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257 Index A AARAcomputer, 220 Aiken, Howard, viii, 96,203, Abacus, 7 213-219,224 contest of speed, 7 first proposals, 214 counters, 12 IBM, 215 demise, 7 influence of, 219 English, 12 Amsler, Jacob, 168 European, 8 Amsler planimeter. See Planimeters Gerbert’s, 35 Analog calculation, 156 Greek, 8-9 accuracy of, 157 Inca, 8 addition, 160,162 origins, 7,lO Analog computers Roman, 10 electrical, 191-194 Russian, 13 Analog computing devices, 156-204. soroban, 7, 15 See also Differential analyzer spread of, 14-15 accuracy, 157,160,162,195-196 swanpan, 7,14 approximating complex table, 10-11 functions, 166 ABC, 226-230 electrical, 177-178 components, 228 harmonic analyzer, 158,172-176, control, 228 180 failure, 230 harmonic synthesizer, 172, 177 genesis of, 227 integrators, 167-174, 179- 185, Mauchly’s visit to, 238 187 operation, 229 isograph, 177 use, 228 multipliers, 160 Abel computer, 220 network analyzer, 178 Accounting and Tabulating Machine noise in, 162, 195 Corporation, 137 resolver, 158-159, 172, 194 Accounting machines, 122-155 tide predictors, 162, 172-176 Accumulator, 215. See also ENLAC Analogue, word origin, 247 Addition, analog, 160,162 Analog versus digital techniques, 1% Additive number system, 5 Analytical engine, 59-60,67,75-9 1, Computing Before Computers 258 Analytical engine (cont.) Automata, 100-101 200,203. See also Babbage, Automata theory, 119 Charles; Ludgate, Percy; Torres y Automatic Sequence Controlled Quevedo, Leonard0 Calculator. See ASCC arithmetic operations, 82-83 barrel control, 85 construction, 90 B Babbage, Benjamin, 60 control mechanism, 85-86 Babbage, Charles, viii, 3,60-62,66, design, 8 1,90 75-91,200. See also Analytical design variations, 77 engine; Carry mechanisms, importance of, 95-96 anticipating; Difference engine influence of, 96-97 awards, 65 limitations of, 89 calculating machines, importance Lovelace, Ada, 88-89 of, 95 microprogram control, 89 Clement, relations with, 67 mill, 7677,79-80,91 control mechanisms, 85-86.211 number register, 79 death, 62 numbers in, 77 feedback functions, 75 operation, 76,80,82-83,85-86 logarithms, 27 origin, 75 publications, 61,75 plan view, 78 Scheutz difference engine, 90 printing mechanism, 79 second difference engine, 90 programming, 87-89 Babbage, Henry P., 67,91 published accounts, 88 Baldwin, Frank S., 51 punched cards, 79,86,88 Ballistic Research Laboratory, 237 relative addressing, 86 Ballistics, 166. See also ENIAC; sophistication, 79 Gunnery computers speed, 82-83 BARK computer, 220 store, 76-77,79 Bauersfeld, Walter, 165 Analytical Society. See Babbage, Bell Telephone Laboratories, ix, 177, Charles 192,207-212. See also Complex Antikythera device, 162-164 Number Calculator; Relay Approximation of functions, 64 Interpolator ARC computer, 220 calculating machines, 210 Arithmometer. See Thomas, Charles Model 11,210 Xavier Model I11 and IV, 211 Artillery firing tables, 237. See also Model V, 21 1 ENIAC; Gunnery computers Model VI, 213 ASCC, 215,221,244 need for calculators, 208 components, 216 Berry, Clifford, 228,230. See also constant switches, 216 ABC; Atanasoff, John V. control system, 216217,221 Biquinary numbers, 212 operation, 215,217 Billings, J.S., 124 reliability, 219-220 BINAC computer, 245 uses, 218 Binary coded decimal, 209 Astrolabe, 165 Binary numbers, 204,227,244 Atanasoff, John V., 226-230,247 Bletchley Park. See Colossus machine and John MaucNy, 238-239 Bomb sight computers. See Gunnery Atanasoff-Berry computer. See ABC computers Index 259 Boole, George, 105-106 speed of machines, 129 Boolean algebra, 105-106,117 tabulating machine, 128-129 Boolean functions. See Colossus Census Bureau, 255 machine Chess playing machines, 95,102 Booth, Andrew Donald,‘220 Chinese abacus, 7,14 Bradley, Francis, 112 Choreb, 14 Branching of control, 211 Clement, Joseph, 6647.96 Briggs, Henry, 25-26,29. See also Clocks, 163-171 Logarithms Jens Olsen (Copenhagen), 165 British Tabulating Machine Strasbourg cathedral, 165 Company. See BTM Clockwork, 100-101 Brown, T.H., 214 Code breaking, 232-236,255 Brunsviga calculating machine, Colmar, Thomas de. See Thomas, 52-53 Charles Xavier Bryce, James W., 136,215 Colossus machine, ix, 232-236 BTM, 137,151 influence of, 235-236 Bug (Hopper moth), 221 later models, 235 Bull. See Machines Bull operation, 232-234 Burack, Benjamin, 114 Columbia University Statistical Bureau of the Census. See Census; Bureau, 147,153 Census Bureau; Hollerith, Herman Commercial versus scientific Burkhardt, William, 115,117 problems, 213 Burroughs, William S., 59 Complement numbers, 7 1 Burroughs Corporation, 254 Complexity theory, 119 Bush, Vannevar, 177,179-180,183, Complex Number Calculator 185. See also Differential analyzer components, 209 operation, 209 origins, u)8--209 c C-T-R, 136 remote access, 210 equipment, 141-142 speed, 209 growth of, 136 Comptometer, 54-55 Card Programmed Calculator. See speeds 54 CPC Computer Card sorter. See Sorting characteristics,25 1-252 Carroll, EM., 136 components, 25 1 Carry mechanisms, 225 development of, 252-253 anticipating, 76,80 fiit modem, 236 difference engine, 71 input/output equipment, 254 Leibniz’s, 4648 manufacturers, 254 Pascal’s, 4143 market for, 253 Scheutz’s, 93 Computer design, 117 Schickard’s, 38-39 Computer patent, 238-239 Census. See also Hollerith, Herman Computer Research Corporation, datacard, 125 245,254 equipment, 131 Compu ting-Tabulating-Recording Hollerith’s results, 130 Company. See C-T-R mechanization of, 123 Comrie, LJ.,95-96,147,224 operations in, 125,128 Control systems, 211,218,230,246. punched card, 126-127 See also Paper tape control Computing Before Computers 260 Control Systems (cont.) MADDIDA, 245,248 systems Meccano, 184 Analytical engine, 85-86 RDA2,185 ASCC, 216217,221 torque amplifiers, 177 ENIAC, 241 use of, 182-185 Coradi planimeter. See Planimeters Differential equations, 180. See also Coulba, 14 Differential analyzer Counting, 4 Differential gears, 160,162,164 Counting board, 10-1 1 Differential machine. See Smee, CPC, 149,246,253,255 Alfred Digital, 247 Digital calculation, 156 D Daniell, John Frederic, 109 Digital computer, inventor, 239 Davy, Sir Humphrey, 65-66 Digital versus analog techniques, 196 DeForest, Lee, 223 Disk integrator. See Integrators Dehomag, 137 Dondi, Giovanni de, 165 Delamain, Richard, 29 Duplation, 6 De Morgan, Augustus, 31, 105, 110 Durfee, B.M., 136,149 Descartes, Rene, 103 DVL. See Schreyer, Helmut; Zuse, Difference engine, 5940,62-74. See Konrad, 23 also Babbage, Charles; Comrie, L.J.; Grant, George; Scheutz difference engine; Wiberg, Martin E EM.See Tabulating machines addition mechanism, 71 Eccles-Jordan flip-flop,225,240 Babbage’s first (1822), 64 Eckert, J. Presper, 236-242 Babbage’s second, 90 Eckert, Wallace J., 147,149,153, carry mechanism, 70 214,224,244 consauction of, 65,67 Eckert-Mauchly Computer design, 68-72,74 Corporation, 239,245 government support, 66 Edison, Thomas, 223 importance of, 95-96 EDVAC computer, 243,254 hdner’s description, 92 Ehrenfest, Paul, 117 limitations, 75 Electric accounting machine. See logarithm tabulation, 73-74 tabulating machines number register, 70 Electro-biological machine, 109 operation, 70-72 ElectroData, 245,254 origins, 62 Electromagnetic technology. See printing results, 65,73-74 Relay size, 70 Electronic calculators, 223-249 speed of, 64 Electronic Numerical Integrator and spin-offs, 67 Computer. See ENIAC Differences, method of. See Electronic technology, 218,223-249, Difference engine 252. See also Schreyer, Helmut; Differentialanalyzer, ix, 179-185, Zuse, Konrd, 22 189-190, 193,237,253. See also reliability of, 220.242-243,246 Analog computing devices versus relays, 224 accuracy, 180,183-185 Engineering Research Associates, components, 181,183,185 220,255 invention of, 174,176-177 ENIAC, ix, 226,236-242 Index 26 1 circuit, 240 M-9 antiaircraft, 192 components, 240-24 1 use of, 187 control system, 241-243 Gunter, Edmund, 27-29 influence of, 236,243 Gunter’s line of numbers, 28-29 modification of, 242-243 origins, 236-237,239 reliability, 242 H Halting problem, 119 speed, 24 1 Hamilton, Frank, 244 use, 242 Hanzawa, Masao, 117 vacuum tubes, 240 Harley, Reverend Robert, 108 Enigma, 236. See also Colossus Harmonic analyzer, 158, 172-176, machine 180 ERA, 220,255 Harmonic synthesizer, 172, 177 Euler, Leonhard, 112 Hartree, Douglas R., 184 European abacus, 8 Harvard calculating machines, ix, 213-219. See also ASCC origins, 214 F Feedback, 180,182 Harvard Mark 11, 111, IV, 218,221 Felt, Dorr E., 54,59 Hatchet planimeter. See Planimeters Fibonacci, 10 Heath Robinson. See Colossus Fleming, J.A., 223 machine Flint, Charles, 136 Hermann, Herr, 167 Flip-flop, 225,240 Heron of Alexandria, 100-101 Flowers, Thomas H., 233,235 Herschel, John, 60,62 Ford, E.A., 136,140 Hindu-Arabic numerals, 10 Ford, Hannibal, 187 Holbach, Baron d’, 104 FORTRAN, 255 Hollerith, Herman, 122-134, 136. Foster, William, 29-30 See also Census; Punched-card Fourier analysis, 172, 179 machinery Frege, Gottlob, 106 competition with Powers, 137 Fuller’s slide rule, 33, 196 Hollerith Electric Tabulating System. See Punched-card machinery; Tabulating machines G Galvani, Luigi, 109 Hopper, Grace, 217,221 Gang punch, 125 Geheimschreiber. See Colossus machine I IBM. See also ASCC; &en, Gelosia multiplication, 17-18 Howard; C-T-R Hollerith, Genaille, Henri, 20 Herman; Tabulating Machine Genaille-Lucas rulers, 20-23 Company; Watson, Thomas J. Gerbert, 35 competition with Remington Godel, Kurt, 117 Rand, 142,151 Gonnella, Tito, 167 founding, 137 Grant, George, 94 growth of, 138 Gunnery computers, 162,166, punched-card
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  • Mechanical Calculator (Edited from Wikipedia)

    Mechanical Calculator (Edited from Wikipedia)

    Mechanical Calculator (Edited from Wikipedia) SUMMARY A mechanical calculator, or calculating machine, was a mechanical device used to automatically perform the basic operations of arithmetic. Most mechanical calculators were comparable in size to small desktop computers and have been rendered obsolete by the advent of the electronic calculator. Surviving notes from Wilhelm Schickard in 1623 report that he designed and had built the earliest of the modern attempts at mechanizing calculation. His machine was composed of two sets of technologies: first an abacus made of Napier's bones, to simplify multiplications and divisions. And for the mechanical part, it had a dialed pedometer to perform additions and subtractions. A study of the surviving notes shows a machine that would have jammed after a few entries on the same dial, and that it could be damaged if a carry had to be propagated over a few digits (like adding 1 to 999). Schickard abandoned his project in 1624 and never mentioned it again until his death eleven years later in 1635. Two decades after Schickard's failed attempt, in 1642, Blaise Pascal decisively solved these particular problems with his invention of the mechanical calculator. Helping his father as tax collector in France, Pascal designed the calculator to help in the large amount of tedious arithmetic required.; it was called Pascal's Calculator or Pascaline. Thomas' arithmometer, the first commercially successful machine, was manufactured two hundred years later in 1851; it was the first mechanical calculator strong enough and reliable enough to be used daily in an office environment. For forty years the arithmometer was the only type of mechanical calculator available for sale.