THE HERITAGE OF INDIA SERIES

lan A P ned by J . N . F R QUHAR , M . A D . Litt . D D . . (Aberdeen) . Ri R V . H The ght everend . S AZ AR I A , LL . D a Bishop of Dorn kal . Joi nt K E . C . DEWI C , M . A . (Cantab . ) E ditors

. . . AN LY M a J N C G GU , . A (Birmingh m) , - a Darsan S stri .

Already pub li c/zed. f He ar o Bu ism . . . S . D .Litt . a a The t ddh K J AUNDERS , M A (C nt b . ) i 2 r o f a are se e ra e u P B . Hi o n L ur d ed . E . I A A st y K t t , . R CE , .

S e . k a s ud ed . B I I H i . The sam hy y t m , z A ERR EDALE KE T , D . L tt

( Oxo n . )

2 ed . S . MA AI L . . . Aso k a , ud JAME M CPH , M A M D

in in . 2nd e d . rinc i a Y O u . Indian Pa t g P p l PE R C BR W N , Calc tta

f a th S ai . . . i ra i n s NI O I O . Psalms o M t C L MACN C L , M A , D L tt .

f in i i e a u e . . r F E . . Li . H o H L r . A isto ry d t t . KEAY , M A , D tt a B The Karm A . ERRIEDALE KEITH ,

Tami ai e S ai . S vi . B . . H o f he I . s t n s B A a d G E . ymn l t t F K NGS URY , , n

P M . A . PHILLI S ,

ranath Ta o re . E DW AR D THO P O M . O on . Ph . D . R ab ind g M S N , A . ( x )

i a . . . o he e . . . H H r t v A A O M . A Ph D on ymns f m R g d A M CD NELL , ,

LL . D .

a a Bu a . . . M . . i . a a . Gaut m ddh K J SAUNDERS , A D L tt (C nt b )

s f n i a . . . . The C o in o I d C J BROW N , M . A

n ian ome n . R . Poe m s b y I d W M S . MACNICOL

i u . . ai R e i o s L ric s Sfikta THO P M . Be ng l l g y , E DW ARD M SON , A

. and . M . P Ph D . , A S ENCER .

si a S anskri i e a ure 2 . . Clas c l t L t r t , ud e d A BERRIEDALE KEITH ,

. i on . D L tt . ( Ox )

u . . . P . The M sic o f Indi a H A OPLE Y , B . A

‘ ' u fi r am z n S bfeu s firoz osed and volu mes u nder fi ep t o .

HIS TOR Y AN D THE HE R ITAGE .

a ri The E rly Pe od .

The Gup ta Pe riod .

u . . a c u a . The Mog l Pe riod . DR S . K DATTA , C l tt L S PH E S THE PHI O O I .

Hin u i oso . An n o uc ion to . N H I tr d t d Ph l phy J . FARQU AR and inc i a OH M Z I E Bom a Pr p l J N CKEN , b y .

i e anis a s . H. Se e c ons rom th U . M H I f l t f p h d ARR SON , Ja fna . f he ai Bu is m o t B . The S s e oo ks o . . y t P l ddh t Pr f V LESNY ,

Prague .

FINE AR T AN D MUSIC .

Indian Arc hite c ture .

I a u u e . D . Miss S . KR AMR I ndi n Sc lpt r r SCH , Calc utt a .

i o . inc i a B O The M n r Arts Pr p l PERCY R W N , Calc utta .

IO HIE S O E MINE NT IND ANS B GRAP F I .

a anu a . . R . OTTO Ma u . R m j Pro f , rb ry

Akbar.

VE R NACULAR LITE R ATUR E .

. H. . P P E . The Kurral A O L Y B A Ma ura an . , d , d K . T PAUL ,

B . A S ale m .

s f A . S . H P . H n o the vars . M . OO M m . A y l J ER , M , adras . ' ’ s R d d a z a in Minia u . . u si Das m re . G . T l y z t J DANN , M A .

n a i R e i io us L ic s Vais na a. E . T Be g l l g yr , h v HOMPSON , and A . M.

i a i e a u . a am De o on L re . . a a v E H B . M l y l t l t r t C ABRA AM , D .

Se rampore .

HISTOR IE S OF VE R NACULAR LITE R ATUR E .

e i . . . . . a . B ngal C S PATERSON , M A , C lc utta

Guj arati .

Marathi .

Tami".

. . P . . . . . Mal ayalam T . K JOSE H , B A , L T , Trivandrum

D . i . Urdu . T . GRAHAME BAILEY . L tt

. T PE an o . Burmese . Pro f UNG , R g on

VARIOUS .

an m e Le e n s . . T . B . Indi Te pl g d K PAUL , A

Indian As tro nomy and Chro nology.

L a o f n ia. o . R . L . T . The angu ges I d Pr f URNER , Lo ndo n

I ian Dra a . o . M . I I . The nd m Pr f W NTERN TZ , Prague

ri Li e a u e . i nc i a A . . O La e . Prak t t r t r Pr p l C WO LNER , ho r EDITOR IAL PR EFACE

na re re n w a soe ve in s are rue Fi lly, b th , h t r th g t , e whatsoe ve r thi ngs are honourabl , whatsoe ve r i us a soe ve in s are ure a so th ngs are j t , wh t r th g p , wh t s e e a soe ve in s are f e ve r thi ng ar lov ly , wh t r th g o if e re b e an vi ue and if e e b e good re po rt th y rt , th r

an raise ink on ese in s . y p , th th th g

N O section of the population of India c an afford to

a f neglect her ancient heri tage . The tre sures o knowledge ,

are a Wisdom , and beauty which cont ined in her literature ,

a are philosophy , art , and regul ted life too precious to b e lost . Every citizen of India ne eds to use them , if he is to be a cultured modern Indi an . This is as true of the Chris

Z a as tian , the Muslim , the oro strian of the Hindu . But , while the heritage of India has been largely explored by

f a scholars , and the results o their toil are l id out for us in books , they cannot be said to be really available for the ordinary man . The volumes are in most cases expensive ,

ri and are often technical and diff i cult . Hence this se es of c heap books has been planned by a group o f Christian men , in order that every educated Indi an , whether rich or poor , ’ may be able to find hi s way into the treasures of Indi a s

a Ma . a p st ny Europe ns , both in India and elsewhere , will

a doubtless be gl d to use the series . The utmost c are is being taken by the General Editors in selecting writers, and in passing manuscripts for the press . To every book two tests are rigi dly applied : every

i a and th ng must be schol rly , everything must be sym

a p thetic . The purpose is to bring the best out of the ancient treasuries , so that it may be known , enjoyed , and used .

THE HERITAGE OF INDIA SERIES

A HI STO R Y OF

TE LUG U LI TE R ATUR E

CHENCH H M . P IA , . L

AND

’ HUJANGA RAo H U RAJA M . B BA AD R

FOREWORD BY

C . MR . R ONBLE . R DD H Y M. A. THE E ,

VI CE C HA N C E L L OR OF THE AN D H R A UN I V E R S I TY

CALC UTTA : THE ASSOCIATION PR ESS

LONDON : O" FOR D UNIVER SITY PR ESS N E W YOR K TOR ONTO ME LB OUR NE BOMB AY CALCUTTA MADR AS

DEDICATION

K R I S TE R PAN AM

FOR EW OR D

I HAVE cursorily glanced through the Hi story of Telu gu h n L i te ra tu re by Mr. Che nc hiah and R aja B uja ga R ao , and ’ have been much struck by the authors grasp o f the subject and broad illuminating views . ’ a Mr. R ice s book on K a narese L i tera tu re opened wh t to South Indians must have appeared as a new way of treating literary histori es ; and the present authors have benefited ’ a to the full by Mr. R ice s example . Doubtless the critic l a hi student may find in this work occasion l omissions , w ch are inevitable in view of the enormous growt h of new matter as a result of recent events and researches . nd Vi raSaiva literature is no w being reclaimed . A if the libraries of the various mutts of Hi s Exalted Highness ’ in the Nizam s Dominions are ran sacked , it is very likely that more books belonging to the same group may be discovered , as also perhaps bo oks having a Special bearing on Buddhi sm and Jainism . The ruthless manner in which as Buddhist and Jain literature , in Sanskrit as well the vernaculars , was suppressed and destroyed through the

Brahmini cal reaction is the greatest tragedy o f Indian culture .

Today , much o f that vast treasure has to be imported from as Tibetan and Chinese renderings . Though the outlook a regards possible finds in o ur own country is almost bl nk ,

I am still in hopes of occasional good fortune in this line , if a diligent and systematic search is instituted . One of the merits o f the present work is the histo ri c al a b ckground presented , and the suggestive manner in whi ch literature is linked up with the general soc ial and ‘ political history o f the Andhra DéSa. Literature is n life , either in its growth or its decadence ; a d unless it is a a a correl ted with life , it cannot be properly ppreci ted . And a o literature is , not infrequently , propaganda. Years g , I suggested that the real motive underlying the translation 6 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITERATUR E

a fidb lzdra ta - o f the M into Telugu , with all its pro Brahmini c al r a was a a a inte pol tions , prop g nd through the vernaculars , a and a as a counterbl st to the Buddhist J in propaganda, which all through was carried through Magadhi and other ve rnac u

' a E rra ra ada l ars of Indi . Indeed , p g , in one o f his verses , a s d suggests th t his illu trious pre ecessors , N anniah and

Tikkanna, undertook the translation of the M akdbitdra ta in order to re ctify the erroneous views that were Widely prevalent . These erroneous views could have been only the J ain version of the popular in the a Kannada langu ge , with which in its early days Telugu a had seems to h ve a closer relationship than at present , as is to be inferred from the fact that a number of Andhras a were the pioneers in K nnada literature and grammar ,

’ and that poets of the - distinguished rank of N anne c hOdu a a a and N a é a N ac h n Som , r y na Bhat were celebrated a a Ka a Jain lite rature for their tt inments in n rese . In _ , the a ppears under the name of Arjuna Vijaya. a a a i a It is fr nkly secul r poem , in wh ch there is h rdly any trace of the de ific atio n of Krishna.

‘ The kernel of the M alui b iui m ta seems to have been an ancient b ook famous under the name o f Jaya . And how this simple book Jaya expanded into the encyclopaedi a - a -P ré ic A a a o f the post Aranyak , but pre u n , ry n civilis tion ’ a - has yet to be investigated . When I s y pre Puranic , I am no t unmindful of still later interpolations , pertaining to ‘ as as the worshi p of Siva and Vishnu , such the D a w tdra h au i a rr/ S tetra by Bhis m a, interpolated in the S t P a .

' ‘ o f ci a z a Similarly , there is a Jain version the R ci m y z a s which is very diff erent from the poem o f v lmi ki . If it i further remembered that in the K a t/i d S a ri t S dgara the

‘ d d a Ocean of Indian Legends the stories o f the M a fi b/z ra t , d d a a a d d a R m y u , n B fi g va ta do not figure prominently , the idea must suggest itself to any historical student that here and is a vast field of research , with a view to find out how a when , for What reasons , and with Wh t objects , the legen dary lore of Hindu Indi a developed into its prese nt form . a a is Unfortunately , this wider field of cultur l investig tion hi be yond the scope of the present book , w ch deals only FOR EWOR D 7

a a with Telugu literature . And Telugu liter ture is to a a as a certain extent , though not to such l rge extent h sty critic s imagine , imitative o f Sanskrit . A separate history may have to be written on the indi genous elements in Telugu literature , such as the lyrics or a o r a a a and Patalfi , the Yaksha Gén ms vill ge dr m s , the - a o f great reformer poets , like Ve m na, a star the first l ho a magnitude in our firmame nt , and al those w h ve given expression to the true Telugu Spirit and soul . Me n of dmci genius like Kona Buddha R eddy , the author of the R to hi a y azz a , whi ch has been spuriously attributed a myt c l

a a . R anganatha, were able to Dravidi anise the R m yana itself A critical comparison with the poem o f Valmiki would reveal how deftly and with what consummate art Kona Buddha R eddy incorporated South Indian legends into that

Aryan poem , and with What passion and imagination he

- treated those soul stirring themes . The story of Sulochana ' ’ d a a R a a a ei d a an the legend o f R mesvar m , the story o f v n s P t l

H oma m , and the magn ific ent manner in which he executes M d the arresting tran sfigurati o n of Angada, ando dari an

Tara are amongst the instanc es in point . N o mere ’ bilingual pandit could have given us Kona Buddha s a a rendering , whi ch is so popul r s to have become the domestic possession o f every family in the Ceded Distric ts . Perhaps there is also a geographi cal distinction between ’ d the Telugu literature of the Aryanised Circ ars , an the ’ predominantly Dravidian Ceded Districts . If lists o f works produc ed are prepared on a geographical basis , this N distinction will come into relief . o r c an we omit from the a a o f c t logue of the books expressive the true Andhra soul , a a a i ar z r a r a b ll ds like Pa lu t Vz rae /z t a , ttributed to S i néth . ma If I y venture on an observation , I rather think that , under the influenc e o f a robust nationalism and Bengali a liter ture , the Telugu soul is again finding itself in its a own liter ture , and expressing itself in its varied moods d an accents . The number o f contemporary men o f genius seems to be very large , and the varieties of literature are a produced lso large . Simplicity o f expression , sincerity of emotion , natural figures of speech are again becoming a the prev lent literary mode , and o ur literature h as emerged 8 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E from the unnaturalisms and idi osyncracies of the Prab andha period , which is the period , generally speaking , of our decadence . Ho a w I wish th t some competent scholar , with enough a and a a a symp thy im gi n tion in him , would write an exh ustive a a history of contemporary literature , of the social dr m , the a a a and lyrics , the n rr tive poems , the satires , the soci l a psychologic l novels , the humorous stories , the histories , a etc . , which have been added to our literature within the l st

- twenty five years . I welcome the present book as o ne o f the best of its — as a kind and, considering how rare that kind is, most important contri bution to the hi story o f Telugu literature . I trust that thi s will encourage further histories being a a a o r ttempted , nd also histories dealing with speci l periods special subjects .

R R EDDY . C . . PR EFACE

a THI S volume is the first ttempt in English , and probably a indeed in any langu ge , to present to the reader a concise li and continuous history of Telugu terature . It is too much to hope that such a book c an escape the limitations a and defec ts incidental to first effort . Our object ha s been not only to make a comprehensive inventory o f poets and c and a a a their produ tions to supply ccur te inform tion , but also so to reconstruct the past as to enable the reader to assess the literary heritage o f the Telugu people at its true worth . With this object in view , we have given a al a o f concise biogr phic det ils the Telugu poets , critical a estimates of stand rd Telugu works , and a general survey a c o f Telugu liter ry tenden ies , in their proper historical a a setting . The ch pter de ling with contemporary literature e is of nec essity inc omplete , but w hope enough has been said to Show the promise for the future which the inte lle c m f a a tual fer ent o the l st few dec des holds . The views expressed in R etrospect and Prospec t are put forward as a a o f a a our o wn , though the pprov l l rge and rapidly c a c an c a growing s hool of liter ry men be l imed for them . e a For dates and authorship , w h ve on the Whole followed r re salin am the lead of M . Vi g , except where later research demanded departure . Where obligations are extensive and varied it is invidious ac to particularise . We should like to pl e on record our

Mr. Vi re salin am and M special indebtedness to g r. Vanguri R a a d u d/2m a Subba ao , among uthors , n to the J P ri s/ mil

a i m ti a a . Put ri/t , and B /u , mong periodic ls Our thanks are also due to fri ends who have read through the book in manuscript and off ered their valuable suggestions and critic isms .

CONTENTS PAGE

I . INTRODUCTORY

HI O I I IO B K O II . ST R CAL AND R EL G US AC GR UND

F III . THE LIFE O A POET

IV . LITERARY MODES AND FORMS

' ‘

. D V E ARLY BEGINNINGS , THE ESI AND THE MARGI

A E OF T VI . PUR NA YUGA OR THE AG RANSLATION

A A 1 —1 VII . THE PERIOD OF THE PR B N DHAS ( 509 618)

S 3 —1 8 VIII . THE PERIOD OF TAGNATION ( 16 0 50)

I " . POPULAR LITERATURE

" I . CHRISTIAN AND MUHAMMADAN POETS

THE MODERN PERIOD ( 1850—19 25 )

R ETROSPECT AND PROSPECT

I N DE x

1 4 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

a h are concerned , is purely of antiqu rian interest . T e Telugus may have been in the remote past a Dravidi an

- people possessing a non Aryan culture , but they seem to have lost their Dravidi an identity very early in their history . In historical times they were so completely Aryanised in and a a al religion , language liter ture , th t for all practic purposes they may be treated as Aryans although the indigenous Dravidi an influence continued to make itself felt . - — A n d h ra D e s a t/ze lan d ot the Au d/zra s . The classic and historic name for the people now known as Telugus rs a is a Andhras , word which v riously derived , but almost all is the deri vations contain the idea of darkness . It generally be lieved that the territory originally inhabited by the Andhras d d was a part of Dandakaranya of the R m y azz a , a dark and in ac cessible region in the wild forests of South India. In the

’ z a i d a Ai tre ya B rd/ m azz , R ii mdyaua , M alu blz rat and S lea u da d a a Pu r ua , the term is used s referring to race . In one a a a place in the R may n it has a territori al signi ficance . The B iziiga w ta states that the country was named after King dhrudu a a Ap . The e rly references on the whole m ke a a a and Andhr to be the ppellation of a r ce , we may take it that the name was first applied to a people , who in turn im pressed it on the country they lived in , and on the language they spoke . s Andhra Desa was also known a Vengi Desa. It is ,

’ a e as a however , probable th t V rrgi w a p rt of the Telugu country— the part which lay between the Go dévari and the T li a as a Krishna. The name ri ng w often pplied to the

Telugu country . This m ay have been used to signi fy either a the country which cont ins the three shrines (lingas) , namely ,

‘ ale ar rh r ailam a d Draksh those at K Sv a , S i S n a R amam , o r ri the country between these sh nes . The suggestion that Trilinga is a contrac tion for Tr i l mli ug a does no t a appear to be sound . For administr tive and other purposes a di f at f the c ountry w s f erently divided dif erent times . The earliest division was into Vi sfza yds ; a later one was into ’ d N dus , the modern one being into Districts . As refer e nc e s to N édfis are of frequent occurrence in literature , it m ay be useful to notice the prominent N adfis

' ‘ '

en i. ddu a a i and 1 . V g N , the territory between the God v r INTR ODUCTOR Y 1 5

c h as al a the Krishna,whi w the origin homel nd of the Telugus , a R a a with its c apital t j hmundry . a l la ada ni Cudda ah 2 . M i i N , begin ng with the pp District and extending to Mysore . ’ udda ah P n i da u C a . 3 . Pott ifi N , from p p to eu r ’ K d and duddu . 4 . R e u du M , urnool District ‘ ’ a 5 . Pa lu au, West of Guntur. ' ’ d a a ac K 6 . Pak a u au, the co st l tr t from Nellore to rishna. a a u ci d c Ko nide na 7 . K mm u, in Guntur Distri t , from to

Kammame ttu . w Chanda o lu 8 . V in Guntur District , ith v as capital . a are di A n d h ra s . Like the Aryans , the Andhr s vided into — a K a a four c astes Chatur Varna Br hmins , sh triy s , Vaisyas a a two a a and Sudras . The Br hmins f ll under m in he ds c Vaidiki s , those who on e followed the priestly profession ; K a a a d N i o s a . an y gi , the l ity The sh triy s mong Telugus d are represented by the R ac havaru . The Sfi ras are sub i é s and Ké s l m as R e ddi s Bal u . divided into Ve a , , j p Beneath a a Pafic h these there is a l rge submerged popul tion of amas . It is interesting to note that whi le literary writers are not c restric ted to one c lass or sec tion of the so iety , the honour of making by far the largest c ontribution belongs to the o K a a and R e ddis a N iy gi s . The sh triy s the h ve been D as c - a patrons of art . The vij or Twi e born mong Telugus i c and A a S amské ras follow the Ved ceremonies ry n . In religi on , the Telugus have been , on the whole , staunc h adherents of Hinduism in its three later variations ’ a a a Lin é ti Advaitism ; S nk ra s S ivism , inc luding g ya sm ; and and Vai shnavism . Jainism Buddhism , though they have a di d a an gained tempor ry suc c esses , not le ve y abiding mark a ma on the people o r their literature . The s me y be said o f M a a ani and a C uh mm d sm , in some me sure , of hristiani ty . - A n d h ra B h a s h a — tii e la ua of the A n d/z a n g g e r s . Thi s w as o r Te u u u teue 2 : a u 2 is kno n Telugu , g ( honey , g is) , meani ng , sweet as honey . Telugu is numbered among the a hi are Dravidian langu ges , of w c h four of importanc e in a a M a a South Indi , n mely , Tamil , Telugu , l yalam and Kana

. . Ca w Co m a ra ti ve Gra rese Dr ld ell , in his p mm a r , has given currenc y to the theory that they are unrelated to Sans 1 6 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITE R ATUR E

a a krit . Sharply opposed to this theory is the View , m int ined by all Telugu gram rn arian s and Sanskrit philologists , that — Telugu is Vikriti that is , a language formed by the and ra i f modification o f Sanskrit P /e r t . An analysis o the language as it has been for centuries confirms this ’ Ca m a traditional view . Dr . ldwell s View y be true , if applied to the c ondition o f the language at its origin ; a while the tradition l view accounts for its present form . e f a e There ar groups o words in the l nguage , whic h ar and a a a ic c ommon to Telugu other Dr vidi n l nguages , ind at ing their desc ent from a c ommon parent in the remote a a a a a p st . It would ppe r th t v ery e rly the Andhras a o f adopted form Prakrit whic h , in the course o f

" development , bec ame the immedi ate anc estor of Telugu

nd Ka a a Ka a - a n rese , ptly termed n rese Telugu by Dr . a c Caldwell . From this r hetype the di ff erentiation into the modern Telugu and modern Kanarese m ust have taken place . For this view there is ample justification in the a and vocabul ry the syntax o f the language . Telugu a fe i a cont ins very w orig n l w ords of its o wn . Its v oc abulary is classified by grammarians under five heads 1 a a m a l . T ts a m u u , S nskrit equivalents . 2 Ta db/z a va m u lu a . , S nskrit derivatives . ’ 3 D es i a m u lu . y , indigenous words .

4 . A u a m u lu y , foreign words . Ma w are — r a ny ords in Telugu Synthetic that is , a e m de up o f ini tial letters o f Dravidian languages and final letters o f North Indian tongues . This c omposite structure a a a indic tes th t people of m ny rac es have met , in the ava i - K a God r rishn Delta, under the stress o f historic

a and , circumst nces , were fused into a single community . a a a as The l ngu ge , lso , w evolved when the rac ial fusion was a a t king pl ce . The Telugu language does no t seem to be as ancient as a a d T mil , though it is more ncient than Malayal am , an at a o f a a le st equ l ntiquity with Kanarese . It is not possible to say with any c ertainty when the language now known as c a Telugu me into vogue . There is no avai lable literature A D before the eleventh century . . All the inscriptions before are P a this period either in rakrit o r Sanskri t . The Andhr s INTR ODUCTOR Y 17 ruled practically the whole of middle India in the beginnin g a e ra at di a of the Christi n . But the information our spos l does not enable us to say whether they used Telugu in any a P a form . It is probable th t they spoke a form of r krit , h from whi c h Telugu as desc ended . The lac k of an tiquity in the Telugu language is felt as a h a a reproach by some writers , w o believe th t the gre tness of ha a language depends on its age . This s given rise to later legends , one of whic h , trac ing the origin of Telugu to a f a A e as the fourth qu rter o K ri ta Yu g (the Golden g ) , is a follows : Agnimi tra lost his eyes owing to excessive he t .

- his He prayed to the sun god , who , pleased with devotion , taught him a language so potent that it restored him his a /l a as eyesight . This language was called Andhra B a s , it a u a had dispelled darkness . We are also told that e ch y g a a and a K a li Yu a its p rticul r form of Te_lugu th t in g (the a Present Age ) , K alinga Andhra and R audra Andhr were a a established by N andi vardhana and his disc iple , Dev la R ay , in the reign of Satakarni .

A n d h ra 1 . i i lu i c p t/ze Te gu sc r pt . In its urrent form s a a this wa stereotyped about the thirteenth century AD . P l eo lo gists have trac ed the growth of Telugu script from remote

a c . a c a ac n estry Abo ut the fourth c entury B . C . type of h r ter as ra a an known B lzm i L ip i was evolved in Northern Indi , d gradually spread to the southern portion of the continent

‘ a under the n me of D ra vida B rci fim z . This Dravidian a i ff Br hmi , d erent in some respec ts from the Mauryan sc ript o f A a c sok ins riptions , is the c ommon parent of all South a h f I ndi n scri pts . It as undergone modific ations in di f erent ac and at i ff a pl es d erent times , of which we m y mention a fe w important variations that a re in the line of modern

Telugu sc ript . One modification is found in the Guha ' asanas c a d c a S ( ve e i ts) of the Andhra kings , nother in the c ins riptions of Vengi Desa, the o rigi nal homeland of the

Telugus . There is not muc h differenc e between the Guha and

’

V n i . ar e g Lipis The letters e crooked , though curvilinear. In the time of the Chalukya kings we find a further change in

c a ac . c A the h r ters It is in the eleventh entury . D . that we find a a a c a the script t king sh pe whi h , to the untr ined eye , seems a a affi c a ac and N anniah to h ve cle r nity to modern h r ters , the 1 8 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

a first poet of the Telugu langu ge , wrote in these characters . A D — Between . . 1 000 1 300 Telugu and Kanarese had the same scri pt but about the time of Tikkann a the Telugu characters a a sep r ted themselves from the Kanarese , and assumed their current Shapes . A theory is propounded that the letters o f a a the Telugu al ph bets re all carved out o f a circ le . This a m a view , though not historic l , y no t be altogether fanciful . a a a The be utiful c ircul r fin l form o f the present alphabet is , a prob bly , due to the influence of this View . Telugu has a complete an d scientific system of letters to has express sounds and is phonetically satisfactory . It more an o f letters than y other Dravidian language , some them specially introduc ed to express fine shades o f diff erence a va a - in sounds . We h ve full zero (A n u s ra ) , h lf zero and Vi sa rga to express the various a f o f a . d d are sh des n sal sounds L an L, R an R dif erent ate d H and i ; we have a C JH , which are no t represented in

a d an an a . S nskrit , an S , SH , d KSH, no t found in T mil Telugu has made its letters expressive o f all the sounds ha a nd it d to de al with , borrowing from Sanskrit , T mil , a c a Hindustani , when ne ess ry . o S u r c e s . The sources for the history o f Telugu litera ture are : ro lo u es t tile oe m a 1 . Tli e P g o P s. Following the S nskrit f r in a model , it is customary o the Telugu poets to giv e e ch f o f introduction a genealogy o the writer , the history the king to whom the book is dedi cated and o f the dynasty to which he belongs , the names o f the books c omposed by nd a o f a a the author , a the n mes the import nt e rlier poets in a a a c an chronologi cal order . V lu ble historical inform tion be extrac ted from this source . i n a c 2 . I n sc r ip t o s . Telugu liter ture is con erned more with local history than with the major movements o f Indi an a e are conquests . It is to the inscriptions th t w indebted for detailed information as to the history and chronology of o the events referred to in the p ems .

ar a n d A n tholo i es . are a 3 . Gr a mm s g There sever l and a i grammars , treatises on poetics , ntholog es , which da As give illustrative stanzas from the poets o f the y. a many as one hundred poets , otherwise unknown , h ve INTR ODUCTOR Y 1 9 been recovered from oblivion through references in these treatises . hi 4 a di tion . c a as . Tr Though not of mu h v lue story , the importance of tradition for recoverin g the atmosphere - a and local colour cannot be over estimated . Tradition lso a embo dies a critical impression of the poets , some illumin t ing biographical touches , and a large fund o f interesting anecdotes . and 5 . Li ves of Poets , histories of literature , written in the vernac ul ar by authors o f ri pe sc holarship and c ri tical acumen , furnish in an intelli gible form the net results of modern research .

Pe ri o d s o f T e lu gu Li t e ra t u re . The usual division is the chronological one , into early , middle and modern epochs . a This c lassification is un s tisfactory , as it gi ves too much importance to the decadent period and too little to the c modern renaissan e . A di vision based o n literary modes al and tendencies is so sometimes adopted . This gives us four periods : o f a 1 . The period tr nslation .

2 . The period of expansion . a 3 . The period o f bridgement . ri 4 . The pe od o f imitation . o di If we combine these tw c lassific ations , we may vide the history o f Telugu literature into the following periods 1 . The period of early beginnings .

2 . The p eriod of translations . b an 3 . The Pra dh a period . 4 . The pe riod of decadenc e .

5 . The modern renaissanc e classification will be adopted in the followi ng HISTOR ICAL AN D R ELIGIOUS BACKGR OUND

THE Andhras have an ancient and illustrious history , though the be ginning of the race is clouded in legend

' - a a a d b arat a e and mystery . In the R m ya n an M alai lz th y a a i and are referred to s prim tive tribe , inhab iting the wild D ak r a i sc ri inaccessible southern forest , and a any . The n p tions of Asoka mention them as a community on the fri nges ri and a o f Ma a of the empire . _ Du ng the decline f ll the ury a A d a a was a th Dyn sty , the n hr protected st te mong e. earliest areas to revolt ; and it rapidly grew into a powerful

independent kingdom , stretching right across the middle o f i a a hi a a Ind , with its b se touc ng the gre t T mil kingdoms in a the south . There were two great branches o f the Andhr s

the sovereign , ruling over the eastern terri tories with his

a a at Dhan aka aka and - a a ni c pit l y t the heir pp rent , gover ng

- at Pa a . Th A a the western dominions , residing ith n e , ndhr s period wa one o f considerable prosperity . After a a f and a i dur tion o four a half centuries , Andhr dom nion a A came to n end about the middl e of the third century . D . ,

though it is not known how or why . It is a remarkable instance of national loss of memory that Telugu literature f is silent o the glories of the Andhra Empire . The kings an a d heroes of this period are not celebrated in epic , kavy r s f n . A ar as a o so g Telugu liter ture is concerned , the A a s a at al ndhr Empire might a well not h ve existed l. The

only memory of the A ndhra kings , dimly echoed in this a a liter ture , i s ssociated with the seventeenth king of the a dyn sty , who is either the author or K rut ipa ti of ‘ a asat i r S pt in Prakrit . S i natha says that , in the prime ‘ Of dli d his youth , he translated S o /zana S a ptasati , but the

2 2 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

- - -R m arried the daughter of R aj a R aj a Choda. R aja aj a

e ndra a d R a a- - h dh so n nd Nar n j R aja Vis nuvar ana, the a the a grandson respectively of Vimaladi tya, marri ed Chol pri ncesses . Thus three generations o f royal unions eff ected a coalition of the two great rival kingdoms ; and Kulo ttanga C hol a Deva (1 0 63 — 1 1 1 2 ) transferred the c apital from Vengi ‘ a to the south . From this time forward Ve rrgi N adir s nk a into province , ruled from the south by a deputy . The re sult o f the uni on with the Chol as plac ed in the hands of C a a R a - R a a- a a an as the h luky king , ja j N rendr , empire s a extensive a th t of the Andhras in the second c entury . a an e as It also m rked ra of peace and prosperity . It w in the reign o f R aja- R aja- Narendra that N anniah began the

’ a a translation of the M a bnara ta into Telugu . a C a a a a a The e rly h luky s were J ains , but the l ter Ch luky s f f were champions o Hinduism , and naturally enemies o

Jai nism . The reforms o f Sankara dealt a fatal blow to the f - - power o J ainism , and by the time o f R aja R aja Narendra it i s clear that the conflict had ended in the victory of the

' former. The opening verses o f the M a izao/zara ta reveal an aggressive Hinduism in the ac t o f consolidating its victories and taking precautions against possible attacks o f the enemies in the future . The religious revival intended to achi eve this end is known as the Va idilei movement— a movement which , much to its credit , adopted a spiritual means o f fo rtifying the Telugu mind in its faith . While in t he Kanarese and Tamil countries the confli c t had degener ‘ ’ a a z a i /a ated into mutu l persecutions , it was the V i movement a that g ve a p eaceful turn to the struggle , though it cannot b e said that persecutions were altogether avoided . The first eff ort of the new movement was to guard against the possibility o f future internecine quarrels between the a a c followers o f Siv and Vishnu by judi ious compromise . . The Advai tic background rendered such a reconciliation ’ possible . The devotion o f the Va i a i/ei s was not directed a a a a either to H ri or Har , but to the composite deity , Harih r a a hi n tha. There is reason to believe th t t s eclectic cult had obtained extensive acceptance at the time . The other feature of the movement was to flood the country with a Aryan culture , and it was in pursuance of this object th t HISTOR ICAL AN D R ELIGIOUS BACKGR OUND 23 e xtensive translations were systematicall y undertaken from

Sanskri t in to Telugu . The interval betwe en the change of the capital o f the Chalukya-Chola Ki ngdom to the south and the establish a ment of the Kakatiyas in the Vengi N adir, presents K K v . deputies of ings ulo confused medley of e ents _The a - h das a ttang I and II , known as Andhra C o , seem to h ve an d carved out small provi nces for themselves , ruled them s a a a a a pr ctically independent sovereigns , with nomin l llegi nce a f d to the Chol kings . One o these ha Kandukur , in Nellore s a District , a his capital ; another , Ko nide na in Guntur ; yet

' - a d third , Po ttipi in Pakanadfi . These Andhra Cho d s ha no c a tou h with the south , except that they cherished the n me c o f Of their an estors , and kept alive the memories their a c al n estr homes . N anne c hddu (1 1 50 son of Balli a chod , king of Po ttipi Nadfi , wrote the rec ently discovered — K u mara S a molza o a the first c ontribution o f a naturalised s outherner to Telugu literature . Kak a The ati yas o f Warangal , who ruled l rge portions ’ o f a an wh t are no w called the Nizam s Domini ons , d were a inde e n the feud tories of the Eastern Chalukyas , declared p c and A den e by . D . 1 1 75 c onquered the Telugu province of u r 1 1 0 the Chola king . Pratap ar d a I ( 4 the most c a o f K kat a a a elebr ted the a i ya rulers , w s p tron of letters , d ' an a z a a c . himself the uthor of N i t s r , a book on politi s Palakuriki m S o an atha was attached to his court . Buddh a R a ’ zu , the c ollaborator with R arrgan atha in the production

' o f v a - a a a D ifi t/z a R m ya n , was a Samanta o r minor ra a chief of P tap arudra . Pratap arudra w s suc c eeded by his ’ so n a a M nu a iddhi brother s , G n pati Deva (1 1 9 9 a m s , at w c Tikk n d as a a hose ourt a na flourishe , w his v ss l . a a a a s R udra G n p ti Dev wa suc c eeded by his daughter, mma . ‘ Be ddanna a a a , uthor o f S a ma ti S ta /e , was an Andhra Choda a o a feud tory chief f her day . Atharvana, the J in grammarian , a i a lso belongs to th s pe ri od . The l st king of this dynasty , — Pratap arudra "I I (1 29 5 1 3 23 ) was defeated and taken c aptive hi z - - 1 2 M by the Del emperor, Ghi ya zid din , in 3 3 . arana d c a arka d a a a- a a M edi ted his M n eya Pu r n to Nay g nn antri ,

' a a Pr t dr d a a h comm nder of a aparu a II . Vy y n t a wrote an

' Alarhkara a a a a S stra, by name Prat p R u dri y , during this 24 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

' ‘ Hu aki a a a a reign . ll Bh sk r , the uthor of B aas/ea r n R ama an sahi imar y a , dedicated it to n a, a cavalry officer of the a Kakat as king . The e rly i y were J ains , but Pratap a a and a rudr his descend nts were ViraSaivas . This fai th as a a a a a w protest nt re ction g inst popular Hinduism , and a a - a a was vowedly nti Br hm n , though curiously enough its a a a founder w s Telugu Brahm n , Basava. It was an a a a a and ggressive prop g ndist f ith , obtained a considerable following among the Telugus . The literature o f the twelfth l century i s pronounced y Vi raSaiva. Palakuriki Soma a a f nath , the zealous mission ry o the creed and a proli fic has o f Li a s writer , given us the scriptures ng yati m , B asa va urd a d dd a a i P na , a n d P n i tdr fiy C/z r ta . Out o f the ruins o f the Kakati ya kingdom three princi a i p lit e s arose , which exercised an important influence o n

Telugu literature . Th e R d i n a s A D 1 . e d D y ty ( . . 1 3 28 On the c ap f Prat arudra ture o ap II by the Emperor o f Delhi , Verna R eddi ddam se t up a kingdom with A ki as c apital . Ye rranna, the 1 last o f the K a o i tra ya (the Great Three) dedic ated his H a r i ’ o a ms a . a hi s s n Ana o ta to him On his de th , eldest o , p , n a d after him his second son , Anave m a, succeeded to the a kingdom , nd c hanged the c apital to Kondav idu . Kum ara a a giri , son of Anap o t , inherited from his uncle kingdom

’ Paln d a a whi c h comprehended a fi and Vengi N dir. He g ve to P M and -in -la Kata ave ma his rime inister brother w , y , the pro d vince o f R ajahmundry , an made him the representative o f

' um the R eddi Dynasty in Vengi . After the death of K aragiri , Ma a R f r a R a grandson o f ch eddi , brother o Ve n eddi ,

and Paln . usurped Kondavidu , ruled as the lord of adfi a His son , R acha Vern a, was the last of thi s dyn sty . a ra ne ta ma Tli e R ai /zm u n dry B lz . Ka yave , the recipient

' i and s o f the province o f R ajahmundry from Kurn arag ri , hi

' a umara ri had son , lso called K gi , to defend their kingdom

' against the ag gression of Komiti Vema R eddi , the

' grandson of Macha R eddi , and they were able to repel the aggressor through the able help and di sinterested services

' ' a as Ku ara i o f All da R eddi , who acted the regent o f m g ri dur

1 42 Se e p . . HISTOR ICAL AN D R ELIGIOUS BACKGR OUND 25

Kumara s ing his minority . giri wa succeeded by his sister , a hadra R Anatalli who married Vir b eddi , son of Allada a KOm ati R and hi s R a a a R eddi . Pedd eddi , son , ch Vem , R a and Vi rab hadra eddi of R aj hmundry , were all great n tha as c a all sc holars . Sri a w the ourt poet att ched to ' these and he commemorates the dynasty in his Pa ludo n

Vi ra d za ri tra , aptly c alled R e ddi B iz ara ta . After 1 427 the R eddi kingdom was absorbed into the kingdom o f a Vijayanag r .

Pa d m a N a a k s . fi c o f a 2 . y The of ers the rmy of the K akati ya kings carved out petty kingdoms for themselves a m am a Bh a as near Warangal . Of these , S arv jfia Si g fip al w

- hi s a a d far famed for le rning n literary attainments , whi c h

' o f made him the terror the poets . We find Srinatha, c a a a poet of eminen e , uttering pr yer for protec tion to c Sarasvati as he entered hi s ounc il chamber . Bamm e ra ana a B na a o a a u a a POt , the uthor of the g t P r n , lived in his territory and was persecuted because he would not dedicate a a va his B /Z g ta to hi m . f i 3 . Of the three kingdoms which emerged out o the ru ns i a a n a a r of the Kakati ya Empire , that of V j y g (A . D . 1 3 27 n a r 1 565 ) was destined to play a import nt dle . It was c alled into existence by the imminent danger of anni hilation with which the Hindu kingdoms were threatened by

Muhammadan aggression . The first rumblings of the Muhammadan invasion were heard in the reign o f Alla-ud K ho an din hilji , w sent incursion into the country south of a c ac fa as D a N rmada, whi h re hed as r e v giri . The attack and fall of Warangal , and the c aptivity of Pratap arudra a II , brought home to the Andhr s the meaning o f the new

’ ac a a K men e . The est blishment of the B hmani ingdom , with its c apital at Gulbarga, was a c hallenge whic h could no a longer be neglected . The const nt pressure , exerted by a ac the inv der ross the border , united the Hindu kingdoms a under the le dership of Vijayanagar , whic h attained its zenith under Krishnade varaya and kept the c onqueror at b a a y for good part of the century . The kingdom o f Vijayanagar was founded by Harihara an d Bukka R aya with a a a ni id a a the ssist nce of their ble mi ster , V y r nya Swami . The conflict with the Muhammadan powers went on with 26 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

o f varying fortunes , in the course which V1j ayanagar 1 509 — 30 was a a ( ) more th n once besieged nd sacked .

' Krishnade varaya figures as the memorable king of the

as . i dyn ty The southern kingdoms subm tted to his lordship , and a he bec me the emperor of most of Southern India, V n i a ir ri from e g N d down to the modern T chinopoly District . h ade ara a as Kri s n v y is known Andhra Bhoja, for hi s a o and a const nt supp rt encour gement to Telugu literature . as a r At his court there w ci cle of eight poets , called the Ashta

' a Diggajas, who led a new liter ry movement kn own as the h Prab an dha movement . Kris nade varaya was succeeded a a d by Ac hyut R aya, n in his reign the Hindu kingdom

a fall . A a a o f beg n to to pieces fter few ye rs confusion ,

R ama R aya came to the throne . It was during his reign a a a Prn a i Shranna R am ar th t trio of gre t poets , g l , aja.

’ d a R a a Bhii shana an Ten li am krishn existed . R ama R aya was defeated by the five kings o f the Bahmani kingdom in the 5 i a a . D 65 a battle of T likot , A . 1 , wh ch m rks the downfall of ’ K ish ade r Vij ayanagar s Empire . r n va aya was a Vai shna a his and at vite , nd during reign th of his successor , the a a R amanu a was a a a V ishn vism of j pr ctic lly the St te religi on , and a constant stream of Vaishnava literature (corres ’ ’ ponding to the Vi rasaiva literature o f Kakatiya s reign) s ade vara a a ra was kept up . Kri hn y wrote p b andha called i a a a and Vi sanu CIz tti y , celebr ting the s ints doctrines of

Vaishnavism . a The Bahmani kings , o n ccount of dissensions among a a a a a f themselves , were not ble to t ke full dv nt ge o their a victory . Ultimately they were bsorbed into the Moghul A a 1 68 A Empire , during the reign of ur ngzeb , in 7 . fter the 0 a -ul- M death of Aurangzeb in 1 7 7 , Niz m ulk founded a a a as a heredi tary dynasty , with Hyder b d c pital , which exercised a nominal authority over the entire south . The o f a Carnatic was ruled by a deputy the Niz m , the Naw ab o f the Carnatic . In the south , deputies of the Emperor o f

Vijayanagar declared their independence , and ruled their M o wn . a territories practically as their Thus dura, Tanjore a As and Pudukko ta became independent sovereign st tes . in these three territories the deputies were Andhras , we find , in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries , considerable HISTOR ICAL AN D R ELIGIOUS BACKGR OUND 27

literary activity in Telugu . The literature of the period is

‘ Te l known as the Southern Sc hool of ugu lite rature . The eighteenth c entury was marked by the wars between the French and the English . An event that has left a deep mark on the people and literature of the times is the strug ’ gle between the Marquis de Bussey , one of Dup le ix s ablest n a subordinates , and the ki g of modern Vijayanag r in 1 75 7 .

’ ’ The story forms the subject- matter of Dittakavi N arayana s 1 f a a it a A D . 9 0 a hi R a ng a r y Cfia r r , . 7 , a popul r version o w ch o ub ado s is still sung by tr r all through the country . The issue of the struggle with the French was that the British as a a a M l power w fin lly est blished in South Indi . The oghu - Emperor, Shah Alam , granted them the Dewani o f Bengal , d Behar , Orissa an the Northern Circars in 1 764 . In 1 858 , a as the Government of Indi w vested in the British Crown . The latter portion of the nineteenth and the beginning of the c e ntur are a a twentieth y_ m rked by the bsorption of Western culture by the Andhras , and the birth O f the modern renaissance in Telugu literature .

The position o f internal affairs , between the fall of the empire o f Vijayanagar and the establishment of the Bri tish dominion , deserves notic e , as it is with these conditions that s Telugu literature i closely associated . The march and - M a a a a counter march of the uh mm d n rmies , the struggles of the French and the British , did not touc h the Telugu poet so n a intimately as the rise a d f ll of minor principalities . During a a a and the rule of the Muh mm d ns the Bri tish , the country a was divided among Z mindars , some of whom were R eddi s dma a k a and others Pa n ya s . These prac tic lly held their terri d tory under the sovereigns of the ay . Of these , the R ajas ha ur of Venkatagi ri , Bobbili , Pit p and Vijayanagar deserve mention as the special patrons of literature from the seventeenth century up to the present time .

R e li gi o u s B a c k g ro u n d . In order to follow the reli c gions motive in Telugu literature , it is ne essary to have a broad idea of the nature of the original faith of the d Telugus , an the subsequent modifications whi ch it underwent . The Supreme Being is regarded as having m a a P w C a i /z nifested in Trinity of o er , re tion (S r s ti ) , a a t iti and M inten nce (S /z ) Destruction (L aya ) , personified in 2 8 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITE R ATUR E

d a an a. h s Brahm , Vishnu Siv Of these , Brahma a no and hi temples is not wors pped at all. The worshi p of Vishnu and Siva in their personal aspects may be said to constitute the basic elements in the fai th o f Hindus in and f as general , o the Telugus partic ipating in the general o f a nd Hindu faith . The cults Siv a Vishnu were c arried n o n side by Side , without a y sense o f conflic t o r anim osity . hi a a It is o n t s b ckground th t the three movements , a an a a a a a d R n n mely , those of S k r , B s v an ama uja, began to ’ a Ad i m operate . S nkara s va tis , whic h had obtained general a a acceptance mong Br hmans , tended towards imp e rso nali s a d V and ing both Siv an ishnu , in consequence attenuating m a a . I t w v a o n the person l element __ ust , ho e er , be s id th t the ’ Telugu mind Sankara s phi losophy produc ed rather a some f a what unexpected e fect . I t cre ted a tendency towards c a and a e eclecticism , in whi h Siv Vishnu r regarded as equal ,

n al o f i a - a d equ ly worthy worsh p . The H ri Hara cult , which was expressly professed by some of the major poets o f the

first period , not only comprehended in its catholic outlook a and a both Siv Vishnu , but reg rded the hyphenated deity

a a c . as necess ry Obje t of worship In short , it attempted o f to combine tw streams o religion whic h , till then , were

' a a d a a flowing in sep r te an p r llel lines . This cult held o n fo r a time , but proved unsatisfactory to the o ld followers o f either c ult , and hence w e soon find the Lingayat movement nd R o n o ne side a the am anuja movement o n the other , and a an exalting with renewed fervour Siva Vishnu , e ch as c f Madh ism exclusive obje t o worship . v , the third great religious movement , is a branc h o f Vaishnavism , and exerts

c a - v ery little separately discerni ble influen e . Isl m after the fal l o f Vijayanagar— and Christianity entered the country as religious influences in the eighteenth century , but exercised c very little influen e o n li terature .

30 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

a Poligars . Inspir tion deserts hi m ; he spins endless verses a and holds the udience by literary acrobacy . ’ sh ade ara a as a Kri n v y w king after a poet s own heart . the a He delighted in comp ny of po ets , and was never so a a happy as when gre t poet came to hi s court . He enjoyed a a good poem , honoured true poet , made fun of the proud as one when the mood w on him , and not inf requently ’ ed himself enter the ring for a literary bout . The ki ng s court was a royal academy , which weighed the poet in the nd hi m balance a sent forth with the imprimatur of approval . and There , honour , riches , above all true appre ciation , awaited the poet . The informal durbars of the li te ra ti held r a by the empero were the p radise of the poet . the The reward of poet was honour, fame and the

f hi s r a . s gratitude o e ders He wa not only immortal , but

a . could confer immort lity Kings knew this well , and hence their attachment to him . Many a king lives in our memory because a great poet dedicated his poem to hi m ; otherwise he would have be en swept into oblivion . The po et did no t disdain earthly honours . When a king sought the dedi a cation o f an epic or kavy , he took care to p ay the reward ’ a a in adv nce , lest the poet s enthusi sm should wane . He gave an him money , Silk , musk , rubies , d gold ornaments . Occa o f a sio nally , poets first r nk received largesses from the sove reign in the form of endowments . Sometimes the rewards r na h took strange shape s . S i t a speaks of the bath o f gold rau he received in the court of P dha R aya. The poet was

- — made to sit in the pearl hall and di nars and tan/eas gold f da — coins o the y were poured over him . But more than a money was the honour. It was proud day for the poet when the king delighted to honour him . Krishnade va a a Pedd a raya carried the p l nquin of ann , just to Show his appreciation . It should not be supposed that all poets were a had rich , o r th t the poet only to write a poem to be

a . endowed with village No ; by no means . Poverty was ma a the nor l b dge of the Telugu poet . It is this touch of a poverty th t makes the world of poets akin . Ayyala R aja h driah a hi s R amab a , un ble to support family , contemplated anku a N isimha had a suicide . S s la r to h wk his poems in a a the open street to p y his landl dy . It was a strenuous THE LIFE OF A POET 3 1

h d life that the poet had to live . He a to undergo years of ’ apprentic eship at his master s feet , then toil at hi s master d a ff an al piece , an fin lly e ect entry into the roy presence .

Thi s was by no means easy . Vested interests had to be propitiated and jealousies to be composed . His merit was Ath a a sa s his worst enemy . arv n w hi lifework burnt to N anni ashes by the jealousy of ah . Sankusala N ri simha had to cool his heels in the corridors o f the royal court and leave the place in disgust because Pe ddanna blocked his ’ di d t way . The poet s trouble not end even wi h his o f entry into the coveted circle royal poets . He had to be vigi lant and maintain hi s position agai nst rivals who chal m and who a a hi m lenged hi enemies plotted g inst . The all Telugu poet , like his brethren the world over , was a

' i an a and a . r n h Bohemi n l ved unconvention l life S i at a, Pinavi riah and Dhfirjati were notorious for the riotous life

. a a they lived in their youth They were g y lot . They and o f as took the sweets bitters life they came , and with the same serene composure feasted o ne day and starved

' r natha Ped the next . S i in the stocks , danna in tears , re ’ a mind us of the tr gic in the poet s life . ’ Even great Homer nods at times . Now and then we ’ o f get a vivid glimpse the poet s struggles . Tikkanna and a struggles for the right word , his stenogr pher, a potter , d P c omes to his ai . otana wanders distraught for lack o f a a and a has suitable phr se finds his d ughter it before him . a at a a Pinavi ranna st res his p lm le ves in despair . To

’ ’ has a B lui rata a morrow he to re d his in the king s ssembly , a - yet not a word is written . His l dy love saves him from dishonour and disgrac e . ’

a a wa . R om nce , too , c me in the poet s y The queen , who di a o f has incurred the sple sure her lord , seeks his mediation .

' N andi Timm anna wri tes hi s Pari fatdpaizara na to settle ’ N isimha s the imperial lovers quarrel . r sells hi stanzas in ’ the street . The casement opens ; the king s daughter ‘ ’ a a ri enquires the pric e . A thous nd line , c es the poet

o n o . amazed . Money is paid the sp t The starving poet a w a goes b ck ith money in his pocket , pr ise on his lips , ’ a and the image o f the king s d ughter in his heart .

The poet had his lighter moments too , when he delivered 3 2 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITE R ATUR E

d c a hi s ob iter i t , in impromptu verse , on men and manners .

He had his merry time , when he laughed with others and allowed others to laugh at him . He enjoyed a joke or a pun as much as any schoolboy . We see him poring over a limerick (sa masya) with the same devotion with whi ch a modern reader wrestles with a crossword puzzle and was there not among them a wag — Tenali R amakrishna ? LITER AR Y MODES AN D FOR MS

T h e S u b s ta n c e o f th e L i t e ra tu re . The substance Of

Telugu literature is preponderatingly religious . The epics , a a a abha a a a ava a and a ra as R m y a na , M h r t , B a g t , the P n are a vast storehouse of national culture from which the f poets drew their material . The prodi gious expenditure o time and talents which the translation of the epic s involved led Srinatha to choose easily manageable portions of the a a a epics for treatment . Episodes from the P r n s , under r a the name of Akhyana o Khanda, became popul r . Of ' these the stories o f N a ta and Ha ri sc ii a n a ra are easily the f u e s c a best avo ri ti . From the sixteenth entury onw rds , the less known episodes from the Pu r' ana s are taken as the a f basis for kavy s . Thus , the fortunes o a single hero f Charitra a a ila and h under the title o , Vij y , V sa Ab yudaya - f became a common subjec t matter o poetry . In the a a eighteenth century , the c nvas contr cted still further and a the marriage of heroes , under the design tion of Pa r inaya

‘ al ci a i vaka a o f da K y n , V bec me the order the y . The avowedly religious literature consisted o f biographies f of the founders of religion , compendiums o religious a a a te ching (S ra ) , panegyrics o f sac red pl ces phi losophic al treatises and c ommentaries a a a a secul r liter ture occupies second ry place . The c c a a la a a a s ien es , especi lly strology , w , gr mm r, st tecraft , a a a and rchery f ll under the latter he d . Story song , moral a a aphorisms , devotion l psalms , re characteristic features of a the po pul r literature . The drama is c onspicuous by its absence . The Sanskrit Classics were also extensively trans

a . and l ted The lyric the lampoon , though not regarded as a a a a a d sep r te dep rtments , ppe r no w an then . 3 4 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

Th e Li t e ra r Fo f y rm . C/zampu , a mi xture O prose and a poetry , is all but universal as the vehicle o f liter ry ara expression in verse . Tikkanna composed his U tt

R ama a a . y n completely in verse , eliminating prose altogether h Though this ad some vogue , champu continued to be the d ominant form . In translating epics from Sanskrit , it was a use a found necess ry , in order to avoid monotony , to variety o f metres . This practice had also the advantage of allowing a variety of language to suit the variety o f action .

Varied metres are therefore the general rule . Fo r popular literature , however , a single metre is generally chosen . ’ a a a and a t li a as a Dvip S a are o f this nature . Prose w later discovery and did not come to its own till the eighteenth c entury A D . But in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries a the rel tive proportions o f prose and poetry are reversed . ’ A u t h o rs C ra f t . The highest form of composition in verse is Pra u d/za Pra ba n dha or M a fia K avya . The theory o f poetics enunciates the essentials for such a composition a a 2 aka s four in number : (1 ) S i li (style) , ( ) P (mould) , l a sa 4 am/ea a a . (3 ) R (sentiment) , ( ) A r (orn mentation) ’

. d S tyle Style is either simple or p rau ha. The latter involves an accumulation of phrases cemented together in a and fi a are complex dif cult w y . The words chosen neither soft nor very musical , but dignified (Gamb hi ra) , an sonorous , d majestic . Simple style had no attraction fo r ’ the critics , and p raudha, with its complicated structure , was the standard aimed at . In style the Telugu writers ad r a generally hold up the qualities of M /tu y (sweetness) , a a a S u k a m ra (grac e and delic acy) , symphony , S u r oaya

(fragrance) as worthy of attainment . In the choice o f vocabulary , vulgar speech ( Gramya ) is to be avoided .

a a ul . Paka (Mould) . Equally import nt is p ka, o r mo d a a raksha ari ke a There are three important p k s :D (wine) , N l ’ a P (coconut) and K a o li (plantain) . aka relates to the encase d and ment o f idea in language , an the nature the texture D aksh is a - a o f the language employed . r a cryst l cle r style , where the idea is seen through the transparent medium . a i f Nanni ah employs this style . Kad li s a little more dif icult , the soft skin has t o be peeled away before you reach the core . ’ N arike a Tikkanna s style is an example o f this mould . l LITER AR Y MODES AN D FOR MS 35 is the most difficult style and you have to break the hard rind i u i ti a m K ish ade vara a to get at the idea. V san Ca t y of r n y is cast in this paka. is l a a R asa, or sentiment , the sou of poetry ; the s tr ” / a a runs : Vdayam R asa t/zma ka m K ain am. Of these r s s ,

' a 2 a a 3 there are ni ne :(1 ) Sring ra (love) , ( ) H sy (comic) , ( )

' 4 au dii ra 5 B /za analea K a runa (pathos) , ( ) R (horror) , ( ) y a a 7 i ra 8 Ado/tu tu (fear) , (6) B i ba ts (disgust) , ( ) V (heroic) , ( )

a a . (wonder) , (9 ) S an t (pe ce) Though in a perfect k avya there will be occasion to a express all the nine rasas , in practice only few of them a as a a a are employed . In kavya liter ture , m tter of f ct ,

' a a sringara (love) has crowded out all other r s s . a a Ala mkara , or ornamentation . Great ttention is p id ' ‘ e a b aaalam/ea a a by poets to alarhkara. There ar S r s (orn

' a m/eara a ments of sound) , A rtfi la s (orn ments of thought) , S is/ta (double entendre) and Ya ma/ea (alliteration) are

‘ ' Sab dhalarhkaras ; Upamana (simile) and Utpreks/za (hyper bole) are figures of thought . In the construction of kavya, a descriptions occ upy a central place . Cities , se s , mountains , seasons , sunrise , moonrise , water , Sports , love passages , and al a a weddings , l h ve to be described . In the kavy , as it ’ s was developed by the A htadi ggajas o f R aya s court , the story is merely the framework upon which to hang these descriptions .

Th e G e n e ra l Fo rm o f K a v y a . The poet begins With ’ a a a a a short pr yer cont ining the uspicious initi l letter Sri , and a invokes the blessing of God on his undert king . The occasion o r circumstances under which the work is under a a a a t ken (usu lly the roy l comm nd) is next stated . Tikkanna mentions the appearance of hi s favourite deity a a a B nara ta in dre m , suggesting the dedic tion of to hi mself . hi c a T s is opied by l ter poets , who fondly imagine that their ff e usions interest both gods and men . Poets have dedicated their poems either to patrons or deities ; the latter are considered to be superior to the former. Then follows a description of the lineage and achi evements o f the patron and a c o f his n estors , the poet and hi s ancestors . From the time of N anne c ho du (though it is supposed that Tikkanna se t the fashion) , the practice Of addi ng S astyanta mulu 36 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

— a stanza in whi ch each word or phrase ends with the pre ‘ — position to grew up . The story then be gins , and is relat ed continuously . The subject matter is generally Puranic . P a a a a A slender ur nic b sis , which dmits room fo r imagin tion , is preferred to pure invention . Pingali Sarauna is the

first poet to take a purely invented story for hi s theme . Some poets add the praise of good poets and the c o nde m nation o i the b ad. This gives them an opportunity to o f a dilate upon their views poetic composition . It is usu l to b o w to the K avi traya before beginning the composi a tion . The story is divided into cantos , at the end of e ch o f which there is a short subscription contai ning a formal statemen t that such and such a poet has written the p rab andha.

3 8 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E o f an a y e rlier poet . The argument that the earlier J ain literature was destroyed by Brahminical jealousy lacks h a a and ufli c ie nt istoric l confirm tion ; , even if true , it is ins to explain the extinction of an extensive literature without l a an t a e ving y r ces behind . In the Tamil country , where the conflict between J ainism and Saivism has been far more intensive , we find that J ain literature has survived all a at a M a ttempts deliber te destruction . oreover , fan ticism ma a y ccount for the destruction of books , but not for ff a the e cement of the memory of poets . The evidence a a g inst this theory is not merely negative . We have the positive testimony of Ke tana that there was no Telugu a a g r mm r prior to hi s . Further , a study of the poetry o f the period between N anniah and Tikkanna leaves the impression that the poets were m astering , with various d egrees of success , a regulative science recently inaugurated . Of lesser probative value are the following facts : (1 ) that

Telugu scholars , before the eleventh century , used to go to the Kanarese country and write in Kanarese ; and (2) that a a the e rliest existing grammars are in Sanskrit , which re hardl y to be expected if there was in existence any literature in Telugu . To crown all , there is reasonable probability that the Telugu script in the current form took shape in a a bout the eleventh century A . D . Weighty s these considera a a tions re , we are not driven to choose between state of facts against all canons o f literary evolution and a theory to a for which no verification is possible . A clue mediatory t heory is afforded by the existence in Telugu literature of ‘ s d a two streams ; an earlier o ne called D e Z , an a l ter one a a De Si c lled M rg i . The indigenous type exists mostly in a i song and sonnets and is independent of S nskrit . It s essentially a rural literature unsuited for elaborate forms o f composition . The religious revival of the eleventh century A D a o f a . . necessitated the transl tion the m jor epics from S anskrit for which the resources o f the Desi type o f literature a had a were inadequate . An artifici l system to be m nu fac ture d to meet the new contingency . A new grammar , r a new prosody and a new rhetoric , mostly bo rrowed from o f ashioned after the S anskrit model , had to be forged . It was the Telugu -Sanskrit scholars who were expected to AN D M R 39 EAR LY BEGINNINGS , THE DESI A GI

d a h a lead the new movement , an this expl ins w y the e rly - a grammars were in Sanskrit . The Sanskrit Telugu liter ture - d has is thus pre eminently an artificial system , an hence a neither growth nor continuity . There is no natural tr nsition hi k a from the epic to the kavya. Living t ngs , li e trees , h ve n A a origin and growth , a begi nni ng a d an end . rtifici l

are . structures , like pyramids , do not grow but built In a a m a translating from a foreign literature , the el bor te y pre

an c a a a n . c ede the simple , epi may be tr nsl ted before so net There is nothing unnatural in the artific ial system having its ni a hi s origin in N an ah , or a few decades e rlier. T s doe not

- exc lude the existence of a n y pre N anniah literature , but only the existence of Telugu-Sanskrit literature before ah N anni . We may , on the basis of the foregoing conclu sions , formulate tentatively the following propositions : e 1 . That here was originally a literature called D Si , indi nd a genous , a having afli ni ty with the Dravidian rather th n A a a - a the ry n liter ture . The bulk o f pre N anniah liter ture as w of this typ e . 2 . That N anniah was one of the earliest representatives , f if not the founder , o the Margi literature , which dates from the eleventh century . It is unlikely that we Shall be able to trace Telugu-Sanskri t literature further up than the middle o f r the tenth century . The earlier attempts a e represented by the two f asano s, (inscriptions) of Ya dd/ta Malla , and

3 . That the two currents have run parallel in Telugu a liter ture . 4 - . That the growing influence o f Sanskrit Telugu a liter ture diverted literary eff orts to itself , and grew in v and a olume r nge , imposing its prosody and rhetoric on

Desi literature . T h e Pre -N a n n i a h te Li ra t u re . The De Si , as al a re dy pointed out , is the native literature o f the Telugus . It lets us into the world of thoughts and ideas of the c a unsophisti ted Telugu mind . In form and context , the De Si a c st nds in lear contrast to the Margi literature . The latter is essentially court - poetry — artific ial and c omplicated and in structure , elaborate in technique . The former is a a fund ment lly rural in outlook , simple in its structure and 40 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

and a a and a sentiment , n tur l gr ceful in e xpression . The verse rarely exceeded seven o r eight lines ; the metre is built o n a syllabic basis and not o n matra or tone values l ' a Ya ti and a a e of S nskrit prosody ; Pr s ar observed , in ’ a a s common with other Dr vidi n languages . Ve mana d d i quartets an v p ada, from whic h Nanniah in all probability

composed his Ta ru voia , Ale/e a ras and S i sa m represent a o f De Si a t c the higher re ches metric l ar . It onsisted of and and song , sonnet story , never rose to the complexity o f o r m a kavya epic . It ay be characterised as the poetry o f the simple mind in vital touch with nature , expressing itself e and a a in sharp , brisk lines touch d with colour nim tion . What did it deal w ith It dealt mostly with the domestic life o f the cottage and the c ommunal life o f the K a ac and a village . ings , p l es w rs were beyond its range . at The maids the well , the mother at the cradle , the lovers a in the moonlight , the l bourer in the field , and the local a a o f hero o f the trib l w rs were some its themes . We may classify this literature under the following heads " I Songs o f the Cradle (L ali

N Songs o f the Dawn (Melu K olu pu lu ) . N S Songs o f Festivity (ll/ an g a la Har a tulu ) .

P Songs o f Love (Z ao a li lu ) . ‘ J a E Songs o f Devotion (K i rt a n s) . a al Q Songs Of the Harvest ( Udu pu P t u ) . l a N Songs o f the Te arn ste r (K u i P ta la ) . O a a Q Songs o f Wine (K a llu P t lu ) . O a a S Songs Of Play (/ I t Pat lu ) . 1 0 . Proverbs (S a mi telu ) .

1 1 . Stories (K a tnatu ) .

a a . 1 2 . Sagas o f Local Chiefs (B ll ds) In these we have Telugu poetry in its purest strain— no t

- the hybrid Sanskrit c ollations o f post N anniah li terature . d f This is a literature racy o f the soil , an full of lyrics o intense realism and concentrated power .

1 The c e ntral and the ve rtic al rhyme s . PUR ANA YUGA, OR THE AGE OF TR ANSLATION

Th e f i rs t s ta g e in the development o f Telugu litera ture— a period c overing five centuries— is marked by a a the introduction and extension of S nskrit culture , m inly l a a h d through translations . The impu se for tr nsl tion a its origin in the revival of Brahminism and the zeal to spread

' a the Vaidiki movement , which it origin ted . This religious movement had the support of the kings , the approbation of l a the li terat i , and abo ve al the symp thy of the people . The long-drawn struggle between Jainism and Hinduism had ended in the victory of Brahminism and the triumph f f a a and Ka a o the worship o Siv in the T mil n rese countries . That this triumph of Hinduism spread its contagious spiritual impetus to the Andhra-land hardl y admits of n doubt . The victory of Hinduism , o w assured beyond a had dispute by the decay of J inism , to be consolidated and the hearts of the people rendered immune to the possible a a renewal of assaults by the v nquished f iths . The opening of the flo o d-gates o f Sanskrit culture was the final ac t of

a a a a . i a h insur nce g inst rel pse in the future Th s expl ins w y, a a a a al in Telugu liter ture , tr nsl tions m rk the initi , and not , as a a a in other Dravidian vern cul rs , the l ter , stage . This also accounts for the preponderatingly religious character and a the extensive range o f the tr nslations . The Aryan religion in its popular and non -philosophi cal a c : M a aaoaara form is embodied in three cl ssi s the ta , ‘ ” a a a known as the fifth Veda ; the R m ya n , the story o f , R a a and B iza a oata Pu ran a K m ; the g , the story of rishna.

1 as t Ofte n re fe rred to simply he B izarata . 4 2 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

The solid achievement of this period is the translation o f all these three epics into Telugu . o o e Th e T ra n s la t i n f th M a h a b h a ra t a . This colossal a e al undert king , render d l the more onerous and sacred by a c a the circumst nces whi h m de the translation necessary , a took three centuries to ccomplish . It was begun by N anniah v A in the ele enth century . D . , continued by Tikkanna A d in the thirteenth century . D . , an concluded E ra ad by rrap g a in the fourteenth . A grateful posterity enthroned them together in its memory and crowned them K a itra a — with the title v y the Great Three . N o sub o u sequent poet , down to r times , ever attempted to invoke the muse Without pay ing his tri bute to the three great masters . ‘ a n n i a h a anu — N (Title , V g N anniah , who began the translation o f the M a /zaa/zara ta at the command o f a a- R a a- a the Chaluky a king , R j j N rendra (1 0 22 was a Vaidik a o f M a a i Br hmin ugd l Gotra, from Tanuku , in a Vengi N ada. He was the f mily eu ro/zi t o r priest o f a and had the reigning mon rch , a reputation fo r great

and a a . piety schol rship in S nskrit He relates , in the a c prologue , the circumst n es under which his royal master

a c - - desired him to transl te the epi . R aja R aja Narendra, c f da a like many monar hs o his y , cl imed to be a desc endant i o f the lunar kings , whose progen tors , the Pandavas , a ao a a a are celebrated in the M /z /z r t . He was fond and a o f hearing the epic emul ting its heroes . Having a heard the story in many langu ges , probably in Tamil and

Kanarese , he was desirous to perpetuate it in the language as o f the country of which he w the ruler . There was no m an o f da a a and his y better qu lified , by his le rning piety , ni ah as for this task than N an so it w entrusted to him . and a a c a He composed the Adi S bh ntos , and a portion o f the Aranya Parva. Various stories are told to account - f fo r the non completion o this canto . One story is that Atharvana wrote a B /zara ta and showed it to N anniah N anniah a before he took it to the king . , fe ring that , if ’ a Atharvana s superi or composition re ched the king , hi s o wn a might no t be accepted , set fire to the house in which Ath r ’ a s Atha a v na s manuscript wa deposited . rvan , seeing his THE AGE OF TR ANSLATION 43

a N anni labour o f years reduced to shes , cursed ah and he N anniah and Athar a a became m ad . But as v n were not contemporaries the story is not worthy of credence . There ’ is also the fact that stanzas from Atharvana s B izara ta are are a gi ven in later anthologies . Five other books ttri buted

: 1 ri n d/rm Sa bda C/z intam a i to N anni ah , namely ( ) n , otherwise known as Prakri yakaum u di (2) L akslza na S ara ; (3 ) I n dra Vij a ya ; (4) C/zamu n di Vilasa ; and ’

a ao/z uaa a . all a (5 ) R gfiao y y But , in prob bility , none of As C these were written by him . hamundi was the titular

' ' a deity of the Chalukyas , it is possible th t he wrote Caamun a i Vilasa ; but the existing work diff ers so much in style ’ from N anniah s that we may well doubt hi s authorship of it . ’ 1 Draksha P a N anniah s style is in ak , simple , sweet and a a graceful . Langu ge delic tely responds to emotion and a a i ac gracefully djusts itself to the ch ng ng tion of the story , a and to the varying moods of the ctors . The poet employs a variety of metres suitable to the wide range of passions a o f and events so ch racteristic the epic . Though a tran sla iz a ta al an tion , the Telugu B ar is re ly independent work a a o f art , superior to the origin l in m ny respects . Nanniah ‘ ’2 ra a a wrote the B iza t in Ch mpu . His prose is of two a and c v rieties , one simple the other more omplicated , b ut always less artificial and c umbrous than the stilted

a a . a stateliness of k vy prose In his voc bulary , he employs

- a and o ne - i two thirds S nskrit th rd Telugu words . Jak a c a a kanna, a l ter poet , h r cterises his poetry as R a sa b an d/zur a B aavablz i R ama m u beautiful ideas in bri ght ’ N anniah emotional setting . began his epic with a Sanskrit a as Sloka of praise . His ex mple w copied by R anganatha

- Tikkanna a n and others , till set e w fashi on .

N a ra a n a B h a t . A a N an y contempor ry of niah , N aray a a a n Bh t deserves mention , if for no other reason than fo r a w c has N anniah the pr ise hi h he received from . He says , as K a a A a a Just rishn ssisted rjun in the gre t war, N arayana ’ a a Bh t helped me in my l bours . It is not c lear what exac tly were the nature of the servic es which N arayana Bhat ren

1 2 S e e a o e . 4 . b v p 3 Ibid . 44 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

niah dered to N an . It is suggested that he really composed a B izara the m jor po rtion of the ta , now wrongly attributed i i N anni ah . to Th s is unl kely , because if Narayana Bhat h ad been a poet of equal eminence with N anni ah he would have continued the translation o f the B izara ta ; unless it - a N nni be that he pre dece sed a ah , for which we have no

e vidence . Nor do the first three cantos manifest any signs

of a. joint composition . It is more likely that N arayana Bhat helped N anni ah in his eff orts to inaugurate the Vaidiki as a movement , Sri Krishn helped Arjuna to establish

D /za rma . It is possible also that N anniah was engage d in a confli ct with the J ains o n the o ne hand and the orthodox re c tio narie s ho a a a , w opposed the tr nsl tion of sac red literature ,

o n . his has the other Though no work of survived ,

' a a a a as a Nar y n Bh t w evidently poet of eminence . He was as a N andima well versed , st ted in the p fidi inscription , in K a a Pai a S anskri t , arn t ka, Prakrit , s c hi ka. As a reward for his learning the emperor made him the gif t o f the village of di s a N andimapii . He i said to h ve defeated many a proud ‘ poet and earned the title K a ma/l ava Vairanku sa (The

Terror of R ival Poets) . ‘ - ik k a n n a Ya v i A . D . 1 2 20 1 300 T g ( . Title Kavi Brahma For nearly two centuries the B izarata was where ah a a N anni left it , till gre t poet , worthy to continue it , came o f Tik nn i nto the literary world in the person ka a. The reasons for the long delay in the emergence of a competent

poet were many . There was a school of obscurantists who regarded the translation and the consequent publication of

B izara ta to the world as sinful , especially because it was regarded as the fifth Veda, the reading and hearing of

- which is prohibited to non Brahmins . The madness which a befell N anni ah , who set at n ught this theological injune a tion , strengthened the superstition th t those who touch the

A ranya Pa rva would come to grief . But , above all these a fears , there was the natural reluct nce on the part o f poets to challenge compari son with Nanniah by continuing hi s N a a a a hi work . anniah w s poet much in dv nce of s age , and the art of composition which he evolved was a science d as which few ha yet mastered . It w , therefore , natural that , in spite of the efforts o f rulers , few ventured to come

46 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E caused so much embarrassment to hi s chi eftai n was none other than Tikkanna. Tikkanna was a N iyo gi Brahmin attache d to the court d of Manumasi dhi , the rul er of Nellore , a tributary chief ka a i a a under the Ka ti y k ng , G n pati Deva. He came from a a family illustrious in the nnals of the district , as having a and given to the country w rriors of renown poets of repute . a hi The Ko ttaruvu f mily , to w ch the poet belonged , came V a u K a d originally from ell t ru in the rishn District , an settled f a a a in Guntur . His grand ther , Bh skar , was a poet of eminence and is reputed to have wri tten a Telugu K R amayana which is lost . His father, o mmanna, was the a m a hi head of the r y of the loc l c ef in Guntur . His second ’ ’ Khad a Tikkanna kkan cousin , g , o r Ti na of the Sword , more than once saved his master by his valour on the kkan battlefield . Ti a, on account of his family influence , was a more of a minister th n a mere poet , honoured by his

d a m . m aster an tre ted by hi as his equal . 0 11 one occasion , when hi s master was driven out of his country by his A a a and Ba ana T kkann as relatives , kk n yy , i a w entrusted with the mission of securing for hi m the good o fli c e s of Kakati ya Ganapati ; and it was to Tikkann a that Manuma owed his

reinstatement . Before Tikkanna began the translation o f the B /zara ta i ro ae /za a a a a a a - he composed N no tt r R m y n , an all verse a composition rel ting the story of R ama after his coronation , hi s hi and describing reign , s conquests and hi s death . It a N will be remembered th t anniah wrote in Champu . Tikkanna seems to have thought the all-verse composition a very di ffi cult of ttainment . For some reason o r other he a a u di d not finish the l st canto , but Jay nti R amab h t

completed it later on . It is said that Tikkanna was the

'

author of Vi 7a ya S en a , and a treatise on prosody called ’ ' i a b a n a ana K a v V k lz , but of this we cannot be sure , as these

works are not available . ’ The poet s title to fame rests o n his translation of the

B izarata . Afraid o f begi nning where N anni ah had left s the story , that i , from the middle o f the A ranya Pa rva , a Tikka lest some evil Should bef ll him , nn a commenced with

d . the Vi rata Paroa , an finishe d the remaining fifteen cantos THE AGE OF TR ANSLATION 47

Many interesting stories are told to illustrate his nf extraordinary learning and u ailing inspiration . He a undertook to dic t te his verses in open court , without a a and a a referring to the S nskrit origin l , m de vo w that a if ever he hesitated for word he would cut o ff his tongue . Tikkanna composed so quic kly that it was di ffi cult to a get anyone who could t ke down what he delivered , till a a at last a competent am nuensis w s found , at the suggestion a a urun tha of the poet himself , in one Kum r G a , a potter o as an a by caste , wh w not only expert stenogr pher , but a a a as pandi t of some tt inment , the sequel showed . It was under these interesting conditions that the translation proc eeded , muc h to the wonder o f the pandits , who were d astonished at the unbroken flow of verse . Once , an onc e Tikkanna a o and as only , did hesit te for the right w rd , the c a ff and ai rig ht word did not ome he g ve up the e ort excl med , r unatha What shall I say, Gu The poet was disc onsolate but the amanuensis was equal to the oc c asion and finished the stanza with the very words whic h Tikkanna uttered in a a despair , and whic h , by str nge coincidence , exac tly fitted s a c a a t the context , a n ex l m tion o the Kurunatha (Lord o f ’ as u k Kurus) . When this w pointed o t , Ti kanna s joy knew and as all a no bounds , he w pr ise for the potter . Thi s a a a a story , though prob bly pocryph l , illustr tes the popular ’ a a estimate of the poet s incomp r ble versatility . Another a a a story , rel ted in this connection , is th t the p ndits o f the h Tikkanna court , w o observed that used common metres a a and Simple style , beg n to murmur th t he knew no better . a a a a Indign nt t this insult , he composed S u pti k , and S tr i Farm s in such di fficult metres and Sanskrit c ompounds a as c o f hi s th t it w beyond the omprehension erstwhile c ritics , ho c a hi hi s w , h stened , implored m to return to original style . Tikkanna , in his prologue , shows considerable originality , and gave c urrenc y to certai n c onventions whic h were

c opied by others . He began with a condemnation of e and a a o incomp tent poets pr ise f the c ompetent ones . This was necessitated by the literary condi tions of the

day , when many poets sought recognition who paid little a c and ttention to te hnique composition . The sec ond a fe ture is the introductory dream , in which his grandfather 48 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

a a a appeared and delivered him mess ge from H ri hara Natha, a ara a that he should dedic te the B a t to him . The third is a hymn o f praise , with every word ending in the possessive ulu a a c a c a c ase (sastya n t a m ) . L ter po ets h ve me h ni lly copied these features . The qualities of style whi ch procured Tikkanna the title ’ o f K avi Brahma are twofold . The first is his conciseness a a o f o f dic tion . He lw ys studied economy in the use words . It is diffi cult to alter a single word o f hi s compact phrases without seriously impairi ng their value and richness o f as a and a meaning . He w very conscientious stylist sp red no pains in refining hi s verse . The second quality is his Prab andha a a realism . Unlike the poets , whose ch r cters a a Ti kan move like puppets cleverly m nipul ted , k na inspires a his heroes with life . At his touch the p st springs up into a a a and life . The de d cities w ke once more the streets throng with busy crowds . Ancient palaces bec ome alive

and a . a a with kings , courtiers courtes ns The f mous b ttle f a fields echo to the tread o w rriors , the rumbling of chariots and the cries o f combatants . The poet attained the height a va Of his art in Vi rata P r . 0— 50 ‘ ’ a D 1 28 1 3 . amb hudasa E rra p ra ga d (A . . Title , S e ara a a Tikkanna o r Prab andha Param Sv Fifty ye rs fter , E rrap ragada completed the portion o f the A rany a Pa rva as a still remaining unfinished . So potent w the belief th t / Pa a o a the poet who touches this rv would c me to grief , th t Samb hudasa made it appe ar that it was N anniah who - R - a to R a a a a a a. a completed it , by dedic ting it j j N rendr Err

‘ a N i o Gudlfiru a a p ragada was y gi from in K ndukur T luk , as a a Pro liah rn a R Nellore District , and w tt ched to Ve eddy , ‘ a a i o amsa the ruler o f the di strict . He s ys in H r — a r a a his second Work that his f ther , S i Sary , was poet in ’ ’ ho a a i aa z a two languages and a yog i w bec me s l a . He rel tes ho w Tikkanna appeared to him in a dream and encouraged a a a s him to complete the B a r ta . Not s tisfied with hi a a a contribution to the B iz ra t , he beg n H a ri va mf a , whi ch a a a and ac is in the nature o f an epilogue to the B iz r t , tr es f a the fortunes o f the heroes o the epic fter the fateful war. hi are ama a a Other poems attributed to m , R yan , L k s/zmi ' a a also as Aaob a la Manatm a . N rt simaa Pu r n , known y THE AGE OF TR ANSLATION 49

a a a a i E rrap ragada is a st unch S ivite , disciple of yog , a o f Sankaraswami . In points of li ter ry merit he is worthy k na as being ranked with Nanniah and Tik an . His ability a poet is manifest from the fac t that he begins his work in nd a a the style of N anniah a , imperceptibly , p sses into th t of a as a s o a Tikkann . He w able to Simul te them well th t the N anniah reader does not , till he is told , realise that between and Tikkanna a thi rd poet had intervened . His c ontrol of language and his variety o f style are remarkable . His style is more diffi c ult than that of N anniah and Tikkanna . 1 Ka a has a He writes in dali Pak . His devotion e rned him the mb hud sa a a and hi s a title of Sa a (Serv nt of Siv ) , comm nd o f ve rsific atio n the title o f Prab andha Param e Svara (Lord c a of the Verse) . Srinatha admires his felic itous ombin tion a i d o f phrases (S feti Va i c n tri ) . He uses Sanskrit an Telugu words in equal proportions .

B h a ra ta T ra n s la t o rs . In order to complete the story o f the translation o f the B aara ta we have had to a a t o c n nticip te w enturies . We will o w return to the a a chronological order . Before doing so , we m y m ke a fe w general remarks about other translators of the aara ta a a a a has B , which , like its sister epic , the R m y n , been variously interpreted . The Brahminic al version , hi c w h is also the widely ac c epted and popular one , regards K a s a n the hero , rishn , a di vine incarnation , a d the whole as story having the sanc tity of a supplementary Veda. h The J ains , w o renounc ed the theologic al System o f the a Br hmins , gave c urrency to a version in whic h all the heroes are regarded as merely K ara na Pu ru saas — men — a c a of destiny sent into this w orld to fulfil spe i l mission . ’ a a Atha a a N It is prob ble th t rvana s B iz ra t , whic h anniah a a a a a is s id to h ve suppressed , is J aina B iz ra t ; and it all s is the more likely that it wa so , as the author was a a a J in by faith . J imini gav e a slightly diff erent version of as a i i i ar the story , known J m n B n a ta , whic h only deals ’ with the portion of B b ara ta relating to the Aso a me alz a Ya a Yudhishthi i of ra, and differs in many details from the

1 See above p . 34 . 5 0 A HISTOR Y OF' TE LUGU LITER ATUR E

an S skri t original . This has be en translated by Pillala Marri Pina ra Bhadriah A vi in the fifteenth century . D . The epic

' s a m a i continued under the n me of H ari o a sa , which rel tes n a a da the fortu es of Krishn fter the war. E rrap raga a tr nslated it into Telugu , and N achana Soma ve rsifie d ‘ a portion of the story , under the name Uttara H ari o amsa , i n 1 0 are an 38 . There y number of prose versions o f the a story written by recent uthors .

o E le v e n t h C e n tu ry P e t s . The eleventh and twelfth a i n a c enturies are terr nc og i t in Telugu literary hi story . The literature o f the time is being slowly recovered by the i a ndefatig ble energy of research scholars . We are sure ,

from the references in subsequent poems , that these c i enturies must have been most fertile , and yet trad tion has transmitted to us the names and works o f only a few o f a the poets . The domin nt poet o f the eleventh century f is (as we have sai d) N anniah , whose translation o the aara a a a e r f B t in ugur tes the a o translations . There is n a o nly o e other poet , who , though not his contempor ry , yet

‘ and hi M anna belongs to hi s century , s name is Pavalini all ( 1 0 60 a N iyo gi Brahmin and the k a rna m (accountant)

of the village Pavalfir, near Guntur in Kamma N adfi . He translated into verse a mathematical treatise o f Mahavi r ’ har nniah s ac yalu in Sanskrit . The author follows Na example o f placing a Sanskrit Sloka at the beginning o f his book— an example no t generally followed by the poets after ra a him . Though the S ii t s are taken from the S nskrit

a c c re o n . o rigi n l , the mathematical al ulation s a his w In a rac har a Sanskrit literature the names o f Brahmagupt , Vi y , Bhaskarac harya and J agannatha stand o ut as eminent ’ has a a a . V rac har a a m them tici ns Of these , i y s tre tise been M Ka a translated into Telugu by allana, and into n rese by di u an i Pe ddanna R aja tya in the same century . E l g t

‘ translated L i lava tz by Bhaskarac harya under the name r /e u ra a ita c o m of P a i rna Ga ni ta . There is a S t G n , an posed , during the reign of Pratap arudra; by unknown

author . ’ a Mahav1rac harya s book contains chapters on mensur tion , a frac tI OnS the me surement of shadows , proper and mixed THE AGE OF TRANSLATION 5 1 and a the theory of numbers . It is natural that the uthor , ho s a na a a w wa a k r m , should turn his ttention to m them ’ ' i s a aa ri a a atic s . It s id that he also wrote B lzaa r R m ’

a a a . s t k This is doubtful ; for , though the names of the

a a f . uthors are the s me , the names of their fathers dif er

T w e lf th C e n tu ry Po e t s . The twelfth is a century o f h royal poets and state religi ons . The dominant note of t e century is the intensification of the religious consciousness o f the people and the consequent birth o f aggressive and propagandist creeds whi c h sought the aid o f kings for their a exp nsion . R amanuja began his missionary tours about dl a the mid e of thi s c entury . The Viravai shnava faith g ve R rise to the Vi raSaiva faith associated with Basava. eli ran a gions into extremes . It is in this century th t Telugu a liter ture began to be influenced by Lingayatism . The three poets of this period are all supporters and propagandi sts o f this faith . — 1 . Pra t a a r d ra 1 0 as Kakat p u l (A . D . 1 4 9 6) w a i ya prince h w o made hi s reign illustrious by extensive conquests . He was a Vi raSaiva by faith and used his power for the spread of his religion by giving larges ses to propagandists , poets and a i a pre chers . He is the author o f N i t S ra in Sanskrit and a a in Telugu . It is natural and appropriate th t king ri — an should w te on king craft . In Sanskrit there is exten v a P f u krani ti si e liter ture on olitical Ethics , o which S , Pa fie aa ta n tra and C/zana/eya N i ti sara are the outstand a a ing ex mples . It does not appear whether thi s tre tise a a is tr nslation o r an original composition . In the next B dd a century e ana , another king , e te a book on the s me subject , and refers to Pratap arudra as hi s predec essor in the line . 2 Pa la o . k u ri k i S m a n a t h a , a Li ngayat propagandist ,

flourished in his reign . S o m an atha was a prolific writer on a S ivism . He composed hi s po ems in three languages : Ka a and Telugu , n rese a nd Sanskrit . Through books a a p mphlets , polemics and disputations , he carried mis sio nar a y c mpaign whi ch had the support of the court . Of hi s a o' i a da Telugu books , Pa ndi taradaya Cfia ri t , D p a va B sa Pa rana and Anu biza oa S ara may be mentioned . 5 2 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

The first of these books was utilised by Srin atha for his f work o the same name . Pidup arti S o manatha composed the B asava Pa rana in verse some time later Soma a a had hi s n th for disciple the mi nister o f Pratap arudra, indu ri Yanna N tfi yamatya. ‘ 3 N a n n e c h o d u . A D 1 i a . ( . . 1 50 Title , Kav R aj ’ ikham a i Te n a S n , kan m atya was an Andhra Choda o f d P kan . as a a a fi He w the uthor o f K u mara S a mbaa va , k a a Maha avy . He is also said to have composed another a K a ao ilasa c book c lled l , whi h , however , is lost . In the prologue o f hi s K u mara S a mb/za o a he states he is the o f Cho dab alli f son , Lord o Pakan adfi , and describes the a o f as a the capit l his kingdom Or yfir on the Kaveri , in

Trichy District , in which place we are told in all seriousness that stone trees blossom and stone cocks crow " It cannot a a Ora be maint ined th t yfir was really the capital . As the a a as family origin lly c me from Kaveri , the convention w a c f a cherished , in defi n e o geogr phy , that their ancient family as a abode w the capit l of the Telugu dominion . a a a The K u m r S a me/l va is a recent di scovery , unearthed Mr M R a by the industry of . . amakrishna, M . A . , who cl ims — a that the po et belongs to the tenth century A . D . a cl im not

‘ confirmed by critical examination . It is dedicated to a u mara Jamgama Mallikarjun , a Lingayat of renown . K da S a mb izao a ranks high in the literature o f the y. In a Sanskrit , K lidasa and Udb hata had written on the

subject . Our poet has not followed either the one or as the other exclusively , but has taken them both his a are basis . Certain ch racteristic features of the poem

noticeable . N annec ho du is the first poet to employ

Kanarese and Tamil words in Telugu poems . Though and is v this practice is not objectionable in itself , e en

commendable where it adds to the beauty of verse , the poet cannot be said to have been discreet in the use of an d/ as a . S foreign words . His style , too , is not f ultless

no t approved by standard grammarians are used by hi m . n a an Notwithstanding these minor faults , there c a be h rdly y doubt o f hi s extensive and massive learning in Sanskrit and a Kanarese . In hi s composition he shows perceptible a h r a a a a partiality to Kan rese metres . At a van , the gr mm ri n ,

5 4 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E the hero and the heroine are represented not as incarna f d tions of God , but as persons o destiny , an the mythological and miraculous elements are more o r less excluded . The Jain version is not represented in Telugu . R a The story of ama after the recovery o f Sit , relating to hi s reign , the birth o f his children and his death , forms as as it were an epilogue to the epic , and is known tta ra ama a a a a e a U R y na . This h s been transl ted , s w h ve a a d - Ka a lre dy in icated , by Tikkanna in all verse , and by ch ib hudu mkanti Pa ara u v in Dvip ada , and by Ka p j in

Champu . The story has been allegorised and spiritualised under the names o f A dayatm a and Va si s/ztlza R amaya n a . The characters of the story are regarded as symbolising the ’ ’ v arious inc idents in the Pilgrim s Progress o f the Soul ;

R a a as R a a s a a. m God , Sita as the indi vidual soul , v na a M y M a Sim a a diki ganna, in the fifteenth century , tr nsl ted the a i a a V s sat R amayana . Kanada Poddana S o may ji com posed the A d/zyat ma R am ayana of ViSvamitra in verse in

1 750 . A f nother school of thought , which conceived o life in cycles , in each of whi ch the main events are reproduced i n a a ama more o r less reduced form , maintained th t the R a a as u — o a a ra re ta and y n w enacted in various y gas d fi , t , Jeali and has assayed to give the story as it happened in a previous yuga. One o f such versions is represented in i a Telugu by the Satakan ta R amaya na , attributed to Bh m Ka a vi . In the thirteenth century we have two transl tions , o ne - nd in two feet metre by R angan atha, a the other in ’ C a sh ade ara a s a h mpu by Bhaskara. In Kri n v y time a M a c o m l dy , belonging to the potter caste , olla by n me , o a and p sed the R maya na in verse . In the seventeenth a a a eighteenth centuries , literal prose tr nsl tions beg n to a a ppe r . Then we have a translation in pure Telugu by K c hi a a a fi m nc hi Timmann a Kavi , and translations d pted to the s a an al a a t ge d set to music . Without being a liter tr nsl tion , t he story o f R ama is told under the name o f R ag/za o aonyu d a a b hadriah . y by Nanni ah , and Ayyala R azu R am a There i s no epic which has been so often o r so variously translated a s a the R mayana . 1 . R a n a g n a t h a (A . D . 1 230 The century opens

’ ha with a translation in couplets o f R amayana by R arrganat . THE AGE OF TR ANSLATION 55

o f as Though associated with the name R anganatha, it w as a and really composed , the intern l evidence the explicit l h a R a a reference in the Co o n/to n Show , by Budd zu , a a sa man ta or chieft in of Pratap arudra II , who held sw y K a sa o ver a distric t in rishn . It is not possible to y with any certainty whether the epic was composed by R anga ’ - a natha, the c ourt poet of Buddha R azu , in the king s n me , o r written by the king and dedic ated to R angan atha. The latter alternative seems to be the more probable ; in whi ch case Buddha R azu m ay be regarded as having c ontinued the royal example o f Nanne c ho du an d Pratap arudra. The ac a R f t that , later in the century , the sons o f Buddh azu , h a a a a Kac avib hudhu and Vittala R azu , completed thi s R m y n a o f by addi ng the Utta r R amaya na , under instructions c d a their father , confirms thi s conje ture . Dvi p a a, though somewhat monotonous vehi cle for an epic like the R ama ’ a d a a y na , is an easy an graceful medi um . The poet s tr nsl tion is Simple , sweet and easily understandable by young and old . It is full of ap t sirn ile s and pleasing alli terations . 2 A th a rv a n a A D a ar a . ( . . 1 240 Title , Dvitiy c h y Variously placed towards the beginning and the end of as the century by historians , but regarded by tradition a h o f the contempor ry of N an nia , Atharvana is the author ’ Tr ili iz a a o an sa a T g S d u sa n , the rilinga grammar . The name h r an At a vana is regarded by many as not a real name , but a ssumed title . The object o f the author in writing this a a a a gr mm r is to Show the ntiquity of Telugu , and he prob bly thought that the homely name o f Nallanna was hardly digui fie . a d_enough for the purpose The n me does not occur a a ha a in Andhr Des ; indeed , Brahmins belonging to At rvan a a are S kh not to be found in the Telugu c ountry , and there are a a a a not m ny in other p rts of India. It is prob ble th t the name is assumed to suggest that the language of which he is the grammarian is as anc ient as the At ha roa Veda . The author has the unique di stinc tion of being the only a J in writer in the whole range of available Telugu literature . as He is referred to a standard author by later writers . The a n poet is lso reputed to have written a work o prosody , A t/za r vana ha n da and C s , he attempted to c ontinue the B izara ta N an ah a a from where ni had left it , nd c tuall y 56 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

e Vi rata d/z a and i m a finish d the , U yog Ba s Pa rr/as . Fo r a o r f h some re son other , neither o these works as survived , a a but illustr tiv e st nzas are given from these by Ap p akavi . A grammari an is hardly qualified to be a poet ; and that ’ m ay be the reason why Atharvana s B izara ta had no chance alongside the brilliant ac hi evement Of his con a Tikkann Ath a D ti h r a tempor ry , a. arv na is called vi yac a y h to distinguish him from N anniah , w o is regarde d as the a a first gr mm rian , and therefore the first acharya (Pratham a a a ch ry ) . The book is written in Sanskrit , though the s a ubject m tter relates to Telugu grammar .

3 . T i k k a n n a . The most ins piring personality of thi s as T kka a century w i nnaL who translated the B a ra ta , to which has reference been made already . Tikkanna was an octo e na an g ri , and saw the end o f the century o f which he is

the most conspicuous po et . ‘ 4 M u l a h a a K e t a a D . g ti k n (A . . 1 250 Title , Abhi nava Dandi He translated the D af akumarae/i ari tra a and di to from the S nskrit origi nal by Dandi , de cated it l Tikkann a a a a a n d a a /za . He lso wrote a gr mm r , c lled ri /i r B a s ’ o/z a iz a d s a n , an translated Vijiiane Svara s commentary o n ’ Ya a alk i a jfi v ya s S mri ti , known as M t /es/za ra , the govern a n d a s is ing uthority o _Hin u law in South Indi . A there no ’ T a a a reference to ikkann a s B iz ra t by this poet , it m y be ‘ surmi sed that he wrote hi s D asa/eu m ara e aa r itra before ‘ Ti k a ae/z r a k anna began hi s translation . D asa /e u m r a i tr (the adventures of ten princes) contains stories o f common life d and reflects a corrupt state of society o f that ay . 5 B e d d a n n a A 2 1 n a a . ( . D . 1 6 A Andhr Chod minor c feudatory hief of Shatsahastra land , in the reign of the Kakat a i y pri ncess , R udram ade vi . Like his predecessor , i§ a a ult i Pratap arudra, this king c omposed a book , N i t str M ava ti — the pearl chai n o f political truths— a bo ok deali ng f a with the func tions and duties o kings , ppointment of f officers , administration of justic e , functions o the executive nd ll c a a the protection o f the c ountry ; in a , ont ining fifteen a e ddanna a ch pters o n the scienc e o f politics . B is s id to i a a o f a have been the author o f S u mat S t li a , a c anto mor l a - maxims , one of the most widely read mor l text books in Vomano the Telugu schools . This book , together with THE AGE OF TR ANSLATION 5 7

/ a and Sa i d ta , supplies in imperish ble verse , pointed pithy, the moral traini ng of the Telugu youth . a n a a ikkanna M arka e a 6 . M a r , disciple of T , wrote nd y hi c a e N a a a anna Pu rana , w h he dedic t d to the minister g yy g , hi Commander of Pratap arudra II . T s book ranks very high in the literature of the time . The story of Markande ya a e ri ra Peddana is the basis of the zli n u /za t of , who has paid a a a Marana the c ompliment of imit tion in m ny pl ces . n c h a n n a a c a Tikkanna and 7 . M a , ontempor ry of a K e araoa/zu resident of R ajahmundry , wrote y e /za r it ra and Gundanna a a dedicated it to Nanduri , gr ndson of the P vi R a a a Ve lan adfi minister of rith j , the l st of the Cho das . l a k k i B h a s k a ra a a R ama 8 . H u l tr nsl ted the y a na Of C a and di a d S ahi Valmi ki into h mpu , de c te it to nimara, a a literally a horseman . This unusu l dedic tion is explained c as a hi by a story whi h , usu l , is interesting , though un storical .

’ a R a a R arr The ruling prince , Buddh zu , sked gan atha to a a a a a hi R m . compose the y n On he ring t s , his minister , a a a Bhaskara, undertook to h ve better tr nslation o f the same a epic done . The king promised th t he would ac cept which hi m ever poem was brought to first . Bhaskara gave the a a hi m Hu akki commission to the poet tt ched to , ll Bhaskara.

’ Both R arrgan atha and Bhaskara finished and brought them

a da . to the king on the s me y The king , who favoured ‘ tha c v t R arrgan a , re ei ed his composi ion with his right hand and a a a w insulted Bh sk r by receiving his ith the left h and . t ac c C hagrined a this l k of ourtesy , the poet took back his book with the words that he would rather dedi c ate it to a ’ a c a a a a horseman or o chm n th n to rude king . The king s ari and horseman , he ng this desiring to have his name a a perpetu ted , requested the uthor to keep to his word . The u a a v a story is no do bt l ter in ention , bec use , for one thing , R angan atha and Mantri Bhaskara and Hullakki Bhaskara a M . S hi im are not contempor ries oreover, a n ara is not a R a coachman , but the son of Buddha azu nd a cavalry c o m

a a a . m nder in the imperi l rmy The story , however , does o contain tw elements of truth . The dedi cation to Sahini b e an a mara seems to fterthought , and something must ’ to av a have occurred h e ch nged the poet s mind . The book w a a w as obviously ritten g inst time . It is a joint product 5 8 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LIT ER ATUR E

f a a a and hi s c o Bh sk r dis iples , written with record speed , probably to overtake a rival in the race .

o u rt e e n th C e n t u r Po e t s . F y Five poets , stars o f the a n first magnitude , dorn thi s century , a d it is a pity that the major portion o f the heritage they have left is lost and V e m a l a v a has n o t come down to us . d a B h i m a K a v i f s is a poet o my tery in Telugu literature . Tradition s w a a h a be en busy e ving stories round his n me , so many u a a and so incongr ous , th t we m y well despair o f coming a an a a a f to nything like ccur te determin tion o hi s date . a d Variously pl ce in the twelfth , thirteenth , fourteenth , d t A D m a an . . fifteenth sixteen h centuries , it y be that he is o ne o f o ur earliest poets . But the attempt to deter mine his date by reference to historic persons associated with him by tradition has n o t been productive of any solid results . The cycle of legends whic h surround this poet belong to an age when the poet is regarded as an inspired prophet . Such stories in other literatures indi cate generally that the poet who has gathered these myths and legends to f around him , belongs the twilight o literary beginnings . r n tha ac hi m Ka Moreover , S i a pl es before the vitraya ; an a inexplic ble error if he belonged to his own century . The mystery and uncertainty that hangs round the life o f as this poet extend to his poems well . We are not in a position to state with any certainty that he is really o f a a the author ny o f the books ttributed to him . Apart s a from the fact that he wa a st unch Saivite , nothing is known o f him . Five o r six bo oks are attributed to him . 1 /zao a a a vi f They are : ( ) R ag P nd ya , the story o R ama d a - a an Krishn , in a double me ning verse . Thi s book was lost and became a mere memory by the time o f Pingali n as a S iiranna. (2 ) K a vi Ja r y a , recently printed , is said K a R a h n to be the work o f a J ain om ti , c a na. (3 ) and (4) Sa ta ka n ta R amaya na and N ri si maa Pu rana are n o t extant and are known only by illustrative stanzas given in anthologies . There is an inherent improbability in a Saivite 5 writing a Vishnu Purana. ( ) It is exceedingly doubtful if a va a the poet wrote the V sa P rana in Telugu , as there is a

S anskrit work o f the same name associated with his name . THE AGE OF TR ANSLATION 59

a a a a Bhima Kavi fli ts cross the st ge like str nge shadow , d i a a a the centre o f myth an m r cle , never m teri lising into a concrete figure of history .

a a n d A m a re s v a ra . T o O N a c h a ma S o m w ther poets , Ka tra a a worthy to be ranked with the vi y , h ve transmitted r their reputation to po ste ity , but without transmitting much a o f their work which entitled them to f me . a A D 1 3 55—7 A N a c h a n a S o m ( . . court poet of Bukka an a c K i sh ade vara a a o f Raya, n estor of r n y , is the uthor ‘ P a a Utta ra H a ri o amsa . rob bly diss tisfied with E rrap ra ’ gada s achievement , this poet wrote it in what is considered to be a style worthy o f the theme . Competent critics have adjudged that the claim of the po et is made good by the excellenc e of his composition , which all through main o f Ka itra a and tains the high level the v y , in portions , even a m a a surpasses them . The s me y be s id of Chimmap ii di Vi k ra masen a c Am are Svara, whose work , , elebrating the victories of King Vikram a of Ujjain , is lost . It is said that ha ush we should have had a Kavi C t ta, inc luding this poet iza a with the three translators of the B r ta , had not that name been reminiscent o f the memory o f the wicked four o f the a o f ikra m a e n a is a B izara t . The loss V s great literary calamity . ho E rrap ragada, the third poet w completed the transla a a a innako ta Pe ddana a tion of the B iz r t V , uthor of a gram av alan kara C/zadama ni and R avi ati Ti mar, K y ; p p p anna, author Of Tri pu ranta leo da/za rana ; M a dana Vi iay a and ’ a all a Amb i/e asa ta k m belong to the s me century . a A D 1 365 S ri n a t h ( . . The poet who over f a e is shadows all others o his g Sri natha, who lived in the latter part of the fourteenth and the first half of the a a c c fifteenth c entury . Imp rti l riti ism assigns to hi m a a a o f Ka it position equ l to th t the v raya, and there are many who hold that he is the supreme poet of Telugu

' a a d . c a an mar a literature Unlike N h n A e sv ra, his reputa tion is not built o n unve rifiab le tradition or fragmentary a w a a a remn nts , but on extensive ritings v il ble for c riticism . The Telugu language has no t produc ed a poet who had suc h a phenomenal linguistic command over Telugu and i n ara a S anskrit. His Sr g N i s/za da is a crown se t with 6 0 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

i a dazzl ng di monds on the brow of Sarasvati . Born o f a a an a humble p rent ge in insignific nt village , he carved out a a n me for himself by the excellence of hi s genius . His

a was a . inspir tion unf iling He never stumbled for a word , nor strained for a sentiment . The peculiar qualities of hi s ma a a and a style y be s id to be m jesty st teliness . The rhythm and cadence of hi s words have something o f the surge of the se a and, like the waves , they roll in serried ranks crested rin atha with whi te . S lisped in verses . While still an infant a h a pl ying c ildish g mes he composed M a r ut ra t Caa ritra . a hi s al B rely out of teens , he published S i o aaana S anta f S ati . In the prime o his youth he gave the world ' a i s/zada hi s ma n u m o u s and B / i z N , g p , z mesz ara Pa rana . a In his mature Old ge , when the weight of years sat heavily n a a a R af i/ a d o him , he brought out k vy , M n a , worthy to be a all w comp red in respects ith the productions o f his youth . O a o f are Pa n di ra ther S ivite works his ta d/zya C/za r i tra , ’ which had for its basis Palakuriki S o manatha s book of that i o a a ri a ha m a name ; S r t M t y , recently discovered and publishe d by the AI n dfira Pa ri s/ta d ; Va lla o/zaalzyu d ' a ya ; H a ra m lasa and Srz ngara D i pi ka— a work o n hi poetics , w ch , though purporting to be the composition of um ra iri R a K a g eddi , is held by m ny to be by Srin atha. In a r hi m two other poems tt ibuted to , Patn ati Vi r a C/z ari ta na a k s and Vi d/i i t a , he i the pioneer of an untrodden r field of literary effort . The fi st is a saga o f the R eddi kings— a romance of love and war among the local tribal lords of hi s days . Literary history of this type is rare in

Telugu . A far more interesting departure from the beat en track 1 a /Iea was Vi d/zi n ta . Though the existing work o f that n ame is a disgusting combination of high art and low an morals , there c be no doubt that the original conceptio n , a e of whi ch it is the degener t descendant , had its birth in the o f r n i i a a fertile imagination S i atha. V d/z n t é a in Telugu literature has no resemblance to its namesake in S anskrit ‘ ‘ D asa ra a . drama, described in the o Vz d/z i n ata/e a con t ains mostly descriptions of street scenes of R ajahmundry in

1 T e an a a i h st d rd wo rk on dram n S an skrit .

62 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITE R ATUR E

a to was nxious get his opinion of his book . Finding him

playing in the street with other boys , Srin atha approached and hi m u him informed of his p rpose . The b o y asked him a a how he transl ted the phr se , Gami karmi kruta N aikani

Vrutta in the original . Sri natha replied that he translated it ’ a a N aikan h as Gami k rmi krut i Vrut uda. On hearing this the b o y critic observed , Your only contri bution seems to ” a da a f b e the syll ble . We c nnot , o course , take this as ’ serious criticism . However , it illustrates Sri natha s fine

sense of symphony . Where the original was untranslatable M he never attempted it . oreover, by a slight change just and a r t o f a letter here letter there , S i na ha could transform a a harsh phr ses in the origin l into sweet ones in Telugu . It i s a noteworthy fact , illustrative of the essential symphony

of Telugu , that Sanskrit when transliterated into Telugu a n gains consider bly in sweetness a d music . ’ Sri natha s character seems to have been as full o f faults

as his style is free from them . Tradition has associated with his name many stories which do not add lustre to his d e character , an there ar aspects of his work which seem to

confirm the traditional impression , though much of it may a a ha be gross ex gger tion . Nevertheless , in Srinat we a a K i ra d have poet worthy to be r nked with the av t ya, an one at whose hands Telugu poetry attained a majesty and di gnity unapproached ever since .

Fi f t e e n th C e n t u ry Po e t s . The closing century of the pe riod of translations witnessed the rendering o f the Puranas hi a ri - a d- /za a into Telugu , of w ch the most import nt is S M B g a as vata , dealing exclusively with the history of Sri Krishn asa ho an incarnation of Vishnu . It is said that Vy , w com posed the Sanskrit B izara ta , was no t satisfied with the incidental mention of Krishna therein , and wanted to write d an epic exclusively celebrating Krishna as the hero , an so a v a a aoa a has e produced the B a g a a t . The B a g t b en regarded as the main sacred book of the Bhakti school and is specially held in high veneration by Vai shnavite s . We m ay therefore regard the translation of the B izaga o a ta as a the first literary symptom o f the influence of Vaishn vism , which is more perceptible in the second stage o f the deve THE AGE OF TR ANSLATION 63 lo pme nt o f Telugu literature in the reign o f Krishnade va raya. a a an a The word Pur na me ns ncient story or legend , but in course of time it has come to indicate a literary

— - medium suitable for semi di dactic and semi devotional a mat e a - a o f themes . As t r of f ct , the subject m tter a Purana ar a ri P is varied . There e in S nsk t eighteen chief uranas . o f All these deal with the cosmogony the Universe , with inc idental references to the history of the world , includi ng M o India and its future development . ost f these Puranas belong to the realistic school o f philosophy , which regard i l creation no t as M aya but as the L a of God . We o we the reconstruc tion of the Andhra dynastic story to the Vayu and u a a P a Vi s/znu P r na s . Sometimes uran is merely a a philosophic exposition of a religion , such s Saivism or

Vaishnavism , in the form of a dialogue or story narrated by a ri s/zi . Not infrequently it is the story of a sectarian h - religion with distinctly myt o poetic tendencies , li ke the P a a is a ava a ra a . a a d B s P n The proper function of ur n s i , in aaab/zar a o f the M a ta , to be the narr tion the genealogy of a any gre t king o f antiquity . a We h ve already seen that in the thirteenth century A . D . Marana translated the Marka ndeya Pa rana ; and in the i im/za a fourteenth , E rrap ragada translated the N r s Pa r na ; ‘ r n th d a a va u ra a S i a a, the B ai meso a ra an B s P n s ; and Kamalanab ha r n atha Padm a a , grandfather of S i , Pu r na . The outstandi ng poet of the first half of the fifteenth century am B na a va a as B m r a a t . w e a Potana, who tr nsl ted the g B a m m e a Po ta 1 400 a Of r n a (A . D . The uthor the

B /zag a o a ta Pa rana was a N iyo gi Saivite . His birthplace has been the cause of a protrac ted controversy . The a a a Prata a honour is claimed by Warang l , c pit l of p rudra ’ a d a dda in the Niz m s Dominions , an Ontimitt in Cu p p ah . P a a a hi s ot n w s honoured in his day fo r purity , integrity and as a independenc e . In thi s he w striking contrast - - ho a to his brother in law , Sri n atha, w l cked the subtle o f - t a a sense self respec t . Srina h b sked in the sunshine a a a and of roy l f vour ; Potana voided kings courts . r natha S i knew how to turn rhyme into rup ees , Potana preferred poverty with honour to riches and wealth ; 64 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

Srinatha dedicated every one of his poems to a king or a rich man ; Potan a spurned to we d the damsel o f poesy to r n tha wretched kings for money ; S i a was a courtier , Potana ’ Ma r are o f a devotee . ny sto ies told Sri n atha a attempts to a a e a induce Pot n to b friend the m mmon of unrighteousness , and a but he preferred to live die poor man , and disdai ned to b o w the knee to kings whi le he had Siva to worship a and Krishna to celebr te . - a and - Potana was a self m de self taught man . He appears

ad a . h to have h no form l schooling This is w y some defects , a di are counted as such by p n ts , found in his style . It is a signal proof of the devastating influence o f criticism on literature that his B izaga o a ta should no t have been

’ as a a a regarded by some st nd rd work , notwithstandi ng its and be witchi ng beauty of style sentiment . It is said that

while grazing cattle the poet met a yogi called Jitananda, by whose blessing he obtained hi s intellectual awakening hi s a . a and the gift of poetry In e rly days , Potan was a gay

young m an , a favourite in the court o f R ao Singhama, in prai se o f whose courtesan he composed a rhapsody called

‘‘ a da hi as B /zog i n z D n /ea . T s w the work of Potana before A hi s conversion . fter conversion , he began the translation a a a a a a a a a of B izagao t . We h ve lre dy s id th t the B /zagao t

deals with Krishna. In narrating the incident of Dhaksha ’ Yaga it was necessary to relate the R akshasas enmity to

Siva and the words of contumely used by him . As ai P a a nd a staunch S vite , ot n felt this very much , a by way ’ of atonement is said to have written Vi ra oaa dra Vtzaya in

praise o f Siva. ’ Po tana s life was devoted to the translation o f the B /zag a a R a a R a in h ma . o a o a ta , which he dedic ted to m S g wished i that the book should be ded cated to him , but it is said that

Potana, in spite of the persecutions to which he was

subjected , would not consent to dedicate hi s poem to a

a . B iza ava ta mere m an , though king The Telugu g , unlike a a a the Telugu R am y na and B izar ta , is much bigger than

the original ; and, unlike them also , portions o f it are very a popular even among the illiterate . Ga jen dr Mo les/ m and R u /emani K a tyana are perhaps the most widely read and recited portions in Telugu literature . The style of THE AGE OF TR ANSLATION 65

all a Potana is full of Sanskritism s but , for th t , rich in s a na topical interest and local colour . A an inspir tio l poet n s B na a oata is he is not excelled by any other, a d hi g regarded and utilised as a standard manual o f devo tion . It would appear that Potana did no t publish the B aagavata

- in his life time . He was disgusted with the worldliness of his day and concluded that the public o f the time were a a hi s unworthy to hear his poem . He left it as herit ge to a it— son , Mall na, with instructions that he should give the Pearl of Great Price— to a pure m an who had devotion in his ’ heart . Po tana s son did n o t open the b o x in which the ma ri as ri nusc pt w deposited , but bequeathed it to his f end , Ve li andala N a a g rayya, who di scovered th t portions of it were destroyed by B ana worms . The portions so destroyed were completed by E rc hil ri Simganna and Ve ligandala N ara a. a yy L ter, Harib hat (1 660 ) translated portions of B iza a a - a a va ta the g o a ta . We have also the B al B /z g by Ko ne ru Ka a a oa ta vi . Apart from the Vi shnu B a g , we av a a i /za a vata h e nother B iz g a va ta called D ev B g , which was a a a mm anado ra and a tr nsl ted by n early poet , Da , l ter ri ram Pan a a by S a tulu and Mulugu Pap ayy . Tirup ti Ve nkate Svara Kavulu has also recently published a trans a l tion of this work . a Among the c ontemporaries of Sri natha and Potan , the following m ay be mentioned

1 . akk Vikramarna an na . 141 T a a e ose J (A D . 0 r nsl t d o r c omp d Chari tra c e e ra i th ic s f i a a a he in of U ai n , l b t n g e v to rie o V kr m rk , t K g jj , a p atron o f S anskrit lite rature and a he ro muc h c e le brate d in history and song.

2 . Ma iki Si s e Padma Pa ra a d mgann a (A .D . 1420 Tran late d th n , and Vasi slz a R ama an a h a f a ata and a re a ise t y , t e te nth c nto o Biz ag o t t o n o i ic s c a l e S akala N a a a p l t , l d i ti S mm t mu .

3 . N i Vila a sse nk a K . 1 4 e Si o ali la s omm anna (A .D 30 Wro t and V r malze i a f o ara .

4 . Ananta a ra a a a m t a . 4 f olza B o y (A D . 143 author o R a sa n , f R a i a a oo k f as a oo k o n f y , b o wonde r tale s, A nanta C/zan d , b prosody .

5 . Go uranna Man ri a minis e who m os e Harie/za ndro t , t r c o p d ak an a the s o o f the rinc e who ne ve r s oke a li e and ho fo r p y , t ry p p w , the sake of u os e a an tr th , l t hi s throne , wif nd libe rty ; and N ao ataa Ckari tra rema rk a e as an e ar ins anc e f o s . o f , bl ly t o the sh rt tory B th o e se are in Dvi th p ada . 66 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

i u al b ha . . 42 i u a 6 . V n konda V la (A D 1 0 V n kond Vallab ha was

h o f a i Ti a na . i as the ru e r o f a fe t e so n R avip t pp n This T ppanna. w l w i a e in u iki Nad e si es e in h k f he f v ll g s M l fi , b d b g t e ee pe r o t c rown je we ls o ’ Ha i H ara R a a . The oe s K ri dao/zi ramamu ou it u o s to r j p t , th gh p rp rt b e a ans a ion o f a ama in S ansk i b ame Pre mablzi ra a u is tr l t dr r t y n m m , e a a a c i i T e au h e u r lly n o rigin l omp o s t o n . h thor is t first Te l gu p oe t to a e a transl t a dram as a drama , whe re as till the n S anskri t dram as were ’ ans a e as me e kav as . K dao/z i ra a u i e n ha s tr l t d r y ri m m , l k Sri at Vi dai na aka i a uni ue ie c e o f i e ra u e in Te u u a o i t , s q p l t t r l g , n r ginal i a i . l te r ry mode e xc e e d ngly rare The s c e ne is l aid at Warangal . It is the sto ry o f the trave ls narrated b y Go vinda Mac hanna to his frie nd om a i i a a ni in o f K t V t gr ma , info rm g him the sc e nes he had witnesse d and the adve nture s he had me t while in Warangal . He gives a e i u e s i n f oc k -fi h i h s f a a a d l ghtf l d c ript o o a c g t n t e stree t o W r ng l .

P la la a ri a h A i l m a rri Pi n a v i r b h a d ( . D . I 4SO The second half of the fifteenth century produced one poet of e ra outstanding merit , who stands at the close of the of i a translations , summing up in hi mself extraord nary le rning d in Sanskrit , encyclopaedic knowledge of the Vedas an Ve d d a a Pillalamarri angas , an widespread reputation for s nctity . Pinavi rab hadriah takes hi s place in the rank o f inspired poets who o we their achievements not to labo ri ous training , but to native talents , imparted by the favourite deity . ’ Pinavi ra s family tree is adorned with many poets ; and if - had hi s tradition c an be trusted , the b o y prodigy in tenth year all the massive learning of a pandit o f forty . We are ’ n th h a told that Sri a a, w o wanted to h ve the poet s a criticism of his N a i s/zada , had to seek him among boys pl ying an to a in the street , d could hardly bring himself believe th t the poet whom reputation had made so formidable was a and young lad I n his teens . Yet , with one shrewd question - r natha a a sharp comment , the boy poet sent S i bout his a a business a sadder and wiser man and rejoined his pl ym tes , all unconscious that he had sat in judgment and condemned 1 the greatest poet of the age . Pillalamarri Pi navi rab hadriah was the court poet of Saluve m a R a as fo r a e Narasi h zu , who w some time the comm nd r of a and a an Vi rup aksha R aya, whom he suppl nted , bec me

- independent ruler of Ana Gouda in Bellary District . The am poet was the disciple of Bharati ti rta S v i , through

1 1 f . Se e p . 6 THE AGE OF TR ANSLATION 67

Ma r whose favour he obtained the gift o f poetry . ny wo ks ma are attributed to him , o f which the following y be mentioned : i 1 . Ja i m ni B hara ta .

i n ara ak u n tal a . 2 . S r g S a 3 . A va t ra D a rpu na .

4 . N ara di ya . 1 5 a /2a a /zat a . . M g M y

6 . Pu ru s/z ar t/za S u d/2a N i d/z i .

lla a ara . 7 . M anaso s S A n . Of these , o ly the first two are extant story current in connection with the Jai m in i B harata illustrates the popular ’ hadriah ma a idea of the poet s versatility . Vi rab , like ny a a great poet , led a wild life in his youth , w sting his subst nce a m had among women . His brother , a very pious Br h in , to a admonish him very often , but without eff ect . H ving i a a promised the king to compose Jai m n i B b r ta , he d a neglected the task till the last ay , notwithst nding the da had a remonstrances of his brother . On the last y he

d e . room cleaned and purified , an lock d himself in The members of the family could hear the scratch , scratch of

- the stylo on the palm leaves . His brother , curious to know a and what w s happening , peeped through the keyhole found ,

his a n a a at a . to sto ishment , l dy furiously writing gre t speed ’ She stood up and went away when She saw the poet s brother. The story is that Sarasvati was the consort of the and she poet completed the whole epic in a ni ght . The da a next y he re d his compo sition in the court , and when the pandi ts applauded the grace of his diction he openly claimed Sarasvati as hi s queen— a claim which the audience ’ as a regarded bl sphemous . But a woman s voice was heard hi ’ from be nd the curtain which justified the poet s claim . It is possible that among the lady-love s of the po et was a a rdi a poetess of extr o n ry ability , who assisted him in his a labours . Wh tever value may be attached to this story , it was generally be lieved in hi s day that the poet had Sarasvati a at his comm nd . The court poets correctly charac terised hi s style as the lily that gently unfolds its petals and suff uses the ai r with a a its soft rom . 68 A HISTOR Y OF T ELUGU LITER ATUR E

’ Among Pillalam arri Pinavirab hadriah s contemporaries the following m ay be mentioned

1 . Praudhakavi Mallana (1 450 author o f R ukmangada Chari tra ' - i o r E kads i M ahatya a p oe m o f c ons de rable me ri t . The p oe t is said i to b e the so n o f Bamme ra Po tana , b ut th s is doubtful . n a M a 2 . Bhaira aka i o e Sr ra aa t a K vi Ga v v wr t i g a y , ia nkusa , Sa tra a a e a ise on roso and R a tna s . T is u tr t p dy, he l s t a p re ly sc ie n i o k in e e o n c i us s o nes . t fic w r , v rs , pre o t la a i S 14 au f 3 . Ve nne K nt fi ranna ( 60 thor o the Vi shn u Pa ran a i c b e e ic a a ha a e i a Vaishn a i i , wh h d d te d to R g v R dd , v te l ke

4 . Dub agunta Narayana (1470 transl ate d Pa aeb atan tra in v . e nk a a i i e a a s a e rs e V t natha , who l ve d a l ttl l te r, tr n l te d the same ' u ’ a n b ook . Tho ugh this a thor s Paize/z ta tra is infe ri or to Ve nkata ’ tha e is an e in e a a e oo k . The i na s , y t it xc e e d gly r d bl b s tor es are

e a e in an e as ue s e a o n e sim e and c e a . r l t d y fl nt tyl , t c pl l r 5 Na i a ia a irh i ah 14 T . m M and G n a S 80 ese t o d ll h , h t g ( h w

oe s c o e e . O e i o k the o re im o an a e p t mp ose d tog th r f th r w r , m p rt t r ' d aa u a f i i Prao/zo a Clzandro ya , a c rious dram o d v ne kno wle dge , u u f a d Vara a Pa a e xp o nding vario s syste ms o p hil osophy , n n ran . i i 14 he o f 6. Duggup all Dugg ah ( 80 This p oe t is t bro the r ’ l Sri nath a s wife . He wrote N ae zi ketopakyana and K aaelzi pu ra

M anatya .

a n a . a e c a o b e e i 7 . M n M nc hi Bhar Tho ugh his d t nn t fix d w th

. He o e c e ai he o a e n the c ose f is c e n u . wr rt nty, pr b bly b lo gs to l o th t ry t — ak s k a boo k on ve te rinary sc ie nc e Haya L saa nasara . Thi boo , a i the e atme an ainin o f o rse s is a ans a i on de l ng with tr n t d tr g h , tr l t li ’ S s i a i ac es o is from sa ho tra s bo ok in an kri t . Part c ul r nte rest att h t th

as a s i a u e c o e t b e i e mo e n . book , it de l w th s bj t supp s d o qu t d r

70 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E and competition of poets as momentous in the history of letters as the glorious military conquests were in the p oliti o f a s c al history the l nd . Thus wa born , under the most a propitious st rs , a literary movement which in its youth was and a the glory , in its dec dence the humiliation , of Telugu literature . Thi s new chapter in our literary history , was and inspired led by Krishnade varaya. A 1 50 ma a a Up to . D . 0 , Telugu literature y be ch r cterised a f as belonging to the ge o translations , wherein the poet borrowed his theme both in substance and in detail from o f K i sh de ar a the Sanskrit original . The reign r na v ay marks the beginning of a new e ra o f literary freedom .

Under hi s insdi ring leadership , imitation was exchanged - a - for self expression . R eleased from the le ding strings of a a e Sanskrit , the Telugu language celebr ted its coming of g a by inaugurating the literature of freedom . The k vya is s a a essentially descriptive , while the epic i fund ment lly a narrative . The epic depends for its ppeal o n the events a a a and situations in the story , nd the kavy o n the we lth a and variety o f the descriptive element . The kavy afforded considerable room fo r the display o f imagination al and individual taste . The plot , gener ly thin , is woven

P a . round a significant , but little known , ur nic episode The a a chief interest lay in the painting of char cter , the portray l and a a of passing moods and moving passions , the n lysis of a h emotion . The epic crowded the canv s with in umer able figures ; the kavya cleared the stage of all but the and hero and the heroine , it traced the birth growth o f their lo ve and held a mirror to the changing moods and the A r elusive hopes and fears of their romance . nothe notice able characteristic is the studied employment o f a decorative f as mi style , in which certain figures o speech , such the Si le A i a a . and the hyp e rb o le , play an import nt p rt ll ed to this ‘

.o f feature is the use of slesii a , the conjunction words which r a give a double meani ng . The style is sono ous , with distinct bias for massing Sanskrit compound words . Kri shnade varaya most appropriately leads o ff the i i a movement with his A mu kta malya da or Vis/znu efi tt y . s firstfruits a This kavya is remarkable , not only a the of ar di a influ new movement , but also as a c le in c tion of the THE PER IOD OF THE PR ABAN DHAS 71

ence of Vaishnavism on Telugu literature . The works of the first period are predominantly Saivite ; but in Amu kta e malya da we have a purely Vaishnavit story , marking the stage when Vaishnavism has become the source of poetic

- inspiration . The plot relates to the life story of a

- e a /e a . f r u u tu Vai shnavit ba t In the sacred city o S i Vill p t r, in the Pandya kingdom , there lived a pious Brahmin , Vish as a a nuc hitta, whom the gods chose the triumph nt ch mpion

- of Vaishnavism . He found on the banks o f a lotus pond a a a a female child of surp ssing be uty , whom he received as gift from God and reared as his o wn daughter . This c hild , da Amuktamalya , was the light of his house and the pride of hi s heart . When she grew up to womanhood , she began a u to pine aw y , for some nknown reason . The secret o f her as an an tha sorrow w her love to R g a , the deity at Srirangam . ’ n di The father , o vining his daughter s aff ections , took her ho s to the deity , w condescended to receive her a his wife . The celestial household spent the rest o f their lives in bliss di vine . The style of Krishnade varaya is so high and the diction so complicated that the reader is at first repelled rather than attracted . But the persevering student reaps a rich reward . He will find therein customs and religious a e be liefs of bygone ag vividly portrayed . He will gradually feel the tonic effects of a vi gorous style and the ne glow of a w inspiration . There is hardly a book in

Telugu where there is such a continual flow of ideas , a seeking n impetuous outlet in language whi ch , though ar ri ch , is yet sc cely equal to the task o f full and adequate expression . For insight into human nature , and for fac ility in depicting elusive moods by some striking phrase , sh de ara a has and Kri na v y no superior , scarcely an equal . sh ade a Kri n v raya was deeply verse d in Sanskrit , and a he is said to h ve written the following works in Sanskrit , though none of them are available

1 . M a dala sa C/zarit ra . 2 . S a tya Va daa Prena n a m u . ‘

3 . ak a a a a a ala K a tit S r S a ngr lz .

4 . Jii an i tama i a C/z n n .

' 5 . R asamania ri . 72 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

’ R a a y s services to Telugu literature are manifold . He o c mposed in Telugu himself , and encouraged other poets to s do o , often supplying them with materials and themes for a all as composition ; bove , the hero of many battles , he was a the inspir tion of his age . a The roy l court was adorned with many eminent poets , of ’ a h adi a a whom eight , c lled the As t gg j s , o r eight elephants supporting the world o f literature , have become famous . They are 1 Allas i d . Pe dana an .

2 . a Timm a N ndi nna.

3 . Ayyala R aju R amab hadriah . 4 D ‘ . h r a ll j ti . 5 . Madiahgari Mallana. 6 . Pingali Silranna.

7 . R amaraja Bhil shana.

8. Tenali R amakrishna. It is almost certain that the last three poets did not write I n a a the reign o f Krishnade var y , though it is unquestion a a are a bly true th t they , along with the rest , the cl ssic exponents of the kavya type of literature . ‘ 1 A ll a s a n i P a a a a P a Ma . e d d n a (Title , Andhr K vit it ’ h and il du was the Poet Laureate o f Kri shnade varaya s court , the most illustrious and prominent o f the poets of the day . The author of a classic whi ch was regarded as the ideal of a a e fo r k vy literature , honoured by the king , look d up to a nd a a i guid nce a help by the lite rati , Pe ddan occupies un que position in the literary world . His great influence in the a a a roy l court , hi s undi sputed eminence as poet , m de him a the autocrat of the world of letters . What he l id down a K a w s law ; what he approved o f was fame . While to rishn de varaya belongs the honour of being the founder of Prab d n hi s M anu andha literature , it was Pe d a a who , with c aa a a and a r itr , deflected the course of Telugu liter ture m de the kavya the archetypal literary mode fo r centuri es to come . ’ r c i ha anu eizarit ra Pe ddana s celebrated kavya, S va o h s M all a (shortly Manuc aari tra ) , has easily eclipsed other poetic l ff an e orts of the day . The story is episode from the M arkandeya Pa rana relating to Svaro c hi sha Manusam THE PER IOD OF THE PR ABAN DHAS 73

a o f Aru as ada bhava. A pious Br hmin n p , on the banks o f a a a o f the Varuna, visits the heights the Him l y s , tradi tion ally reputed to be the abode o f a hi gher order of beings aid a man tra a than men , with the of imp rted to him by a hi s a ri a a a sidna . In w nde ngs he ttr cts the ttention o f a a a a Gandharv d msel , who f lls in love with him , but he does not reciprocate her feelings . A male Gand a va a o f a a harva, taking d nt ge the situ tion , ssumes the c - form of the Brahmin , onsoles the love lorn maiden and Ou was S . t ar lives with her of the union born v o c hi sha, a ul and a an a who in time becomes r er meets m ny dventure , a ai in eac h of which he rescues m den whom he weds . The Ma so n o f S varo c hisha is the second nu , ruler of Jambu as il dvi p a. The story , w l be seen , is slight , but the main interest lies in the varied desc riptions of the natural beauty a a and a a ac of the Him lay s , the deline tions of ch r ter . M ann a/za rit ra In literary form , is of composite structure . The poem reveals in many places the characteristic touch Pe ddana a o f Sri n atha, for whom seems to h ve entertained o f great respect . In the description the hunt , Pillalamarri l c Pinavi rab hadriah is fol owed . In the con eption of situa ’

a a a a . tions , M rana s inspir tion is tr ce ble In the development K i h ade ar a of the theme , r s n v ay sets the model . M a n u c /za r i tra well illustrates what we may call eclectic ism in ’ a a a a -da c omposition , very notice ble fe ture in l tter y poetry . ’ Pe ddana s learning in Sanskri t and Telugu was prodi a gions and his flo w o f inspiration sust ined . In the weaving

' o f words hi s Skill was extraordinary , as Kakamani Mll rti And c are justly observed . yet one or two defe ts noticeable . a Unities are lacking , and the v rious parts of the story do a is not properly articulate . Sweet im gery meagre , though and a descriptions are delightful , convers tions cunningly managed . Pe ddana followed the royal example o f laying under a Ka a tribute foreign words , especi lly n rese , whenever a necessary . This pr ctice , though condemned by purists , is n a welcome departure , as it adds to the beauty a d symphony i a a a a o f the verse . Ha r K t/2 S r , which is attributed to a Pe ddana, is not ext nt . t o K i sh ad M an uelzaritra was dedicated r n e varaya, who 74 A HISTO R Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

a honoured the poet bove all others , lavished praise and ‘ gifts on him and conferred o n hi m the title o f Kavi Tapita ’ Maha. The position which Pe ddan a occupied in the royal court was somethi ng akin to that of Nanniah in the Chalukya e Court , i . . , that o f a personal friend Whom the king had s a made hi confid nt . Like N anniah to o , he had the privilege ’ a of inspiring new literary movement . N anniah s fault was his also — jealousy o f any rising poet who promised to attract the royal attention . ’ are f Many stories told o the king s regard fo r Pe ddana. Krishnade varaya was so much pleased with M a n u ena rit ra that he insisted , as a mark of his appreci ation , o n being one - s a a of the pole bearers of hi p l nquin . On another occasion ’ the emperor insisted o n fixing a golden bangle o n the poet s a leg with his o wn hands , s a reward for victory in a literary contest . We find Poddana o n hi s retirement , broken down with age and sorrow , bemoaning his desolation at the loss o f his royal friend and patron . N a n d i T i m m a n n a a as Mukku 2 . (popul rly known a Timmana) w s the second great poet o f the royal court . He was a N iyo gi Brahmin o f the Aruve la sect and a staunch - i a a Saivite by faith . The life work o f the poet was Pa r j t c d a paaarana , whi h he dedicated to King Krishna e var ya.

The story celebrates an incident in the life o f Sri Krishna, whose eff orts to satisfy his rival wives often placed him in

‘ e embarrassing situations . On o n occasion he incurred the h di spleasure of S atyab ama, by giving R ukmani the flower s from Paradise known a Parijata. It is said that when ’ Sri Krishna fell at S atyab ham a s feet in an eff ort to a appease her , She Spurned him with a kick . The t ctful th a husband , pocketing e insult , turned her wr th with the soft answer that he was more sorry that her tender feet should be hurt , than that he should be insulted . To al satisfy hi s angry Spouse Sri Krishna goes to S varg aka, and after a desperate battle with the heavenly hosts of al a a a a Indra, who je ously gu rd the P rij t , succe eds in ’ ’ removing the tree to S atyab hama s palace . The lovers quarrel was soon composed , and the curtain drops over the a a happy pair rejoicing in e ch other . There is beautiful story told as to the circumstances under which the poet THE PER IOD OF THE PR ABAN DHAS 75

a a a a o ne a wrote his kavy . It would ppe r th t on occ sion Kri shnade varaya had a quarrel with his wife which threatened to develop into a serious breac h . The queen was found sleeping wlth her legs towards the head o f his

- portrait on the bed sheet . This the king construed into a personal insult , and hence the quarrel . The poet , who probably came to the royal court in the retinue o f the

c . as queen, was asked to inter ede This poem w written to Show to the king that great freedom is permitted b e tween lovers and that a wise husband should be slow in fancying insults where none was intended . It 15 said that the king caught the hint , so delic ately conveyed through the poem , and became reconciled to his wife .

. a r dh The poem is rare p ab an a, full of honeyed words , sweet sentiments and delicate and polished imagery . As a work of art it occupies a very high place in Telugu literature . a la R a u R a m a b h a d ra K a v i als 3 . A y y j ( o known as h — h - -M - Pillala R amab adriah R am ab adriah Of any Children , o n account of his large family) . Unable to support his growing family , the poet , it would seem , contemplated suicide , but was dissuaded by his friends . At their advice he went with an his family to Viji agaram , with the despe rate resolve to earn di a livelihood o r e in the attempt . Providence helped hi m at the outset , for on his entry into the capital , he met with i a an adventure wh ch brought him friend , who introduced

- him to the royal court . Caught in a thunder storm and drenched to the bone , the poet found in a garden a group of students who were struggling hard at the task set by their master to give a description of the physic al effects ‘ a - o f m r na (love sickness) . The poet offered to help them if they could kindle a fire for hi m . Under the grateful glow of the crackling fire , he composed a stanza which the students presented to their master as their o wn unaided achievement . Tradition identifies their master with R am ara a u a a a j Bh sh n , author of Va su e lz rit ra . The master at once realised that he was dealing with a poet of eminence and a sked his students to take him to the stranger . Thus was formed a friendship which secured for the poet an entry into the coveted circle o f royal poets . 76 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

a ri h de a The poet , at the comm nd of K s na var ya, com /ta a a an a a posed S aka la K a t S r S g r lz , a poem in nine cantos containing the famous Puranic stories of R ama as no Pururava, etc . The poem w t finished by the time A hi de ra a . a s a Kri shna va y died fter the de th of p tron , the po et settled in the court o f the nephew of the so n-ih r a and a aon u d law o f Krishnade va ay , composed R m y aya . h u r a ti a a Sa was a o f 4 . D j , st unch ivite , lso the select ai K a ahast and a a c o m c ircle . He h led from l i , ppropri tely a a a posed K ala aasti M a /z tmy , a k vya exto lling the virtues a f h de a of Kalahasti as a pl ce o pilgrimage . Kris na var ya often wondered at the elegance o f his characteri sation . Once in the full court the emperor propounded the ques di d o f - a tion , Whence this worshipper the poison thro ted ’ Siva get thi s incomparable sweetness o f expression ? The a hi answer whic h the assembled poets g ve , w le confirming ’ a the royal patron s approbation , shows him to be a g y Dh r a a young m an with rather doubtful morals . il jati m n ged to c ombine a reputation for profound piety with consider able looseness o f character . a a h a ri M a lla n a a Sa v o f 5 . M d i g , nother i ite poet the a lle m a r i ra as a o f R a e /ta Ca t . w court , was the uthor j S He so dh ka M called to di stinghish hi m from Prau a vi allana.

S k u s a la N ri s h i m h a k a v i . C 6 . a n Though not ounted s among the great eight he deserves special mention , a he ranks among the foremost o f the poets o f the day . ar a a a n The poet wrote K a vi/e na R s y a , which he desired a a to dedicate to the emperor . With this object he ppro ched a i o f w Peddana, and, after re d ng to him portions his ork , ddana requested hi m to introduce him to the emperor . Pe , ’ nd a o jealous o f the poet s ability , a apprehensive th t his wn position might be jeopardised , put obstacles in his way. ’ ddana and a a an Disgusted at Pe s conduct , un ble to obt in . l i entry into the royal presence , the poet was driven to se l ng a his poem in the open market . One of the stanz s sold f da reached Mo hanangi , the daughter o the emperor. One y, a a vi while playing chess , she repeated a stanz from K a karna R asayana . The emperor , struck with the be uty and aptness of the stanza, enquired where she got it from and was told that a starving poet sold it in the bazaar . The

78 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

K ish ade ara a N anda the successor of r n v y ) of yal . Pingali ’ S uranna s first work which brought him fame was R i g/La va — ’ Pandavi ya a Dvanda Kavya in whic h each verse is capa a a ble of giving two me nings , one pplicable to the story

‘ of R ama and the other to the story of the M a/zdb/ui m ta o and the whole poem carrying the double story c ntinuously . Pingali Suranna and R amaraja Bhushana may be sai d to f o f be the pioneers o this kind literary development , known

’ a c /z a z ra i as Sle sha Kavy . Compared with Vasu r t , R g/l ava;

' ci a v a a a o f P zz d i y h s one merit , r re in this type composition , a namely , grace and simplicity of style . It is tribute to the as a geni us . of Suranna that he w able to compose Dvanda K avya which is at once simple and natural — an achievement

unapproached by subsequent wri ters . A peculiarity of this book is that the poet has departed from the time -honoured a custom o f describing hi s f mily history in the introduction .

’ Muddiraju R am anna wrote a commentary o n R ag /tam a a P nd vzya in the sixteenth century . Next , in order , comes ’ r a a K a lfipfi n o a ya , by common consent uni que produc a a tion in Telugu li terature . We h ve alre dy noticed that

the Puranic writers followed a Sanskrit original , and the A a kavya writers a Puranic episode . purely im ginary

story never was the theme o f a great poet . Indeed , the

’ author of Vasu c fia rz tm condemns kavyas based upon stories ‘ ’ as ra of imagination , inferior diamonds . Sfi nna, in the

" face of the literary traditions o f the day , chose for his K a la ' ' zZ a a R a p rn o ya a story of his own invention . mbha, the

most beautiful of celestial damsels , proud of her beauty , bo asts that she is peerless and unconquerable and that none

al k b e ra . a c an separate her from her lover , N a fi N rada, the a and wanderer in the heavens , foretells her f ll , prophesies that a false R ambha and N alakfib e ra will rise , to confound shi k dha ar her pride . Kalab ha ni and Mani an ra e destined to ’ a and N k play the part o f the double to R ambh ala fib e ra.

‘ b hashi i a The rest is a comedy of errors . Kala n f lls in love

' a with N alakfib e ra and Manikandhara with R mbha. Mani a b e ra and a k ndhara assumes the form of N alakii , ttracts

R ambha to hi mself . Kalab hashini assumes the form o f The and R ambha and is attracted by N alakiib e ra. false the s real meet in a maze of errors . The spell i broken , everybody THE PER IOD OF THE PR ABAN DHAS 79

a realises his folly and makes mends . In the centre of the d hi s a and a are plot are Krishna an ser glio , in the b ckground

Kali worshippers with dark hi nts of human sac rific es , and Malayali magi cians with mystic garlands and strange c a a o f a spells . A noti e ble fe ture this work is th t the c a Sle sha writer altogether dis rds .

‘ ’ ’ Pr a b/zci va tz Pra dyu m n a is the last of Suranna s — t works the fruit of maturer years . In he previous work we observe that the story is novel , while the treatment follows the traditional path o f the kavya ; whereas in

’ s Pra bizci w tz Pra dyu mna the theme is Puranic , a in the ’ h a is ri a . a ran ab a a kavyas , but the tre tment o gin l V j is d va . an D ai tya , an enemy of D e s He is very powerful , by a a virtue of his t p s becomes invinc ible . He resides in a nd c ity inacc essible to men a gods . Taking advantage of his invuln erable position , he c onquers the three worlds and a h imperils the position of Indr , w o seeks the help of ac a a ran b ha Krishna to hieve the downf ll of the wicked V j a . How to c onquer him whom gods have made invulnerable thi s is the problem o f the gods . See ho w the di vine

a . wa are no r and plotter sets bout S ns neither gods r men , ’ ’ a ran b ha c an find entranc e into V j a s terri tory . On this a a has hangs the plot . The D ity king a beautiful daughter ,

’ i a Prab h at . w a av The wily s n , so useful to the Indi n poet , Prab ha ati a Prad umna creates in v love for y , son of Krishna. a The daughter of Daity s in love with the son of Devas , — - parents sworn to eternal enmity forms the good old a a situation . The rtful sw n sings the prai ses of a dramatic a a far a a a troupe of Bh dr , f med in Dev lok . Pradyumna is smuggled with the troupe into the c apital o f the Daitya king . There follow love scenes , political intrigues ; the and a father is killed , the d ughter is married . In order to measure the greatness of Pingali Suranna and a a f the liter ry v lue o his kavyas , it is necessary to reali se ho w far he has risen above the limitation of the h s times . The poet a endeavoured , though not with complete suc c ess , to escape the allurements of the kavya type of literature , then rendered irresistible by the stri king successes of a procession of great poets . The besetting sin of the a a k vya literature is th t it detaches art from life . The 80 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E characters of the play are so many pegs to hang elaborate descri ptions upon . There is neither life , development nor an a a deno ue me n t . Sfir n cle rly perceived the approaching a a d has doom of the k vy , an sought to inspire the decaying a — a a movement with life . Following the m ster dr m tists of d a Sanskrit , Kalidasa an B an , he infused a strong dramatic a a s interest into the k vy . A we follow him o ur attention is and it a attracted to the plot s be uty , no t to the poet and his a firanna dexterity , as in the kavy s . S creates and evolves ;

- his characters are life li ke , their movements spontaneous , and a their c onversations natural the situ tions tense and vivid . h a a Unlike the kavya writers , w o inv ri bly follow the chrono ann logical sequence of events , Sfir a plunges into the middle and a hi s a a a of the plot , m kes ch r cters rel te the story .

‘ ' Pra b/zao a tz Pra dyu m na opens with a beautiful de sc ri p

' a and tion of Dwarka, seen in the h ze glow o f the morning

’

o z man a w o r a a sun , from the flying ch riot of Indr high in the ’ k Pi a i Sii ranna s a is a a s y . ng l chief title to f me th t he m de a great eff ort (consciously o r unconsciously) to turn the — fl o od-tide of kavya into drama no t that he succeeded a altogether , but he came very ne r success . He gave us a two kavyas , unique in Telugu liter ture , whi ch combine the learning of Pe ddana and the dramatic interest of s Kalidasa and B ana. It i interesting to note that this poet a a and his was a contemporary of Sh kespe re , two plays recall to memory the two dramas of Shakespe are ’ ' ' a a ome d of rr r a K alapfi m oa y , the C y E o s ; nd Pra o/zao a t z

me a n d Ju li et. Pra dyu mna , R o o a h u s h a n a as a R a m a r a j B , hi s n me indicates , adorned -in- a d R amara a. so n l K ish a e r a the court o f y The w of r n va ay , he seems to have served his apprenticeship under d l a a Pe ddana, an keen y followed the liter ry c reer of Pingali he a a Suranna. By the time t poet st rted his liter ry life , ’ z ra as a th litera ti o f d and M anu e lza r t w the pr ise of e the ay , a a as a R ag/2a m P nd o i ya w the t lk of critics . This inspired him with an ambition to take the public by storm with a work which would eclipse the fame of Pe ddana and a e hi s S uranna. He concentr t d in work on the reproduction Pe ddana and of the descriptive excellence of , the sle sha n novelty introduced by Suran a. In this the poet succeeded THE PER IOD OF THE PR ABAN DHAS 81

' beyond all expectations and his Vasu e /za rz tr a became the a a model for the poets who followed him . The reh bilit tion of Pingali Sarauna is the achievement of modern literary a R am ara a u a a criticism . Tradition m kes j Bh sh n the hero ni a c a v o f the kavya stage , and in the opi on of m ny onserv ti e

a e as a a . critics , the pupil is reg rd d h ving excelled his m ster a - For a p rab andha, the theme must be well known a a a a Puranic story . It will be re lised th t in such c se the as freedom of the po et is considerably restricted , he has to hi m a d his adapt himself to the framework gi ven to , n imagi nation c an be exerc ised only within the limitations o f the general outline of the story . Thi s is obvious in the

’ a nuefia lra R am a Bh sha a a construction of M m . araj ii n str ined a a at the leash . He wanted gre ter freedom th n the selection

- o f a Puranic story would permit . The ne w born urge for freedom demanded not only liberty o f expression and latitude in treatment , but complete freedom to shape the

- subject matter of the story as well . On the other hand , he was not prepared to go to the extent of Pingali Suranna in a a discardi ng the Pur nic story ltogether. His o wn c o nc e p tion of the kavya is stated thus : Purely imaginary stories are an inferior type of precious stones ; but borrowed a a themes make artifici l di monds . I should like to take a story neither famous nor purely imaginary ; but one c a whic h is insignifi nt in itself , whi le permitting consider c able s ope for improvement , like a rough precious stone ’ c u and which shines when t polished . a f o n c In pursu nce o his w anon , the po et chose an insigni fi cant episode from the B aaga o a ta Pa rana as the basis of his a c c is a a kavy . The in ident hosen the m rri ge of Garika , the a Suktimati a v and Ko lah la a d ughter of ( ri er) , a ( mountai n) , w K Va — a a a R m ith the ing su r ther me gre plot . But a araja u a a a th ni Bh sh n h ndled e theme with infi te skill , making an use ingenious of sle sha. i i a sl The supreme fel city with wh ch he h ndles e sha, avoiding wooden artific iality o n one side and sacrifice of sense for sound on the other , makes him a supreme artist c o f this s hool . But whi le he owns the same c ommand o f and c expression feli ity of phrase , hi s style lacks the o f a Pi a simplicity his illustrious colle gue , ng li Surann a. 8 2 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

' The primary defect of Vasu e /za r z tra — a defect inherent a a a in the k vy type of liter ture , but more apparent in Vasu

' ' e /za rz l ra than in Man u e /za mt ra — is the over-elaboration of the descriptive element , whic h smothers the movement of the story , in itself very thin . Descriptions , delightful in themselves , stand o ut o f relation to the immediate demands o f a a As o ne dan the n rr tive . critic justly observes , Pe d a strings his pearls into a necklace and throws it round the o f a a a neck S r sv ti , while R amaraja showers them loose ’ and unstrung o n her. R am araja Bhushana had one advantage over hi s c o n a s tempor ries . He wa himself a great and accomplished a f r musici n . This accounts o the symphony and cadence of

hi s verse . There is n o t only a unique weddi ng of sound hi s to sense , but also a sweet atmosphere o f harmony about

’ a poem . His poetry is song set to music . Va sa c /z amtr is a gem of art . R am araja Bhushana composed also another

' ' ’ kavya known as Ha rz se lzan a ra In it he tells simultaneously the adventures o f Nala and the suff er ing of Harischandra, in verse capable o f yielding both

stories .

‘ a There is another book , N ar sa o/z aoali ya , about Whose ni f authorshi p cri tical opi on is divided . Some are o opinion R amara a that thi s is the work of j Bhushana, while others c a ha a are attribute it to a poet lled B ttumfirti . Two f cts

‘ a alz a and clear : (1 ) th t Bhattumii rti wrote N a ra sab azzp y , ' ’ (2) that R am araja Bhushana wrote H a r z se /za n ara [Va lo

' a a n a z a a has zbalefey n a d V su e /za r tr . The question th t c are f gi ven rise to the ontroversy is , whether they dif erent R amara a poets , o r different names o f the same poet . j a fi a o f Bhush na is an ho no ri c title , meaning the orn ment ’ R am araja s court ; while Bhattumfirti is a natural name . Contemporary writers have regarded them as the name and

title of the same person . Internal evidence tends to the

same conclusion . But the genealogies given in the books o f slightly diff er . This is not fatal to the theory iden

tity . The suggestion that the author was given in adoption

to another family accounts for the di fference in genealogy . Sound critic al opinion inclines in favour o f Bhattumfirti and THE PER IOD OF THE PR ABAN DHAS 83

‘ R amara a Bhirsha a a N a ra sa j n being the s me person. - rs a b ee M aya is a treatise on rhetoric in verse . It Telugu rendering of a i T e n a l i R a m a k ri s h n a . An eni gm tic figure of the t me a as a a o f V a was R amakrishn , who w tt ched to the court enk t a a a who c a apati R aya, one of the Vij yan g r kings , h nged the R am alin a as as capital of the empire to Chandragiri . g , he w a a a Sa and origi nally called , is s id to h ve been ivite by birth ' a a he wrote in his youth the L z ag a Pa r n . However , he

and c a name . to came a c onvert to Vai shnavism , h nged his so as a R amakrishna. He is known to posterity , not much a a w poet , but as a court jester , whose pr ctic l jokes , itty sallies and resourceful pranks have been ever since the c hief source of mirth in family circles all through as a the Andhra country . He is generally regarded a mediaeval court jester , with a dash of the Charlie Ch plin hi m as a o f Tata hari and in . He w the contempor ry c D a i a Appiah i kshi t , prot gon sts of Vai shnavism and S ivism a respec tively . R amakrishna w s never so happy as when he made the life of the orthodox Tatac hari miserable with a his practic al jokes . The s ving grace of humour often a as a hi a stood him in good ste d , it s ved m from the wr th of s hi his royal master , who wa mself not infrequently the victim o f hi s irrepressible humour. As a po et he reve als altogether a new personality ; d a serious , pious an devotional . His great work , P nda

' ra fz a a a a a a g M a a tmy , cont ins legend ry ac c ount of a as Pa uran a at Pa ns shrine of Vishnu nd g , ndharpur , c o e c a a r ted by the ministration of Saint P ndarika. A Brahmin , N i a h gam a Sarm , w o wasted his life in dissipation and debauchery , breathed his last at Pandharpur . A con tro ve rsy ensues between the servants o f Yama and the servants of Vishnu ; the for mer were anxious to carry him to hell , as he lived a wic ked life , and the latter claimed him for heaven , as he died in that sacred plac e . Of course , c a the verdi t w s in favour o f the servants of Vishnu . ’ R a a a a a f m krishn s work is kavy o high merit , remarkable for its sonorous dignity o f phrasing , and is justly counted a s one of the Pa fie/za M a lta K avi/ as (the Five Great K avyas) . 84 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

O T HE R W R IT E R S

Minor p oe ts be longing to the se c ond half o f the sixtee nth c e ntury

D . ho e me n i o n ar A . , w dese rv t , e l and 2 ddamki Gan hara ho o T t sam aran a ( ) ( ) A gad , w wr te o pa z o ; and Ponnik anti Te la nar a au o o f Ya atz Charitra a u e ga y , th r y , p r

Te u u wo k . S a i e a ac t e o o s as e e the l g r pe c i l nt rest tt hes o th se b k , th y ar o n kav as in Te u li e a ure e ic a to a u amm a an e ly y l gu t r t d d te d M h d rul r, I a im Mu k the s n f Ku b S a e a m a s b r h l , fourth o o tum h h , on o f the B h ni king ,

e l d . D 1 2 who rule d o v r Go ko n a be twee n A . 15 and 1543 . On the de ath o f his fa e a im Mu k inc urre the is e e o f e e o e th r, Ibr h l d d pl asur his ld r br th r, a u u s n a as e o f nd so ght re f ge unde r Kri h de varaya . He w v ry fond Te lugu li te rature and was a p atro n o f the p oe ts Gangadhara and

a . Te l ganarya , who we re attac he d to his c ourt 3 sa a n u Timmanna the Ma va oe ho ro e Vai a anti ( ) r g , dh p t , w w t z y Vila a o r Vi ran ara a n a hari tra ic is a s o f a s p y C , wh h to ry Vais nava bhakta w om two sis e rs o f the ros i u e c ass Ma u a h , h t p t t t l , dh r ni and i a d a m os va De vade vi , trie d to se duc e from his c has t ty n l t u b a a a s c c e e de d , whe n Vishnu stre tc he d fo rth his h an d to save him . G d l va a Mal ia a esc e n an o f E rra ra ada o e o f the Kavitra a a so d l h , d d t p g , n y , l put this story into ve rse in 1585 . (4) Tu raga R amak avi e arne d the une nviable no torie ty o f be ing the a e o f i u a a as u e as o ne o f the m st r v t pe r tive ve rse , nd w c o nt d c u sin oe s ’ mal i ore e f ec ive an e ne r g p t , whose e d c tions we re m f t th b

i ion . d o smi d c t s He de dic ate d his work , N agara Khan a , to a ric h g ld th named Markamde ya . 5 Tari o ulla Mallana au o o f Cha ndra bhan u Charitm ( ) g p , th r The ( 1586 was attac he d to the c o urt o f Ve nkatap ati R aya . s o is a o u the m arri a e f hand ab han he son o f ris na wi t ry b t g o C r , t K h , th

u u f Ma va . Kum ini he a e o R ukm ab ahu . The o as a d , t d ght r p e t w dh

ali a a . . 2 a s b c as e au o (6) Kams R udr k vi (A D 1 6 0 go ld mith y t , th r f - ass r nk a an a o a high c l kavya , N i a usop k/zy .

The period under survey presents kavya literature at di a a its best . In the hands of the Ashta ggaj s , the cl ssic exponents of this type , it became an indi genous movement a a of gre t ori ginality . The kavya literature could h ve given us (if its early promises had bee n redeemed) what Telugu literature very much lacks— a nature- school and a psychological school of poetry . It has, in fact , given to our poets a splendid opportunity fo r self-expression and fo r the a a a displ y of individual ability . The k vya stands for vivid portrayal of men and nature , a profound study of character and a emotion , and for artistic decoration and choice orn a a ment tion . In technique , it marks an endeavour to extr ct from the Telugu language a new music . Symphony was its soul .

THE PERI OD OF STAGNATION

- A . D . 1630 1850

THE a al a 1 565 is as a a as an b ttle of T ikot ( ) _much liter ry hi a a a storical l ndm rk in the life of the Andhras . It m rked the disintegration of the empire founded by Kri shnade va a d ’ r ya, an the begi nning of the end of the literary move a a ments in ugur ted by hi m . The Kavya movement outlived his political downfall for nearly half a century ; as the poets , born and trained during the spacious days of the emperor poet , continued to inspire the movement and maintai n it o n a i the s me h gh level . But from the third decade of the seventeenth century , up to the begi nning of the twentieth , it i s n o e long ni ght . During this period we find ve rsifie rs innumerable , but poets few ; literary output enormous; but quality very poor . There is a thi ck growth of rank vegetation , but hardly a noble tree showing itself . It is an age o f stagnation and deterioration . The single redeeming feature of the situation is the extension o f the

field o f Telugu literature to the South . The new literary a ukko ta and M o utput c me from Tanjore , Madura, Pud ysore , f o n and it was marked by distinguishing features o its w . As it stands in clear contrast to the main current , the Northern

s c . school , it ha been designated as the Southern s hool The primary causes fo r the steady dec line of the Northern s chool were i s i n t e o o i re o f Vi a a 1 . T h e D gra ti n f t h e E m p j y n a ga r into petty p alayam s under Chi eftains incompetent to n a direct a y liter ry movement , since they themselves P a possessed v ery little culture o r education . etty p trons a a beget petty poetry . The poets consequently l ck inspir

a and . tion , vision , vit l energy true ambition THE PER IOD OF STAGNATION 87

" t o rs h i o f t h e G ra m m a ri a n a n d 2 . Th e D i c ta p a R h e t o ri c i a n . The great poets of the Purana Yug were the c reators of grammar and rhetoric . The poets of the kavya age were superior to these secondary arts . It is o therwise with the writers of the seventeenth and eighteenth a a a c c enturies . The kavy poetry involved poetic rchite ture so technical and c omplic ated that the po et had to be c a apprentic ed to the rhetorician in order to learn the new r ft . r an The free spirit of poetry was harnessed by the rheto ici , and the literature suff ered under the cramping influence ’ r ac o f the egulative scienc e . This acc ounts for the l k o f freedom and spontaneity and for the dull mediocrity f a o ll poetic eff ort .

e n h e re n t i c e s o th e K a a S t l e . 3 . Th I V f v y y The k avya is the worst literary mode for imitation ; and imitation was in the blood of the Telugu poets . The f a i virtues o kavya are hidden , and its we knesses gl tter n a and o the surfac e . The imitator caught the l tter missed the former . In its techni que , apparently (though n o t a as Ka a in reality) rt w divorc ed from life . vy em has s e p i ed description , and descri ption in turn dep nded

' n a a i o Simile and hyperbole (u o m na mon ks /la) . Sim le an a a requires insight into nature and a gi ft of im gin tion , if it is to be ori gi nal and striking ; whi le hyperbole , to be

a h a . ple sing , as to be handled with di scretion and restr int a a The gre t m sters , while they seemed to be engrossed with ni a a the tech que , re lly kept an eye on life . Their imi t tors did not catch thi s art . They lost touc h with nature . They 1 o a h a b rrowed not only art but lso life from the As tadi ggaj s . The result was that the range o f ideas and the nature of a a a orn ment tion bec me stereotyped . The only avenue possible for indi vidual distinc tion lay in extravagance and a a - berr tion . The similes became far fetched , pointless and a bstruse . Hyperbole degenerated into unmeasured e xagge a r tion . One poet said that the turrets o f the city seemed sk to kiss the y . Another went a step further and imagined a th t they pierced the vault . Yet a third outstripped these , describing them as emergi ng in the court o f Indra "

1 S e e a ve . 72 bo , p . 88 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

Ornamentation was another source of degradation . Nothing s a i a as is o e sy , yet noth ng is such b ad t ste , overdoing a a or par ding orn mentation . Sle sha, alliteration , chi tra, 1 ka t a a d vi v , if occ sionally resorted to , a d to the beauty and a excite interest ; but as the sole basis for a kavy , they a a re in execr ble taste .

The literature of thi s peri od , in consequence , moves in a n i a one de d level o f mediocrity , a d monotony is the dom n nt note . The endless procession of k avyas , one resembling a the other , tire the eye . The o ld Puranic stories re told and retold with prolixity and verbosity . Thought becomes stagnant an d the same similes and ideas appear agai n and a and agai n in new garbs . But for the incomparable gr ce ’ o melody f the language , the poet resembles the club bore , who inflicts on his unhappy victi m his favourite story for the hundredth time . The onl y features which attract our attention are the aberrations , which , strangely enough , meet a f with the pproval o the critics .

The de viati ons from the no rm may b e c lass ifie d unde r the following he ads : ’

1 . le s h a K a a s . The au o f Va ue a mtra b oduc in S v y th r o s lz , y pr g z a Dv anda kavya — a nove l type o f lite rary e ff o rt - c re ate d false t as te s Vasu and dive rte d p oe tic e ne rgy into ne w b ut unprofitable c hanne ls . ’ e ha mtra be c ame the me asure o f le arni ng and the test o f poe tic m e o sessin the e c e e nc e . T is a e ise t a c o f imi a ions so s x ll h g v r o r p o t t , p g ' f a u a ana i u al i s de fec ts ri s o V e/z mtra o e rs m r o c e l t . me t s , th g ng to e pr d ’ a ra an b ut no ne o f its e xc e lle nc e . Ab b ana Matya s K vi R afa M a no iii a ’ S arakavi ’s K a vi Ja n a R a fiia n a Krishna Kavi s ’ Sas ta la Pa rigz aya and Ch amak ara Ve nk ata Kavi s Vziaya

Vi a a o u l ha k v a un e h o me c a e o . l s , th gh no t s e s a yas , f ll d r t e f r r t g ry ' Kfi c him anc hi Timm ann a ’s R asz ka Pod ari Pe d a R ama

' ' Ma a’s f i va ramaofi u aa a S fi r a rak asa avi ’s K ri s/z ar u na ty y y , y p K a i '

a a v as . Cb amtra (1850) fall unde r the l atte r. The las t two are Dv nd k a y Ye t o e rs i n an e f o r t o e c e ro uc e o e ms c a a e o f e in th f t x l , p d d p p bl t ll g u T e e h e s rie s thre e sto ri es S im lt ane o usly . hes p oe ms atte mp t to t ll t to f ma a i a he n a a ine the R ama a a o R a nd Krshn a nd t Pa d v as , nd c o mb y n , the M ahabhara ta and the B haga vata . Of the s e the follo wing de se rve me nti o n . ‘ a h1 l a a iz adc a ( 1 ) E l kii c B a as ra§vati , R g a o a Y w ’ '

2 e ll h a a a i Yad a a /za o a Pa z a vi a . ( ) N fi ri R ag v k v , a y R g z a y ‘ ' 3 A a ari Vi rab hadrak avi R a aa o a Ya aa va Pan ao i a . ( ) yy g , g d y

' 4 Ori anti S omase kh ara avi R amakz i s/z z ar a na N ara a z i a . ( ) g K , z i y z y

1 2 . Se e . 78 . Se e p 89 . p THE PER IOD OF STAGNATION 89

This type o f lite rat ure is no t e asy to write ; it dem ands infini te es ourc e e nome na c o mm an o f an ua e and e rao r inar in e n r , ph l d l g g , xt d y g u But the ve r re s ric i o ns un e r w ic the au o r had to o rk ity. y t t d h h th w

forbade any p oe ti c qu alit y o f a hi gh orde r. Though loo ke d up on at - c ass i e ature i oe s a e . the time as high l l t r , t d not ppe al to mod rn tas tes

Pu re T e lu u Po e t r . T e re is in the mo e n Te u u lan 2 . g y h d r l g f u i guage o nly a re siduum o o riginal Te l gu . This Drav di an basis is so

little that it is no t ad e quate fo r the c omp osition o f e ve n a fe w ve rse s . If o nly S ans krit e quivale nts are e xc lude d and the rest re garde d as pure T u u it ma b e ossi e wi some i c u to c o m ose an all e l g , y p bl , th d ffi lty, p s T u a . oe s o f the rs e ri a a uriosi use to e l gu k avy P t fi t p od , c ty, d ’ in troduc e an oc c asio nal s tanza o r two c ontaining pure Te lugu wo rds

a fe at muc h app rec iate d b y the re ade rs . Ponnik anti Te laganarya ( 1578) made an atte mpt at ope ning ’ a e e b c om osin his Ya dtz Chari tra a k av a o f five c an os n w fi ld , y p g y , y t ,

i u re Te u u avoi in S anskritisms as far as o s i e . u rio us n p l g , d g p s bl C ly u he as a le to ro uc e a ve e a a e o ok o f c o e ra e e no gh , w b p d ry r d bl b nsid bl

o o e b ut n i h a n o f c . me rit . Othe rs f ll w d , o t w th t e same mou t su c ess ’ didamu B a a Bhask ara s R ama a a no t. no w a ai a e Kii c hi A l y n ( v l bl ) , ' ’ ‘ manc hi Timm anna s R amayan a and N z l asu nda ra Pamzzaya be long

to this o rde r. e r are o re o f th a e a ur de orc e Thes wo ks m r less o e n tur o f to f . a a in o vin ir e c i uml u i is u e i e e e The l ngu ge , v l g t esom rc oc t on , nint ll gi bl v n

o he a i . T e are ike e e rs i e n in c e r unme anin t t p nd t h y l l tt wr tt yph , g mi i i h i u i u a . I n Ta and n E s es re e e o witho t ke y l ngl h , t e d to xc l d f re gn words c ame in the wak e o f a purist te nde nc y and was p artly the o ut

i o s i u . c ome o f ge nuine p atr o tism . It was n t o n Te l gu These writings o e e i o ri in to a ran ic e ff o r o n the a o f th o e to o the w th r g f t t , p rt e p t , h ld i e i f a fl c ke ring att nt on o his udie nc e b y do ing some thing out o f the way . T ese a o rio us ro uc s o f mis ac e e a ne e re ad in ac no t h l b p d t pl d z l , v r ( f t , e ve n re a a e m a b e c onsi ne to the i e ra muse um as mome n oe s d bl ), y g d l t ry t o f an antiquarran age .

h i tra a n d B h a n d a K a i a . le a k as a 3 . C v t v S sh avy nd ‘ Ac c a Te u u rks m a b e c onsi e re as i e ra ure ou ot o f h l g wo y d d l t t , th gh n a hi e Th e same c anno b e sai o f e e o e n s i o gh ord r. t d d v l pm t n the r ’ irec ions e u e mis ic a c a e anc oe b ut re a a d t , ph t lly ll d f y p try, lly type

o f fre ak lite rature .

S ome p oe ts h ave c omp ose d kavyas e xc luding labials . K o ttal ank a ’ ’ Mrutyumjaya Kavi s N ala C/zamtm and Marimganti Simgara ' ’ c harlu s D af ara tlza R afa N an dan a C/zamtra are instanc es . Othe rs a e m e an as ic c om ina io ns and ro uc e ure Te u u non tt pt d f t t b t p d d p l g , a i - a l b al and all ve rse k avyas . Poe ts re no t wanting who c arrie d the ir se - e nia ur e s i and e s c e e u ura s a on i a ia lf d l f th r t ll h w d g tt l l g w th l b ls . E xtre mi sts o f this sc ho ol disc arde d the first twe nty le tte rs o f the ‘

a a e and use n the a afi eaa ar i . th a fi lph b t d o ly p v gi ya , e . , e l st ve le tte rs . Kan ada Pe ddana S omayaji pe rpe tuate d this m o nstrosity in his S es/za i Sa lesa L i la . The c limax o f this form o f lunac y was re ac he d whe n s an as e a a a a a e t z we re writt n in a single le tte r. G n p v r pu V nk atakavi a nd Gudaru Ve nk atadasakavi are said to have sc ale d the he ights o f pe rfe c tion in this art . 9 0 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

Ano the r varie ty o f c hitra k avitva is kno wn as Garoaa and a i t Th e o B ka nda K v o a. f rm e r involves introd uc tio n o f stanz as o f o ne me tre within ano the r o f a diff e re nt type ; the l atte r c o nsists in fitting short poe ms into ge ome tric al figures— suc h as se rpe nts

and c h ario ts . It is diffi c ult to apprec iate the tas tes o f an age that applaude d these - is e rs and um e rs as oe s o f i tongue tw t t bl p t me r t .

PR O M I N E N T PO E T S

t e e n th C e n t u r Po e S e v e n y ts . We have alre ady me ntione d f ese in c onne c i o n wi slesha and c i ra a some o th t th h t k vitva . Ve ry fe w

e ri are o un e we e n A . D . 1 3 a d lak hi p oe ts o f m t f d b t 6 0 n l 700 . E ii c Bala ati a e a ne sc o a wh o o aine the i e o f ahamah adh a sarasv , l r d h l r bt d t tl M o p ay , ' am a c a e R a fz a -K u dz ose a a m u . H ari B a a ou the c o mp d dr ll d g h t , b t e n e e n c e n ur middle o f the se v t th t y , wro te Va raka and M a tsya Puran as k am ani Mar i o e n c o n o un e wi Bha tumarti is e ar e a Ka t , ft f d d th t , r g d d s in his s e the e c e e nc es o f Peddana Ti a a and c ombining tyl x ll , mm n R am a ' ' ' He was the au o o f Pafze lz alz Pa n o a a Vii n a . m n k rish th r g y , R f /l a a

d B a/ u as o a Cha ritra . tanak a a o ifaya an z l N a vi S fi r nna , to wards ' se o f the c e n u wro e D /z a n ab/z i Hamama an a ram a the c lo t ry, t d d , ' a la D h n z Vi shn u M ya Vi sa . a ab/z R am am u e mbo die s the be auti ful o f a c o n e s e ween Manm adha o d o f e au and Kub he ra sto ry t t b t , g b ty, , e a as to w ic o f ese c o mman s h e a me n o f w t e r s o f . god lth , h h th d h t n t u r P E i gh t e e n t h C e y o e t s . Paidimarri Ve nk atap ati o pe ns ’ ’ wi Cb a na rafz aaa C/za ri tra . c him an hi a na the c e ntury th g Kfi c Timm n , as A inay a Va anusas ana w o e man k av as o f w ic h kno w n bh g , r t y y , h ' n i Pam z a a R a a sekaa ra Vi lasa B a z a Chari tra a b e R ukma z y , f , llaz m y me ntio ne d . al anda Vi rab hadranna who a a e t o o rie s ro m Vakk , d pt d w st f ' ' Vasa aaa tta Pa m z a a u l z S anskrit write rs , o z y and Go ri K a yaz a is me nti o ne d with e vi de n t apprec iati o n and re spe c t b y c o nte mp o rary 1 wri e rs . On e a i ris Kac him anc hi Ja ak avi and two ris i an oe s t _s t t , gg , Ch t p t , a a i i An andak avi au o o f Ve dan ta R asa a na and Pin ali Mang l g r , th r y , g llana undu who w o e Too/z a Cha ri tra o uris e a o the E ry , r t y , fl h d b ut rs al o h c u same time . The fi t h f f t e e ntury c loses with E n g u k i ho o e ama Vi la a a a a u u Lakshmana av , w wr t R s nd tr nsl te d into Te l g ' ' S ub/z ds/z z ta R a i n avalz . u ra I n the sec ond half o f the c e ntury, Adidam S fi kavi author ’ a a fi a a a o u ar kno as Pi ll a Va ra o f K a vi Ja n R i , p p l ly wn s ue/z a mt ; ’ ’ b b an amat a au o o f A n u meaafz a Chari tra and K a vi K anup arti A y , th r ’ r iz an a e ne ral re ar e as the e s k a e R aj a M a no a i , g ly g d d b t boo ft r ' a a i r ana ho Vasue/zamtra ; and Ditt k v Na ay , w c e le brate d in ve rse the B obbili war be twe e n the R aj a o f Vij ayan agar and the Fre nc h

N i ars in 1756 are c o ns ic u o us . in o rthe rn C rc , p Po e N i n e t e e n t h C e n tu ry t s . Besides those already re fe rre d o win m a b e me n i o ne to , the fo ll g y t d di ro li L akshm an ak avi au o o f R avana D ommi a mu o r 1 . Pin p , th r y , 184 L afzkd Vi j aya , ( 0 1 1 . 05 ff . Se e be lo w , pp THE PER IOD OF STAGNATION 9 1

u i hnamii rti a sc o ar o f c onsi e ra e e a nin in 2 . Shist Krs , h l d bl l r g

usic ian of c o nsi e ra e a i i . He was o o at S anskrit , also a m d bl b l ty g d po re c omp ositio n and was e xc ee dingly p op ul ar as a re ade r o f ' ' e S a m/ a K amaaa Pam z a a and man o e Puran as . He wro t z y y th r works .

Ma a Bhashi Ve nk atac harlu was an in e ec u a ro . I is 3 . d t ll t l p digy t i u e a an n a was re a to him ic e said that he c o ld re p t yth g th t d tw ,

He c om ose B iz ara taolz u da a . upside down . p d y y a k atak avi 185 0 as the au o r o f a rans 4 . Go in tha Ve n ( ) w th t ' l a a a Si u al a Va d/za and B iza /za at t l ation o f a mi ki R am y n , s p g o gi a. ' hadradri R amasas tri 1860 c om ose C/z z tra S i m a an' 5 . S o nri B ( ) p d , ’ o rigi nal p roduc tio n in ve rse on the line s o f Pi ngali S aranna s K ala ‘ ' t m aa a o e a o A aooali a and Sri rama Sa /ta . pzZrno y , a c mm nt ry y

T HE S O UT HE R N SC HO O L

Kri shnade varaya appointed deputies for each of the southern countries he had conquered . On the fall o f a a the empire of Vij yanagar, they bec me independent rulers a of the c ountries under their control . The t sk of consoli f dation took a good part o the century . Their political a position secured , they were ble to turn their attention to the peac eful arts of literature . It is fortunate that the c K ish ade vara a vi eroys appointed by r n y were , like himself, and imbued with a taste for literature , their descendants a a n art a o f turned out to be gre t p tro s of ,_ze lous their mother tongue and anxious to conserve Andhra culture for the as a a colonists . The Southern school w born in pr iseworthy eff ort to transplant the home culture into the country of

a . their doption The literature of the South belongs , partly , to the seventeenth and mostly to the eighteenth centuries

A . D . a The contributions came from T njore , Madura, k Puddu o ta and Mysore .

T a o re . 1 . n j Chavva R aju was the chief appointed fo r K so n A h u a ish ad ra a. T njore by r n e va y His , c y ta Nayak , had for his minister Govinda Di kshit , a Telugu pandit of great R learning . It was in the court of aghunatha (1 630 Ac h u a - so n of y t , that the first fruits of the new harvest were

a . a g thered The king himself composed prose kavya, ’ l i a k a k k Va m k C/z m a . e i tr Chama fir V n ata avi , who was ' a a a . S ara n a tt ched to the court , g ve to the world g a lza ra and ' a a d ra Vz i y V w . The former of these two is admired fo r a the vivid , tr gic interest o f the theme and the impressive 9 2 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

art a realism of the ; the l tter is , perhaps , the la st work of a real merit in Telugu liter ture . It has been described as

a . a a a he p of precious gems The polish of the l ngu ge , the n delicacy of sentiment , a d the melody of verse c ombine in thi s poet as in no other . His style is so uniquely hi s o wn that a new name had to be coined to express its quality and s it was called after hi surname , Chamakfirap aka k a a the Chama fir being lso succulent Indi an curry . It is a a Ka h — probable , though not cert in , th t vi C o udapp ah a a Ve mana a moralist who st nds next to nd S umati , among — Sataka writers belonged to this period . a a i a a Prat Later , Muddup l n , courtes n of ap a Sinha, of Tan jore composed in Telugu a kavya under the name

R edl ake S va n ta m . Kasturi R anga Kavi dedicated his R afi ’ a Am nda R an a ill gara Cb a n a mu to a g p ai . But the greatest A a a is T a ara gift of Tanjore to the ndhr liter ture y g ja, the hymnologist and musician whose songs are sung all over

S outh India .

a d u ra . d 2 . M But it is in the eighteenth century an in the a a R n ho kkan tha court of Vij y a ga C a , the king of Madura, a descendant of N igama N ayak , appointed by Krishnade va Vi a raya, that we find the Southern school in full bloom . sv h kkan ha natha Nayak , father of C o at , is said to have brought many learned pandits from the north , and gave them gi fts o f land , thus inducing them - to settle in the south . The ’ a fruits of Visvanatha s foresight were re ped by hi s son ,

Cho kkan atha, who se t a good example by rendering into prose Sr i rafzga M ahatya . Of the group of poets whose literary output not only constitutes the bulk of Southern

Telugu literature but also gi ves the tone to the movement , S amukha Venkata Krishnap p a Nayak has to hi s credi t not Ja i mini izara ta less than four books , of which B , in prose , may be taken as an example of the hi gh level of literary value ‘ ' /zal a a ttained by the Southern school . A y S a mk razz aana , ' ' S ara nga a lza ra C/zamtra and R ad/ti ed S oa n ta m are hi s o n e other kavyas . They belong , every of them , to the ’ h m e nkata ati s Ta raf a sa n k a erotic type . S e s a V p belongs e are to the same order . The other works of the p riod of a i a o f R ama a a a religious type . S yamak v is the uthor y n a a R a Vi sh u in Vac hana, Tup akula An nt ju composed n

9 4 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

by the writers themselves , show that they understood its and Ja i i i function possibilities . m n B harata is a work of art , regarded by its author himself as of equal importance ' a with S ar ugaaha ra . dl d libe a a n d d id 2 . Secon y , the e r te ec e dly m ore ex te nsi ve o he dram a a a u se f t is nother fe ture of the Southern school . During the first three centuries the Northern school did no t t an a a an produce more h two dr m s of y importance , and even these do not occupy a noticeable position in the literature o f a a the times . But , ccording to recent writer, the dramas of the

Southern school , during the eighteenth century alone , exceed n twenty in umber . Doubtless none o f them were o f any a a acknowledged liter ry value . But th t is also the case with

. a a a a ma the Northern school Here g in the use _of the dr m y have been adopted in order to bring the Andh ra culture to ad those who h not even the capacity to understand prose .

In an y case , in one century , the Southern school produced more dramas than the Northern sc hool in the course of

eight centuries of its existence . a a 3 . The most rresting fe ture of the Southern school is i l a the a b senc e of e thi c a l pr nc i p es . To wh tever causes we a a a may attribute it , the f ct is undeni ble th t the Southern h school is essentially immoral . T is is brought out by the examination of a characteri stic feature o f the literature of i t this period . Excluding directly relig ous topics , here i s hardly a poet , whether of the Northern o r Southern ho a a a a t a a school , w did not write k vy de ling wi h the m rri ge a sa a i of the heroes of the Puranas . We m y y th t n nety o a P a a a a a per cent . of the b oks de l with arin y , K ly n or a a Vivaha. Thi s preoccupation with the question of m rri ge

is the central fact of interest . The mystery of sexual attraction has always be en the theme of the poet and the a a is painter . But the w y in which they de l with it P indicative of the culture of the age . The poets of the urana d its Yuga deal with it with deli cacy , reverence , an a sense of a spiritual significanc e . The hero wins his bri de either in ai contest o f valour or on the battlefield . He seals his in "f th

the nobili ty of womanhood by risking hi s life . The writers a of the kavya period fall far below the ide l . By stressing ’ a a a Sringara R asa, they have imp ired the subtle rom of THE PER IOD OF STAGNATION 9 5

c a social relations . Physical attra tions re described with an elaborate minuteness and a wealth of detail repulsive to delicate feeling . Even the loves of gods , forbidden to the c poets by the writers on poeti s , are not immune from their prying attentions . c v The Northern s hool , e en in its wildest excesses , never c departs from the onventions of life . The sexual attraction a c a a finds its legitim te onsumm tion in m rriage , though marri age is regarded as the end rather than the beginning o f all romance . But the Southern school stands in painful and humiliat ing c ontrast to the Northern in this matter. The poets do not so much deal with marri age as with the violation o f c a a h stity . Their tre tment of the problem recall s to the mind the unc onventional modern sc hools o f Shaw and Ibsen ; onl y they lac k the earnestness of purpose or coherent and are philosophy of the modern schools ; they prurient ,

. ac a as a often putrid These poets pre h immor lity c reed , in a a and a a and k vy dr m , in prose poetry , in song and story . ’ w o f i are S arau a a ha The prominent orks th s period g ra , ’ ' ’ ' a as a il a a and aa i ha o a a T r asa uh , B h zz i y R h S ut . The story o e a a in the first c mes v ry ne r the tr gedy o f incest .

‘ R a a- R a a- a a a w o ld a j j N rendr t kes for his ife , in his ge , one ho a a w cherishes in her he rt love for his so n . Her

a va c are saran adhara. d n es rejected by g She , in turn , trumps a a c a a a hi m an d w up f lse h rge g inst thro s him to the wo lves . ‘ ’ ‘ ’ Tarasasa uha is the story of Chandra s elopement with hi s ’ guru s wife . B ilhaui ya , a story which coun ts more than a a a a five uthors , rel tes to the s me theme in nother aspec t . Madanab hi ram a a Bilha a ac King ppoints n to te h . his a a Pi r a a d ughter , Y mini i n Til ka. The teac her is beautiful d an the daughter young , and to prevent c omplication he tells his daughter that the teac her is born blind and informs the a a his te cher th t pupil is a leper . A curtain separates the ac o n te her from the pupil . But , e day Bilhana descri bes and a a the rising moon gives w y the show . The result is n o t marriage but free love . It is the same wi th the literary ‘ ‘ s ha a tories of the peri od . Su S pt a ti and H a msa o i msa ti relate the artful way in whi ch society women violated their marital vows 9 6 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU L ITER ATUR E

It is easy to dismiss the whole outlook as immoral p utrifac ti o n . But when we se t the Southern agai nst the

Northern school , it is difli c ult to escape the conviction that some social upheaval has thrown into relief the problem of sexual relations , whi ch the Northern school deals in a al and r an al a convention , the Southe n in unconvention , w y. ‘ As we read we are led to ask I s it pruriency or philo ” ‘ ‘‘ ’ 7 I s sophy . or, the problem of the eternal triangle not quite so modern as we sometimes suppose ?

9 8 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

a a a al a b l nced by centr p use . We may say that the lines a m r a l ost invite the e der to bisect them . If we do so and a a a v rr nge the two h l es one below the other , we get some

' hi d ada t ng like vip . It is necessary to observe both Ya tz 1 and a a d Pr s for dvip a a. In flexibility and simplicity it a n u shtu a resembles the p metre in Sanskrit . The three great epics have been put into dvip ada a lm i hi ama a a V R y n , by Buddha R azu . R ama a a R a an a h y n , by ng t a. Utta ra R ama a a K ha b hu y n , by ac vi du and Vittal R aju . ara a B h t , by Timmakavi .

' ' B ha a va ta g , by K6néru Kavi . ’ r n atha s a l a i a i r S i P u t Vi ra Ch r t a is in thi s metre . Palakuri ki S o man atha and Madiki Simganna are among other writers in thi s field .

S a t a k a Li t e ra tu re . From about the twelfth century ’ onwards , we have a broadeni ng stream of satakas, forming a parallel movement to the k avya literature . It is estimated s that there are about six hundred atakas so far recovered . Of these onl y a few are translations or adaptations ; the rest are original . ' There are some satakas in Telugu in whi ch the hundre d verses are divided into ten groups o f ten verses ’ ‘ k a each called a asa has . This dasa a division w s probably a a adopted from Prakrit . However , the st nd rd form con

- s ists of a hundred self complete stanzas . The charac teri stic h a a feature of the sataka is the m a u t , or crown , th t is , the a last word of the stanza, which consists of the n me of the p erson or the deity to w hom the preceding lines are a b e addressed . This m kuta determines the metre to employed and thus shapes the structure of the verse . ' The themes of the s ataka are either outpourings o f devo tion or the teachi ng o f moral truths ; occasionally , humorous reflections on current events and contemporary personalities . - a Of the six hundred satakas , more then three fourths rel te a and Vaish avite s to religi ous and moral teachings . S ivites n a a and have resorte d to the sataka, both for prop g ndistic ll a a devotional purposes . Almost a the gre t writers h ve one

1 Se e p . 40 . POPULAR LITER ATUR E 9 9

a ataka a o r two satakas assoc iated with their n mes . S liter ture had its beginning in the twelfth century , its zenith in the a and seventeenth , its widest r nge in the eighteenth nine ’ a sataka a V z sha t e e nth c enturies . The e rliest we h ve is r

o manatha 1 1 80 . dipa Sat a ha , by Palakuriki S , in Of a i a a a i almost the same status is S um t Sa t h , whose uthorsh p

i s al a Pe ddana. is not certain , though it gener ly ttributed to mana as an Ve m ana is the princ e of sataka wri ters . Ve w

'

n a has c . Advaitic mystic , a san y si who renoun ed the world a His b irthplace is uncertain , though claims have been m de a fo r Kondavidu , in the Ceded Districts , and Katuru , a vill ge c an hi s a where his tomb exists ; nor we fix d te , even approximately . Various suggestions have been made , but a a none on c onvincing grounds . It is prob ble th t he lived in is a the beginning of the fifteenth century . He the gre test

- moral teac her of the Andhras . For well nigh five centuries hi s Sa ta ha has been the text-book of morals for Telugu a a boys , and a better book c annot be asked for . The Ve m n a a S t ha is of a very high literary order. Eac h stanza is a a c asket cont ining a simple moral truth . The idea is never c arried beyond a single stanza . The first two lines contain the picture , the next two state the moral . The order is sometimes reversed . Every truth is incarnated in a suitable a figure , so p t and just that the mind finds it di ffi cult to a sep rate them . The verses are easily memorized and the rhythm lingers in the memory without effort . The Sa tat a a embodies much pr ctical wisdom , shrewd judgment , and a kindly dvice . It is interesting to note that one verse 1 a a a a — is f irly liter l tr nslation of Matt . 5 : 43 44 and Luke 6 3— 5 an a 3 3 , d third one embodies the Pauline injunction in ’ m 1 2 : 20 R o . hi , If t ne enemy hungers , feed him . ‘ a atakas o s Of devotion l s , S a r e o a ra S a ta ha , by Yadha ‘ Vakkula Anna a a la a e o a a a yy ; K h st s r S tuka , by Dhfir ’ a D asa ra thi Sa taha Kanc he rla o n j ti , by G p an a, the c elebrated R ama Bhakta of Bhadrachellam and a disciple

1 - Ma . 5 43 44 Ye ave e ar a i a e ai tt , h h d th t t h th b e n s d , Tho u shalt ove th ne i o u and a e th e nem . But sa un o ou L e l y ghb r, h t y y I y t y , ov y our e ne mies ; ble ss the m that c urse yo u ; do goo d to the m that hate ’ you . 1 00 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LI TER ATUR E

' of Kabir ; and K avi Chouaappa Sa taha are among the most popular . ’ d a a a Allied to dvip a a and s t ka is da nd k a , (rhapsody of prai se) , consisting of alliterative phrases permitting a rapid and impetuous outflow with a short prayer at the end . a a a da ak e - Composed in single g n , the nd as ar half sung, — half recited . Not infrequently , the dandakas relate to the and majesty , power , justic e of the deity . Wonder , fear , and horror are the sentiments expressed .

a n a r u s i c . S a c re d d S e c u l M In India, music is the P a r a handmaid of worship . r ises a e sung , prayers re intoned , bhaja ns always performed to the accompaniment of musical m a instru ents . Thus it h ppens that a considerable po rtion

of popular devotional literature is intended to be sung , u i and is called geya mu l . This s not subject to the

restraint of prosody , though it keeps to a rough measure . ‘ r a n h z ti ariha t a K i t s, r s , h h s belong to thi s order .

The ki rtans of Tyagaraja are of the highest spiri tuality . a a They bre the a spirit of fervid devotion , simple f ith a P and reli nce on rovidence . Women , too , have contributed l a to this literature . M e u ho lu pu lu , Songs of the D wn ;

' a n a ahra tu lu i at M g l , Songs of Festivity ; L al p alu , Songs a — of the Cr dle all contain much true poetry . There are in Telugu what are called Ja oa lzs (Songs of are are Love) which looked down upon , as they sung by

public women . But , prejudi ce apart , the j avalis merit being as - ranked high class poetry . N owhere , in the whole a region of Telugu liter ture , do we come across the secret i a a long ng of love so beautifully expressed . The k vy writers have debased Sringara R asa by identifying it with e the cruder erotic sentiment of physical attraction . In th

j avalis the same theme has received a more subtle , refined and a i delic te treatment . Here we find the aroma of long ng, r a the alte n te elation and dejection of lovers , set to soft

' music touched with pathos of a type now made familiar ’ to the western reader in Tago re s Ga rden er .

Pr o s e . e We have already seen that , in th South , prose has been extensively used as a medium o f popular educa a a tion . Another use for prose is found in devotion l liter ture

’ a a in the shape o f o znn p m u lu , or petitions , which resemble

W OMEN POETS

I T is a pleasing reflection that there is no sex di sq ualific a t ion in the republic of letters . In the Telugu country , as ara a elsewhere , S sv ti is justifie d of her daughters . The

condition of society , the prejudi ces of the age , and the

customs of the country , no doubt made it diffi cult fo r women

to obtain the recognition they merite d . Nevertheless , Telugu literature has its women po ets The influence of women on literature is greater than the

number of women poets would lead us to expect. They

w ere patrons of letters when in power , as in the case of a K R udramm , the akati ya queen . In the humbler r61e of ' a silent symp thisers and gentle critics , their kindly help s h as always been with u . Many a po et has found hope

and encouragement in the knowledge that , invisible to the ’ eye , somewhere behi nd the our aah, are ears straining to

h ear hi s poems . Tradi tion has handed down many memories of cultured women whose help has be en the

inspiration of our poets . e at a s There is a story of th Andhra king , S avahan , who wa asked by hi s wife in Sanskrit not to splash water on her a a while they were eng ged in w ter sports . The king ,

i gnorant of Sanskrit , understood the word m odaha to

mean sweetmeats . His ignorance raised a laugh against d him . Stung by the reproach , he se t himself to study an

in due time became the author of B ri ha t K atha Ma niari . The impression of high culture in the royal household finds confirmation in the conditions prevai ling in Krishna ’ de varaya s zenana.

- Then , there is the well known incident of Potana. While a a da ld e ngage d in composing the B hag vat , one y , he cou WOMEN POETS 1 0 3

s no t get the ri ght line to finish a verse , try a he would . a d He left the manuscript with his d ughter an went out , in a c the hope th t inspiration might ome in the open fields .

He found , on his return , much to his surprise , the line s correctly filled up . There i no need to invent a super ac as a has fluo us mir le , tr dition done , when we c an easily his se e the timely helper in daughter. Equally suggestive is the story of Pinaviranna and 1 a ni a a a hi s J i mi B h ra t . There , again , we c n easily guess a s that Sarasv ti wa not the goddess , but a lady friend of the a poet , to whom we owe the B har ta , which we place an to the credit of Pinavi r na. u Of the women poets handed down to s by tradition , we may mention the following : K a m a a a a a 1 . up p m , the daughter of N ar y n Bh t, the

' aidi k friend and helper of N anniah in his V i Movement , is

said to have been a poetess of merit . a a a R 2 . Of the s me name is the d ughter of Budd azu , (1 230 collaborator with Ranganatha of D vi pa da a a a s a a R m y na , who 1s said to have compo ed st nz s of touch ing pathos about her o wn sorrows as a young widow whic h were inc orporated by Ayyalaraju R amab hadriah in his S a hala K atha S ara S a ngra ha in the context of Dama ’ yanti s sorrow when parted from her husband . 3 K a M a - ma . umm ri olla (1 509 potter wo n , is the l c author of the M o la R amaya na , whi h has taken its place a a among the st ndard works o f our liter ture ; indeed , of all ’ a a a M a the R m y nas, olla s is the most widely read nd popular . a a The gener l high level o f her composition , s a whole ,

entitles her to be ranked with our best poets . a 4 . Mo an n a a is h gi , the daughter o f Kri shnade v ray , the a a in ara ar i a z a a uthor of Sr g Prab andha, c alled M i c h P r n y , whic h she submitted in the full court to the criticism o f the poets , who dec lared it to be a kavya of meri t .

Though the book is not now extant , its existence is well a she ttested . That was passionately fond o f good poetry , and a as th t she w a keen judge of merit , is illustrated by the s tory of her purchase of a verse sold by the indigent poet ,

1 e 7 . S e ab o ve p . 6 1 04 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

1 mh sh s Sankusala N risi akavi , whom e wa instrumental in introducing to her father . i a a 5 . Muddup alan (1 765 courtesan ttached to the a n a court of Pr tap asi ha , of T njore , composed in flowing , felici i a n tous rhymes a kavya, R adh h S o a ta m , also known as

‘ E la devzya . This work , like others of the Southern school ,

‘ is marred by b ad taste and utter lack of decency .

‘ 6. Tariko nda Ve nkamma (1 83 9 composed many a a v ta dvi ada a a a a a kavyas , of which B h g a in p , R f Yog s r ac l a a e a and Ve n kat ha a Ma haty r import nt . Her poems , full of elevated sentiments , are an eloquent protest agai nst the debased literary tastes of the day . hadram 1 atakas and 7 . S ub ma (1 78 wrote some s a a a r n a a ah a dandakas, of which R es v Sa t ha and K i sh S t a m y b e mentioned . a 8 . We find nother group of women poets in the nineteenth century : i a a ta a Bandi Bapamm a (1 850 wrote M n hshi S h . a a a a a a R atnamb a (1 870 wrote Ve n h t r m an S tah . Che likani Che llayama (1 9 00 wrote Parthasara thi

a i a a ha . Sataha , J n a h S t

1 a o e . 76. Se e b v , p

1 06 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

ri a . V re salin am Ch stian f ith . K i g judges the poet to b e a writer of very high eminence , worthy to be placed among the best poets of hi s century . The author approaches the subjec t in a devotional frame of mind and gives a c lear and succinct account of the life of r a are Ch ist . The te chings of Jesus not much re fe rre d to . — Of the miracles , a few prominent ones are chosen the raising of Lazarus , the cure of the blind . The Nativity stori es and Pa are a a the events of ssion Week n rr ted in detai l . In is a the prelude , there disquisition on the attributes o f God and a o n a in the epilogue discourse the me ns o f grace . The author shows intimate acquaintance with the scriptures C r a and the rites of the h isti n Church . The k avya is a a as a a i a rem rk ble the solit ry inst nce in wh ch Hindu bhakta, a a - o f o n s tur ted with the thought forms his w country , has reverently undertaken to proclaim the life of Christ to the

The nature of the theme and the necessity of conveying a correct impression o f the life o f the foreign Guru brings

- out the best in the author . In handling thought forms a evidently no t f miliar to the Hindu mind , he shows c o n a side rab le ability . For ex mple , the phrase The lamb that a sin is a a e w taketh aw y the tr nsl t d ithout the figure , as i a a R o f a l a ha Pa r tr . K m s n ( emover Sins) Throughout , a r a we come cross touches of fe vent E stern imagi nation . ’ a di his The Holy One , he s ys , yiel ng up spiri t , let fall the a as head on his bre st , the friend of the lotus drops behi nd ’ the hill of the evening . In one respect the book stands an s out as a class apart . The l guage i chaste and the

a . a an imagery ch stened The exuber nce of f cy , excess of alli teration and complexity of structure , characteristic o f

all . kavya, are rigorously excluded We feel in this boo k the earnestness of the bhakta approaching a subject to o a precious to indulge in the rts of mere rhetoric . The recent contributions to Chri stian literature include the lyri cs use d in the church— the prominent wri ter being Choudary Purushottam ; and the devotional works of R aja e rsific atio n Bhujanga R ao , whose v of the New Testament is perhaps the first attempt to present the scriptures o f the

Chri stians in a simple , appealing Telugu style . CHR ISTIAN AN D MUHAMMADAN POETS 1 0 7

M uhammada n Poe ts. 1 a o ne ham As pointed out , there h ve been or two Mu a madan rulers who were p trons of Telugu literature . But , M am a a l curiously enough , there were no uh m d n writers _t_il A modern times . mong contemporary writers , Ummar Ali a a a Shah is a solitary inst nce of the Muh mm dan poet . One , M Ganganap alli Hussain , a uhammadan Vedantist , is the ’ a a u a author of H u ss i n D s S taha and R u mati Sa taha .

1 Se e above p 84 THE MODER N PER IOD ( 18504 925 )

” THE advent of the Bri tish brought the An dhra culture i nto contact with the Vitalizing influences of Western and literatures arts . The intelligentsia acquired a know a ledge of English liter ture . Under its influence , literary e a i tastes ar ch ng ng , and literary ideals undergoing radical a t ransformations . New ide ls challenge attention and evoke a enthusiasm ; new w tchwords are springing up . On one a a i side , love for the vern cul rs s being intensified ; on the is a o ther side , there a growing , lmost a petulant , impatience

with the old forms and ideals . The mutual interpretation h o f the two cultures as hardly begun . How the geni us of a a the race is going to re ct rem ins to be seen . A new s e o ur power ha enter d literary li fe , and it is too early to

forecast the possibilities of this conjunction . Meanwhile s i c the ai r i th ck with revolutionary reeds , anarchi c tenden

a a m . cies , reaction ry obscur ntis The twentieth century is

vibrant with literary ac tivity . It is only possible to note a r n few of the st iki g features . Broadl y speaking , the a 1 activities f ll under three heads : ( ) Critical . (2) Creative .

(3 ) Traditional . a Under the first head fall ( ) literary controversies , (6)

a . literary research , (e) liter ry criticism Under the second ,

we have the drama, the novel , ne w prose , new poetry , f a short stories , the li terature o knowledge , literary m gazines , a are a hi e tc . Under the third he d grouped the ctivities w ch c arry forward the tradi tional literature and use tradi tional

" a a methods . It is not possible , even if it were dvis ble , to

refer to contemporary writers in detail . We propose to and restrict ourselves to general tendencies movements , referringto prominent wri ters only by way of illustration .

1 1 0 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

1 . The R ec overy of L ost L iteratu re . Manavalli R ama krishniah has sco ure d the country with a view to asc e r tain whether there was any pre—S anskrit Telugu literature before Nanni ah . He has colle cted a c onsiderable number t of hi herto unpublished manuscripts , which , whether they prove the existence o f pre - N anni ah literature o r no t , are a valuable addition to the existing stock of books . ’ His discovery and publication o f N ann ec ho du s K u mara s i a literary event o f capital importance . The A ndhra S ahi tya Parishad has for its credit the recovery of many hundreds of volumes belonging to the Southern sc hool a of Telugu literature . The Government Oriental Libr ry represents the work done by the State in this connection . a The valu ble collections by Dr . Brown and C0 1. Mackenzie deserve grateful recognition .

2 n i i n e l a . . The Co so l da t o of th R esu ts of R ese rc h This has been done by working the raw materials supplie d by various departments of research into a coherent whole in

Mr. the shape o f histories of literature and lives of poets . ’ - K re salin am s L i ve o elu u s ndhra K avu la . Vi g s f T g Poe t (A a Cha rit ra ) is a standard work of reference . It is monument of patient research and sound scholarship . B i og razi hies ot Telug u Poets by Guruz ada a o f Sri ram amurti , though less reliable , contains a we lth ’ a R a information about Telugu poets . Vanguri Subb o s

Hi story of Te lugu L i tera tu re (ri n d/2m Vang ma ya Cha rit ra ) is a study in li terary evolution of considerable merit and originality . a ra l itera tu re As a al a 3 . Perfiet u ti o n of O L . we h ve re dy - i o f a a indicated , pre N ann ah literature consider ble ntiquity , forming the indigenous Desi literature , still exists in the shape o f songs and stories , which have not yet been printed .

The value of oral literature is gradually being realised . a a o a R a has a a i T . R j g p al o m de investig tions in Des metre Ve tfiri and has acquired a collection o f nursery rhymes . Prab hakara Sastri has already published a volume o f Chatudhara poems and has ready fo r publication S ong s o f uri a R ao has ad a a a the Pla yf ield. Vang Subb m e v lu ble Che la ati c ontribution in his Sa taha Poe ts. Nandi R aju p

R ao has brought out a collection of songs of festivity . THE MODER N PER IOD 1 1 1

Folklore is be ing slowly gathered aud published piece meal . a a 4 . A fourth line of ctivity rel tes to the exploring of Prakrit in order to find the evolution of the Telugu language and to determine the influence of J ainism and

Buddhism on our literature . i a and o c ab u 5 . Co mpa ra ti ve S tu d e s . The gr mmars v larie s of Dravidian languages are being explored , with a nd i a a view to ascertain their mutu l relation a obl g tions . h R o and Gidu R am am ti are c B . S e shagi ri w gu fir conspi uous in this field .

Li t e ra ry C ri ti c i s m . The primary function o f criticism an i s to exhibit the work o f author in the best light , with a view to bring out the grac es of hi s style and the quality of his creative art . Construc tive c riticism of this nature is now being pursued along two lines o f ac tivity : - f (1 ) A c o ordination o the labours of epigraphists , sts d a a p alae o lo gi an histori ns is being made , with view to ac n ri n rec over the historical b kground , a d the spi t a d a e a f a an a atmosphere of the g . The n mes o J y ti R ami h and Ko mmaraju Lakshm ana R ao Pantulu stand o ut prominent in this field . (2) Critical editions o f c lassical authors are being pre a a a a p red , with el bor te introductions , cont ining disc ussions a a o f o n the d te , the soci l setting the poem , merits o f style a and the c orrect re ding of the text .

2 . Another di rec tion in which cri ticism is making itself felt is the evaluation o f literary tendenc ies and claims . The regulative function of criticism is no less a import nt than the construc tive . Ac cordi ng to the orthodox tradi tion , a place of primacy is given to the kavya type , and a the liter ry outlook it implies . Modern c ritic ism , h equipped with a knowledge of other literatures , is c alle ng ing this position . The assault against kavya is led by the a c a c f n ra r di l criti s o thi s generation . The ethics of Sri ga a a an le ha r s , the utility of ornamentation , d the worth of s s av all c - a a a h e ome under fire . A trans valu tion of liter ry v lues a c T is t king pla e . wo brilliant works rec ently published : a vi i ara R R deserve mention K tatva V c h na , by C . . eddy a m/ a K vu lu S e a , by Vanguri Subba R ao . 1 1 2 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

The latter is an attempt to restore popular literature to a A . o f d its true pl ce mong the critics the ay , Vedam Ve n ka a a a a t P b t r y S stri , Ve firi ra hakara Sastri and the Kasi Bhatla a a Brothers comm nd respect for their le rning , critical a and a cumen symp thy for new developments in literature . They realise that a critical appreciation o f o ur literary heri tage is the only enlightened safeguard agai nst revolution o ne and on side reaction on the other . a Liter ry criticism in its truest sense , namely , estimating d hi n an ex biti g the true excellence o f a poet , is no t new to

- Telugu literature . It is a long standing custom to introduce ’ in the introductory portion slokas prai sing the work of the

great poets . These slokas are really models o f liter

ary criticism , expressing in neat and compact phrases a a the true estim te of the poet , with rem rkable insight .

We give two instances , supposed to have been stanzas a r n tha nd a ddressed to S i a a to Kak mani Marti , respectively

1 T ou c ans c o o e n ike B ( ) h t mp s o w l hima Kavi (p . 58 f . ) in wo rds o f

i i . o e r no ke N ann ah 42 . in the o p w , w l (p f ) gl ry o f two l an guage s

Te u u and S anskri no w ike Tikk anna . 44 if . in rses i ( l g t) , l (pp ) ve gl ste n in i rasas no a e the a f g w th , w ft r m nne r o Prab andha Parame svara ’ in s an as o f e ic i us o and . (p . t z f l to w rd phrase he o - i P ( 2) T w rd we aving m ag c o f e ddana (p . the ho ne ye d

swe e tne ss o f Timm anna (p . the m ajesty o f e xpre ssi on o f Pand u ’ i . ranga R amak rishn a (p . 83) are th ne

C R E A T IVE A C T IVIT I E S

The greatest change t hat is coming over o ur literary

outlook is not so much the work o f c onscious critic ism , as the effect o f the time - spirit aff ecting the basis o f literary life . The decadence of poetry , patent during the last four h c enturies , as been due to the ebbing away o f vital energi es from literature — a fact often masked behind elaborate word a architecture . The primary cause o f this an aemia h s been the segregation o f the poet from the vital currents o f life . He nd lost touch with realities , a lived in an artificial world o f his own making . The pandi t , the grammarian , and the rhetorician presented the poet with an artificial system of cardbo ard m e n and women gaudily painted , standardized an emotions , d stereotyped figure s of spe ech and thought ,

1 14 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

a a lu a - nat h mu (Street Plays) . St ge craft must have attained s some development , a we find Srinatha mentioni ng the name Butc hi adu as a a a o f a g celebr ted ctor fem le parts in his day . ’ na s a b i Pingali Shran Pr havat Pra dyu mnam u (p . if it i c an be taken to reflect preva ling condi tions , throws interest o n a an a i ing light the cting d the st g ng of the drama. The earliest drama in the Telugu language is Vallab ha ’ Matya s K ri dabhi R am a mu (Street Sc enes) at the Imperial a a a capital , W r ng l . The author says that he had seen a m a a o f a tn a i a wo n cting portions P t Vi r Cha ri tra . The d a next set of r mas are of the eighteenth century . They are ’ ’ Balasarasvati s R a nga ha u mu di and Kamkan ti Papa R aju s i a a lasa the V shnu M y Vi . The S o u rn sc ho o l was more a a prolific in dr m s , but it is doubtful whether any of them a a a have a cl im to be reg rded s literature . The origin o f the modern Telugu drama is traceable to o f the influence the plays o f Shakespeare , often enacted in nd a f D India, a the impulse given by the dvent o the harvada a nd Nataka Comp ny a Parsi theatricals . The plays fall under the three c lasses : (1 ) Adaptations from Sanskrit and 2 English ; ( ) Social Satire ; (3 ) Historical Drama. c o f are With the ex eption o ne o r two plays , most of them a mediocre type . There seems to be a feud between the and a a a playwright the producer . The popul ar dr m s h ve n a no literary value a d literary dramas are not popul r . a a Pu rani c D r m s . Puranas supply an inexhaustible store s a of materi al . Here , too , as elsewhere , a beginning i m de with translations . Prominent translators from Sanskrit st R h u a Ko kko nda are : (1 ) Parava u angac arl , Sa ku n ta l . (2) d di Ve nkataratnam Pantulu , N a r a /easu ra Vij a ya . (3 ) Ve da

' du alli a a a ak ala Sub b arayu , M ha M ru ta , Ve ni S m/Zar , S u n t ,

Vi hra ma Urva si ya . i iha Other dramas belonging to this order are :Mr c haha t , a a a a a a a R a tnavali and D rou p ti V str fi h r n . In the present are dec ade , these have been replac ed by plays which inde K sh ama pendent adoptions o f Puranic stories . D . ri n charlu is a p opular author o f m any Puranic dramas , of which a l a has a o f a Chi tr N a iy m had a gre t run . In point liter ry merit the plays of Vedam Venkata R aya Sastri are amongst the best . THE MODE R N PER IOD 1 15

a i Mr. re salin am has S oc i al S t re . Vi g written light farces , more or less of the nature o f interludes , whic h are very c al and are popular . In these , so i follies foibles held up to a ridic ule in comic sketches written in light vein . Guruz ada a a Ap p arao , who wrote K n y S u lka (dealing with the sc andal of the dowry system) , and Panuganti Lakshmi m a R ao ho K an tabhara a are narasi h , w wrote n m , prominent writers o f satirical plays .

Hi sto ri c a l D ra m a . A writer above the ordi nary level

is K a a R ao . a . Sriniv s , the le der of the historic drama. Pri thi vi R aja and The Fa ll of Vi i aya n a g ar are the most — popular of his plays . Both of them are tragedi es a type a a not represented in the Indi n dram s . The Fa ll of Vi a an a a r a ac c c R a a i y g is study in r e onfli t . m R azu, a V a a a a the l st of the ij y n g r kings , had an illegitimate so n a M a a a a by uh mm d n wom n , whom he brings up as his o wn so n and entrusts him with the c ommand of his army in the a a a a f teful b ttle of T likot . The hero is in love with a M a a a a f uh mm d n girl , a c ptive o war, who seeks to revenge the insult off ered to her by the king an d incites him to go over to the enemy . The hero is in the grip o f a great

. a o f ac and o f struggle The c ll his r e love points one way , but the call of duty and parental affec tions urge in the c opposite dire tion . Under the stress o f a great emotional m ad a conflict he turns on the b ttlefield and, after killing his

a . f ther, commits suicide Of the other histori cal plays the following deserve mention :

n a ra K . a R a R osha , by Subb o . ra a a ru dra a R P t p , by V. Venk ta aya Sastri . B obbili B attle r ada K a , by S i p rishn Mii rti . aran a d S g hara , a play of questionable morals and a a ac a execr ble t ste , disgr es the st ge .

2 T h e N o v e l . . The novel is unrepresented in old Telugu literature and owes its birth to the influence o f its English

. K ada mba ri a prototype , type of metrical romance , copied a from the S nskrit , is the nearest approach to the novel . a The novel , though f st becoming popular , is still in its a a initi l st ges of development . Most of them are sec ond a o r a a r te copies d ptations from English . The original are productions crude , hybrid patchworks of immature 1 16 A HISTORY OF TELUGU LITERATUR E

a workm nship . The histo ri c and domestic novel is re a a presented by tr nsl tions from Bengali , mainly from Bankim C a a Chatto adh a a and R me s h ndr p y y o h Chandra Dutt . The credit of being the pathfinder in t hi s field belongs to ‘

Mr. re salin am a a Vi g , whose R f Sehhara Cha ri tra , adapted i c ar f Wake f ield a from the V o , is the e rliest novel . The a detective novel is just m king its appearance , and it is too

" early to predict its future . In the construction of the plot and development of interest and vividness of style Lakshmi narasimh a a Ch . an st nds he d and shoulders over the writers of the day . a 3 . S ti re . In the eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries a A . D . , two poets bec me conspicuous by their satirical writings . Their humour , never polished; often malicious , c i and occ asionally des end ng to vulgari ty , was intended to ’ aka s handra ehha la a hurt . Jagg vi C R Vi p m , though marred is by long stretches of low humour , of a better type . He holds up to ridicule the life of the idle- rich — the zamindars of the — a a and day their v nity , vulg rity crude immorality . He ava a a was a master o f invective . R n D omm i y mu , known as i an a L anha Vi t a ya , s inst nce of satire after the manner of a the D u nc i a d. P rody is represented by Gi rata.

In the twentieth c entury , following the example of

English humorists , a ne w type of literature has come into ’ e salin am s ah sanas existence . Mr. Vi r g p r a lead the way for a nd social satire . Geni l a kindly , pointed but never painful , ’ the author s light farces are models to be followed . A an an i Laksh n mham worthy successor to him is P ug t mi arasi , whose S ahshi (Spectator) is an example of clean , sparkl ing humour , which seeks to kill social vices without cruelty .

N e w Pr o s e . 4 . Up to the eighteenth century , verse f a was the universal medium o Telugu liter ture . Such prose as existed occurred in parenthetical snatches , intro duc ed as a literary device . The eighteenth century prose was more a creature of necessity than of literary perception . a As a result of modern controversies , there is a cle rer nd a delineation of the province of prose and verse , a clearer pe rception of the possib ilities of prose . Modern ’ h is and a a a prose , like N annia s, simpler more m lle ble th n

1 1 8 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITERATUR E

Th e S h o rt S t o r . 6 . y We have in Telugu literature the a a ii a did ctic f ble represented by Pa c ha t n tra , prose romances D asahu mara ha r ra represented by C i t , stories after the manner of Arab ian N ights represented by M adan a K ama a and u ha a a R fa stories S S pt ti , tales o f wonder represented asana D vatri mi sha by S imh stories , and tales in verse represented by N a vanatha Cha r i tra and Dh a n abhi the R ama mu . But short story in the modern sense is onl y i a a a now mak ng its ppe r nce . The following collection of short stories have already been publishe d : 1 Panu an i Lakshminarasimham R ao ( ) g t , S u varna R ekha

'

K athavali . 2 da ati Hanumanta R ao l ( ) Ma p , Ma lika Gu tc ha mu (A

Bouquet of Jasrnin) . makanta ili a (3 ) Akki R aju U , Tr ng S tor i es .

(4) Srip ada Sub ramanya Sastri , Phaladanda (A Garland

of Flowers) .

T R A DIT IO N A L A C T IVIT IE S

Al ongside the new poetry the historic tradi tion of the

epic and the kavya is continued , though under new and

vastly change d environment . The poets trained in the old i a are learning , holding alleg nce to old idols , wri tin g kavyas . These represent the conservative wing of the literary

advance . Though not directly influenced by English is literature , the new culture brought to bear upon them in a a thousand and one ch nnels of suggestion and contact . Their literary produc tions are infused with a sense of the a a are new life . The crudities of k vy outlook shed , and the ornate style is replaced by a pleasing blend of the softness f M of the old with the vigour o the new . ore attention is

paid to the story and less to the description . Harmony and proportion are studied . Of the prominent authors of this school the following m ay be mentioned : ' (1 ) Tirupati Ve n kate svara Kavulu . lu (2) R amakrishna Kavu . n m (3 ) Ko kko nda Ve nkatarat a .

(4) Ve ddadi S eb b arayudu .

P a a . (5 ) De vulap alli Brothers , of ith pur m THE MODER N PER IOD 1 1 9

a a z i n e s a n d N e w s a e rs . n M g p p The printi g press , a v a whi c h is pregn nt with re olution ry possibilities , has transferred the power o f patronage from the king and the

a . a an zamindar to a re ding public In the p st , kings d sangha m s a were the judges of the poet . This is f st changi ng . The cri tical function is passing into the hands of newspapers and ma ac magazines . It y not be out of pl e here just to note the more important o f the c urrent magazines ra a i a (1 ) The An dh P tr h . This premier Telugu daily has played an important part in promoting the revival of is . v i a letters It — the supporter of new mo ements in l ter ture . (2 ) The A n dhra Pa r i sha d Pa tri ka stands for cautious advance in literary reform . a a a —c a li a a (3 ) B h r ti , high l ss ter ry m gazine , mainl y interested in the promotion of researc h and encouragement of ne w tendencies in literature . (4) S ahi ti is the exponent o f new poetry and specializes in the short story . (5 ) S ara da focuses literary tendencies and forms a link a and a c between the conserv tive liber l s hools . a a a a o f and (6) K l st nds for the correl tion art literature . ‘ (7) S arasva ti publishes unpublished works in instal a ments . It is the org n of the conservative sc hool . an va i no a (8) M iu n ( w discontinued) , a literary m gazine a a with the same object as S a r sv ti . R ETR OSPECT AN D PR OSPECT

THE hi a story of Telugu literature , as n rrated in the previ o us chapters , has enabled us to trace its development in a bro d outli nes . Starting with the humble beginnings in the Desi , the normal tenor o f development was violently a M arrested by the in uguration of the argi . The Desi litera a o f ture , like the pretty pr ttling brooks the countryside , represented the natural outpourings o f the simple - hearted o indigenous poet . From ab ut the eleventh century A . D .

" a a new mbitions h ve filled the literary vision . The poets ’ a a a an d a h ve ss yed to build august Vi yas gar, for which they acquired the necessary engineering skill by arduous a a pprenticeship to S nskrit writers . Having built it , they a a a o f a diverted into it the st gn ting w ters S nskrit culture . a i s It is a noble chievement , imposing in t grandeur , though ‘ - lacking in simplicity . Thenceforward Sanskrit Telugu c a a literature be me the m in current , the Desi surviving by Had d sufferance . it been otherwise , ha the main li ne o f ’ h d a development been with the Desi , a S nskrit been content a e o a a to pl y the r le f generous symp thiser from outside , o f instead being stepmother within the household , we a had a and a should h ve nobler history to write , prouder i a to a . As s a herit ge commemor te it , Andhr literature , i a a d a though wanting in orig n lity n cre tive energy , is nevertheless varied and beautiful — a heritage o f which the Telugu c an justly be proud and to which he c an always turn fo r inspiration .

C h a ra c t e ri s t i c s . What are the distinguishing features of as a Telugu literature , compared with S nskrit o n the o ne a a a o n ? a i hand , and Dr vidi n liter tures the other Wh t ind vidual and characteristic note does it strike ? The Telugu

1 22 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

a . cultiv ted But in the realm of ideation , their instincts a were perverted , t ste crude , judgment c louded . In the di a ai in ctment g nst Telugu poetry there are many counts . and all o f them flo w from this dissociation o f art from a life . The poets copied S nskrit literature , not at its best , but just when it was decadent ; not from the masterpieces a rb i b ut a of Va id h , from the rtificial elaboration of Gauda a a style . It is humili ting reflection that they translate d ak u n a a as a a d S t l kavy . They avoided the drama an a a a admired the k vya. Their doration o f the kavy a all a st mps them over with liter ry ineptitude . They neglected the natural beauties o f the Desi and cultivated d a M the taw ry el bo rations of the argi . They exalted the sickeni ng excesses o f Sri ngara over the subtle charms of

the Java li . The kavya heroes are not strong me n of and a action chievement , but psychopathic perverts grovel c it a a vi a ling in eroti ism . Ch r K tva i s li terary acrob cy . o f s a is a The love sle h but primitive taste . All these a defects , present in the sh pe of incipient tendencies

in all except the major poets , become increasingly patent from the time of the Ashtadiggaj as ; till at last in

the seventeenth , eighteenth and ni neteenth centuri es , the a movements o f li terature , like the danc e of a paralytic , re a u a to nd s tiff , uncouth , p inf l like perform a to witness .

Here lies also the striking paradox in Telugu literature . and The age o f translations was really the age of freedom , the so -called age of independence (th e kavya age ) ushered a d in the period of bond ge . When the poet borrowe the f art and substance from Sanskrit , he retained the freedom o

expression ; but when he borrowed the art from Sanskrit , he

lost the free dom of thought . The misc hief of excessive preoccupation with art and o f di d w technique , to the neglect life , not stop ith these a and disastrous c onsequenc es to literary thought , t ste a al judg ment , but has induced mor outlook in the poets a whic h is detrimental to all true progress . In the first pl ce , the poets became indiff erent to what they borrowed and as a where they borrowed it from , so long they were ble to - as a c ast it in .a sweet musical medium . Since it w e sier to a raw borrow themes from outside , than c rve them out of R ETR OSPECT AN D PR OSPECT 1 23

c a . life , they be came chronic mendi nts They borrowed from rhe Sanskri t literature in the Purana Yuga, from Sanskrit to ri a t Andhakara c ians in the Prab andha Yuga, from e ch o her in and ava a— all Yuga, from all sundry in the N Yug this , when

and w a o e tic e x re ssio n . the life within ithout cl moured for p _ p a Henc e , Telugu literature reflects very little of Andhr life , c a a hi story , c ulture , scenery . In the se ond pl ce , the const nt association with what was deemed to be a superior culture , c hi S anskrit , bred in the poet a tenden y to develop gh brow literature , contemptuous of common life and simple emotions ; and with the snobbery of parvenus , they called ’ nd a Dvip ada an old hag , a barely tolerated S taka. The neglect of a life which was their own , the hankering after a ’ s as life which wa others , w the moral retribution o f the severing o f life and art . Telugu literature is a flaming red symbol o f warning li art a against dissociation of fe from in liter ture . It is a li terary transgression of the first magnitude to legi slate for life , and maintai n , as the authorities o n poetic s have done , ’1

a are nl a a . so a th t there o y nine r s s Life is v rious , myste ri u a sa a o s , elusive that we h ve to y th t the rasas are ninety n times nine . Love is not Sri gara, the mephitic inhalations f are a a o lust alone . There thous nd tenses and moods v — v a a for lo e the lo e th t weeps , l ughs , prattles , ro llic s , P smiles , kills , immolates . oetry must ally itself with the o f all its a ani mystery life in ce seless m festations . To force life into the cast-iron systems of grammarians and rhe to ri c ians is all ai a to forfeit cl ms to inspir tion . The real dan ger to literature does not ari se from anarc hists— they damage b t are u the body . The enemies of the household , the pandit and a — the ped nt for they hurt the soul . e Th e Fu t u r . The future of Telugu literature depends largely upon the capacity of the new generation of poets to a a a a a esc pe from the bond ge of the k vy ide l and outlook . a Fortun tely , there are unmistak able signs in the literature o f the last three dec ades that the emanc ipation is already ff being e ected . A uni on of life and art is being established a new . Through contact with Western literatures and the

1 See abo ve p . 35 . 1 24 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

n a emerge ce o f new soci l and poli tical ideal s , a fresh and truer conception of poetry is coming into vogue . It is realised that the poet is somethin g more than the maker a of verses , however be utiful . The poet is the seer , who sees life anew . The poet is the visionary , who imparts his visions to the reader. The reaction against kavya m ay carry the poet to the other extreme . If great art alone does no t make noble a literature , neither does gre t thought alone . Doubtless , life h is the major partner ; but art as a vital interest . Quarried stones must be cut and polished . The neglect of form is only a passing phase . If our poets lay firm hold of the simple truth that true literature is the a rti stic exp ressi on s d f of life , there i no nee to be pessimistic o the future . The fecundi ty of the last few decades inspires hope for the a r future . A literature th t has survived four centu ies of had a a art kavya must have ch rmed life . The love of is a a always with the Telugu poets . Wh t liter ture stands in supreme need o f is baptism by full immersion in Andh ra a add a life . Then the modern renai ss nce m ay yet new n chapter to the Telugu literature , which c a worthily compare with the glori es of the Kavitraya and the grandeur o f the Ashtadiggajas .

1 26 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

B an a Kavitv 9 0 is i a an ian s h d a, Chr t nity, d Christ Poe t , B harat a ahhyud ya , 9 1 28 , 9 0 , 1 05 E . harata M — a n o f B , aha Trans l tio s , 4 ’ 2 2 68 Atharva na s , 1 , 55 E . AMMAN ADOR A , 65 ’ ai 4 f . f . 2 E . 1 03 Dan a J mini s , 8 , 66 , 9 , d k a , 100 ’ ’ N anniah s 42 . R an anatha s Dan akaran a 14 20 , f g , d y , , ’ 54 . Tik 44 a ahu h ri r 1 17 f k anna s , f 56 D f mara c a t a , 56 , B ’ haravi , 61 D as ara tha R a7a N a nda na Cha B hask arac har a 50 ri tra 8 y , , 9 B aska a Hullaki 24 7 ' h r , , , 5 D as a rathi S ataha 9 9 , B aska a an ri 57 h , M t , Dasa amat a N idumami la 105 r y y , l , B a Pa lu hask a ntu , 77 De si Li e ra u e 38 1 10 1 17 r t t r , , ,

B hasha ra R ama a a 24 , 46 a a 5 y n , D e vi B h ga v ta , 6 ha B tumfi rti , 82 ula all e 1 18 r Dav p i Bro th rs , Bhima avi Vamulav ada 29 54 K , , , , D ha n abhi R ama m u , 9 0 , 1 18

s8 f . h n ak at aka 20 D a y , ‘ B hi me s vara Pa ran a , 60 , 63 Dhfi ati 1 72 9 rj , 3 , , 9

Bha ini D andak a , 64 Di c ionari es 9 3 1 1 3 g t , , '

B hoj a R a i ya, 65 Dikshit A ia 83 f , pp h ,

B hu an a R ao , R a a M 1 06 i hi o n a j g j D ks t , G vi d , 9 1

B hii shana , R amara a , 26, 7 2 , 75 , a a i a na 27 j Ditt k v Naray ,

78 , 80 E . Draksha ak a 34 43 p , , B ilha n i a 9 3 9 5 y , , Draksha R amam , 14 " B i o ra hi e s of Te l u u Poets a 2 65 f . 4 1 1 3 . g p g Dram , 3 , 60 , , 9 , f K a vi i vi ta mu lu 1 10 i a 1 ( i ) , Drav da Br hmi , 7 B a mi Li i 17 r h p , Dra vi dian influe n c e o n Te lugu B i ha t K a tha M a n a ri 10 2 1 2 r i , Li a 1 3 E . 0 te r ture , ,

Bu a R a u 23 55 E . 9 8 , 1 03 ran 4 ddh z , , , D ro upati Va strapaha a , 1 1 B u ism n ue nc e on Te u u u ia u u al li 68 ddh , I fl l g D gg h , D gg p ,

Li e a ure 2 1 , 1 1 1 a da v a 78 88 t r t , Dv n Ka y , , B ukka R a a 25 59 n a y , , D vi pa da B asa va Pu ra , 5 1 Dvi ada Li e a ure 35 9 7 p t r t , ,

LD E LL 1 . 2 103 A W , Dr 5 f D vipada R amayana , 3 ,

a uk as 21 . i i ha a i e o f A a Ch l y , f Dv t yac ry (T tl th r C am u 34 43 54 9 7 an a 55 h p , , , , v ) , '' n Cham u dz Vi lasa , 43 Chan ah a N ali sara 5 1 GHTE E NTH e n u oe s y , EI C t ry P t , C ha n dra bhan u Cha ri tra , 84 ' Ch n ra a d hari tr 0 h d ahat a 8 a d ng a C a , 9 E a s i M y , 6 Ch n ra kha Vi la a 1 1 a d R e p m , 1 6 E la de vi ya , 04 C tu dhara oe ms O e n u oe s 5 0 ha P , l l E le ve nth C t ry P t , C h la a i R ao Na i a u 1 0 l an a undu Pi n ali is ian e p t , nd R j , 1 E l ry g (Chr t

Che ll ama he likani 0 105 . ay , C , 104 Poe t) , 9 , f hinni ah S ari 1 17 n c o aedi as Te u u 1 13 C , E c y l p , l g , i avitva 2 i in flue nc e o n Te u u Li e C h tra K , 89 , 1 2 E ngl sh l g t r

’ al 1 3 Chi tra N i ya m , 1 14 at ure , 109 , 1 C i tra S i ma 9 1 ra ada 48 59 h , E rrap g , f

C hokk anatha , 9 2

L Vi a ana ar K . S . o as 2 1 . A L of Ch l , f F i y g ( C houda ah Sata a Ka 9 2 R ao 1 15 pp , k , vi , ) , INDE" 1 27

e u oe 2 E . anahi a aha 1 4 Fiftee nth C n t ry P ts , 6 J S l , 0 1 1 a anti R am ab hut 46 Folk Lo re , 1 J y , n u o e s 58 E i nanda 4 Fo urte e nth Ce t ry P t , . J ta , 6 Fre nc h and E nglish in the Te lugu ACHAVI BHUDU 54 9 8 27 , f Co untry , a a i ka 34 49 u u i K d l Pa , , Future o f Te l g L te rature , '

K ad a mbari , 1 1 5 1 23 f . a i 73 9 0 1 1 2 Kak m ani Mart , , , AN GADHARA Addamki 84 Kak ati as 23 ff 5 1 56 1 02 G , , y , , , Garb h a K avitva 9 0 al a Ne s a r 1 19 , K ( w p pe ) ,

’ e ulu 100 t 7 G yam , K ala/l ast? M aiz a mya , 6 Gi ra ta 1 1 6 , K al a/zastef vara Sala ka , 9 9 Go anna K anc he rla 9 9 , , a a . 1 p K a lapfi rnod y , 78 ff , 9 a a ri 6 ‘ G o urann M nt , 5 a a i lasa 2 K l v , 5 l a C o u rt K a yan , 9 0 i asa 2 1 80 Kal d , 5 , 6 , a 1 G ammars , an d Gramm rians , 5 , a T a r K alidas ray , 61

18 38 , 56, 87 , K am alanab h a , 63 u 1 G ramya Lite rat re , 09 mkan i Pa ara u 54 K a t p j , L a u 1 G ran di ha ite r t re , 09 ar a i Te u u Kan ese , R e l t o n to l g , G uru natha um ara 47 , K , 1 . 8 2 . 6 ff , 3 , 5 ff

K afic /z i pa ra M ahatya , 68 Z LE S YA M ahatya , 9 3 a ab h aranam 1 15 H K nt , Harib ha 65 9 0 t, , K an aka u ra z a 77 i y p z , H ar c h an dro pahyan a , 65 K a nya S a lk a, 1 1 5 Harik athas 1 00 , a i a a e 1 1 2 K s Bh tl Bro th rs , ’ H ari K atha Sara , 73 i han d M afz i naa 60 . d K a ay p , f H ari sc han dra N alo ahh an a p y , avi Bra m a Ti e o f Tikkanna K h ( tl ) , 33 82 , 44 ’ ‘ H ari va nzs a 48 , a i a ku a 7 K v Gai fz s , 6 H a ri vilasa 60 , a K a vi J an a R afiia n , 88 H a a L ahsha a S ara 68 ' y n _ , K a vi Ja n asraya m , 2 1 , 58 H i s o r of the A n dh ras t y i a u l a 1 1 K a vi Ji v t m , 0 A ndhru la Chari tra 1 1 3 ( ) , r a a a n a K a vika zz a R s y , 76 H i s o r of Te l u u Li te ra tu re t y g a M a n r fi a n a K vi R afa o a i , (A n dhra Vangma na Cha ri Kavi R aj a S ikham ani (Title o f tra 1 1 0 ) , N anne c hodu 5 2 ) , H lla i k ara 23 57 u kk Bhas , , Kavi Tapita Maha (Title o f H u ssai n D asu S a laha 1 07 , llas i Pe ddan a 74 A an ) , Hus sain Gan ana alli 1 07 , g p , I 6 61 K a vi tatva V C/2 77 1 22 , 1 1 1 Kavitra a the re e re a oe s u y ( th g t P t , BR AHIM M lk , 84 a niah Tikk ann a and E N n , , rra I ndu mati Vi vaha , 77 ra ada 24 36 42 58 . I n dra Vi a a 43 p g ) , , , , f i y , ’ - K a vi d ba n afz an a , 46

a i K hi a hi av a 3 5 {f . 70 ff . 87 if e tc . AGGA K v , fi c m nc K y , , , J ‘ ri s i an o e 9 0 1 1 6 K av ala n éara Chfi dam a m 59 (Ch t P t) , , y , a anatha Ma e ma ic ia n 50 K e sava Sa i d /Era 1 04 J gg ( th t ) , , K e tana Mfila hatik a 56 Jai mi ni B harata , 67 , 1 0 3 , g , a s 57 J in , Jain Lite rature , 21 f 38 , i at a 61 1 1 1 K r ari u ni y , Komma a N isse nk a 65 Jakkanna , 65 nn , , 1 28 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

K o ne ru avi 5 9 8 Mallana Madi ah ari 7 K . 6 , , g , 2 , 76 ’ ’ ' K ri adblz z ra M a P l mamu , 66, 1 14 allan , ava fi n , 50 ’ K ri /z al all a s i v ua u , 1 17 M an a , Praudh k avi , 68 , 76 K rishn ade vara a 13 25 29 Mallana s on o f o ana 5 y , , , f , P t , 6 69 E 74 E 8 1 Mallana Tari o ulla 84 , , 6, 9 , g p , ' ' K i sh ade vara a a Mal ia Chadal a 4 r n y Vz7 ya , 77 l h , vada , 8 ishnak a i a ia Na i Kr v , 88 M ll h , md , 68 K ishn ak avi Ve la a iidi M a llika Gu tc lza mu 1 8 r , g p , 9 3 , 1 \ l K rishn amac harlu , D 1 14 M a li lm M aru ta , 1 14 is namur i Shi tu Mallikar una am am a 52 Kr h t , s , 9 1 j J g , is n amu i S ri ada 15 M auasollasa S ara 67 Kr h rt p , 1 , ' K z lz a r u a an c hanna 57 r s u m C/za rz tra , 88 M , u K i s/ ma Sa taka 1 4 M a a a/z ral ul u , 1 00 r , 0 g l ' u u 1 1 um ari Dh r a i M a vau z Ne ws a e r , 9 K u j t , 77 i ( p p ) ’

K uma ra S amb/z a a M a u ue/zarz tra o f Peddana , 57 , u , 37 , 1 1 0 ’ 7 2 E . 80 K u ma lz Salaka 1 7 , , 0 Manumanc hi B a 68 Ku am a h t, pp m , 1 0 3 Manumasiddhi , 46 AKSHMAN AKAVI Pindi ro li Marana 23 57 63 73 L p , , , , , i L e ra 8 E . Marg it ture , 3 Lakshm an a a M a ri e/xi Pa ri u a a 1 03 R o Pantulu , K om y , ' m arfi u 1 1 M arke u e a Pa ra a 23 5 63 j , 1 1 , 1 3 a y u , , 7 , , Lakshmi na asimha 72 r m , Ch 1 16 ‘ L akshm i narasirnham Panu a i Marutrat Charitra 60 , g nt , , 1 M at a Pa ra a 1 5 f . sy u , 9 0 L akshmz N i sifiz b a Pa r a 4 Me luk olu ulu 1 00 r a u , 8 p , L al alal u S o n s o f the a e M i n ak lz i a taka 1 4 zp ( g Cr dl ) , s S , 0 1 00 M i takslzara (Te lugu Transla

Lam . Tales f ro m S hakes eare ion 5 b p t ) , 6 Te u u rans a io n 1 1 3 n ts i Te u ( l g t l t ) , Mode rn Move me n l gu L ama Vi a a 1 16 i a u e 1 — 19 j y , L te r t r , 08 1 ’ L i laz/a z 50 o a umm a 54 77 1 03 l , M ll , K ri , , , ' Llu a Pa rau a 83 9 3 g , , M rzelzakati ka , 1 14

Lin a atism 24, 28 5 1 ut u a a avi Kottalanka g y , , Mr y mj y K , ,

Li e ra ri ic ism 1 . t ry C t , 1 1 f 89 Li e ra Mo es and o rms 33—3 6 u du a ani 9 2 104 t ry d F ; M d p l , , L i ves of Telu u Poe ts A n dhra a s 1 g ( Muhamm dan Poe t , 07 K a vula Chari tra 1 0 Ti a a andi ) , 1 Mukku mm nn N anna 74 Timm ) , AD A L A S E CHA R " Mfila hatik a Ke tana 56 M g , I ulu u P a a 65 M g ap yy , M adana K ama R a a s ories 1 18 u i i re a i o to Te u u f t , M s c n l t n l g ’ M ada uam a a 59 e u 0 i y , Lit rat re , 10 Madhvac har a and Madh is y , v m , 2 8 , 50 ACHAN A S om a , 59 . 9 3 N ‘ Ma a ines 1 18 . k g z , f N ae/zi e topakyaua , 68 M a b a M akat 7 a 6 s 1 4 . g y , N adfi , f ‘ M alt abiz ara ta se e B harat a fi fl da 84 ( a ) N agar Kfi , Ma a av a 34 1 h K y , N ai siz a da , 59 , 6 ’ ' a a a am e a ion to Te u u z a t A us/zaaa 61 M l y l , r l t l g , 16 N ai shada V dv ,

1 30 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

R a hava avi N e llii ri 88 at g K , , R namb a , 1 04 ' R a ha va Pau a vi a 58 78 g a y , , R a ma Sash a 68 ’ ’ , R a hava Yada z/ a Pau a vi a g a y , R atnavali 1 14 88 , R avana D o mmi yamu (Lanka R a adit a 5 0 j y , Vi a a 1 1 j y ) , 9 0 , 6 hava To nda a 3 R aj a R ag m n , 9 R e ddi B iz ra a 2 a t , 5 a N 22 4 4 R aj a R aj are ndra , , 2 , 5 , R ed i d s R ed i D n as 24 . , d y ty , f

48 69 9 5 - , , R e . ddy , C . R , 5 8 , 1 1 1 R a a S eklzara Chari tra ? G f , R e ligio us bac kground o f Te lugu a la/1 am Vilasa R af S e , 9 0 Li e ra u e t t r , 27 f . alza u a Vi a a R afa V j y , 9 0 R e n aissanc e o f T u i e e e l gu L t ratur , R a a Yo asara 1 04 — f g , 19 , 1 08 19 b ad iah a a 30 R ama h r , A l R aja, , R es e a i yy rc Mo e n e a 108 E . h , d r l t r ry , 54 7 2 103 , , R omash Chandra Dutt (transla ab hadrak avi S um ati 9 3 R am , , ions om 1 1 6 t fr ) , R amab hut , Ja anti , 46 n y R osha ara , 1 15 R amabfi u da a 76 y y , R o w B . Sh ha i 1 1 , es g ri , 1 u a 4 R amak avi T r a, 8 R udrak a li g vi , Kamsa , 84 R amak i shu ar u uaN ara a i a uk a u da r i y u y , R m ga C/zari tra , 68 88 R ukm an Pa ina a i r y , 9 0 n a Ka ulu 1 18 R amakrish v , AH MAR A 23 57 R amak is n a Mr. M . 5 2 INI , , r h , , S S ab i ti N a 1 ak is na Ten a i 26 3 2 72 ( e ws e r , 19 R am r h , l , , , , p p ) sahiti - S ami i 83 t . 1 17

hniah Manavalli 1 1 0 S akala K a t/2a S ara S a n ralza , R amakris , , g

idu u 1 1 1 7 1 , 76, 1 03 R amamfi rti , G g , ’ aka la N t a u a Muddi R a u 78 S i z S ommal m , 65 R amann , j , " aks 2 e s a a hfi shana 75 S /2 N w e r , 1 1 6 R amaraj B , , ( p p )

80 E . 78 , Saku n tala, 1 14 , 122 a Vi lasa 9 0 R am , a u - f ku ta la pari u aya , 88

1 4 20 3 2 41 e tc . R amayana , , , , , ; Sali va/ mm S a i a San 20 60 — h ’s p ; , Transl ati o ns o f B ask ara , ima avi ’s 54 Samb hudas a Ti e o f E rra ra tc . B tl 24 , e h K , ( p ’ ’ ad a 48 f . a 54 R an anatha s 54 , Mo ll s , g , , g ) ’ 2 anna s 54 89 Sank ara , 8 , e tc . 9 8 Timm , , e u u 1 anti 1 1 1 S ansk rit , re l ati o n to T l g , 6 E R amiah Jay ,

38 , 44 , 62 R amire ddi , D 1 17 N a e 1 rlu Paravastu 1 14 S arada ( e wsp p r) , 1 9 R angac h a , , ’ ‘ /z r 1 4 . u u az 9 0 1 14 S ara nga d a a , 9 f 9 f R a uga K a m , , S arasva ti Ne ws a e r 1 19 ath a 43 54 f . 57 ( p p ) , R angan , , , a a a u da m u 9 2 S arva K ama da P ri uay , 9 1 R angara Ck ,

S are e f va ra M ahdi a , 1 05 R au ara a Chari tra , 27 y g y ’ a a l ka 9 da ati Hanum anta 1 18 S re es va r S a a , 9 R ao , Ma p , u a 106 a M . Bh an an a 54 R ao , R aj j g , § a lakan la R amay , , 58

R ao Sin ham a , 64 1 g f ataka K avul u , 1 1

T . R a a o ala 1 10 R ao , j g p , Satak a Li e a ure 9 8 E . 5 t r t , R asab/za ra ua , 6 Satak a oe s 1 10 ari 7 1 P t , R asarnafij ,

ana K avikar a 76 gataka o f Ve mana, 9 9 R as ay , n ,

Sa 1 1 6 . R asika Ja uobhi rama , 88 tire , f INDE" 1 31

m 5 1 uamu 7 1 Sukra N , S atya Vaduz? Pre ua , ri tra 77 d i lf i Cha , S uma ti ga l a/ta , 23 , 56 S ii ra avi Adidamu 88 9 0 S es/za Sa uesa L i l a , 89 K , ,

s 9 0 S araun a N fi tanak avi , 9 9 Se ve nte e nth Ce ntury Poe t , n a i 2 2 e s 1 18 S fi ranna , Pi , 6, 36 , 7 Sho rt Sto ri , g l ’ - 5 4 a E rc hfi ri 65 77 80 , 8 , 1 1 Sirngann , , ’ e nne la an i 68 a Ma iki 5 4 9 8 S fi ranna , V K t , Sirngann , d , , ’ ’ rak asa avi 88 h rlu Mari rn anti 89 S fi ryap K , Sirngarac a , g , ar a -R a a N i a utu 1 13 im iah G an a 68 S y y g , S , g , h t ' ’ Gau z ta 5 0 ies S u lf a , S im/z asa n a D vatri mz ska st or , S u varu a R afe/1a K a lkazzali , 1 18 1 18 ' l 2 S va roc hi sha M a uuc /zarz ra , 7 f . Sisam , 40 a i 2 S am a K v , 9 1 9 1 y s u fialava dlza , 6 ,

’ ' a S i valz la Vi las , 65 AM L in ue n c e o n Te u u 5 2 T I fl l g , t u 4 88 Tapa i sam va ra a , 8 ‘ ' Ta ras asa uea Ta rm/0 7a , 40 , 9 2 , 9 5 Si varatrz M a/z alya , 60 Tatac hari 83 u oe s 69 —9 0 , S ixte e nth Ce nt ry P t , Te la anar a Ponnikanti 84 1 g y , , S ka n da Pa rau a , 4 u L n ua e 1 3 f o e Te l gu a g g , P try, Slesh a , 70 , e tc . ure 89 S c i 17 t . i 24 5 1 P , r pt , S omanath a , Paluk urik , , , i ak is n a 26 32 72 Te nal R am r h , , , , 60 9 8 . , f 83 a Pidu arti 52 77 So manath , p , , Te nk an amatya (Title o f Nanne So mase kh ara avi O u an i 88 K , r g t , o u 5 2 c h d ) , S ourc e s o f Te u u Li e ature 1 8 l g t r , i e n u s Th rte e nth C t ry Poe t , 5 3 E . So uthe rn Sc ho o l o f Te lugu Lite ra oma S t . Li e o f in Te u u Th s , , f ( l g ) ,

ure 86 9 1 E . t , , 1 05 - a a 62 Sri Mad Bhagav t , — Tikk anna , 18 , 34 f . , 44 48 , 54 49 59—62 Srinatha , 20 , 11 , , Timmanna K u c h i m a n c h i , 54 ,

73 88 E . a i ika 60 a n a Nan i 3 1 72 74 f S ra D n . ring p , Timm , d , , , immanna sarun u 84 a a h adha 9 T g , Sri ng ra N is , 5 Ti anna R avi ati 59 65 as 1 pp p , , Sringara R a , 94 , 00 a i e k at a a a ulu Tirup t V n esv r K v , n a aku ntala Sri g ra S , 65 , 1 18 ' i ada 1 1 0 a Gu z arz r a. S ri ram Mart , ru , To b/zya C/z t a (S arve svar Sri rama Pantulu 65 atak a 9 0 , S ) , , 105 a s 1 15 Tr e die , S ri rama S alaka , 9 1 g Trans a ion o f the E ic s 41 - 68 a l t p , Sri ra n a M alzaty , g ' ' ' Tri lz u a Sab aau us asaua 55 . 1 5 g , S ubba R ao , K 1 Tr li a ri 1 1 1 i ug S to es , 8 S ubba R ao , N 1 7 T i u a tak odaharan a 55 S u ao R a a lu 1 17 r r n , bba R , y pra , p 5 Twe lfth Ce ntur Poe ts , 1 S u a R ao Van uri re . 1 0 . y bb , g , P f , 1 f

Twe n ie e n u oe s 1 17 . S ub b ar udu e d di 1 4 t th C t ry P t , f ay , V da , 1 S ub hadramma 1 04 , MAKAN T Akki R a u 1 18 ' A , J , S u bfiashi ta R atuaua z 9 0 U l , Ummar Ali Shah , 1 07 S ub raman a S as ri Sri ad ‘ ’ t , a, 1 18 Utta ra H a ri vauzs a 50 59 y p , ,

S uka S a tati , 9 5 1 18 ta 4 4 p , Ut ra R amayana , 3 , 5 f . 9 8 1 3 2 A HISTOR Y OF TELUGU LITER ATUR E

AGANU Sasama Tit e o f Ve nhi S o n s 1 17 V ( l g , N anni ah 37 42 Vi ( hi n a aha o f Srin tha 60 ) , l ( a ) , . i i s Vaidiki Mo ve me n 15 é V a dik , t , , 6 22 44 1 03 i dhi n a aha D a , , V i mu ( y 1 i g h t V aid anatha 23 a s 1 1 3 y , Pl y ) , V i a autz Vi l asa 84 i a a R a a hok a a 7 y , V j y ng C k natha , 9 2 ' l a hablz u da a 60 i Va l b y y , V 7aya S en a , 46 ' h Ma a 1 14 Vallab a ty , Vi7aya Vi lasa , 88 ' ’ ' V allab ha Vinuko nda 66 Vi 7z ana Cha n drih , , 7 a Se ries , 1 13 Val i ki Charitra 9 1 i i a a m , V j ane sv r , 56 ki R ama au a 9 1 9 8 Valmi y , , Vi kramarha Charitra , 65

' Pa ra a 68 9 0 Va rait a u , , Vi hramasen a , 59

’ '’ aaatta Pa ri u a a 9 0 1 Vasav y , Vi krama Urvasz ya , 14 f R ama a u a 54 65 Vasi s/zga y , , Vinnak o ta Peddana , 59 V elzari tra Vin a amulu i i o ns 1 a su , n p (pe t t ) , 00 u ra za 63 Vayu P z , Vi pra n arayana Cha ri tra , 84 dadi Se b b ara udu 1 18 Vi rab hadrak avi a ari 88 Ve d y , , Ayy g , asa a na 9 0 1 05 Ve dan ta R y , , Virab hadranna , Vakk alanda , 9 0 ara 9 3 Ve danta S , Vi rab hadra R ao , 1 13

" ' da B im a avi 58 V Ve malava h K , i ra bhadra Vi 7aya , 64 a a 9 9 V r c h a 0 Ve m n , i a ary , 5

Vi ramahef o ara , 65 Ve ma n a Salaka , 56, 9 9 i re salin a 1 0 10 1 1 Desa and Ve n i Na 14 V g m , K 6, 1 , 3 , Ve ngi , g du, , 1 14 f . 24 , 26 t a r 4 nda 104 VZ ra a P va , 8 Ve nk amma , Tariko , Vi u B ha a a a a a 04 shn g v ta , 65 Vankatac hala M h ty , 1 Vi Chi t a 2 35 7 u a Bh shi 9 1 shnu fi y , 6, , 0 Ve nk atac harl , Mad a , la 1 a i a aru 8 Vi shnu M aya Vi sa , 9 0 , 14 Ve nk atadasa K v , G d , 9 Vi hn u Pa ran 63 i h makfi ra 88 9 1 s a , , V e nk at a Kav , C a , , ' i Gan a avara u 89 V i shaai a Salaha 9 9 Ve nk ata Kav , p p , r p , a i Go in atha 9 1 Ve nkata K v , p , AR AN GAL 23 1 14 sh a a a , Ve nk ata K ri n pp Nay k , u Wes te rn Cult re , influe nc e S amukha , 9 2 f o e u i e a o , n T l gu L t r ture , Ve nk atan atha , 68

108 E . 1 1 3 a udu N uduru ati 3 , Ve nk atan ry , p , 9 ome n o e s 1 02 E . a a i Paidimmri 9 0 W P t , Ve nk at p t , , e ata ati Se sham 9 2 V nk p , YA D A VA R agha va Pauda Ve nkataramaua f a la/ea , 1 04 vi ya , 88 a aratnam K o kkonda 1 14 Ve nk t , , Ya i Ti ann 44 E gy , kk a , . ’ ' ' e k a a R a a Sas i Ve am Y fi a al a S rz tz 5 V n t y tr , d , aj v ky s m , 6

1 1 4 . Ya asa 4 12 f 1 f ti and Pr , 0 , 9 8 ’ m/7am 1 14 a alz i r 4 Veui S a , Y y Char t a , 8 , 89

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