Determination of Sustainability of Aloe Harvesting Empowerment Project in the Emnambithi (Former Ladysmith) Municipality, Kwazulu Natal

DETERMINATION OF SUSTAINABILITY OF ALOE HARVESTING EMPOWERMENT PROJECT IN THE EMNAMBITHI (FORMER LADYSMITH) MUNICIPALITY, KWAZULU NATAL

DONNETTE ROSS

MINI-DISSERTATION

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree

MAGISTER SCIENTAE

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

in the

FACULTY OF SCIENCE

at the

UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG

Supervisor: Dr. J.M. Meeuwis

December 2005 Page vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ...... i

OPSOMMING...... iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... v

PART 1: INTRODUCTION...... 1

1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION ...... 1

1.1.1 POVERTY IN AFRICA ...... 1

1.1.2 POVERTY IN SOUTH AFRICA ...... 3

1.1.3 PROPOSED SOLUTION FOR POVERTY RELIEF IN THE EMNAMBITHI - LADYSMITH MUNICIPALITY ...... 4

1.1.4 THE ALOE INDUSTRY IN SOUTH AFRICA ...... 5 1.1.4.1 Historical overview of the Aloe industry...... 5 1.1.4.2 Developments in the South African Aloe Industry ...... 7 1.1.4.3 The demand for indigenous medicines ...... 8 1.1.4.4 Ecological considerations...... 9 1.1.4.5 Sustainable plant use...... 11 1.1.4.6 Production capacity...... 13

1.1.5 SOCIAL ASPECTS OF THE COMMISSIONING OF THE PROPOSED ALOE PILOT PLANT IN

LADYSMITH...... 13 1.1.5.1 Gender involvement ...... 13 1.1.5.2 Current income levels...... 14 1.1.5.3 Additional income to be generated from an Aloe pre- processing plant ...... 14 1.1.5.4 Members of households who will benefit from the proposed Aloe pre-processing plant...... 15

1.1.6 TARGET SPECIES - ALOE MARLOTHII...... 15 1.1.6.1 Brief description of the target species...... 15 1.1.6.2 Brief botanical description of Aloe marlothii ...... 15 1.1.6.3 Distribution of Aloe marlothii...... 17 1.1.6.4 Preferred habitat of Aloe marlothii ...... 17 1.1.6.5 Traditional use of Aloe marlothii in South Africa...... 20

1.2 PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY...... 20

1.2.1 PROJECT BACKGROUND INFORMATION...... 20

1.2.2 MAIN AIM OF THIS STUDY ...... 21

1.2.3 IMPORTANCE OF THIS STUDY ...... 21

Page vii

PART 2: PROBLEM STATEMENT ...... 23

PART 3: METHODOLOGY...... 25

3.1 DATA TO BE COLLECTED...... 25

3.1.1 EXISTING INFORMATION ...... 25

3.1.2 NEW DATA TO BE COLLECTED...... 26

3.2 METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION...... 26

3.2.1 DELINEATION OF THE STUDY AREA...... 27

3.2.2 POTENTIAL HABITAT FOR ALOE MARLOTHII WITHIN THE STUDY AREA ...... 29

3.2.3 SAMPLE PLOTS ...... 29

3.2.4 DETERMINATION OF SIZE AND DENSITY OF ALOE MARLOTHII POPULATIONS ...... 35

3.2.5 DETERMINING THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE WHO COULD BENEFIT FROM HARVESTING ALOE MARLOTHII

FROM THESE AREAS...... 35

3.2.6 POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO POTENTIAL PROBLEMS OF OVER-HARVESTING ...... 35

PART 4: GENERAL SITE DESCRIPTION...... 36

4.1 LOCATION...... 36

4.2 ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCING FACTORS...... 39

4.2.1 CLIMATE ...... 39 4.2.3 TOPOGRAPHY ...... 41 4.2.4 SOIL...... 41 4.2.5 LAND USE...... 44 4.2.6 VEGETATION ...... 45 4.2.7 HISTORY OF LADYSMITH ...... 46 4.2.8 REGIONAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC STRUCTURE ...... 47 4.2.8.1 Population structure...... 47 4.2.8.2 Culture ...... 47 4.2.8.3 Economic Activities...... 48

PART 5: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION...... 50

5.1 RESULTS...... 50

5.1.1 NUMBER OF ALOE MARLOTHII SPECIMENS PER SAMPLE PLOT ...... 50

5.1.2 AREA OF IDENTIFIED POTENTIAL HABITAT UNITS...... 51

5.1.3 DENSITY ZONES AND ALOE MARLOTHII POPULATION SIZE ...... 54

5.2 DISCUSSION ...... 62

Page viii

5.2.1 WARD 10...... 62

5.2.2 WARD 12...... 63

5.2.3 WARD 14...... 63

5.2.4 WARD 19...... 64

5.2.5 NUMBER OF PEOPLE WHO WOULD BENEFIT FROM THE SUSTAINABLE HARVESTING OF ALOE

MARLOTHII WITHIN THE IDENTIFIED HABITAT AREAS ...... 64

5.2.6 SUMMARY OF RESULTS...... 65

5.2.7 SHORTCOMINGS OF THIS STUDY...... 65

PART 6: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 66

6.1 CONCLUSION ...... 66

6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 66

PART 7: REFERENCES...... 67

ANNEXURE 1: PHOTOGRAPH GALLERY...... 72

Page ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Title Page 1 Aloe marlothii specimen occurring in the vicinity of Ladysmith. 16 2 Aloe marlothii specimens occurring in the vicinity of Ladysmith. 16 3 Aloe marlothii population growing on a rocky ridge near Ladysmith. 17 Map indicating the present and future distribution of Aloe marlothii in South Africa (SANBI, 4 18 2001). 5 Aloe marlothii population growing in rocky grassland near Ladysmith. 19 6 Aloe marlothii population growing on an east-facing rocky ridge near Ladysmith. 19 Wards identified by the Emnambithi - Ladysmith Department of Economic Development to 7 28 be of priority for the proposed poverty alleviation project. 8 Map showing the delineated study area. 30 9 Areas potentially providing habitat for Aloe marlothii in Ward 10. 31 10 Areas potentially providing habitat for Aloe marlothii in Ward 12. 32 11 Areas potentially providing habitat for Aloe marlothii in Ward 14. 33 12 Areas potentially providing habitat for Aloe marlothii in Ward 19. 34 Map indicating the location of the Uthukela District Municipality relative to the surrounding 13 37 district municipalities of KwaZulu-Natal (Municipal Demarcation Board, 2004). Map indicating the location of Ladysmith within the Emnambithi-Ladysmith Local 14 38 Municipality (Municipal Demarcation Board, 2004). 15 Graph showing the average temperatures for Ladysmith for the period 1961 – 1990. 40 16 Graph showing the average rainfall for Ladysmith for the period 1961 – 1990. 41 17 Panoramic photograph showing the rocky ridges in the area around Ladysmith. 42 18 Panoramic photograph showing an example of a rocky ridge in the area around Ladysmith. 42 Map indicating the soil types of South Africa. Ladysmith occurs in the region where the 19 43 dominant soil type occurring is Lalosols (freely drained). Photograph showing the severe erosion of a side slope of a rocky ridge near Ladysmith, most 20 45 likely as a result of the removal of vegetation. Graph representing the economically active population of the Emnambithi-Ladysmith 21 49 Municipality. 22 Areas of similar Aloe marlothii density in Ward 10 52 23 Areas of similar Aloe marlothii density in Ward 12 53 24 Areas of similar Aloe marlothii density in Ward 14 54 25 Areas of similar Aloe marlothii density in Ward 19 55 26 Density zones of Aloe marlothii in Ward 10 58 27 Density zones of Aloe marlothii in Ward 12 59 28 Density zones of Aloe marlothii in Ward 14 60 Page x

Figure Title Page 29 Density zones of Aloe marlothii in Ward 19 61

LIST OF TABLES

Table Title Page 1 Uses of Aloe species by different population groups 6 2 Municipal wards selected as the study area for this pilot study 27 3 Distance to neighbouring towns / destinations (Routes Travel Info, 2005). 36 4 Climatical information for Ladysmith, KwaZulu-Natal. 39 5 Description of soil types found in areas surrounding Ladysmith (NDA, 2002). 44 6 Age Groups of population in Emnambithi – Ladysmith Municipality (Census, 2001) 47 7 Home language of population in Emnambithi-Ladysmith Local Municipality 48 8 Number of Aloe marlothii specimens per 200 m2 50 9 Area of each identified potential habitat unit for Aloe marlothii within the study area 51 10 Criteria for Aloe marlothii density zone classification 56 11 Density zones and Aloe marlothii population size within study area 57 12 Rate of harvest required for sustainable harvesting of A. marlothii 64

Page i ABSTRACT

Ladysmith is a town situated on the banks of the Klip River in the uThukela District of KwaZulu Natal, and falls into the Emnambithi-Ladysmith Local Municipality. The labour force of the Emnambithi-Ladysmith Local Municipality makes up 32.48 % of the population within the municipality, of which 16.49 % are employed, and 15.99 % are unemployed. A further 22.21 % of the total population in the municipality are not economically active, i.e. are students, homemakers, disabled, too ill to work, or are not seeking work.

In an effort to address the poverty within KwaZulu Natal, the Department of Economic Development initiated a process which identified potential poverty-relieving initiatives and proposed to further investigate these development projects to establish which of the identified alternatives would be most feasible and beneficial to target communities. The areas where the poor communities are situated were identified based on the potential ability of the community to be able to support the required infrastructure investment and product development, which were in turn focussed on emerging economic growth points and development corridors (DEAT, 2001). One of the communities identified which could potentially benefit from one of the proposed development projects was that of the Emnambithi-Ladysmith Municipality, in KwaZulu Natal.

Emnambithi-Ladysmith Local Municipality appointed a consultant to compile a Local Economic Regeneration Study for Ladysmith and the rural communities of the locality. The Study is aimed at analysing the local economy and thereby finding economic strategies that will make optimum use of local resources to create sustainable job opportunities and means of redressing economic challenges such as retrenchment and unemployment. A significant component of the Study is the identification of projects, which promote local ownership, local jobs and local reinvestment and illustrate the potential to revitalise the local economy of Emnambithi (Urban Econ, 2005).

One of the alternative potentially sustainable poverty relief proposals put forward by the consultants, and other relevant parties, was that of harvesting the plant parts of the Aloes which appeared to be abundant within the Emnambithi-Ladysmith Municipality area. It was proposed that an Aloe pre-processing factory be established in a suitable location, which would provide employment opportunities for the local poor communities, who would either be directly employed by the pre-processing factory, or would be appropriately trained to harvest the required raw material from the natural Aloe populations. Similar operations have been initiated Page ii in the Southern and Eastern Cape by formal sector businesses, which produce products made from Aloe ferox, which are then either sold locally or exported.

The sustainability of the harvesting of these plants was determined based on the number of leaves which can be harvested per day by a tapper. It was possible to determine that the Aloe marlothii populations within the study area will not be able to support the harvesting of leaves, and as such, the harvesting thereof will not be sustainable.

Several recommendations have been made which will further refine the results of this project. The main shortfall of this study was the limitation of the study area by political boundaries. It is thus recommended that a study be conducted which includes all Aloe marlothii habitat areas occurring in the rocky hillsides surrounding Ladysmith, regardless of Ward boundaries. Page iii OPSOMMING

Ladysmith is ‘n dorp wat op die oewer van die Kliprivier in die uThukela Distrik van KwaZulu Natal geleë is en val in die regsgebied van die Emnambithi-Ladysmith Plaaslike Munisipaliteit. Die arbeidsmag van die Emnambithi-Ladysmith Plaaslike Munisipaliteit maak ongeveer 32.5 % van die bevolking uit, waarvan 16.5 % werksaam is en ongeveer 16 % werkloos is. ‘n Oorblywende 22.21 % van die totale bevolking in die munisipaliteit is nie ekonomies aktief nie, bv. studente, tuismakers, die ongeskik, en die wat nie op soek na werk is nie.

In ‘n poging om armoede binne KwaZulu Natal aan te spreek, het die Departement van Ekonomiese Ontwikkeling ‘n proses begin wat die protensiele verligting van armoede identifiseer en om hierdie ontwikkelingsprojekte te bepaal en te ondersoek watter van die geïdentifiseerde alternatiewe die geskikste sou wees om die minder bevoorregte gemeenskappe te teiken. Die areas waar hierdie gemeenskappe geleë is, was geidentifiseer deur middel van die gemeenskap se potensiële vermoë om die vereiste infrastruktuur belegging en produkontwikkeling te ondersteun, wat op sy beurt gefokus was op die ontwikkelende, ekonomiese groeipunte asook die ontwikkelingsareas (DEAT, 2001). Die Emnambithi- Ladysmith Plaaslike Munisipaliteit is geïdentifiseer as ‘n gemeenskap wat moontlik voordeel kan trek uit die voorgestelde ontwikkelingsprojekte.

Die Emnambithi-Ladysmith Plaaslike Munisipaliteit het ‘n konsultant aangestel om die Plaaslike Ekonomiese Regenerasie Studie vir Ladysmith en die landelike gemeenskappe van die area op te stel. Hierdie studie is gefokus op die analise van die plaaslike ekonomie, om daardeur ekonomiese strategiêë te vind, wat die optimum gebruik van plaaslike hulpbronne sal skep om die volhoubaarheid van werksgeleenthede te verseker. Dit sal ook die ekonomiese uitdagings soos oortollige personeel en werkloosheid aanspreek. Nog ‘n belangrike komponent van die studie, is die identifisering van projekte wat plaaslike eienaarskap bevoordeel, asook plaaslike werksgeleenthede en beleggings bevorder. Die studie fokus ook daarop om die plaaslike ekonomie van Emnambithi-Ladysmith te verstewig (Urban Econ, 2005).

Een van die alternatiewe potensiele armoede verligtingsvoorstelle, voorgestel deur die konsultante asook ander relevante partye, was dié wat die oes van sekere dele van Aalwyne behels. Hierdie Aalwyne kom volop voor in die Emnambithi-Ladysmith Munisipale area. Dit is Page iv voorgestel dat ‘n voorverwerkingsaanleg vir die Aalwyne aangebring word in ‘n geskikte area, wat op sy beurt werksgeleenthede vir die plaaslike minder bevoorregte gemeenskappe sal skep.

Hierdie werksgeleenthede sal óf direk deur die voorleg verskaf word, óf deur middel van opleiding om sodoende die onverwerkte Aalwynmateriaal vanaf die natuurlike bevolkings te oes. Ooreenstemmende prossese is in die Suid- en OosKaap geinisieër deur die besighede van die privaat sektor, wat produkte van Aloe ferox produseer. Hierdie produkte word plaaslik verkoop en selfs uitgevoer.

Die volhoubaarheid van die oes van Aalwyne is bepaal deur gebruik te maak van die hoeveelheid blare wat per dag deur ‘n tapper ge-oes kan word. Dit is moontlik om te bepaal dat die Aloe marlothii bevolking binne die studiegebied nie die oes van die blare kan weerstaan nie. Dit dui op die slotsom dat die oes van Aalwynblare nie volhoubaar is nie.

Verskeie voorstelle is gemaak wat die resultate van hierdie projek verder sal uitlê. Die hoof tekortkoming van hierdie studie is die beperktheid van die klipperige hellings in die omgewing van Ladysmith, ten spyte van die stadswyke.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank the following people for their assistance with obtaining the relevant information for this project:

• Bertie Le Roux (Emnambithi-Ladysmith Local Municipality, Department of Economic Development),

• Professor Ben-Erik van Wyk (University of Johannesburg, Department of Botany and Plant Biotechnology), and

• Johan Carstens (Agricultural Research Council).

I would also like to thank Janine and Colin Lewis, and my dad, Tony Ross for their valuable assistance in the field. Many thanks to my dad for all the hard work he put in helping me with the photographs. Thanks also to Yolandi Olivier and Danilla Breedt for their assistance.

I would like to thank my fiancé, Shaun Briggs, and my family for their unending support and encouragement, as well as Clean Stream Environmental Services for making their resources available and allowing me the time to complete this project.

Lastly, I would like to thank Dr. J.M. Meeuwis for her professional support and guidance, throughout this course. Her input has been of great value.

I dedicate this mini-thesis to my everlasting love, Shaun.

Page 1

PART 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION

1.1.1 POVERTY IN AFRICA

There has been growing recognition of what is needed to reduce poverty in Africa. Poverty is multidimensional, and the approaches to reduce it have to be similarly multidimensional. Poverty is economic, political and social—so efforts to reduce it cannot be boxed off into isolated programmes (UNDP, 1998).

The most effective way to reduce poverty is to expand the opportunities by which the poor can do more for themselves—economically, politically and socially. Economically, the task is to help the poor gain access to productive resources and knowledge for their use, as dozens of participatory poverty assessments have confirmed. This requires directly addressing inequalities in the distribution of productive assets, namely, by redistributing land and reallocating finance to meet the needs of poor borrowers—especially women. Such policies must, however, be based on concerted and sustained efforts in pursuing poverty-reducing growth, possible only with a broad-based rural development strategy (UNDP, 1998).

Clearly, real debt reduction and cancellation—not just debt relief—under a reinvigorated initiative for heavily indebted poor countries is essential. But there are other challenges. Environmental degradation threatens the marginal lands on which a high proportion of the poor depend (UNDP, 1998).

Poverty is pervasive in sub-Saharan Africa - with nearly 42% of the population living on less than $1 a day, and 40% in human poverty. Income poverty fell between the mid- 1950s and mid-1970s, but since then there has been some reversal of this improvement. Although income poverty has declined in other developing regions (as measured by the $1-a-day poverty line), in sub-Saharan Africa it rose by 40% between 1987 and 1993. The region is home to 220 million poor, and if the trends of the time persist, the number of Africans living in income poverty is anticipated to swell to nearly 300 million by the year 2000 (UNDP, 1998). Page 2

There has been important progress in reducing human poverty and advancing human development in sub - Saharan Africa. Adult illiteracy dropped from more than 60% in 1970 to about 40% in 1995. The share of people without access to safe water fell from nearly 80% to less than 60% between 1975 and 1996. Infant mortality dropped from 166 to 97 per 1,000 live births between 1960 and 1994. Still, sub-Saharan Africa suffers from critical impoverishment, especially among women and children. Nearly 120 million women in the region are illiterate. About 150,000 women die each year from complications related to pregnancy and childbirth (UNDP, 1998).

Nearly 22 million children die before their first birthday. About 30 million children under age five are malnourished. In 1992, about 20 million children were not enrolled in primary school, and more than 20 million children were employed as child labourers. Economic decline and stagnation have slowed and sometimes reversed human progress in sub-Saharan Africa. Between 1978 and 1994, output per capita fell by about 0.7% a year. Economies shrank in 35 of the 43 sub - Saharan countries, and about 20 are still below their per capita incomes of 20 years ago. Between 1981 and 1989, the region saw a 21% decline in real GNP per capita (UNDP, 1998).

External debt remains a daunting problem. The region owes more than $200 billion, or 80% of its current GNP. In 1990-93, sub-Saharan Africa's debt servicing amounted to more than $13 billion a year—considerably more than was spent on education and health. If governments had met their payment schedules, they would have paid twice as much. The sad truth is that the demands of debt servicing are no longer simply a question of money, but a source of the excruciating impoverishment of people's lives (UNDP, 1998).

The relationship between poverty and environmental degradation is complex. The poor are often the victims of environmental degradation caused by other members of society. At the same time, the poor often engage in processes that result in environmental degradation because their poverty leaves them with no other choice. In the right socio- economic environment, the poor manage environmental resources just as well as, if not better than, other groups in society (UNDP, 1998).

Page 3

1.1.2 POVERTY IN SOUTH AFRICA

According to the United Nations Development Programme Poverty Report (UNDP, 2000) approximately 40% of South Africa's total population is income-poor. Of this 40 %, the majority (± 75 %, according to the UNDP Poverty Report, 2000) of the South African population resides in the most ecologically fragile areas in the country (May ed, et al, 1998). The poor usually exist in environments that are degraded and marginal. Previous land policies (particularly the repealed 1913 Land Act), amongst others, has contributed substantially to the problems of landlessness, overpopulation overgrazing and increased land degradation in the rural areas of South Africa (May ed, et al. 1998).

A reduction in poverty could be achieved by the ability of individuals, as well as groups, to maintain sustainable livelihoods, where access to quality employment plays an important role in attaining sustainability (May ed, et al. 1998). The concept of sustainability has been defined as "development which meets the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987).

In general, the structure of the labour market in South Africa has a significant impact on the employment status of poor people. Poor people face a dual problem of unemployment and underemployment. This is reflected in the low labour force participation rates of poor people and the quality of the jobs they occupy. This, in addition to the structure of demands, determines the extent to which poor people will benefit or not, from an in increase in market demands and economic growth. Therefore it is of importance to ensure that not only are sufficient jobs created, but also to generate employment of improved quality and sustainability (May ed, et al. 1998).

Creating the link between economic growth and human development is probably the most challenging task facing the South African government in terms of reducing poverty. Central to this is the macroeconomic framework and associated monetary policies, and the implementation of various poverty-relieving policies. In order for the poor population of South Africa to benefit from economic growth, it needs to be translated into human development. This link determines the structure, quality and sustainability of the growth achieved (May ed, et al. 1998). Page 4

In response to the ever-increasing poverty levels in South Africa, the National Department of Environment and Tourism (DEAT, 2000) commissioned a Poverty Relief Programme in 2000 / 2001, to investigate various economic development options which would benefit and empower the poor communities, particularly those in rural areas, who most often have limited access to employment opportunities.

Agribusiness Sector Development was appointed for this task, which identified potential poverty-relieving initiatives and proposed to further investigate these development projects to establish which of the identified alternatives would be most feasible and beneficial to poor communities. The areas where these poor communities are situated were identified based on the potential ability of the community to be able to support the required infrastructure investment and product development, which were in turn focused on emerging economic growth points and development corridors (DEAT, 2001). One of the communities identified which could potentially benefit from one of the proposed development projects was that of the Emnambithi - Ladysmith Municipality, in KwaZulu Natal.

Urban Econ was appointed by the Emnambithi - Ladysmith Local Municipality to compile the Local Economic Regeneration Study for Ladysmith and the rural communities of the locality. The Study is aimed at analysing the local economy and thereby finding economic strategies that will make optimum use of local resources to create sustainable job opportunities and means of redressing economic challenges such as retrenchment and unemployment. A significant component of the Study is the identification of projects, which promote local ownership, local jobs and local reinvestment and illustrate the potential to revitalise the local economy of Emnambithi (Urban Econ, 2005).

1.1.3 PROPOSED SOLUTION FOR POVERTY RELIEF IN THE EMNAMBITHI - LADYSMITH

MUNICIPALITY

One of the alternative potentially sustainable poverty relief proposals put forward by Agribusiness and the Ladysmith / Emnambithi Municipality's Department of Economic Development was that of harvesting the plant parts of the Aloes which appeared to be abundant within the Ladysmith / Emnambithi Municipality area. It was proposed that Page 5

an Aloe pre-processing plant be established in a suitable location, which would provide employment opportunities for the local poor communities, who would either be directly employed by the Aloe pre-processing plant, or would be appropriately trained to harvest the required raw material from the natural Aloe populations. Similar operations have been initiated in the Southern and Eastern Cape by formal sector businesses, which produce products made from Aloe ferox, which are then either sold locally or exported. Ikhala products (Panton, 2005) is a suitable example of the type of project that is envisaged to enable the poor communities of the Ladysmith / Emnambithi Municipality to generate their own income, thus improving the standard of living for many households.

A pre-feasibility study for the above-mentioned project was conducted by J. Carstens of the Agricultural Research Council (ARC), in 2003, who discussed a historical overview (Carstens, 2003) of the Aloe industry, presented a comparison between Aloe vera and Aloe ferox, provided an overview of the production and marketing of Aloe products, the demand for indigenous medicines, external factors affecting the production of Aloes, the multiplier effect of the production of Aloes, an overview of the South African Aloe Industry, and a pre-feasibility study of an intermediary Aloe processing plant. Since some of these aspects are of relevance to this project, they have been included in this introduction.

1.1.4 THE ALOE INDUSTRY IN SOUTH AFRICA

1.1.4.1 Historical overview of the Aloe industry

Throughout history, Aloe species have been used for their remarkable medicinal properties. Aloe vera, as well as a number of other Aloe species from northern Africa, (particularly north of the equator), were spread round the world as new lands were discovered. It is important to note that isolated societies as far removed as the indigenous peoples of South Africa had independently discovered the uses of Aloes. In addition to the many uses of Aloe ferox by the Khoi San, other indigenous population groups used different Aloe species for medicinal purposes (African Aloe, 2000). Table 1 presents the species and their uses by various indigenous population groups within South Africa, throughout history. Page 6

Table 1: Uses of Aloe species by different population groups

Population Preparation of plant Species Medicinal use group part To treat human Aloe saponaria Pulped leaves. ringworm. Xhosa To treat intestinal Aloe tenuoir Decoction of root. worms. Taken orally to treat Aloe marlothii Extract of stem. roundworms. Zulus To heal and soothe Freshly cut surface of Aloe ferox fresh wounds, infected leaf. ulcers and boils. Leaves warmed in Bakone Aloe fossteri On wounds and sores. hot ash. To wash bodies for its Leaf juice mixed with Pondo Aoe aristata tonic and refreshing water. effect. 'Cape Leaves warmed in Gumboils and infected Aloe variegata Coloureds' hot ash. teeth.

Current interest in the healing properties of Aloes was sparked in the late 1940’s when Aloes were successfully used in the treatment of Japanese radiation burn victims after Hiroshima and Nagasaki. These South African Aloes had been introduced to Japan and Russia where their medicinal uses were recognised and extensively researched and used.

The Aloe used to treat Japanese patients was not, as is popularly thought, Aloe vera, but Aloe arborescens which, like Aloe ferox, is indigenous to South Africa (African Aloe, 2000). Twentieth century scientific literature contains many references to the Aloe plant’s diverse biologically active properties. Experiments have revealed new aspects of this plant’s versatility such as an anti-fungal effect, an inhibitory effect on cancer cells, an anti-inflammatory effect and an anti-ageing effect. Aloe derivatives have also been found to stimulate the growth of various cells e.g. skin cells and normal lymph cells. Recent test results have shown Aloe gel to possess a rapid vasodilatory effect Page 7

(increases blood flow to area of application) which is vital for healing and for improved skin regeneration (Carstens, 2003).

Although Aloe Ferox crystals were one of the first products to be exported from the Cape in the 1600’s, the formal Aloe industry which currently exists has only emerged in the last decade in South Africa. The global trend to treat illnesses, ailments and other conditions with natural products (both cosmetic and medicinal) over this period has resulted in the establishment of a rapidly-developing demand for Aloe products, both in the cosmetic and complementary medicinal markets. The products developed from processed Aloe plant parts have been well accepted in both local and foreign markets, and are currently exported to several countries, particularly in Europe (Carstens, 2003).

1.1.4.2 Developments in the South African Aloe Industry

The demand and supply potential of the medicinal plant trade in South Africa has, in the past, been largely unrecognised and, consequently, poorly developed. The past racially based policies of the South African Government are most likely responsible for the limited perspectives of the population regarding agriculture, nature conservation and health care. Plant trade and utilisation has consequently been ignored by formal health and agricultural services, while conservation agencies have focused on minimising the impacts of the medicinal trade on biodiversity (Carstens, 2003).

Furthermore, the users and traders themselves have accomplished little with regard to developing the potential of the medicinal plant trade, most likely as a result of underdevelopment of the associated population, aggressive competition between various market players, and an abundant supply of wild plants. These factors have prevented any unified approach to the development of the industry (Carstens, 2003).

As a consequence of the various perspectives of role-players in the indigenous medicinal plant industry and especially the lack of any organized marketing, few potential opportunities have been developed. The opportunities, constraints and potential of the medicinal plant market are therefore critical issues to consider in developing the industry. The traditional medicine trade in South Africa is valued up to 2.3 million South African Rand (= US $219,256.00) annually and approximately Page 8

1 500 tons of traditional medicines are sold in Durban markets alone each year (Carstens, 2003).

Since 1993, the Chinese aloe industry has grown rapidly and plans to become a major player in the world aloe market within the next five to eight years. Japan is presently the world’s second largest economy and in recent years has also ranked as the second largest importer of medicinal and aromatic plant materials, surpassed by Hong Kong and followed by the US, Germany, and Republic of Korea. In 2003, it was estimated that Japanese pharmaceutical companies import an estimated 62 000 tons of botanical raw materials annually for the manufacturing of Japanese kampo (traditional herbal) medicines (Carstens, 2003).

The Cape Aloe (Aloe ferox) is one of South Africa’s main non-wood forest products (NWFP) growing in the Western and Eastern Cape. Due to increasing demand, large- scale utilization and unsustainable exploitation, the wild Aloe ferox population is threatened and the species is protected under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) Appendices. While other species of Aloe are utilised, for example in KwaZulu-Natal, Aloe ferox is still harvested predominantly from the wild. A permit to harvest naturally occurring Aloe ferox has to be obtained from the provincial Department of Agriculture: Directorate: Environmental Affairs Directorate (Carstens, 2003).

1.1.4.3 The demand for indigenous medicines

The demand for indigenous medicines and services in South Africa are considerable, relative to the demand for western health care services. The black population in Durban indicated that they relied on both health care systems, with 60 % of the health care services demand coming from western health care systems and 40 % of the services demanded coming from indigenous medicine. Since indigenous medicine is based almost entirely on the use of indigenous plants, a massive demand is generated in terms of both number and mass of plants used (Carstens, 2003).

The medicinal plants are likely to remain in demand in the future. Consumers indicated that indigenous medicine was not an inferior product and that demand is unlikely to Page 9 decline should income levels and welfare increase in the future. On the contrary, urban consumers indicated that indigenous medicine was more expensive than the subsidised western health services provided by the government, yet they reported that they would be likely to either maintain or increase the frequency of use in the future (Carstens, 2003).

Consumers also indicated that western medicine was not an alternative to indigenous medicine, and that irrespective of price they would continue to use indigenous medicine. In their opinion, there are a wide range of ailments and needs which cannot be adequately addressed by western medicine. This implies that indigenous medicine is a basic consumer good, essential for the welfare of many households, particularly amongst the black population of South Africa (Carstens, 2003).

1.1.4.4 Ecological considerations

Important to note in this regard is that the industry is regulated to some extent by specific legislation and regulations. These were highlighted by Newton and Vaughan in the TRAFFIC REPORT (IUCN, 1996). Exporting of the Aloe plants which are indigenous to South Africa is controlled at National level by relevant sections of the provincial ordinances and at International level by CITES. The latter is recognised in both the Environmental Conservation Act, 1989 (Act 73 of 1989) and the Ordinances of the four former provincial Nature Conservation Authorities. In KwaZulu Natal the provincial authority is the Natal Parks Board, executing various Provincial Ordinances such as CITES export permits (Chapter XI, Nature Conservation Ordinance (No.15 of 1975)). The export of Aloe ferox is also controlled by the Customs and Excise export declaration of 1964.

The indigenous medicine market is based on indigenous plants, which are generally harvested from wild plant stocks throughout the country, as well as in neighbouring countries. The plant stocks and the harvesting of these stocks have not been adequately managed, and little cultivation takes place. The combination of high demand and the lack of any significant resource management or plant production has resulted in a decline in the available plant stocks, and an impact on the biodiversity within the affected regions (Carstens, 2003). Page 10

Over the past few years, more indigenous plant species have begun to exhibit indications of unsustainable use, through the decrease in the size of the harvested plant parts, the increase in the distance to harvestable populations, through the increasingly irregular supply of raw material, and/or some plants becoming unavailable in certain markets (Carstens, 2003).

For the harvested Aloe species, the optimal conservation option is to harvest plant parts from wild populations on a sustainable basis, for a variety of reasons. Sustainable harvesting is increasingly considered to be the most important conservation strategy for most wild-harvested species and their habitats, given their current and potential contributions to local economies and their greater value to harvesters over the long term. The founding principle of this perspective is that non-destructive harvesting will maintain the plant population dynamics, species diversity and ecosystem functionality, whilst benefiting the relevant local communities (Carstens, 2003).

Besides poverty and the break-down of traditional controls, the major challenges for sustainable wild-collection include the lack of knowledge about sustainable harvesting rates and practices, undefined land use rights and lack of legislative and policy guidance and enforcement (Carstens, 2003). It can be expected that increasing demand will result in an increase in the application of destructive harvesting techniques, which aim at maximising the harvest from the existing plant stocks in order to maintain income levels in the short term (Carstens, 2003).

However, there are options for sustaining the supply of plant parts to markets. With effective management and suitable control mechanisms, these areas could sustainably supply a range of products to the markets in the long term, with minimal impact on the biodiversity of the site, both on a local and a regional scale. The volumes of plant resources available, and the harvesting strategies which may be applied, will need constant monitoring to ensure the sustainability of the practice (Carstens, 2003).

Solutions to the potential problems of over-harvesting and the resultant ecological destruction, include the cultivation, management and enrichment planting of high value plants (such as indigenous Aloes) are therefore an important strategy which will satisfy consumer demands and reduce the impacts of the market on biodiversity. The success Page 11 of cultivation trials undertaken to date have shown good potential for this strategy. Fast-growing species could supply sufficient quantities of raw product to processing industries and manufacturers, as well as directly to the market, within a few years (Carstens, 2003).

1.1.4.5 Sustainable plant use

According to Pfab and Scholes (2004), "Sustainable use" is widely accepted and appears frequently in international conventions, national and provincial legislation and policy, yet is rarely challenged. It is one of the most commonly misunderstood and misused concepts in contemporary conservation. Aloe peglerae is listed as Endangered (EN A2d+3d+4d; B1ab(ii,v) +2ab(ii,v)), being threatened mainly by illegal collection, and are extremely sensitive to harvesting of adult plants. Harvesting only one plant annually from a population of 100 adults will cause the population to decline rapidly to extinction. In a similar vein, Pfab and Scholes (2004) state that other medicinal plant species exhibiting similar life histories to Aloe peglerae, which are currently in high demand in South Africa, are likely to be as sensitive to use (Cunningham, 1994; Dzerefos and Witkowski, 2001).

Cunningham (1994) and TRAFFIC (2000) showed that the life history dynamics of many of the popular medicinal plant species in South Africa are not yet known, and therefore the sustainability of harvesting cannot yet be determined. Yet, in the absence of this vital information, Cunningham (1994) and Dzerefos and Witkowski (2001) point out that users and plant resource managers often propose the implementation of sustainable use programmes in conservation areas in the face of resource depletion outside protected areas.

Pfab and Scholes (2004) highlight the view that sustainable use may not be possible for many plant species in practice, especially in the modern-day context of commercial exploitation, technological advancement, increased rural poverty, increasing scarcity of natural resources and continuing human population growth (Dasmann, 1985; Fong, 1992, Godoy and Bawa, 1993, Cunningham, 1994, Allen and Edwards, 1995, and Attwell and Cotterill, 2000) rendering socio-economic sustainability an impossibility (Nantel et al., 1996, and Campbell, 1998). In addition, consideration is rarely given to Page 12 the impact of use on other species that are part of the ecosystem being exploited (Struhsaker, 1998).

Reports of current unsustainable use of plants and other wildlife are abundantly available in the literature (Pfab and Scholes, 2004), and there are very few examples that demonstrate sustainable use. The ex situ cultivation and farming of these species may be the only way to realise sustainable use (Cunningham, 1994, Nantel et al., 1996, and Van On et al., 2001).

According to Carstens (2003), "Sustainable production" can be defined as production in harmony with nature that ensures continued harvesting without the depletion of a resource. The importance of sustainable harvesing during the production of indigenous natural products can never be over-emphasized.

Without sustainable use the very resource that provides the business opportunity is at risk of being lost. This is not only detrimental to business in the short term, but also imposes a heavy cost on society through negative impacts and could lead to legal implications under environmental legislation, particularly the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, 2004 (Act 10 of 2004). In addition, many consumers of indigenous natural products are environmentally aware, and are interested in products that have been produced on a sustainable basis. The need to make sustainable production a business priority becomes more urgent when one considers the potential for poor performance in this area. Available evidence suggests that although the harvesting of wildlife products at rates consistent with their inherent growth rates (sustainable yield) is theoretically possible, in practice, it has often followed alternative pathways: novel wildlife products are initially harvested at rates below the sustainable yield level, but market growth leads to an influx of new players, frequently resulting in harvesting levels that exceed the sustainable yield. Carstens (2003) also points out that, contrary to most other economic goods and services, increases in demand do not result in increased growth rates of natural populations and over-exploited natural populations usually respond by decline.

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1.1.4.6 Production capacity

At present there are different potential aloe tapping locations in the communities of the Ladysmith / Emnambithi Municipality, in KwaZuu Natal, each with an initial limited number of tappers (Aloe plant part and product harvesters) in relative close proximity of the proposed pilot plant. The number of tappers will ultimately increase according to growth in the demand for the finished products.

Approximately 3 to 4 layers of the lower leaves of the Aloe ferox (Cape Aloe) plant can be harvested every 18 months (Carstens, 2003). Since Aloe marlothii is considered to be the Natal form of Aloe ferox, and is similar in adult size, it is plausible to assume that the same principles would apply to the harvesting of Aloe marlothii leaves. A harvestable leaf of A. marlothii weighs on average approximately 350 g. Carstens (2003) estimated that a tapper can deliver up to one ton of leaves per day to the proposed intermediary processing plant in Ladysmith, KwaZulu Natal. An aloe tapper can therefore harvest approximately 2 500 leaves. A. marlothii has approximately 3 – 6 leaves per layer, therefore a minimum of 9 and a maximum of 24 leaves can be harvested from a single adult specimen. Thus, a tapper can harvest leaves from 104 to 277 adult A. marlothii specimens in one day.

The daily delivery capacity by an initial group of 100 tappers would be equivalent to 100 tons of leaves per day. However, the extent of the orders will determine the number of tappers required on any given day. The time frame to deliver will also influence the number of tappers to be activated. Initial observations are that many more than the initial tappers can be activated, should demand increase to such an extent.

1.1.5 SOCIAL ASPECTS OF THE COMMISSIONING OF THE PROPOSED ALOE PILOT PLANT IN

LADYSMITH

1.1.5.1 Gender involvement

Previous surveys in the Eastern Cape have indicated that there are usually more than 80 % women involved in the harvesting and collection process. Women generally perform most of the primary tasks such as harvesting and tapping of aloe leaves. Men Page 14 predominantly perform a supportive role, undertaking the loading and transport activities. The process sometimes involves children from a tapper's household. Tapper families work as units to provide the harvested product to the collection point i.e. the pilot plant (Carstens, 2003).

1.1.5.2 Current income levels

Results obtained from socio-economic studies (Carstens, 2003) conducted in the communal areas of the Eastern Cape where Aloe ferox is harvested (Agricultural Research Council, April 2000 and June 2002), and which are comparable with the rural social structures of Ladysmith (random observation from IDP and other records), reveal that the current average total annual income of households in the area is likely to be in the vicinity of R14 000 (Carstens, 2003). Presently, the major source of income in these areas is social pension payment from the Department of Social Welfare, which is distributed predominantly to elderly people. Other income sources are social support such as child support, livestock sales, salaries and wages (of which very little originates from crop sales). There is also a tendency amongst the families to be dependent on income earned by relatives in the formal sectors located in urban centres throughout the country (Carstens, 2003).

1.1.5.3 Additional income to be generated from an Aloe pre- processing plant

Carstens (2003) estimated that with the expected delivery of one ton of leaves per day, a tapper can earn R 100-00 (plus R13-00 for bitter sap (second grade) produced from a ton of leaves). It is expected that an average of 20 working days per month can be maintained. A tapper household can therefore earn an average of R 2 000-00 per month over a 10 month harvesting period per year, once the Aloe pre-processing plant is operational (Carstens, 2003).

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1.1.5.4 Members of households who will benefit from the proposed Aloe pre- processing plant

Considering the low annual income together with the extremely high unemployment rate in the KZN-Province, it is expected that the perceived income from the proposed poverty alleviation project will benefit everyone in these households (Carstens, 2003).

1.1.6 TARGET SPECIES - ALOE MARLOTHII

1.1.6.1 Brief description of the target species

Initially, the Aloe species dominating most of the undeveloped ridges surrounding Ladysmith, in Kwazulu Natal, was thought to be Aloe ferox, commonly known as the Cape Aloe. However, a survey conducted by B.-E Van Wyk, in 2004, revealed that the dominant species was, in fact, Aloe marothii.

This species is considered by many to be the Natal form of Aloe ferox, and thus is expected to have similar medicinal properties. This has not yet been confirmed through scientific study, though, and as such, claims cannot be made in this regard, which may limit the initial market interest in the products manufactured at the proposed Ladysmith pilot plant. This will, however, need to be investigated in depth, prior to the establishment of a pre-processing plant in areas where Aloe marlothii populations will provide the required resource base.

1.1.6.2 Brief botanical description of Aloe marlothii

Aloe marlothii is a succulent plant with a single erect stem usually 2 - 3 m in height, densely covered with the remains of old dry leaves. The leaves are broad, dull green to greyish-green, characterised by brown scattered spines which occur along the leaf edges, as well as on both the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf. The inflorescence is a many-branched panicle comprising horizontally to obliquely arranged racemes, and the species flowers predominantly in August (Van Wyk and Malan, 1998). Refer to Figures 1 and 2.

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Figure 1: Aloe marlothii specimen occurring in the vicinity of Ladysmith

Figure 2: Aloe marlothii specimens occurring in the vicinity of Ladysmith Page 17

1.1.6.3 Distribution of Aloe marlothii

Aloe marlothii is found predominantly within the distribution region indicated by the green shaded areas in Figure 4 (page 18), which is a map that was produced by the South African National Botanical Institute (SANBI), dated 2001, to indicate the present distribution of Aloe marlothii in South Africa, as well as to estimate the distribution of Aloe marlothii populations in the future.

1.1.6.4 Preferred habitat of Aloe marlothii

Aloe marlothii, like most other Aloe species, prefers warm climates (average maximum of between 21°C and 23°C) and well-drained soil. This species occurs in vast numbers on rocky ridges, hillsides and grasslands (Van Wyk and Malan, 1998). The preference of Aloe marlothii for rocky ridges and grasslands is evident amongst the Aloe marlothii populations around Ladysmith, as can be seen in Figures 3 and 5 respectively.

Figure 3: Aloe marlothii population growing on a rocky ridge near Ladysmith

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Figure 5: Aloe marlothii population growing in rocky grassland near Ladysmith

Where they occur in the area surrounding Ladysmith, Kwazulu Natal, the Aloe marlothii populations occur predominantly on the north- and east-facing slopes of the rocky ridges, between which the historic town is situated (refer to Figure 6).

North

Figure 6: Aloe marlothii population growing on an east-facing rocky ridge near Ladysmith Page 20

1.1.6.5 Traditional use of Aloe marlothii in South Africa

Zulus use extracts of Aloe marlothii in the treatment of roundworm infections. A decoction of the green leaf and root is drunk to stimulate bowel movement, or given as an enema. The ash of the leaf is mixed with tobacco in making snuff. Women rub the green leaf pulp over the breasts in order to hasten the weaning of children. Decoctions are made of the shoots of Aloe marlothii, which are then ingested orally for stomach troubles, and will cause vomiting when taken in large amounts (Wisniewska-Jones, 1999). Aloe marlothii is also used in Mozambique as an anti-malarial agent (CITES, 2003).

1.2 PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY

1.2.1 PROJECT BACKGROUND INFORMATION

In July 2004, Agribusiness (a directorate of the Kwazulu Natal Department of Economic Development) invited tenders to conduct a micro and macro economic study on the Aloe Industry in South Africa. The main purpose of the study was to guide economic development and allow communities to capitalise on available resources.

Although Aloe ferox ‘crystals’ have been exported from the Cape since the 1500’s, the Aloe industry has only become more formalised in the last decade. The demand for natural medicines is increasing worldwide, predominantly in Europe, North America and Asia.

One of the terms of reference for the macro and micro economic study was to determine the area within Kwazulu Natal which would be most suitable to develop an Aloe processing factory, so that the surrounding community may be empowered through the harvesting of the Aloes to supply the factory, which will also employ locals, benefiting the community. The Emnambithi (former Ladysmith) Municipality, Department of Economic Development has requested that a study be conducted within the peri-urban rural areas of Ladysmith (identified priority wards) to determine the sustainability and feasibility of the suggested empowerment of the community to capitalise on their surrounding Aloe marlothii populations. A. marlothii has been classified taxanomically Page 21

as the Natal form of Aloe ferox, which is found in abundance in the Southern and Eastern Cape. This empowering of the community could be achieved by the founding of the Aloe processing factory in Ladysmith, the town, and the training of the rural communities to tap and harvest Aloes sustainably.

1.2.2 MAIN AIM OF THIS STUDY

The main aim of this mini-thesis is to identify areas of similar Aloe marlothii population density, and to prioritise these areas with regard to harvesting of the Aloes. The sustainability of the harvesting of these plants will be determined based on the amount of leaves and exudate the factory is anticipated to process, according to market demand (which has been estimated by Carstens (2003), and which will be determined in detail as part of the macro and micro economic study commissioned by Agribusiness, as mentioned previously). In doing so, and by taking into account the number of leaves which can be harvested per day by a tapper, it will be possible to determine estimates of the number of people and households who would be empowered through this project, as well as the number of households who would benefit from the project, and raise their standard of living.

1.2.3 IMPORTANCE OF THIS STUDY

This mini-dissertation is important because the results will provide clarity as to the capability of the environment surrounding Ladysmith, in particular the local Aloe marlothii populations, to provide poverty relief for those living in peri-urban and rural areas. The majority of the rural population in South Africa is poor (approximately 71.6% of rural households, according to May, (Ed) et al., (1998)), and rely solely on their surrounding environmental resources for survival. In accordance with Agenda 21 principles, and the ultimate goal of the South African government to eliminate poverty and uplift the standard of living of the poor, this study will provide information as to which of the Municipal Wards prioritised by the Emnambithi - Ladysmith Local Department of Economic Development should be targeted for poverty relief through training and tool provision for the harvesting of Aloe marlothii plant parts, to supply the proposed Ladysmith pilot Aloe pre-processing plant with the necessary raw material to manufacture cosmetic and medicinal goods for the local and export markets, should it Page 22 be deemed a viable business option to do so, through the macro- and micro-economic study currently underway, which is being conducted by sub-contractors of Agribusiness, as mentioned in Part 1.2.1 (page 20).

The issue of the sustainability of harvesting from the wild, as is proposed for the Ladysmith pilot Aloe processing plant, also contributes to the importance of this study, since biodiversity, and the relationship between humans and the environment is one of delicate balance, which is usually particularly strained in areas of extreme poverty, where the population relies directly upon the resources which their environment can provide. The aims and objectives of this pilot study are provided in more detail in the Problem Statement (refer to Part 2, page 23) of this mini-dissertation.

Page 23 PART 2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Currently, there is insufficient information available to quantitatively determine whether the populations of Aloe marlothii in the municipal wards identified as priority areas for poverty relief by the Ladysmith / Emnambithi Municipality Local Economic Development Department, can be sustainably harvested to provide a proposed pilot Aloe pre-processing plant in Ladysmith with sufficient raw material for its purposes.

The main aim of this mini-thesis is to identify areas of similar Aloe marlothii population density, within the priority municipal wards identified by the Ladysmith / Emnambithi Local Economic Development Department, and to re-prioritise these areas in view of the number of Aloe marlothii specimens present within the identified municipal wards which can be sustainably harvested, and thus determine the amount of people who will benefit from such an initiative.

In order to achieve the aim presented above, the following objectives need to be satisfied:

• Undertake a literature review - to accumulate information which is already available from various sources such as books, scientific journals, electronic information (internet), information held by the Emnambithi / Ladysmith Municipality (e.g. statistics, aerial photography, GIS information, etc.), and maps, such as 1:50 000 topographical maps. This will assist in the identification of information gaps, as well as providing an information platform from which to formulate a methodology, and based on which the results of this study can be analysed,

• Conduct a pre-assessment site-visit, for orientation purposes, and to plan the assessment methodology,

• Describe the study area, focussing on the factors which are most likely to affect the size and production of Aloe marlothii populations, as well as to provide background information regarding the study area for the benefit of those who are unfamiliar with the study area,

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• Identify areas of potential Aloe marlothii habitat using aerial photographs, based on the knowledge gained from the literature review, as well as from the pre-assessment site visit,

• 'Ground-truth' areas which were predetermined using aerial photographs, and determine the average number of Aloe marlothii specimens present in the identified potential habitat areas, within the relevant municipal ward boundary areas, as determined by the Emnambithi / Ladysmith Department of Economic Development,

• Delineate areas where Aloe marlothii specimens actually occur, using aerial photographs as a base, (i.e. show where the aloes actually occur on a map created using a geo-referenced aerial photograph as a base),

• Classify areas of differing density based on the average number of Aloe marlothii specimens determined per square area, in order to determine whether the area is a high priority area, a medium priority area, a low priority area , or a 'no go' area, with regards to the practicality of training potential tappers and investing in the Aloe processing plant poverty relief strategy within each municipal ward identified by the Emnambithi / Ladysmith Department of Economic Development as being of development priority,

• Compile density zone maps using aerial photographs as a base, for ease of reference for future users of the information thus provided,

• Calculate the number of people who will be able to benefit from harvesting Aloe marlothii plant parts, based on the number of Aloe marlothii plant specimens which will be able to be sustainably harvested within the identified areas, and

• Identify possible solutions to the potential problem of over-harvesting, or unsustainable harvesting, of the Aloe marlothii specimens within the study area.

As mentioned previously, the fulfilment of the above-listed objectives will lead to the accomplishment of the main aim. The methodology followed in order to achieve the objectives listed above is provided in Part 3 (page 25). Page 25 PART 3: METHODOLOGY

3.1 DATA TO BE COLLECTED

In order to fulfil the objectives of this study, as listed in Part 2 (pages 23-24), the following data needed to be gathered:

3.1.1 EXISTING INFORMATION

Various sources were used to gather the background information which already existed regarding the different aspects of the project, such as poverty in South Africa, and in the Emnambithi / Ladysmith Municipality, the currently proposed solution to the problem of poverty within the municipality (i.e. establishment of a pilot pre-processing plant, as mentioned in Part 1), and the feasibility of such a project (which had been assessed in a previous preliminary study by the ARC).

Other information was gathered from the following sources:

• Books (e.g. Low and Rebelo, 1998, Van Wyk and Gericke, 2000, and Van Wyk and Malan, 1998),

• Scientific journals (e.g. Biodiversity and Conservation, Landscape Planning, Environmental Conservation, Economic Botany and Journal of Biogeography),

• Electronic information (internet),

• Information held by the Emnambithi / Ladysmith Municipality (e.g. statistics, aerial photography, GIS information, Priority wards, etc.), and

• Maps, such as 1:50 000 topographical maps.

The specific articles and reports used to gather the background information have been referenced in Part 7.

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3.1.2 NEW DATA TO BE COLLECTED

In order to accomplish the objectives of this study, the following data needed to be gathered:

• The average number of Aloe marlothii specimens per square area (200 m2 plots) within the study area,

• An estimate of the total number of Aloe marlothii specimens within the identified potential habitat areas within the study area,

• GPS points of the sampling plots for mapping purposes, and

• Photographic evidence of the sampling plot and study area.

By integrating the background information gathered during the literature survey and that gathered during the field investigation for this study, the potential of the Aloe marlothii habitat areas which were identified within the priority wards will be classified into zones of similar Aloe marlothii population density. Based on this classification, the priority of the wards, which were identified for economic development by the Emnambithi / Ladysmith Department of Economic Development, will either be confirmed or rearranged.

3.2 METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

The data that needed to be collected, as mentioned in Part 3.1.2 was accumulated in a step-wise fashion. This included the delineation of the study area, identification of the areas potentially providing habitat for the Aloe marlothii populations within the study area, marking out of sample plots within the identified habitat areas, tallying of the number of Aloe marlothii specimens within the sampling plots, and the collection of photographic evidence. The data collected in the field was then interpreted into density zones, and plotted onto maps, using GIS, which can be used in future for planning purposes.

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3.2.1 DELINEATION OF THE STUDY AREA

A ward is defined as a political area of within a local municipality which is made up of voting districts which were determined by the Independent Electoral Commission in 2000 (IEC, 2000). The Emnambithi / Ladysmith Department of Economic Development identified the following wards (in order of reference) to be of priority for training of the target population of the peri-urban and rural impoverished population with regard to tapping and harvesting of the naturally occurring Aloe marlothii population (refer to Figure 7 on page 28):

• Ward 10,

• Ward 12,

• Ward 14,

• Ward 19

• Ward 23

• Ward 7, and

• Ward 8.

Due to the nature of this pilot study, only the four most accessible areas were selected to form part of this preliminary study, and the wards thus selected are listed in Table 2:

Table 2: Municipal wards selected as the study area for this pilot study

Peri-urban Rural Ward 10 Ward 14 Ward 12 Ward 19 Page 29

Figure 8 (page 30) presents the areas which were selected for the purposes of this pilot study.

3.2.2 POTENTIAL HABITAT FOR ALOE MARLOTHII WITHIN THE STUDY AREA

Based on the information obtained during the literature survey, the most likely areas to provide suitable habitat for Aloe marlothii are on the ridges. The orientation site visit confirmed this assumption to be true, and revealed that the north-and east-facing slopes of the ridges were most densely populated, as the preferred habitat of Aloe marlothii occurs on north and east-facing slopes of rocky ridges and grasslands (as mentioned in Part 1.1.6.2, page 15), but not exclusively. Small, sparse populations of Aloe marlothii occurred on the south- and west-facing slopes of the ridges.

Figure 9 (p31), Figure 10 (p32), Figure 11 (p33) and Figure 12 (p34) are satellite images which show the parts of the study area that were identified as being likely to provide suitable habitat for Aloe marlothii.

3.2.3 SAMPLE PLOTS

During the site visit, areas that could visually be determined to be of similar Aloe marlothii density were identified. Within each identified area, the most visually representative sample location was chosen, and a sample plot was marked out. One sample plot was marked out for each relatively uniformly dense population of Aloe marlothii. The sample plots were marked out with dimensions of 20 m by 10 m, to provide a total area of 200 m2. The size of the sample plot was kept constant throughout the surveyed areas, for the purpose of consistency, and to be able to compare the data gathered from these sample plots.

The GPS points at each end of the sample plot were recorded for mapping purposes, and photographs were taken. A gallery of the photographs that were taken as part of the data collection phase of this study is provided in Annexure 1. Page 35

3.2.4 DETERMINATION OF SIZE AND DENSITY OF ALOE MARLOTHII POPULATIONS

The number of Aloe marlothii specimens within each representative sample plot was tallied, and extrapolated to the area of the identified habitat areas (presented in Figures 9 to 12 on pages 31-34). The number of specimens per 200 m2 was also used to determine the relative density of the Aloe marlothii populations. Density zones could accordingly be determined, and delineated on a map.

3.2.5 DETERMINING THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE WHO COULD BENEFIT FROM HARVESTING

ALOE MARLOTHII FROM THESE AREAS

Using the existing information (refer to Part 1.1.4.6 on page 15), and the new data collected through implementing the methodology discussed above (refer to Part 5.1.1 on page 51 and Part 5.1.3 on page 57), it was possible to estimate the number of people who could benefit from the harvesting of Aloe marlothii within the study area. The results of this calculation will provide sufficient information to prioritise the municipal wards in such a way that maximum benefit will be gained by all concerned.

3.2.6 POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO POTENTIAL PROBLEMS OF OVER-HARVESTING

Existing information gathered during the literature survey was used to identify possible solutions to the potential over-harvesting of Aloe marlothii from the area, and the ecological consequences associated therewith, such as the specialised technique of harvesting aloe leaves, and the limiting of the number of Aloe marlothii specimens which may be harvested per tapper, as well as training tappers correctly, with regard to the time period which must be left between harvests (i.e. 18 months).

Since the Aloe marlothii populations around Ladysmith form an integral part of the ecosystem, and the survival of these Aloe populations is strongly influenced by environmental factors such as soil, sunlight, temperature and available water, as well as pollinators, etc., it is necessary to obtain background information regarding the environment in which these Aloes occur. This has been discussed in Part 4. Page 36

PART 4: GENERAL SITE DESCRIPTION

4.1 LOCATION

Ladysmith is a town situated on the banks of the Klip River in the uThukela District of KwaZulu Natal (refer to Figure 13 on page 37 for the location of the District Municipality). Ladysmith falls into the Emnambithi / Ladysmith Local Municipality (refer to Figure 14 on page 38). The mentioned Local municipality consists of 25 wards, and has 50 councillors. The new name of the municipality is Emnambithi-Ladysmith Local Municipality, the geographical area of which is approximately 2 964.8 km2.

The distances from the town of Ladysmith to neighbouring towns is indicated in Table 3. This information is relevant, since it shows that if the proposed Aloe pre-processing plant is established in a town other than Ladysmith, the distance to the nearest town from the Aloe marlothii populations surrounding Ladysmith (other than Ladysmith) is approximately 12 km, which would be too far for the tappers to walk to deliver their produce to the Aloe pre-processing plant. From this perspective, the location of the proposed Aloe pre-processing plant within the town of Ladysmith would be most practical.

Table 3: Distance to neighbouring towns / destinations (Routes Travel Info, 2005)

Neighbouring town / Direction Main Route Distance destination N3 West N11 11 km Pepworth North N11 11 km Newcastle North N11 113 km N3 North-west R103 26 km Roosboom South R103 12 km Colenso South R103 24 km

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4.2 ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCING FACTORS

4.2.1 CLIMATE

Table 4 indicates the temperature and precipitation information for Ladysmith. This is of importance, since the growth and reproduction of Aloe marlothii depends on environmental factors such as temperature and rainfall. This would most likely influence the ability of the Aloe marlothii specimens to recover from being harvested. According to the South African Weather Bureau, the climatic information is the normal values and, according to the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) prescripts, is based on monthly average values for the 30 year period 1961 – 1990.

Table 4: Climatic information for Ladysmith, KwaZulu-Natal

Temperature (°C) Precipitation Average Highest Average Average Average number Month Highest Lowest 24 hour daily daily monthly of days recorded recorded rainfall maximum minimum (mm) with ≥ (mm) 1 mm January 39 30 17 11 145 14 98 February 38 29 16 10 106 12 109 March 36 28 15 6 90 11 73 April 33 25 11 1 39 6 63 May 32 23 6 -2 14 3 34 June 28 20 2 -6 6 1 26 July 30 21 3 -7 5 1 26 August 32 23 6 -6 26 3 68 September 38 25 10 -3 38 5 46 October 37 26 12 4 77 10 76 November 39 27 14 6 91 13 73 December 39 29 16 8 112 14 73 Year 39 25 11 -7 749 93 109

Figure 15 (page 40) shows that June and July are the coldest months, with the lowest minimum (± 2.5°C) and maximum temperatures (± 20.5°C) for the year, and December Page 40 and January are the hottest months, with the highest minimum (± 16.5°C) and maximum temperatures (± 29.5°C) for the year.

15 Max Temp Min Temp

0 January March May July September November Month Figure 15: Graph showing the average temperatures for Ladysmith for the period 1961 – 1990.

As displayed in Figure 16 (page 41), Ladysmith falls within the summer rainfall region of the eastern parts of South Africa, with the most rainfall occurring in January (± 142 mm), and the lowest rainfall occurring during the winter months of June and July (± 6 mm). Rainfall is an environmental factor which plays an important role in the suitability of potential habitat for characteristic plant species. In times of drought, the Aloe marlothii specimens, which have been harvested, will take longer than the average 18 months to recover from harvesting, and thus the period between harvesting seasons should be lengthened and closely monitored if the plants are to be harvested sustainably. The productivity during such a time will, of necessity, need to be stringently controlled, if the Aloe marlothii populations are to survive. Knowledge of the normal rainfall conditions for Ladysmith will thus help to determine the most suitable periods during which to sustainably harvest Aloe leaves.

Page 41

160

140

120

100

80 Rainfall (mm)

0 January March May July September November Month

Figure 16: Graph showing the average rainfall for Ladysmith for the period 1961 – 1990.

4.2.3 TOPOGRAPHY

Ladysmith town is situated along the Klip River, and is surrounded by rocky ridges (refer to Figures 17 and 18 on page 42), which, in conjunction with other environmental factors such as rainfall and temperature (refer to Part 4.2 on page 39), provide suitable habitat for Aloe marlothii, as well as other floral species. The topography surrounding Ladysmith is similar to that near the town, and is traversed with many tributaries of the Klip River.

4.2.4 SOIL

The soil in the study area can be described as consisting mainly of Black Montmarillanitic Clay / Red Clay soil, as can be deduced from Figure 19 (page 43). Three soil types occur in the area surrounding Ladysmith, which were described by the Department of Agriculture (NDA), in 2002, as presented in Table 5.

Page 44

Table 5: Description of soil types found in areas surrounding Ladysmith (NDA, 2002)

Soil Type (NDA Code) Description Soil with minimal development, usually shallow on hard or EA weathering rock, with or without intermittent diverse soils. Lime rare or absent in landscape. Soil with a marked clay accumulation, strongly structured CA and a reddish colour. In addition, one or more of vertic, melanic and plinthic soils may be present. Red, yellow and greyish soils with low to medium base BA status.

Soil in the Ladysmith area is usually shallow, derived from shales and mudstones of the Ecca Group of the Karoo Sequence (Granger, 1998). The soil type is of importance to this study, since suitable habitat for Aloe marlothii populations depends on soil type to a large extent. Understanding the characteristics of the soil which Aloe marlothii specimens favour will contribute to possible site selection for future cultivation of Aloe marlothii, which would decrease the necessity for, and therefore the impacts of, the harvesting of leaves from wild Aloe marlothii populations to provide the proposed Aloe pre-processing plant in Ladysmith with sufficient raw material. Cultivation of Aloe marlothii will contribute significantly to the sustainability of the naturally occurring Aloe marlothii populations surrounding Ladysmith.

4.2.5 LAND USE

The land in the delineated study area (discussed in Part 3.2.1 on page 27) provided habitat for wildlife, and was interrupted by formal and informal settlements. In the areas surrounding the settlements and towns, the natural environment has been disturbed by the removal of vegetation, and the resultant erosion of soil from the exposed areas, to a severe degree in certain instances (e.g. dongas have started to form in some places - refer to Figure 20 on page 45). Much of the land in the informal and traditional settlements is devoid of vegetation, and dongas have formed on the hillsides, between the dwellings. Page 45

Figure 21: Photograph showing the severe erosion of a side slope of a rocky ridge near Ladysmith, most likely as a result of the removal of vegetation.

4.2.6 VEGETATION

According to Low and Rebelo (1998), the study area falls within the Savanna biome, specifically the Natal Central Bushveld vegetation type. This is an open savanna, with scattered trees of Paperbark Thorn (Acacia sieberiana), Sweet Thorn (Acacia karroo), Scented thorn (Acacia nilotica) and Acacia caffra. The herbaceous layer is quite variable, with secondary grassland, dominated by patches of tall Common Thatch grass (Hyparrhenia hirta), and sour grassland, dominated by Hairy Trident grass (Tristachya leucothrix). Other grass species include Narrow heart Lovegrass (Eragrostis racemosa), Pincushion Grass (Microchloa caffra) Broadleaf Bluestem (Diheteropogon amplectens), Trachypogon spicatus, Digitaria trichlolaenoides, Elionurus muticus and Themeda triandra (Redgrass). This vegetation type is highly transformed, and is poorly conserved (Granger, 1998). The necessity to ensure that Aloe marlothii is harvested sustainably is thus highlighted by the fact that the vegetation type of the area surrounding Ladysmith is already transformed, and that the remaining natural vegetation must be conserved.

Page 46

4.2.7 HISTORY OF LADYSMITH

In 1849 the town was a “well adapted village” and on 20 June 1850 it was officially proclaimed a township. It was named after the Spanish wife of Sir Harry Smith , Lady Juana Maria de los Dolores de Leon (TKZN, 2005). The railway was established in 1886 making Ladysmith an important stopover between the Witwatersrand and Durban harbour. October 1899 marked the beginning of the Anglo Boer War. Ladysmith was to be the key point in the struggle for Natal. For 118 days Boer forces besieged the town. The siege plunged Ladysmith into newspaper headlines worldwide. General George White VC was in command of the British forces in Ladysmith. Water supplies and communication lines were cut, health conditions deteriorated rapidly causing many deaths, mainly as a result of enteric fever and other diseases.

The post war period saw Ladysmith growing steadily. Farmers had to start all over. The road to success was slow as the town and area was struck with floods and draught. The worst snowstorm ever struck Ladysmith in 1924 with the main street covered in half a metre of snow. By the late 1920's the town was providing mostly for the needs of its farming community. During the Great Depression of the 30's people flocked to the town to make a living. In the mid 1950's the railways again took the lead and the town prospered due to the large railway staff which provided a constant spending power.

The effects of Apartheid through the Group Areas Act, hit the town hard in the 1960’s as Indian businessmen were forced out of the central business area. Shops remained empty for years to come. Since the early 1980’s the town boomed with industrial investment at Ezaheni. The first democratic Local Government came into place during 1995, combining the towns of Ladysmith, Steadville and Ezakheni. The year 2000 saw new municipal demarcations which increased Ladysmith’s district. It stretches from Van Reenen in the north to Colenso in the south. The N3 forms the western boundary and Fort Mistake the eastern boundary. Ladysmith is a friendly, peaceful town, and being the largest in the area, it serves as major shopping centre for the surrounding smaller towns such as Colenso, Bergville and Winterton (TKZN, 2005)

As a result of the historical significance of Ladysmith, the town is a tourist attraction, and is frequently a destination of foreign and local tourists alike. Page 47

4.2.8 REGIONAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC STRUCTURE

4.2.8.1 Population structure

The population structure of Ladysmith is of importance to this pilot study, since this information will assist in determining which sectors of the poor rural communities surrounding Ladysmith will benefit the most from the proposed Aloe tapping community empowerment project.

The Emnambithi – Ladysmith Local Municipality has a total population of 225 459 of which 89.9 % are Black African, 5.1 % are Indian or Asian, 3.9 % are White and 1.1 % are Coloured (Census, 2001).

Of the total population within the Local Municipality, 104 970 (46.55 %) are male, and 120 489 (53.45 %) are female (Census, 2001).

Table 6 presents the age groups of the population within Emnambithi – Ladysmith Municipality.

Table 6: Age Groups of population in Emnambithi – Ladysmith Municipality (Census, 2001)

Age Group No. of persons 0 – 4 24 825 4 – 14 52 578 15 – 34 83 494 35 – 64 55 340 Over 65 9 222

4.2.8.2 Culture

As with the whole of South Africa, the culture in Ladysmith and the surrounding areas is diverse.

Page 48 From the results of the 2001 Census, it can be deduced that the majority of the people in the Emnambithi-Ladysmith Municipality area of Zulu descent, as presented in Table 7. Home language is important with regard to a community empowerment project, to ensure that the tappers being trained can fully comprehend the procedures which will need to be followed, and the techniques and principles which will need to be used and implemented while harvesting the Aloe marlothii leaves, in order to ensure that the harvesting which will be undertaken will be done on a sustainable basis. Communication is of significant importance in a community empowerment project, and thus the preferred language of the target group to be empowered through this proposed project should be determined prior to the implementation of such a project.

Table 7: Home language of population in Emnambithi-Ladysmith Local Municipality

Percentage of population Home language No. of persons in Local Municipality Afrikaans 6 355 2.81 % English 16 789 7.45 % IsiNdebele 237 0.11 % IsiXhosa 490 0.22 % IsiZulu 198 978 88.25 % Sepedi 247 0.11 % Sesotho 1 541 0.68 % Setswana 95 0.04 % SiSwati 2272 1.01 % Tshivenda 48 0.02 % Xistonga 44 0.02 % Other 408 0.18 %

4.2.8.3 Economic Activities

The major economic activities in the Emnambithi-Ladysmith Local Municipality include game and cattle farming, industries within the town (e.g. manufacturing of tyres and other machinery) and tourism. Page 49 Census (2001) data showed that the labour force of the Emnambithi-Ladysmith Local Municipality consists of 82 980 people (32.48 % of total population), of which 42 124 people are employed (16.49 %), 40 856 (15.99 % of total population) are unemployed, and 56 732 (22.21 % of the total population) are not economically active (i.e. students, homemakers, the disabled, those too ill to work and anyone not seeking work). Figure 21 provides a graphical representation of this information. The relatively high unemployment rate highlights the need for community empowerment initiatives in the Ladysmith area, such as the establishment of the Aloe pre-processing factory in Ladysmith, and the training of the selected poor rural communities with regard to the sustainable harvesting of Aloe marlothii from the wild, until such time as a cultivation programme can be initiated.

250000

200000

150000

100000

50000

0 Total population Labour force Employed Unemployed Not economically active

Figure 21: Graph representing the economically active population of the Emnambithi-Ladysmith Municipality

Page 50 PART 5: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results obtained from field data gathered during the assessment of the study area revealed areas with differing densities of Aloe marlothii populations. Interpretation of these results has led to the estimation of the number of Aloe marlothii specimens occurring in each habitat area within the identified study area, as well as the calculation of the approximate number of people (and thus households) that could benefit from the sustainable harvesting of Aloe marlothii.

5.1 RESULTS

5.1.1 NUMBER OF ALOE MARLOTHII SPECIMENS PER SAMPLE PLOT

Table 8 presents the results obtained from the counting of the number of specimens within each of the ten representative sample plots of 200 m2. Several sample plots were placed within identified habitat areas where distinct density differences were observed. Aloe marlothii did not occur in several areas that were preliminarily identified using aerial photography. These areas were therefore not sampled. The counting of the number of Aloe specimens per sample plot of 200 m2 allows for the identification of habitat areas where the Aloe marlothii specimens occurred in similar numbers (and therefore in similar densities). The results in Table 8 shows that sample plots 2, 8, 9 and 10 had the highest number of Aloe marlothii specimens, and would therefore be more likely to support sustainable harvesting than areas of lower density Aloe populations.

Table 8: Number of Aloe marlothii specimens per 200 m2

Sample No. of Aloe marlothii Ward GPS co-ordinates Altitude plot specimens per No. (mamsl) no. X co-ordinate Y co-ordinate 200 m2 1 28.57208333 29.76355556 1031 2 2 28.58941667 29.79377778 1029 19 10 3 28.59011111 29.79191667 1086 8 4 28.59377778 29.78897222 1135 1 12 5 28.544733333 29.76219444 1100 0 6 28.5433 29.763266666 1084 0 Page 51

Sample No. of Aloe marlothii Ward GPS co-ordinates Altitude plot specimens per No. (mamsl) no. X co-ordinate Y co-ordinate 200 m2 7 28.54397222 29.78016667 1101 0 8 28.47465 29.763433333 1164 19 14 9 28.384783333 29.76925 1139 15 19 10 28.35897222 29.71227778 1154 15

5.1.2 AREA OF IDENTIFIED POTENTIAL HABITAT UNITS

Using ArcGIS 9.1, it was possible to determine the area of each preliminarily identified potential habitat unit (refer to Figure 22, Figure 23, Figure 24 and Figure 25 on pages 52, 53, 54, and 55, respectively). Since the sample plots were selected and positioned in such a manner as to obtain the most representative sample possible, the number of Aloe marlothii specimens per 200 m2 sample plot could be extrapolated to the area of the identified habitat areas (as calculated using ARCGIS 9.1), to determine the approximate number of Aloe marlothii specimens which are present in each identified habitat area.

Table 9 and Figures 22 to 25 (page 52 - 55) present the areas of each identified potential habitat area within the study area.

Table 9: Area of each identified potential habitat unit for Aloe marlothii within the study area

Area of potential habitat unit Ward Potential habitat unit ha m2 A 2.8 28 000 10 (refer also B 6.0 60 000 to Figure 22 C 4.6 46 000 on p52) D 1.2 12 000 E 4.9 49 000 12 (refer also F1 5.5 55 000 to Figure 23 F2 28.9 289 000 on p53) F3 4.8 48 000 Page 56

Area of potential habitat unit Ward Potential habitat unit ha m2 G 11.7 117 000 12 (refer also H 1.9 19 000 to Figure 23 I 0.8 8 000 on p53) J 4.6 46 000 K 3.3 33 000 14 (refer also L 23.3 233 000 to Figure 24 M 64.1 641 000 on p54) 19 (refer also to Figure 25 N 21.8 218 000 on p55)

5.1.3 DENSITY ZONES AND ALOE MARLOTHII POPULATION SIZE

The density of Aloe marlothii specimens per 200 m2 sample plot was weighted according to the number of specimens present in the plot. Table 10 shows the weighting criteria, which were used to determine the relative density of the various Aloe population groups.

Table 10: Criteria for Aloe marlothii density zone classification

No. of Aloe marlothii specimens per Density zone 200 m2 sample plot 0 - 1 Extremely low 2 - 5 Low 5 - 15 Medium >15 High

The approximate population size of Aloe marlothii within the zones shown in Figures 26 (p58), Figure 27 (p59), Figure 28 (page 60) and Figure 29 (page 61), are indicated in Table 11, below. Page 57

Table 11: Density zones and Aloe marlothii population size within study area

No. of No. of Habitat specimens Area of potential specimens Ward Density zone area per habitat unit (m2) present in 200 m2 habitat unit A 1 Extremely low 28 000 140 10 B 19 High 60 000 5 700 (refer to C 8 Medium 46 000 1 840 Figure 26 on D 0 Extremely low 12 000 0 page 58 E 0 Extremely low 49 000 0 F1 0 Extremely low 55 000 1 F2 0 Extremely low 289 000 0 12 F3 0 Extremely low 48 000 0 (refer to G 0 Extremely low 117 000 0 Figure 27 on H 0 Extremely low 19 000 0 page 59) I 0 Extremely low 8 000 0 J 0 Extremely low 46 000 0 K 0 Extremely low 33 000 0 14 L 19 High 233 000 22 135 (refer to Figure 28 on M 15 Medium 641 000 48 075 page 60) 19 (refer to N 15 Medium 218 000 16 350 Figure 29 on page 61)

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5.2 DISCUSSION

From the background information gathered during the literature survey, a tapper can harvest approximately one ton of Aloe leaves per day (Carstens, 2003). A single adult specimen of Aloe marlothii can yield approximately 9 to 24 leaves, each of which weigh approximately 350 g (O’Brien, C., pers. comm.). As mentioned in Part 1.1.4.6 (page 13), a tapper can harvest approximately 2 500 leaves per day, which would be acquired from between 104 and 277 adult specimens.

For comparative purposes, the assumption was made that a single tapper will be able to harvest the bottom leaves from 104 adult Aloe marlothii specimens per day. In order for this practice to be sustainable, the leaves of the Aloe can only be harvested once every 18 months. Thus, the total number of tappers which can be supported by the sustainable harvesting of adult Aloe marlothii specimens present within a habitat area can be determined using the following formula:

No. of days for which one No. of Aloe marlothii specimens in habitat area = tapper can be supported 104 Aloes /day / tapper by sustainable harvesting.

Based on this calculation, it could be determined how many tappers could be accommodated by each population of Aloe marlothii within the study area.

5.2.1 WARD 10

Five areas were identified in Ward 10 which could potentially provide suitable habitat for Aloe marlothii. These are indicated in Figure 9 (page 31), and were labelled A – E. Of these five areas, Aloe marlothii was only present in three, namely A, B, and C. These have been described in more detail, below.

Aloe marlothii occurred in the greatest concentration in Habitat area B, which was classified in Table 11 (page 57), and indicated in Figure 27 (page 58), as a high density Page 63

zone. Approximately 5 700 specimens occur within this area, and harvesting of the Aloe marlothii occurring in this area would support one tapper for 54 days.

Habitat area C was classified as a medium density zone, as indicated in Table 11 (page 57) and Figure 26 (page 58). Approximately 1 840 specimens occur within this area, and harvesting of the Aloe marlothii occurring in this area would support one tapper for 17 days.

Habitat area A was classified as a zone of extremely low density, the Aloe marlothii population (consisting of ± 140 specimens) within which would not support sustainable harvesting on any practical scale.

5.2.2 WARD 12

A single specimen was found within the possible habitat area labelled F1. Habitat areas F2, F3, G, H, I, J and K were found to be void of Aloe marlothii. These areas were thus classified as extremely low density zones, as indicated in Table 11 (page 57) and Figure 27 (page 59). These habitat areas would thus be unable to support any Aloe tapping.

5.2.3 WARD 14

Due to factors such as inaccessibility and compromised safety, only small portions of the study area, in the northern-most and southern-most parts of Ward 14, were sampled, as indicated in Figure 11 (page 33). These areas were labelled Habitat areas L and M.

Habitat area L supported a dense population of Aloe marlothii, of approximately 19 specimens per 200 m2, which was classified in Table 11 (page 57), and indicated in Figure 28 (page 59), as a high density zone. Approximately 22 135 specimens occur within this area, and harvesting of the Aloe marlothii would support one tapper for 212 days.

Habitat M was found to have an Aloe marlothii population density of 15 specimens per 200 m2, and was classified as having a medium density, as indicated in Table 11 Page 64

(page 57), and Figure 28 (page 60). Approximately 48 075 specimens occur within Habitat area M, and harvesting of the Aloe marlothii would support one tapper for 462 days, if sustainable practices are implemented. This population of Aloe marlothii would be able to support a single tapper for the longest period of time, when compared with the other populations within the study area.

5.2.4 WARD 19

Habitat area N was found to have an Aloe marlothii population density of 15 specimens per 200 m2, and was classified as having a medium density, as indicated above in Table 11 (page 57), and in Figure 29 (page 61). Approximately 16 350 specimens occur within this area, and harvesting of the Aloe marlothii would support one tapper for 157 days.

5.2.5 NUMBER OF PEOPLE WHO WOULD BENEFIT FROM THE SUSTAINABLE HARVESTING OF

ALOE MARLOTHII WITHIN THE IDENTIFIED HABITAT AREAS

At a harvesting rate of 104 Aloes per day, for an Aloe marlothii population to be sustainably harvested, the rates of harvest presented in Table 12 would need to be applied for a single tapper.

Table 12: Rate of harvest required for sustainable harvesting of A. marlothii

Ward Habitat area Rate of harvest (Aloes per day) A Not sustainable 10 B 15.8 C 5.1 L 61.5 14 M 133.5 19 N 45.4

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5.2.6 SUMMARY OF RESULTS

The Emnambithi / Ladysmith Department of Economic Development earmarked the municipal wards 10, 12, 14, 19, 23, 7 and 8 of Emnambithi / Ladysmith Municipality for the implementation of a poverty alleviation strategy. As discussed in Part 1.1.3 (page 4), due to the apparent abundance of Aloes in the Ladysmith area, and various other factors such as the market demand for natural medicines, a proposal to establish a pilot Aloe pre-processing plant in Ladysmith. Such a factory would require raw material, and thus would provide opportunity to the surrounding communities to harvest the leaves from the surrounding Aloes, and thus increase their income, therefore contributing to the alleviation of poverty and unemployment.

From the information gathered through this study, namely Aloe marlothii population density for each Ward within the study area, and the rate of harvesting which could support a single tapper for a period of 18 months, it can be deduced that the harvesting of Aloe marlothii will need to be limited to a single tapper (which is not practical), at the harvesting rate presented in Table 12 (page 64).

As a result, the harvesting of Aloe marlothii in the study area, at the rates which will be required per day for the establishment of the proposed pilot Aloe pre-processing factory to be feasible, will not be sustainable. Based on the results of this pilot study, the establishment of the proposed Aloe pre-processing factory and the associated community empowerment project (training of Aloe tappers) will not be feasible.

5.2.7 SHORTCOMINGS OF THIS STUDY

The study area was limited to four Wards within the Emnambithi – Ladysmith Local Municipality. If the areas from which the tappers will harvest were to be expanded, regardless of Ward boundaries, the Aloe marlothii population may prove to be sustainably harvestable. This assumption would require further field investigation, within a study area which is not limited by political boundaries. The Aloe marlothii populations within the areas surrounding Ladysmith appear to be able to support sustainable tapping activities, but the area over which the harvesting is conducted would have to be expanded substantially. Page 66 PART 6: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 CONCLUSION

The Aloe marlothii populations within the study area will not be able to support harvesting of leaves, and as such, the harvesting thereof will not be sustainable.

6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

The following recommendations can be made, based on the findings of this study:

• Similar studies should be undertaken in Wards 23, 7 and 8 of the Emnambithi / Ladysmith Municipality, to determine whether the harvesting of Aloe marlothii will be sustainable or not, and to determine the number of people who could be trained to tap Aloes, and thus could benefit from the establishment of the proposed pilot pre-processing plant in Ladysmith,

• The study area should not limited be by political boundaries, but should be expanded so that it extends over the suitable habitat areas within the rocky ridges surrounding Ladysmith,

• The legal requirements of the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism should be investigated with regard to the collection of indigenous plant material, which is usually regulated by means pf collection permits, etc. before the first phase (planning of the Aloe pre-processing factory) of the proposed project commences, and

• A full impact assessment should be conducted prior to the initiation of the project, should it commence, which should take into consideration the potential impacts on the environment, with emphasis on the visual aspects (particularly since Ladysmith is a tourist attraction), and the ecological effects of harvesting the leaves of the Aloe marlothii.

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Van Wyk, B-E., B. Van Oudtshoorn and N. Gericke. 2000: Medicinal Plants of South Africa. 2nd Edition. Briza: Pretoria.

Wisniewska-Jones, D. 1999: Ethnobotany. Torontao Cactus and Succulent Club Newsletter Cactus Factus. http://www2.labs.agilent.com/botany/cacti_etc/html/news2.html

World Commission of Environment and Development. 1987: Our Common Future. WCED.

Personal Communication: Chantal O’Brien. Department of Botany and Plant Biotechnology, University of Johannesburg. Page 72 ANNEXURE 1: PHOTOGRAPH GALLERY

C B

Photograph 1: Eastwards panoramic view of Habitat Areas B and C (Ward 10) Note that the Aloe marlothii population occurring in Habitat Area B is visually denser than that occurring in Habitat Area C, higher up the slope. Note also that the Aloes only occur on the sides of the rocky ridge, and do not occur in the grassland between the road and the foot of the ridge.

Photograph 2: Southwards panoramic view of Habitat Area A (Ward 10) Note that there are no Aloes amongst the leafy vegetation on the south-facing slope on Habitat Area A.

Photograph 3: North-westward panoramic view of Habitat Area F1 (Ward 12) Note the lack of Aloe marlothii specimens present in Habitat Area F1, despite being located on top of a rocky ridge. The lack of Aloe marlothii in this potential habitat area could be attributed to the development of the sides of the rocky ridge, and thus the isolation of the area from other Aloe marlothii populations.

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Photograph 4: Northward panoramic view of Habitat Area F3 (Ward 12) Once again, as with Habitat Area F1, the lack of Aloe species in Habitat Area F3 is evident from this photograph.

Photograph 5: Northward panoramic view of Habitat Area F2 (Ward 12) Although more trees occur in Habitat Area F2, the lack of Aloe species is evident from this photograph, as was the case with Habitat Area F1 and F3.

Photograph 6: Eastward panoramic view of Habitat Area L (Ward 14) The relative abundance of Aloe marlothii in Habitat Area L is visible in this photograph.

Photograph 7: Eastward panoramic view of Habitat Area N (Ward 19) The relatively abundant occurrence of Aloe marlothii in rocky grasslands is visible from this photograph of Habitat Area N in Ward 19.

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Photograph 8 shows the relative size of a large Aloe marlothii specimen.

Photograph 9 shows the relative size of a large Aloe marlothii specimen, as well as the steep slope of the rocky ridge on which the majority of the Aloe marlothii populations occur.

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Photograph 10 shows an Aloe marlothii specimen in early flower.

Photograph 11 shows an Aloe marlothii specimen and the Aloe counting team (with the exception of the camera man).

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Present and future distribution of

Aloe marlothii in South Africa

Current South African biomes

Figure 4: Map indicating the present and future distribution of Aloe marlothii in South Africa (SANBI, 2001) Page 31

Figure 9: Areas potentially providing habitat for Aloe marlothii in Ward 10.

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Figure 10: Areas potentially providing habitat for Aloe marlothii in Ward 12. Page 33

Figure 11: Areas potentially providing habitat for Aloe marlothii in Ward 14. Page 34

Figure 12: Areas potentially providing habitat for Aloe marlothii in Ward 19. Page 37

Figure 13: Map indicating the location of the Uthukela District Municipality relative to the surrounding district municipalities of KwaZulu-Natal (Municipal Demarcation Board, 2004). Page 38

Figure 14: Map indicating the location of Ladysmith within the Emnambithi- Ladysmith Local Municipality (Municipal Demarcation Board, 2004).

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Figure 17: Panoramic photograph showing the rocky ridges in the area around Ladysmith

Figure 18: Panoramic photograph showing an example of a rocky ridges in the area around Ladysmith

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Black Montmarillanitic Clays / Red Clays

Figure 19: Map indicating the soil types of South Africa. Ladysmith occurs in the region where the dominant soil type occurring is Black Montmarillanitic Clays / Red Clays Page 52

Figure 22: Areas of similar Aloe marlothii density in Ward 10 Page 53

Figure 23: Areas of similar Aloe marlothii density in Ward 12 Page 54

Figure 24: Areas of similar Aloe marlothii density in Ward 14 Page 55

Figure 25: Areas of similar Aloe marlothii density in Ward 19 Page 58

Legend: Extremely low density Medium density

Highdensity

Figure 26: Density zones of Aloe marlothii in Ward 10 Page 59

Legend: Extremely low density Medium density

Highdensity

Figure 27: Density zones of Aloe marlothii in Ward 12 Page 60

Legend: Extremely low density Medium density

High density

Figure 28: Density zones of Aloe marlothii in Ward 14 Page 61

Legend: Extremely low density Medium density

Highdensity

Figure 29: Density zones of Aloe marlothii in Ward 19