Non-wood forest products 81 (FAO) Chapter 10 10. Non-wood forest products

ABSTRACT Non-wood forest products (NWFP) are a major source of food and income. However, few countries monitor their NWFP systematically, so an accurate global assessment is difficult. This chapter provides a summary of NWFP for which data have been collected and describes the most important NWFP in each region, with estimates of economic value where available. Some of the major problems associated with collecting and analysing data on NWFP are discussed, and suggestions for improving this situation are advanced.

INTRODUCTION Non-wood forest products (NWFP)24 play an NWFP have taken place in the last few years, important role in the daily life and well-being of assessment of NWFP and the resources that millions of people worldwide. NWFP include provide them is still a difficult task. This products from forests, from other wooded land difficulty is party attributable to the multitude and and from trees outside the forest. Rural and poor variety of products; the many uses at local, people in particular depend on these products as national and international levels; the multiplicity sources of food, fodder, medicines, gums, of disciplines and interests of different ministries and construction materials. Traded products and agencies involved in NWFP assessment and contribute to the fulfilment of daily needs and development; the fact that many NWFP are used provide employment as well as income, or marketed outside traditional economic particularly for rural people and especially structures; and the lack of common terminology women. Internationally traded products, such as and units of measurement. , , , gums, aromatic oils and medicinal plants, contribute to economic METHODS development. However, most NWFP are used for Monitoring and evaluation of the entire variety of subsistence and in support of small-scale, forest resources providing NWFP in a given household-based enterprises. country are not technically or economically Despite their real and potential importance, feasible. Thus, the approach used for FRA 2000 national institutions do not carry out regular was to identify and describe products of national monitoring of the resources or evaluation of the relevance for which monitoring and evaluation socio-economic contribution of NWFP as they do are most urgently needed. Highlighted are for timber and agricultural products. In the FAO products widely used on national markets or Yearbook of Forest Products, for example, gathered for export. The selection of relevant statistical data on products such as cork, , products should help countries to focus their first bamboo and various oils were covered for the efforts on improved data collection for major period 1954 to 1971 only. Today, countries that NWFP. monitor NWFP utilization at the national level In order to evaluate the socio-economic remain the exception. importance of NWFP utilization, available The past decade has witnessed greatly information for each country was reviewed and increased interest and activities concerning compiled in a standard format. Key information There are a variety of definitions for non-wood forest products (NWFP) and the related terms non-timber forest on products and their resources and economic products (NTFP) and non-wood goods and services (NWGS) value was collected and aggregated at the national corresponding to different perceptions and different needs. For level. The aim is to assist the national institutions the purposes of this paper, the following definition of NWFP of FAO member countries in collecting, is used: “Non-wood forest products are goods of biological origin other than wood, derived from forests, other wooded compiling and analysing relevant data and lands and trees outside the forests” (FAO 1999e). national-level statistics on NWFP for improved NWFP, especially with regard to their social and policy formulation. economic role. Numerous ongoing projects Specific preparatory activities for the collation promote NWFP use and commercialization as a of country-based data on NWFP were started by means of improving the well-being of rural FAO as part of FRA 2000. The difficulty of populations and while conserving existing forests. collecting globally comparable information on Countries are increasingly encouraged to non-wood goods and forest services, which are monitor their forest resources, including attributes often site-specific and highly diverse in their such as biological diversity and NWFP and their characteristics, was recognized by the Expert use. Although significant advances in research on Consultation on Forest Resources Assessment both the socio-economics and the biology of 2000 (Kotka III) in 1996. These difficulties were further confirmed when countries were requested studies were commissioned in selected to report on their NWFP; developed and countries under the UNECE/FAO Partnership developing countries alike found it very difficult Programme in order to collect data available to provide comprehensive and accurate within the country. Finally, data validation was information. done in regional workshops by national experts. A globally applicable standard classification Eight regional workshops for data validation were system for NWFP does not exist. However, held between October 1998 and March 2000 NWFP can be classified in many different ways: (Table 10-2). according to end-use (medicine, food, drinks, The draft country profiles were discussed with utensils, etc.), by the part used (, leaves, country representatives during these workshops to bark, etc.) or in accordance with major inter- validate available information and add missing national data. No validation workshop was held for classification systems such as the countries in Asia, as data validation was done by Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding comparing country results with those from two System developed under the auspices of the previous workshops held in Asia (1992, 1994). Customs Cooperation Council. For the aims of For Europe, North America, Australia, Japan this project, NWFP were mainly classified and New Zealand, the UNECE/FAO Timber according to their end-use (Table 10-1). Section in Geneva conducted a study on non-wood A standard reporting format for collecting data goods and forest services. Data for this by country utilization was developed to cover the study were collected from officially designated following key information requirements: national correspondents by means of a the relative importance of selected NWFP and questionnaire. While the UNECE/FAO study for the status of NWFP statistics in the country; temperate and boreal countries also reports on major uses of NWFP (subsistence, trade and services provided by forest lands, including cultural values with production/trade figures); aesthetic, cultural, historic, spiritual and scientific the scientific, trade and local names (and part values, it was not possible to report on these used) of the species; services for countries in the other regions. resource base, management systems and Subregional and regional syntheses were harvesting methods (e.g. cultivated or compiled based on the country profiles. All gathered from wild origins in natural forest, documents will eventually become available both from plantations or agroforestry systems) and on the FAO Web site and as printed working impact of the present utilization on the papers. resource base; resource access and property rights; RESULTS recent trends in utilization (decreasing, stable or increasing). Africa The most important NWFP for the different If available, a qualitative assessment of the African subregions, i.e. North, West, Central, importance of services from forests (e.g. grazing, East, insular East and southern Africa, are recreation, tourism, environmental services) was medicinal plants, edible products (mainly edible also sought. Based on the above format, country plants, , bushmeat and bee products) profiles include a standardized text that provides and fodder (see Table 10-3). Products of qualitative and quantitative information on NWFP relevance for specific subregions are exudates and a standardized summary table that provides (East and West Africa), cork and aromatic plants available quantitative information. The format (North Africa), ornamental plants and living remained rather flexible across countries and animals (insular East Africa) and rattan (Central regions because of the inherent variability of Africa). NWFP are collected in all kinds of information available on NWFP. Country profiles habitats, whether in closed or open forests, also include references to the source documents woodlands (e.g. miombo woodlands in East and where the data were found as well as key contact southern Africa) or shrublands (mainly in arid sources in each country. Country profiles are zones). Many products (e.g. ) are found on the FAO Forestry Internet site derived from trees outside the forest located in (www.fao.org/forestry). agricultural fields, fallow areas or home gardens. The main sources of data consulted were Plantations have been established for species country reports to regional consultations on providing high-value products, mainly traded on NWFP held in Africa, Latin America and Asia; the world market, such as Acacia senegal or documents in the FAO series of publications on Cinchona spp. Medicinal plants are of major NWFP; country reports to the regional Forestry importance for Commissions; and project reports. In addition, in- all African regions, both for their use in country traditional medicine and for trade. In Africa, a large percentage of the population depends on (olibanum) and Somalia (, opopanax). medicinal plants for health care. The number of In insular East Africa, ornamental plants and species used is not known; in Ethiopia, for living animals are of major importance. Major example, 600 plant species are documented as ornamental plants are Trochetia boutoniana in being used in traditional medicine. This important Mauritius and Cyathea sp. ( tree), Ficus sp., role is underlined by the high ratio of traditional various orchids and aquatic plants in Madagascar. healers to Western-trained medical doctors, In 1993, 300 000 individual plants of the aquatic estimated to be 92:1 in Ghana (Kwahu District) plant Aponogeton sp., worth US$70 000, were and 149:1 in Nigeria (Benin City). exported from Madagascar. The most valuable Medicinal plants used in traditional medicine Malagasy animals in trade are reptiles and are either collected directly by the user or sold in amphibians (e.g. Mantella aurantiaca); their local markets. In addition, medicinal plants are annual export value reached US$700 000 in traded on the world market. The most important 1990-1995. African countries exporting medicinal plants Cork and aromatic plants are important in (including plants from cultivated sources) are North Africa. Thirty-three percent of the world’s Egypt and Morocco. Important internationally cork forests (Quercus suber) are located in North traded species include Thymus spp., Laurus Africa, i.e. Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia. nobilis, Rosmarinus officinalis (North Africa), However, this region only contributes 9 percent Prunus africana (East, southern and Central (30 000 tonnes) of the world cork production of Africa), Warburgia salutaris (East and southern 350 000 tonnes. In particular, Algeria has low Africa) and Harpagophytum procumbens and cork production (2 percent of world production) Harpagophytum zeyheri (southern Africa). in spite of its extensive resource, making up some NWFP provide important foodstuffs, in 21 percent of the world’s cork forests. Aromatic particular during the “hungry season” and in plants such as Thymus sp., Rosmarinus officinalis, marginalized areas. Important edible plants Acacia farnesiana and Eucalyptus spp. are include fruits (e.g. Irvingia gabonensis, Elaeis important products of Egypt, Morocco and guineensis), nuts (e.g. Vitellaria paradoxa), seeds Tunisia. In Tunisia, for example, the export of (e.g. Cola acuminata), vegetables (Gnetum essential oils reached 230 tonnes worth africanum), bark (e.g. Garcinia sp.), roots (e.g. US$3.2 million in 1996. Dioscorea sp.) and (e.g. Piper guineense). Depletion of habitat and/or overexploitation Mushrooms such as spp. and Boletus are the main threats to the resources providing spp. are mainly collected in East and southern NWFP. Overexploitation has been documented Africa. Bushmeat is an important edible product, for species such as Acacia farnesiana, Cyathea in particular in the humid parts of Central and spp, Cycas thouarsii, Gnetum africanum, West Africa. Species hunted include antelopes, Podocarpus sp., Prunus africana, Warburgia gazelles, monkeys, wild boar and porcupines. salutaris and Xylopia aethiopica as well as for and beeswax are of major importance in some species of , orchids, reptiles, birds, East and southern Africa. Ethiopia, one of the frogs, lemurs and primates. Some of these species major producing countries in Africa, exported (e.g. Prunus africana) are included in the annexes 3 000 tonnes of honey and 270 tonnes of beeswax of the Convention on International Trade in annually between 1984 and 1994. Fodder is of great Endangered Species (CITES). Non-wood forest importance in the arid and products provide an important source of income semi-arid zones. Fodder is mainly provided from for women. In Morocco, for example, extraction tree leaves, shrubs and bushes such as Acacia of edible oils from the argan tree, Argania tortilis (Zimbabwe), Khaya senegalensis, spinosa, is mainly carried out by women. Faidherbia albida and Balanites aegyptiaca (all West Africa). Forage plays an essential role in Asia animal-based production systems; in the Niger, Asia is by far the world’s largest producer and for example, tree forage contributes 25 percent of consumer of NWFP, not only because of its the fodder supply for ruminants during the dry population size but even more because of the season. traditional use of a vast variety of different Exudates are another group of products of products for food, shelter and cultural needs. major importance for sub-Saharan Africa. NWFP have been vitally important to forest- Important products include (Acacia dwellers senegal, Acacia seyal) (Table 10-4) as well as and rural communities for centuries. resins such as olibanum (Boswellia papyrifera), Local people collect, process and market bamboo, myrrh (Commiphora myrrha) and opopanax rattan, resins, fruits, honey, mushrooms, gums, (Commiphora spp.). These products are mainly nuts, tubers, edible leaves, bushmeat, lac, oil provided by three East African countries, the seeds, essential oils, medicinal herbs and tanning Sudan (gum arabic, olibanum), Ethiopia materials. Both rural and increasingly urban communities (both affluent and poor, but for it is of critical importance as a primary, different products) draw upon forests for a variety supplementary and/or emergency source of of needs. income in rural areas. There are approximately Asia is unique in that most countries in the 600 species of rattans, of which some 10 percent region have included data on production and trade are commercially used for industrial processing of major NWFP in their national statistics for (mainly furniture making). Key genera are many decades and have developed their own Calamus, Daemonorops, Korthalsia and nationally applicable definitions, terminology and Plectocomia. Indonesia hosts the bulk of the classifications for their “minor ”.25 world’s rattan resources (by both volume and The types and the relative importance of the listed number of species) and is the largest supplier of products change from country to country, but the cane, with an estimated annual production of most important products at the regional level are 570 000 tonnes. rattan, bamboo, medicinal and aromatic plants, However, Asian rattan resources are being spices, herbs, resins, mushrooms, forest fruits and depleted through overexploitation and loss of nuts, vegetables and leaves and fodder. In forest habitat. Only Indonesia, the Philippines, addition, the Philippines, Indonesia and Malaysia Malaysia and, to a lesser extent, the Lao People’s include assessments of NWFP resources in their Democratic Republic and Papua New Guinea, still national forest inventories. These NWFP have some significant rattan resources left. In the resources include rattan, bamboo, and Philippines, the latest national forest inventory essential oil-producing species like sandalwood data of 1988 show an available growing stock of (Santalum spp.) and agarwood (Aquilaria spp.), approximately 4 500 million linear metres of as well as some palm species such as Nypa rattan (all species combined). However, no fruticans, Oncosperma spp. and Metroxylon spp. follow-up rattan inventory has been made and it is (sago). presumed that most of the commercial species China and India are by far the world’s largest have been cut. The total area of rattan plantations producers and consumers of various NWFP. in the Philippines is estimated at between China produces and processes more wild products 6 000 and 11 000 ha. than any other country in the world. There is In the Peninsular Malaysian Permanent Forest growing interest worldwide in its natural Reserves the 1992 National Forest Inventory foodstuffs, traditional medicines and herbs and in estimated 32.7 million total rattan plants its handicrafts, made mainly from rattan and (irrespective of age) of which the most abundant bamboo. Thus, China dominates world trade in (about 37 percent) were Korthalsia species. Of NWFP (estimated at US$11 billion in 1994). It is Calamus species, C. manan is the most abundant closely followed by India and then by Indonesia, with around 5.9 million clumps. The rattan Viet Nam, Malaysia, the Philippines and plantation area is estimated at around 30 000 ha. Thailand. In some of the traditional rattan producing By subregion, medicinal plants are of major countries, such as China, India, Thailand, Sri importance in continental Asia, particularly for Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, Myanmar, Viet Nam the higher-elevation regions of Nepal, Bhutan, and Cambodia, the long-term sustainability of northern India and Pakistan and southwestern therattan processing industry has been undermined China. High-value medicinal plants include by the depletion of rattan stocks in natural forests. 25 In China, for example, “ all crops obtained from trees, Although some smallholder rattan gardens exist, including walnuts, apples and grapes” are by law under the investment in industrial-scale rattan plantations is Ministry of Forestry and included in the country’s forest products statistics. presently negligible, resulting in an insecure Nardostachys jatamansi, Dioscorea deltoidea and future supply. Swertia chirayta. In the drier regions in Bamboo is by far the most commonly used continental and south Asia, fodder is the main NWFP in Asia. There are more than 500 species. NWFP. Although international trade in bamboo products The rich forests of insular and Southeast Asia is still of lesser importance than trade in rattan or have traditionally been a major source of a wide medicinal plants, it has dramatically increased in variety of non-wood forest products. Those for the last decade. Unlike rattan, bamboo is moving which there is significant production and trade out of the craft industry phase and now provides include bamboo and rattan, medicines and herbs raw material for industrial products (shoots, (Ephedra sp., Anamirta cocculus, Cinnamomum construction poles, panelling and flooring products, camphora), essential oils (Styrax spp., pulp). This has important repercussions for the Pogostomon cablin, Cassia spp., Citronella sp.), bamboo resource base. Bamboo is increasingly spices, sandalwood, fruits and resins (naval stores, becoming a domesticated crop grown by farmers. copal). Harvesting of bamboo in forests is still important in Rattan is the most important internationally Myanmar and the Lao People’s Democratic traded NWFP in the world. At the local level, Republic and in remote mountain forests in northern India, central China and Viet Nam. production level of nearly 400 000 tonnes. Pine China has the largest area of bamboo forests, nuts (seeds of Pinus gerardiana, P. pinea, with an estimated area of 7 to 17 million hectares P. koraiensis and P. cembra) are an important (depending on what “bamboo forest” is defined to product with a growing and high-value market, include – from dispersed bamboo in degraded particularly in developed countries. Seeds of natural forests to full-scale plantations), mostly of chilghoza pine (Pinus gerardiana) are produced Phyllostachys and Dendrocalamus spp. Annual and exported by India, Afghanistan and Pakistan. production of bamboo poles ranges from 6 to China is the world’s largest producer and exporter 7 million tonnes (one-third of total known world of Pinus koraiensis seeds – one of the larger-seeded production). Average value of world trade in species – as well as seeds of Pinus bambooware is on the order of US$36.2 million. cembra, the Siberian equivalent of the edible China (US$20 million in 1992) and Thailand are seeds from the European Pinus pinea. Production the main suppliers; Malaysia, Myanmar, the levels vary greatly from year to year. Republic of Korea, Indonesia, Viet Nam, the Wild edible mushrooms, particularly morels Philippines and Bangladesh are minor exporters. belonging to the genus , are another Bamboo shoots supply a rapidly expanding and product of considerable economic and fashionable export market, with China the major commercial significance. Morels are prized for world producer and exporter (1.6 million tonnes culinary use, particularly as a gourmet food. of fresh shoots in 1999) followed by Thailand, Morels grow naturally in the temperate forests of with minor quantities from Indonesia, Viet Nam India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal and and Malaysia. Most bamboo shoots are produced Bhutan. Total world production is estimated at on farms. 150 tonnes. Pakistan and India are the major Since ancient times, forest-gathered medicinal producers, each producing and exporting about plants have been a key component of the 50 tonnes of dry morels annually (equivalent to traditional health systems of the region, and they 500 tonnes of fresh morels). Total world trade in still are today. Most countries maintain and have morels is on the order of US$50 million to legalized a dual system of providing both US$60 million. China is a major producer and “Western medicine” and traditional health care exporter of other wild species. The (Aryuveda, Jamu and others). Traditional health Chinese black auricular fungus (Auricularia care systems in the region recognize a long list of auricula) is well known for its quality, and1 000 about 4 000 medicinal plants of commercial tonnes are exported annually, earning importance. Some species have become active US$8 million. The annual production of Tremella ingredients in Western medicine, resulting in fuciformis often reaches 1 000 tonnes, a third of growing demand and trade. This demand has led which is exported. The annual harvest of shiitake to overharvesting of several species to the point mushrooms (Lentinus edodes) is about that some species have been listed as endangered 120 000 tonnes, accounting for 38.3 percent of by the Convention on International Trade in world production. China is the second largest Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora producer in the world with annual exports of over (CITES). It is estimated that three-quarters of the 1 000 tonnes of dried mushrooms, valued at total production is still gathered from wild US$20 million. sources. However, domestication and production Asia is also the world’s leading producer of of medicinals in home gardens is rapidly several essential oils. Total world trade in raw increasing. Total world trade in medicinal plants essential oils exceeds US$1 billion per year, but in 1992 was of the magnitude of US$171 million. the major share comes from cultivated sources. China is the biggest producer as well as exporter Major wild sources of essential oils in the region of medicinal plants, accounting for 30 percent of include sandalwood (Santalum spp.), agarwood world trade (by value) in 1991, followed by the (Aquilaria spp.), tung oil (Aleurites spp.) and Republic of Korea, the United States, India and eucalypt oils. China, Indonesia, Thailand, India Chile. Singapore and Hong Kong are the main and Viet Nam are the major suppliers of these re-exporters in Asia. oils. The extensive pine forests in the region Spices, condiments and culinary herbs are provide the resource for the collection of pine- another important group of products (although related most now come from domesticated sources) that products such as resins, seeds and constitute a significant component of world trade. mushrooms. China and Indonesia dominate the Indonesia is the largest world producer of world’s production of oleoresins (naval stores) and mace and accounts for three-quarters of world from all sources (largely Pinus spp.), which production and export. Indonesia produced 15 800 ranges between 1.1 and 1.2 million tonnes tonnes of nutmeg during 1990. World trade in annually. China has emerged as the world’s is between 7 500 and 10 000 tonnes largest producer of resin, with an annual annually. Sri Lanka contributes 80 to 90 percent, most of the balance coming from Seychelles and covering by Coccus lacca, a scale insect that Madagascar. The world trade in cassia is on the feeds on certain trees in India and southern Asia. order of 20 000 to 25 000 tonnes annually, of Viet Nam’s annual exports average around which Indonesia accounts for two-thirds and 300 tonnes. China produces about 3 000 tonnes. China most of the remainder. Minor producers include Viet Nam and India. About 2 000 to 3 000 tonnes of cassia bark are exported from Viet Nam The most important NWFP in South America are annually. Europe, the United States and Japan are edible products (food and drinks such as Brazil the major markets. nuts, fruits and palm hearts, palm wines, Products of lesser importance include sago, mushrooms and maté), resins, latexes and illipe nuts, bird nests, karaya gum, kapok and essential oils (pine resins, and . Sago is starch obtained from the stem of ), medicinal plants, fibres and the sago palm (Metroxylon spp.). Indonesia is the construction materials (palm fibres, bamboo), major producing and exporting country. During fodder, colourants and tannins (see Table 10-5). 1991, Indonesia exported 10 108 tonnes of sago In the Amazon region, the most well-known flour and meal to Japan, Hong Kong and edible products, with a considerable domestic, Singapore, valued at US$2.32 million. Malaysia regional and international market, are Brazil nuts also produces small volumes. and palm hearts. Brazil nuts are still collected Illipe is the commercial name for the almost entirely from wild sources of Bertholletia winged fruits produced by about 20 different excelsa in Bolivia, Brazil and Peru and are amajor species of Shorea trees. The seeds from these component of the extractive economies of fruits contain an oil whose chemical and physical these countries. While they represent only a small properties are remarkably similar to those of percentage of the world edible nut trade, they . Large quantities of illipe nuts are bring considerable revenue to the producing collected and sold to be used in the manufacture countries. Bolivia is the largest world exporter of of chocolate, soap and cosmetics. Indonesia Brazil nuts. dominates world trade in illipe nuts, exporting zThe production of palm hearts is about 15 000 tonnes annually, worth about concentrated mainly in the tropical areas of US$8 million. Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana Bird nests are built by two species of cave-dwelling and Peru. Palm hearts are extracted from wild swiftlets, Collocalia fuciphaga and stands of Euterpe oleracea and Euterpe C. maxima, in Malaysia and Thailand. These are precatoria or from cultivated palm species like collected for sale to the Chinese market at home Bactris gasipaes. In the Amazon region the fruits and abroad. Malaysia is the major producer and of these palms also play an important role in food exporter of bird nests. Malaysian exports during and drink. 1991 totalled 18.6 tonnes, mainly to Hong Kong, Other important palm species (at both the Singapore, Japan and China (Taiwan), valued at subsistence and commercial level) from which around US$1 million. edible seeds and industrial oils are produced Karaya gum, also known as Indian tragacanth, include Orbignya phalerata, Mauritia flexuosa is obtained from tapping trees of the genus and Jessenia bataua. Several tree species such as Sterculia. India is the only major producer. Total Platonia insignis, Myrciaria dubia, Theobroma world production is about 5 500 tonnes per grandiflorum and Couepia longipendula also annum. produce edible fruits or nuts of local importance. Kapok is a mass of silky fibres in the fruit of Seeds of Araucaria angustifolia (Argentina and the ceiba tree (Ceiba pentandra), used as a filling southern Brazil) and Araucaria araucana for mattresses, life preservers and sleeping bags (Argentina and Chile) are commonly used for and as insulation. The tree grows in many South food. Asian countries (as well as on the Pacific islands In Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay and southern and in Africa and Central America). Thailand and Brazil, the leaves of Ilex paraguariensis are used Indonesia are the main suppliers in the world to brew maté, an extremely popular tea-like trade. Japan, China, the European Union and the beverage. This plant has been moved from its United States are the major markets. During natural habitat in forest ecosystems (in the Alto 1992 the total value of world trade was about Paraná region, Alto Uruguay region and US$11 million, of which about 66 percent was northeastern Argentina) into large-scale contributed by Thailand and 16 percent by plantations, especially in Argentina and Brazil. Indonesia. Mushrooms (particularly Boletus luteus and Thailand and India dominate world trade in Lactarius deliciosus), growing mainly in shellac, each exporting, on an average, about plantations of Pinus radiata, are a major item in 6 000 tonnes per annum. Shellac is produced from domestic and export markets, for example in lac, a gummy substanced produced as a protective Chile. Rosewood (Aniba rosaeodora), andiroba species) are sources of natural colourants. Peru is (Carapa spp.) and (Ocotea pretiosa) are the main producer of both. A red colourant essential oil-producing species with commercial (carmine) is produced from the extract of value. Chile is an important producer and exporter cochineal. In Peru, production of annatto is export of eucalyptus oil (from Eucalyptus globulus and oriented and is very heavily dependent upon the other Eucalyptus species). Chilean harvesting of wild trees. By contrast, Brazil (Gevuina avellana) and musk rose (Rosa produces annatto to meet local demand of several moschata – cultivated) are other oil-producing thousand tonnes annually. Supplies are mainly species. Cumaru (Dypterix odorata) is dependent upon small farmers. Peru is the world’s commercially exploited in Brazil as a flavouring largest producer of tara agent. fruits (Caesalpinia spinosa) for the extraction of extracted from Hevea brasiliensis, tannins (80 percent of world production). indigenous to the Amazon region, is the basis for Production is mainly from natural stands but in the production of natural rubber. Other exudates part from agroforestry systems. Peru is the from tropical South America are jatobá Andean country with the largest Caesalpinia (Hymenaea courbaril), maçaranduba (Manilkara forests, followed by Bolivia and to a lesser extent huberi), sorva (Couma spp.), balata (Manilkara Chile, Ecuador and Colombia. Quebracho bidentata) and balsamo (Myroxylon balsamum). colorado (Schinopsis spp.) is a source of in Copaiba (Copaifera spp.) and dragon’s blood Argentina and Paraguay. (Croton draconoides) are used in medicine. Gum Fibres include the leaves of the palm brea (Cercidium australe) is used in Argentina for Carludovica palmata, used for the production of various industrial applications. A hard vegetable Panama hats in Ecuador. Attalea funifera and is obtained from the seeds of the carnaúba Leopoldina piassaba are sources of fibre in palm (Copernicia prunifera) in Brazil. Brazil. L. piassaba is also harvested on a small Pine resin is extracted from various Pinus scale in Venezuela and Colombia. Heteropsis spp. species. The main products derived from pine are exploited for their aerial roots in the Brazilian resin are and used in the Amazon. In non-tropical South America manufacture of adhesives, paper sizing agents, (particularly Chile), the young branches of Salix printing inks, as a solvent for paints and viminalis are split and woven for the production , as a cleaning agent and for other of furniture, baskets and other household items. purposes. Brazil, Argentina (Pinus elliottii) and are largely used in construction, Venezuela (Pinus caribaea) are commercial furniture and handicrafts in Ecuador, Colombia producers and exporter of pine resin. Brazil is the and Venezuela, with Guadua angustifolia and biggest producer of gum naval stores in South Chusquea spp. used in the Andean regions of America. Ecuador and Chile. The region has a long tradition of medicine In South America, large areas are under a based on plants. One of the legacies of the South cover of shrubs and low tree species – for American people is the bark of Cinchona species, example, the campo cerrado and caatinga of the source of the antimalarial drug . World central-eastern and northeastern Brazil, the chaco production of quinine bark is approximately in Argentina, Paraguay and Bolivia, and the arid 8 000 to 10 000 tonnes per year. Important coastal areas of Peru and Chile. In these areas the producer countries in South America are Brazil, most important economic activity is often Bolivia and Colombia. Cat’s claw (the bark of livestock raising, with livestock feeding almost tomentosa) contains alkaloids and acid exclusively on the fruits and leaves of these glycosides, several of which have plants. In the arid zones of Chile large areas are immunostimulatory, anti-inflammatory and under the cover of trees of Prosopis tamarugo and antimutagenic properties. Quillay (Quillaja Prosopis chilensis. In Peru there are saponaria) is used for the extraction of saponine approximately 1.4 million hectares of dry (mainly from the bark), which has many woodlands, predominantly covered with Prosopis applications in the drug and cosmetic industries. pallida, used for fodder and for the extraction of Chile is the most important producer of quillay in algarobina (a cocoa substitute) from the pods. South America. Boldo (Peumus boldus or Boldoa The nuts of the tagua palm ( spp.) fragrans) is an endemic tree that grows in the in northern South America produce a kind of semi-arid regions of Chile. Boldine, the active vegetable ivory which is carved for handicrafts substance extracted from the leaves, is used in and made into buttons. The production of other medicine for its analgesic, diuretic and forest seeds is also important. antirheumatic properties. In terms of forest management, there is very Annatto (obtained from dried seeds of Bixa little experience in South America with orellana) and cochineal (from the insect management of NWFP or with integrated Dactilopius coccus, feeding on certain cactus management of forests for timber and NWFP. Trials have been conducted for some species, (for Medicinal plants are by far the most example, Uncaria tomentosa and palm hearts in important. Some products, such as zarzaparilla Peru). For some species subject to high extraction roots (Smilax spp.), were already exported in large pressure, governments have set up regulations to quantities in the seventeenth century to Spain. reduce the ecological impact (for example, Costa Rica is the largest producer, with a yearly guidelines for use of Araucaria araucana in production of 170 tonnes of several species, but Argentina, measures to regulate felling of Ocotea with a growing share now of cultivated origin (at pretiosa trees in Brazil and a ban on export of raw present 50 percent). Major medicinal products are bark of Uncaria tomentosa in Peru). However, sen seeds (Caesalpinia pulcherrima), zarzaparilla most harvesting is done opportunistically and roots and balsamo (Myroxylon balsamum). In often in a predatory manner. The result is that Guatemala, the main species are calahuala wild populations of various species are threatened (Polypodium spp.), with a yearly production of 50 by overexploitation and habitat destruction. tonnes of which 30 tonnes are exported (at a value Species for which overharvesting is documented of US$140 000), and yerba de toro (Tridax include Jubaea chilensis, Araucaria araucana procumbens) with annual exports of 15 tonnes (listed in Appendix 1 of CITES), Uncaria (US$90 000). In Honduras the major species is tomentosa and Guadua angustifolia. Polypodium aureum, with yearly export value of Over the years there has been a general US$110 000. reduction of the proportion of South American The forests of the region contain more than a NWFP in the international markets, as shown by hundred tree and palm species with edible fruits, trade statistics for commercial products (for e.g. cohune (Attalea cohune) and pejibaye palms example latexes, gums, resins). The Brazilian (Bactris gasipaes) and tropical forest trees such as government agency for statistics, Instituto anono (Annona spp.), guabo (Inga spp.), zapotillo Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatistica (IBGE), (Couepia polyandra) and caimito (Chrysophyllum surveyed the production of some 34 products cainito). Costa Rica exports around 36 tonnes of based on their past economic importance. In 1980, zapote (Pouteria sapota) yearly. In El Salvador, 11 of these had economic value (i.e. production flour is made from seeds of ojushte (Brosimum value higher than US$200 000) and the total alicastrum) and from pito seeds (Erythrina production value was US$160.2 million. By 1995, berteroana); between 3 and 16 tonnes of the latter the number of products had decreased to six and are exported per year. the production value had dropped to US$65.4 is a major product of the region’s million (ITTO 1998). The decline, in many cases, tropical lowland forests. It is a latex tapped from can be ascribed to competition from synthetic the sapodilla tree (Manilkara zapota) and is used substitutes or products from domesticated for making . Sapodilla is most sources, but in some cases it is caused by the frequent in Guatemala (Petén) and Belize, where degradation of the natural resource base. tree densities in the forests vary from 24 to On the other hand, some other products have 40 trees per hectare. The high tree density is an seen a sharp rise in demand. In Bolivia, for indication of the tree’s use in pre-Columbian example, in the past ten years recorded palm heart times, when the Olmec and Maya collected the extraction increased from 11 to 4 185 tonnes. latex or possibly managed stands for local Expectations about the medicinal properties of consumption and export. Only trees with diameter Uncaria tomentosa have given rise to a boom in at breast height (DBH) greater than 30 cm can be the production of bark in recent years. tapped by law. Chicle production in Guatemala was about 1 000 tonnes per year from 1940 until Central America the 1970s, but has now dropped to some 500 The subregion that includes Central America and tonnes (valued at US$2 million in 1998) because Mexico is endowed with rich and diverse forests, of deforestation and habitat degradation. ranging from cloud forest to temperate hardwood A wide variety of plant species are used for and conifer forests to moist tropical high forests. handicrafts and construction materials, mainly As a result, the subregion has a wide variety of palms such as Desmoncus sp., Sabal spp., palma plant and animal species, providing a large chonga (Astrocaryum spp.) and bellota number of different types of NWFP. The most (Carludovica palmata). These palms provide important and common products in all countries leaves, fibres and canes comparable to rattan. of the subregion are medicinal plants, wild fruits, Export of cane furniture from Nicaragua amounts latex and handicrafts and utensils made with to US$5.7 million per year. Other handicrafts fibres of several plant species. Of local and include hats made from pita palm leaves national importance are ornamental plants (Cardulovica palmata), pine needle baskets (Guatemala, Costa Rica), fodder (El Salvador), (Pinus oocarpa) and bamboo products. An fauna products (Nicaragua), pine resin (Honduras) important handicraft in the region is sculptures and construction materials (Belize, Panama). and mouldings made from small pieces of timber species such as conacaste (Enterolobium Annual production rose from 942 tonnes in cyclocarpum) and cedro (Cedrela odorata) and 1993 to 1 648 tonnes in 1995, with export revenue from vegetable ivory (Phytelephas seemannii). of US$2 million. Other countries, including Cuba Other NWFP of national importance include and Trinidad and Tobago, also cultivate this honey (with, for example, production from Apis species. mellifera of 200 tonnes per year, valued at Important faunal foodstuffs are honey and US$3.5 million, in El Salvador); bushmeat from bushmeat. Beekeeping is an important activity in paca (Agouti paca); birds; iguanas (Iguana the Dominican Republic and Cuba. In Suriname, iguana) and garrobo (Ctenosaura similis), the dependence of indigenous people and urban including eggs and live animals (with, for inhabitants on wildlife species for protein example, approximately 350 000 green iguanas threatens many species. exported from El Salvador in 1997, valued at Construction materials, utensils and US$1 million, although increasingly of reared handicrafts are another important group of NWFP origin) and pine resin products (particularly in in the Caribbean. In Guyana, aerial roots of nibi Honduras, with annual export value of around (Heteropsis flexuosa) are used for the US$2 million). Forage from forest land is also manufacture of furniture, while roots of kufa reported to be very important, although no (Clusia spp.) are used as household items. For quantitative data are available. families in the lower Pomeroon Basin, nibi harvesting is the most important source of Caribbean income. In Santa Lucia, latanier (Cocothrinax The most important NWFP of the Caribbean 26 are barbadensis) is used in broom production. medicinal and aromatic plants, edible products Latanier is sold in rural and urban areas but faces (mainly fruits, mushrooms, bushmeat and bee competition from imported plastic brooms. In products) and construction materials, utensils and Jamaica, jippi jappa (Carludovica palmata) is the handicrafts (see Table 10-6). principal source of material from the forest for Medicinal plants are mainly used by rural making hats, bags, table mats, etc. In addition, communities. In Grenada, over 80 percent of the strips of the rose apple (Eugenia jambos) are used population uses herbal medicines. Important to make baskets and hampers. Bamboo (Bambusa aromatic plants include candlewood (Amyris vulgaris) is an important product used in Grenada balsamifera), citronella (Cymbopogon citratus), as scaffolding during construction and as a raw rosewood (Aniba rosaeodora), sassafras (Ocotea material in the production of different handicrafts. pretiosa), common hazel (Gevuina spp.), vetiver Some villages are dependent in income from these (Vetiveria zizanioides) and Eucalyptus spp. handicrafts. There is concern about the supply of Grenada is the world’s second largest producer of bamboo because of high demand. essential oils derived from the seeds of the The great expansion of the tourist sector has nutmeg tree, Myristica fragrans. Some 25 percent increased the consumption of palm leaves for of the world production comes from Grenada, thatch. In the Dominican Republic, for example, contributing around 40 percent of the country’s “palma cana” (Sabal umbraculifera) is used for export revenue. However, nutmeg exports thatch for both temporary and permanent 26 The Caribbean subregion here includes large islands (Cuba, structures. In Trinidad and Tobago, Sabal Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Trinidad mauritiiformis, Maximiliana caribea and and Tobago), small islands (Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Manicaria saccifera are used for thatching. Bahamas, Barbados, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Montserrat, Saint Europe Christopher and Nevis, Santa Lucia, Saint Kitts and Nevis, As reported in UNECE/FAO (2000) there are, in Saint Pierre and Miquelon, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, general, few reliable and systematically collected United States Virgin Islands) and continental countries data on NWFP production for most European (Belize, Guyana, Suriname). declined by nearly 50 countries. National potentials, quantities and percent from 3 362 tonnes value by product category and the volumes traded in 1986 to 1 863 tonnes in 1993 because of or consumed are poorly known and/or decreased world demand for raw nutmeg and documented in national forest statistics. A few competition from other producing countries. countries maintain some regular statistics on Important edible products are fruits such as NWFP for which harvesting permits are issued by maripa (Astrocaryum maripa) and awara the forest authorities, such as mushrooms, , (Astrocaryum segregatum) in Suriname and balata meat and hunting. Key NWFP on which (Manilkara bidentata), hog plum (Spondias data are reported include, in order of importance, mombin) and serrette (Brysonima coriacea) in Christmas trees (including production from Trinidad and Tobago. plantations on farms and from cutting in forests), The heart of the manicole palm (Euterpe mushrooms, berries and game meat. A few oleracea) is one of the most important products in countries also report on decorative foliage, cork, Guyana and the principal source of income for pine resin, herbal plants, honey and nuts Amerindian communities in the coastal wetlands. (particularly chestnuts, acorns, and includes species that are not associated with stone nuts). For nuts, herbal plants and honey, forests. Reported value is the price received by reported data on total country production include the trapper. significant outputs from agricultural lands and are Sport fishing in the region is very popular, usually reported in agricultural statistics. An although it is difficult to separate fish harvest overview of the main European NWFP for which occurring in forests. The reported harvest in the data are available is presented in Table 10-7. United States is restricted to salmon species, North America which spend part of their life in forest In Canada and the United States, a great variety of environments. The United States salmon harvest NWFP are gathered, mainly for personal use, and in 1995 was 517 000 tonnes, valued at their collection is widespread among rural US$521 million. populations. However, only a few products are included in national statistics CONCLUSION (UNECE/FAO 2000). Data collection for this study confirmed that there In Canada, reported products include is a serious lack of quantitative data at the Christmas trees, pelts and . Reported national level on non-wood forest products and data from the United States cover five products even less on the resources that provide them, with (Christmas trees, mushrooms, pelts, maple syrup the exception of Asia where there is a tradition of and commercial fish catch). Even so, the records national collection of information on NWFP on mushrooms refer to only four major species resources and consumption. Information is scarce from among 25 to 30 species that are and often mixed with agricultural production commercially used. There are no data for some statistics. Statistical data, where they exist at all, widely consumed products such as game meat and are mostly limited to selected internationally berries. traded products and, in this case, data are usually Major NWFP of the region are foodstuffs and limited to export quantities. Information on the forest plants for ornamental purposes (Table resource base and on subsistence use of NWFP is 10-8), but there is little information on production non-existent, mainly because of the multitude of sources, the number of collectors, volume or products used by local people and the technical value. Moreover, reported figures vary difficulty and high cost of measuring and considerably from year to year. For example, in reporting on them. Canada, the reported value of maple syrup Even when data exist, they are seldom based production varied from US$59.1 million in on recurrent, statistically designed surveys and 1992 to US$44.9 million in 1993. inventories, and it is therefore difficult to assess Commercial demand for mushrooms and the reliability of the information. For example, berries is increasing throughout the region. In the even in Asia much of the information is based on Canadian province of British Columbia, national inventories up to ten years out of date. A 35 mushroom species are now commercially similar problem exists for the economic value harvested. In the United States, data on associated with the products because value can be mushrooms were available from only one region calculated at different stages of production and of the country, the Pacific Northwest, processing. The data obtained from traditional wherecommercial harvest is done largely for export forestry institutions responsible for the forest markets in Asia and Europe. resources often differ from the trade data reported No data at the country level are available on by customs agencies. the production of medicinal and herbal plants National level data on the resources and on collected in the region for personal and/or production and trade (quantities and values) of commercial use. Medicinals are collected mainly major products are essential to assess the full on forest lands, but a growing share is now being contribution of the forest sector to the economy of produced through farming. the country, and for forest management and The Pacific Northwest region of the United policy development. In some cases NWFP States has a significant industry based on resource and product information is available on a processing decorative forest foliage. About one- national basis, but in most cases, the information quarter is available only for parts of the country. of its production is for export to Europe. Therefore, extrapolation is necessary but difficult. Hunting, game meat and animal trophies Because of the factors described above, as provide significant income to both private forest well as the lack of internationally agreed-upon owners and public land management agencies in terminology, concepts and clear definitions, the region. Canada produces the world’s largest statistical data on NWFP resources and number of pelts, and the United States ranks third production are not usually comparable among or (after the Russian Federation). In both countries even within countries or regions. Therefore, the data reported are for total harvest, which regional and global aggregation of production and value is very difficult. A classification systemwith Africa held in Nairobi, Kenya, unified terminology and measurements is 6-10 October 1997. needed. Collinson, C., Burnett, D. & Agreda, V. 2000. Most of the products are extracted from Economic viability of trading in natural stands in various types of forest and Peru. Chatham Maritime, Kent, UK, Natural woodland ecosystems. However, among the Resources Institute, University of Grenwich. current issues of global resource monitoring is the Cunningham, A.B. 1993. African medicinal lack of management of non-wood resources. For plants. People and Plants Working Paper products in high demand, this often leads to No. 1. Paris, WWF/UNESCO/Royal Botanic unsustainable harvest levels and the potential Gardens Kew. endangerment or extinction of the species. This Cunningham, M., Cunningham, A.B. & has serious socio-economic implications for Schippmann, U. 1997. 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