated.

Microdrills/Fragments and Retouched Blade . Nine whole and fragmented microdrills, weighing 12.7 g, were recovered from Area C (Plate 52h-n) Of these artifacts, three are complete, four represent tips and midsections, and two are midsection segments. Each is characterized by its narrow, elongated form that comes to a tip at one end and exhibits retouch and/or utilization scars along one or both lateral edges. Two of the complete microdrills are bifacially retouched, whereas the remaining drills or fragments are unifacially utilized or retouched. The tips are blunted and exhibit rounding. Striations are not present, but several of the tips exhibit a slight gloss. All of the fragments and complete artifacts are made of Burlington white glossy chert (type 1), and two, possibly three, are heat treated or altered. The three complete drills are 1.8, 4.2, and 3.3 cm long. A single retouched blade, weighing 1.4 g and made of white glossy Burlington chert (type 1), may have functioned as a microdrill. This artifact is made of a flat, multi-scar blade and possesses unifacial retouch along both lateral edges leading to the tip. The tip is relatively broad and exhibits a slight gloss. Microdrills are an important aspect of Mississippian tool assemblages. It is obvious that several different formal varieties occur, and both unifacial and bifacial retouching and use are evident. In the absence of microwear analysis, it is not possible to determine on what materials these tools were utilized. leather and hide punching and shell drilling are the expected possibilities (Keeley 1980; Yerkes 1983). The occurrence of so many of these fragments from the surface context is unusual; these tools are usually found inside structures in the American Bottom. This may provide further inferential evidence that Mississippian features, perhaps structures, have been truncated by plowing in this area.

I Ice Flakes . Thirty-two hoe flakes, weighing 116.3 g, were recovered from Area C. Hoe flakes are flakes that exhibit a gloss or sheen, which is usually confined to the dorsal surface. All but one flake is made from Mill Creek chert (type 9). The odd flake is made of white glossy Burlington chert (type 1). These flakes represent either use or sharpening breakage from spades, or hoes. They are a very common element at Mississippian sites. None of the hoe flakes are heat altered. It is possible that as many as six hoes were once present at this site based on the color and textural differences evident among these flakes. One of these is a Burlington chert hoe. The chert colors on the five Mill Creek hoes are as follows: light gray (7. SYR 7/0); light gray (lOYR 7/2); light yellowish brown (lOYR 6/4); gt ay (lOYR 6/1); pale red (2.5YR 6/2). An unusually large quantity of Mill Creek debitage was recovered from this area, including five expended cores and 89 nonutilized flakes. Perhaps more significantly, only one Mill Creek tool (a bifacial pick fragment) is present in this assemblage. This suggests that the final trimming of hoes, as well as their sharpening after use, represents the primary use of Mill Creek chert at this site. Two large debitage block-fracture flakes made of Mill Creek chert support the assumed activity of initial Mill Creek core reduction. The expended cores are enigmatic because 219

flakes, not larger hoes, were the desired end product, and only seven Mill Creek flakes exhibit any evidence of utilization or retouch.

Notched I'lakes . Three notched flakes, weighing 16.4 g, were found in Area C (Plate 54a-c). These artifacts exhibit one or more intentionally placed notches. Two of the artifacts are made from white Burlington chert (type 1), whereas the third is made from Ste. Genevieve red (type 7). The function of these artifacts is unknown although the multiple-notched items may have served as shredders.

Biface Fragments . Nine biface fragments, weighing 67.8 g, were recovered from Area C (Plate 54d-f). Two of these fragments represent tip and midsection segments, whereas the remaining seven are midsection fragments. Bifacial tools are not common in Mississippian assemblages, but they do occur. Most of these fragments appear to represent portions of knives or scrapers. Six of the fragments are of Burlington white chert (types 1 and 3), two are of an unknown chert type, and one is of Mill Creek chert (type 9). The latter artifact is an elongated tip and midsection portion of a small pick or narrow gouge (Plate 54f ) . There is a slight gloss near the tip. Three of the biface fragments are heat treated or altered.

Core Scraper and Edge Tool . The core scraper and edge tool together weigh 47.0 g. These tools exhibit utilization and retouch along one edge of an expended core or block-fracture flake. The core scraper exhibits steep retouch and is made from white glossy Burlington chert (type 1). The edge tool possesses an edge that appears blunted from usage. It is made from a local, indeterminate chert type. Neither tool is heat treated.

Bifacial Kmfe/Scraper/Perforator . One bifacial knife/scraper/perforator,

weighing 12.1 g, was recovered from Area C (Plate 54g) . This artifact is made from white oolitic Burlington chert (type 3), heat treated, irregularly shaped, and bifacially worked along its entire circumference. It may represent some kind of tanged drill or perforator and is probably not a Mississippian artifact.

Retouched/Utilized Makes . In Table 13, the 89 retouched/utilized flakes, weighing 458.3 g, are divided into two groups, those with retouch/utilization on less than 10% of the flake's margin and those with retouch/utilization on 10%-50% of the flake edge. Any flake with retouch on more than 50% of the flake's margin is placed in the flake scraper category. Just over 79% of this tool category is made from one of three Burlington chert types found at this site (i.e., types 1, 3, and 6). The remaining flakes are made from Mill Creek (type 9) (8%), Kaolin (type 15) (3%), and unknown types (approximately 10%). Just over 24% of the retouched/utilized flakes are heat treated or smudged. 220 i.'^

U K 1

Plate 54. Notched Flakes (a-c), Biface Fragments (d-e), Pick (f), and Bifacial Knife/Scraper/Perforator (g) from Area C 221

Utilized Nonchert Lithic Materials

Nine utilized nonchert lithic tools or fragments, weighing 1,152.6 g, were recovered from Area C (Table 15). This total includes four ground igneous rock fragments, two igneous manos, one sandstone mano, one piece of ground hematite, and one worked galena r-nbe. The cultural association of these materials can only be conjectured because of the surface contexts, but nonchert tools or materials such as these would not be out of place in a Mississippian tool assemblage. The galena cube is ground on two facets and was probably used as pigment. The hematite chunk exhibits several ground surfaces, which are extremely polished. Both the hematite and the galena were probably imported to the site from outside of the American Bottom, although sources for both materials apparently occur along the upper and middle portions of the Meremac River, south of St. Louis (Joyce A. Williams, personal communication, 1987). The occurrence of manos in the Mississippian occupation suggests that plant grinding and processing were conducted at this site.

Historic Materials from Areas A, B, and C

A broad scatter of modern and historic debris was found in each of the site areas within the mainline portion of the Nochta site (Tables 16, 17, and 18). The various surface surveys netted 689 items, weighing 2,792.1 g. The majority of this material consists of nondiagnostic lime gravel and cinder/slag. Also occurring over this area are fragments of brick, glass, crockery, porcelain, iron, bone, and shell. There are no historic homesteads recorded in this area, and it is likely that most of this material stems from dumping by the present landowner and his immediate predecessors. The porcelain and crockery probably postdate the 1920s. About three times more gravel was found in Area B than in Area C, whereas cinder/slag occurred almost exclusively in Area C. This probably represents two separate disposal episodes. It is not uncommon to find buried cinder/slag piles on American Bottom farms because many of the early mechanical tractors produced these by-products. The lime gravel is more enigmatic, but it may relate to construction activities on the adjacent Cahokia Canal or to the application of agricultural lime in the fields. 222

Table 15. Nonchert Lithic Materials from Area C

Material N Wt(g)

UTILIZED 223

Table 17. Modern/Historic Materials from Area C

Category N Wt(g)

Cinder/slag/coal

14

Interpretation

The mainline portion of the Nochta site produced two distinct areas of material concentration, which appear to represent discrete occupations. The northern area, designated Area B, relates to a Late Archaic occupation, whereas the southern area, designated Area C, is associated with a Mississippian occupation. No features were encountered in either area. The absence of subplowzone features is enigmatic because the material concentrations are relatively dense in both areas (Table 19). As much as 90% of Area B was machine excavated, and very little material was recovered from beneath the plowzone. The original occupation surface, therefore, must have been within the present plowzone. Any features have long since been destroyed by plowing, and the occupational surface, which may have contained well over 200 lithic tools at one time, has been totally disrupted. Some of these materials have been translocated downslope; as a result the original spatial limits of the occupation can only be estimated. Most of the activity was probably confined to an area measuring 50 x 100 m, focused on or near the apex of the bank.

Table 19. Summary of Materials Recovered from Areas A-C

Areas A

Material

Nonutilized chert Utilized chert Nonutilized nonchert lithics Utilized nonchert lithics Ceramics Burned clay Modern/Historic debris

Total 226

In Area C, excavations were limited by the right-of-way to the westernmost extent of the material scatter. This area was located downslope from the main concentration. It is likely that there are still subsurface features present on the higher slope edge and apex of the ridge. The upper portions of features are probably being affected by plowing. This area produced an exceptionally large and diverse material inventory for a Mississippian occupation of this size. It is probable, therefore, that structures and pits are being truncated at this time. The main concentration of material and the focus of occupation currently lies between the interstate right-of-way and the Nochta borrow pit areas. The present landowner is attempting to maintain this area as a field road between the areas of construction. This occupation will likely be adversely affected in the future if the borrow pit lakes are developed for recreation.

The Late Archaic Occupation in Area B

Without a community plan or a definable occupation surface, it is difficult to discuss the nature of the activities conducted by the Late Archaic occupants in Area B. Chronologically sensitive artifacts are few in number, but an early Late Archaic component is suggested. The presence of Mule Road points and failures has only been recognized at one other site in the American Bottom prior to this excavation (at the George Reeves site). McElrath has suggested that these materials relate to a final Titterington phase development (McElrath and Finney 1987). At the George Reeves site, Mule Road points and failures are also associated with the better-known Etley knife and point varieties characteristic of the Titterington phase in this area (Fortier 1984). At the Nochta site, the Etley forms do not occur. Instead, the few diagnostic point types at this site, which are mostly side notched, point to a Late Archaic affiliation. The association of these point types with the main lithic concentration can only be conjectured because of the surface contexts. In any case, based on the Mule Road points within the main concentration, a date of ca. 1700 B.C. is probably reasonable for this occupation. The occurrence of this Late Archaic assemblage on this bank provides us with an indirect confirmation of the geomorphological processes related to the nearby Edelhardt Lake meander channel. Approximately 100 m east of the ridge on which lie Areas B and C, there is a buried Middle Archaic occupation. This occupation occurs approximately 0.75 to 1 m below the present surface. The occupation has been dated to ca. 4500 B.C. (uncorrected). Between 4500 and 1700 B.C. at least 1 m of clayey soil was deposited in this area. This gap between cultural occupation dates coincides almost precisely with the suggested dates of Edelhardt Lake channel activity, (i.e., 5,500 to 3,600 B.P.). It is clear that the meter of soil deposited in this area relates directly to the formation of the Edelhardt Lake meander natural levee. These are clayey backswamp deposits thrown over this bank edge during periods of channel flooding. .

227

Such periodic flooding clearly terminated the access to this area by Archaic peoples following 5,500 B.P., and it was not until the Edelhardt Lake meander had been cut off (ca. 3,600 B.P.) that new occupants could relocate on this bank edge. At that time, the Edelhardt Lake scar would have approximated a large marsh or possibly a low-lying lake. From 3,600 B.P. onward, the bank edge could have supported any number of occupations, including the ones in Areas B and C and the Middle Woodland occupation farther south (Area H) The wide variety of tools provides some hint about the activities conducted in Area B. There is a heavy emphasis on bifacial knives/scrapers, unifacial scrapers, and small cutting and engraving tools. This suggests meat- or hide-processing activities. The rather scarce assemblage of grinders and manos indicates somewhat less reliance on plant processing at this location. It is probable that this occupation once represented a temporary hunting/meat-processing station. It may well represent a rare example of a Titterington phase extractive locus or special-purpose camp. In addition to the upland George Reeves site example (McElrath and Finney 1987) and the more extensive Go-Kart North base camp (Fortier 1984), Nochta Mainline Area B provides a broader view of the Titterington settlement and subsistence system in this area.

The Mississippian Occupation in Area C

Of the many cultural entities that have occurred in the American Bottom, more is known of the Mississippian time period than any other period. Around the unique town and mound centers are interspersed isolated homesteads or farmsteads. Emerson and Milner (1982) have defined higher these as community loci, with each community restricted to the ridges dotting the American Bottom floodplain. These communities basically operated economically, and to some degree socially, in a self-sufficient manner. However, they were tied together as a single polity, perhaps unified by the religious strength of the Cahokia Mound center and site. Despite various nuances in material culture, the Mississippian community as a whole was relatively homogeneous. Settlement plans and house types are similar throughout the area, and vessel forms, lithic technologies, hoe/spade types, and subsistence practices are virtually identical from site to site. Of course, changes settlement did occur in house size, ceramic assemblage, and probably pattern throughout the Mississippian period, and various phases have been recognized that highlight these changes. The Mississippian occupation within the Nochta Mainline site probably may be too dates to the Stirling phase (ca. A.C. 1050-1150), but this size precise, given the paucity of diagnostic pottery. Based on the large occupation of the surface collection, it is conjectured that this et al. 1984), represents a typical Mississippian nodal community (Milner which may have operated along this ridge locality for several generations. material has been It should be noted that additional Mississippian 228 collected at other locations within the Nochta site proper. According to Kelly, "these materials all appear to represent a series of small Late Woodland and/or Mississippian settlements scattered along the western edge of the Nochta site" (Linder et al. 1978:A-12). The size of the community locus in Area C can only be surmised, but multiple structures with adjacent refuse pits would not be surprising. A wide variety of activities are evidenced by the diverse tool assemblage recovered from the surface. This was predominately a farming community based on the large number of hoe flakes in the assemblage. The presence of expended cores and lithic rejectage suggests that maintenance and trimming of agricultural and other subsistence-related tools was an important activity at this site. The use of the term "workshop site" is probably not warranted for this site despite the relatively great amount of lithic debitage recovered in this area. Other Mississippian homesteads have yielded high percentages of lithic debris (see Fortier 1985), which probably indicates that tool maintenance and manufacture were not unusual activities. Beyond these activities, little more can be deduced from the surface collection. Because of the sheer quantity of material recovered from the surface (see Table 19), this occupation ought to be more thoroughly investigated in the future. It represents a vital cog in the Mississippian settlement chain that extends northward out of the Cahokia Mound center.

The Middle Woodland Occupation In Areas A and C

The surface collection materials indicate the presence of a Middle Woodland occupation located within Areas A, B, and C. This is evidenced by the occurrence of a small sample of diagnostic sherds, several possible Middle Woodland projectile points, and one complete hoe, or digging implement. These products were probably left by occupants of a short-term extractive camp, or they may represent peripheral activities conducted along the bank several hundred meters northwest of the main Middle Woodland settlement in Area H. This settlement probably dates to the middle of the Middle Woodland period (Hopewell) and represents a more stable, horticultural hamlet. Middle Woodland materials are found generally along the surface of the entire Edelhardt Lake natural levee, from this site to the Cahokia site (Fortier 1985:292; Jackson 1987, 1988). Recent FAI-270 investigations have revealed a number of major Middle Woodland hamlets (such as the Holding, Nochta, and Esterlein sites), as well as smaller loci, along this bank, such as the Willoughby site (Fortier 1989; Jackson 1987, 1988). 15

Significance

Only rarely on the FAI-270 Project has a site or site portion warranted a lengthy report when the only materials recovered were derived from the surface. However, in this case the materials from within the mainline portion of the Nochta site are significant in several respects. First, it is important to recognize the existence of high-density sites in the American Bottom floodplain that contain only plowzone material. Such sites have only rarely been encountered by this project. Normally, when large surface concentrations are present there is a nearly 100% chance of finding subsurface features below the plowzone. Excluded from this, of course, are sites that contain only a slight amount of material or an isolated artifact, probably stemming in both situations from redeposition processes or short-term encampments. Although it is very difficult to predict a site's subplowzone environment from its surface assemblage, it is obvious from this example that surface collections are still an absolutely necessary procedure prior to the use of heavy machinery. Interestingly enough, a similar plowzone situation was observed at the nearby Gretchen site (ll-Ms-603), located about 1 km north of Area B on the same bank edge (Fortier 1986). The second significant aspect of this surface analysis has been the recognition of two separate components. This fact was not well recognized in previous surveys of this site. The occurrence of a Late Archaic occupation on this bank surface is extremely significant because it helps confirm, albeit indirectly, the active period of the Edelhardt Lake meander. The gap in Archaic occupation at this site and the bank portion coincides perfectly with the period of Edelhardt Lake channel activity previously proposed based directly on other geomorphological information (Rissing 1987). Aside from this, the recognition of this rather unique Late Archaic component, only previously recognized at the George Reeves site some 30 km to the south, adds a significant dimension to Titterington and perhaps post-Titterington phase developments in this area. Third, the recognition of a Mississippian component in Area C adds yet another link in the settlement chain extending out from Cahokia. It is important to define these units so that the Mississippian settlement pattern around Cahokia is better known. These sites need to be excavated to clarify Cahokia 's sphere of influence over these individual communities. What, for example, is the extent of Cahokia 's influence in the American Bottom? How are these communities different from their counterparts south of Cahokia in terms of subsistence, technology, materials procurement, and community types? On large, multicomponent sites, surface collections are rarely meaningful beyond the recognition of components and an estimate of the site's occupational perimeters. Many of the surface materials have simply been ignored in past reports in favor of the more reliable feature-context 230 materials. Nevertheless, the Nochta Mainline site, with its two single-component concentrations, has afforded the opportunity to study in detail two distinct surface collections that have provided two significantly different sets of data. Despite some component contamination, these collections basically form discrete assemblages relating to those occupations. Based on this assumption, some general site activities have been inferred. This in itself justifies the analysis of these two surface collections. Appendix A: Early Archaic Archaeobotany

Kathryn E. Parker

Archaeological investigations at the Nochta site have provided a unique opportunity to examine the plant remains from a large Early and Middle Archaic campsite in the American Bottom. In this appendix, the archaeobotany of the Early Archaic component is discussed. The Middle Archaic plant remains are described in Appendix B, but are summarized here to illustrate possible change and continuity in early prehistoric plant-use patterns at this location. The Early Archaic occupation was established on the apex of a long sandy ridge within the American Bottom floodplain. It is probable that a marshy area was located to the west of the ridge, and that a more active stream channel flowed to the east, providing a source of fresh water. The bluffs that parallel the American Bottom are approximately 1 km east of the site. The site would have been ideally situated for the exploitation of floral resources from numerous and varied floodplain and upland habitats. It is highly unlikely that these abundant plant resources would have been ignored, and equally likely that the repeated use of this particular sand ridge by Early and Middle Archaic groups was based at least partially on the extractive potential of this locale.

Methods

During site excavation, flotation samples of known volume (usually 10 liters) were collected from each half of every feature. Additional 10 liter samples were collected in special circumstances (e.g., when a feature contained multiple zones, diagnostic artifacts and/or charcoal concentrations). All of the samples were processed according to the IDOT water flotation system (Wagner 1976). Dried samples were stored in labeled vials and jars to await sorting. Samples selected for analysis were sieved through a 2-mm geological screen to produce two size fractions. All carbonized materials in the large fraction (>2 mm) were extracted and sorted into categories (e.g., wood, nutshell) under low magnification (10X-30X), and each category was subsequently weighed and counted. The small fraction (<2 mm) was examined carefully at 10X-30X, and seeds, nutshell, and wood fragments were extracted and counted. Because of the paucity of carbonized remains and the unique nature of the site, an attempt was made to identify all recovered materials in both the large and small fractions. Total sample 232 weights are based on materials recovered from both size fractions rather than the large fraction alone. Identifications were made with the aid of standard texts (Core et al. 1979; Martin and Barkley 1961) and, when necessary, by comparison with a reference collection of modern carbonized and archaeological specimens. Genus-level identifications were made if possible. Specific identifications were made when all other species of a genus could be ruled out on the basis of comparative morphology (e.g., Juqlans nigra ) or when only one species of a genus is native to the American Bottom area (e.g., Gleason and Arundinaria qiqantea ) . Scientific nomenclature follows Cronquist (1963).

Results and Discussion

Analysis of the Nochta site Early Archaic botanical assemblage is derived from a sample of 156 features--including hearths, pits, and rock clusters--located in the east central portion of the ridge. As previously stated, this area of the site was dominated by diagnostic Early Archaic artifacts, and most of the features are believed to be related to the various Early Archaic occupations. However, because of the presence of a few Middle Archaic artifacts in this area, there is a possibility that some of these features are related to this later component. For purposes of analysis, however, all of these features will be considered to belong to the Early Archaic component. Of these 156 features, a 25% sample (N = 39), including 27 pits, 10 rock clusters, and two hearths, was selected for archaeobotanical analysis. A total of 1,240 liters of feature fill yielded 18.35 g of carbonized plant material (Table 20), almost all of it made up of nutshell. A charcoal density (wood and nutshell in both large and small fractions) of 0.15 g/10 liters reflects the general scarcity of plant remains on the site. By comparison, mean charcoal densities for Late Archaic and Late Woodland Patrick phase components in the American Bottom are 1.1 g/10 liters and 3.0 g/10 liters, respectively. Much of the difference in charcoal density between the Nochta Early Archaic component and sites of later time periods is believed to be the result of preservational factors rather than of nonuse of plants by early inhabitants of the American Bottom. Although over 71% of the Nochta features contain nutshell, and over 61% have yielded wood fragments, the majority of these items, especially wood, are too minute, eroded, and friable to be identified. Only six seeds were recovered. However, the recovery of numerous grinding stones, including large basin-shaped metates, suggests a greater use of plant materials on the site than the sparse botanical remains themselves would indicate. Many of the carbonized wood and nut fragments are coated with a mineralized substance that effectively erodes surface characteristics and reduces mass. Similar conditions affect much of the Middle Archaic

botanical assemblage (see Appendix B) . It is assumed that nutshell, 233

JSS^'S 'S " •" '8

•' Sg|t 8 '

SSS"?'^

' !j;S"::S

.^ », « >Sg" "S::

;s'' • • 'S s

tfE£-i» JfEi

lijiililililiiliilll 234 because of its greater density, is more able to withstand the effects of this erosion, whereas wood and certainly much more fragile seeds have been largely destroyed. The importance of nuts in Archaic subsistence has repeatedly been noted based on quantities of archaeological nut remains (D. Asch and N. Asch 1985c; Asch et al. 1972; J. Chapman 1977, 1978; Styles et al. 1983). Nevertheless, because of conditions of preservation, it is unlikely that the predominance of nutshell in the Nochta site archaeobotanical assemblage is at all representative of the contribution of nuts in Early and Middle Archaic subsistence. The aspects of differential preservation in carbonized plant remains and the potential for nutshell bias have often been discussed (Halley 1981; Minnis 1981; Munson et al. 1971). These factors, although always a consideration in the interpretation of archaeological plant remains, are especially obvious in their effects on the Nochta site botanical assemblage.

Wood

Three hundred seventy-seven wood fragments were recovered, of which

10 have been identified. The two taxa represented are oak ( Quercus sp.) and ash ( Fraxinus sp.). An additional 25 fragments assigned to the ring-porous wood category may also be either oak or ash, but are too eroded to be confidently identified. Wood charcoal from the subsequent

Middle Archaic occupation is comprised primarily of hickory ( Carya sp.), oak, and a few fragments each of ash, honey locust/Kentucky coffee -tree (see ( Gleditsia / Gymnocladus ) and sycamore ( Platanus occidentalis ) Appendix B). All of the wood types identified also appear consistently at American Bottom sites of later time periods.

Nuts

Nuts are the most abundant category of plant material in the botanical assemblage, a characteristic shared with sites of most later time periods in the American Bottom. Nutshell totals 2,037 fragments. The majority are small eroded thick-shelled fragments identifiable only as Juglandaceae (hickory/walnut family). Of the remaining identifiable nut remains, hickory ( Carya sp.) is most abundant followed by much smaller amounts of black walnut ( Juqlans nigra ) . Hickory nutshell was recovered from 13 features but most (317 fragments) occurred in the fill of Feature 127. Nearly 19% of the nutshell fragments are extremely eroded and are classified as unidentifiable. Simon notes a similar predominance of nuts in the Middle Archaic component (see Appendix B). A majority of the more than 8,000 fragments identified are either hickory or hickory/walnut family (Juglandaceae). Hickories apparently were the favored nut type throughout in the American Bottom area. With few exceptions, they are the most frequently identified nut type at archaeological sites for all time .

235 periods. It is assumed that upland oak-hickory forests east of the Mississippi River floodplain were the source of most nuts gathered by Early Archaic and all subsequent aboriginal groups.

Seeds

The Nochta site is typical of Early and Middle Archaic components in the Midwest and Southeast in yielding few seeds. In a recent survey of prehistoric plant-food remains from archaeological sites in the Southeast (Yarnell and Black 1985), the entire seed sample from eight Early Archaic components comprised only 80 specimens. Of the six seeds recovered from the Nochta site Early Archaic component, four were identified. Represented were three edible fleshy fruits, sumac ( Rhus sp.), grape ( Vitis sp.), and possibly black haw ( Viburnum sp.). One additional seed, possibly of greenbrier ( Smilax sp.) was also recovered. Greenbrier produces an edible rootstock and young shoots that were reportedly utilized by historic Native American groups in the eastern United States (Yanovsky 1936:14). Although few in number in comparison to more durable nutshell, all of the seeds identified represent potentially useful plant-food resources. The recovery of seeds from three different fruits suggests a pattern of seasonal resource exploitation in which late summer- and fall-ripening fruits and berries were collected and processed at this locale, coincident with or just preceding the fall nut harvest. Seeds are even more scarce in the Middle Archaic component. Two identifiable seeds were recovered, one of marshelder (Iva annua ) and one of a grass (Poaceae) (see Appendix B)

Other

In addition to wood, nutshell, and seeds, the only other plant material identified is cane (Arundinaria qiqantea [N = 2]). Cane was utilized later in prehistory for construction and technological purposes in the American Bottom. It would have been locally available and may have served similar purposes for Early Archaic residents of the Nochta site.

Summary

Plant remains recovered from 39 features in the Early Archaic component at the Nochta site include wood fragments, nutshell, a small number of seeds, and fragments of cane. An extremely low density of identifiable carbonized floral material is believed to be the result of adverse preservational conditions. Nutshell, probably because of its 236

greater mass, is more likely to survive than other kinds of materials, and was the category of plant remains most often recovered. Wood fragments were recovered from 61% of the analyzed features, but most were too small and/or eroded to be identified. Identifiable fragments are oak and ash, taxa commonly present in archaeobotanical assemblages of later time periods. In addition to wood, two small pieces of cane, the possible remnants of technological use, were recovered. The majority of the nutshell fragments are of the hickory and hickory/walnut family, a pattern consistent with the Middle Archaic component and nearly all prehistoric sites in the American Bottom. The relative contribution of nuts to subsistence at the Nochta site cannot be assessed. However, based on the recovery of nutshell from 71% of the features, nuts were a resource often exploited and processed at this location. Seeds from three fleshy fruits, grape, sumac, and possibly black haw were identified, suggesting a pattern of exploitation of abundant seasonal plant resources. Fruits would not have been a staple food, but nevertheless may have been valued as a source of dietary variety, which could be processed and dried for later use. One additional seed was tentatively identified as greenbner, a herbaceous plant that produces both edible rootstocks and green shoots. Although the identifiable botanical remains from the Early Archaic component are sparse, they do reflect some aspects of plant use at the Nochta site. Wood of oak and ash was collected and used for fuel, either from the uplands or from nearby mixed deciduous forests. Nuts of at least two types were repeatedly harvested, with hickory being favored over black walnut. Subsequently the nuts were processed at the site and the shells used, and perhaps curated, as excellent fuel. Seasonal fruits were also collected and eaten or processed. The frequent processing of plant foods might be inferred from the abundance of grinding stones on the site, despite the meager archaeobotanical evidence. It seems likely, given the botanical materials that survived under the most adverse preservational conditions, that a much greater range of materials was utilized, and that the exploitation of plant resources may have been a major aspect of subsistence strategies at the Nochta site. Appendix B: Middle Archaic Archaeobotany

Mary Simon

It is estimated that the Middle Archaic occupation at the Nochta site spanned a period of 400 years, from 6,500 to 6,100 B.P. (4500-4200 B.C.)- The site has yielded the only Middle Archaic component systematically excavated by the FAI-270 Project, and the archaeobotanical assemblage is one of only a few from Middle Archaic sites in Illinois that have been analyzed to date. Consequently, the data presented here may provide valuable information about a poorly known time period. In contrast, several archaeobotanical reports from Late Archaic sites in this portion of Illinois have been recently published (Johannessen 1984, 1987a, 1987b; Parker 1986). The Nochta site assemblage not only provides unique information about Middle Archaic plant usage, but also provides data that contribute to an initial understanding and delineation of diachronic trends or patterns in plant utilization for the general Archaic period in this area of Illinois.

Environment

The Nochta site occupies a north-to-south trending sand ridge in the American Bottom of Illinois. The ridge is bordered on the east by the McDonough Lake meander scar and on the west by the Edelhardt Lake meander scar. Both are low, wet areas marking the former locations of river channels. It is suggested that, during the Middle Archaic, the eastern slough marked the location of an active river channel or oxbow lake. The Edelhardt Lake meander was not yet active, but, Cahokia Creek may have flowed just to the west of the ridge. The Middle Archaic component of was the site was identified on the northwest portion of the ridge and overlain by up to 1.2 m of sediment. This sediment may have been the result of post-Archaic fluvial activity associated with the later active Edelhardt Lake channel to the west. The American Bottom is characterized by a series of linear vegetation zones that parallel the river and roughly delineate sites of former river activity. It has been argued that this linear vegetation pattern has and that this characterized the area since at least the mid- , pattern may originally have been the result of changes in both the Mississippi River fluvial regime and in sediment dispersal and erosion associated with the Hypsithermal Interval (Abler 1984; Brown and Vierra 1983). Pollen studies indicate that essentially modern temperate deciduous forest had been established in Illinois by ca. 9,000 B.P. (J. 238

King 1981). If so, it is likely that, particularly in the larger river valley areas, mid-Holocene changes in vegetation involved changes in the vegetation pattern rather than in the species composition (Ahler 1984; J. King 1981). For the American Bottom area, it is hypothesized that changes in the vegetation pattern included a shift from a pattern of relatively even distribution to the zonal, linear pattern that currently characterizes the area (Ahler 1984). Figure 33 presents a reconstruction of early nineteenth century vegetation zones in the area, and is based largely on U.S. government land surveys conducted between 1805 and 1812. Characteristic floral and faunal resources of these zones have been previously described (White et al. 1984). Based on these early historic records, the Nochta site is within an area of bottomland prairie. However, it is not clear whether this was the case during the Middle Archaic period of occupation. The ridge area is characterized by soils of the mollisol order, which typically form under grassland vegetation. Whether the immediate site area was dominated by grasses or not, the location would be ideally suited to exploit river, slough, and pond resources associated with either a sluggish McDonough channel or oxbow lake and with an active Cahokia Creek.

Methodology

During site excavation, samples for flotation analysis were collected from every feature excavated. To reduce bias, these samples were generally of a standardized 10-liter size, although in some cases, (i.e., to obtain sufficient charred material for radiocarbon dates) larger samples were collected. Samples were subsequently water floated using the standard technique established for IDOT projects (Wagner 1976). Unfortunately the procedure was not effective in separating charred botanical material from the soil matrix in Middle Archaic samples. A series of supplemental techniques, including soaking in sodium hexametaphosphate to enhance clay deflocculation and chemical separation using a zinc chloride (ZnCl2) solution were also unsuccessful in effecting good separation. Ultimately, all charred botanical remains larger than 1 mm were removed from the matrix by hand. Archaeobotanical remains from the site were poorly preserved and small. Attempts were made to identify (at least to gross catagories of wood, nutshell, and seeds) all fragments recovered larger than 1 mm, rather than the standard 2 mm. The procedure was moderately successful. Identification procedures followed those used for the Early Archaic materials (Appendix A). Samples for analysis were selected by the author in conjunction with Michael J. Higgins, site director. The sampling techniques employed involved both nonrandom and proportional stratified sampling methods. The nonrandom sample involved selecting all of the features yielding diagnostics, the structure, and two of the rock clusters for analysis. 239

Figure 33. Model of Nineteenth-Century Vegetation Zones in the American Bottom 240

The random sampling technique was applied only to pit features. Initially, all pit features (including those yielding diagnostics) were separated into seven distinct classes based on morphology and fill 5 stratigraphy (Figure 8a-g) . Each pit was then assigned to one of spatially defined clusters (Figure 17). Pits of each class were then selected from each cluster proportionately to that class's occurrence within the cluster. This technique was employed to ensure that all pit types were proportionately represented, that all pits had an equal probability of being sampled, and that the entire site area was represented. A 20% sample was obtained using this method. Some pit types were represented by only one member in a given cluster, in which case that unique feature was included in the analysis. A total of 44 pits was selected using the stratified technique, only three of which also yielded diagnostics. Additionally, five pit features analyzed by Kathryn E. Parker of the FAI-270 Project were included in the analysis, bringing the total number of features analyzed to 63, or 29% of the features excavated.

Results

The results of analysis are presented in Table 21 and general quantitative data are summarized in Table 22. As can be seen, although the average 10-liter float yielded a fairly large number of fragments, these fragments were extremely small, as reflected in the weight data. The breakdown by gross material category is presented in Table 23.

Nutshell Remains

Nutshell is both the most abundant and most ubiquitous class of plant remains recognized at the Nochta site. Despite the overall small fragment size, a large percentage (96.74%, by count and 98.59%, by weight) of the nutshell recovered could be identified to the family taxonomic level. Nutshell was recovered from 56 of the features (88.89%) and 84 of the samples (90.32%) analyzed. The nutshell data, based on shell fragment counts and weights, are presented in Table 24.

Identifiable Walnut Family (Juglandaceae) Remains . Almost all identified nutshell recovered is identified as belonging to the walnut (Juglandaceae) family. The remains include fragments of thick-shelled hickory (Carya sp.), thin-shelled hickory [C. illinoensis (pecan) or C.

cordiformis (bitternut)] and black walnut ( Juqlans nigra ) . Additionally, a large number of fragments could be identified as belonging to the walnut family, but could not be further identified.

Thick-shelled hickory ( Carya sp.) is extremely abundant, constituting 26.59%, by count and 54.56%, by weight of all nutshell recovered. It is :

241

Table 22. Middle Archaic Archaeobotany Summary of Quantitative Data

Number of 10 liter Samples Analyzed 93 Number of Features Analyzed 63 Volume of Fill Analyzed 930 Total Number of Fragments 18,021 Total Weight Charred Fragments 134.655g Average Number of Fragments/10 liter 193.774 Average Grams/10 liter 1.448 Nutshell Count/10 liter 94.301 Nutshell Weight/10 liter 1.086g Wood Count/10 liter 29.301 Wood Weight/10 liter 0.195g Seed Count/10 liter 0.065 Nutshell :Wood Ratio 3,218 Seeds :Nutshell Ratio 0.001 Seed:Wood Ratio 0.002

Table 23. Middle Archaic Archaeobotany: General Sample Composition

Weight Percent % of Occurrence % of Occurence (g) Weight by Sample by Feature

Nutshell ) )

242

Table 21. Middle Archaic Archaeobotany : Results of Analysis

Feature Number Cluster/Pit Type C IV/A C IV/B C IV/A C IV/A V/B C V/A C V/B

Total Volume (lit

).005g O.lBOg O.OSOg O.SOBg O.lOOg O.OSOg O.OSOg 3.8

(thick-shelled hickory) O.OOSg O.lBOg O.OZOg O.BOOg - O.OZOg 0.070g 2.9

is/C. cordiformi

O.OOSg O.lOOg

(black walnut)

(acorn)

Total Identified

O.OOSg O.lSOg . lOOg O.OSOg

Unidentifiable

TOTAL HOOD

Total identification attempted

Ring porous

Diffuse porous

Carva sp. (hickory)

Fraxinus (ash)

Gvmnocladus sp./Gleditsia (Kentucky coffee-tree/honey locust)

Quercus sp . ( oak

Platanus sp . ( sycamore

Bark

Total identified

Unidentified wood

Unidentifiable/Amorphous Fragments

TOTAL SEEDS

Unidentified Seeds

Iva annua ( simpweed )

Gramineae (grass family)

Other

Honocot stem

Resin

Unknown Material 243

.

).HOg 0.920g

O.OJOg O.OlOg

607 714 19 89 2 - 9 J.lOOg <».900g O.lSSg 0.<<85g O.OSSg - O.OBOg

Z 0.0<«0g O.llSg

<» 7 - - - O.OlOg 0.020g - - -

53 \'*Z 3 19 0.27Sg l.

O.OlSg _ _ _

159 19 O.OlOg O.CtSg 0.760g 0.07Sg O.OlOg

719 86<« .7

Feature Number Clusicr/Pit Type

Total Volume (liters)

O.OlBg 0.0 J5g .795g 0.460g

.230g O.OlOg O.OZOg . 70Sg 0.360g O.yiOg

O.OlOg O.OlOg

Juglandaceae (walnut family) .'OOg O.OOBg O.OlSg 0.670g 0.080g 0.2<*0g

(acom)

Total Identified .0I5g O.OJSg l-iiOBg O.-iBOg

Unidentifiable 0.020g O.OlOg 0.590g O.OlOg

TOTAL MOOD 0.070g O.OBOg

Gymnocladus sp./Gleditsia (Kentucky coffee-tree/honey locust)

Platanus sp

Bark

Total identified

Unidentifiable wood

Unidentifiable/Amorphous Fragments .640g

TOTAL SEEDS

Unidentifiable seeds

Iva annua ( sunipweed )

Gramineae (grass family)

Other

Monocot Stem

Resin

Unknown material 245

10 10 10 10 10

J3 55 29

O.OSOg 0.<400g .21Sg 0.0 J5g 1 . 250g O.OSOg O.llSg

- - 11 I't

0.0<«0g 0.090g O.l'iOg .OlSg O.OSOg O.SSOg 0.020g 0.090g

.*00g 0.310g .OJOg O.llBg

72 352 0.29Sg 1.3<»0g )

246

Fea-ture Number Cluster/Pit Type

Total Volume (IH

.8J0g 15.090g

. J80g 3 . 580g O.lBSg 2.620g

(pecan bitterrtut)

Juglandaceae

(walnu-t family) 0.170g 0.4

black walnut I

O.OOSg - . . .005g O.OOSg

Identified S6 165 1,1<»1 9

O.SeSg 1.820g 15.020g . 750g .l

Unidentifiable 5 <« 52 J O.OSOg O.OlOg 0.070g O.OlOg

TOTAL MOOD 15 .030g O.OSOg .lS5g

Total identification attempted

Ring porous

Diffuse porous

Carva sp. (hickory)

Fraxinus ( ash

Gyrnnocladus sp./Gleditsia (Kentucky cof fee-tree/honey locust)

Bark

Total identified

Unidentifiable wood

Lhiidentifiable/Amorphous Fragments 160 71 O.-ilOg 0.130g

TOTAL SEEDS

Unidentifiable Seeds

Iva annua ( sunpweed )

Gramineae (grass family)

Other

Monocot Stem

Resin

Unknown Material 247

CCtOg 0.9<40g 0.220g . S95g O.OJOg O.OlOg . J80g 0.770g

0.0

J.SOOg 0.190g O.OBOg O.OlOg 0.185g O.Z60g

O.OOSg O.OlOg

.040g 0.9'iOg 0.220g O.JSOg 0.770g

.OlOg O.OlOg

.020g O.OlOg

J.SlOg O.lSOg O.O^Og ) i

248

Feature Number Cluster/Pit Type Zone Total Volume (lit 10

903 55 6.215g 0.<«60g .035g 0.005g

196 18 2.7'(0g 0.3<«0g .2J0g O.OlOg

C . illinoensis/C . cord i form 7 (pecan/bittemut 0.02Sg

Juglandaceae 667 37

(walnut family) 3.J90g .120g .160g O.OlOg . 005g

(black walnut I

Total identified 0.

Unidentifiable

TOTAL H(X)0 0.330g 0.020g

Total identification attempted

Ring porous

Diffuse porous

Carva sp. (hickory)

ash)

Gvmnocladus sp./Gleditsia (Kentucky cof fec-tree/honey lo

).350g O.OSOg O.O'.Og

TOTAL SEEDS

Unidentifiable seeds

Gramineae (grass family)

Other

Monocot stem

Resin

Unknown material 249

77 O.ZSSg o.asog O.iibBg .3J0g O.lZBg O.lSSg O.OlBg 0.090g

S8 7 O.llOg O.S70g O.ZOOg

llOg .070g O.OaOg

O.OlOg O.OOSg JlOg O.OOSg

0.230g 0.84Bg <«.6S0g 0.030g O.lOOg 120g Cl-JBg

O.OOSg O.OOSg .OlOg O.OlSg

O.OlSg O.OlOg 250

cluster/Pi C_Wi C I/A Structure/C III

Total Volu

0.8509

is/C. cordifomiis 251

4)

3ns (0 2'-H-t-> 252 present in 48 of the features (76.19%) and 70 of the samples (75.27%) analyzed. The 2,332 fragments, weighing 55.115 g, have an average weight hickory of 0.024 g per fragment. There are eight species of thick-shelled native to Illinois, six of which would be expected to be present in the Nochta Site area (Mohlenbroch 1986). Thin-shelled hickories are represented by two native species, illinoensis ). A total of 47 bitternut ( Carya cordiformis ) and pecan (C. fragments of thin-shelled hickory weighing 0.185 grams was recovered from 12 (19.05%) of the features and 13 (13.98%) of the samples analyzed. Thirteen fragments were recovered from a single feature (Feature 173). Walnut remains were not well represented in the Nochta site assemblage. Only a small quantity (N = 10) of fragments recovered were

, of these fragments identified as black walnut ( Juqlans nigra ) and half were derived from a single feature (Feature 201). Overall, walnut was recovered from only five (7.94%) of the features and five (5.38%) of the samples analyzed. No fragments identified as butternut (J^ cinerea ) were recovered.

= Unidentifiable Walnut Family (Juglandaceae) Remains . A large quantity (N 5,924) of the nutshell recovered could be identified to the walnut family characteristics for level (Juglandaceae) , but lacked sufficient identification to a lower taxonomic level. The Juglandaceae category represents over half of the nutshell recovered by count and just under half by weight and occurred in 48 features (76.19%) and 70 samples (75.27%).

abundant, and Acom (Quercus sp.) Remains . Acorn remains are moderately in fact are numerically the second most common type of nutshell fragments recovered from the Nochta assemblage. The extremely low average weight (.002 g) reflects the very small size of the fragments. Acorns are fairly ubiquitous, occurring in 26 features (41.27%) and 29 samples (31.18%). Mohlenbroch (1986) lists 20 species of oak as being present in Illinois, but seven of these species are of limited distribution or are extremely rare and as such probably did not represent potential resources to occupants in the Nochta site locale.

are Unidentifiable Nutshell . Items classified as unidentifiable nutshell generally small, highly eroded, fairly dense fragments that lack distinctive morphological characters enabling classification to a more specific level. Unidentifiable nutshell comprise 3.26%, by count, ^nd 1.40%, by weight of the nutshell assemblage (Table 24). It generally occurs in low frequencies, with only seven flotation samples analyzed yielding more than 10 fragments. The class is fairly ubiquitous; unidentifiable nutshell is present in 28 of the features (44.44%) and 37 of the flotation samples (39.79%) analyzed. .

253

Wood Remains

Charred wood remains are fairly well represented in the assemblage, constituting 15.12% by count and 13.46% by weight of all materials recovered (Table 25). Identifications were attempted either for 20 fragments or for all fragments from any given sample, whichever was greater. Attempts were made to identify 621 fragments (22.79%) of the wood recovered; results are presented in Table 25. Identification attempts were on the whole unsuccessful. Fragments were very small (average weight, approximately .007 g) and poorly preserved. Because of the poor preservation, it was generally impossible to obtain the clean break necessary to permit observation of the cross-sectional characteristics that permit identification. Similar preservation conditions were noted for the Early Archaic wood assemblage from the site (Appendix A) The very low percentage of identifiable wood fragments precludes comparative assessment of this plant class. In most cases, wood from archaeobotanical assemblages is presumed to reflect material gathered for use as fuel. Archaic period wood assemblages are interpreted as reflecting a very generalized collection strategy, focusing on readily available wood types. This pattern is exemplified by the American Bottom area data, in which Late Archaic wood assemblages from sites situated in the bottomlands are dominated by bottomland wood taxa , whereas upland site

Table 25. Middle Archaic Archaeobotany : Wood Identification

Count

Total Wood Wood - Identification Attempted Ring Porous Diffuse Porous Carya sp. (hickory) Fraxinus sp. (ash) Gymnocladus sp./Gleditsia (coffee- tree/honey locust) Ouercus sp. (oak) Platanus sp. (sycamore) Bark

Total 254 assemblages are dominated by upland taxa (Johannessen 1984). In contrast, wood identified from the bottomland Nochta site is primarily oak and hickory--the upland forest group defined by Johannessen (1984). The difficulties in interpreting this pattern are obvious in view of the extremely low sample identified. It is likely that the composition of the Nochta wood assemblage is more a function of preservational bias than of human behavior. Oak and hickory are relatively dense wood types and consequently may have a somewhat greater resistance to fragmentation than less dense species (Lopinot 1984:310). Consequently, particularly in a sample exhibiting such overall poor preservation as that from the Nochta site, it is not surprising that wood types that are somewhat more resistant would be better represented.

Seeds

Charred seeds and seed fragments are extremely rare, and comprise only .03% of the entire assemblage. Six seeds or seed fragments have been identified from four features. All features yielding seeds are multiple-zoned pit features, and no single zone yielded more than one specimen. Four of the seeds recovered were extremely eroded fragments, and could not be identified. A single specimen from Feature 281 Zone B could be identified as a grass (Gramineae) seed, but no more specific identification was possible. Multiple grass species would have been present in the natural environment, and the presence of a single representative in the sample could be easily attributed to naturally occurring seed rain. The only seed recovered that was identifiable to the species level was a single Iva annua (marshelder) seed recovered from Feature 182 Zone

Al . It is hypothesized that marshelder was one of the plants domesticated prehistorically in North America (D. Asch and N. Asch 1978; Yarnell 1972, 1978). Seeds collected from archaeobotanical assemblages in the Illinois River valley show a gradual increase in size through time, and the mean dimensions of marshelder specimens from post-Archaic archaeological contexts are above the mean dimensions for wild populations (D. Asch and N. Asch 1978:323). Similar large-sized collections have also been reported from sites elsewhere in the southeast (Yarnell 1972, 1978). The single specimen from the Nochta site lacks the external pericarp and measures 1.8 x 1.3 mm. Correction for shrinkage due to carbonization (10% in both dimensions) and pericarp loss (+.7 mm length and +.4 mm width) (Yarnell 1978:336-337) results in an adjusted original size of 2.7 x 1.8 mm. This is within the size range for wild collections and compares favorably with collections from the early Late Archaic McLean site in the American Bottom (Johannessen 1986) and with collections from the Archaic horizons at Koster (D. Asch and N. Asch 1978). Unfortunately, the presence of a single wild-sized specimen yields literally no evidence of human utilization. Wild marshelder would certainly have been present in the site environs, and the single seed could as easily be the result of natural contamination as cultural deposition. 255

Additional Remains

Just over one-third of the material recovered consists of unidentifiable charred botanical remains. The low average weight (.002 g) attests to the small size of these fragments. The large percentage of the total assemblage that is unidentifiable is probably primarily attributable to two factors: the overall poor preservational conditions, which have resulted in severe material attrition,- and the methodology, which involved the sorting of all items larger than 1 mm. Additional miscellaneous items recovered include two monocot stem fragments identified from Feature 95. One additional fragment from Feature 281 was identified as a piece of rosin (Kathryn E. Parker, personal communication, 1987). Twelve very small fragments of an unknown charred material were recovered from 12 different samples. This material exhibits a somewhat "bumpy" external surface under low (SOX) magnification and has not been identified to date.

NutshelliNutmeat Conversions

A supplemental approach to the analysis of nutshell assemblages has been proposed by Lopinot (1982, 1984). The methodology involves the conversion of the weights of the different nutshell classes to the estimated uncarbonized nutmeat weights represented. It is based on experimentally derived mass reduction conversion factors for nutshell (Lopinot 1984:13-138) and nutmeat :shell weight ratios from published sources and as compiled by Lopinot (Lopinot 1982 :Appendiy D, 1984:Table 5). The underlying concept justifying this procedure is that it is the nutmeat and not the nutshell which constitutes the economically significant resource. The estimated nutmeat composition for identified nutshell from the Nochta site is presented in Table 26. Fragments identified as Juglandaceae have been first allocated into one of the more specific classes, following the procedure outlined by D. Asch and N. Asch (1985a), thus eliminating this category (Table 27). As is the case with the raw nutshell data, the estimated quantity of hickory nutmeat is higher than the estimated quantities of either acorn or walnut nutmeat. However, comparison of the nutmeat values for acorns and walnuts indicates that there is greater than 40 times the amount of acorn as walnut represented. These figures reflect the frequency-of- occurrence data presented earlier. Both the frequency data and the nutmeat estimates imply that acorns may have been a somewhat more significant resource than the low-count and weight data alone would indicate. 256

Table 26. Middle Archaic Archaeobotany: Estimated Allocated Nutmeat Data

Equivalent Nutmeat Actual Allocated Total Composition (b) Weight Weight (a) Weight Weight

Carya 55.115 43.470 98.585

C. illinoesis /C. Cordiformis 0.185 0.150 0.335 130.475 (c) 85.54

Juglans nigra 0.215 0.170 0.385 0.384 0.25

Quercus 0.295 N/A 0.295 21.668 14.21

Total 99.600 152.527 (d) 100.00

(a) See Asch and Asch 1985a for methods.

(b) Procedure for estimating nutmeat quantities represented by nutshell recovered follows Lopinot 1984(151): Nutmeat weight = (x) (c) (m) where x = grams carbonized nutshell per taxon c = mass conversion factor m = nutmeat :nutshell ratio (c) (m) products = 1.319 for hickory 0.997 for walnut 73.452 for acorn

(c) Combination of C. illinoensis /C. cordiformis and general Carya weights- total weights (allocated) = 98.92.

(d) Total grams of nutmeat represented by 99.6 grams of nutshell. 257 258

Discussion

Overall, the nutshell spectrum at the Nochta site compares favorably with those reported from other Middle Archaic sites in western and southern Illinois. In general, these assemblages are characterized by abundant charred hickory ( Carya sp.) nutshell, and lesser quantities of walnut ( Juqlans sp.) and acorn ( Quercus sp.). Hazelnut ( Corylus americana ) is a minor constituent of the Modoc Rock shelter and the Napoleon Hollow, Campbell Hollow, and Black Earth site assemblages, but it never constitutes a large percentage of these nutshell assemblages by either count or weight (D. Asch and N. Asch 1985c; N. Asch and D. Asch 1980a; F. King 1981; Lopinot 1982, 1984). Hazelnut has not been identified in the Nochta site sample.

Generally, hickory ( Carya sp.) constitutes at least 80% (by count or weight, as reported) of all nutshell residues from Middle Archaic sites in Illinois. The single exception noted to date is found in the assemblage from the Campbell Hollow site in the lower Illinois River valley. The Middle Archaic occupation at this site is dated to ca. 7,600 B.P., and the nutshell spectrum is dominated by black walnut (D. Asch and N. Asch 1985c). Walnut does not contribute significantly to the Nochta site assemblage. The contribution of secondary nutshell types (types other than thick-shelled hickory) varies among sites and is difficult to assess, particularly because data are reported in some cases by count and in other cases by weight. Generally, however, quantities of walnut (by either count or weight) are greater than quantities of acorn in the Middle Archaic assemblages reported from Illinois. This pattern is reversed at the Nochta site, where acorn contributes substantially more to the assemblage by count and slightly more by weight. Acorn is additionally substantially more ubiquitous than walnut at the site. Acorn is also the more ubiquitous nutshell type at the Black Earth and Koster sites (Asch et al. 1972; Lopinot 1984). The potential significance of acorn, despite its scanty representation in the archaeological record, has been previously suggested for sites in the lower Little Tennessee River valley (J. Chapman 1975) and for the Black Earth site in southern Illinois (Lopinot 1984). It is, however, equally likely that the larger quantity of acorn recovered from the Nochta site is a function of the methodology used, which involved careful examination of the 1-2-mm fraction. Initial comparative data from the Illinois River valley suggests that secondary nutshell types may constitute a greater percentage of the nutshell spectra in assemblages that date earlier in the Archaic period than in assemblages dating later in the period. This pattern is seen at both the Koster and the Napoleon Hollow sites, although the stratum containing evidence for high pecan and walnut utilization is dated to somewhat later at the Napoleon Hollow site (ca. 6,800-6,600 B.P.) than at the Koster site (ca. pre-7,300 B.P.) (D. Asch and N. Asch 1985c:103, 105). This pattern is also replicated in the Modoc Rock shelter data (F. King 1981). The degree of hickory nut dominance increases through the Archaic Period, reaching maximum frequency levels of 97%-99% (allocated data) at 259

the Cypress Land site (ca. 4,800-4,500 B.P.) in the lower Illinois River valley (N. Asch and D. Asch 1986). In the American Bottom area at the roughly contemporaneous (ca. 4,900-2,400 B.P.) McLean site, 72.7% (unallocated) of the nutshell was identified as thick-shelled hickory (Johannessen 1986). These quantities correspond closely to those from the Nochta site both for allocated (Table 27) and unallocated (Table 24) hickory nutshell. Although thick-shelled hickories are the most common nutshell type recovered from Late Archaic sites in the American Bottom, black walnut is more frequent in these assemblages than in those from later. Woodland or Mississippian contexts. Black walnut is fairly ubiquitous, occurring in 28.2% of the McLean site features, 44% of the Missouri Pacific #2 site, 36.5% of the Dyroff features, and 59% of the Go-Kart North features (Johannessen 1986:95). Summarized nutshell composition data from American Bottom sites suggest a very slight decrease in thick-shelled hickory through the Late Archaic, with a concurrent notable increase in black walnut and a slight increase in acorn (Johannessen 1984:Figure 76). Simultaneously, nutshell quantities (as a proportion of the entire assemblage) and nut:wood ratios show an overall decrease (Johannessen 1984:Figures 72 and 73). The nut:wood ratio at the Nochta site is 3.2, which is considerably lower than those from the early Late Archaic McLean and Go-Kart North sites (Johannessen 1984:Table 10). This ratio in fact best compares with those obtained from Woodland period sites in the American Bottom (Johannessen 1984:Table 11). Archaic period archaeobotancial data sets are derived from only a relatively few site contexts from a fairly extensive geographic area. Examination of these data do however suggest that some overall changes in nut crop utilization may have occurred during this period. These changes involve a shift from a more extensive use of a wide variety of nut types to a more intensive focus on thick-shelled hickory. This focus may culminate in the early Late Archaic. Although hickory remains the dominant nutshell type recovered from late Late Archaic sites, black walnut in particular appears to become a more significant Late Archaic nut resource, at least in the American Bottom area, while hickory may decrease slightly. It is interesting to note that overall nutshell quantities also decrease in Late Archaic assemblages from this area. Potential changes in utilization of nut crops may reflect changing resource procurement stategies associated both with changes in the vegetation pattern induced by the Hypsithermal Interval (Ahler 1984) and with the hypothesized related shift from residential mobility to logistic mobility which occurred during the Archaic period (Ahler 1984; Brown 1985; Brown and Vierra 1983). The changing procurement strategies involve a shift from generalized foraging to more specialized collection (Ahler 1984; Lopinot 1984). The pattern of Early Archaic, and to some extent early Middle Archaic, nut utilization may reflect generalized procurement strategies. This pattern would be expected among relatively mobile groups operating within the constraints of more evenly distributed plant resources, such as that postulated for the early part of the Archaic period, at least in the American Bottom area (Ahler 1984). In contrast. Middle to early Late Archaic nut utilization patterns appear to reflect 260

a more specialized strategy, focusing on thick-shelled hickory. This pattern may be expected under conditions of logistic mobility, and linear environmental zones (Ahler 1984). It has been suggested that, during the latter portion of the Late Archaic period in the northern American Bottom area, increasing population coupled with the selection of a preferred resource area (i.e., the floodplain) resulted in increasing intergroup competition for desired resources (Emerson et al. 1986:267). Consequently, it may have been necessary to implement new resource-procurement strategies to compensate for the circumscription of population and to alleviate competitive risks. Such adaptations could conceivably include the use of a greater variety of plant resources as dictated by local availability. In summation, hypothesized changes in Archaic period subsistence and settlement may be reflected in the archaeobotanical record of nutshell utilization. Essentially, the pattern involves a shift from residential mobility and attendant generalized procurement strategy, as reflected by greater proportions of secondary nutshell, to a pattern of logistic mobility and specialization, as reflected by the dominance of thick-shelled hickory. The Late Archaic, in turn, is characterized by increasingly restricted logistic mobility and localization of plant-resource utilization.

Summary and Conclusions

Archaeobotanical data from the Nochta site conform well to other Middle to Late Archaic data sets, in which nutshell, most notably thick-shelled hickory, dominates. It is hypothesized that this pattern reflects the settlement and subsistence patterns of logistically mobile groups specializing in hickory nut procurement. As is usually the case, additional data are necessary to confirm or refute this apparent pattern. Following Ahler 's (1984) terminology, the Middle Archaic component at the Nochta site has been interpreted as a logistical field camp (Higgins, this volume). Assuming field camps represent areas of specialized function, evidence of seasonal specificity should be present (Ahler 1984:154-166). In terms of plant procurement strategies, as evidenced by the archaeobotanical record, this area could be interpreted as a nut collection locale. Unfortunately, because of preservational biases, which favor both the preservation and the recovery of nutshell over many other types of plant remains (particularly subsistence-related remains), an overwhelming number of sites yielding archaeobotanical data may be interpreted as such. Nonetheless, Nochta site data appear to support the theory of hickory nut specialization and the concurrent Middle Archaic pattern of logistic mobility. Appendix C: Archaeobotanical Remains from Middle Woodland Feature 51

Mary Simon

Archaeobotanical remains from six 10-liter flotation samples from Feature 51 were analyzed prior to submittal for radiocarbon age determination. This feature is an oval pit yielding Holding Plain Middle Woodland ceramics. A radiocarbon date of 1,970 + 120 B.P.: 20 B.C., (ISGS-1574) has been obtained from wood and nutshell residues derived from two zones within the feature. The samples were initially processed following the methodology described elsewhere (Appendix A), with attempts to minimize handling. Identified botanical remains include primarily nutshell; however wood and seeds are also present in the samples (Table 28). The extent to which these remains are actually representative of the entire potential archaeobotanical assemblage from the Middle Woodland component of the Nochta site is unknown. The assemblage is, in some respects, unique for this time period in the American Bottom, and a few brief comments are offered. The Feature 51 archaeobotanical assemblage is dominated by nutshell, with a diversity of types represented (Table 29). The somewhat surprisingly low quantity of thick-shelled hickory recovered is at variance with data reported from the Cement Hollow phase Mund site and the later Hill Lake phase Truck #7 site (Johannessen 1983, 1985), but does compare favorably to quantities reported from the general Middle Woodland component at the Willoughby site (Dunavan 1987). Black walnut, the dominant element in the Willoughby site nutshell assemblage, is also a significant constituent of the Feature 51 assemblage, particularly after allocation. The number of hazelnut fragments recovered from Feature 51 is more than four times the number recovered from any single feature analyzed from the Mund site, the Truck #7 site, or the Willoughby site. This relatively large quantity of hazelnut appears initially to be more consistent with patterns observed in the lower Illinois River valley assemblages (D. Asch and N. Asch 1985b; N. Asch and D. Asch 1980b). The nut:wood ratio of 9.6 from this feature is also comparatively high and more closely approximates ratios from Late Archaic sites than ratios from Middle Woodland sites in the American Bottom (Johannessen 1984). However, data from a single feature are insufficient to determine whether this variation is significant. An attempt was made to identify 57 wood fragments. Fourteen of these fragments could be identified to the taxonomic level of family or better. Oak and true hickory, characteristic upland species, represent 29% of the identified fragments. Ash and elm, species which are generally more characteristic of bottomland locations, constitute 64% of the wood fragments, and tend to dominate the small assemblage. This pattern of 262

o o o

s s m

SSI i

S E I I 5 - ? c c

1 8

g C ^ II Sail liiillill III f n ^ Hi 263

Table 29. Feature 51 Nutshell Types

Appendix D: Metric Data for Nochta Site Features

298 266

Appendix D. continued

Volume(dm^)

103 32 25 49 9 23 132 86

1797 1479 37 00 298 72 103 40 79 07 82 51 93 31

25 267

Appendix D. continued

54 88 343 83 74 33 56 80 50 63 36 01 147 57 508 06 7 66 130 21 72 30 16 74 43 57 88 22 106 03 52 20 89 71 131 97 137 72 13 19 72 39 1325 138 48 195 17 44 04 181 74

136 97 40 39 116 75 169 91 63 29 66 06 384 99 129

31 06 37 58 29 57 58 90 82 49 117 00 185 98 32 00 443 67 25 76 5.066 92 578 22

123 01 97 56 17 51

242 268

Appendix D. continued

Cluster VI N 269

Appendix D. continued

17 08 119 94 15 48 139.47

Cluster X N = 29

124 270

Appendix D. continued

Volume(dm'')

121 F Appendix V.: Description of Chert Types

Slightly pink Sourccf wall fo3sll trag- to reddish Reokuk- pink Burlington

Frequent snail Poor to fair Color I

Few fossils

i«purlti«a

Bty Fine to «edl»j» Few fossils

entrlc

ed ( lOYR

Gray, light ,T>y (Hill Creekl

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(List continued fronn inside front cover)

15. The George Reeves Site

Dale L. McElrath and Fred A. Finney

16. The Range Site: Archaic through Late Woodland Occupations

John E. Kelly, Andrew C. Fortier, Steven j. Ozuk, and Joyce A. Williams

17. No. 1 Emergent Mississippian and Mississippian Communities at the Radic Site

Dale L. McElrath, Joyce A. Williams, Thomas O. Maher, and Michael C. Meinkoth No. 2 Emergent Mississippian and Early Mississippian Homesteads at the Marcus Site

Thomas E. Emerson and Douglas K. Jackson

18. Late Woodland Sites in the American Bottom Uplands

Charles Bentz, Dale L. McElrath, Fred A. Finney, and Richard B. Lacampagne

19. The Holding Site: A Hopewell Community in the American Bottom Andrew C. Fortier, Thomas O. Maher, Joyce A. Williams,

Michael C. Meinkoth, Kathryn E. Parker, and Lucretia S. Kelly

20. The Range Site 2: The Emergent Mississippian Dohack and Range Phase Occupations

John E. Kelly, Steven J. Ozuk, and Joyce A. Williams

21. The Nochta Site: The Early, Middle, and Late Archaic Occupations

Michael J. Higgins

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