257

Index

A AARAcomputer, 220 Aiken, Howard, viii, 96,203, Abacus, 7 213-219,224 contest of speed, 7 first proposals, 214 counters, 12 IBM, 215 demise, 7 influence of, 219 English, 12 Amsler, Jacob, 168 European, 8 Amsler planimeter. See Planimeters Gerbert’s, 35 Analog calculation, 156 Greek, 8-9 accuracy of, 157 Inca, 8 , 160,162 origins, 7,lO Analog Roman, 10 electrical, 191-194 Russian, 13 Analog computing devices, 156-204. soroban, 7, 15 See also Differential analyzer spread of, 14-15 accuracy, 157,160,162,195-196 swanpan, 7,14 approximating complex table, 10-11 functions, 166 ABC, 226-230 electrical, 177-178 components, 228 harmonic analyzer, 158,172-176, control, 228 180 failure, 230 harmonic synthesizer, 172, 177 genesis of, 227 integrators, 167-174, 179- 185, Mauchly’s visit to, 238 187 operation, 229 isograph, 177 use, 228 multipliers, 160 Abel , 220 network analyzer, 178 Accounting and Tabulating Machine noise in, 162, 195 Corporation, 137 resolver, 158-159, 172, 194 Accounting machines, 122-155 tide predictors, 162, 172-176 Accumulator, 215. See also ENLAC Analogue, word origin, 247 Addition, analog, 160,162 Analog versus digital techniques, 1% Additive number system, 5 , 59-60,67,75-9 1, Computing Before Computers 258

Analytical engine (cont.) Automata, 100-101 200,203. See also Babbage, Automata theory, 119 Charles; Ludgate, Percy; Torres y Automatic Sequence Controlled Quevedo, Leonard0 . See ASCC arithmetic operations, 82-83 barrel control, 85 construction, 90 B Babbage, Benjamin, 60 control mechanism, 85-86 Babbage, Charles, viii, 3,60-62,66, design, 8 1,90 75-91,200. See also Analytical design variations, 77 engine; Carry mechanisms, importance of, 95-96 anticipating; Difference engine influence of, 96-97 awards, 65 limitations of, 89 calculating machines, importance Lovelace, Ada, 88-89 of, 95 microprogram control, 89 Clement, relations with, 67 mill, 7677,79-80,91 control mechanisms, 85-86.211 number register, 79 death, 62 numbers in, 77 feedback functions, 75 operation, 76,80,82-83,85-86 , 27 origin, 75 publications, 61,75 plan view, 78 Scheutz difference engine, 90 printing mechanism, 79 second difference engine, 90 programming, 87-89 Babbage, Henry P., 67,91 published accounts, 88 Baldwin, Frank S., 51 punched cards, 79,86,88 Ballistic Research Laboratory, 237 relative addressing, 86 Ballistics, 166. See also ENIAC; sophistication, 79 Gunnery computers speed, 82-83 BARK computer, 220 store, 76-77,79 Bauersfeld, Walter, 165 Analytical Society. See Babbage, Bell Telephone Laboratories, ix, 177, Charles 192,207-212. See also Complex Antikythera device, 162-164 Number Calculator; Relay Approximation of functions, 64 Interpolator ARC computer, 220 calculating machines, 210 . See Thomas, Charles Model 11,210 Xavier Model I11 and IV, 211 Artillery firing tables, 237. See also Model V, 21 1 ENIAC; Gunnery computers Model VI, 213 ASCC, 215,221,244 need for , 208 components, 216 Berry, Clifford, 228,230. See also constant switches, 216 ABC; Atanasoff, John V. control system, 216217,221 Biquinary numbers, 212 operation, 215,217 Billings, J.S., 124 reliability, 219-220 BINAC computer, 245 uses, 218 Binary coded decimal, 209 Astrolabe, 165 Binary numbers, 204,227,244 Atanasoff, John V., 226-230,247 Bletchley Park. See Colossus machine and John MaucNy, 238-239 Bomb sight computers. See Gunnery Atanasoff-Berry computer. See ABC computers Index 259

Boole, George, 105-106 speed of machines, 129 Boolean algebra, 105-106,117 tabulating machine, 128-129 Boolean functions. See Colossus Census Bureau, 255 machine Chess playing machines, 95,102 Booth, Andrew Donald,‘220 Chinese abacus, 7,14 Bradley, Francis, 112 Choreb, 14 Branching of control, 211 Clement, Joseph, 6647.96 Briggs, Henry, 25-26,29. See also Clocks, 163-171 Logarithms Jens Olsen (Copenhagen), 165 British Tabulating Machine Strasbourg cathedral, 165 Company. See BTM Clockwork, 100-101 Brown, T.H., 214 Code breaking, 232-236,255 Brunsviga calculating machine, Colmar, Thomas de. See Thomas, 52-53 Charles Xavier Bryce, James W., 136,215 Colossus machine, ix, 232-236 BTM, 137,151 influence of, 235-236 Bug (Hopper moth), 221 later models, 235 Bull. See Machines Bull operation, 232-234 Burack, Benjamin, 114 Columbia University Statistical Bureau of the Census. See Census; Bureau, 147,153 Census Bureau; Hollerith, Herman Commercial versus scientific Burkhardt, William, 115,117 problems, 213 Burroughs, William S., 59 Complement numbers, 7 1 Burroughs Corporation, 254 Complexity theory, 119 Bush, Vannevar, 177,179-180,183, Complex Number Calculator 185. See also Differential analyzer components, 209 operation, 209 origins, u)8--209 c C-T-R, 136 remote access, 210 equipment, 141-142 speed, 209 growth of, 136 Comptometer, 54-55 Card Programmed Calculator. See speeds 54 CPC Computer Card sorter. See Sorting characteristics,25 1-252 Carroll, EM., 136 components, 25 1 Carry mechanisms, 225 development of, 252-253 anticipating, 76,80 fiit modem, 236 difference engine, 71 input/output equipment, 254 Leibniz’s, 4648 manufacturers, 254 Pascal’s, 4143 market for, 253 Scheutz’s, 93 Computer design, 117 Schickard’s, 38-39 Computer patent, 238-239 Census. See also Hollerith, Herman Computer Research Corporation, datacard, 125 245,254 equipment, 131 Compu ting-Tabulating-Recording Hollerith’s results, 130 Company. See C-T-R mechanization of, 123 Comrie, LJ.,95-96,147,224 operations in, 125,128 Control systems, 211,218,230,246. , 126-127 See also Paper tape control Computing Before Computers 260

Control Systems (cont.) MADDIDA, 245,248 systems Meccano, 184 Analytical engine, 85-86 RDA2,185 ASCC, 216217,221 torque amplifiers, 177 ENIAC, 241 use of, 182-185 Coradi planimeter. See Planimeters Differential equations, 180. See also Coulba, 14 Differential analyzer Counting, 4 Differential gears, 160,162,164 Counting board, 10-1 1 Differential machine. See Smee, CPC, 149,246,253,255 Alfred Digital, 247 Digital calculation, 156 D Daniell, John Frederic, 109 Digital computer, inventor, 239 Davy, Sir Humphrey, 65-66 Digital versus analog techniques, 196 DeForest, Lee, 223 Disk integrator. See Integrators Dehomag, 137 Dondi, Giovanni de, 165 Delamain, Richard, 29 Duplation, 6 De Morgan, Augustus, 31, 105, 110 Durfee, B.M., 136,149 Descartes, Rene, 103 DVL. See Schreyer, Helmut; Zuse, Difference engine, 5940,62-74. See Konrad, 23 also Babbage, Charles; Comrie, L.J.; Grant, George; Scheutz difference engine; Wiberg, Martin E EM.See Tabulating machines addition mechanism, 71 Eccles-Jordan flip-flop,225,240 Babbage’s first (1822), 64 Eckert, J. Presper, 236-242 Babbage’s second, 90 Eckert, Wallace J., 147,149,153, carry mechanism, 70 214,224,244 consauction of, 65,67 Eckert-Mauchly Computer design, 68-72,74 Corporation, 239,245 government support, 66 Edison, Thomas, 223 importance of, 95-96 EDVAC computer, 243,254 hdner’s description, 92 Ehrenfest, Paul, 117 limitations, 75 Electric accounting machine. See tabulation, 73-74 tabulating machines number register, 70 Electro-biological machine, 109 operation, 70-72 ElectroData, 245,254 origins, 62 Electromagnetic technology. See printing results, 65,73-74 Relay size, 70 Electronic calculators, 223-249 speed of, 64 Electronic Numerical Integrator and spin-offs, 67 Computer. See ENIAC Differences, method of. See Electronic technology, 218,223-249, Difference engine 252. See also Schreyer, Helmut; Differentialanalyzer, ix, 179-185, Zuse, Konrd, 22 189-190, 193,237,253. See also reliability of, 220.242-243,246 Analog computing devices versus relays, 224 accuracy, 180,183-185 Engineering Research Associates, components, 181,183,185 220,255 invention of, 174,176-177 ENIAC, ix, 226,236-242 Index 26 1

circuit, 240 M-9 antiaircraft, 192 components, 240-24 1 use of, 187 control system, 241-243 Gunter, Edmund, 27-29 influence of, 236,243 Gunter’s line of numbers, 28-29 modification of, 242-243 origins, 236-237,239 reliability, 242 H Halting problem, 119 speed, 24 1 Hamilton, Frank, 244 use, 242 Hanzawa, Masao, 117 vacuum tubes, 240 Harley, Reverend Robert, 108 Enigma, 236. See also Colossus Harmonic analyzer, 158, 172-176, machine 180 ERA, 220,255 Harmonic synthesizer, 172, 177 Euler, Leonhard, 112 Hartree, Douglas R., 184 European abacus, 8 Harvard calculating machines, ix, 213-219. See also ASCC origins, 214 F Feedback, 180,182 Harvard Mark 11, 111, IV, 218,221 Felt, Dorr E., 54,59 Hatchet planimeter. See Planimeters Fibonacci, 10 Heath Robinson. See Colossus Fleming, J.A., 223 machine Flint, Charles, 136 Hermann, Herr, 167 Flip-flop, 225,240 Heron of Alexandria, 100-101 Flowers, Thomas H., 233,235 Herschel, John, 60,62 Ford, E.A., 136,140 Hindu-Arabic numerals, 10 Ford, Hannibal, 187 Holbach, Baron d’, 104 , 255 Hollerith, Herman, 122-134, 136. Foster, William, 29-30 See also Census; Punched-card Fourier analysis, 172, 179 machinery Frege, Gottlob, 106 competition with Powers, 137 Fuller’s slide rule, 33, 196 Hollerith Electric Tabulating System. See Punched-card machinery; Tabulating machines G Galvani, Luigi, 109 Hopper, Grace, 217,221 Gang punch, 125 Geheimschreiber. See Colossus machine I IBM. See also ASCC; &en, Gelosia multiplication, 17-18 Howard; C-T-R Hollerith, Genaille, Henri, 20 Herman; Tabulating Machine Genaille-Lucas rulers, 20-23 Company; , Thomas J. Gerbert, 35 competition with Remington Godel, Kurt, 117 Rand, 142,151 Gonnella, Tito, 167 founding, 137 Grant, George, 94 growth of, 138 Gunnery computers, 162,166, punched-card equipment, 142 186-190,192. See also Analog war-time growth, 149 computing devices; Ballistics; IBM 704 computer, 115 Bell Telephone Laboratories, IBM 1401 computer, 151 Models II,III,IV IBM 400 series machines, 143 Computing Before Computers 262

IBM 600 series machines, 149-150 Laws of thought. See Boolean algebra IBM Card Programmed Calculator, Lawson, Judge Earl, 239 149,246,253,255 Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 42,44, IBM Pluggable Sequence Relay 105,112 Calculator, 149 carry mechanism, 4U8 IBM SSEC, 149,244 , 4547,49 Inca abacus, 8 Royal Society relations, 48 Institute for Advanced Study stepped drum mechanism, 45,49, computer, 255 51 Instruments, analog, 156-204 Leonard0 of Pisa, 10 Integraph, 179 Linear equation. See ABC; Wilbur Integrating tabulator. See Tabulating hear equation solver machines Logarithms, 3,23-25,28. See also Integrators, 167,174,179-185,187 Napier, John International Business Machines. See base, 26 IBM spread of, 26-27 Iowa State College, 153. See also tables, 26-28 ABC; Atanasoff, John V. use of, 27 Isogmph, 177 Logic diagrams, 112 Logic machines, 99-122 electrical, 114-1 15 J Jacquard, Joseph Marie, loom, 60, 87, l24 electromechanical, 114,116 programmed, 115 Jacquard cards, See Analytical engine, punched cards usefulness, 115 Logic piano, 110-113 Japanese abacus, 7,15 Logic, mechanization of, 105 Jaquet-Droz writer, 102 London University, 220 Jetons, 12 Jevons, William Stanely, 108, Lovelace, Ada, 88,211 110 -413 programs for Analytical Engine, Jevons’ logic piano, 110 89 Lucas, Edouard, 20 Ludgate, Percy, 95 Lull, Raymond, 104-105 K Kalin, Theodore, 115,117 Kastner, A. G.,45 Kelvin, Lord, 158,162,172-176,180 M Macaroni box comptometer, 55 Kepler, Johann, 25. See also Machines Bull, 137 Schickard, Wilhelm MADDIDA, 245,248 Key-driven adding machine. See Maillardet, Henry, 102 Comptometer Mallock machine, 178 , 133,142 MANIAC, 255 Kircher, Athanasius, 19,29,105 Mannheim, Amedee, 31-32 Marquand, Allen, 113-114 Matsuzake, Kiyoshi, 7 L Lake, C.D., 136,142,149 Mauchly, John W., 210,236-242 Lambert, J.H., 112 and John V. Atanasoff, 238-239 La Mettrie, Julien de, 103 Mayo, Herbert, 109 Lardner, Dionysius, 89,92 Mechanical calculating machines. Lasker, W.W., 140 See Brunsviga calculating Index 263

machine; comptometer; positional, 6 Leibniz, Gotthied Wilhelm; Roman numerals, 5-6 Millionaire calculating machine; Pascal, Blaise; Schickard, Wilhelm; 0 Odhner, Willgodt T., 52,59 Thomas, Charles Xavier Olsen, Jens, 165 Mechanical calculator systems. See Operational amplifier, 192 Zuse, Konrad, Z1 Orreries, 163-171 Mediation, 6 Orrery, Earl of, 165 Memory systems Oughtred, William, 28-30. See also electronic, 227,254 Slide rule mechanical, 205-206 circles of proportion, 30 regenerative, 228,254 Menabrea, L.F., 88 Merriam, W.R., 132 P Pantograph punch, 126-127 Mersenne, Fr. Martin, 29 Paper tape control systems, 203,206, Method of differences, 62,148 211,216. See also ASCC Microprogramming, 89 Paper tape reader, Colossus, 233 Millionaire calculating machine, 56 Pascal, Blaise, 34,3940 MIT, 179,185,191,254 carry mechanism, 41-42 Moore School of Electrical mechanical calculator, 3943 Engineering, 236-242 Peacock, George, 60 Multiplication, analog, 160 Peano, Guiseppe, 106 Petit, Pierre, 20 Phillips, William, 225 N Nakasima, Akira, 117 Pierce, Charles Saunders, 106,113 Napier, John, 3, 16 Pin-wheel gear. See Variable-toothed logarithms, 23,25- 26 gear Napier’s bones, 3, 17-19, 36-38, Pipeline, 72,83 57 Planetariums, 163-171 publications, 25 Planimeters, 167 Napier’s bones. See Genaille-Lucas Amsler, 169-170 rulers; Napier, John Cord, 171,177 National Bureau of Standards, 254 first examples, 167 National Cash Register, 254 hatchet, 170 Naval gunnery computers. See moment, 171 Gunnery computers Pluggable Sequence Relay Network analyzer, 178 Calculator, 149 Neumann, John von, 210, 220 Polar planimeter. See Planimeters Newman, M.H.A, 233 Pope Sylvester 11.35 Nicholas of Cusa, 105 Porter, Robert P., 124 NORC, 255 Positional number systems, 6 North, S.N.D., 133 Powers, James Legrand, 136 Northrop Aircraft, 245 competition with Hollerith, 137 Number system, 4 Powers Accounting Machine additive, 5-6 Company, 135 - 136,140. See also bi-quinary, 212 Remington Rand Corporation Egyptian, 5 equipment, 141-142, 200 floating point, 205,211 Powers Keypunch, 134 Computing Before Computers 264

Powles caliparea, 160 R Rabdologia. See Napier, John Prefix arithmetic notation, 209 Radar, 226 hice, Derek de Sola, 164 RDA2,185,253. See also Program controlled calculator. See Differential analyzer Relay calculators; Paper tape Reckoning table, 10-11 control systems Recorde, Robert, 12-13 Program storage, 213. See also Paper Recursive theory, 117,119 tape control systems Relational Machine. See Smee, Alfred internal, 212 Relay, 20 1-202 paper tape, 21 1 Relay calculators, 200-222. See also Prosthaphaeresis, method of, 23 AARA computer; BARK computer Punched cards reliability, 219 ABC computer, 230 Relay Interpolator, 210-21 1 Analytical engine uses, 76 Relay versus mechanical numeric, 138 components, 202-203 types, 139-140,142,151 Reliability U.S. census, 125-127 Of ASCC, 219-220 Punched-card machinery, viii, of electronics, 220,234,242-243, 122-155,213-215,254. See also 246 BTM, C-T-R; IBM; Powers of punchedcard equipment, 132 Accounting Machine Company of relay equipment, 219 advantages, 129-130 Remington Rand Corporation. 137, commercial development, 239 135-146 competition with IBM, 142,151 commercial use, 145 Remote terminals, 209-210 competing firms, 137 Resolver, 158-159,172,194 early trials and patents, 124 Ring counters, 225 electronics in, 149-150 Rockwood, Charles, 113 equipment, 125-127, 129, Roman numerals, 5-6 133-134,141,143,200 Russell, Bertrand, 106,115 improvements to, 132, 134, 140, 142 industry size, 137 mechanical principles, 140 s Salamis abacus, 8-9 office equipment, 141 Sang, Edward, 167 publicity of, 130-131 Scheutz, Edvard, 92 reliability, 132 Scheutz, Georg, 92 replacement by computers, 150 Scheutz difference engine, 90, 92-94 sales analysis with, 146 calculated tables, 93 scientific applications on, construction, 93 147-148 operation, 93 speed, 144 second copy, 93 spread of, 132 usefulness, 93-94 statistics, 144. See also Census Schickard, Wilhelm, 34-35 ultimate development, 149-155 contact with Kepler, 36 uses of, 132,144-146,148,153 mechanical calculator, 36-37,39 Schott, Gaspard, 19 Schreyer, Helmut, 205,230-232. See Q Quarter-squaresformula, 198 also Zuse, Konrad Index 265

Scientific Computing Services, 147 243-244,246,252 Scientific versus commercial Strowger, Almon, 202 problems, 213. See also Sub-tabulation method, 64 Punched-card machinery Svoboda, Antonin. 166,191 Scott, Michael, 16 Swanpan, 7,14 SEAC, 254 Swiss Federal Technical Institute. Seaton device, 123 See Zuse, Konrad, 24 Sector, 28,3 1 Sylvester 11, Pope, 35 Selective Sequence Electronic Symbolic logic. See Logic machines Calculator, 149,244 Servomechanisms, 188 Sestakov, V.I.S., 117 Shannon, Claude, 116117 T Tables, 27,65-66,73-74,93-94,96, Shapley, Harlow, 214 148,218,237,242,244. See also Slide rule, 3,27-28,30-31,66 Logarithms accuracy, 196 ballistic, 190 American use, 32 Tabulating Machine Company, 132. circles of proportion, 30 See also C-T-R; Census; Hollerith, circular, 29 Herman; IBM demise, 33 early operations, 135 Fuller’s, 33, 196 growth of, 136 Mannheim, 3 1-32 Tabulating machines, 122-155,200. origins, 29-30 See also Hollerith, Herman; IBM scales, 32 alphabetic, 142 Soho, 31 improvements in, 132 Thatchers, 196 operation, 129 Smee, Alfred, 108-110 Tarrant, Robert, 54 Soroban, 7,15 Telegraph relay, 202 Sorting, 152 Telephone switching, 202 Hollerith sorter, 133 Teleregister, 245 machines, 140-143 Thomas, Charles Xavier, 50,59,66 needle, 133 Thompson, J.J., 223 Sorting box. See Tabulating machines Thomson, James, 174 Sperry Gyroscope Co., 189 Thomson, William. See Kelvin, Lord Sperry Rand, 150. See also Tide predictors, 162,172-176 Remington Rand Corporation Torque amplifier, 177,180 SSEC, 149,244 Torres y Quevedo, Leonardo, 95 Stanhope, Charles, third Earl of, 106 Turing, Alan M., 89, 117- 119, 233 Stanhope Demonstrator, 106, 108 halting problem, 119 Stchoty, 14 Turing machines, 118- 119 Steiger, Otto, 56 Turing Machine, See Turing, Alan M. Stepped drum gear, See Leibniz, Gottfried, Wilhelm Stibitz, George, viii, 203,207-212, 247. See also Complex Number U united states census. See Census Calculator; Relay Interpolator Univac 1004 calculator, 150 excess-3 code, 209 Universal Turing Machine. See model K, 208 Turing, Alan M. Stored program concept, 235, University of London, 220 Computing Before Computers 266

Whitehead, Alfred North, 106,115 v Vacuum tubes. See also Electronic Wiberg, Martin, 94 technology Wiener, Norbert, 210,254 ENIAC, 240 Wilbur linear equation solver, 177, reliability, 234 179 Van Kempelen chess playing Wood, Tom, 7 Variable-toothedgear, 5 1-52 Written number systems, 4 Venn, John, 112 Wynn-Williams, C.E., 225,233 Venn diagrams, 112 Vickers predictor, 188 Vlacq, Adrian, 27 Z 21-211. See Zuse, KO~A Zuse, KON~~,ix, 203-206,215,220, 23C23 1 WWang, Hao, 115 influence of, 206 Watson, Thomas J., 136,214-215, mechanical memory, 206 244 Z1,204-205 Watt, James, 3 1 23,205-206 Wetli integrator. See Integrators 24,206-207,221 Whirlwind computer, 254 Zll, 220