iii

Edible nuts

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations NON-WOOD0 \ -WOOD FOREST FOREST PRODUCTS PRODUCTS 55

EdibleEdible nuts

by G.E. Wickens

FOOD AND AGRICULTUREAGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITEDUNITED NATIONSNATIONS Rome,Rome, 19951995 The opinions expressed in this document are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflectreflect opinionsopinions onon thethe partpart ofof FAO.FAO.

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do notnot implyimplythe the expressionexpression ofof any anyopinion opinion whatsoever whatsoever onon thethe part of thethe FoodFood andand AgricultureAgriculture OrganizationOrganization of thethe UnitedUnited Nations concerning the legal status of any country,country, territory,territory, citycity oror area or ofof itsits authorities, authorities, orconcerningor concerning the the delimitation delimitation ofof its its frontiers frontiers or boundaries.boundaries.

M-37 ISBNISBN 92-5-103748-5

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,reproduced , stored in a retrieval systemsystem,, or transmitted inin any formform oror byby anyany means, means ,electronic, electronic, mechanicalmechanical,, photocopying oror otherwiseotherwise,, without the prior permissionpermission ofof thethe copyright owner. Applications forfor such permission,permission, withwith a statementstatement of thethe purpose and extent of the reproduction,reproduction, should be addressed to the Director,Director, Publications Division, FoodFood andand AgricultureAgriculture OrganizationOrganization ofof thethe UnitedUnited Nations,Nations, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome,Rome, Italy.Italy.

© FAO 19951995 FOREWORD

Forests offer aa varietyvariety ofof edibleedible products, ofof whichwhich edible nuts form a distinct group.

Nuts are amongamong thethe mostmost nutritionallynutritionally concentrated of of humanhuman foodsfoods andand areare an important food source for ruralrural communitiescommunities and forest dwellers.dwellers. While some of thethe edibleedible nuts support subsistence, othersothers areare ofof considerable considerable commercialcommercial importance.

However, thethe rolerole andand importanceimportance ofof edible edible nutsnuts asas aa Non-WoodNon-Wood Forest ProductProduct isis notnot adequately recognized or appreciated.appreciated. An attemptattempt is mademade here toto addressaddress thisthis deficiency.deficiency.

The document deals withwith aa representativerepresentative selectionselection ofof majormajor edibleedible nutnut producingproducing plants, minor edibleedible nutnut producingproducing plants,plants, andand potentialpotential edibleedible nutnut producingproducing plants.plants. TheThe purpose is to bringbring thethe importanceimportance ofof edibleedible nutsnuts intointo sharpsharp focus,focus, toto highlighthighlight theirtheir immenseimmense potential, to encourageencourage furtherfurther studiesstudies and researchresearch relating to edibleedible nutsnuts and toto promotepromote their development.

The draft of thisthis publicationpublication was prepared by G.E. Wickens,Wickens, previouslypreviously ofof thethe RoyalRoyal Botanic Gardens,Gardens, Kew (UK), andand itit benefittedbenefitted fromfrom thethe detaileddetailed commentscomments of G.G. Blaak,Blaak, E.H. SèneSene andand P.P. Vantomme.Vantomme. LauraLaura RussoRusso undertookundertook lightlight editingediting of the text and organized the illustrations.illustrations. Format editingediting and proofproof readingreading waswas donedone byby ElisaElisa Rubini.Rubini. OverallOverall guidance and supervision for thethe preparationpreparation andand publicationpublication of the document was provided by C.C. Chandrasekharan,Chandrasekharan, ChiefChief ofof the the Non-WoodNon-Wood ProductsProducts andand EnergyEnergy Branch.Branch. I wishwish toto express my thanks to allall ofof them.them.

I havehave greatgreat pleasurepleasure inin releasingreleasing thisthis valuablevaluable publicationpublication and feelfeel confidentconfident that itit will provide necessarynecessary impetusimpetus forfor positivepositive action.action.

Karl-Hermann SchminckeSchmincke Director Forest ProductsProducts DivisionDivision

iii CONTENTS

Page

FOREWORD 111

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS Vllvii

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. MAJOR EDIBLE NUTSNUTS 13

• Cashew or monkey nut 13 • Pistachio 16 • Sunflower seedsseeds 18 • Filbert, cob oror hazelhazel 18 • Chestnut 21 • Pecan 23 • English, Persian, European,European, Royal,Royal, Italian,Italian, Madeira,Madeira, French,French, Chile,Chile, Manchurian, CaucasianCaucasian or CircassianCircassian walnutwalnut 26 • Brazil nut 28 • Peanut or groundnutgroundnut 33 • Macadamia or QueenslandQueensland nut 33 • Almond 37 • Coconut 39

3. MINOR EDIBLEEDIBLE NUTSNUTS 43

• Pili or PhilippinePhilippine nutnut 43 • Pumpkin, squashsquash oror gourdgourd seedsseeds 44 • American beechnutbeechnut 45 • Shagbark hickory nut 46 • Butternut or white walnut 48 • Soy, soja or soyasoya beanbean 49 • Water oror hornhorn chestnut,chestnut, jesuitjesuit nutnut oror waterwater calthropcalthrop 49 • Stone or parasol pinepine nutnut oror pignoliapignolia 51

4. POTENTIAL EDIBLEEDIBLE NUTSNUTS 55

• MarulaManila oror maroelamaroela 56 • Guyana or malabarmalabar chestnutchestnut oror sabasaba nutnut 57 • Java almond; kanari or ngalingali nut 59 • Pequi, piqui,piqui, piquia-oilpiquia-oil plantplant 6060 • Castanha de galinhagalinha 6262 • Indian or tropicaltropical almondalmond 6464 • Okari nutnut 65 • Cacay, inchi,inchi, tacay,tacay, taccy,taccy, nogal, arbol, arbol de nuez, panpan de cadacada diadia oror orinoco nut 67 • Cream, paradiseparadise oror sapucaiasapucaia nutnut 69 • Yicib (new Somali orthography), ye-eb or yehebyeheb 71

Vv Page

• Tara 73 • Galo or promising nut 75 • AAvellano, vellano, Chilean nut, Chilean hazel 76 • Quandong oror native peach 77 • Argan 79 • Shea butter tree 80 • Bitter colacola,, kolakola nut 84 • Sugar plum, areng palm, ejow,ejow, gomuti,gomuti, kaongkaong 86 • Tucuma 87 • Peach plumplum,, palm chestnut,chestnut, pupunha,pupunha, pejibay(e)pejibay(e) or pejivalle 88 • BabassuBabassu,, babacu palm or aguassùaguassu 91

REFERENCES 95

APPENDICES

Appendix AA Species with edible "nuts""nuts" listedlisted byby familiesfamilies 105 Appendix BB Composition of of nutsnuts perper 100100 gg edibleedible portionportion (raw(raw unlessunless otherwise indicated)indicated) 181 Appendix CC Botanical namesnames (bold)(bold) citedcited in the texttext andand theirtheir synonymssynonyms (italics) usedused in the cited literatureliterature 185

viVI GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMSTERMS abscision scar adhesion scar accrescent inflated achene 1-seeded, coriaceous (q.(q.v.) v.) fruit acuminate (of aa leaf)leaf) apex tapering gradually or abruptly into a narrow pointpoint acute pointed adaxial (of a leaf)leaf) upper surface adventitious roots roots arising from an organ other than the root aflatoxins group ofof secondarysecondary metabolitesmetabolites produced byby AspergillusAspergillus spp.spp. commonly growing on stored food and often highly toxictoxic alternate (of(of leaves)leaves) inserted atat different levelslevels alongalong thethe stemstem oror branch,branch, ii.. ee.,., not opposite androecium male component, ii.e.,. e., stamensstamens (q.v.)(q. v.) ofof anan angiospermangiosperm flowerflower annual plant completing its life cycle within a year apetalous without petalspetals aril (of aa seed)seed) an appendage coveringcovering oror partly enclosing the seed and arising from thethe funiclefunicle (q.(q. y.)v.) armed equipped with spinesspines axil the angle between the leafleaf andand branchbranch axillary arising from thethe axilaxil (q.(q . y.)v.) beaked terminating graduallygradually inin aa hard,hard, long, straightstraight pointpoint berry a juicy fruit with seeds immersed in pulp bipinnate (of a leaf)leaf) where the primary divisions of a leaf (leaflets) of a pinnate leaf (q. v.)y.) areare themselves pinnate bony hard and very close textured and only cut with difficulty bract a small leaf subtending a flower or flower stalk bur, burrburr a rough, pricklyprickly oror spinyspiny huskhusk (q.(q. vy.),.), also commonly applied toto the entire fruit buttress a plankplank-like-like outgrowthoutgrowth ofof thethe lowerlower trunktrunk and providingproviding support caducous falling early calcifuge a plant that grows inin calciumcalcium deficientdeficient soilssoils calyx collective term for thethe sepalssepals (q.(q. v.)y.) carpel a simplesimple pistilpistil formedformed by aa fruit-leaffruit-leaf foldedfolded lengthwiselengthwise andand united by its edges (suture,(suture, q.q.v.), v.), oror oneone ofof severalseveral suchsuch united to form thethe ovaryovary cartilaginous flexible but firm and toughtough cathartic purgative catkin a closelyclosely packed,packed, bracteate, bracteate, pendulouspendulous spike (q.v.),(q. v.), usuallyusually composed of small, inconspicuousinconspicuous unisexual flowers chartaceous papery compound leaf leaf divided to thethe midribmidrib oror petiolepetiole toto formform leafletsleaflets (q.(q. y.)v.) coriaceous leathery corm a short, swollen,swollen, perennating,perennating, undergroundunderground stem corolla collective term forfor thethe petalspetals (q.(q. y.)v.) cotyledon first leaf or leavesleaves ofof thethe angiospermangiosperm embryoembryo cupule cup-shaped structure partially or completely enclosing the fruit in the Fagaceae formed from thethe fused extensions of the pedicel (q.v.)(q. v.)

viiVll cyme a typetype ofof inflorescenceinflorescence (q.(q.v.) v.) inin which eacheach axisaxis endsends in a flowerflower cypsela a fruit similar to an achene (q.(q.v.) v.) but develops from an inferior ovary and consequently includesincludes non-carpellarynon-carpellary tissue tissue.. Typical of thethe Compositae,Compositae, where the fruitfruit isis surroundedsurrounded byby hairs,hairs, pappus, (q.v.),(q. v.), derivedderived fromfrom thethe calyxcalyx deciduous eventually falling; not evergreen dehiscent opening spontaneously when ripe determinate growth ending in aa budbud dioecious with unisexual flowers (c.j(c.f monoecious)monoecious) disc a circular enlargementenlargement ofof thethe receptaclereceptacle (q.(q. y.)v.) dorsal lowerlower surface, side facing away from the main axis drupe a fleshy,fleshy, indehiscentindehiscent fruitfruit inin which the seedseed oror seedsseeds areare surrounded byby a hardened, sclerochymatoussclerochymatous endocarp (q.v.)(q. v. ) dry not fleshy ellipsoid an elliptic solidsolid elliptic oval shaped, broadest in the middlemiddle endocarp innermostinnermost layer of thethe pericarppericarp (q.(q. y.)v.) endosperm the nutritive material stored within thethe seedseed epicarp see exocarp etiology the study of thethe casualcasual agentsagents ofof aa diseasedisease exocarp the outer layerlayer ofof thethe pericarppericarp (q.(q. y.)v.) exfoliate peeling off fan palm palm with fanfan oror wedge-shapedwedge-shaped leavesleaves fastigiate a tree inin whichwhich thethe branchesbranches growgrow almostalmost verticallyvertically feather palm palm withwith pinnatepinnate leavesleaves FOB free on boardboard foliate leavesleaves divided intointo leafletsleaflets (q.(q. y.)v.) follicle a pod (q.(q. v.)y.) consisting of a singlesingle carpelcarpel (q.(q. y.)v.) usually openingopening along the innerinner suturesuture (q.(q. v.)y.) to which the seedsseeds areare attachedattached funicle the stalk attaching the ovule and later the seed to the ovary wall gametophyte the haploid generation in thethe life-cyclelife-cycle of aa plantplant geocarpic where the fruitfruit areare pushedpushed intointo thethe soilsoil byby thethe gynophoregynophore (q. (q. y.)v.) and mature glabrescent becoming glabrous (q. v.)y.) or nearly soso glabrous devoid of hairshairs gourd fruits of the Curcurbitaceae with with a a hard hard rind rind (c.j (cf pepo)pepo) gynoecium female component,component, i.e.,i.e., carpels (q.(q.v.), v.), ofof anan angiosperm flower gynophore an extensionextension of thethe receptaclereceptacle (q.(q. v.)y.) which bears thethe ovaryovary (q. v.)y.) hapaxanthic (palms)(palms) a plant which flowers only once and thenthen diesdies (c.j(c.f. pleonanthic) hastula a smallsmall flangeflange of tissuetissue atat thethe junctionjunction ofof lamina lamina (q.(q. y.)v.) andand petiole (q. v.)y.) of most palm leavesleaves haustorium a nutrientnutrient absorbing organ, often produced by a plantplant parasiteparasite hermaphrodite maremale and female organs present in the samesame flowerflower herbaceous soft, notnot hardhard oror woodywoody hull lay termterm forfor skinskin ofof kernel kernel husk lay termterm ratherrather looselyloosely appliedapplied for thethe fleshyfleshy oror fibrousfibrous outerouter cover of aa fruitfruit

Vviii III hypanthium a flatflat oror cup-shapedcup-shaped receptacle (q.(q.v.) v.) onon which the ovary isis either immersed or on the same level as thethe calyxcalyx andand corollacorolla imparipinnate (of aa leaf)leaf) leaf pinnate (q.(q.v.) v.) with an odd terminal leaflet (c.f.(c .! paripinnate)paripinnate) indehiscent (of a fruit) not opening when riperipe Indo-China region of SoutheastSoutheast Asia whichwhich includesincludes Myanmar, Thailand,Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Viet Nam and the Malay Peninsula inflorescence the arrangement of the flowers on a plantplant infructescence fruiting inflorescenceinflorescence involucre a numbernumber of bractsbracts (q.(q. vy.).) surrounding thethe base of aa flower-flower­ head, sometimessometimes persisting in fruit kernel the inner, usuallyusually edible part ofof aa nutnut (q.(q. y.)v.) oror stonestone (q.(q. v.)y.) lamina leaf blade lanceolate lance-shaped leaf leaf blade plusplus petiolepetiole (q.(q. y.)v.) leaf sheath basal part of aa leafleaf surroundingsurrounding the stemstem leaflet a leaf-likeleaf-like unit ofof aa compoundcompound leafleaf (q.(q. y.)v.) legume the fruit-pod of the Leguminosae, consisting of a singlesingle carpel, usually opening along both suturessutures (q.(q. v.)y.) into two halveshalves locule cavity of ovary or fruit loculicidal opening into the cells, when a ripe capsule splits along the back Malaysia Federation which includes Peninsular Malaysia, East Malaysia, Sabah and SarawakSarawak Malesia bio-geographical region which includes Malaysia (q. v.),y.), Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore, Brunei and Papua NewNew Guinea mastic resinresm mericarp one of the separateseparate halves or parts of a fruitfruit mesocarpmes ocarp the often fleshy or succulentsucculent middle layer ofof thethe pericarppericarp (q.(q. y.)v.) monoeclOUSmonoecious where the male and female flowers are separate but onon thethe samesame plant (c.f.(c.! dioecious)dioecious) mucilaginous a substance thatthat swells withwith waterwater to form a slimyslimy solutionsolution muricate with a surfacesurface coveredcovered by sharpsharp pointspoints or pricklesprickles oror hard,hard, sharp projections mycoplasma small, parasitic microorganisms thatthat lacklack rigidrigid cellcell wall; they are believedbelieved to be responsibleresponsible for certain yellow diseases of plants nut 1-seeded, indehiscentindehiscent (q. (q.v.), v.), fruit fruit withwith aa hard, drydry pericarppericarp (q.(q.v.) v.) nutlet a small nutnut (q.(q. y.)v.) oblong oval (q. vy.).) with parallel sidessides obovate ovate (q.v.)(q. v.) withwith thethe broadestbroadest part farthestfarthest fromfrom thethe petiolepetiole oleaginous oily operculum lid of aa pyxidiumpyxidium (q.(q. y.)v.) ovate egg-shaped with the broadest part nearest to thethe petiolepetiole ovoid solid form of ovaloval oval broadly elliptic ovary the swollen, basal part ofof aa carpelcarpel (q.(q. y.)v.) containingcontaining the ovule (q. v.)y.) or ovules ovule the immatureimmature seed beforebefore fertilizationfertilization

ix panicle inflorescence in which the axis isis divided intointo branchesbranches bearingbearing several flowersflowers pappus rig ofof hairshairs oror scalesscales roundround thethe toptop ofof CompositaeCompositae fruit paripinnate pinnate leaf (q.v.)(q. v.) withoutwithout anan oddodd terminalterminal leafletleaflet (c.f.(c.f imparipinnate) pedicel the stalkstalk attaching a flower toto thethe mainmain axisaxis ofof anan inflorescenceinflorescence peduncle general name for a flower stalk bearing either a solitary flower or aa clustercluster ofof flowersflowers peltate (of a leaf)leaf) petiole attached to the undersurface instead of thethe marginmargin pepo a type of berry (q.v.)(q. v.) withwith aa hardhard exteriorexterior derivedderived eithereither fromfrom the epicarp (q.(q. v.),y.), or, inin thethe Cucurbitaceae, fromfrom thethe receptaclereceptacle (q(q.v.). v.) perennial a plant that survives for severalseveral yearsyears perianth floral envelope consisting of sepalssepals (q.(q. v.)y.) andand petalspetals (q.(q. y.)v.) pencarppericarp fruit wallwall derived from thethe ovary;ovary; inin fleshyfleshy fruitsfruits thethe pericarppericarp is divideddivided into an outer,outer, toughenedtoughened epicarp (q(q.v.),. v.), aa fleshyfleshy mesocarp (q.v.),(q. v.), and an inner, variously thickened or membraneous endocarpendocarp (q.(q .y.) v.) petal an individual unitunit ofof the corollacorolla (q. v.),y.), interior to the calyxcalyx (q. v.),y.), usually coloured petiole stalk attaching thethe leafleaf bladeblade toto the branch or stem pinnate a leaf divided along aa commoncommon axisaxis intointo leafletsleaflets (q.(q. y.)v.) pinnatisect a leaf almost divideddivided toto thethe axisaxis intointo segmentssegments (c.f (cf pinnate)pinnate) piscicide fish poison pleonanthic (of palms)palms) method ofof flowering inin which thethe stem does not diedie afterafter flowering (c.!(c.f. hapaxanthic)hapaxanthic) pod a dry, indehiscentindehiscent (q.(q.v.) v.) fruit pome a fleshy fruit where the succulent tissues are developed from thethe receptacle (q.(q. y.)v.) pubescent covered with short hairshairs pyrene a nutlet (q.v.) or kernel (q.v.),(q.v.), the stone ofof a drupe (q(q.v.).v.) or similar fruit pyxidium seed capsule having a circular lidlid (operculum(operculum q.q. y.)v.) which fallsfalls off to releaserelease thethe seedsseeds raceme an inflorescenceinflorescence (q.(q. v.) y.) in in whichwhich thethe flowers are borneborne onon pedicels along an individualindividual axisaxis oror pedunclepeduncle (q.(q .y.) v.) rachis main axis of a compound leafleaf (q.v.)(q.v.) or inflorescence (q(q.v.).v.) receptacle the extremity of a peduncle (q.(q. v.)y.) or pedicel (q. vy.).) onon which the floral parts areare borneborne reniform kidney-shapedkidney -shaped root tubertuber a swollen rootroot or branch of a root acting as a foodfood reservereserve samara an indehiscent (q(q.v.),.v.), 1-seeded,1-seeded, wingedwinged fruitfruit samaroid like a samara (q.v.)(q. v.) sarcotesta (of palms) outer seed coat developed as a fleshy layer surrounding the rest of the seedseed schizoschizocarp carp aa dry fruit derivedderived from two oror moremore 1-seeded1-seeded carpelscarpels whichwhich divideddivided into 1-seeded unitsunits at maturity sclerenchymatous composedcomposed of strengthening tissues seed thethe product of a fertilizedfertilized ovule

x sepalsepal an individual unitunit ofof the calyxcalyx (q.(q. vy.).) exteriorexterior toto the corollacorolla (q(q.. vy.),.), usually green septumseptum (pl. septa) dividing wall septicidalsepticidal divided into compartments serrateserrate with regular, saw-like, teeth sessilesessile stalkless shellshell hard, dry pericarp (q(q.v.). v.) of a nut (q.v.)(q. v.) simplesimple (of a leaf) not divided intointo leafletsleaflets (q.(q. y.)v.) solitary palm stem not suckering spike inflorescence withwith sessile (q(q.v.). v.) flowerflowerss alongalong a simplesimple,, undivided rachis (q(q.v.). v.) stamen male reproductive organ of aa floweringflowering plantplant staminode sterile or rudimentaryrudimentary stamenstamen (q.(q. y.)v.) stigma receptive tiptip of the style (q(q.v.). v.) or, wherewhere absent,absent, carpelcarpel (q.v.)(q. v.) where the pollen is received at pollinationpollination stipule leaf-likeleaf-like or scale-likescale-like appendagesappendages,, usually atat the base of thethe petiole (q.(q. y.)v.) stolon a runnerrunner thatthat rootsroots stoloniferous with stolonsstolons (q.(q. y.)v.) stone woody endocarp (q.(q. vy.).) of aa drupedrupe (q.(q. y.)v.) strobili pine conecone style sterile portion of the carpel between the ovary (q.(q. v.)y.) andand stigma (q(q.v.). v.) suture line of unionunion (and(and eventualeventual opening)opening) of aa carpelcarpel (q.(q. y.)v.) subcordate (of a leaf)leaf) leaf base roundedrounded andand slightlyslightly notchednotched tendril a coiling,coiling, modifiedmodified plant organorgan usedused forfor climbingclimbing terminal at the end of testa outer seed coatcoat tomentose densely covered with short, softsoft hairshairs ton long ton, equivalentequivalent toto 1.0161.016 tonnestonnes tonne metric tonnetonne (one thousandthousand kilogrammes),kilogrammes), equivalent toto 0.9840.984 tonstons toothed (of aa leaf)leaf) variously and regularly indented (c(c.f.! serrate)serrate) trigonous obtusely 3-angled turgid swollen unarmed without spinesspines valve (of fruit)fruit) one of thethe segmentssegments produced by the splitting of a ripe capsulecapsule (q. vy.).) ventral upper surface,surface, sideside facingfacing thethe mainmain axisaxis vermifuge expels or destroysdestroys intestinalintestinal wormsworms

xiXl INTRODUCTION 1

Edible nutsnuts areare usedused byby mankindmankind forfor food,food, edibleedible oils, oils, spices,spices, condiments condiments or or beverages beverages.. They have beenbeen anan importantimportant foodfood sourcesource fromfrom prehistoricprehistoric times and areare amongamong thethe mostmost nutritionally concentrated ofof human foods, high in protein, oil,oil, energy,energy, mineralsminerals andand vitamins.vitamins . Nuts that areare onlyonly rarelyrarely usedused asas faminefamine foodfood havehave beenbeen excludedexcluded fromfrom thisthis presentpresent studystudy partly because ofof thethe paucitypaucity informationinformation availableavailable but mainly because they are not normallynorma!ly considered edible. NutsNuts used used solely solely for for spices spices or or condiments condiments havehave alsoalso beenbeen largelylargely excludedexcluded since theythey are usedused sparingly,sparingly, to flavourflavour food and not asas aa food;food; traditionallytraditionally they areare considered separately from edible nuts. NutsNuts thatthat areare largelylargely usedused asas commercialcommercial sourcessources of edible oil areare notnot discusseddiscussed inin anyany greatgreat detaildetail sincesince theythey areare alreadyalready adequatelyadequately dealt with inin the literature, e.g., HartleyHartley (1988)(1988) regardingregarding the oil palms Elaeis guienensisguienensis.. However,However, their locallocal usesuses areare brieflybriefly mentionedmentioned inin AppendixAppendix A.A.

Melville (1947) has, perhapsperhaps notnot unexpectedly,unexpectedly, notednoted aa correlation inin nutritivenutritive valuesvalues betweenbetween species withinwithin aa genus or family.family. There are alsoalso similaritiessimilarities to bebe foundfound betweenbetween relatedrelated species in the harvesting, storage and processing techniques,techniques, etcetc.. TheThe arrangementarrangement ofof edibleedible nut species in AppendixAppendix A is,is, therefore,therefore, byby familiesfamilies inin thethe expectationexpectation thatthat usersusers cancan comparecompare related speciesspecies andand possiblypossibly improveimprove managementmanagement techniquestechniques or deducededuce possiblepossible techniquestechniques where none are known.known.

Botanical terminology hashas beenbeen usedused wherewhere knownknown but,but, in view of the uncriticaluncritical use inin thethe literature of laymanlayman terms,terms, itit hashas notnot alwaysalways beenbeen possiblepossible to identifyidentify the true nature of thethe organs without further research andand this may have led to the wrong deduction being made in this paper. AsAs far far as as research research time time has has perrnitted, permitted, thethe currentlycurrently acceptedaccepted botanicalbotanical namename isis used within the text and these, togethertogether withwith theirtheir synonymssynonyms used in the consulted referencereferences,s, are given inin AppendixAppendix C.C.

The term "forest","forest", asas usedused inin the the titletitle of of this this report, report, embraces embraces allall the the natural natural ecosystems ecosystems where trees andand shrubsshrubs formform a asignificant significant component. component. As such,such, "forests""forests" rangerange fromfrom evergreen rainforest to desert, althoughalthough in the latter habitat the trees and shrubs are confined primarily to oases and waterways (Wickens, 1991). InIn certain areas, treestrees andand shrubsshrubs bearing edible nuts are preserved onon farmlandsfarmlands andand homesteads after land clearance and constitute the chief supplies available for householdhousehold consumption or sale; asas suchsuch theythey cancan bebe consideredconsidered as relicsrelics ofof the the natural natural ecosystems. ecosystems. There is alsoalso aa ratherrather greygrey areaarea wherewhere forestry,forestry , horticulture and agriculturalagricultural interests overlap. While nut plantationsplantations are includedincluded in thisthis report, certaincertain recognizedrecognized nutnut crops,crops, suchsuch asas peanuts,peanuts, sunflowersunflower seeds,seeds, pumpkinpumpkin seeds and soya beans are definitely agricultural crops and are not consideredconsidered in anyany greatgreat detaildetail here.here.

WHAT ARE EDIBLEEDIBLE NUTSNUTS

The botanical use of the termterm "nut""nut" refersrefers toto anan indehiscent indehiscent fruitfruit thatthat isis usuallyusually shedshed asas aa 1-seededI-seeded unit.unit. It isis formedformed fromfrom moremore thanthan oneone carpelcarpel butbut onlyonly oneone seedseed develops,develops, thethe restrest abort. The pericarp isis usuallyusually lignifiedlignified andand isis oftenoften partiallypartially oror completelycompletely surroundedsurrounded byby a "cupule"."cupule". True nutsnuts includeinclude thethe hazelnuts,hazelnuts, CorylusCorylus spp. (Corylaceae),(Corylaceae), and from thethe Fagaceae, beechnuts,beechnuts, FagusFagus spp.spp. andand acorns,acorns, QuercusQuercus spp. TheThe termterm isis alsoalso looselyloosely applied to any woody fruit oror seed,seed, suchsuch asas thethe walnutwalnut (drupe(drupe ofof JuglansJuglans spp.,spp., Juglandaceae),Juglandaceae), BrazilBrazil nut (seed(seed ofof BertholletiaBertholletia excelsa,excelsa, Lecythidaceae)Lecythidaceae) oror peanutpeanut (indehiscent(indehiscent legumelegume ofof Arachis Arachis hypogea, LeguminosaeLeguminosae subfamilysubfamily Papilionoideae).Papilionoideae) . It isis eveneven incorrectlyincorrectly appliedapplied inin thethe

1 vernacular names to non-fruiting bodies,bodies, suchsuch asas the root tubers of the pignutpignut or earthnutearthnut ConopodiumConopodiummajus majus (Umbelliferae)(Umbelliferae) andand CyperusCyperus esculentusesculentus (Cyperaceae), althoughalthough inin the latter case the root tuberstubers are eateneaten as aa formform ofof dessertdessert nut.nut. AA further further complication complication isis thatthat thethe seeds of severalseveral membersmembers ofof thethe CucurbitaceaeCucurbitaceae andand thethe sunflower,sunflower, HelianthusHelianthus annuusannuus (Compositae) areare eateneaten as dessert nuts and are includedincluded in the literature on edibleedible nutsnuts yetyet they are alwaysalways referredreferred toto bothboth botanicallybotanically andand inin thethe vernacularvernacular asas seeds.seeds.

For thethe purposepurpose ofof thisthis workwork nutsnuts areare hard-shelledhard-shelled fruits,fruits, oror thethe edibleedible kernels kernels ofof fleshy fleshy drupes or berries, oror seedsseeds thatthat areare traditionallytraditionally referredreferred toto asas nuts.nuts. TheThe firstfirst twotwo categoriescategories of nuts are thethe fruitsfruits ofof treestrees oror shrubs,shrubs, thethe thirdthird includeinclude somesome herbs.herbs. Since the value of some nuts as food isis relativerelative toto whatwhat betterbetter alternativesalternatives are available, there areare obviousobvious greygrey areas regarding whether the nut is to be regarded as edible or not and an arbitrary decision has been made as to whetherwhether aa speciesspecies shouldshould or shouldshould not be included. SomeSome 542542 speciesspecies of edible "nuts""nuts" havehave beenbeen listedlisted in Appendix A. MoreMore detailed detailed informationinformation isis givengiven inin thethe text on thethe major,major, minorminor andand potentialpotential nutnut species.species. However, researchers requiring even more information should bear inin mind that the information givengiven isis aa summarysummary ofof informationinformation obtained from a selectionselection of the publishedpublished literature, the primary sources of which have not been consulted.

While a species may conform to the general description of "edible nut" it does not follow that an allied species also bears acceptable "edible nuts", as for example with the almond, Prunus dulcis, and plum, P.P. domestica;domestica; althoughalthough childrenchildren maymay veryvery occasionallyoccasionally eat the plum kernels it has never beenbeen consideredconsidered other thanthan as aa fruitfruit crop.crop.

It isis possiblepossible thatthat aa numbernumber ofof species species havehave beenbeen omittedomitted because because the informationinformation isis not readily available or isis tootoo vaguevague whilewhile othersothers shouldshould bebe eliminatedeliminated becausebecause thethe informationinformation obtained has been misleading.misleading.

Previous authors havehave alsoalso hadhad problemsproblems inin definingdefining an edible "nut""nut" andand havehave providedprovided theirtheir own apparently arbitrary limits.limits. MenningerMenninger (1977) (1977) providesprovides thethe widestwidest definitiondefinition where a nutnut is defined "as any hard-shelled fruit or seed of which thethe kernel isis eateneaten byby mankind".mankind". ThisThis definition is so broad that even grasses and a number of herb species have beenbeen included,included, the former are generallygenerally regardedregarded asas cerealscereals whilewhile thethe latterlatter wouldwould be more appropriatelyappropriately listed under edibleedible seeds.seeds. However, all thethe authorsauthors consulted,consulted, withwith thethe exceptionexception of VerheijVerheij andand Coronel (1991), have accepted the popular or everyday useuse of the term "nut","nut", includingincluding itsits conservative useuse byby Howes (1948) toto include "any seed or fruitfruit consistingconsisting of anan edible,edible, usually oleaginous kernel, surrounded byby a hard or brittlebrittle shell".shell". Interestingly, the major authors consulted, HowesHowes (1948),(1948), MenningerMenninger (1977) and Rosengarten (1984), have, like the present author, allall mademade theirtheir ownown interpretationinterpretation as what to includeinclude or exclude as anan edibleedible nut, whilewhile VerheijVerheij andand CoronelCoronel (1991)(1991) declare "it isis notnot possiblepossible to define the edible fruits and nuts in such a wayway thatthat clearlyclearly setssets themthem apartapart fromfrom speciesspecies inin otherother commoditycommodity groups"groups" .

NUTRITIONAL VALUEVALUE

Most edible "nuts""nuts" containcontain concentratedconcentrated food reserves for future generations of plants and provide valuable sources of energy, protein, oils,oils, mineralsminerals and vitaminsvitamins suitable for human consumption. Others have their food reserves in thethe formform ofof starchstarch insteadinstead ofof protein, protein, including chestnutschestnuts -- CastaneaCastanea spp.,spp., acornsacorns -- QuercusQuercus spp.,spp., waterwater chestnutschestnuts - TrapaTrapa spp.spp.,, ye-eb - CordeauxiaCordeauxia edulis, edulis, Bambara Bambara groundnuts groundnuts - -VignaVigna subterraneasubterranea and and lotus lotus seeds seeds NelumboNelumbo

2 spp. WhileWhile Pinus Pinus spp. spp. are are protein protein rich, rich, some some members members of of the the Gymnospermae Gymnospermae suchsuch asas GinkgoGinkgo biloba and Araucaria spp.spp . alsoalso havehave starchystarchy foodfood reservesreserves (Melville,(Melville, 1947).1947).

Nuts have a reputation for beingbeing indigestible,indigestible, especially if eaten in large quantities oror poorly masticated. TheyThey are are generally generally a a highly highly concentrated concentrated foodfood butbut lowlow inin waterwater andand fibrefibre contentcontent and consequently require thorough mastication ifif theythey areare toto be properly digested, and areare preferably eaten with other foods. TheyThey havehave thethe additionaladditional value in that theirtheir fatsfats are,are, in the main, highly unsaturated and are consequentlyconsequently beneficialbeneficial in in thatthat theythey dodo not raise bloodblood cholesterol. Peanuts (Arachis hypogea), sunflower seeds (Helianthus annuus), souarisouari nutsnuts (Caryocar nuciferum)nuciferum) and soynutsoy nut (Glycine(Glycine max) are specificallyspecifically mentioned inin this context (Howes, 1948;1948; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

The nutritional value of a number of nuts are given in Appendix B.B. ItIt is is difficultdifficult toto drawdraw anyany firm conclusions from these analyses because thethe majority appearappear toto be based on aa singlesingle analysis which have beenbeen passedpassed downdown throughthrough aa numbernumber ofof publications. publications. Ecotypic andand seasonal variations, ·the.the effectseffects ofof fertilizers,fertilizers, drought, etc., havehave notnot beenbeen investigated.investigated.

HARVESTING

The harvesting ofof nuts from arborescent speciesspecies is is oftenoften of of fallenfallen nutsnuts andand asas such is generally a prolonged, laboriouslaborious andand wastefulwasteful process since fruits dodo not necessarily allall ripen within a shortshort period.period. Picking fallen fruits is timetime consuming,consuming, especially in rough terrainterrain and, dependingdepending on thethe timetime lapselapse betweenbetween consecutiveconsecutive harvestings, cancan leadlead to rapidrapid deterioration as wellwell as losseslosses to predators. PlantationsPlantations cancan improveimprove efficiencyefficiency by providing better accessibility and easier harvesting conditions and,and, provided they are large enough, leadlead to mechanized harvesting byby thethe useuse ofof groundground harvesters harvesters and/or and/or tree tree shakers. shakers. Mechanization is being increasinglyincreasingly importantimportant inin NorthNorth AmericaAmerica wherewhere labourlabour costs areare particularlyparticularly high.high.

PROCESSING ANDAND STORAGESTORAGE

This discussion is limited to the major nuts, where appropriate techniques and equipment have been developed, aboutabout whichwhich moremore detaileddetailed informationinformation can be obtainedobtained fromfrom WoodroofWoodroof (1979). ByBy dealingdealing withwith processing processing andand storagestorage inin generalgeneral termsterms itit isis hopedhoped thatthat readersreaders willwill obtain ideas for dealing withwith similarsimilar problems in the less-known and little researched species.

Many dessert nuts looseloose theirtheir palatabilitypalatability or otherwise deteriorate ifif not properly dried or cured after collection or are badlybadly stored,stored, especiallyespecially those with aa high oiloil content. AmongAmong the major nutsnuts walnutswalnuts andand chestnutschestnuts areare amongamong thethe moremore perishableperishable whilewhile pistachiospistachios and almonds are amongamong thethe betterbetter keepers.keepers.

In-shell nuts are best storedstored at lowlow temperatures.temperatures. WhileWhile rancidityrancidity isis thethe mainmain problemproblem withwith shelled nuts, thethe kernelskernels alsoalso havehave thethe abilityability toto acquireacquire off-flavoursoff-flavours fromfrom thethe environment,environment, such as tobaccotobacco andand paint.paint. Apart from rancidity,rancidity, deteriorationdeterioration during long storagestorage cancan bebe difficult to determinedetermine andand aflatoxinsaflatoxins cancan bebe presentpresent eveneven whenwhen therethere areare nono obviousobvious presencepresence of mouldsmoulds (Matz, 1984).1984).

DebuskingDehusking

Modern packaging andand marketingmarketing isis increasinglyincreasingly demanding kernels ready for immediateimmediate use, both in the home and confectionery trade.trade. HandHand processingprocessing is being replaced more and more

3 by mechanization for providing aa marketable product, especially where large-scale production isis concerned.

Most tree nuts are envelopedenveloped inin aa fleshyfleshy or fibrousfibrous outer covering or husk which mayormay or may not remain attached toto thethe nut as it ripens and falls to the ground, as is the case for suchsuch important commercial nuts as the walnut, pecan, almond and macadamia.macadamia. InIn somesome varietiesvarieties of walnut and almond the ripe nutnut readily separates from the husk of their own accord; aa fewfew nuts, termed "sticktights""sticktights" remainremain attached to their husks,husks, thethe proportionproportion depending on the cultivar. AA poor poor or or dry dry season season may may increase increase the the number number of of sticktights. sticktights.

The husk has toto bebe removedremoved eithereither mechanicallymechanically or by hand before nuts can be dried, shelledshelled or otherwiseotherwise processed.processed. WalnutsWalnuts especially especially mustmust bebe dehuskeddehusked as soonsoon as theythey areare collected,collected, otherwise the colour andand qualityquality ofof thethe kernelkernel willwill bebe progressivelyprogressively adverselyadversely affectedaffected thethe longer the husks remainremain (Howes,(Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984) .

Washing

Nuts gathered from the groundground areare frequentlyfrequently soiled or dirty, especiallyespecially after rain, soso thatthat washing is necessary in order toto makemake thethe productproduct moremore attractiveattractive for thethe market.market. Again, hand washingwashing inin tubstubs oror machinemachine washingwashing inin cylindricalcylindrical drumsdrums maymay bebe carriedcarried out.out. Any staining or discoloration isis notnot affectedaffected byby thethe washingwashing andand isis removedremoved atat aa laterlater stagestage duringduring bleaching (Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Drying and dehydratingdehydrating

Artificially produced heatheat andand forcedforced draughtsdraughts areare nownow increasinglyincreasingly replacing sun-drying for the dryingdrying oror "curing""curing" ofof nuts, nuts, especially especially by by large-scale large-scale commercialcommercial producers.producers. Outputs range from 1-71-7 tornestonnes forfor aa dryingdrying timetime ofof 12-2412-24 hourshours at, inin thethe casecase ofof walnuts,walnuts, notnot moremore than 43°C.43 ·C. SuchSuch mechanical mechanical dryers dryers areare not not only only independent independent ofof the the weatherweather butbut alsoalso givegive a moremore thoroughthorough andand uniform drying of the nuts and, in the case of walnuts,walnuts, result in lessless splitting. InIn America America mechanical mechanical drying drying has has been been found found toto increaseincrease packing-housepacking-house efficiencyefficiency by stabilizing the delivery rate fromfrom the growersgrowers andand to aid marketing by providing an earlier product. TheThe investment investment costs costs did did not not exceed exceed the the high high labour labour cost cost ofof sun-drying. sun-drying.

Sun-drying is still largelylargely practisedpractised byby smallsmall producers,producers, particularlyparticularly withwith almondsalmonds inin thethe producing countries ofof Europe.Europe. It requiresrequires a highhigh labourlabour inputinput to spreadspread thethe nutsnuts outout onon sheets or inin trays,trays, stirringstirring frequentlyfrequently toto ensureensure uniformuniform drying,drying, andand also toto provideprovide protection at night or inin thethe eventevent ofof rain.rain. Drying is completed when thethe kernels can be heard to rattle inin the shellsshells or can be broken rather than bentbent withwith thethe fingers.fingers. DryingDrying maymay require only 2-32-3 daysdays withwith continuouscontinuous hothot sunsun oror taketake 2-32-3 weeksweeks inin inclement inclement weather.weather. Similarly, chestnutschestnuts inin southern Europe were traditionally sun-dried or dried over a wood fire in a speciallyspecially constructed kiln. AA slowslow process,process, itit maymay taketake severalseveral weeksweeks andand aa heavyheavy fuelfuel input to achieve,achieve, althoughalthough the smokesmoke isis reputedreputed toto havehave aa beneficialbeneficial effecteffect inin inhibitinginhibiting subsequent fungal infestation but the process results in the lossloss of thethe freshfresh chestnutchestnut flavourflavour and thethe chestnutschestnuts maymay eveneven acquireacquire aa disagreeable disagreeable one.one. The curingcuring isis completecomplete whenwhen thethe shells may bebe easilyeasily separatedseparated fromfrom thethe kernels.kernels. Modern,Modern, mobilemobile mechanicalmechanical dryers nownow provide a fasterfaster andand moremore uniformuniform dryingdrying withwith aa greatergreater economyeconomy inin fuelfuel (Howes,(Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

4 Bleaching

Some nuts intendedintended forfor marketingmarketing in-shellin-shell maymay havehave theirtheir appearanceappearance enhancedenhanced byby bleachingbleaching to removeremove stainsstains duedue toto sunsun scorchscorch andand disease;disease; walnutswalnuts areare frequentlyfrequently thusthus treatedtreated byby immersion for 1-21-2 minutesminutes inin aa bleachingbleaching solution.solution.

Sulphur dioxide or burningburning sulphursulphur may be used,used, particularlyparticularly forfor almondsalmonds thatthat havehave beenbeen blemished duringduring harvestingharvesting oror drying,drying, butbut this is practised lessless soso now than in the past.past. Good quality almonds that have been quickly sun drieddried areare alreadyalready of an attractiveattractive appearanceappearance and require no bleaching.bleaching. OverOver bleaching bleaching can can give give thethe shellsshells aa sicklysickly whitewhite appearanceappearance andand is liableliable toto softensoften themthem andand flavourflavour thethe kernels;kernels; tootoo littlelittle causescauses irregularirregular bleaching.bleaching.

Pecans can be considerablyconsiderably improved by removing the outer rough layer and polishing,polishing, a process which, ifif required,required, makesmakes thethe nutsnuts moremore responsiveresponsive toto bleachingbleaching and drying.drying. The outer layer maymay bebe removedremoved byby steelsteel brushesbrushes oror byby thethe useuse ofof revolving revolving drumsdrums containingcontaining coarse sand. BleachingBleaching isis effectedeffected byby dippingdipping the nuts for 4 minutes in,in, for example, sodium hypochlorite containing 2%2 % active chlorine.chlorine. VariousVarious dyes dyes maymay bebe usedused toto colourcolour thethe polishedpolished and bleached nuts an attractiveattractive brownbrown or reddishreddish brownbrown (Howes,(Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, 1977;1977; RosengartenRosengarten,, 1984).1984).

Grading

Mechanical graders, suchsuch asas aa perforatedperforated revolvingrevolving cylinder,cylinder, areare commonlycommonly usedused toto sortsort nutsnuts into various sizes, thethe smallersmaller nutsnuts beingbeing thethe firstfirst toto fall.fall. Pecan nuts, due to their ovoid or oblong shape, requirerequire specialspecial gradersgraders consistingconsisting of variouslyvariously spaced rollersrollers..

ImperfectImperfect,, faultyfaulty oror brokenbroken nutsnuts maymay bebe removedremoved byby handhand asas thethe nutsnuts passpass alongalong a continuouscontinuous belt. AA suction suction machine machine maymay alsoalso bebe usedused toto liftlift blankblank oror imperfectlyimperfectly filled nuts over a trap while the heavierheavier nutsnuts passpass on.on. The low specificspecific gravity of GradeGrade 11 macadamiamacadamia kernelskernels allows them to be removedremoved by floatation in ordinary water. GradeGrade 22 maymay bebe removed removed usingusing 30 g of saltsalt inin 11 litre ofof water,water, withwith GradeGrade 33 sinkingsinking toto thethe bottom.bottom. The nuts are thenthen thoroughly dried (Howes,(Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Storage

Most nuts can be satisfactorilysatisfactorily storedstored for severalseveral months provided they are kept cool and dry. Many nuts areare storedstored inin thethe shellshell forfor longerlonger periodsperiods butbut therethere isis nownow aa trendtrend towardstowards thethe coldcold storage of shelledshelled nutsnuts oror kernels.kernels. Although requiringrequiring moremore spacespace,, the best resultsresults areare obtained by storingstoring inin moisturemoisture proofproof containerscontainers after thorough dehydration. Cold storage inin open receptacles can result inin anan uptakeuptake of odours such as ammonia, a loss of colourcolour,, flavourflavour and texture and the possible development ofof rancidity.rancidity. ColdCold storagestorage in vacuumized containers or the use ofof inertinert gasesgases appearappear toto offeroffer littlelittle advantageadvantage over cold storage for a similar period.

Commercial cold storage is generalgeneral practicepractice withwith thethe pecan.pecan. Better prices can bebe obtainedobtained by holding the nutsnuts inin storestore forfor somesome timetime afterafter harvestingharvesting andand thethe higherhigher pricesprices moremore thanthan offset the cost of storage.storage. It may also be profitable toto hold aa portionportion of a heavy cropcrop in store in thethe expectationexpectation thatthat thethe followingfollowing cropcrop willwill bebe smallersmaller andand thethe priceprice higher.higher.

Freshly gatheredgathered chestnutschestnuts havehave aa highhigh moisturemoisture contentcontent andand consequentlyconsequently proneprone toto fungalfungal attack. Stored in smallsmall heaps or shallowshallow layers in anan airyairy storestore walledwalled onon threethree sidessides andand periodically turned over, they will keep perfectly forfor upup toto 33 monthsmonths oror longer.longer. IfIf stored stored tootoo

5 dry or inin aa singlesingle layerlayer thethe kernelskernels willwill shrivelshrivel andand becomebecome hard.hard. The onset of mould, asas well as harmful grubsgrubs andand insects,insects, duringduring storagestorage maymay bebe preventedprevented by immersingimmersing the fresh chestnuts in a solutionsolution of aa fungicidefungicide for 4848 hours.hours. Gas treatment in autoclavesautoclaves has beenbeen effectively usedused in France;France; chestnutschestnuts havehave alsoalso beenbeen successfullysuccessfully held in coldcold storage.storage. Chestnuts placed in layers of sandsand and kept cool keep well and retain their germinability butbut may become less palatable.palatable.

Cob nuts are sometimessometimes stored inin sawdust,sawdust, whichwhich helps to prevent shrivelling (Howes(Howes,, 1948;1948; Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Cracking

The mechanical cracking of nutsnuts isis becomingbecoming increasinglyincreasingly important,important, nevertheless,nevertheless, large quantities of some kernels are stillstill extractedextracted laboriously by hand in some countries, such as the cashew in IndiaIndia andand thethe almondalmond inin thethe MiddleMiddle East.East. Mechanical crackingcracking is faster butbut usually results in aa higherhigher percentagepercentage ofof brokenbroken kernelskernels which,which, fortunately,fortunately, usually finds aa ready outlet inin thethe confectioneryconfectionery trade.trade.

Power-driven, self-feedingself-feeding nut-cracking machines requirerequire gradinggrading forfor size before being fedfed to the crackingcracking jawsjaws oror rollersrollers withwith specialspecial shakingshaking devicesdevices toto separateseparate thethe kernelskernels fromfrom thethe broken shells.shells. TheThe kernels kernels maymay stillstill havehave toto passpass alongalong aa continuouscontinuous belt for broken kernelskernels and other debris toto bebe removedremoved byby hand.hand.

Individual pecan nuts are comtnonlycommonly picked up in cups on an endlessendless chain passing through a hoppere of gradedgraded nuts.nuts. Each nut passes to a slot where a piston-likepiston-like rod exerts pressure at the end ofof thethe nutnut andand crackscracks it,it, thethe shellsshells andand kernelskernels thenthen beingbeing releasedreleased toto aa receptaclereceptacle below. VeryVery dry dry pecans pecans often often shatter shatter badlybadly withwith thisthis treatment;treatment; prior wettingwetting can reduce this problem, thethe kernelskernels beingbeing redriedredried afterafter shelling.shelling.

The varyingvarying differencesdifferences in thethe thicknessthickness andand texturetexture ofof thethe macadamiamacadamia shellshell hashas createdcreated problems in thethe developmentdevelopment of aa suitablesuitable machinemachine for crackingcracking the shellshell withoutwithout damaging the brittle kernel as therethere isis lessless thanthan 0.4 mmmm clearanceclearance between thethe two.two. TheThe currentcurrent vice-vice­ like design employs thethe principleprinciple ofof thethe nutnut beingbeing heldheld betweenbetween twotwo bluntblunt movablemovable wedges.wedges.

Special cracking machines are alsoalso usedused forfor pinepine nutsnuts wherewhere thethe demanddemand isis almostalmost entirelyentirely for kernels.kernels.

The tough leatheryleathery shellshell ofof thethe cashewcashew isis overcomeovercome by preliminary roasting, thusthus makingmaking thethe shell brittle andand responsiveresponsive toto cracking,cracking, asas wellwell asas lesseninglessening thethe dangerdanger ofof blisteringblistering fromfrom thethe caustic oils in thethe fruit.fruit. The roastingroasting is usuallyusually done by hand,hand, placingplacing smallsmall quantitiesquantities ofof kernels in an openopen ironiron panpan overover aa smallsmall circular earthenware furnace.furnace. CareCare isis requiredrequired toto avoid overcookingovercooking or charringcharring ofof thethe kernels,kernels, whilewhile withwith undercooking,undercooking, thethe shellshell remainsremains tough. Attempts at usingusing roastingroasting ovensovens havehave beenbeen unsuccessful,unsuccessful, resultingresulting inin discoloureddiscoloured kernelskernels.. ShellingShelling is is byby hand; hand; in in southwestern southwestern IndiaIndia aa woodenwooden malletmallet andand aa flatflat stonestone isis usedused to crack thethe shell,shell, afterafter whichwhich thethe kernelkernel isis sometimessometimes removedremoved with a wirewire prong.prong. The kernels are thenthen spreadspread outout onon wirewire gauzegauze traystrays in aa hot-airhot-air roomroom underunder controlledcontrolled temperature in order toto loosenloosen thethe pinkpink oror reddish-brownreddish-brown skinskin beforebefore removalremoval andand alsoalso toto remove any excessexcess moisture.moisture.

6 The oyster nut cannot be cracked in the ordinary way due to its tough, leathery, fibrous shell. However,However, the shell is easyeasy toto cutcut andand aa slitslit isis mademade aroundaround thethe edgeedge ofof thethe disc-shapeddisc-shaped nut with a knife.

A Chinese method of cracking hard-shelled nutsnuts isis toto heat them in burning straw and then cool rapidly withwith coldcold water.water.

The shells, whichwhich were formerlyformerly regarded as a wastewaste product for fuel, now have a numbernumber of industrial usagesusages.. CleanedCleaned andand groundground toto aa finefine powder,powder, thethe shellsshells ofof walnuts,walnuts, coconuts,coconuts, Brazil nuts and almonds have been used as an extender oror filler in the manufacture of certain plastics and syntheticsynthetic adhesives and is oftenoften consideredconsidered superior to thethe softwoodsoftwood floursflours commonly used.used. TheThe coarser coarser grades grades of of walnut walnut shell shell powderpowder havehave beenbeen utilizedutilized asas cleanerscleaners and finishers in the fur,fur, metal,metal, tinplatetinplate andand otherother industries;industries; other uses are inin linoleum,linoleum, jointless flooring, andand asas aa carriercarrier forfor horticultural horticultural insecticidesinsecticides (Howes,(Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, 1977; Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Cooking and salting

Some nuts areare traditionallytraditionally eateneaten cookedcooked andand salted.salted. Peanuts and chestnuts are normallynormally cooked before eating, whilewhile almondsalmonds are preferred roasted or toasted and salted, likewise the macadamia nut. Cooking definitely reduces the terebinthine or turpentine flavour inin pinepine nuts.

The large, plumpplump gradesgrades areare usedused forfor roastedroasted oror toastedtoasted almonds;almonds; roastingroasting oror cookingcooking inin oiloil is said to produce the best flavour. AA common common method method ofof salting salting isis byby immersionimmersion inin aa strongstrong brine solution before allowing the almonds to drain and dry.

In Hawaii macadamia nuts are preferred cooked andand salted,salted, eithereither byby roasting inin an oven or immersion in a vat of hot oil, thethe latterlatter method is the preferred commercial method as it gives the nut an attractive gold-brown colour.colour. RefinedRefined coconut oil is generally usedused and,and, becausebecause the hot oil tends to corrode manymany ofof thethe commonercommoner metals,metals, thethe vatsvats areare mademade ofof monelmonel metal,metal, stainless steel or glass.glass. Excess oil is removed centrifugally andand thethe nutsnuts laidlaid outout to cooloncool on wire mesh trays, beingbeing saltedsalted while they are stillstill luke warm, using a 15%15 % solutionsolution ofof gumgum arabic or aa specialspecial oiloil toto enableenable thethe saltsalt grainsgrains toto adhereadhere moremore readilyreadily toto thethe nut.nut. As thethe cooked nuts tend to be hygroscopic,hygroscopic, they are vacuum packed asas soon asas they are cool.

Cashew nuts are alwaysalways marketedmarketed cooked as the roasting procedure to render the shell more easily removable automatically cookscooks the the kernel. kernel. TheThe risk ofof contactcontact with the caustic sap in the fresh fruit isis alsoalso removedremoved (Howes,(Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

ECONOMICS ANDAND MARKETINGMARKETING

Successful marketing maymay be defined as identifying whatwhat thethe consumer requiresrequires oror can be educated toto require and toto supplysupply thatthat requirementrequirement at aa profit.profit. The marketingmarketing process,process, however, isis customercustomer orientatedorientated inin asas muchmuch asas productionproduction isis designeddesigned to meet the customer'scustomer's needs. Like other foodfood crops,crops, nutsnuts havehave aa limitedlimited "marketing"marketing life".life". The productionproduction toto marketing chain cancan bebe extremelyextremely complex,complex, rangingranging throughthrough harvestingharvesting techniques,techniques, gradinggrading and sorting,sorting, packaging,packaging, transport,transport, storage,storage, processing,processing, curing,curing, distributiondistribution andand selling.selling. Furthermore, asas marketsmarkets develop,develop, fromfrom ruralrural marketsmarkets toto urbanurban chainchain stores,stores, thethe consumerconsumer become more andand moremore demandingdemanding inin theirtheir requirementsrequirements and,and, asas aa consequence,consequence, increaseincrease pressures uponupon thethe variousvarious sectorssectors inin thethe marketingmarketing chain.chain.

7 The locallocal marketmarket inin aa ruralrural communitycommunity maymay initiallyinitially representrepresent the surplus in productionproduction to household requirements.requirements. PopulationPopulation growth growth and and urbanization urbanization accompaniedaccompanied byby aa proportionateproportionate decrease in agrarianagrarian activitiesactivities encouragesencourages increased productionproduction that that hashas toto be metmet eithereither through cultivation or moremore intensiveintensive harvestingharvesting fromfrom thethe wild.wild. The marketingmarketing processprocess develops further through regionalregional and national markets toto thethe international.international. TheThe further alongalong the chain thethe moremore stringentstringent areare thethe consumer'sconsumer's requirements,requirements, withwith increasingincreasing emphasisemphasis onon quality and constancy ofof supply. LocalLocal andand regionalregional marketsmarkets areare lessless valuablevaluable andand maymay bebe expected to handlehandle cheapercheaper andand lowerlower qualityquality nutsnuts thanthan wouldwould bebe acceptableacceptable byby internationalinternational markets.markets. TheThe majority majority of of tropical tropical treetree nutsnuts areare notnot yetyet wellwell representedrepresented onon thethe internationalinternational market. OfOf the the ten ten major major edible edible tree tree nuts nuts it it is is noticeablenoticeable thatthat onlyonly thethe BrazilBrazil nut, macadamiamacadamia and coconut are from thethe tropics,tropics, whilewhile only one out of sixsix minorminor treetree nutsnuts andand allall 2222 potential tree nuts are fromfrom thethe tropicstropics oror subtropics.sUbtropics.

Nuts are largelylargely treetree cropscrops andand asas suchsuch thethe productionproduction scheduleschedule will be long term, requiringrequiring careful selectionselection of,?f cultivarscultivars and,and, inin somesome cases,cases, rootroot stocks.stocks. Initial investment may be high, with no return untiluntil the trees come into bearing. LabourLabour requirementsrequirements may be high for short periods inin thethe yearyear forfor pruning,pruning, harvestingharvesting andand immediateimmediate post-harvest treatments and low for the restrest ofof thethe year.year. HighHigh labour labour costs costs may may be be offset offset by by increased increased mechanization,mechanization, asas inin thethe North AmericanAmerican nutnut plantations.plantations.

Quality is obviouslyobviously ofof primeprime importanceimportance and goodgood qualityquality nuts can readilyreadily bebe spoilt,spoilt, especially during harvesting and immediateimmediate post-harvest operations.operations. TheThe initialinitial processingprocessing can result inin brokenbroken oror discoloureddiscoloured nutsnuts unsuitableunsuitable for thethe dessert nut trade.trade. It isis important,important, therefore, thatthat producersproducers shouldshould havehave readyready accessaccess to other outlets, suchsuch as thethe food,food, oiloil andand other industries.industries.

Regularity and continuitycontinuity of supplysupply isis important,important, especiallyespecially forfor thethe internationalinternational markets.markets. Failure to complycomply will undoubtedly favourfavour thethe importationimportation of of alternatives alternatives.. A buoyant and profitable market cancan quicklyquickly changechange throughthrough oversupplyoversupply oror aa sub-standard sub-standard produce.produce. Expansion in production must balance the marketmarket ifif pricesprices areare notnot toto bebe depressed.depressed. However,However, nuts are aa goodgood candidatecandidate forfor marketing marketing asas "added"added value value products"products" throughthrough processing,processing, roasting, salting,salting, etc.,etc. ,and and havehave anan excellent excellent potentialpotential inin thethe WestWest forfor thethe healthhealth foodfood marketmarket (Meadley, 1989;1989; Honess,Honess, 1993).1993).

The disposable world production of dessert nuts is shown in Table 11.. These figures obviously do notnot showshow internalinternal consumption.consumption. TheThe generalgeneral trendtrend isis towardstowards increasedincreased production.production. In the leagueleague marketingmarketing tablestables almonds are thethe majormajor product,product, pistachiospistachios have thethe fastestfastest expansion rate whilewhile the trendtrend forfor thethe BrazilBrazil nutnut (although(although notnot clearlyclearly shownshown fromfrom TableTable 11 but isis discusseddiscussed moremore fullyfully inin thethe sectionsection dealingdealing withwith thatthat nut)nut) showsshows aa steadilysteadily decliningdeclining production due toto deforestationdeforestation andand aa chaoticchaotic marketingmarketing system.system.

The worldworld disposabledisposable production of nuts primarily grown as a commercial source of edible oils is shown in Table 2. TheThe proportion proportion used used directlydirectly forfor foodfood isis notnot known.known.

While thethe utilizationutilization of aa fewfew selectedselected nutsnuts byby thethe developed developed worldworld isis reasonablyreasonably wellwell documented, there areare nono figuresfigures availableavailable forfor thethe remainderremainder ofof thethe 520520 edibleedible nut-producingnut-producing species listed.listed. Their valuevalue withinwithin thethe ruralrural communitycommunity isis largelylargely basedbased onon anecdotalanecdotal evidence.

8 Table 1:1: Disposable WorldWorld Production of In-Shell Dessert and Table NutsNuts (tonnes)

1979-81 1991 1992 1993

Almonds 1 000000457457 1 232222232222 1 281 355 1 194497194497 Cashew nutsnuts 446004446004 707 583 726418726418 479479804804 Chestnuts 484595484595 470470979979 492 492805805 437 437403403 Filberts/Hazel nutsnuts 477 662 520428520428 721 622 565 157 Pistachios 109379109379 329804329804 313 256 345 305 Walnuts 788097788097 938998938998 931 697 1 006006547547 Brazil"Brazila 5333353333 3232000000 MiscellaneousMiscellaneous'b 36480003648000 44675000675000 44924000924000 45790004579000

Source:Source: FAO, 19941994 a Figures from LaFleurLaFleur (1992)(1992) b These includeinclude BrazilBrazil nuts,nuts, macadamiamacadamia nuts,nuts, pilipili nutsnuts andand sapucaiasapucaia nutsnuts

Table 2: DisposableDisposable WorldWorld ProductionProduction ofof OilOil Nuts and theirtheir ProductsProducts ('000 tonnes)

1979-81 1991 1992 1993 Coconuts in shellshell 3535062 062 4266842 668 4376843 768 43 385 copra 44394 439 44829 829 44642 642 44569 569

Groundnuts (in shell)shell) 1818491 491 2353123 531 2460124 601 2500525 005

Palm kernels kernels 1 740 35743 574 38003 800 45324 532 oil'oil" 50255 025 11 883 1277512 775 14 317 babassu oil 14 70 62 68

Sunflower seeds 1441314 413 2222947 947 21 979 2048920 489

Source: FAO, 19941994 a Palm kernelkernel oiloil excludingexcluding babassubabassu oiloil

NUTS ININ THETHE RURALRURAL ECONOMYECONOMY

The mostmost obviousobvious valuevalue ofof edibleedible nutsnuts isis theirtheir contributioncontribution asas aa concentratedconcentrated foodfood toto thethe dietdiet and, in somesome cases,cases, asas aa sourcesource ofof edible edible oils.oils. The major and minor nutsnuts discusseddiscussed inin thethe following sections also have an importantimportant commercial value as dessert nuts.nuts .

In many ofof thethe developingdeveloping countries,countries, especiallyespecially in the tropics and subtropics,subtropics, nuts are oftenoften available during thethe drydry seasonseason oror winterwinter monthsmonths whenwhen freshfresh vegetablesvegetables areare notnot alwaysalways readilyreadily available. They can also have the additionaladditional advantage inin thatthat theythey areare not bulky and can usually be readily stored. TheThe arborescent arborescent nutnut producersproducers maymay havehave otherother advantagesadvantages too, as providers of fuel, timber,timber, fibre,fibre, medicines, medicines, browse,browse, etc.,etc., plus plus their their role role inin conservingconserving thethe soilsoil against wind andand waterwater erosion,erosion, providingproviding shadeshade andand shelter,shelter, etc., as wellwell asas beingbeing

9 aesthetically pleasing.pleasing. TheThe nut-producingnut-producing herbs, i.e., groundnuts,groundnuts, etc., taketake their place in the agricultural rotation and, inin thethe casecase ofof legumes, legumes, contributecontribute toto soilsoil fertility.fertility.

The large-scale commercial production of nuts for the dessert and edible oil industries is well documented. However,However, thethe rolerole ofof edible edible nutsnuts inin thethe ruralrural economyeconomy isis lessless clear.clear. This isis partly due to thethe confusionconfusion in the literatureliterature in defining whatwhat isis anan edible nutnut and as aa consequence classing themthem with edible fruits, plus a paucitypaucity of informationinformation regarding their utilization. LikeLike other other economic economic plants,plants, thethe valuevalue ofof edibleedible nuts, whether they are used for food or edible oil,oil, isis relativerelative toto whatwhat otherother alternativesalternatives areare available.available. This, in turn, createscreates a problemproblem inin orderingordering thethe potentialpotential forfor development.development AA well-written well-written accountaccount of aa singlesingle species by anan enthusiasticenthusiastic author tendstends toto maskmask thethe valuevalue ofof otherother species,species, includingincluding relatedrelated taxa. The broader thethe fieldfield experienceexperience of an authorauthor the greatergreater thethe likelihoodlikelihood of achievingachieving an acceptable evaluation.evaluation.

The workwork byby OkaforOkafor andand co-workersco-workers inin thethe NigerianNigerian forestsforests onon thethe utilizationutilization andand improvement ofof indigenous woodywoody food food plantsplants may may bebe takentaken asas an exampleexample of howhow toto maximize this forest resourceresource withinwithin thethe forest,forest, homesteadshomesteads and farmlandfarmland (Okafor,(Okafor, 1977,1977, 1980; Okafor and Lamb,Lamb, 1994).1994). Elite trees favoured by local inhabitants were selected and various vegetative propagation techniques investigated, includingincluding budding.budding. BuddedBudded treestrees ofof Irvingia gabonensis and TreculiaTreculia africanaafricana producedproduced viableviable fruitsfruits in 3.53.5 andand 44 yearsyears respectively. AnAn additionaladditional benefit in the case ofof thethe latterlatter species,species, aa treetree upup toto 35 m tall, was that the reductionreduction inin fruitingfruiting heightheight fromfrom buddingbudding eliminatedeliminated the serious danger fromfrom thethe globular fruits fallingfalling andand injuringinjuring passers-by; the fruits can be up toto 5050 cmcm inin diameterdiameter andand weigh up to 1515 kg! PerhapsPerhaps ratherrather surprisingly,surprisingly, thethe reducedreduced riskrisk resultedresulted in an increase in popularity rating.rating.

Taxonomic investigations into the range of variation within a species can also be rewarding.rewarding. The recognition of twotwo variantsvariants withinwithin IrvingiaIrvingia gabonensisgabonensis withwith different flowering seasons,seasons, var. gabonensisgabonensis fruitingfruiting in the rainy season from AprilApril toto September,September, andand var.var. excelsaexcelsa inin the dry seasonseason fromfrom DecemberDecember toto MarchMarch hashas encouragedencouraged rationalrational selections toto be mademade forfor extending seasonalseasonal availability.availability.

CONSERVATION ANDAND UTILIZATIONUTILIZATION OFOF GENETICGENETIC RESOURCESRESOURCES

The requirements forfor thethe development,development, improvementimprovement andand conservation of edible nut-producingnut -producing species are similarsimilar toto thethe requirementsrequirements forfor otherother species.species. Information isis required onon distribution and reproductivereproductive biology,biology, includingincluding flowering and fruiting patterns, pollinationpollination mechanisms andand pollinators, seed dispersal, viability, predation, nature ofof thethe breedingbreeding system, breedingbreeding andand propagationpropagation techniques, pests and diseases, etc. (Okafor,(Okafor, 1977).1977).

There areare twotwo conflictingconflicting interestsinterests involved.involved. Efficient productionproduction resultingresulting inin aa low cost product isis mainlymainly obtainableobtainable from plantationsplantations where the emphasis is on selection of genetic uniformity for easeease ofof management and productivity. Small-scale,Small-scale, usuallyusually peasant production, mainly makes use of wildwild resourcesresources oror lessless rigorouslyrigorously selected cultivars and may even prefer an absenceabsence of uniformityuniformity in, forfor example,example, ripeningripening in order to obtainobtain aa betterbetter spreadspread inin availability of mature fruit. Furthermore,Furthermore, peasant peasant farming farming systemssystems oftenoften protectprotect usefuluseful treestrees during any landland clearanceclearance operationoperation whilewhile commercial farming systems tendtend to favour total land clearanceclearance withwith consequentialconsequential lossloss ofof any any geneticgenetic variability.variability.

Wild resourcesresources oftenoften havehave thethe disadvantagedisadvantage inin thatthat thethe requiredrequired speciesspecies occursoccurs sporadicallysporadically in thethe surroundingsurrounding vegetation.vegetation. Whereas tree crops provide an excellentexcellent method of soilsoil

10 conservation, small-scale production cancan often havehave thethe additionaladditional advantageadvantage ofof makingmaking efficient use ofof difficultdifficult terrainterrain.. However,However, thethe demanddemand forfor reliablereliable quantities of a cheapcheap,, high quality product is placingplacing increasingincreasing pressure on thethe small-scalesmall-scale producer and favouring the development of large-scale plantations, especially of Old World temperate speciesspecies introducedintroduced to North America. TheThe often often sporadic sporadic occurrenceoccurrence ofof a a desirabledesirable edibleedible nut-producing species in, forfor example,example, thethe rainrain forest,forest, meansmeans thatthat itit can can have have aa disproportionately disproportionately lowlow valuevalue asas anan economic species in any land clearanceclearance oror reafforestationreafforestation schemesschemes.. The Brazil nut population is an example of suchsuch a threatenedthreatened species. ProblemsProblems in in maintaining maintaining anan environmentenvironment outsideoutside the rain forestforest thatthat isis suitablesuitable forfor itsits pollinatorpollinator makesmakes thethe establishmentestablishment of ex situ conservation and commercialcommercial plantationsplantations difficult.difficult.

Although not strictly thethe resultresult ofof selection,selection, thethe canker-formingcanker-forming bark disease caused by thethe fungus Cryphonectria parasiticaparasitica syn. EndothiaEndothia parasitica whichwhich first appearedappeared in thethe NewNew York inin thethe 1890s1890s waswas probablyprobably introducedintroduced fromfrom OrientOrient withwith somesome AsiaticAsiatic chestnutchestnut plantingplanting stock. The AmericanAmerican chestnut,chestnut, CastaneaCastanea dentata,dentata, waswas subsequentlysubsequently almostalmost completelycompletely destroyed over itsits entireentire naturalnatural rangerange inin the the Appalachian Appalachian mountains mountains (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Holliday, 1989).1989). TheThe moral moral of of the the above above exampleexample isis thatthat therethere isis alwaysalways thethe possibilitypossibility of a devastating fungal oror virusvirus infestationinfestation affecting plantation crops through poor crop sanitation coupled with uniformuniform geneticgenetic susceptibility,susceptibility, and placesplaces increasingincreasing emphasisemphasis on thethe preservation ofof geneticgenetic diversity.diversity.

Plant conservation may be in situ oror ex situ,situ, thethe latterlatter inin genegene oror seedseed banks banks or or in in vitro. vitro. The simplest method isis in situ, byby maintainingmaintaining breedingbreeding populationspopulations within theirtheir naturalnatural environment through thethe establishmentestablishment ofof reserves.reserves. Several reserves willwill obviouslyobviously bebe required forfor widelywidely distributeddistributed species.species. Pressures onon landland use,use, especially ifif only a fewfew conserved species are involvedinvolved within a reservereserve cancan makemake suchsuch reservesreserves politicallypolitically undesirable. Ex situsitu conservationconservation in genegene banks,banks, involvinginvolving eithereither botanicalbotanical gardensgardens oror research establishments,establishments, dependingdepending onon thethe landland available,available, enablesenables smallsmall numbersnumbers ofof a a speciesspecies to be growngrown underunder cultivation.cultivation. TheyThey areare expensiveexpensive toto maintain,maintain, do notnot offeroffer safesafe long-termlong-term storage and therethere cancan bebe problemsproblems inin preventing preventing crosscross fertilizationfertilization andand maintainingmaintaining geneticgenetic purity. SeveralSeveral fruits,fruits, includingincluding PrunusPrunus areare normallynormally conservedconserved vegetativelyvegetatively in the formform ofof clones, therebythereby conservingconserving genegene combinationscombinations thatthat would be lostlost through sexual reproductionreproduction..

Seed banks areare widelywidely usedused forfor thethe long-termlong-term storagestorage ofof orthodox orthodox seeds.seeds. However,However, manymany woody species that produce large seeds, e.g.e.g.,, CastaneaCastanea spp.spp.,, Theobroma spp.spp.,, Artocarpus spp. ,, Nephe/iumNephelium lappaceum, etc.etc. , are recalcitrantrecalcitrant and any drying increases their rate ofof deterioration. Furthermore,Furthermore, most most tropical tropical recalcitrant recalcitrant species species willwill suffersuffer fromfrom chillingchilling injuryinjury if the temperaturetemperature of thethe seedseed bankbank fallsfalls below 10-15 0 C.C. EvenEven under under optimum optimum conditions, conditions, longevity of recalcitrant seeds seldom exceedexceed aa fewfew weeksweeks oror monthsmonths.. Unsuitable for storage in seed banks,banks, theythey requirerequire inin vitrovitro conservation.conservation. The latter primarily involves thethe use of slow growth andand cryopreservationcryopreservation in liquidliquid nitrogennitrogen to storestore germplasmgermplasm (Hawkes,(Hawkes, 1991;1991; Roberts, 1991;1991; Withers,Withers, 1991;1991; Tompsett,Tompsett, 1994).1994).

11 MAJOR EDIBLEEDIBLE NUTS NUTS 2

There are twelvetwelve majormajor edibleedible nutsnuts thatthat are are marketed marketed commercially commercially (Woodroof,(Woodroof, 1979;1979; Rosengarten, 1984). TheyThey are:are:

cashew nuts Anacardium occidentale, AnacardiaceaeAnacardiaceae pistachios Pistacia vera,vera, Anacardiaceae sunflower seedsseeds Helianthus annuus, CompositaeCompositae filberts Corylus avellana, Corylaceae chestnuts Castanea dentata, Fagaceae pecanspécans Carya illinoinensis,illinoinensis, Juglandaceae Persian walnuts Juglans regia,regia, Juglandaceae Brazil nuts Bertholletia excelsa,excelsa, Lecythidaceae peanuts or groundnutsgroundnuts Arachis hypogea, LeguminosaeLeguminosae macadamia nuts Macadamia integrifolia,integrijolia, Proteaceae almonds Prunus dulcis,dulcis, Rosaceae coconuts Cocos nucijera,nucifera, PalmaePalmae

Sunflower seeds and peanuts are herehere regardedregarded asas agriculturalagricultural cropscrops andand areare consequentlyconsequently notnot dealt with inin detail.detail. However,However, their their marketing marketing prospects prospects areare discusseddiscussed becausebecause they do have an impact on the prospectsprospects ofof otherother nutnut crops.crops. Coconut,Coconut, althoughalthough being an agricultural crop, is includedincluded here sincesince itit is aa majormajor componentcomponent ofof agroforestryagroforestry systemssystems in manymany tropicaltropical countries.

CAS.CAS: -W OROR MONKEYMONKEY NUT: NUT: Anacardium Anacardium occidentale, occidentale, Anacardiaceae

Distribution andand ecologyecology

Native of tropicaltropical America,America, probablyprobably originatingoriginating in equatorialequatorial northeastern Brazil. WidelyWidely cultivated in the tropicstropics withwith commercialcommercial production concentrated inin India,India, Brazil and East Africa. HighHigh potential potential for for development development in in WestWest Africa,Africa, wherewhere plantationsplantations havehave beenbeen quickly developing recently. ItIt occursoccurs inin warmwarm andand humidhumid climates with 1 000-2 000 plusplus mmmm annualannual rainfall, fromfrom seasea levellevel toto 11 000000 mm altitudealtitude (FAO,(FAO, 1982;1982; ITC,lTC, 1993).1993).

Description

Evergreen shrub or treetree toto 1515 mm tall;tall; leavesleaves simple,simple, oblong-ovate,oblong-ovate, 6-20 cm x 4-154-15 cm,cm, leathery. Inflorescence polygamous,polygamous, withwith ca.ca. 60 hermaphroditehermaphrodite and ca. 1010 malemale flowers.flowers . Pedicel and receptacle swollenswollen and fleshy in fruit (cashew apple), thin-skinned, bright yellow,yellow, red oror scarlet,scarlet, eventuallyeventually largerlarger thanthan fruit,fruit, 10-2010-20 cm xx 4-44-4 cm.cm. Fruit obliquelyobliquely kidney-kidney­ shaped, 2-3 cmcm xx 1.5-2.51.5-2.5 cm, cm, compressed, compressed, greyish-brown; greyish-brown; mesocarpmesocarp oleaginous;oleaginous; seedsseeds

13 kidney-shaped with thick cotyledons (Purseglove, 1987;1987; Kokwaro,Kokwaro, 1986).1986).

Cultivation

Fast growing, drought-resistantdrought-resistant and easy to grow underunder cultivation by directdirect seeding of germinatedgenninated seedsseeds -- seedlingsseedlings do notnot transplanttransplant readily.readily. Well-drained friable soils at low altitudes recommended, frost-free withwith anan annualannual rainfall ofof 11 000-3 000-3 000000 mm,mm, preferablypreferably with a pronouncedpronounced dry seasonseason of 3-43-4 months.months. Cashews cancan also be growngrown satisfactorily inin semi-arid areas but cancan show erratic production asas aa resultresult ofof relative small variations in rainfall. Trees withwith aa productiveproductive lifelife spanspan ofof 30-30- 40 years,years, normallynonnally bearingbearing in fruitfruit inin third or fourth year and, under favourable conditions, attaining maximum production in ca.ca. 7 years.years.

The effectivenesseffectiveness of insect pollinationpollination Figure 11 variablevariable,, for example,example, satisfactory in Anacardium occidentaleoccidentale.. 1: fruiting branch. 2: bisexual flower. 3:3: malemale flower. 4: fruit. 5: leaves. Tanzania, artificial pollination required in flower. 4 : fruit. 5: leaves. India. Fruits maturemature inin 2-32-3 monthsmonths (Menninger, 1977;1977; FAO,FAO, 1982;1982; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Purseglove,Purseglove, 1987;1987; ITC,lTC, 1993),1993).

Harvesting

Fruits harvestedharvested whenwhen fullyfully ripe.ripe. In TanzaniaTanzania the nuts are collectedcollected after falling to thethe ground. In drydry weatherweather theythey cancan bebe leftleft onon thethe groundground untiluntil thethe appleapple driesdries butbut shouldshould bebe collected dailydaily inin wet weather.weather. The nuts are thenthen removedremoved from the applesapples and drieddried (Rosengarten, 1987).1987).

Post-harvest treatments

After drying andand roastingroasting thethe kernelskernels areare separatedseparated fromfrom thethe shellsshells andand graded.graded. Care must be takentaken whenwhen shellingshelling toto avoidavoid thethe causticcaustic juicejuice thatthat squirtssquirts outout onon roasting.roasting . Shelling isis usually done manually,manually, usingusing cheapcheap labourlabour inin India,India, elsewhereelsewhere mechanicalmechanical processingprocessing hashas been introduced. StoredStored in in vacuum vacuum packed, packed, hermeticallyhennetically sealedsealed tinstins wherewhere cashewscashews remain stable at roomroom temperatures;temperatures; underunder refrigerationrefrigeration a shelfshelf lifelife ofof oneone yearyear (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977; Matz, 1984;1984; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984;1984; ITC,lTC, 1993).1993).

Production andand consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

Approximately 60%60% ofof cashew kernelskernels areare marketedmarketed as as saltedsalted nuts;nuts; theythey areare alsoalso usedused in confectionery and bakery products.products. Un-shelled,Un-shelled, un-roasted cashew nuts should not be eaten (Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

14 Nutritional valuevalue

Cashew nuts contain approximately 12.8%12.8% protein,protein, 46.7%46.7% digestible fatfat or oiloil andand 18%18% carbohydrates (Melville,(Melville, 1946);1946); vitaminvitamin contentcontent highhigh (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977).1977).

By-products and otherother usesuses

Seeds yieldyield anan edible oil but, duedue toto thethe highhigh valuevalue ofof thethe kernels,kernels, thisthis isis notnot usuallyusually extracted. TheThe shells shells or or pericarp pericarp yield yield cashewcashew nutnut shellshell liquidliquid (CNSL),(CNSL), whichwhich contains toxic cardol and anacardic acid and acts as a vesicant. CNSLCNSL hashas highhigh polymerizingpolymerizing and friction-friction­ reducing properties and isis usedused asas aa waterproofing waterproofing agentagent andand preservative.preservative. Distilled andand polymerized, thethe oiloil isis alsoalso usedused inin insulatinginsulating varnishesvarnishes and inin the manufacturemanufacture of typewriter rolls, oil-oil- andand acid-proofacid-proof cementscements andand tiles,tiles, friction-modifyingfriction-modifying material for brakebrake linings,linings, asas a component of space-rocketspace-rocket lubricants, inks, etc.etc. It isis alsoalso usedused inin tropicaltropical medicinemedicine forfor treating scurvy, leprousleprous sores,sores, warts,warts, ringworms,ringworms, etc.etc. (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Purseglove, 1987).1987).

The cashew apple (swollen(swollen pedicel) is juicy, astringentastringent and edible; the juice maymay bebe drunkdrunk fresh or fermentedfermented for wine;wine; thethe pulp may be made into preserves, jelliesjellies,, syrups, etc., or,or, in Brazil,Brazil, fermentedfermented intointo winewine resemblingresembling Madeira. WithWith thethe emphasisemphasis onon nutnut productionproduction about 9595% % of thethe worldworld cashewcashew appleapple crop isis allowedallowed to rot, aboutabout 1.251.25 millionmillion tonnestonnes inin India are wasted each year. TheThe sapsap fromfrom thethe barkbark providesprovides an indelible ink.ink. TimberTimber isis usedused for construction and generalgeneral carpentrycarpentry but subjectsubject to termitetermite attack; also used forfor firewoodfirewood and charcoal. GrownGrown asas aa shade shade tree,tree, hedgeshedges andand forfor dunedune stabilization.stabilization. FlowersFlowers attractiveattractive to honey bees (FAO,(FAO, 1982;1982; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Purseglove,Purseglove, 1987;1987; Anthony et alal.,. , 1993).1993).

Marketing

World production has risen fromfrom 446446 000000 tonnes in 1979-811979-81 to 726726 000000 tonnes inin 1992,1992, falling dramatically toto 479 000000 tonnes tonnes in in 1993,1993, largelylargely duedue to anan unexplainedunexplained fall inin production in India from 3535 000000 tonnestonnes toto 1515 000000 tonnestonnes (FAO,(FAO, 1994).1994) .

India is thethe largestlargest exporterexporter with ca. 50%50% ofof thethe marketmarket (also(also withwith aa largelarge internalinternal consumption), BrazilBrazil isis secondsecond withwith ca.ca. 25%25% ofof the the world world market, market, followedfollowed byby Indonesia,Indonesia, Mozambique and Viet Nam, thethe twotwo latterlatter plusplus TanzaniaTanzania mainlymainly exportexport raw,raw, unprocessedunprocessed seed to India for processing.processing. TheThe USA USA isis byby farfar the the largestlargest importerimporter (about(about 5959 000000 tonnestonnes in 1992)1992) with the UK the largest market in Europe for raw cashew. MostMost ofof the the internationalinternational trade isis inin rawraw nuts,nuts, withwith lessless thanthan 25%25 % ofof the the tradetrade inin processedprocessed nuts,nuts, whichwhich areare saltedsalted and/or roastedroasted (Purseglove,(Purseglove, 1987;1987; ITC,lTC, 1993).1993).

Discussion

Cashew is regarded asas aa goodgood crop forfor thethe AndeanAndean countries for which North America should be thethe mainmain targettarget market.market. Despite ca. 20%20 % declinedecline inin importimport pricesprices duringduring thethe periodperiod 1987-91 demand has increasedincreased and has beenbeen met by increasedincreased imports (ITC,(lTC, 1993).1993).

The appallingappalling waste of cashewcashew appleapple each year isis intolerable,intolerable, however,however, therethere isis almostalmost certainly limit to thethe quantityquantity ofof cashewcashew drinksdrinks andand jamsjams thatthat cancan be be consumed. consumed. The possibility of fermenting the cashewcashew apple for thethe productionproduction of an industrialindustrial alcohol should be investigated.investigated.

15 PISTACHIO: Pistacia Pistacia vera,vera, Anacardiaceae

DistributionDistribution and ecologyecology

Native of Iran, AfghanistanAfghanistan andand centralcentral AsiaAsia fromfrom TurkmeniaTurkmenia to Pamir-Alai and Tien Shan.Shan. Now cultivated and perhaps naturalized inin Spain, France, Italy, Greece,Greece, Cyprus,Cyprus, Syria,Syria, Lebanon, IsraelIsrael,, Turkey and Iran. GrowsGrows inin subtropical, subtropical, warmwarm andand MediterraneanMediterranean climates with a hot dry seasonseason withwith aa dailydaily meanmean temperaturetemperature of 30°C30· C forfor 33 monthsmonths (Townsend(Townsend and Guest,Guest, 1980; Macrae et ai.,al., 1993).1993).

Description

Winter deciduous, dioecious tree to 10 m tall; leaves pinnate,pinnate, leathery,leathery, leafletsleaflets 3-73-7.. FlowersFlowers in panicles, appearingappearing beforebefore thethe leaves. leaves. Fruit aa narrowly ovoid toto oblongoblong oror subglobose, subglobose, 1- seeded, drupe, 1-21-2 cmcm xx 0.6-1.20.6-1.2 cm;cm; mesocarpmesocarp fleshy, endocarp bony, dehiscent or semi-semi­ dehiscent; kernel light green,green, agreeableagreeable flavourflavour (Menninger(Menninger,, 1977;1977; TownsendTownsend andand Guest,Guest, 1980;1980; MatzMatz,, 1984;1984; Macrae et al.,ai., 1993).1993).

Cultivation

Pistachio requires well-drained soils, is tolerant of drought and poorpoor soils,soils, it prefersprefers coolcool winterswinters with 1 000 hourshours belowbelow 7.5°C7.5· C enoughenough to breakbreak bud dormancy (temperatures cancan fall as low as -- 10 ·°C). C). A frost-freefrost -free periodperiod ofof 200200 days days is necessary to ensure thatthat the inflorescence develops 1 undamaged andand long hot summerssummers (to 45°C45· C oror more) to ensure ripeningripening of thethe fruit.fruit. Cold andand wind resistant but intolerant of excessive Figure 22 excessive PistadaPistacia vera. BranchBranch withwith leavesleaves and fruits. dampness and high humidityhumidity (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Macrae et atal.,., 1993).1993).

Introduced fromfrom Iran to CaliforniaCalifornia in 1930,1930, CaliforniaCalifornia isis nownow thethe secondsecond largestlargest producerproducer worldwideworldwide.. CommercialCommercial cropcrop afterafter 7-107-10 years with peak productionproduction at at ca.ca. 20 years; trees with a life span of ca.ca. 700700 years.years. YieldsYields alternatingalternating withwith aa heavyheavy cropcrop followedfollowed by aa lighterlighter crop inin thethe nextnext yearyear (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984;1984; ParamountParamount FarmsFarms Pistachios,Pistachios, 1991).1991).

Harvesting

The correct stage of maturity is critical when harvestingharvesting.. TheThe outerouter skinskin oror hullhull turnsturns fromfrom translucent to opaque rosyrosy whenwhen ripe,ripe, thethe huskhusk splittingsplitting naturallynaturally toto exposeexpose thethe kernelkernel whenwhen ready to harvest. TheThe mature mature nutsnuts hanghang onon thethe treetree andand maymay bebe leftleft until nearly all are ripe.ripe. However, ifif thethe harvestharvest isis undulyunduly delayeddelayed thethe huskhusk may dry onto thethe nutnut and causecause staining.staining. Primitive methods of harvestingharvesting involvesinvolves either picking by hand or knockingknocking thethe nutsnuts fromfrom the tree with longlong poles onto sacking spread onon thethe groundground.. TheThe envelopingenveloping husk isis manually removed by squeezingsqueezing andand emptyempty shellsshells areare removedremoved byby flotationflotation withwith thethe fullfull nutsnuts sinkingsinking to the bottom of the tank. TheThe nuts nuts areare thenthen sun-dried.sun-dried.

16 In USA a machine isis used toto shakeshake thethe pistachios from their grape-like clusters while another,another, equipped with a catching frame encircling the tree, collects the falling nuts before they touch the ground (Menninger, 1977;1977; ParamountParamount Farms Pistachios, 1991; Macrae etet al., 1993).1993).

Post-harvest treatments

To prevent the tannictannic acid inin thethe rosyrosy hullhull fromfrom stainingstaining the nuts, thethe pistachiospistachios are either hand oror mechanicallymechanically peeled within hours of harvesting, after which they are washedwashed andand rapidly dried before storing.storing. HumidHumid or or showery showery weather, weather, especiallyespecially favoursfavours stainingstaining asas wellwell as aflatoxin.

Any blank shells can be removed by flotationflotation.. FreshlyFreshly harvestedharvested nutsnuts cancan containcontain upup toto 45%45 % moisture, whichwhich smallsmall producersproducers maymay reducereduce by sundryingsundrying and any stained nuts removed by hand. InIn large large commercial commercial plantations plantations the the pistachios pistachios are are artificially artificially dried dried in in silos silos at at 65-72 65-720 ° C,C, which can reduce the moisture content to 5% in 10 hours. MechanicalMechanical pin prickers are used to separateseparate naturallynaturally splitsplit pistachiospistachios from thethe closedclosed shellshell product.product. The in-shellin-shell pistachiospistachios are then passed through an electronic colourcolour sortersorter toto removeremove any any stained stained nuts nuts.. They areare thenthen graded for sizesize andand qualityquality wherewhere theythey areare shelled shelled and and stored stored (Rya11 (Ryall et alal.,., 19741974;; Rosengarten, 1984; Paramount Farms Pistachios, 1991; Macrae etet al.,al., 1993).1993).

Production andand consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

Marketed locally in Middle East either in-shell oror as roasted and salted kernels.kernels. BecauseBecause ofof the antiquated harvesting techniquestechniques in the Middle East which yielded stainedstained shells,shells, the earlearlyy imports to thethe NorthNorth AmericanAmerican market were dyed red inin orderorder toto covercover thethe blemishesblemishes andand make them moremore appealing.appealing. Roasted nuts are hygroscopichygroscopic and requirerequire moisturemoisture resistantresistant packaging, which gives a shelfshelf lifelife inin excessexcess ofof 2424 monthsmonths (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977; ParamountParamount Farms Pistachios, 1991;1991; Macrae et al., 1993).1993).

Nutritional valuevalue

High inin carbohydrates,carbohydrates, especiallyespecially sucrosesucrose (16%),(16%), oiloil consistingconsisting largelylargely ofof unsaturatedunsaturated fatsfats (55%) andand essentialessential aminoamino acidsacids (25%)(25%) (Macrae(Macrae etet al., 1993).1993) . See also Table 6 forfor comparison withwith macadamiamacadamia nuts.nuts.

By-products and otherother usesuses

Wood much prized inin IranIran andand AfghanistanAfghanistan forfor agriculturalagricultural implements,implements, spoons,spoons, etc.etc. Resin yielded from tappedtapped stemsstems andand largerlarger branchesbranches similarsimilar to masticmastic from P.P. lentiscuslentiscus andand usedused in local medicine, highhigh qualityquality paintspaints andand nitro-lacquers.nitro-lacquers. Galls and fruit pericarp employedemployed in India to dyedye silk,silk, thethe fruitfruit huskshusks usedused asas aa mordant mordant andand tan.tan. Fruit yields caca.. 60%60 % of aa greenish fatty oil, sweetsweet flavouredflavoured andand aromatic,aromatic, whichwhich isis sometimessometimes extracted for medicinalmedicinal use, however,however, becausebecause of thethe highhigh priceprice obtainableobtainable forfor the nuts the oiloil isis notnot extractedextracted commercially (Townsend and Guest, 1980;1980; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Marketing

World production hashas soared from 109109 000000 tonnestonnes inin 1979-811979-81 to 345 000 tonnes in 19931993 and,and , in North America particularly, productionproduction hashas increasedincreased during those years from 8 800800 tonnestonnes to 6969 000000 tonnestonnes (FAO,(FAD, 1994).1994).

17 About 11 500500 tonnestonnes ofof pistachiospistachios are are consumed consumed annuallyannually inin USAUSA andand isis expectedexpected toto reachreach 23 000 tonnestonnes inin thethe nextnext decade.decade. Pistachios are exported from California to Japan, HongHong Kong, China, Singapore,Singapore, GermanyGermany and UK. OtherOther majormajor exportingexporting countriescountries are IranIran andand Turkey, andand toto aa lesserlesser extent,extent, Syria,Syria, Afghanistan,Afghanistan, Italy, India, Greece, PakistanPakistan and Tunisia. Premium nuts mademade upup 25%25 % ofof the the UKUK snacksnack marketmarket inin 19901990 andand isis expectedexpected toto reachreach 30%30 % by 19951995 (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984;1984; ParamountParamount FarmsFarms Pistachios,Pistachios, 1991).1991).

Discussion

There are 1111 speciesspecies ofof PistaciaPistacia butbut onlyonly P.P. veravera hashas aa dehiscentdehiscent shell.shell. Pistachios, likelike thethe macadamia nut,nut, areare expensive.expensive. AlthoughAlthough futurefuture expansionexpansion may reducereduce prices,prices, greatergreater emphasis isis still neededneeded onon marketmarket developmentdevelopment and promotion in order to compete with other nut products. UnlikeUnlike lesser-known lesser-known nuts, nuts, pistachios pistachios should should developdevelop beyondbeyond presentpresent regionalregional boundaries (Macrae et ai.,al., 1993).1993). Prospects for an expansionexpansion in productionproduction wouldwould appearappear to bebe good.good.

SUNFLOWER SEEDS: SEEDS: Helianthus Helianthus annuus, annuus, CompositaeCompositae

Discussion

Sunflower seed is currentlycurrently catering for aa smallsmall andand specializedspecialized market, especially in thethe health-food, confectionery and snack tradetrade inin USAUSA (ca.(ca. 33 500 tonnestonnes inin 1977).1977). It isis relatively little known elsewhere but, with itsits highhigh nutritionalnutritional rating and low price compared toto other nuts, therethere areare goodgood prospects prospects forfor production production toto increase, increase, especiallyespecially sincesince it hashas beenbeen recommended asas a majormajor ingredientingredient inin concentratedconcentrated food forfor humanhuman consumptionconsumption in thethe developing countries (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

FILBERT, COB OROR HAZEL:HAZEL: Coryius Corylus species,species, Corylaceae

Historically "filbert" refersrefers toto aa nutnut wherewhere thethe envelopingenveloping husk is longer than the nut, "cob""cob" where the huskhusk isis asas longlong asas thethe nutnut andand "hazel""hazel" wherewhere thethe huskhusk isis muchmuch shortershorter thanthan thethe nutnut (Menninger, 1977).1977).

Distribution andand ecologyecology

European hazel: Corylus avellana,avellana, throughoutthroughout EuropeEurope andand eastwardeastward throughthrough West Asia to Syria and Iran; cultivatedcultivated inin NorthNorth AmericaAmerica for itsits nuts.nuts. Turkish filbert:filbert: CorylusCory ius maxima,maxima, BalkanBalkan peninsula; cultivated elsewhere forfor its nuts.

Description

Deciduous treestrees or shrubs;shrubs; leavesleaves alternate,alternate, simple,simple, stipulesstipules soonsoon falling.falling. Inflorescence monoecious, male flowers in pendent catkins, female flowers in small, bud-like inflorescences. Fruit a largelarge nutnut surroundedsurrounded by more or less tubular involucre (Tutin et ai.,al., 1964).

Cultivation

The European hazelhazel is chiefly cultivated, the TurkishTurkish filbertfilbert toto aa lesserlesser extent.extent. Hybridization between the two speciesspecies andand others,others, bothboth naturallynaturally andand byby breeders,breeders, hashas mademade identificationidentification

1818 difficult. CommercialCommercial productionproduction limitedlimited toto regions withwith mildmild winters,winters, rather warm spring, latelate frostsfrosts rarerare and summerssummers cool.cool. Approximately 7070% % ofof worldworld productionproduction isis fromfrom Turkey along the southernsouthern coast of the Black Sea. The coastal regions of Italy and the Mediterranean coast of SpainSpain 1. supply a further 20% and 7%7% ~ . ~.I,. n respectivelyrespectively.. The remainingremaining 33% % isis ~ from the coastalcoastal valleysvalleys ofof OregonOregon and Washington in USA.

Turkish production is based on rather haphazard clumpsclumps ·of of fourfour or fivefive multi-stemmed bushes arranged in 1.51.5 m circlescircles onon thethe rocky hillsides. Stems grow toto 3-4.5 mm andand areare removed after 3030 yearsyears to allow younger stems to come into production. Livestock are frequentlyfrequently allowed to graze amongamong thethe bushesbushes toto control the weeds.weeds .

Bushes are more regularlyregularly spacedspaced andand planted either along the contour oror in rectangles in Italy although, like TurkeyTurkey,, the multi-stemmed clumpclump habit isis usuallyusually maintained.maintained. Yields Figure 3 CorylusCory/us avellanaavellana.. 1 1:: branchbranch with with fruitsfruits.. 2:2: Branch withwith catkinscatkins.. 33:: Shoot are higher duedue toto thethe warmerwarmer climate,climate, with malemale catkins developed.developed. 4:4 : Elementary male inflorescence and antheranther.. better use ofof fertilizers fertilizers and moremore 5:5 : Female flowerflower withwith bract.bract. 6:6 : FruitFruit and section of the fruit. fertile soils.soils.

In Tarragona, Spain,Spain, singlesingle bushesbushes areare plantedplanted outout inin regularregular rows,rows, althoughalthough elsewhereelsewhere clumpclump planting is stillstill practised.practised. Irrigation is standard practice inin Tarragona asas well as inin otherother areas where the soilssoils areare poorpoor andand rocky.rocky.

In USA thethe filbertsfilberts areare plantedplanted inin regularregular rowsrows .andand trainedtrained toto formform aa single-stemmedsingle-stemmed tree in order toto permitpermit mechanicalmechanical cultivation.cultivation. To facilitate facilitate wind pollination everyevery sixth tree inin every third rowrow isis aa pollinator.pollinator. Average yield of dry in-shell nuts from good orchards is 2 250 kg/hakg/ha (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Harvesting

Nuts tendtend toto dropdrop uniformlyuniformly whenwhen ripe,ripe, hencehence easyeasy harvestingharvesting from thethe ground,ground, althoughalthough frequent pick-uppick -up still necessary to avoid fungal infections.infections. InIn TurkeyTurkey thethe nutsnuts areare pickedpicked byby hand before thethe cropcrop dropsdrops whilewhile inin ItalyItaly thethe bushesbushes areare beatenbeaten andand thethe fallenfallen nutsnuts pickedpicked from thethe ground.ground. InIn USAUSA thethe nutsnuts areare alsoalso allowedallowed toto fallfall naturallynaturally andand thenthen sweptswept intointo windrowswindrows and pickedpicked upup byby aa mechanical mechanical harvesterharvester whichwhich alsoalso providesprovides aa preliminarypreliminary cleaning (Rya11(Ryall andand Pentzer,Pentzer, 1974; Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

19 Post-harvest treatmentstreatments

Drying is required to reducereduce moisturemoisture content of in-shell nutsnuts toto 7-87-8% % and 3.5-4.5%3.5-4.5 % forfor sshelledhelled nutsnuts..

In TurkeyTurkey thethe filbertsfilberts areare mainlymainly sun-dried,sun-dried, drying with the use of artificialartificial heat isis lessless commoncommon.. TheThe husks husks areare usually usually removedremoved byby huskinghusking machines,machines, lessless commonlycommonly by hand-hand­ beating with sticks.sticks. TheThe nuts nuts are are then then cracked cracked between between revolving revolving millstonesmillstones andand blowersblowers usedused to remove the shells.shells . TheThe kernels kernels areare finallyfinally screened,screened, gradedgraded accordingaccording to size,size, sortedsorted andand bagged for export.export.

The harvested nuts inin USAUSA areare washed,washed, furtherfurther cleanedcleaned andand thenthen drieddried toto 8-10%8-10% moisturemoisture ccontentontent for marketingmarketing oror processing.processing.

Production andand cQnsumption/utilizationcQnsumption/utilization

Nuts are soldsold toto consumersconsumers eithereither in-shellin-shell or shelledshelled as kernels for salted kernels or use inin ththee food tradetrade,, especiallyespecially inin confectionery for nut chocolate; kernels may be ground to a flour aandnd baked as filbert bread,bread, whichwhich isis reputedreputed toto bebe deliciousdelicious (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 11984).984) .

Nutritional valuevalue

On a moisture-freemoisture-free basisbasis hazelhazel nutsnuts containcontain approximatelyapproximately 16.316.3% % proteinprotein,, 61.61.2% 2 % fatfat andand 1111.5%.5 % carbohydrates (Melville,(Melville, 1947).1947).

BBy-productsy-products and other usesuses

Broken but edible nuts are utilizedutilized for thethe extractionextraction ofof edibleedible filbert oil, rancidrancid andand inferiorinferior nuts are used for industrialindustrial filbert oil. TheThe combustible combustible trashtrash fromfrom bushes,bushes, huskshusks andand shellsshells aarere usedused forfor fuelfuel (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Wood formerly aa principalprincipal source of charcoal for gunpowder.gunpowder. CoppiceCoppice growth formerly used for hurdles, wattlewattle andand daub,daub, legumelegume poles,poles, firewoodfirewood (Mabberley,(Mabberley, 1987).1987).

Marketing

Up toto 65%65 % ofof Turkish Turkish filbertsfilberts areare soldsold throughthrough thethe governmentgovernment financedfinanced FKBFKB (Fiskobirlik)(Fiskobirlik) cooperative, whichwhich stabilizesstabilizes the market and pricesprices paidpaid toto thethe farmers.farmers. The government also has a strictstrict systemsystem ofof inspectioninspection and certification beforebefore exportexport.. TheThe plantationsplantations inin OregonOregon and Washington yield larger nutsnuts thanthan foundfound in the Mediterranean countries and are becoming increasingly popular (Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Discussion

As USA importsimports ca. 45%45 % ofof the the filberts filberts it itconsumes consumes annually, annually, therethere isis aa promising promising futurefuture for expansionexpansion inin OregonOregon andand Washington,Washington, especiallyespecially since they are ableable toto produceproduce thethe desired larger nutnut (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984).1984). TheThe European European nutnut producingproducing countriescountries willwill havehave toto increase quality and productivityproductivity if theythey areare toto competecompete withwith America.America. The fact that thethe filbert was introducedintroduced to AmericaAmerica suggestssuggests the larger nut may be due toto managementmanagement rather thanthan breeding.breeding.

20 CHESTNUT: Castanea Castanea species,species, Fagaceae

Ecology andand distribution

American chestnut: Castanea dentata, nativenative to USA,USA, easteast ofof thethe MississippiMississippi River. European chestnut:chestnut: CastaneaCastanea sativa,sativa, nativenative toto southern EuropeEurope fromfrom ItalyItaly toto Iran andand extending northwards to Hungary,Hungary, alsoalso inin NorthNorth Africa;Africa; extensivelyextensively plantedplanted andand naturalizednaturalized elsewhere in Europe. UsuallyUsually aa calcifuge, calcifuge, inin woods woods onon well-drained well-drained soils.soils. Chinese chestnut: Castanea mollissima,mollissima, from northernnorthern China, introducedintroduced intointo USA.USA. Japanese chestnut:chestnut: Castanea crenata, nativenative toto Japan;Japan; growngrown forfor timbertimber inin southernsouthern EuropeEurope (Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Description

Deciduous trees or shrubs;shrubs; leavesleaves simple.simple. Catkins erect,erect, flowers monoecious withwith male in upper and female in lower portion ofof the same catkin.catkin. Fruit 1-31-3 nuts, brown, coriaceous,coriaceous, inin a swollen, spiny cupule which dehisces irregularly byby 2-32-3 valvesvalves (Tutin et al., 1964).1964).

Cultivation

Populations of AmericanAmerican chestnut were devastated by the mid-20th century by chestnut blight, Cryphonectria parasitica,paraSltlca, syn. Endothia parasitica; ChineseChinese chestnutchestnut and JapaneseJapanese chestnutchestnut areare relativelyrelatively immune.Immune. Devastation was such thatthat American chestnutschestnuts are nono longerlonger commercially viable.viable. The EuropeanEuropean chestnut is alsoalso susceptiblesusceptible andand hashas been attacked by blight sincesince 19381938 and production isis consequently decreasing. Attempts are beingbeing mademade toto developdevelop benign strains of the fungus to inoculate trees against chestnutchestnut blightblight as well as hybridizing American chestnut with blight resistant introductions. Japanese chestnutchestnut isis less hardyhardy andand moremore susceptiblesusceptible toto blight than the Chinese chestnut (Payne et and Pentzer, 1983; Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

The averageaverage yieldsyields ofof thethe EuropeanEuropean chestnut grown in California are 2 220 Figure 4 Castanea sativa. 1: shoot withwith leavesleaves andand malemale andand femalefemale catkins.catkins. kg/ha. However, recentrecent plantationsplantations 2: male flowerflower.. 3: anther. 4: section of female catkins. 5:5 : female flowerflower.. with high-yielding,high-yielding, large nut,nut, graftedgrafted 6: mature fruit. 7:7: openopen cupuie.cupule. cultivars are expectedexpected to yieldyield 33 360-360-

21 4 480 kg/ha. TheThe Chinese Chinese chestnut, chestnut, whichwhich areare adaptableadaptable toto aa rangerange ofof edaphic edaphic andand climaticclimatic conditions apartapart from frost pockets, bear in 55 to 66 yearsyears andand areare expectedexpected toto yieldyield 3 000 kg/ha,kg/ha, withwith yieldsyields ofof experimental experimental plantings as highhigh asas 44 400400 kg.kg. AtAt leastleast two cultivars should be growngrown toto ensureensure cross-pollinationcross-pollination otherwise thethe kernelskernels willwill notnot developdevelop (Menninger, 1977; Payne etet ai.,al., 1983).1983).

Harvesting

Traditionally mature nutsnuts areare allowedallowed toto fallfall fromfrom thethe treetree andand maymay remainremain onon thethe groundground forfor several days or longer before gathering by hand. ToTo reducereduce handhand harvestingharvesting costs,costs, attemptsattempts are being made to develop strains where the burrs drop to the ground before the nuts fall out.out. Since at dehiscence the undamaged nut contains an array of weakly parasitic organisms which can cause seriousserious damagedamage underunder unfavourableunfavourable storage conditions, daily gathering is strongly recommended. TreeTree shakersshakers andand catchers,catchers, whichwhich can be used after 4-9% of the ripe nutsnuts have fallen naturally, areare beingbeing developed,developed, asas wellwell asas thethe necessarynecessary meansmeans ofof removingremoving thethe burr (Rya11(Ryall andand Pentzer,Pentzer, 1974; Menninger, 1977; Payne et ai.,al., 1993).1993).

Post-harvest treatments

Commercially nuts may be held in refrigerated storagestorage atat 0"0°C C toto -1-1°C . C for several months in ventilated polyethylenepolyethylene liners.liners. Weevil damage maymay occur duringduring storagestorage andand later;later; unfortunately it is not possible to remove infested nutsnuts byby flotationflotation before before storage. storage. The risk of incipientincipient fungal infectioninfection is increased by the absence of visible moulds on many infected kernels although no mycotoxinsmycotoxins have yet beenbeen observedobserved onon thethe marketedmarketed product.product. Unless properly handled,handled, freshfresh nutsnuts quicklyquickly dry outout andand hardenharden andand cannotcannot bebe roastedroasted oror boiledboiled satisfactorily unless regenerated by soaking (Rya11(Ryall andand Pentzer,Pentzer, 1974;1974; PaynePayne etet al., 1983).1983).

Production andand consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

Chestnuts are starchy and aa briefbrief curingcuring periodperiod (3-4(3-4 days)days) is requiredrequired toto permitpennit somesome starchstarch to convert to sugar, especially after refrigeration.refrigeration. EatingEating quality is best atat harvest time.time. In-In­ shell nuts are roastedroasted and soldsold asas "hot"hot chestnuts";chestnuts"; shelledshelled nuts can be ground to a flour and eaten as chestnut bread oror porridge,porridge, roastedroasted oror boiledboiled theythey cancan bebe eaten as a vegetable or used for stuffing poultry.poultry. InIn France France chestnuts chestnuts areare preservedpreserved inin syrupsyrup asas marronsmarrons glacésglaces andand otherother sweetmeatssweetmeats (Rya11(Ryall andand Pentzer,Pentzer, 1974; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Nutritional valuevalue

The nutrientnutrient valuevalue ofof chestnuts chestnuts variesvaries accordingaccording toto species.species. Respectively, raw American,American, European and Chinese chestnuts contain approximatelyapproximately 43.7%,54.9%43.7%, 54.9% and 44% water; 4.8%, 2% andand 4.2%4.2% protein;protein; 1.3%, 1.6% andand 1.1%1.1 % fat;fat; and 48.6%, 40.3%40.3% andand 49.1%49.1 % carbohydrates (McCarthy(McCarthy andand Meredith,Meredith, 1988).1988). High inin carbohydratescarbohydrates they areare readilyreadily digestible when roastedroasted oror boiled.boiled. They also have the lowest fatfat content ofof all the majormajor edible nuts as wellwell asas beingbeing veryvery lowlow inin calories with ca. 11 700700 caloriescalories perper kgkg (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984).

By-products and other usesuses

Timber is durable andand rot-resistant,rot-resistant, usedused for fencing,fencing, furniture,furniture, shipship masts,masts, telegraphtelegraph poles,poles, mine props, railwayrailway sleepers.sleepers. BarkBark and and wood wood extracts extracts usedused forfor tanningtanning leatherleather (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984).

22 Marketing

European chestnuts, whichwhich areare largerlarger butbut lessless sweet than the American chestnutchestnut,, are marketed in-shell for roasting. ChineseChinese chestnuts chestnuts areare smallersmaller andand lessless sweetsweet thanthan thethe American chestnut but sweeter than the European chestnut. JapaneseJapanese chestnutschestnuts areare aa variablevariable productproduct withwith somesome trees producing huge nuts up to 5 cmcm inin diameterdiameter and weighing 3030 gg or more while others bear smallersmaller nuts;nuts; theirtheir nutsnuts areare alsoalso lessless sweetsweet thanthan thosethose fromfrom thethe ChineseChinese chestnut.chestnut. Despite the strongstrong demanddemand forfor chestnutschestnuts andand chestnutchestnut products,products, thethe problemsproblems outlinedoutlined aboveabove regarding harvesting and storage and the difficultiesdifficulties in obtaining aa goodgood,, clean nutnut makemake chestnut production a difficult venture (Payne etet al.,al., 1983;1983; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

PECAN: CaryaCarya illinoinensis, Juglandaceae

Distribution andand ecologyecology

Native of thethe richrich bottombottom landslands ofof thethe MississippiMississippi ValleyValley from Indiana and Illinois west to Kansas and Texas and atat higherhigher altitudesaltitudes southsouth into central Mexico, withwith locallocal outliersoutliers toto thethe north andand east.east. Cultivated inin USA, Mexico,Mexico, Brazil,Brazil, Australia,Australia, South Africa andand IsraelIsrael (Menninger, 1977;1977; TownsendTownsend andand Guest,Guest, 1980;1980; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Prescott-AllenPrescott-Allen andand PrescottPrescott-Allen,-Allen, 1986).1986).

Description

Large deciduous tree toto 5050 mm oror more more talltall withwith ascending ascending andand outwardlyoutwardly archingarching branches.branches. Flowers monoeciousmonoecious with slenderslender male catkinscatkins and smallsmall erect clustersclusters ofof femalefemale flowers.flowers . Fruit borne inin clusters of 4-12, aa globose globose toto oblong drupe,drupe, angled and narrowlynarrowly 4-4- winged at the sutures, 2.5-7 cm x 1.25-2.51.25-2.5 cm, exocarpexocarp moremore oror lessless separatingseparating byby 4-4- valves; nut ovoid to ellipsoid, cylindrical or faintly 4-angled; seed solitary, deeply divided longitudinally,longitudinally, somewhatsomewhat groovedgrooved and convolutedconvoluted,, not closelyclosely adherent to thethe shell (Menninger, 1977; TownsendTownsend andand Guest, 1980;1980; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Cultivation

Orchards largely planted out withwith graftedgrafted and budded trees inin thethe southeastsoutheast USA,USA, andand with seedling trees in the southwest, although therethere is nownow aa trend towardstowards selected cultivars.cultivars. Over 300 cultivarscultivars havehave been recognized. VarietalVarietal differencesdifferences rangerange from nutsnuts lessless thanthan 0.60.6 cmcm inin diameterdiameter toto more than 2.52.5 cmcm andand weighingweighing fromfrom overover 90 to 1818 nutsnuts per kg.kg. ProductionProduction beginsbegins atat 6-10 years andand cancan continuecontinue profitablyprofitably for up toto 200200 yearsyears -- somesome nativenative treestrees areare Figure 55 known to be over 11 000000 yearsyears old.old. Yields Carya illinoinensisillinoinensis. Leaves and flowersflowers.. from 9-27 kg per tree atat 8-108-10 years risingrising to

23 45-68 kg atat 1616 yearsyears oror more more with with exceptional exceptional individualsindividuals attainingattaining 360360 kgkg underunder unusuallyunusually favourable conditionsconditions (Rya11(Ryall andand Pentzer,Pentzer, 1974;1974; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Trees prefer aa deep,deep, well-drainedwell-drained soil,soil, adequateadequate rainfallrainfall or supplementarysupplementary irrigation and a frost-free growing season of 140-210 days.days. AA coolcool periodperiod isis alsoalso essentialessential inin orderorder toto breakbreak dormancy; the climaticclimatic requirementsrequirements vary withwith the varietyvariety (Rosengarten, 1987).1987).

Harvesting

Fallen nutsnuts formerlyformerly harvestedharvested byby hand.hand. Hand harvestingharvesting now largelylargely replacedreplaced byby mechanization, including treetree or limblimb shakers,shakers, shakeshake andand catchcatch harvesters,harvesters, windrowers,windrowers, sweepers, vacuumvacuum harvesters,harvesters, conveyersconveyers andand trashtrash separatorsseparators (Rya11(Ryall and Pentzer, 1974;1974; Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Post-harvest treatments

Pecans harvested mechanically havehave aa higher moisture content thanthan nuts that havehave fallenfallen naturally. Artificial dryingdrying isis essential inin orderorder toto reduce moisture toto 4.54.5% % asas soonsoon asas possible in order toto preventprevent mouldmould andand discoloration. MatzMatz (1984)(1984) recommendsrecommends drydry storagestorage for 3 weeksweeks atat roomroom temperaturetemperature to cure and reducereduce moisture inin entire nuts toto 8.5-9% and to 4.5%4.5 % forfor kernels.kernels. DuringDuring curing curing the the free free fatty fatty acids acids and and peroxide peroxide valuevalue ofof lipids lipids increaseincrease and seedseed coatcoat tannintannin oxidizeoxidize toto palepale oror mediummedium brown, thethe generalgeneral effect of whichwhich isis toto givegive the pecanpecan itsits characteristiccharacteristic appearance,appearance, aroma,aroma, flavourflavour andand texture.texture. Pecans are then storedstored until required forfor shellingshelling atat temperaturestemperatures below 2°C2' C andand lessless thanthan 70%70 % relativerelative humidityhumidity inin order toto preventprevent thethe developmentdevelopment ofof rancidity rancidity and/orand/or insect insect infestation. infestation. Long-term storav,estorage should bebe at ca. -8°C-8' C inin orderorder toto maximizemaximize freshness andand shelfshelf life.life. AnyAny tracestraces ofof ammoniaammonia during refrigeration, refrigeration, notnot detectabledetectable byby odour,odour, cancan rapidlyrapidly andand permanentlypermanently blackenblacken the seedseed coat but notnot affect affect thethe flavour.flavour. Storage facilities notnot usingusing ammonia asas a refrigerantrefrigerant areare essential. NutsNuts are are shelled shelled using using aa rotary rotary cracker cracker which which deliversdelivers aa shockshock wavewave toto thethe pecanpecan and explodesexplodes thethe shell shell withoutwithout damagingdamaging thethe kernel.kernel. Shell fragments are removed using aa double flotation system in additionaddition toto airair separationseparation systemssystems andand infraredinfrared colourcolour sortingsorting equipment (Rya11(Ryall and and Pentzer,Pentzer, 1974; Rosengarten, 1984;1984; YoungYoung PecanPecan Company,Company, undated).undated).

Production andand consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

Approximately 85-90% of the crop isis shelledshelled prior to marketing,marketing, the balancebalance being sold in-in­ shell. Shelled pecans are sold to bakeries (36%)(36 %) andand confectioners (20(20%), %), the remainderremainder toto retailers, grocery-wholesalersgrocery-wholesalers andand dairiesdairies forfor iceice creamcream production,production, etc.etc. Trade in in-shellin-shell isis declining, salessales beingbeing mainlymainly toto EuropeEurope (Rya11(Ryall and Pentzer,Pentzer, 1974;1974; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Prescott-Allen andand Prescott-Allen,Prescott-Allen, 1986).1986).

Nutritional valuevalue

Nutritional analyses of pecans are givengiven inin TableTable 3.3.

By-products and other usesuses

Pecan shells are used for gravellinggravelling paths, asas aa fuelfuel andand asas aa gardengarden mulch,mUlch, stockstock andand poultrypoultry litter; ground to a flourflour forfor degreasingdegreasing aero engines, as anan ingredientingredient of carpet cleaners and as a fillerfiller inin feeds,feeds, insecticidesinsecticides andand fertilizers,fertilizers, softsoft abrasivesabrasives inin handhand soap,soap, non-skidnon-skid paints and metal polishes, as fillersfillers inin plasticplastic wood,wood, adhesivesadhesives and dynamite, also for veneer and

24 polyesters. AnAn excellent excellent hardwood,hardwood, thethe woodwood andand veneerveneer isis inin highhigh demanddemand forfor decorativedecorative panelling, fine furniturefurniture andand flooring.flooring. TheThe treetree isis alsoalso growngrown asas anan ornamentalornamental and for shadeshade (Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Table 3:3: Nutritional Analyses per 100 g Sample of Raw Pecans and Pecans Roasted in Cotton Seed Oil withwith ButterButter and Salt

Raw Roasted Calories 710.0 740.0 Calories from fat (Id)(kJ) 630.0630.0 673.0 Protein (g) 1010.0.0 9.3 Total fat (g) 70.0 74.7 Saturated fat (g) 6.7 9.3 Cholesterol (mg) 0.0 0.0 Carbohydrates (g) 13.3 1313.7.7 Sugars (g) 3.3 3.0 Dietary fibre (g)(g) 6.7 5.7 Ca (mg)(mg) 73.0 73.0 P (mg) 603.0 603.0 Fe (mg)(mg) 2.4 2.4 K (mg) 603.0 603.0 Na (mg)(mg) 0.0 128.0 Mg (mg) 142.0142.0 142.0 Vitamin A (IU)(IU) 130.0 120.0 Vitamin C (mg)(mg) 2.0 0.0 Thiamin (mg)(mg) 0.9 0.9 Riboflavin (mg)(mg) 0.1 0.1 Niacin (mg)(mg) 0.9 0.9

Source: YoungYoung PecanPecan Company,Company, undated.undated.

Marketing

Undoubtedly NorthNorth America'sAmerica's mostmost important nativenative nutnut treetree with anan annualannual averageaverage production of over 9090 millionmillion kg, ofof whichwhich 18%18 % isis stillstill obtainedobtained from wild sources (Prescott-(Prescott­ Allen and Prescott-Allen,Prescott-Allen, 1986;1986; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1987).1987).

Discussion

The pecanpecan isis relativelyrelatively littlelittle knownknown outsideoutside AmericaAmerica andand therethere isis certainlycertainly aa possibilitypossibility forfor developing a widerwider market.market.

25 ENGLISH, PERSIAN, EUROPEAN, ROYAL, ITALIAN, MADEIRA, FRENCH, CHILE, MANCHURIAN, CAUCASIANCAUCASIAN OR OR CIRCASSIAN CIRCASSIAN WALNUT: WALNUT: Juglans Juglans regia, regia, Juglandaceae Juglandaceae

Distribution andand ecology ecology

Balkan peninsula,peninsula, Turkey toto thethe HimalayasHimalayas atat altitudesaltitudes up to 3 000000 m;m; widelywidely cultivatedcultivated and often naturalized (Menninger, 1977).1977).

Description

Monoecious, deciduous, aromatic tree to 3030 mm tall;tall; leavesleaves alternate,alternate, pinnate,pinnate, leafletsleaflets 7-9.7-9. Male catkins on twigs of previous year's growth,growth, femalefemale flowers few, on twigs of current year's growth.growth. FruitFruit aa large,large, subglobose,subglobose, indehiscent drupedrupe 4-5 cmcm inin diameter;diameter; stone ovoid, acute,acu~e, wrinkled, easily splitting (Tutin et al.,ai., 1964;1964; TownsendTownsend and Guest, 1980).1980).

Cultivation

Grown in orchardsorchards inin CaliforniaCalifornia andand southern Europe, propagatedpropagated byby buddingbudding and grafting of cultivars on rootstock of vanousvarious species of JuglansJugians (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977)1977)..

Harvesting

Walnuts mature when hull easily separable from the shell; the hull normally opening while fruit still attached to the tree. HarvestingHarvesting byby handhand or byby machine.machine. Older plantings tend to be ofof largelarge treestrees andand harvestingharvesting isis byby mechanical shakingshaking ofof thethe branchesbranches usingusing slings attached toto aa cablecable andand tractor-tractor­ driven eccentric. ApproximatelyApproximately 80% of the nuts can thusthus bebe removedremoved fromfrom thethe tree; with care, treetree shakersshakers maymay alsoalso be usedused.. For smallersmaller treestrees thethe shakeshake andand catch method may bebe used.used. NutsNuts maymay bebe caught in sheets or mechanically windrowed and collected by aa machinemachine Figure 6 Jug/ansJuglans regia.regia. 11:: branchlet with leaves with female flowerflower.. 2:2: malemale with which the leavesleaves andand trashtrash areare catkincatkin.. 3: male flower.flower. 4: stamen. 5:5 : female flower. 6: fruitfruit showingshowing separated, the harvestedharvested cropcrop consistingconsisting endocarpendocarp.. 7:7: seedseed covered covered by by one one valve valve of of endocarp.endocarp. 8: 8: sectionsection ofof fruit. of aa mixturemixture ofof hulled hulled andand unhulledunhulled walnuts. Prior land preparation to remove weeds andand obstaclesobstacles willwill speedspeed upup thethe harvestharvest operations.operations. Average yield forfor California range from about 2.2 tonnes per ha to 6.7 tonnes;tonnes; in Italy the average yield from specialist orchards is also about 2.2 tonnes per ha while yields from other producing countries are undoubtedly lower (Rya11(Ryall and and Pentzer, Pentzer, 1974;1974; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

26 Post-harvest treatments

Walnuts contain as high as 35%35% moisturemoisture whenwhen harvested.harvested. TheyThey shouldshould bebe hulled,hulled ,washed washed and dried as quicklyquickly asas possiblepossible to 8%8 % moisturemoisture or less and gradedgraded.. ShelledShelled walnutswalnuts quicklyquickly darken andand developdevelop rancidityrancidity underunder unfavourableunfavourable conditions;conditions; maximummaximum stabilitystability is is achievedachieved at ca.ca. 3%3 % moisture. moisture. Contamination byby ammonia duringduring storage can causecause severesevere damagedamage (Ryall(Rya11 and and Pentzer, Pentzer, 1974;1974; MatzMatz,, 1984;1984; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Production andand consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

Immature walnutswalnuts areare pickledpickled andand thethe riperipe walnutswalnuts eateneaten asas aa dessertdessert nut;nut; theythey areare alsoalso widelywidely used in baking and confectionery.confectionery. InIn the the HimalayanHimalayan regionregion walnutswalnuts areare anan importantimportant itemitem inin the diet. TheThe kernels kernels yieldyield ca.ca .50% 50% of of a a clear clear sweet sweet oil, oil, thethe firstfirst pressing,pressing, knownknown asas virginvirgin oil, isis largelylargely used used forfor culinary culinary purposes.purposes. Expression isis carriedcarried outout 2 to 33 monthsmonths afterafter harvesting, earlierearlier thethe kernelkernel containscontains aa sortsort ofof emulsive emulsive milk,milk, ifif expressedexpressed laterlater thethe oiloil isis lessless sweet and possiblypossibly rancid.rancid. Pounded walnuts andand walnutwalnut oiloil is the basisbasis ofof thethe deliciousdelicious Circassian dish "charkasiya""charkasiya" (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977; TownsendTownsend andand Guest,Guest, 1980;1980; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984)1984)..

Nutritional valuevalue

On a drydry weightweight basisbasis walnutswalnuts containcontain approximatelyapproximately 1717% % protein, 6565% % fat andand 16.5%16 .5 % carbohydrates. Although thethe vitamin CC content ofof mature walnutwalnut kernelskernels isis low,low, that of immature greengreen fruitfruit is exceptionally high,high, asas forfor walnutswalnuts used used for for pickling pickling.. However,However, the vitamin is destroyed wherewhere thethe methodmethod ofof picklingpickling turns the nutsnuts black.black. TheyThey shouldshould remainremain green, oror whitewhite ifif the the centrescentres onlyonly areare usedused (Melville,(Melville, 1947).1947).

By-products

The second pressing of seed oil, known as fire drawn, is used as a salad oil or as aa dryingdrying oil for useuse inin paints,paints, printingprinting ink,ink, manufacturemanufacture ofof soap.soap. Residual cakecake used for feedingfeeding livestock. TheThe huskhusk isis thethe sourcesource ofof aa darkdark brownbrown dye used for darken hair.hair. TheThe sapsap isis thethe source of sugar in thethe Caucasus.Caucasus. LargeLarge shells shells areare mademade intointo trinkettrinket boxes.boxes. Shells are alsoalso used as aa fillerfiller forfor external external plywoodplywood glue,glue, plastics,plastics, hardhard rubberrubber products,products, asphaltasphalt roofingroofing material, fire bricks,bricks, tiles,tiles, andand stuffingstuffing inin toys.toys. Shells reducedreduced toto dustdust are usedused asas insecticides and as an abrasive for cleaning jetjet aircraft engines. The timber is highly valued for cabinet work and gunstocks.gunstocks. VariousVarious partsparts areare usedused medicinallymedicinally as an alternative laxative and detergent (Menninger, 1977;1977; TownsendTownsend and Guest, 1980;1980; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Marketing

The USA is the largestlargest producer withwith approximatelyapproximately 90% of the exports as in-shell.in-shell. HoweverHowever increasing competitioncompetition maymay bebe expected fromfrom India and China as theirtheir walnutwalnut industriesindustries expand. WalnutWalnut oil oil for for salads salads and and cooking cooking isis producedproduced byby FranceFrance whilewhile pickledpickled walnuts are exported from thethe UnitedUnited KingdomKingdom (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Discussion

A popular dessertdessert nutnut whosewhose productionproduction hashas increasedincreased significantlysignificantly sincesince 1979-811979-81 toto 19931993 from 79 000 tonnestonnes to 11 million tonnes.tornes. TheThe gourmet gourmet trade trade inin saladsalad oiloil andand pickledpickled walnutswalnuts

27 currently monopolized byby France and thethe UnitedUnited KingdomKingdom could be developeddeveloped in otherother producing countries.

BRAZIL NUT:NUT: Bertholletia Bertholletia excelsa,excelsa, Lecythidaceae

Distribution andand ecologyecology

Probably originated in southeastern Amazonia. PresentPresent inin naturalnatural stands (castanhais) of 50-50- 100loo treestrees atat densitiesdensities ofof 5-205-20 treestrees perper ha,ha, eacheach standstand separatedseparated from one another by up toto 1 kilometre as emergent treestrees inin rainforestrainforest onon non-floodednon-flooded groundground inin thethe Guianas,Guianas, AmazonianAmazonian Brazil, southeasternsoutheastern Colombia, southern Venezuela, easterneastern Peru andand northernnorthern Bolivia.Bolivia. Climatic limits for itsits naturalnatural distributiondistribution are aa meanmean annualannual rainfall of 11 400-2400-2 800800 mm,nun, aa mean annual temperature ofof 24-2724-27°C0 C and a mean annual relative humidityhumidity of of 79-8679-86%. % . InIn eastern Amazonia, inin thethe lowerlower limitslimits ofof its its climaticclimatic rangerange therethere cancan bebe 2-72-7 monthsmonths wherewhere thethe monthly rainfall is lessless thanthan 100100 mm.rnm.

Cultivated in South America outsideoutside itsits naturalnatural range.range. NutsNuts from trees growing on barium-barium­ rich soils can accumulate up to 0.29% bariumbarium andand shouldshould be avoided due to danger of barium toxicity (Prance and Mori, 1979;1979; MoriMori andand Prance,Prance, 1990;1990; ClayClay andand Clement,Clement, 1993).1993). ItIt hashas been introduced to Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Java, Hawaii and thethe CaribbeanCaribbean (FAO, 1982;1982; Rosengarten, 1984).

Description

Large, deciduousdeciduous tree toto 50 m tall;tall; leavesleaves simple,simple, leathery. FruitFruit (pyxidium) (pyxidium) a globose,globose, circumscissile,circumscissile, woody capsulecapsule 10-12.5(- 16) cmcm xx 10-12.5(-14)10-12.5(44) cm, lined with hard fibres; seeds acutely trigonoid, 10-25, ca.ca. 3.5-5 cm x 2 2 cm, packed in 2 concentric rings around a core;core; seedseed coat woodywoody (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977; Prance andand Mori,Mori, 1979; Mori andand Prance,Prance, 1990).

Cultivation

There exist problemsproblems withwith pollination because the natural bee pollinators require natural forest forfor Figure 7 their survival. Strip Bertholletia excelsa.excelsa. 1: leaves.leaves 2: fruit.fruit. 3:3: openopen fruitfruit showingshowing seeds.seeds. plantations within the

28 rainforest may bebe thethe solutionsolution (Mori(Mori andand Prance,Prance, 1990).1990). Nuts mainly harvested from thethe forest where theythey areare managedmanaged under a traditional system ofof swiddenswidden agroforestry.agroforestry. NutsNuts maymay take 1-31-3 yearsyears toto germinate,germinate, 1-61-6 monthsmonths ifif shelled. shelled. Seedlings areare transplanted into newnew swiddens and thenthen managedmanaged duringduring thethe succeedingsucceeding swiddenswidden fallow, therebythereby creatingcreating thethe "castanhais". The seedlings quickly develop a vigorous taproot and need to be plantedplanted outout when 40-60 cm tall.tall. Attempts are now being made by the Agricultural Research Centre of the HumidHumid TropicsTropics (CPATU-EMBRAPA)(CPATU-EMBRAPA) inin BrazilBrazil toto identify eliteelite trees,trees, create a clonalclonal germplasm collection and provideprovide graftedgrafted clonesclones forfor commercialcommercial plantationsplantations (Clay(Clay andand Clement, 1993;1993; ClementClement andand Villachica,Villachica, 1994).1994).

Forest treestrees areare 12-1612-16 yearsyears oldold beforebefore fruiting,fruiting, withwith maximummaximum productionproduction fromfrom 25-3025-30 years;years; cultivated compact, grafted treestrees maymay startstart productionproduction after after 8 8 years. years. The trees grow best on deep, well-drained,well-drained, alluvialalluvial soilssoils onon highhigh groundground notnot subjectsubject toto floodingflooding (Prance(Prance and Mori,Mori, 1979; Rosengarten, 1984;1984; ITC,lTC, 1993).1993).

Harvesting

High yieldingyielding maturemature treestrees maymay produceproduce 200-400200-400 fruitsfruits yieldingyielding 100-120100-120 kgkg unshelledunshelled seedsseeds (commercial nuts), howeverhowever productionproduction variable with a good yield often followed byby aa poor yield inin thethe followingfollowing year.year. Within thethe area ofof distributiondistribution maturemature fruitsfruits fallfall betweenbetween November and August. TheThe seeds seeds (Brazil (Brazil nuts)nuts) areare retainedretained withinwithin the capsule because they are larger thanthan thethe opening.opening. NutsNuts are are harvested harvested regularly regularly to to avoid avoid damage damage byby agoutis,agoutis, insectsinsects and fungi. HarvestingHarvesting is is a a hazardous hazardous operationoperation andand usuallyusually startsstarts afterafter mostmost of the fruits have fallen because of the danger of being hithit byby thethe 0.5-0.750.5-0.75 kgkg fruitfruit fallingfalling from from a a height height of of up to 50 mm (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977; PrancePrance andand Mori,Mori, 1979;1979; ClayClay andand Clement,Clement, 1993).1993).

In BrazilBrazil thethe gatherersgatherers areare paidpaid inin advanceadvance inin cashcash oror kindkind andand areare contractedcontracted toto deliverdeliver thethe nuts to the shipper'sshipper's agentagent (the(the tradingtrading agentagent is known as the shipper). InIn Bolivia Bolivia thethe majormajor shippers ownown largelarge estatesestates andand largelylargely makemake useuse ofof bondedbonded labour,labour, exchangingexchanging BrazilBrazil nutsnuts andand rubber for over-pricedover-priced goods from the estate shops.shops. TheThe nutsnuts areare thenthen broughtbrought by trucktruck oror barge toto BelémBelem forfor onwardonward shipmentshipment (Holt,(Holt, 1991).1991).

Post-harvestPost -harvest treatments

After sufficient fruits have been harvested theythey areare split open, washed and dried before on­on- site storage under ratherrather primitiveprimitive conditions; thethe nuts thenthen have a moisturemoisture content of ca. 3535%. %. ByBy the the time time the the nuts nuts have have reached reached thethe collectingcollecting pointpoint moisturemoisture contentcontent wouldwould havehave fallen to ca. 2727%. %. TheThe nuts nuts areare thenthen cleaned cleaned andand drieddried toto ca. 16%16 % moisture content or 12%12 % if they are to be sold in-shell.in-shell. InIn Brazil Brazil giantgiant rotaryrotary driersdriers areare usedused whilewhile inin BoliviaBolivia and Peru nuts are drieddried onon slattedslatted floorsfloors inin thethe warehouses.warehouses.

In BrazilBrazil andand BoliviaBolivia thethe "autoclave""autoclave" process is used for removingremoving the shell, using aa briefbrief burst of stemstem toto expandexpand thethe shellshell andand loosenloosen thethe innerinner skinskin (testa),(testa), therebythereby producingproducing aa whiterwhiter kernel. TheThe process process produces produces aa dry dry nut nut with with little little attachedattached testa.testa. ThoseThose fromfrom BrazilBrazil havehave aa 4.5-5% moisturemoisture content,content, thosethose fromfrom BoliviaBolivia havehave slightlyslightly moremore skinskin andand 5-5.5%5-5.5% moisture.moisture. In Peru the nutsnuts are firstfirst soakedsoaked forfor 2424 hourshours toto expandexpand thethe shell; herehere thethe testatesta remainsremains fixedfixed to the kernel, givinggiving a darker kernel.kernel. TheThe individual individual nutsnuts areare thenthen manuallymanually crackedcracked inin smallsmall vices and roughlyroughly graded.graded.

Grading is by machine in Brazil andand byby handhand inin BoliviaBolivia and and Peru. Peru. The nuts are then oven dried, or,or, inin Peru,Peru, sun-dried, sun-dried, resultingresulting inin aa skin-covered skin-covered nutnut withwith 6.5-8%6.5-8 % moisture,moisture, oftenoften

29 with pieces of shellshell stillstill attached.attached. The highhigh moisturemoisture makesmakes mould andand aflatoxinaflatoxin moremore common (Holt,(Holt, 1991). ProperlyProperly dried dried andand aeratedaerated intactintact seedsseeds can be stored for 1-1.51-1.5 years,years , with seed coat removed theythey cancan bebe keptkept forfor 2-32-3 yearsyears (Prance(Prance andand Mori,Mori, 1979).1979).

Attempts at freeze cracking has been tried in a fewfew factories in Bolivia where the frozen nut isis centrifugallycentrifugally thrown against a steel screen. UnfortunatelyUnfortunately thethe processprocess isis difficultdifficult toto controlcontrol inin order toto preventprevent brokenbroken kernelskernels oror excessiveexcessive fragmenting ofof thethe shellshell,, resulting in an almostalmost unmarketable product (Holt, 1991).1991).

After drying in-shellin-shell nuts are graded as follows:follows: Extra Large,Large, 40-4540-45 nutsnuts perper pound;pound; LargeLarge 46-50; Weak Large 51-56; MediumMedium "Tocs","Tocs", 57-62;57-62; andand Small,Small, 63-11063-110 nutsnuts per poundpound (ITC,(lTC, 1993)1993)..

Production and consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

Deforestation inin the Amazonian rainforestrainforest hashas broughtbrought aboutabout aa reductionreduction inin thethe harvest of Brazil nuts from aboutabout 104104 000 tonnestonnes in 19701970 to onlyonly aboutabout 50 000 tonnestonnes in 19801980 (Mori(Mori and Prance, 1990).1990). In-shell BrazilBrazil nutsnuts areare traditionally forfor thethe Christmas marketmarket in UK, Germany and USA asas "mixed nut in-shell pack".pack". KernelsKernels are used in USA for roasting and salting for inclusion in mixed salted kernelkernel packspacks.. ApproximatelyApproximately 60% of the UK market is in kernels forfor coatingcoating withwith chocolatechocolate (enrobing),(enrobing), thethe remainingremaining 40% are marketedmarketed asas rawraw packed kernels. TheThe kernels kernels areare used used for for repacking repacking inin ContinentalContinental EuropeEurope (Holt, 1991).1991).

Nutritional valuevalue

Brazil nuts are highlyhighly nutritious,nutritious, containingcontaining approximately 1414% % protein, 67%67 % digestibledigestible fatfat or oil andand 11%11 % carbohydratescarbohydrates inin additionaddition toto calcium,calcium, phosphorus,phosphorus, potassium,potassium, vitaminvitamin BBand and the rare vitaminvitamin excelsine (lTC,(ITC, 1993). TheThe oiloil isis richrich inin unsaturatedunsaturated fattyfatty acidsacids (Table(Table 4);4) ; the nutnut isis alsoalso richrich inin the the sulphursulphur aminoamino acidsacids methioninemethionine and cysteine, which are deficientdeficient in seedsseeds ofof PhaseolusPhaseolus vulgarisvulgaris (common(common bean), a majormajor sourcesource ofof proteinprotein inin developingdeveloping countries (Clay(Clay andand Clement,Clement, 1993).1993).

Table 4: PercentagePercentage Fatty Fatty Acid Acid CompositionComposition of Pressure Extracted Brazil Nuts Kernel Fat

C14:0 C16:0 C16:1 C18:0 C18:1 C18:2 C18:3 %IS 0.05 13.85 0.45 10.25 30.50 44.90 - 75.85

0.48 1313.74.74 - 5.45 42.79 26.5426 .54 - 69.3369.33

C14C14:0:0 = myristic;myristic; C18:C18:1 1 = oleic;oleic; C16:0 = palmiticpalmitic acid;acid; C18:2 = linoleic;linoleic; C16:1C16: 1 == palmitoleic;palmitoleic; C18:3C18:3 = linolenic;linolenic; C18:0 = stearic;stearic; %IS == insaturationinsaturation = = C16C16:1: 1 ++ C18:C18:1 1 + C18:2C18:2 ++ C18:3C18:3

Source:Source: Adams,Adams, 19751975 citedcited byby ClayClay andand Clement,Clement, 1993.1993 .

By-products and otherother usesuses

Seed oil isis brightbright yellow,yellow, nearlynearly odourlessodourless andand withwith aa pleasant pleasant nuttynutty flavour.flavour. The firstfirst extraction yieldsyields anan excellentexcellent cookingcooking oil,oil, thethe secondsecond extractionextraction isis suitablesuitable forfor soap-makingsoap-making

30 and as an illuminant.illuminant. TheThe seed seed cakecake maymay bebe usedused forfor feedingfeeding livestocklivestock (Prance(Prance and Mori,Mori, 1979).1979).

The capsule (pyxidium) may may be be usedused forfor fuelfuel,, andand is a preferredpreferred source of smokesmoke for coagulating rubber latex.latex. Variously usedused forfor local craftcraft work for ashtrays,ashtrays, trinkettrinket cases,cases, candle holders and ornaments;ornaments; also used by thethe nativenative tribestribes forfor containerscontainers oror mortars.mortars. Timber is excellent but little used because ofof thethe highhigh valuevalue ofof thethe nuts as well as fellingfelling being prohibited by law inin BrazilBrazil (Mori(Mori andand Prance,Prance, 1990;1990; ClayClay andand Clement,Clement, 1993).1993).

Marketing

The world supply of Brazil nuts has varied from as high as 60 000 tons to ca. 3030 000000 tonstons and over the past 22 years has decreased atat thethe modestmodest raterate ofof ca.ca. 820 tons a year (Table 5). This decrease can be attributedattributed to thethe destructiondestruction of the rainforest (LaFleur, 1992).1992).

Table 5:.5:' WorldWorld Production Production of of Brazil Brazil Nuts Nuts by by Country, Country, 1970-1991 1970-1991

Year Brazil Bolivia Peru Total Approximate price FOBFOB ('000 tons) £Itonf/ton oror US$/lbUS$/lb 19701970 50 50 £378/ton 19711971 30 30 £4871ton£487/ton 19721972 65 65 £466/ton 19731973 65 65 US$ 0.63/1b0.63/lb 19741974 33 33 US$ 0.77/1bO.77/lb 1975 50 50 US$ 0.59/1b0.59/lb 1976 32 32 US$ 0.76/1b 19771977 38 38 US$ 1.28/lb 19781978 32 8 2 42 US$ 1.33/1b1.33/1b 1979 50 7 3 60 US$ 1.04/lb 19801980 60 60 US$ 0.98/1b0.98/lb 1981 40 40 US$ 1.07/1b1.07/lb 1982 28 28 US$ 1.63/lb 1983 35 35 US$ 1.41/lbl.4l1lb 1984 35 10 6 51 US$ O.8111b0.81/lb 1985 40 6 4 50 US$ 0.82/1b0.82/lb 1986 35 8 5 48 US$ 0.90/1b 1987 33 10 7 50 US$ 1.09/lb 1988 29 7 5 41 US$ 1.18/1b1. 18/lb 1989 25 9 6.5 40.5 US$ 1.70/lb 1990 42 9 3 54 US$ 1.48/1b1.48/lb 1991 24 5.5 22.5.5 32 US$ 1.36/1b1.36/lb Average 36.3 8.0 4.4 45.2 US$ 1.20/lb1.20/lb

Source: LaFleur, 1992.1992.

31 It was formerlyformerly secondsecond onlyonly toto rubberrubber asas anan exportexport cropcrop fromfrom AmazonianAmazonian BrazilBrazil andand stillstill isis a major crop in the overall economy of the regionregion.. NutsNuts areare mainlymainly exportedexported toto USA,USA , UnitedUnited Kingdom and Germany (Prance(Prance andand Mori,Mori, 1979).1979) .

Export is mainlymainly concentratedconcentrated in northwestern Amazonia, Acre StateState andand thethe Pando/BeniPando/Beni regions ofof Bolivia.Bolivia. TheThe in-shellin-shell nutsnuts are fromfrom thethe generally larger and round nuts from central and lower Amazonia andand ParaPali andand the kernels from Acre andand PandolBeniPando/Beni regions regions.. However,However, over the past decade the demand forfor in-shellin-shell has been decreasing worldwide as traditions have changed and thethe FoodFood AuthoritiesAuthorities havehave becomebecome moremore demanding;demanding; thethe demanddemand forfor kernels,kernels, however,however, hashas remainedremained relativelyrelatively constant.constant. OverOver 80%80% ofof thethe commercialcommercial supply is from Acre where the differences between the Cruzeiro "official" and the Cruzeiro "parallelo" generally favours a contraband traffictraffic betweenbetween Bolivia, Peru and Brazil (Holt, 1991).1991).

The three influencinginfluencing factors betweenbetween production and final usage are the out-turnout-turn qualityquality at the shipper'sshipper's factory,factory, thethe qualityquality receivedreceived byby thethe importerimporter atat thethe portport ofof destination destination andand thethe quality delivered toto the consumer, resulting inin aa rather precarious market.market. TheThe situationsituation isis further complicated by threethree ofof the the majormajor processing/exporting processing/exporting facilitiesfacilities inin BrazilBrazil beingbeing owned by members ofof thethe samesame familyfamily andand controllingcontrolling over 50%50 % ofof thethe market.market.

The importer buys a FairFair AverageAverage QualityQuality (FAQ)(FAQ) of thethe crop,crop, whichwhich isis determineddetermined byby Combined Edible NutNut TradeTrade AssociationAssociation (CENTA)(CENTA) oror byby thethe AssociationAssociation ofof FoodFood Industries,Industries, New York (AFI) from timetime toto timetime duringduring thethe year.year. ThisThis theoreticallytheoretically allows the market to trade different qualitiesqualities as determineddetermined by the state of the crop at the point or origin. SaleSale byby the importerimporter toto thethe finalfinal customer customer willwill invariably invariably includeinclude guaranteesguarantees andand conditionsconditions notnot covered by the original purchase.purchase. ManufacturersManufacturers havehave to conform to increasingly tighter legal specifications, particularly with regard to aflatoxinaflatoxin and colicoli bacteria,bacteria, especiallyespecially inin EuropeEurope where raw oror enrobedenrobed nutsnuts areare eaten.eaten. SinceSince muchmuch ofof USAUSA importimport isis renderedrendered sterilesterile byby roasting or blanchingblanching andand detoxificationdetoxification processes, theirtheir import regulationsregulations tendtend toto be less strict (Holt, 1991;1991; LaFleur,LaFleur, 1992).1992).

Blanched grades have been shownshown to be 99% lessless contaminatedcontaminated than naturals (shelled(shelled butbut notnot processed) and are marketedmarketed asas blanchedblanched whole, sliced, diced, slivered, balls, ovals,ovals, brokenbroken and paste; naturalnatural gradesgrades areare marketedmarketed asas naturalnatural wholes,wholes, slicedsliced andand powder.powder.

Discussion

The feudal contractcontract systemsystem byby whichwhich thethe disenfranchiseddisenfranchised gatherers are bondedbonded toto harvestharvest thethe nuts means that any benefits of high prices are not passed onto the gatherers. The destruction of the rainforestrainforest hashas resultedresulted inin aa steadysteady decreasedecrease inin bothboth productionproduction and share of thethe edibleedible nut trade,trade, promisingpromising aa bleakbleak futurefuture forfor thethe BrazilBrazil nutnut tradetrade (LaFleur,(LaFleur, 1992).1992).

However, long-termlong-term prospectsprospects areare consideredconsidered reasonablyreasonably promising.promising. ProducersProducers fromfrom thethe Andean region can expect little or no competition fromfrom otherother partsparts of the world.world . However,However. their main concern shouldshould notnot bebe productionproduction andand exports butbut qualityquality control (ITC,(lTC, 1993).1993).

Brazil nut treestrees cancan continuecontinue bebe managedmanaged underunder thethe presentpresent "castanhais""castanhais" system,system, therebythereby helping to conserveconserve thethe tropicaltropical forestforest andand AmerindianAmerindian cultures.cultures. AA secondsecond possibilitypossibility isis oneone of agroforestry/forestagroforestry/forest management toto restore degraded forestforest sites with the Brazil nut as aa multipurposemUltipurpose species, yielding nuts after 15-20 years and timber after 50-100 years, whichwhich could lead to thethe provisionprovision ofof long-termlong-term capitalizationcapitalization for the Amazonian farmer. The thirdthird option is that ofof investmentinvestment inin aa monoculturemonoculture plantation cropcrop butbut withwith the inherent risks of

32 pests and diseases. ClayClay andand ClementClement (1993) prefer the second option.option. However, there is also a case for the AmerindiansAmerindians toto be allowedallowed to continue their traditional way of life in their own territories andand thethe secondsecond optionoption toto bebe usedused inin degradeddegraded areas.areas.

PEANUT OROR GROUNDNUT:GROUNDNUT: Arachis Arachis hypogaea, hypogaea, Leguminosae Leguminosae subfamilysubfamily Papilionoideae

See Smartt (1994) forfor agronomicagronomic details,details, etc.etc.

Discussion

Peanuts are the secondsecond largest source, after soya beans, of vegetable oil;oil; thethe cropscrops fromfrom all the major producing countriescountries withwith thethe exceptionexception of USA is predominantly forfor oil extraction (Purseglove, 1987).1987).

As a dessert nut, peanutspeanuts werewere firstfirst introducedintroduced inin USAUSA as roasted, in-shellin-shell in 1870;1870; packaged, salted and roasted,roasted, s'helledshelled peanuts were introducedintroduced around 19061906 (Matz,(Matz, 1984).1984).

It isis aa valuable,valuable, highhigh protein,protein, legumelegume cropcrop widelywidely growngrown throughoutthroughout thethe tropics,tropics, especiallyespecially in the lowerlower rainfallrainfall areas.areas. WhereWhere otherother sourcessources ofof foodfood proteinprotein areare notnot readilyreadily availableavailable thethe emphasis should be onon peanutspeanuts forfor locallocal consumptionconsumption rather thanthan commercialcommercial oil extraction.extraction.

MACADAMIA OR OR QUEENSLAND QUEENSLAND NUT: NUT: Macadamia Macadamia integrijolia, integrifolia, Proteaceae Proteaceae

Distribution andand ecologyecology

Native of QueenslandQueensland and northernnorthern NewNew SouthSouth Wales of Australia;Australia; occursoccurs alongalong fringesfringes ofof subtropical lowland rainforests. Introduced to Hawaii in 1880s1880s for growinggrowing asas windbreaks.windbreaks. The commercial potentialpotential asas aa dessertdessert nutnut waswas developeddeveloped byby thethe UniversityUniversity ofof HawaiiHawaii inin thethe 1930s although a plantationplantation had been established inin Australia asas early asas 1888;1888; recentrecent plantations in California,California, Florida,Florida, Jamaica,Jamaica, Mexico,Mexico, Guatemala,Guatemala, ElEI Salvador,Salvador, CostaCosta Rica,Rica, Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil, Peru,Peru, Ethiopia,Ethiopia, Kenya,Kenya, Tanzania,Tanzania, Malawi,Malawi, Zimbabwe,Zimbabwe, SouthSouth Africa, Thailand,Thailand, China,China, Indonesia,Indonesia, Tahiti,Tahiti, Samoa,Samoa, Fiji,Fiji, NewNew Caledonia,Caledonia, NewNew ZealandZealand andand Israel. OptimumOptimum temperature is 25°C;25· C; maturemature trees are frost tolerant for short periods down to -6°C,-6· C, longerlonger periodsperiods oror lower lower temperatures temperatures areare fatal.fatal. TheThe developing developing inflorescenceinflorescence isis susceptible to frost whilewhile thethe criticalcritical temperaturetemperature aboveabove whichwhich floweringflowering isis suppressedsuppressed isis 20°C20· C (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984;1984; ITC,lTC, 1993;1993; MacraeMacrae et al.,aI., 1993).1993).

Description

A spreading, evergreen tree up to 1010 mm tall;tall; leavesleaves in whorls of 3, simple,simple, entireentire 10-2810-28 cm long, new leavesleaves pale green (in(in whorls of 4 and margins serrate with ca. 40 per margin, newnew leaves pink toto redred inin thethe closelyclosely relatedrelated M.M. tetraphylla).tetraphylla). InflorescenceInflorescence 10-1510-15 cmcm longlong withwith up toto 200200 creamycreamy whitewhite flowersflowers (racemes(racemes up to 3030 cmcm longlong andand bearingbearing moremore thanthan 500500 reddish pink flowersflowers inin M.M. tetraphylla).tetraphylla). FolliclesFollicles 1-sutured,I-sutured, onlyonly 11 outout ofof 2 2 ovulesovules developsdevelops (rarely both, thenthen wholewhole kernel difficult toto extract). Fruit borne in hanging clustersclusters ofof 12 or more, globose,globose, 2-32-3 cmcm inin diameter,diameter, exocarpexocarp fleshy,fleshy, dehiscingdehiscing on thethe tree;tree; endocarpendocarp veryvery hard, kernelskernels globoseglobose (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten, 1984; MacraeMacrae etet aI.,al., 1993).1993) .

33 Cultivation

Macadamia prefers well-drainedwell-drained soils, sheltered from strong winds and aa mild,mild, frost-free, subtropical climate with a wellwell distributed annual rainfall of atat least 1 200200 mm.mm. Plantations from seed start profitable bearing after 7 yearsyears,, with productivity peaking after after 15 years; thethe economiceconomic life of thethe tree being 5050 years.years. At fullfull production the yield is fromfrom 2323 to 7070 kgkg in-shellin-shell nutsnuts perper tree.tree. Desirable clones may be developed by grafting. The species is cross pollinated, therefore desirable that at leastleast Figure 88 two cultivars are grown in Macadamia integrifo/ia.integrifolia. 1: leaf. 2: branchlet.branchlet. 3:3 : nutnut showingshowing dehiscencedehiscence ofof husk.husk. orchards, preferablypreferably inin alternatealternate 4: cross-section.cross-section. 5:5: longitudinallongitudinal section.section. rows. The presencepresence of beesbees should be encouraged (Rosengarten, 1984; Macrae et alal.,. , 1993).1993).

Harvesting

Mature treestrees bearbear continuouslycontinuously andand riperipe fruitsfruits areare difficultdifficult toto distinguishdistinguish from immature ones on thethe treetree asas thethe maturemature fruitsfruits usuallyusually absciseabscise when the fibrous husk is still green. As the husk dries itit splitssplits alongalong the suturesuture to releaserelease the nut with its thick, rough, strong, lightlight tantan shell enclosing the kernel. ConsequentlyConsequently the ripe nuts are usually harvested from the ground. A blower isis usedused toto movemove leavesleaves andand nutsnuts awayaway fromfrom thethe base ofof thethe treetree wherewhere theythey cancan bebe swept into windrows and pickedpicked up byby aa mechanizedmechanized harvester,harvester, althoughalthough somesome handhand labourlabour is alwaysalways necessary.necessary. Harvesting shouldshould be be carriedcarried outout everyevery 6-86-8 weeks to avoidavoid anyany deterioration (Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten, 1984; Macrae et al., 1993).1993).

Post-harvest treatments

Freshly harvested nuts contain up to 30% moisture in the husk and 10-25%10-25 % in the restrest andand it has to be removedremoved within 24 hours if possible toto preventprevent mould.mould. TheThe huskhusk isis removedremoved by husking machines and initially drieddried toto 10% moisturemoisture beforebefore deliverydelivery toto thethe processor.processor. TheThe in-shell nuts are thenthen reduced in stages to about 1.5% waterwater contentcontent in dryingdrying ovensovens forfor long-term storage, efficientefficient cracking and more complete removal ofof wholewhole kernelskernels.. TheThe drieddried nuts are thenthen shelledshelled inin stainlessstainless steelsteel drumsdrums andand thethe kernelskernels separatedseparated by aa combinationcombination of sieving and air blasting beforebefore gradinggrading byby airair oror waterwater flotationflotation.. The final product is either lightly roasted and saltedsalted oror packagedpackaged rawraw inin vacuum-filled,vacuum-filled, foilfoil laminatelaminate bagsbags (Ryall(Ryall andand Pentzer, 1974;1974; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Macrae et al., 1993).1993).

Production andand consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

The optimum requirementsrequirements forfor eatingeating andand processingprocessing areare kernelskernels containingcontaining at leastleast 72%72 % oil,oil, i.ei.e.,., specific gravitygravity (SG)(SG) <<1.0); 1.0); secondsecond gradegrade kernelskernels withwith SG 1.0-1.0251.0-1.025 can be used for

34 low gradegrade production,production, while third grade kernels with SG >1.025> 1.025 areare commercially commercially unacceptableunacceptable.. The bulk of thethe macadamiamacadamia nuts are traditionallytraditionally roasted in coconutcoconut oil andand salted although dry roastingroasting isis increasingincreasing inin popularity;popularity; alsoalso usedused inin confectioneryconfectionery - chocolate coated kernels and nut chocolate,chocolate, iceice creamcream andand bakingbaking (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984;1984; lTC,ITC, 1993;1993 ; Macrae etet al., 1993).1993).

Nutritional value

Kernels contain moremore than 7575% % of oil, thethe restrest beingbeing proteinprotein andand littlelittle sugarsugar but nono starchstarch (Menninger, 1977). TheThe nutritional nutritional valuevalue ofof roasted roasted andand saltedsalted nutsnuts comparedcompared withwith shelledshelled pistachio nuts are shown in Table 6.

Table 6:6: Nutritional Value per 100100 g of Roasted in Oil and Salted Macadamia NutsNuts and Dried andand ShelledShelled PistachioPistachio NutsNuts

. Macadamia Pistachio Water (%) 2 4 Food energy (kJ) 33064 064 24652 465 Protein (g)(g) 7.1 21.4 Fat (g) 78.6 50 Fatty acids, saturated (g) 11.4 66.1.1 Fatty acids, monounsaturated 61.1 33.2 Fatty acids, polyunsaturatedpolyunsaturated 0.14 77.5.5 Cholesterol (mg)(mg) 0 0 Carbohydrates (g)(g) 14.3 25 Ca (mg)(mg) 46.4 135.7 P (mg)(mg) 203.6203 .6 510.7510.7 Fe (mg)(mg) 1.8 6.8 K (mg) 332.1 11107.1 107.1 Na (mg)(mg) 264.3 - Mg (mg)(mg) 0.12 - Zn (mg)(mg) 1.4 - Mn (mg)(mg) 0.38 - Cu (mg)(mg) 0.33 - Vitamin A, iuiu trace 250 Vitamin A, RERE (mg)(mg) trace 25 Thiamin (mg)(mg) 0.21 0.820.82 Riboflavin (mg)(mg) 0.11 0.18 Nicotinic acidacid (mg)(mg) 2.142.14 1.07 Ascorbic acidacid (mg)(mg) 0 trace

Source: Macrae et aial.,., 1993.1993.

By-products and otherother usesuses

Macadamia shell maymay bebe usedused asas fuel,fuel, generatinggenerating sufficientsufficient energy toto drydry wet,wet, in-shellin-shell nuts.nuts. Kernel oil suitablesuitable forfor humanhuman consumptionconsumption (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

35 Macadamia tree. (Photo:(Photo: G.G. Blaak)Blaak)

Macadamia in flower. (Photo:(Photo: G.G. Blaak)Blaak)

36 Marketing

World production for 1991/1992199111992 was approximately 1111 000 000 tonnes tornes ofof kernels perper year of which 50% werewere consumedconsumed inin USA.USA. The major exporter isis Hawaii,Hawaii, producingproducing aboutabout 5 700 tonnestonnes inin 1991, with overover 50%50% ofof thethe worldworld productionproduction andand aa projectedprojected kernelkernel production of about 13 600 tonnes byby thethe yearyear 2000.2000. Australia,Australia, thethe secondsecond largest producer in thethe worldworld hashas anan annualannual productionproduction ofof ca.ca. 33 000000 tonnes, or nearnear 30%30% ofof thethe worldworld production (lTC,(ITC, 1993).1993). ConsideredConsidered a a gourmet gourmet delicacy, delicacy, itit is,is, withwith pine pine nutsnuts andand pistachios,pistachios, one of thethe world'sworld's most most expensive expensive nutsnuts (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984).1984) .

Discussion

World production isis increasingincreasing atat anan alarmingalarming raterate andand isis expectedexpected to double by the beginning of the next century. ThereThere is is still still only only a a small small demanddemand forfor thisthis expensiveexpensive nut and it is a crop that requiresrequires considerableconsiderable initialinitial investmentinvestment (ITC,(lTC, 1993).1993). Nevertheless, thethe market forfor macadamia could be expanded considerably into Europe and Asia, where it isis stillstill relativelyrelatively little known. TheThe increase increase inin production production cancan bebe expectedexpected toto resultresult inin aa priceprice reduction.reduction.

With our presentpresent knowledgeknowledge therethere areare onlyonly limitedlimited areasareas inin thethe worldworld wherewhere thethe treestrees cancan bebe grown successfully.successfully. ToTo datedate therethere havehave beenbeen no successful plantations withinwithin caca.. 15°N15· Nand and SS of the equatorequator and,and, unlikeunlike coffee,coffee, aa suitable suitable altitudealtitude cannotcannot bebe substitutedsubstituted for latitudelatitude whenwhen seeking a favourable environment (Rosengarten, 1984). Obviously therethere is a need for further exploration forfor andand selectionselection ofof potentialpotential genotypesgenotypes and a betterbetter understandingunderstanding of thethe environmental and managementmanagement factorsfactors involvedinvolved inin establishingestablishing productiveproductive macadamiamacadamia plantations.

ALMOND: Prunus Prunus duicis,dulcis, RosaceaeRosaceae

Distribution andand ecologyecology

Naturally occurs in thethe oakoak forestsforests ofof NorthernNorthern Syria,Syria, Turkey,Turkey, Caucasus,Caucasus, IranIran andand Iraq.Iraq. Introduced andand widely naturalizednaturalized inin NorthNorth Africa,Africa, Cyprus,Cyprus, Crete,Crete, southernsouthern Europe,Europe, Afghanistan, Kashmir, California,California, etc.etc. (Townsend(Townsend andand Guest,Guest, 1966).1966).

Description

Spreading tree up toto 1010 mm tall;tall; leavesleaves deciduous,deciduous, simple.simple. Fruit ovoid-ellipsoid,ovoid-ellipsoid, 3-4 cm xx 2-2.5 cmcm (larger(larger inin cultivated cultivated varieties),varieties), splittingsplitting at maturity, stone 2.5-3 cm x 1.5-21.5-2 cm,cm, pitted, seedseed ovoid, compressed, ca. 1.5-21.5-2 cmcm xx 1-1.51-1.5 cmcm (Townsend andand GuestGuest,, 1966).1966). TwoTwo races recognized,recognized, sweetsweet almondsalmonds grown for their edible nuts and the bitterbitter almondsalmonds for oiloil of bitterbitter almond.almond. Hard andand softsoft shelledshelled formsforms areare recognizedrecognized in thethe formerformer (Ryall(Ryall andand Pentzer, 1974;1974; Matz,Matz, 1984;1984; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984);1984); thethe latterlatter willwill notnot bebe considered further here.here .

Cultivation

Most almondalmond cultivarscultivars areare softsoft shelled; shelled; theythey are are also also self-incompatible, self-incompatible, consequently consequently plantations require the interplantinginterplanting of two rowsrows ofof self-incompatibleself-incompatible withwith aa row of cross-cross­ compatible cultivars; thethe keepingkeeping ofof honeyhoney beesbees forfor pollinationpollination isis consideredconsidered anan essentialessential partpart of almondalmond production.production. Trees in CaliforniaCalifornia beginbegin toto bear after 3-4 years and reachreach fullfull productivity in ca. 7-87-8 years.years. Irrigation is favoured in California (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

37 HarvestingHarvesting

Almonds ready for harvesting whenwhen the hulls start to split open. Formerly harvested by beatingbeating thethe tree and collecting the fallfalling ing almonds on canvascanvas sheets.sheets. Now harvested using mechanical shakers which can deal with 120120 trees per hour; thethe fallenfallen nutsnuts areare thenthen sweptswept into windrows and picked up mechanically forfor transport to thethe factoryfactory.. TheThe use ofof shakeshake andand catch machines lessens the dangerdanger of fruits of thethe moremore openopen cultivarscultivars coming into contact with thethe soil,soil, thereby lessening the risk of mould and aflatoxin infestationinfestation (Rya11 (Ryall and Pentzer, 1974;1974; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Paramount FarmsFanns Almonds, 1991).1991).

Post-harvest treatments

At thethe factoryfactory thethe brown,brown, outer,outer, leathery coat (hull)(hUll) isis removedremoved byby blanching, which which involvesinvolves placingplacing the almonds in contactcontact with waterwater at 82C82· C forfor 3 3minutes minutes andand eithereither skinning byby hand or byby aa specialspecial machine. The almondsalmonds are thenthen Figure 9 dried toto less thanthan 8%8 % moisturemoisture Prunus clulcis.dulcis. 1: branch withwith flowersflowers.. 2: longitudinallongitudinal section ofof flower. 3:3: content and stored. Air tight Branch with with fruits.fruits. 4: fruits without pericarp.pericarp . containers must be used toto preventprevent moisture pick-up. Although relatively resistant to rancidity the almonds will deteriorate inin time. OnOn delivery delivery toto thethe packingpacking company,company, thethe almonds areare shelledshelled andand graded. graded. The grading process uses ultraviolet scannersscanners forfor high-techhigh-tech colourcolour sortingsorting toto separateseparate damageddamaged andand foreignforeign matter before mechanical gradinggrading- (Matz, 1984;1984; ParamountParamount FarmsFanns Almonds, 1991).1991).

Production and consumption/consumption/ utilizationutilization

Approximately 98%98 % ofof thethe cropcrop isis soldsold shelledshelled eithereither asas naturalnatural andand retainingretaining thethe brownbrown skinskin or blanched,blanched, withwith thethe skinsskins removed.removed. Almonds cancan bebe eateneaten asas a dessert nut eithereither drydry roasted or roasted inin almond oil and then salted andand seasoned.seasoned. They are also used for baking, confectionery, cereal,cereal, dairydairy oror snack snack formulations;formulations; processingprocessing maymay produceproduce blanchedblanched whole,whole, slivered, meal, diced,diced, split,split, slicedsliced oror flaked flaked almonds;almonds; almondalmond butter is a recent development (Rosengarten, 1984;1984; ParamountParamount FarmsFarms Almonds,Almonds, 1991).1991).

38 Nutritional valuevalue

Almonds contain approximatelyapproximately 2222% % protein,protein, 57.7%57 .7 % digestibledigestible fat oror oil andand 15%15 % carbohydrates (Melville, 1947).1947).

By-products and other usesuses

The gum exudate may be used asas aa substitutesubstitute for gum tragacanth and was formerly exported from Iran viavia BombayBombay to Europe.Europe. AlmondAlmond yieldsyields bothboth anan essentialessential oiloil andand fixedfixed fattyfatty acidacid for useuse inin perfumeryperfumery butbut frequently frequently adulteratedadulterated withwith otherother oils.oils. The essential oil from thethe bitter variety isis highlyhighly toxictoxic duedue toto presencepresence ofof HCNHCN butbut withwith carefulcareful preparationpreparation yieldsyields anan agreeable essence for useuse inin perfumeryperfumery andand confectionery.confectionery. Both bitter andand sweetsweet varietiesvarieties may be growngrown asas ornamentalsornamentals (Townsend(Townsend andand Guest, 1966).1966).

The hulls of sweetsweet almonds can be fed to livestock. TheThe shellsshells cancan bebe usedused forfor roughageroughage inin cattle feed oror convertedconverted intointo charcoalcharcoal briquettesbriquettes (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Marketing

Regarded as thethe mostmost importantimportant andand versatileversatile ofof allall edibleedible treetree nuts.nuts. AlmondAlmond producingproducing countries in current orderorder ofof importanceimportance areare USAUSA (California),(California), Spain, Italy, Iran, Greece,Greece, Morocco, Turkey, Tunisia,Tunisia, Pakistan,Pakistan, Libya,Libya, Syria,Syria, Portugal,Portugal, ChinaChina andand LebanonLebanon (FAO,(FAO, 1994).

World production rose steadilysieadily from 11 millionmillion tonnestonnes inin 1979-811979-81 to 1.31.3 millionmillion tonnestonnes inin 1992 and fell to 1.2 million tonnes in 1993. ThisThis trendtrend isis reflectedreflected inin NorthNorth AmericaAmerica byby 273,273 , 412 and 356 000 tonnestonnes for 1979-81,1979-81, 19921992 and 1993 respectively.respectively. Production in Europe, the largest ofof thethe continentalcontinental scalescale producersproducers hashas decreaseddecreased steadilysteadily fromfrom 482482 000000 tonnestonnes inin 1979-81 to 436436 000000 tonnestonnes inin 1993.1993. Spain, the majormajor producerproducer inin EuropeEurope increasedincreased production slightly from 243 000 tonnestonnes in 1979-811979-81 to 251 000 tonnes in 19931993,, while in Italy production has declined markedly, from 174174 000 tonnestonnes in 1979-811979-81 to 9990099 900 tonnes in 19931993 (FAO, 1994).1994).

Discussion

The world's majormajor edible edible nut,nut, therethere is is an an obvious obvious needneed forfor improvingimproving OldOld WorldWorld productionproduction if it isis toto competecompete withwith thethe highlyhighly mechanizedmechanized productionproduction in USA.

COCONUT:Cocoislur: CocosCocos nucifera,nucijera, PalmaePalmae

Distribution andand ecologyecology

Origin unknown, possiblypossibly westernwestern Pacific;Pacific; cultivatedcultivated throughoutthroughout thethe lowlandlowland tropics.tropics. Salt tolerant, thethe coconutcoconut requiresrequires anan equableequable climate,climate, goodgood drainage, adequateadequate soil aeration and constant supply of ground water (Purseglove,(Purseglove, 1987;1987; Dransfield,Dransfield, 1986).1986).

Description

Solitary, unarmed, monoecious treetree palmpalm rangingranging fromfrom "dwarfs""dwarfs" withwith trunkstrunks upup toto 22 m atat first flowering toto tall forms with trunks to 30 m oror more.more. Leaves pinnate, 4-5 m long.long. Inflorescence upup toto 1.51.5 mm long,long, bisexual; bisexual; malemale flowersflowers distal.distal. Fruit massive,massive, obovoid,obovoid,

39 obscurely trigonous,trigonous, up up toto 25 cmcm longlong andand 25 cmcm or moremore in diameter, with basalbasal persistent calyx and corolla; usuallyusually withwith onlyonly 1 of thethe 3 carpels developing; mesocarp massive, fibrous; endocarp toto 5 mmmm thick,thick, extremely hardhard and woody,woody, withwith 33 basal "eyes", usually onlyonly 11 functional;functional; seedseed fillingfilling the large endocarp cavity, 10-15 cm inin diameter; endosperm to 22 cmcm thick,thick, lininglining thethe endocarp (Dransfield,(Dransfield, 1986).1986).

Cultivation

A number ofof ratherrather heterogeneousheterogeneous cultivarscultivars areare recognized including one where the endosperm hypertrophies toto fill the entireentire cavitycavity withwith aa thick, edibleedible curd.curd. Tall palms tend to bebe slowslow maturing, floweringflowering 6-106-10 yearsyears afterafter plantingplanting and with aa life-spanlife-span ofof 80-10080-100 years.years. Dwarf palms begin bearing in theirtheir thirdthird yearyear andand have a productiveproductive lifelife ofof 30-35(-40) 30-35(-40) years.years.

A satisfactory method of vegetative propagation hashas yetyet toto bebe found,found, althoughalthough somesome success has been reportedreported withwith tissuetissue culture.culture. Figure 10 Propagation is, therefore, from seed. TheThe seedseed Cocos nuciferanucifera.. has nono dormancydormancy andand growthgrowth maymay eveneven beginbegin while the fruit isis stillstill attachedattached to the tree. GerminationGermination isis slowslow and may take ca. 44 months.months. Transplanting into the fieldfield isis fromfrom 6-96-9 monthsmonths andand shouldshould bebe accompaniedaccompanied byby stringentstringent selection forfor early germination, vigour and rapidrapid growth.growth. TheThe normalnormal spacingspacing for tall palms is for 120-175120-175 palms perper haha withwith squaresquare plantingplanting and 140-200140-200 palms per ha with triangular planting.planting. Palms requirerequire carefulcareful attentionattention during their initial 4-6 yearsyears toto ensureensure goodgood development; catch crops maymay bebe growngrown untiluntil thethe palmspalms comecome intointo bearing.bearing. Manuring isis highly beneficial.beneficial.

An inflorescence is produced every month and the fruit takes a year to maturemature (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984; Purseglove, 1987).1987).

Harvesting

Depending on the cultivar, thethe averageaverage weightweight of fruit from tall palms ranges from 1.2-21.2-2 kgkg with nuts fromfrom 0.7-1.20.7-1.2 kgkg containingcontaining 0.35-0.60.35-0.6 kgkg endospermendosperm and yieldingyielding 0.2-0.29 kg ofof copra. DwarfDwarf palins palms bear bear fruits fruits weighing weighing 1.11.1 kg kg withwith nuts nuts weighingweighing 0.60.6 kgkg andand yieldingyielding 0.20.2 kg of copra.copra.

Harvesting usually begins when tall palmspalms areare 6-86-8 yearsyears oldold andand continuescontinues throughoutthroughout thethe year. Fully ripe fruitsfruits areare requiredrequired forfor copracopra productionproduction andand manufacture manufacture ofof desiccated desiccated coconut. The fruits maymay bebe harvestedharvested byby skilledskilled climbers or, inin Malaysia,Malaysia, ThailandThailand andand Sumatra, by trainedtrained pig-tailedpig-tailed monkeys; coconuts may also be cut down using a knife fixed to a longlong pole oror thethe fallenfallen fruitfruit pickedpicked upup fromfrom thethe groundground (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Purseglove, 1987).

40 Post-harvest treatments

The endospermendospenn is thethe sourcesource ofof anan edible/industrialedible/industrial oil whichwhich is eithereither extractedextracted by thethe producing countries or dried andand exportedexported as copra for extractionextraction elsewhere; copra contains 60-6860-68% % oil of which caca.. 64%64 % isis extractable.extractable. TheThe copracopra isis extractedextracted byby firstfirst removingremoving the husk by impalingimpaling and twistingtwisting the fruitfruit onon anan erecterect steelsteel bayonetbayonet andand thenthen splittingsplitting thethe nutnut with a cutlass and gouging out the endosperm.endospenn. The copra isis dried either inin thethe sunsun oror inin kilnskilns immediately afterafter breakingbreaking thethe nut inin orderorder toto avoidavoid anyany deterioration deterioration (Howes,(Howes, 1948;1948; Purseglove, 1987).1987) .

Production and consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

For domestic consumption in the countries of origin the endospermendospenn is grated and macerated, the emulsion is boiled and the resulting scum skimmedskimmed offoff andand thethe oil oil pouredpoured off off.. HydraulicHydraulic presses are usedused industriallyindustrially toto extractextract thethe oil;oil; additionaladditional oil is sometimes recovered from the cake residueresidue usingusing hy.hydrocarbon drocarbon solvents.

The endocarp of green, unripeunripe fruitsfruits contain ca. 500500 mlml ofof aa sweetsweet andand refreshingrefreshing liquid.liquid. The fresh endospermendospenn is variouslyvariously eaten in the EastEast andand Pacific.Pacific. Coconut milk, which isis widely used in curries andand otherother cooking,cooking, isis obtainedobtained byby squeezingsqueezing freshlyfreshly gratedgrated endospermendospenn through a sieve.sieve.

The dried endospermendospenn (copra) isis an important commercial sourcesource ofof oiloil forfor margarinemargarine and soap production. The lowlow contentcontent of unsaturatedunsaturated acidsacids presentpresent makesmakes coconutcoconut oil resistantresistant to oxidative rancidity, thereby adding toto the keeping qualityquality inin bakedbaked foods foods and and fillings. fillings. With a hi2herhigher meltingmelting fraction,fraction, coconutcoconut stearinstearin isis valuedvalued asas aa confectioneryconfectionery fatfat andand asas aa substitutesubstitute for cocoa butter.butter.

The shredded andand drieddried freshfresh endospermendospenn isis usedused inin confectioneryconfectionery andand bakerybakery productsproducts asas desiccated coconut and contains 68-7268-72% % oil and less than 2%2 % water.water.

The haustorial organ oror coconutcoconut appleapple withinwithin a germinatinggenninating coconut is eaten in some countriescountries (Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, 1977;1977; Johnson,Johnson, 1983;1983; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Purseglove, 1987;1987; Mabberley,Mabberley, 1987).1987).

Nutritive valuevalue

The endospennendosperm contains 36.3%36.3% water, 4.5% protein, 41.6% fat,fat, 13.0%13 .0% carbohydrates,carbohydrates, 3.6%3.6% fibre and 1.0% minerals, while copra contains 6.8%6.8% water,water, 7.6%7.6% protein,protein, 63.7%63.7% fat,fat, 16.1%16.1 % carbohydrates 3.83.8% % fibrefibre andand 2.0%2.0 % minerals minerals (Purseglove,(Purseglove, 1987).1987).

By-products and otherother usesuses

The fibrousfibrous mesocarpmesocarp (husk)(husk) yields fibre coir forfor doormats,doormats, matting,matting, cordage,cordage, whilewhile thethe residual coir-dust is used as a peat substitute in horticulture.horticulture. TheThe coconutcoconut liquidliquid fromfrom unripeunripe fruit, whichwhich containscontains plantplant growthgrowth substances,substances, isis used inin plant physiology experimentsexperiments;; it has also been used in the PacificPacific theatre during World War II as a substitute for a glucose drip in surgery. In addition to the commercial importance of coconut oil for margarine itit isis alsoalso used in thethe soapsoap andand cosmeticcosmetic industriesindustries and in the manufacturemanufacture of detergents and resins, itit is also used forfor cookingcooking andand asas anan illuminant,illuminant, andand thethe coconutcoconut stearinstearin usedused forfor candles.candles. TheThe copra residue afterafter extractionextraction ofof oiloil isis usedused inin cattlecattle andand poultrypoultry foods;foods; thethe stonystony endocarpendocarp

41 (shell) may be usedused forfor fuel,fuel, alsoalso usedused forfor containerscontainers andand craftcraft work,work, buttons,buttons, combs,combs, bangles, musicalmusical instruments,instruments, etc. TheThe finely finely ground ground shells shells areare usedused inin the the plasticsplastics industryindustry as fillers,fillers, alsoalso inin thethe manufacturemanufacture ofof gasgas absorbentabsorbent charcoal forfor useuse in gas masks, etc.; thethe distilled shellsshells yieldyield woodwood tartar and,and, althoughalthough not not currently currently economic, economic, furfural furfural (C511402), (C5H40 2), which may be usedused asas aa solventsolvent forfor cellulosecellulose nitratenitrate andand inin thethe manufacturemanufacture of dyesdyes andand plastics.plastics.

The apical buds from old trees are used for tinned palmpalm heartshearts.. TheThe trunktrunk isis tappedtapped forfor thethe sugary sap known as toddy which, whenwhen fresh, maymay bebe usedused as aa breadbread yeast.yeast. Evaporated, toddy yieldsyields jaggeryjaggery (palm(palm sugar).sugar). ToddyToddy may may bebe fermented fermented toto produce produce coconut coconut vinegar. vinegar. The distillationdistillation ofof fermentedfermented toddytoddy yieldsyields aa strongstrong alcoholic alcoholic liquorliquor (arrack)(arrack) containingcontaining 30-30- 40% alcohol.alcohol. TheThe leavesleaves areare usedused forfor basketry,basketry, thatch,thatch, etc.,etc., andand thethe midribsmidribs forfor brooms,brooms, baskets, fish-traps,fish-traps, fences,fences, etc.etc. The trunk isis usedused forfor building;building; thethe closelyclosely grainedgrained outerouter wood (porcupine wood) is used for furniture, carving andand veneers.veneers. TheThe rootsroots areare usedused forfor tooth sticks.sticks. Almost all partsparts areare usedused inin locallocal medicinesmedicines andand variousvarious ceremonialceremonial customs.customs. Dwarf cultivars serve as thethe mothermother palmpalm inin creatingcreating productive hybrids, they may also be grown asas ornamenta.lsornament

Marketing

Coconut has been the majormajor sourcesource ofof vegetablevegetable oil inin thethe twentiethtwentieth century, nownow surpassedsurpassed by the soya bean and oil palm. WorldWorld productionproduction ofof coconuts is currently 43.4 million tonnes (and ofof copracopra 4.64.6 million million tonnes), tonnes), ofof which which Indonesia Indonesia is the largestlargest producerproducer withwith 1414.2.2 million tonnes, followedfollowed by the PhilippinesPhilippines with 9.3 million tonnes; the Philippines is also thethe largestlargest producerproducer ofof copracopra withwith 1.81.8 million million tonnestonnes followedfollowed byby IndonesiaIndonesia withwith 1.1 million tonnes. MozambiqueMozambique isis thethe largestlargest producer in Africa with 0.40.4 and 0.07 million tonnes of coconuts and copra respectivelyrespectively with Mexico thethe largestlargest producerproducer inin America with 1.0 andand 0.20.2 millionmillion tonnestonnes ofof coconuts coconuts andand copracopra respectivelyrespectively (Purseglove,(Purseglove, 1987;1987; FAO,FAO, 1994).

Discussion

Due to its multiplicity of uses the coconut isis knownknown asas thethe "tree"tree ofof life",life", thethe treetree of heaven's and mankind's greatestgreatest provider in the tropics. NewNew WorldWorld productionproduction fromfrom talltall palmspalms hashas been seriously threatened by palmpalm lethallethal yellowing,yellowing, a diseasedisease of anan unknownunknown etiologyetiology but probably caused byby aa mycoplasma-like organism (MLO) (Holliday, 1989). ShouldShould thethe diseasedisease spread to thethe OldOld WorldWorld therethere wouldwould havehave toto bebe aa massive massive replantingreplanting withwith immune,immune, highhigh yielding cultivars for plantationsplantations toto remainremain productive.productive. Unfortunately 9595% % of the coconutcoconut producers are smallsmall holdersholders andand maymay bebe unableunable toto bearbear thethe costcost ofof replanting.replanting.

42 MINOR EDIBLEEDIBLE NUTSNUTS 3

Other relatively minorminor edibleedible nutsnuts andand seeds, asas listedlisted below, are alsoalso marketed commercially (Rosengarten, 1984);1984); SesamumSesamum indicumindicum isis notnot considered here as itit isis regardedregarded asas anan oiloil seed.seed. They are:are: pili or PhilippinePhilippine nutsnuts Canarium ovatum,ovatum, BurseraceaeBurseraceae pumpkin, squashsquash seedsseeds andand gourdgourd seedsseeds Cucurbita pepo,pepo, Cucurbitaceae American beechnutsbeechnuts Fagus grandifolia,grandijolia, FagaceaeFagaceae shagbark hickory nuts Carya ovata, JuglandaceaeJuglandaceae butternuts or whitewhite walnutswalnuts Juglans cinerea,cinerea, JuglandaceaeJuglandaceae soy, soja or soyasoya beansbeans Glycine max,mas, LeguminosaeLeguminosae water or hornhorn chestnuts,chestnuts, JesuitJesuit nutsnuts oror waterwater calthropscalthrops Trapa natans, TrapaceaeTrapaceae stone pine or parasol nuts or pignoliaspignolias Pinus pinea, PinaceaePinaceae

Pumpkin seeds, althoughalthough ranked as a minorminor nut, areare regardedregarded asas anan agriculturalagricultural crop andand areare not includedincluded here apartapart fromfrom thethe discussiondiscussion regardingregarding its effect on the marketingmarketing of otherother edible nuts. TheThe inclusion inclusion of of soybeans soybeans as as aa nut-producing nut-producing plantplant maymay bebe consideredconsidered somewhatsomewhat surprising. However,However, Rosengarten Rosengarten (1984) (1984) considersconsiders thatthat thethe fairlyfairly recentrecent development of the soynut in NorthNorth AmericaAmerica asas anan alternative alternative toto thethe peanutpeanut willwill offeroffer veryvery strongstrong competitioncompetition toto traditional nuts in thethe future.future. However, since it is regardedregarded as anan agriculturalagricultural crop, likelike pumpkin seeds, itit is not describeddescribed inin detail herehere although itit isis discusseddiscussed in in asas farfar as itsits marketing affect otherother edibleedible nuts.nuts.

PILI OROR PHILIPPINEPHILIPPINE NUT:NUT: Canarium Canarium ovatum, BurseraceaeBurseraceae

"The most important of all the nuts in the world to the millions of people whowho dependdepend onon itit for food, isis thethe PILIPILI NUTNUT ofof the the PhilippinesPhilippines and itsits relatives."relatives." (Menninger, 1977.)

Distribution andand ecologyecology

Native of the Philippines, abundant inin southernsouthern Luzon;Luzon; intolerantintolerant of of frost. frost. Trial introductions under investigationinvestigation inin HondurasHonduras (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Description

Evergreen, dioeciousdioecious tree tree to to 2525 mm high with trunk ca. 4040 cmcm inin diameter.diameter. Leaves imparipinnate. FruitFruit oblong-ovoid, oblong-ovoid, black;black; pulppulp thin;thin; nutsnuts slender,slender, ovoid-acute,ovoid-acute, 6-76-7 cmcm long,long, 2-2.52-2.5 cmcm wide, triangulartriangular inin cross-section; 1-seeded,I-seeded, shell thick, very hard (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977 ; Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Cultivation

Not widely cultivated on aa large-scalelarge-scale commercialcommercial basis, productionproduction mainly from wildwild treestrees and small plantings near coconut and hemphemp plantations.plantations. Female trees begin to yield in sixth year withwith fullfull productionproduction atat 12-1512-15 yearsyears (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

43 Harvesting

Yield 32 plusplus kgkg perper annum annum (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977).

Post-harvest treatments

Pericarp removed by dippingdipping fruits inin hothot water (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977).1977).

Production andand consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

Kernels very popularpopular inin thethe Philippines,Philippines, eaten raw oror roastedroasted andand saltedsalted afterafter firstfirst removing the seedseed coat.coat. Roasted, oilyoily kernel have aa delicious flavour thatthat is claimed superior to almondsalmonds andand easilyeasily digested; usedused inin confectionery;confectionery; nutritiousnutritious emulsion of the kernelskernels occasionallyoccasionally usedused asas substitute milk for infants (Menninger, 1977; Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Nutritional valuevalue

Kernel contains 71.171.1% % fat, 11.4%11. 4 % proteinprotein Figure 1111 and 8.48.4% % carbohydrates (Rosengarten, canariumCanarium ovatum°yaw m.. 11:: branch with leaves andand flowers.flowers. 22:: fruit. 1984).

By-products and other usesuses

Raw nutsnuts purgative.purgative. Seeds are source of aa sweetsweet oiloil suitablesuitable forfor culinaryculinary purposes.purposes. Oil extracted from pulp isis occasionallyoccasionally usedused forfor cooking andand asas anan illuminant.illuminant. AnAn odorousodorous softsoft resin withwith thethe texturetexture ofof honey honey formerlyformerly exportedexported forfor thethe EuropeanEuropean pharmaceuticalpharmaceutical tradetrade asas Manila or PhilippinePhilippine gumgum elemielemi for useuse asas anan ointmentointment forfor healinghealing woundswounds and as a plaster;plaster; also used by SpaniardsSpaniards for shipship repairsrepairs (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Marketing

Pili nuts formerlyformerly exportedexported to USAUSA on aa fairlyfairly largelarge scalescale butbut tradetrade hashas nownow declined;declined; 1 186 173173 kgkg exportedexported fromfrom ManilaManila inin 19131913 (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Discussion

A promisingpromising minor nut but the thick, hard shell is hard to crack and is believed to be an obstacle for expansion.expansion. There is a needneed toto selectselect for shellsshells that are thinnerthinner and easier to crack andand toto considerconsider suchsuch selections selections forfor vegetativevegetative establishmentestablishment in futurefuture orchardsorchards (Rosengarten, 1984). OtherOther species species (see(see AppendixAppendix A)A) shouldshould alsoalso bebe investigatedinvestigated either forfor development or as aa geneticgenetic sourcesource forfor improvingimproving C.C. ovatum.ovatum.

44 PUMPKIN, SQUASHSQUASH OR OR GOURD GOURD SEEDS: SEEDS: Cucurbita Cucurbita pepo, pepo, CucurbitaceaeCucurbitaceae

Discussion

Widely eateneaten asas aa dessert nut in Asia either raw or roasted, fried in deep fat and saltedsalted or made into a confection and becoming increasingly important asas a health food in the Western WorldWorld..

The seeds of other widely cultivated pumpkins and squashes are also eateneaten,, including the cold tolerant winter Cucurbita maxima, thethe cold intolerant C. mixtamixta and thethe humidhumid toleranttolerant C. maschatamoschata,, as wellwell asas thethe watermelon,watermelon, CitrullusCitrullus lanatuslanatus (Purseglove,(Purseglove, 1987).1987).

According to FAO (1994)(1994) thethe worldworld productionproduction ofof pumpkinspumpkins andand squashessquashes has risenrisen steadilysteadily from 5.7 millionmillion tonnestonnes inin 1979-811979-81 toto 88 millionmillion tonnestonnes inin 1993,1993, withwith thethe largestlargest productionproduction from Asia with 33.5.5 million tonnes.tonnes. TheThe proportionproportion grown for their edible seedseed,, however, is not known but is believedbelieved toto bebe increasing.increasing.

AMERICAN BEECHNUf: BEECHNUT: Fagus Fagus grandijalia, grandifolia, Fagaceae

Distribution andand ecology ecology

Eastern USA, fromfrom thethe AlleghenyAllegheny mountains south to Florida and TexasTexas,, especially at higher elevations; calcareous soils preferred (Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Description

Slow-growing tree, tree, withwith aa life spanspan ofof 400 yearsyears oror moremore (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984).1984). Deciduous, up to 25 m talltall andand trunktrunk upup to 1 m m inin diameter.diameter. Leaves simple,simple, ovate-acute,aroundovate-acute, around 7.5 cm long, margins serrated.serrated. Fruit aa woodywoody burr;burr; seeds 2-3,2-3, triangular, ca.0.75-3.7 cmcm wide (Rosengarten, 1984)1984). . Woody capsules dehisce onon ripeningripening andand nutsnuts fallfall to the ground inin autumn;autumn; theythey soonsoon spoilspoil unless collected andand dried (Howes,(Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Cultivation

No informationinformation available.available.

Harvesting

No informationinformation available.available. Figure 1212 Fagus grandifolia.grandifolia. : branch with leaveslea ves and fruits. Post-harvest treatments

None given apart fromfrom drying.drying.

45 Production and consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

Beechnuts gatheredgathered from the wild eaten fresh, dried or roasted,roasted, usuallyusually sweetsweet butbut thethe flavourflavour varies from tree toto tree;tree; muchmuch appreciatedappreciated byby nativenative Americans.Americans.

NutritionalNutritional value

Beechnuts containcontain caca.. 15% fat, 19.4%19.4% protein,protein, 20.3%20.3% carbohydratescarbohydrates andand havehave anan energyenergy value of 11 169169 caloriescalories perper kilogram kilogram (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

By-products and other usesuses

Timber is good, darkdark toto reddishreddish brown,brown, strong,strong, heavyheavy andand hard;hard; excellentexcellent for furniture and flooring, also usedused forfor clothpegs.clothpegs. AA good good ornamental ornamental treetree forfor landscaping landscaping (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Marketing

Although liked, littlelittle potentialpotential for foodfood andand feed;feed; thethe oiloil potentialpotential has notnot beenbeen developeddeveloped asas in Europe with F. sylvatica.sylvatica.

Discussion

Neglected as a sourcesource ofof edibleedible nuts,nuts, withwith littlelittle attemptattempt toto developdevelop suitablesuitable cultivars.cultivars. This may be due to thethe smallsmall sizesize ofof thethe nutnut andand variabilityvariability in flavour, the frequentfrequent presence of blind nuts, thethe irregularityirregularity ofof bearing bearing andand difficultydifficulty ofof harvesting harvesting (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

SHAGBARK HICKORY HICKORY NUT: NUT: Carya Carya ovata, ovata, Juglandaceae

Distribution andand ecologyecology

Distribution covers southeastern Canada and eastern USA west to the Mississippi exceptexcept for Florida and the coastal plainsplains of thethe southernsouthern states; prefers thethe upland plains (Howes, 1984;1984; Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Description

Deciduous tree tree up up toto more thanthan 3030 m talltall withwith trunk up toto 6060 cmcm inin diameter,diameter, barkbark exfoliating inin long narrownarrow platesplates but remainingremaining attached byby the middle, trunk clear ofof branches to half itsits height,height, withwith small,small, openopen crown.crown. LeavesLeaves imparipinnate,imparipinnate, 55 leaflets.leaflets. Nut enveloped in an outer,outer, greengreen andand fleshyfleshy husk,husk, becomingbecoming black, dry andand splittingsplitting open at maturity; nut ellipsoidal, somewhatsomewhat flattened laterally, with four prominent longitudinal ridges (sutures of the valves), ca. 2.52.5 cmcm long,long, shellshell thinthin butbut hard,hard, lightlight tan;tan; kernelkernel deeplydeeply divideddivided into 2 halves,halves, longitudinallylongitudinally ridgedridged (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977).1977).

Cultivation

Occasional trees preservedpreserved whenwhen landland isis clearedcleared (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977).1977). Trees difficult toto transplant, slow-growing,slow-growing, late-bearinglate-bearing andand low-yielding. SeedlingSeedling treestrees yield at ca. 1515 years,years, grafted trees produceproduce muchmuch earlier.earlier. Interspecific hybridshybrids readilyreadily occur.occur. ThoseThose betweenbetween C.C. ovata oror C.C. laciniosalaciniosa and and C. C. illinoinensisillinoinensis areare knownknown asas hicanshicans (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

46 Harvesting

Harvested largely from the wild,wild, fromfrom hedgerows and wood margins where the branches are freefree toto spread.spread. Solitary trees tend toto havehave higherhigher yieldsyields andand better developed nutsnuts thanthan treestrees growinggrowing close together (Howes, 1948).1948).

Post-harvest treatments

Nuts can be readilyreadily storedstored forfor 2-32-3 yearsyears with little oror nono deteriorationdeterioration (Howes,(Howes, 1948).

Production and consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization Figure 1313 Carya ovata.ovata. 1:1: twig.twig. 2:2: fruitfruit andand cross-sectioncross-section of ·fruit. Nuts are delicious, considered the sweetest of the hickories,hickories, eateneaten byby nativenative AmericansAmericans either dried and pounded into flour, boiled as aa soup;soup; sourcesource ofof a a cooking cooking oiloil (also(also usedused asas aa hairhair dressing);dressing); alsoalso poundedpounded shellsshells and kernels mixed in water for a nourishing beverage known asas pawcohiccorapawcohiccora oror hickoryhickory milkmilk (Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Nutritional value

On a moisture-freemoisture-free basis thethe kernelskernels containcontain 9.8% carbohydrates,carbohydrates, 72.7%72.7% fatfat andand 13.7%13.7% protein (Melville, 1947).1947).

By-products and other usesuses

The tough, elasticelastic woodwood idealideal forfor tooltool handleshandles and agricultural implements, and also a good fuelwood. HicansHicans oftenoften are are attractive attractive ornamentalornamental treestrees (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Marketing

A neglected, minorminor nut,nut, notnot commerciallycommercially important. TheThe relativerelative highhigh proportionproportion ofof shellshell compared with otherother better-knownbetter-known nutsnuts probablyprobably restrictsrestricts long-distancelong-distance marketingmarketing prospects;prospects; sold in the locallocal marketsmarkets andand occasionallyoccasionally sold in England (Howes, 1948; Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Discussion

A moremore marketablemarketable nutnut withwith higherhigher proportionproportion ofof kernelkernel toto shellshell isis required.required. Considerable research will be requiredrequired beforebefore anyany hybridhybrid hicanhie an clonesclones could be developed for commercial nut production (Howes, 1948;1948; Rosengarten, 1984). PresumablyPresumably anyany commercialcommercial development will follow that of thethe pecan.pecan.

47 BUTfERNUTBUTTERNUT OR OR WHITE WHITE WALNUT: wALNur: Juglans Juglans cinerea cinerea,, Juglandaceae

Distribution andand ecologyecology

Eastern North America,America, fromfrom NewNew BrunswickBrunswick toto ManitobaManitoba south;south; butternutbutternut representsrepresents thethe most northern andand coldcold resistantresistant membermember ofof the the familyfamily (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Description

A deciduous treetree to 18 m tall, withwith a trunk up to 1 m in diameter. LeavesLeaves imparipinnateimparipinnate with 11-1711-17,, glutinous leaflets. Fruits oblong­oblong- cylindrical, ca. 6.5 cmcm longlong and 3 cmcm inin diameter, apex acute, surfacesurface rough,rough, shellshell bony and thick, 1 kernel (Howes, 1948; RosengartenRosengarten,, 1984).1984).

Cultivation

Superior cultivars available for grafting but not commercialized (Howes(Howes,, 1948).1948).

Figure 14 Harvesting Juglans cinerea.cinerea. Pistillate flowers.flowers.

No information given, presumably presumably as for JuglansJuglans regia.regia.

Post-harvest treatments

No information given,given, presumablypresumably as for JuglansJuglans regia.regia.

Production andand consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

Immature fruit makesmakes anan excellentexcellent pickle.pickle. Kernels are highly esteemed and used by nativenative Americans, eaten raw, ground to flour for bakingbaking or to thickenthicken their pottage; seed oil also used for cooking,cooking, andand dressingdressing hairhair (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Nutritional valuevalue

Nuts are highlyhighly nutritiousnutritious with 23.7%23.7% protein, 61.2%61.2% fat and anan energyenergy valuevalue ofof ca.ca. 1 360 calories per kg. TheThe protein protein value value is is oneone ofof the the highest highest inin edible edible nutsnuts (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984).

By-products and other usesuses

Oil from nut used medicinally by the Narragansett nativenative Americans.Americans. TheThe boiled or distilled hairy,hairy , stickysticky indumentumindumentum of young twigstwigs,, leaves, buds and fruitsfruits areare source ofof a light brown dye. Close-grained, satiny wood,wood, known asas white walnut, used for furniture,furniture, boatsboats andand carving.carving. GrownGrown as as a a shade shade tree. tree (Menninger, (Menninger ,1977; 1977; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

48 Marketing

Butternuts are highly regarded by thosethose thatthat knowknow themthem butbut areare largelylargely unknownunknown byby thethe present generation. MarketMarket isis mainlymainly limitedlimited toto homehome consumption,consumption, primarilyprimarily inin southernsouthern Canada and NewNew EnglandEngland (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Discussion

Despite the delectabledelectable flavour of thethe nuts,nuts, itsits reputationreputation forfor beingbeing slow-growingslow-growing andand short-short­ lived, itsits susceptibilitysusceptibility toto butternutbutternut diebackdieback fromfrom thethe fungusfungus Melanconis juglandis,juglandis, difficultiesdifficulties with propagating cultivars plusplus thethe nut beingbeing hard to crack, limitlimit thethe potential for commercial expansion (Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

SOY, SOJA OROR SOYASOYA BEAN: BEAN: Glycine Glycine max, max, Leguminosae Leguminosae subfamilysubfamily Papilionoideae

Discussion

The soynutsoynut industry is aa fairlyfairly recentrecent developmentdevelopment in USA. The seedsseeds areare processedprocessed to resemble nuts in appearance, flavourflavour and utilizationutilization.. WithWith aa crunchycrunchy texture,texture, lowlow moisturemoisture content, absenceabsence ofof cholesterolcholesterol andand twicetwice thethe proteinprotein contentcontent ofof treetree nutsnuts togethertogether withwith all-all­ year round availability and low price, they are an ideal healthhealth foodfood.. WithWith onlyonly 2%2 % moisture,moisture, they have a shelfshelf lifelife ofof 6-86-8 months.months. TheirTheir price price is is competitive competitive withwith peanutspeanuts and,and, sincesince thethe soynuts occupy ca. 30%30% moremore volumevolume than the samesame weight of peanutspeanuts,, their price per unit of volume is eveneven moremore economical.economical. TheirTheir major major disadvantages disadvantages areare thatthat theirtheir flavourflavour isis notnot to everyone'severyone's tastetaste and,and, unlikeunlike manymany otherother nuts, theythey cannotcannot be slicedsliced for useuse inin thethe confectionery trade.trade. The lessless expensive,expensive, readilyreadily availableavailable and highlyhighly nutritiousnutritious soynutssoynuts undoubtedly offeroffer strong futurefuture competitioncompetition to traditionaltraditional tree nutsnuts andand peanuts.peanuts. The percentage of thethe cropcrop usedused forfor soynutssoynuts isis smallsmall butbut notnot knownknown (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984).1984) .

WATER OR HORN CHESTNUT, JESUIT JESUIT NUT NUT OR OR WATER WATER CALTHROP: CALTHROP: Trapa Trapa natans, natans, Trapaceae Trapaceae

Distribution andand ecologyecology

A standing water, aquaticaquatic speciesspecies withwith aa widewide and discontinuous range through EuropeEurope,, AsiaAsia and Africa. ItIt isis naturalizednaturalized inin northernnorthern AmericaAmerica andand AustraliaAustralia withwith var.var. natansnatans distributeddistributed through Europe, AsiaAsia andand NorthNorth AfricaAfrica andand var.var. bispinosabispinosa ranging ranging fromfrom India India easti,vard eastward toto China and Japan and widely scatteredscattered inin tropicaltropical Africa. Africa. A var. africana isis endemicendemic to Lake Victoria (Brenan,(Br~nan, 1963).1963).

Description

Annual aquatic herbherb withwith aa rosetterosette ofof floating floating leavesleaves andand submerged,submerged, pairedpaired butbut notnot opposite,opposite, pinnatisect and leaf-like adventitious roots.roots. FruitFruit aa 1-seeded,I-seeded, top-shapedtop-shaped drupe;drupe; pericarppericarp soonsoon disappearing; endocarp very hard,hard, ca. 3-53-5 cmcm across,across, variouslyvariously 2-4 homed,horned, the horns 1-1.8 cm long, derivedderived fromfrom thethe persistentpersistent sepalssepals (Brenan,(Brenan, 1963).1963).

Cultivation

In IndiaIndia fruitfruit isis broadcastbroadcast inin 30-6930-69 cmcm deepdeep nurserynursery pondsponds andand pressedpressed intointo thethe mud,mud , transplanted at thethe 4-5-leaf4-5-leaf stagestage andand replantedreplanted when 4-5 monthsmonths old.old . Lateral pruning isis

49 carried out to accelerate floweringflowering andand fruiting. In China, accordingaccording toto MenningerMenninger (1977),(1977), the waterwater chestnutchestnut is cultivated inin running water. A soft,soft, thin-skinned, sweeter cultivar known as KotaKota SudharSudhar has beenbeen selectedselected inin KashmirKashmir which ripens 20 days earlier and yields upup to 6 200 kg per haha compared toto 44 800 kg per ha for other cultivars (CSIR, 1976).1976).

Harvesting onnoss,4606,*.

Nuts are gathered or scoopedscooped up oft no '6' from the depths in small nets; in China nuts are collected in autumn byby peoplepeople in boats 11/41.410Z, seeking riperipe fruits as theythey pullpull '1141-660 6.; gibe, themselves through the surfacesurface vegetation. Depending on thethe weather harvesting in India commences some time duringduring September to December (-February), initiallyinitially harvestingharvesting every 1515 daysdays andand eventuallyeventually daily. Average yieldsyields rangerange from 1 760 to 4 440 kg per ha,ha, with a good crop yielding 13 200 kg (Hedrick, 1972; CSIR, 1976;1976; Menninger,Menninger, 1977;1977; Figure 15 Rosengarten, 1984).1984). Trapa natansnatans var.var. africana.africana. 1:1: partpart ofof plantplant showingshowing floatingfloating leaves leaves and and submerged submerged adventitious roots. 2: floating leaf. 3: marginalmarginal part of leaf,leaf, lowerlower side.side. 4:4: nodesnodes showing stipules. 5: nodes showing firstfirst stage of adventitiousadventitious roots. 6: nodesnodes Post-harvest treatments showing fully developeddeveloped adventitiousadventitious roots. roots. 7:7: flowers.flowers. 8:8: longitudinal sectionsection ofof flower. 9:9: twotwo sepals.sepals. 10: petal.petal. 11: stamen.stamen. 12: anther, two views.views. 13:13: ovaryovary andand disc. 14:14: ovaryovary andand calyxcalyx enlargingenlarging after anthesis: 15: endocarp.endocarp. 16:16: apexapex ofof oneone Removal of thethe hardhard endocarpendocarp toto of the hornshorns of the fruit.fruit. yield thethe edible,edible, starchy,starchy, whitewhite seed (Menninger, 1977).1977).

Production andand consumption/consumption/ utilizationutilization

Nuts are eaten raw, boiled,boiled, fried,fried. preservedpreserved inin honeyhoney and sugar, candiedcandied or ground into flour for making bread. AA staple staple foodfood forfor asas muchmuch asas fivefive monthsmonths ofof thethe yearyear inin Kashmir,Kashmir, wherewhere thethe starchystarchy kernelskernels areare eateneaten rawraw (cv.(cv. KotaKota Sudhar),Sudhar), oror cookedcooked asas aa porridgeporridge (Howes,(Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick, 1972;1972; CSIRCSIR ,, 1976; Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Nutritional valuevalue

Kernels are notnot particularly nutritiousnutritious compared to other nuts, they contain ca.ca. 70% moisture, 4.7% protein,protein, 0.3%0.3% fat,fat, 0.6%0.6% fibre fibre and and 3% 3% protein protein (CSIR, (CSIR, 1976;1976; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

50 By-products and other usesuses

Hard fruits (endocarp)(endocarp) areare strungstrung intointo necklacesnecklaces (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977).1977).

Marketing

Formerly widely eaten inin southernsouthern EuropeEurope butbut itsits useuse hashas declineddeclined although still used in the Loire region of FranceFrance andand partsparts ofof Italy;Italy; stillstill anan importantimportant food in Asia where it is sold in the local markets.markets. It hashas beenbeen introducedintroduced intointo NorthNorth AmericaAmerica andand isis naturalizednaturalized inin somesome areas, however,however, itit isis doubtfuldoubtful ifif it it will will become become commercially commercially importantimportant (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten, 1984; Bianchini et al., 1988).1988).

Discussion

Little appreciated in the westernwestern worldworld butbut obviouslyobviously an important crop in AsiaAsia andand itsits useuse should perhaps be encouraged in thethe lakeslakes ofof EastEast Africa.Africa.

STONE OROR PARASOL PINE PINE NUT NUT OR OR PIGNOLIA: PIGNOLIA: Pinus Pinus pinea, pinea, Pinaceae

Distribution andand ecologyecology

Northern Mediterranean regionregion and PortugalPortugal;; aaltitudesltitudes upup to 11 000000 m.m. LocallyLocally cultivatedcultivated (Tutin et al., 1964;1964; Menninger,Menninger, 1977).1977).

Description

Evergreen, needle-leavedneedle-leaved treetree toto 3030 m, crowncrown umbrella-shaped. LeavesLeaves borneborne inin pairs,pairs, 10-2010-20 cm long.long . Male and femalefemale reproductive structures, strobili, borne separately onon the tree. Seeds borne· in cones 8-14 cm x 1010 cm,cm, maturing maturing inin thethe thirdthird year;year; seedsseeds 15-2015-20 mmmm xx 7-117-11 mm, wingwing lessless thanthan 11 mm,mm, caducouscaducous (Tutin(Tutin et al., 1964;1964; Menninger,Menninger, 1977).1977).

Cultivation

Grown inin pine groves. UnlikeUnlike some some species species ofof Pinus, Pinus, itit does does notnot hybridizehybridize readilyreadily withwith otherother species. AA thin-shelled thin-shelled form form is is knownknown in in ItalyItaly wherewhere itit isis possiblepossible toto breakbreak thethe shellshell withwith thethe fingers (Howes,(Howes, 1948;1948; Merminger,Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Harvesting

Green cones areare harvestedharvested byby pickerspickers armedarmed withwith longlong hookedhooked polespoles and piledpiled intointo heapsheaps toto dry inin thethe sunsun inin orderorder thatthat thethe conecone scalesscales may open and loosenloosen thethe seedsseeds.. TheThe harvestharvest cancan last from autumnautumn toto springspring withoutwithout any problems as the nuts store very well inin theirtheir conescones on thethe treetree (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Post-harvestPost-harvest treatments

Nuts are extracted by beating the cones by hand or thrashed mechanically.mechanically. The seedsseeds are thenthen dried beforebefore passingpassing throughthrough aa millingmilling machinemachine toto separateseparate the kernel from itsits hard outer covering.covering. TheThe kernels kernels and and shells shells are are then then sorted sorted by by sifting, sifting, after after which which the the testa testa isis removedremoved from the kernel. KernelsKernels areare gradedgraded accordingaccording toto sizesize (Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

51 ProductionProduction and consumption/ utilizationutilization

PinusPinus pineapinea is the largest producer ofof pine nutsnuts commercially;commercially; known asas pignolias (English), pignons (France), pinonespiñones (Spain)(Spain) oror pinolipinoli (Italy).(Italy). Both the largelarge and small, superior,superior, unblemished, shelledshelled kernels are packed for export. Pine nuts may be eaten whole, either raw or roasted; the shell cracked by thethe teethteeth andand spatspat out; usuallyusually marketedmarketed withoutwithout theirtheir shells. Nuts may be mademade into flourflour for cakes, pressed intointo sweetmeats and used to garnisligarnish pastries, etc. (Menninger,(Merminger, 19771977;; Rosengarten, 1984).

Nutritional value

Pine nuts contain 47.447.4% % fat, 11.6%11. 6 % carbohydrates, 31.131.1% % protein, 4.3%4.3 % ash, 0.9%0.9 % fibrefibre andand anan energyenergy valuevalue of 556556 Kcal.Kcal. perper 100100 kgkg (Farris,(Farris, 1983).

Figure 16 By-products and otherother usesuses Pinus pineapinea.. 11:: branch with mature conescones.. 2: male inflorescence. 3: femalefemale inflorescences.inflorescences. 4: scale.scale . 5: wingedwinged seed.seed. Broken nuts are source ofof oiloil usedused forfor making soap. It isis alsoalso aa sourcesource ofof timber.timber. Cultivated as an ornamentalornamental treetree (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977; Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Marketing

Figures for worldworld productionproduction areare notnot available.available. InIn USA,USA, betweenbetween 19761976 andand 19801980 anan armualannual average of ca. US$US$ 800800 000000 worthworth ofof pine pine nutsnuts werewere importedimported ofof whichwhich 41%41 % were pignolias from PortugalPortugal andand 27%27% fromfrom SpainSpain whilewhile ChinaChina suppliedsupplied 26%26% fromfrom P.P. koraiensis.koraiensis. The imported nuts from P. pineapinea rankrank secondsecond toto macadamiamacadamia nuts as being the most costly, while the ChineseChinese pine nutsnuts areare lessless expensiveexpensive andand inferiorinferior toto thosethose fromfrom Europe.Europe. TheyThey areare becoming increasingly important in the American market.market. TheThe unspecifiedunspecified uneven supply of indigenous pine nuts inin USAUSA certainlycertainly favoursfavours thethe moremore reliablereliable importationsimportations (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984; Prescott-Allen and Prescott-Allen,Prescott-Allen, 1986).1986).

Discussion

The other speciesspecies ofof PinusPinus withwith edibleedible seedsseeds havehave beenbeen largelylargely neglectedneglected duedue toto establishmentestablishment of P.P. pinea asas thethe primeprime sourcesource of pine nuts for thethe pastpast 22 000000 oror moremore yearsyears.. TheThe Colorado pine, P.P. edulis,edulis, isis anan additional additional importantimportant source of pine nuts in USA,USA, whilewhile those of P.P. sabiniana, aa relatively relatively little little known known speciesspecies fromfrom California,California, havehave beenbeen demonstrateddemonstrated asas havinghaving

52 very similar nutritional propertiesproperties toto pinepine nutsnuts fromfrom PP.. pinea and, ifif developed,developed, could be aa strong contender for thethe pinepine nutnut marketmarket (Farris,(Farris, 1983;1983; Prescott-AllenPrescott-Allen andand Prescott-Allen,Prescott-Allen, 1986). Doubtless further research willwill revealreveal otherother possiblepossible speciesspecies forfor commercialcommercial plantations with high-yieldinghigh-yielding cultivars throughout North America and elsewhere.elsewhere.

53 POTENTIAL EDIBLEEDIBLE NUTSNUTS 4

There are aa numbernumber ofof species species producingproducing edibleedible nutsnuts thatthat areare relativelyrelatively littlelittle knownknown andand appear to have a potentialpotential for development.development. FromFrom past past experience, experience, anan in-depthin-depth investigationinvestigation of a speciesspecies requiresrequires aa minimumminimum of one month'smonth's workwork spreadspread overover severalseveral months months in orderorder to allowallow timetime forfor exchangeexchange ofof correspondence, correspondence, obtainobtain obscureobscure literatureliterature references,references, etc.;etc.; laboratory investigations areare not included inin thisthis estimateestimate ((LucasLucas and and Wi Wickens,ckens , 1988).1988). TheThe discussion that follows on potentialpotential nut speciesspecies willwill thereforetherefore bebe confinedconfined toto thethe limitedlimited literature available and bearing inin mindmind thatthat thethe primaryprimary sourcessources have notnot beenbeen consulted.consulted .

The 'Bambara Bambara andand HausaHausa groundnuts,groundnuts, MacrotylomaMacrotyloma geocaipumgeocarpum andand VignaVigna subterranea,subterranea , although being classified with the groundnutgroundnut,, ArachisArachis hypogea,hypogea, asas nut-bearingnut-bearing plantsplants areare nnotot further considered here sincesince they are regardedregarded as agriculturalagricultural crops and theirtheir developmentdevelopment lies with agronomistsagronomists andand notnot silviculturalists.silviculturalists. However,However, they are enteredentered inin AppendixAppendix A.A.

The trees and shrubsshrubs bearing edible nuts listed below are provisionally conconsideredsidered worthyworthy ofof further investigation.investigation. The selectionselection isis somewhatsomewhat arbitrary and is initiallyinitially based on thethe available datadata presented in AppendixAppendix A.A. Doubtless further investigationinvestigation could revealreveal additional and possibly moremore suitablesuitable species.species.

marula or maroelamaroela Sclerocarya birrea subsp.subsp. caffra,cajJra , Anacardiaceae Guyana or MalabarMalabar chestnutschestnuts oror sabasaba nutsnuts Pachira aquatica,aquatica, BombacaceaeBombacaceae Java almond, kanari or galipgalip nutnut Canarium indicum,indicum, BurseraceaeBurseraceae pequi; piqufpiqui oror piquia-oilpiquia-oil plantplant Caryocar brasiliense,brasiliense, Caryocaraceae castanha de galinhagalinha Couepia longipedula, ChrysobalanaceaeChrysobalanaceae Indian or tropicaltropical almondalmond Terminalia catappa, CombretaceaeCombretaceae okari nut Terminalia kaernbachii, CombretaceaeCombretaceae cacay,cacay, inchi,inchi, tacay,tacay, taccy,taccy, nogal,nogal, etc.,etc., nutsnuts Caryodendron orinocense, EuphorbiaceaeEuphorbiaceae cream, paradiseparadise oror sapucaiasapucaia nutnut Lecythis pisonis, LecythidaceaeLecythidaceae yicib, ye-ebye-eb oror yehebyeheb Cordeauxia edulis, LeguminosaeLeguminosae tara Lemuropisum edule,eduie, LeguminosaeLeguminosae galo or promisingpromising nutnut Anacolosa jrutescens,frutescens, Olacaceae:Olacaceae: avellano or ChileanChilean nutnut oror hazelhazel Gevuina avellanaavellana,, ProteaceaeProteaceae quandong or nativenative peachpeach Santalum acuminataacuminata,, SantalaceaeSantalaceae argan Argania spinosa,spinosa, Sapotaceae:Sapotaceae: shea butter tree Vitellaria paradoxaparadoxa,, SapotaceaeSapotaceae bitter cola, kolakola nutnut Cola nitida, SterculiaceaeSterculiaceae sugar plum, areng palm,palm, ejow,ejow, gomuti,gomuti, Arenga pinnata, PalmaePalmae kaong tucurnátucuma Astrocaryum vulgare,vulgare, PalmaePalmae peach plum, palmpalm chestnuts,chestnuts, pupunha,pupunha, etc.etc. Bactris gasipaes, PalmaePalmae babassu, babacubabacu palmpalm oror aguassúaguassu Orbignya phalerataphalerata,, PalmaePalmae

55 MARULA OR OR MAROELA: MAROELA: Sclerocarya Sclerocarya birrea birrea subsp. subsp. cajfra,caffra, Anacardiaceae

Distribution andand ecologyecology

Angola, Zaire andand KenyaKenya toto Namibia,Namibia, TransvaalTransvaal and Natal, alsoalso inin Madagascar.Madagascar. Mixed deciduous woodland and wooded grassland (Kokwaro, 1986).1986).

Description

Dioecious,Dioecious, deciduous tree to 1818 m. Leaves alternate, imparipinnate, leaflets 77-13(-17). -13 ( -17). Inflorescence appearingappearing beforebefore the leaves. Fruit anan obovoidobovoid drupe 3.5 cm long, 3-3.53-3.5 cmcm inin diameter, yellow,yellow, withwith strongstrong odour when ripe; mesocarp very juicy; stonestone obovoid,obovoid, 2-32-3 cmcm long, 2.5 cmcm inin diameter,diameter, hard;hard; seeds (1-)3(-4), 1.5-2 cmcm long,long, 0.4-0.8 cmcm widewide (Arnold et al., 1985; Kokwaro, 1986).1986).

Cultivation

Seeds soaked overnight prior to sowing. Propagated by seedlings and cuttings, gregarious root suckeringsuckering (von(von Maydell, 1986 re subsp. birrea)birrea).. Trees set fruit after 3 yearsyears inin Israel (Cherfas,(Cherfas, 1989).1989).

Harvesting

A singlesingle femalefemale treetree cancan yieldyield 2 100-9100-9 100 fruits in aa season,season, fruits fallingfalling whilewhile stillstill greengreen Figure 17 Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra. 1: leaflet showing venation.venation. 2:2: habit. 3: flower. and ripeningripening on the groundground 4: cross section ofof ovary. 5: fruit. (Arnold etet al.,al., 1985).1985).

Post-harvest treatments

Fruits cannot be stored for moremore than a week,week, theythey bruisebruise easily and therefore are difficult to transport. TheThe Venda Venda mix mix thethe kernelskernels withwith leanlean meat,meat, shapeshape intointo cakes and dry for storage (FAD,(FAO, 1988).1988).

56 Production and consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

Fruit skin is hard and bitter,bitter, fleshflesh hashas aa turpentine-mangoturpentine-mango flavour although flavourflavour is reportedreported to vary fromfrom treetree toto tree,tree, somesome sweet,sweet, somesome dry,dry, othersothers aromatic;aromatic; fleshflesh isis eaten fresh or dry,dry , made into jams and jellies;jellies; itit isis sourcesource ofof an an alcoholic alcoholic beverage,beverage, alsoalso non-alcoholicnon-alcoholic fruit juices; thethe juicejuice sometimessometimes thickthick andand grainy,grainy, othersothers moremore liquidliquid depending on the fruit; thethe juice isis oftenoften sourcesource ofof 80%80% ofof thethe vitaminvitamin CC inin thethe locallocal diet;diet; kernelskernels difficult to extract, with hazel-like flavour, eaten; seedseed oiloil expressedexpressed and used by the Venda to preserve meat for up toto aa year;year; fermented fermented fruitfruit liked liked by by elephants elephants (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977; ArnoldArnold etet al.al. 19851985;; CherfasCherfas,, 1989).1989).

Subsp. birrea fromfrom northernnorthern tropicaltropical AfricaAfrica bears fruits which are similarly utilized.utilized. UnripeUnripe kernels reported toto bebe milkymilky andand havehave flavourflavour ofof groundnuts groundnuts (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977).1977).

Nutritional valuevalue .

Kernels are highlyhighly nutritious, with 28.3% protein,protein, 57.3%57.3% oil,oil, highhigh inin minerals, minerals, especiallyespecially magnesium, iron, copper, zinc and phosphorus, withwith 462,4.87,2.81,5.19462, 4.87, 2.81, 5.19 andand 808808 mg per 100 gg respectively andand anan energy value ofof 22 703 kJ per 100 g (Arnold et alal.,. , 1985).1985).

By-products and otherother usesuses

Timber is soft,soft, coarsecoarse grained,grained, notnot veryvery durable,durable, usedused forfor pestlespestles andand mortars,mortars, bowls,bowls, furniture, saddlessaddles andand carvings;carvings; barkbark isis a sourcesource of fibre, gumgum exudate is mixed with soot for a black ink. TheThe speciesspecies isis growngrown forfor shadeshade andand as anan ornamentalornamental tree (FAO, 1988).1988).

Marketing

Sold in the locallocal markets.markets.

Discussion

A high-yielding tree withwith nutritiousnutritious fruit,fruit, butbut thethe smallsmall kernelkernel andand the difficult extraction from the stonestone makemake itit anan unlikelyunlikely commercialcommercial propositionproposition as far asas thethe kernelskernels areare concerned,concerned, although worthy of developmentdevelopment for itsits fleshyfleshy fruits.fruits.

GUYANA OR OR MALABAR MALABAR CHESTNUT CHESTNUT OR OR SABA SABA NUT: NUT: Pachira Pachira aquatica, aquatica, Bombacaceae Bombacaceae

Distribution andand ecologyecology

Probably originated in the AmazonAmazon estuary, now widely distributed throughthrough thethe whole of northern South America andand the Antilles,Antilles, either naturallynaturally or by man; widelywidely cultivated in the tropics. OccursOccurs naturally naturally onon sparsely sparsely vegetated,vegetated, marshymarshy riverine,riverine, clayclay soils; also grows well on sandysandy or sandy-claysandy-clay soils of terraterra firma.firma. Flowering andand fruiting throughout the year. Drought resistant, itit toleratestolerates aa widewide rangerange ofof temperaturestemperatures andand humidity (Menninger, 1977;1977; FAO, 1986).1986).

Description

Evergreen tree up toto 10(-23)10(-23) mm tall,tall, trunktrunk 25-6025-60 (-90)(-90) cmcm inin diameter.diameter. Leaves pedatelypedately palmate, clustered towards the ends of branches. FlowersFlowers bisexual,bisexual, solitarysolitary oror 2-3,2-3, terminal.terminal.

57 Fruit anan oblong-ellipsoidoblong-ellipsoid capsule,capsule, 12-3012-30 cm long, 10-2010-20 cmcm inin diameter,diameter, woody,woody, 5-5- valved, dehiscent; pericarp ratherrather thickthick,, spongy and fibrous; seeds 10-2510-25,, globular,globular, 1.2-3 cm inin diameterdiameter (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977; FAO, 1986).1986). Cultivation

Grown from seed,seed, withwith germinationgermination inin 6-86-8 days with rapidrapid initialinitial growth;growth; alsoalso growsgrows readily fromfrom truncheons.truncheons. First flowersflowers produced in 4-54-5 years.years. Flowering andand fruiting throughout the year (FAO,(FAO, 1986;1986; Arkoll and Clement,Clement, 1989).1989).

Harvesting

Nuts may be leftleft on thethe groundground toto drydry inin thethe sun but must bebe protectedprotected fromfrom showersshowers asas they sprout readilyreadily (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977).1977).

Post-harvest treatments

No information.information. FigureFig ure 1818 Pachira aquatica. 1: leaf and fruitfruit.. 22:: seed,seed1; Production andand consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

Only the seedsseeds areare edible,edible, chestnut-flavoured;chestnut-flavoured; eaten eaten raw raw,, roastedroasted oror fried in oil;oil; afterafter roasting, seeds tastetaste likelike cocoacocoa andand areare sometimessometimes usedused forfor thethe preparationpreparation ofof beverages.beverages. Regarded as a usefuluseful supplementsupplement to the dietdiet inin manymany regions.regions . Seeds yield 58% of a white,white, inodorous fat which,which, when refined,refined, isis suitablesuitable for cooking (Kedrick, 19721972;; Menninger, 1977;1977; Burkill, 1985;1985; FAO,FAO, 1986;1986; Mabberley,Mabberley, 1987;1987; ArkollArkoll andand Clement,Clement, 1989).1989).

Nutritional valuevalue

Seed contains 9% water,water, 10%10% starch,starch, 16%16% proteinprotein andand 40-50%40-50% fat;fat; thethe yellowyellow fatfat possessespossesses physical and chemicalchemical characteristics resembling those of palm oil butbut containingcontaining toxictoxic andand possibly carcinogenic cyclopropenic fattyfatty acidsacids (Burkill,(Burkill, 19851985;; ArkollArkoll and Clement, 1989).

By-products and otherother usesuses

Seed oil with industrial potential for manufacturing soapsoap.. YoungYoung leavesleaves andand flowersflowers areare eateneaten as aa vegetable.vegetable. WoodWood is is white white and and soft, soft, suitable suitable for for manufacturing manufacturing paper,paper, yieldingyielding 36%36% cellulose paste. BarkBark is is usedused forfor caulkingcaulking boatsboats and cordage andand yieldsyields aa darkdark redred dye.dye. BarkBark is also used medicinallymedicinally to treattreat stomachstomach complaints andand headaches whilewhile aa tisanetisane fromfrom the boiled bark isis usedused forfor bloodblood tonic.tonic . Suitable forfor live fencefence postsposts andand streetstreet trees,trees, it is alsoalso planted as an ornamentalornamental species (Hedrick, 1972; FAO, 1986;1986; Arkoll and Clement,Clement, 1989;1989; Barrett, 1994).1994).

58 MarketingMarketing

No information, presumablypresumably tradedtraded locally.locally.

Discussion

A potentially useful, easily cultivated tree producing bigbig fruitsfruits containingcontaining largelarge quantitiesquantities ofof nuts. However, toxicologicaltoxicological studies will bebe requiredrequired beforebefore thisthis species can bebe recommended forfor wider distribution andand use.use. Indeed,Indeed, suchsuch studiesstudies areare requiredrequired forfor allall newnew food plants.

JAVA ALMOND; KANARI KANARI OR OR NGALI NGALI NUT: NUT: Canarium Canarium indicum, indicum, BurseraceaeBurseraceae

Distribution andand ecologyecology

Indonesia, PapuaPapua NewNew Guinea,Guinea, SolomonSolomon IslandsIslands andand surroundingsurrounding islands;islands; oftenoften cultivatedcultivated inin Melanesia and elsewhere in the tropics, especially Java.Java. NaturallyNaturally found in low altitude rain forests, but cultivatedcultivated up toto 600 mm (Howes,(Howes, 1948;1948; VerheijVerheij and Coronel, 1991).1991).

Description

Tall, buttressed,buttressed, deciduous tree tree toto 40 mm tall.tall. Leaves with 3-73-7 pairspairs ofof leaflets,leaflets, leafletsleaflets oblong-oblong­ ovate to oblong-lanceolate,oblong-Ianceolate, 5.5-28 cmcm xx 2-112-11 cm,cm, herbaceous to coriaceous, basebase obliqueoblique toto broadlybroadly cuneate, apexapex bluntlybluntly acuminate.acuminate. Inflorescence terminal, laxly paniculate. DrupeDrupe ovoid,ovoid, slightlyslightly triangular inin cross section, 3-63-6 cm x 2-32-3 cm,cm, green, turningturning black black whenwhen ripe;ripe; endocarpendocarp hard,hard, thin and brittle, ca. 33 g,g, seedsseeds 33 oror 11 byby abortionabortion in cultivatedcultivated trees.trees. (Howes,(Howes, 1948;1948; Leenhouts,Leenhouts, 1956; VerheijVerheij andand Coronel,Coronel, 1991; Macrae et al., 1993).

Cultivation

Propagated by seed.seed. Asexual reproductionreproduction byby patch-budding, as recommendedrecommended for C.C. ovatumovatum Figure 19 Canarium indicum.indicum. 1:1: branchbranch withwith leavesleaves andand flowers.flowers . should also be tried (see(see underunder MinorMinor nuts).nuts). 2: fruit.

Harvesting

In Moluccas leaves shed when fruitfruit riperipe andand bunchesbunches ofof fruitfruit thenthen clearlyclearly visible.visible. Trees climbed and fruitfruit beatenbeaten downdown withwith stickssticks (Howes,(Howes, 1948).1948).

Post-harvest treatments

Treatment presumedpresumed toto be as describeddescribed for C.C. ovatumovatum (see(see underunder MinorMinor nuts).nuts). Pulp isis removed by hand after soaking in water forfor 2-3 days,days, less if waterwater heatedheated toto 40-50'C.40-50°C. NutsNuts are thoroughly washed, any floating nuts are discarded. NutsNuts areare sun-driedsun-dried andand baggedbagged forfor

59 storage. Kernels are extracted by hand, washedwashed in warmwarm waterwater toto loosenloosen thethe testatesta beforebefore removal by hand.

Production andand consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

After removal of testa the oily "pili" nuts (seeds) eateneaten raw or roasted, may be used as an almond substitute, eateneaten inin SriSri LankaLanka asas aa dessertdessert nut,nut, mademade intointo bread inin thethe Celebes,Celebes, highlyhighly esteemed in MelanesiaMelanesia wherewhere severalseveral racesraces areare cultivated;cultivated; aa strainedstrained emulsionemulsion ofof crushed, crushed, well-ripened seeds may be used as milkmilk substitute for infants. Seed oil is used as a substitute for andand usuallyusually preferredpreferred toto coconutcoconut oiloil forfor cooking;cooking; freshfresh seedseed oil mixed with food (Howes, 1948; Leenhauts, 1956; Hedrick,Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, 1977;1977; VerheijVerheij and Coronel,Coronel, 1991;1991; Macrae et ai.,al., 1993).1993).

Nutritional valuevalue

Nut contains 70-80%70-80% oil,oil, 13% protein, 7% starch (Howes, 1948; MacraeMacrae etet ai.,al., 1993).1993).

By-products andand other usesuses

Shells areare used for carvings. SeedSeed oiloil alsoalso usedused asas anan illuminant.illuminant. WoodWood isis soft,soft, mainlymainly usedused for firewood, also for canoes. GrownGrown as as aa shadeshade tree,tree, especiallyespecially for nutmeg groves, roadside or street treetree (Howes,(Howes, 1948;1948; Leenhauts,Leenhauts, 1956;1956; VerheijVerheij andand Coronel,Coronel, 1991).1991).

Marketing

Nuts do notnot keepkeep well,well, consequentlyconsequently notnot suitablesuitable asas anan exportexport crop.crop.

Discussion

Highly esteemed for food in MelanesiaMelanesia (Verheij(Verheij andand Coronel, 1991).1991). If the nut production is toto bebe expandedexpanded inin SoutheastSoutheast Asia,Asia, therethere isis aa needneed toto developdevelop mechanizationmechanization forfor nut extraction in addition to selectingselecting elite trees.

PEQuI,PEQUi, PIQUi,PIQuI, PIQUIA-OIL PLANT: PLANT: Caryocar Caryocar brasiliense, brasiliense, Caryocaraceae

Distribution andand ecologyecology

. Brazil, extendingextending westwards from the statestate ofof MaranhdoMaranhao to Bolivia,Bolivia, easterneastern ParaguayParaguay toto northern Argentina, itit formsforms purepure grovesgroves inin thethe plateauxplateaux and valleys of the cerrado,cerrado, elsewhere usually scatteredscattered individuals.individuals. Adapted toto nutrient poor, heavyheavy clays, especiallyespecially iron andand aluminium rich soils in areas with an annual rainfall of 1 000-1 500 mm and 3-5 months dry season with a relativerelative humidityhumidity as lowlow as 13%13 % (FAO,(FAD, 1986;1986; DantasDantas dede Araujo,Araujo, 1995).1995).

Description

A twisted, smallsmall tree oror shrubshrub oror suffrutexsuffrutex to ca. 1010 mm tall,tall, trunktrunk ca.ca. 3030 cmcm inin diameterdiameter andand a deep taproot;taproot; crowncrown spreading,spreading, to 1010 mm inin diameter.diameter. Leaves 3-foliate,3-foliate, leafletsleaflets elliptic-elliptic­ ovate, up to 1818 cm x 1212 cm, apexapex and base rounded. InflorescenceInflorescence a terminal raceme.raceme_ Fruit irregularly ovoid-globose, 4-54-5 cm inin diameter,diameter, usuallyusually 1-locular,I-locular, 4-5 cmcm inin diameter,diameter, occasionally 2-locular and larger; exocarp more or less smooth; pericarppericarp thick,thick, fleshyfleshy andand +± attached to the mesocarp,mesocarp, thethe mesocarpmesocarp andand endocarpendocarp enveloping thethe seed to form anan ovaloval

60 stone ca. 2.5-3 cmcm in diameter; mesocarpmesoca rp surface smooth, interior with thin,thin, hard, woody,woody, endocarp spines up to 2-3 cmcm long; kernel \\ white, oilyoily (FAO,(FAG, 1986;1986; \toot) Dantas de Araujo, 1995).1995). ,

Cultivation

Seeds may take oneone yearyear to germinate; stratificationstratification of the endocarp with mesocarp removed is recommended. Good results obtained from grafting andand marcottage.marcottage. Irrigation in thethe nurserynursery essential. Seedlings cancan

be planted out when Figure 20 25 cm tall.tall . Growth is Caryocar brasiliense.brasiliense. 1 1:: longitudinallongitudinal section section of of fruit.fruit. 2: fruiting branchlet.branchlet. 3:3 : leavesleaves andand slow but thethe treestrees showshow inflorescence.inflorescence. good response from irrigation and fertilizers.fertilizers. After 5 years non-irrigated plantsplants areare 25 cm talltall whilewhile irrigatedirrigated plants may attain 3 m (FAO,(FAG ,1986; 1986; DantasDantas dede Araujo,Araujo, 1995).1995).

Harvesting

Despite their accessibility,accessibility, the difficultydifficulty in determining thethe ripeness ofof the fruit resultsresults inin fallen fruit being usually gathered. LargeLarge treestrees maymay yield up 2 000 fruit (FAO, 1986;1986; Dantas de Araujo, 1995).1995).

Post-harvest treatments

No information.

Production and consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

The oily, mucilaginous fruitfruit isis nutritious, eateneaten asas aa faminefamine food food.. Mesocarp is oily, sweet but acquired taste, eaten,eaten, mainly mainly used used as as aa flavouring, flavouring, laxative;laxative; sourcesource ofof an an edibleedible oil,oil, usedused to flavour the alcoholic liqueur, licolico dede piqui;piqui; kernelkernel rarelyrarely eateneaten because of endocarp spines;spines; source of anan edibleedible oiloil mainlymainly usedused forfor flavouringflavouring (Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, 1977;1977; FAO,FAG, 1986; Clay and Clement, 1993;1993; DantasDantas dede Araujo,Araujo, 1995).1995).

Nutritional valuevalue

No informationinformation regardingregarding nutritionalnutritional value of thethe kernels.kernels. Mesocarp contains 81%81 % water,water, 2.7% protein,protein, 8%8% fatsfats andand oilsoils (dry(dry pulppulp ca.ca. 42%42% oil),oil), 1%1 % ash, ash, 6.7% 6.7% carbohydrates; carbohydrates; 120 mcg carotene, also richrich inin vitaminvitamin C, thiamin,thiamin, riboflavinriboflavin and niacin (FAO, 1986).1986).

61 By-products and other usesuses

Kernel oiloil usedused inin thethe cosmeticcosmetic industryindustry andand locally for makingmaking soap, asas anan illuminant,illuminant, lubricant. WoodWood used used forfor construction,construction, woodenwooden machinerymachinery parts, furniture,furniture, fences,fences, fuelwoodfuel wood and charcoal. Flowers,Flowers, fruits fruits and and seeds seeds usedused inin locallocal medicine.medicine. Leaves,Leaves, barkbark and and fruitfruit pulppulp a tannin source. TreeTree grown grown as as an an ornamental ornamental (FAO,(FAO, 1986;1986; DantasDantas dede Araujo,Araujo, 1995).1995).

Marketing

Sold in the locallocal marketsmarkets forfor locallocal oiloil andand soapsoap makingmaking (Dantas(Dantas de Araujo,Araujo, 1995).1995).

Discussion

Currently being over-exploited over-exploited due to anan increaseincrease inin restaurantsrestaurants servingserving regionalregional foodfood andand small-scale oil productionproduction industries.industries. Potential asas anan oiloil crop for the drier regionsregions ofof thethe world, beingbeing well-adaptedwell-adapted toto nutrientnutrient poorpoor soilssoils andand longlong drydry seasons.seasons. Local demand will have to bebe metmet byby developing developing plantationsplantations ofof improvedimproved stock,stock, betterbetter managementmanagement of wildwild stock, includingincluding possiblepossible improvementimprovement by graftinggrafting fromfrom eliteelite trees.trees. There is a needneed forfor improved germplasm for larger fruit, higher oil yields. TheThe highhigh meltingmelting pointpoint of thethe kernelkernel oil may havehave aa potentialpotential asas aa cocoacocoa butterbutter substitutesubstitute (FAO,(FAO, 1986;1986; DantasDantas dede Araujo,Araujo, 1995).1995).

CASTANHA DE DE GALINHA: GALINHA: Couepia Couepia longipendula, longipendula, ChrysobalanaceaeChrysobalanaceae

Distribution andand ecologyecology

Occurs throughoutthroughout centralcentral andand westernwestern AmazoniaAmazonia andand thethe westernwestern GuianaGuiana shield.shield . Adapted to heavy,heavy, infertile,infertile, clayclay oxisolsoxisols ofof lowland lowland rainforests,rainforests, alsoalso occurringoccurring inin periodicallyperiodically inundated, low lyinglying areas (FAO,(FAO, 1986;1986; ClayClay andand Clement,Clement, 1993;1993 ; Prance,Prance, 1972,1972, 1994).1994).

Description

Large tree toto 3030 mm oror moremore high,high, trunktrunk upup toto 1.81.8 m m in in diameter. diameter. Leaves simple, oblongoblong elliptic to lanceolate, up to 1616 cm long and 7.5 cm wide. InflorescenceInflorescence ofof pendulouspendulous paniclespanicles of bisexual, white flowers. FruitFruit obovoid obovoid toto ellipsoidellipsoid drupe,drupe, 4-64-6 cmcm long,long, 44 cmcm inin diameter,diameter, pubescent; epicarp peeling to reveal hard, woody,woody, fibrous,fibrous , 66 mmmm thickthick pericarp;pericarp; seedseed withwith white to light green kernel, 33 cmcm long,long, 22 cmcm wide, testatesta thin, pubescent,pubescent, surroundedsurrounded by a thin membrane (FAO, 1986;1986; ClayClay andand Clement,Clement, 1993;1993; Prance,Prance, 1972,1972, 1994).1994).

Cultivation

Occasionally cultivated, especiallyespecially around Manaus; more commonly protected when swidden is opened up. SeedsSeeds germinategerminate withinwithin weeksweeks ofof fallingfalling fromfrom treetree ontoonto moist ground; viabilityviability is rapidly lostlost andand seedsseeds dodo notnot storestore easily.easily. Early growth is rapid, laterlater slowingslowing andand treetree attaining 2-3 m in heightheight whenwhen 4-54-5 yearsyears oldold andand producingproducing first flowers.flowers. Trials are beingbeing carried out with fertilizers andand shadeshade in order to try and overcome slow earlyearly growth (Prance, 1971; FAO, 1986;1986; ClayClay andand Clement,Clement, 1993).1993).

Harvesting

Fallen mature fruitsfruits mustmust bebe quicklyquickly harvestedharvested before they can germinate, rot or removedremoved byby small rodents and wild pigs; sometimes pluckedplucked fromfrom smallsmall trees. trees. Trees ca. 2020 yearsyears oldold andand

62 7 m highhigh yieldyield overover 11 000000 nutsnuts perper year,year, mature trees will yield over 100100 kg; kernelskernels weigh 4-74-7 gg and represent ca. 30%30% ofof thethe whole nut (FAO, 1986;1986; ClayClay andand Clement,Clement, 1993; Prance, 1994).1994).

Post-harvest treatments

Seeds (nuts) easily extracted from thethe mesocarp with a knife.knife. Dry nutsnuts cancan bebe stored for several months but rapidly deteriorate under moistmoist conditionsconditions and highhigh temperatures (FAO(FAO,, 1986).1986).

Production andand consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

Kernels nut-like and eaten roastedroasted or pounded and mixed with sugar andand cassavacassava flourflour which has a pleasant flavour resembling Brazil nutsnuts andand pomegranatepomegranate pips whenwhen fresh,fresh, aa BrazilBrazil nut-likenut-like flavourflavour afterafter short storage,storage, date-likedate-like afterafter a fewfew weeks if storedstored moistmoist oror monthsmonths ifif storedstored dry, eventuallyeventually becomingbecoming rancid.rancid. Kernels also utilized by local people to extract anan oil for use inin cooking;cooking; seedseed cakecake slightlyslightly sweet,sweet, FFigureigure 21 used inin locallocal pastries (FAO,(FAO, 1986;1986; ClayClay andand Couepia longipendulalongipendula.. 1:1: frfruit.uit. 2: leaves and flowering branchlet.branchlet. Clement, 1993;1993; Prance,Prance, 1994).1994).

Nutritional valuevalue

Kernels areare aa richrich sourcesource ofof energy energy andand protein,protein, containingcontaining 18%18 % moisture moisture whenwhen harvestedharvested andand 7575% % of a light greenish-yellow semi-drying oiloil thatthat quicklyquickly turnsturns rancid.rancid. OilOil residuesresidues contain 32.532.5% % protein,protein, 10.6%10.6% fibrefibre andand 8%8% ashash (FAO,(FAD, 1986;1986; ClayClay andand Clements,Clements, 1993).1993).

By-products and otherother usesuses

Seed oil alsoalso usedused forfor soap-making.soap-making. Timber heavy,heavy, hardhard and difficult toto work, used for building, carpentry andand roofingroofing tiles.tiles. Bark source of aa roughrough fibre.fibre . Bark andand pericarppericarp extracts used inin locallocal medicinemedicine (FAO,(FAO, 1986;1986; Prance,Prance, 1994).1994).

Marketing

Nuts collectedcollected from thethe wildwild andand usedused inin ruralrural areas.areas. Surprisingly the nuts rarely foundfound inin the locallocal marketsmarkets despitedespite theirtheir locallocal abundanceabundance inin thethe forests,forests, theirtheir highhigh yieldsyields andand popularity.popularity. A marketmarket needsneeds toto bebe createdcreated (FAO,(FAO, 1986;1986; ClayClay andand Clement,Clement, 1993).1993).

Discussion

Considered worthy of future domestication (Prance, 1994).1994) . PossibilityPossibility beingbeing investigatedinvestigated of growing the tree forfor nutsnuts beforebefore cuttingcutting forfor hardwoodhardwood (FAO,(FAD, 1986).1986).

63 INDIAN OR OR TROPICAL TROPICAL ALMOND: ALMOND: Terminalia Terminalia catappa, catappa, Combretaceae Combretaceae

Distribution andand ecologyecology

Malesia and westernwestern PacificPacific seashores;seashores; cultivatedcultivated andand sometimessometimes naturalizednaturalized throughout the tropics and near-tropicsnear-tropics.. AA gregariousgregarious pioneerpioneer speciesspecies of sandsand banks and shoresshores.. Salt and drought tolerant but intolerantintolerant of windwind and frostfrost (Exell,(Exell, 1954;1954; FAO,FAO, 1982;1982; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 19841984;; Morton, 1985).1985).

Description

A deciduous or sometimessometimes ssemi-evergreenemi-evergreen tree to 15(15(-25) -25) mm tall withwith trunktrunk to 1.5 m inin diameter, often buttressed.buttressed. Leaves alternate, obovate,obovate, 15-3615-36 cm long,long, 8-248-24 cmcm wide,wide, subcordate at the base andand usually with 2 glands, petiole short; leaves turning red beforebefore fallingfalling and quickly replacedreplaced.. Inflorescence spicate, male flowers towards thethe apexapex with hermaphrodite flowers below; flowers greenishgreenish,, apetalous.apetalous. Fruit a somewhatsomewhat compressed-compressed­ ellipsoid drupe, 4-74-7 cmcm long, 2.5-3.82.5-3.8 cmcm wide,wide, prominently keeled alongalong the margins; epicarpepicarp thin,thin, Figure 22 Terminalia catappa. BrBranchletanchlet wwithith leaves and fruitsfruits.. green turningturning yellowyellow withwith a reddishreddish blush;blush; mesocarpmesocarp fleshy, 3-63-6 mmmm thick,thick, adherentadherent toto thethe fibrousfibrous huskhusk ofof the the hard-shelledhard-shelled stonestone containingcontaining the spindle-shaped seed;seed; seed 3-4 cmcm long,long, 3-5 mmmm thick,thick, testatesta veryvery thin,thin, brown,brown, enveloping the coiled cotyledons or kernel (Exell, 1954;1954; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Morton, 1985).1985) .

Cultivation

Sweet fleshed and moremore palatablepalatable fruitsfruits selectedselected forfor cultivation.cultivation. Seeds have good viabilityviability and germinategerminate readilyreadily (25%(25 % germination)germination) whenwhen raisedraised inin nurseries.nurseries. Transplanted whenwhen seedlings leafless.leafless. Fertilizers can bebe beneficial.beneficial. Growth raterate 11 mm or more in caca.. 22 yearsyears (Morton, 1985).1985).

Harvesting

Two crops a yearyear possiblepossible in somesome areas or even more oror less continuous fruiting.fruiting. AA treetree may yield ca. 55 kgkg ofof kernels kernels perper yearyear (Morton,(Morton, 1985).1985).

64 Post-harvest treatments

Fruit hard,hard, difficultdifficult toto crack,crack, kernelskernels extractedextracted byby crackingcracking thethe deflesheddefleshed andand sun-driedsun-dried nutsnuts along the keel (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977; Morton,Morton, 1985).1985).

Production andand consumption/consumption/ utilizationutilization

Outer flesh commonly eateneaten byby children.children. KernelsKernels may be eaten raw or roasted,roasted, or used inin cooking as an almond substitute. Sun-driedSun-dried kernelskernels yieldyield 38-54%38-54 % ofof an an edible,edible, bland,bland, yellow,yellow, semi-drying oil known asas IndianIndian almondalmond oil,oil, whichwhich becomesbecomes turbidturbid andand rancidrancid onon standingstanding (Howes(Howes,, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, 1972;1972; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Morton,Morton, 1985).1985).

Nutritional valuevalue

Air-dried kernels contain 52.0%52.0% fatfat,, 25.4% protein, 14.6% fibre, 6%6% glucoseglucose and a smallsmall percentage of ash.ash. "Indian'Indian almondalmond oiloil containscontains glyceridesglycerides ofof palmiticpalmitic acidacid 34.434.4%, %, oleic acid 32.1%,32.1 %, linoleiclinoleic acidacid 27.5%27.5 % andand stearicstearic acidacid 6%;6 %; itit closelyclosely resemblesresembles sweetsweet almond, cotton seed, kapokkapok andand groundnutgroundnut oilsoils andand couldcould substitutesubstitute forfor themthem forfor dieteticdietetic andand industrialindustrial usesuses (Morton, 1985).1985).

By-products and other usesuses

Oilcake used as pig feed. KernelKernel oil oil used used for for making making soapsoap butbut itsits industrialindustrial useuse isis limitedlimited byby the difficulty in extracting thethe kernel. OilOil isis alsoalso usedused medicinallymedicinally as are also the leaves and bark. Leaves and barkbark astringentastringent andand variouslyvariously used medicinally; leavesleaves alsoalso sudorific if taken internally.internally. BarkBark isis aa source source ofof dye; dye; barkbark (25%(25 % tannin), tannin), rootsroots andand greengreen fruitsfruits (known(known as myrobalans) are used for tanning. TimberTimber toughtough and fairly hard, durable in water although not durable in the ground, susceptiblesusceptible to drywood termites; usedused forfor construction, furniture,furniture, carpentry, carts,carts, boats,boats, plywoodplywood andand pulp.pulp. CultivatedCultivated as as anan ornamental ornamental andand shadeshade tree (Exell,(Exell, 1954; FAO, 1982;1982; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Burkill, 1985;1985; Morton, 1985).1985).

Marketing

Fruit marketed locally.locally.

Discussion

A multi-purposemUlti-purpose tree suitablesuitable forfor selectionselection andand furtherfurther development.development. If the kernel market isis toto expand an improvedimproved methodmethod forfor defleshingdefleshing thethe fruitsfruits andand extractingextracting thethe kernelkernel needsneeds toto bebe developed (Morton, 1985).1985). The quality of the nut needsneeds to bebe comparedcompared with that ofof thethe following, T.T. kaernbachii.kaernbachii.

OKARI NUT: NUT: Terminalia Terminalia kaernbachii, kaernbachii, Combretaceae

Distribution andand ecologyecology

From NewNew GeorgiaGeorgia inin thethe SolomonSolomon IslandsIslands through NewNew Guinea toto the Aru IslandsIslands ofof Indonesia; relatively common and frequently cultivated treetree inin thethe lowland rainrain forestsforests up to 1 000 m altitude (Coode,(Coode, 1969;1969; VerheijVerheij andand Coronel,Coronel, 1991).1991).

65 Description

Tree to 45 m withwith trunktrunk: up to 2.8 m in diameter, flange-buttressed up toto 33 m;m; crowncrown spreading;spreading; leavesleaves clustered atat end ofof branches,branches, obovate-elliptic, narrowly obovateobovate elliptic toto obovate-oblong,obovate-oblong, 12-3512-35 cm x 5-12 cm, basebase cuneatecuneate with 2 conspicuousconspicuous black glands, apexapex rounded to acuminate. Fruit ellipsoid, more or lessless laterally compressed, 6.3-18 cm x 14.5-8.214.5-8.2 cm xx 3.3-6.33.3-6.3 cm,cm, apexapex slightlyslightly beaked, tomentose becoming glabrescent, plumplum redred when ripe,ripe, slightly succulent;succulent; endocarp in cross-section with a broad band of very hardhard sclerenchymatoussclerenchymatous tissuetissue including within it some large irregularly shaped and spacedspaced air-air­ chambers and a largelarge cell containing the kernel; kernels white, varyingvarying inin sizesize fromfrom spindlespindle shaped, 3 cmcm xx 1 cmcm to sizesize ofof small hen's egg;egg; cotyledonscotyledons 3-4,3-4, Figure 23 wrapped around eacheach otherother (Exell,(Exell, Termina/jaTerminalia kaernbachii.kaembachii. 1: branchlet with leavesleaves and inflorescence.inflorescence. 1954; Coode, 1969; Macrae, 22:: branchlet with fruits. 1993).

Cultivation

Easily raised from seed,seed, butbut viabilityviability soonsoon lost;lost; attemptsattempts toto introduceintroduce seedseed intointo Hawaii failed.failed. Because ofof its valuevalue asas foodfood forfor thethe locallocal inhabitantsinhabitants thethe speciesspecies isis usuallyusually excludedexcluded fromfrom timber agreements (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).1991).

Harvesting

Fruits picked from thethe treestrees oror collectedcollected fromfrom thethe groundground (Verheij(Verheij and Coronel, 1991).1991).

Post-harvest treatments

No information.information.

Production andand consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

Kernels the largestlargest knownknown inin thethe Combretaceae,Combretaceae, 1.5-101.5-10 gg inin weight,weight, oneone ofof the the best-flavouredbest-flavoured of thethe tropicaltropical nutsnuts andand aa favouritefavourite articlearticle ofof dietdiet amongamong thethe natives,natives, almondalmond flavoured,flavoured, mildmild and pleasant, source of ca.ca. 50 50 g gof of a asweet, sweet, colourless, colourless, non-drying, non-drying, edible edible oil, oil, considered considered less oily thanthan CanariumCanarium (Exell,(Exell, 1964;1964; Coode,Coode, 1969;1969; Menninger,Menninger, 1977;1977; Mabberley,Mabberley, 1987;1987; Verheij and Corondel, 1991;1991; Macrae et ai.,al., 1993).1993). AlthoughAlthough MacraeMacrae etet al.ai. (1993)(1993) statestate thatthat

66 it can bebe eateneaten rawraw itit isis uncertainuncertain asas toto whetherwhether itit maymay bebe eateneaten rawraw withoutwithout preliminarypreliminary treatment as MortonMorton (1985)(1985) statesstates that, unlikeunlike T.T. catappa,catappa, allall otherother speciesspecies ofof Terminalia Terminalia require preliminary washingwashing andand cooking.cooking.

Nutritional valuevalue

Kernel contains 12.5%12 .5 % proteinprotein andand 70%70 % fatfat (Morton,(Morton, 1985).1985).

By-products and other usesuses

Wood is used for furniturefurniture butbut notnot exploitedexploited due to value of the fruitfruit (Exell, 1954;1954; VerheijVerheij and Coronel, 1991).1991).

Marketing

Marketed locallylocally during thethe fruitingfruiting seasonseason (Verheij(Verheij and Coronel,Coronel, 1991).1991).

Discussion

A littlelittle knownknown speciesspecies ofof whichwhich T.T. okariokari isis regardedregarded asas aa synonym synonym byby MortonMorton (1985).(1985). Further studiesstudies areare requiredrequired regardingregarding itsits value value asas aa potentialpotential nutnut crop.crop. Other speciesspecies (see(see Appendix 1)1) also have edible kernels but thisthis is said ttoo be the best flavoured. MortonMorton (1985) (1985) recommends, thethe more widely distributed andand mtrointroducedduced T. T. catappacatappa asas worthy of furtherfurther development. Verheij and Coronel (1991) considerconsider the the speciesspecies has has aa potential asas aa multipurposemUltipurpose species, growngrown forfor itsits edibleedible kernelskernels andand ultimatelyultimately forfor itsits timber.timber.

CACAY, INCHI,INCHI, TACAY,TACAY, TACCY,TACCY, NOGAL,NOGAL, ARBOL,ARBOL, ARBOLARBOL DEDE NUEZ,NUEZ, PAN DE CADA DIADIA OR ORINOCO NUT:NUT: Caryodendron orinocense, EuphorbiaceaeEuphorbiaceae

Distribution andand ecologyecology

Venezuela, Colombia and EcuadorEcuador inin the headwatersheadwaters of the Orinoco; plantations in Colombia and Ecuador. ThrivesThrives in in areas areas with with temperatures temperatures ranging ranging between between 12 12 °0 CC andand 2929°C0 C and 800- 5 000 mmmm annualannual rainfallrainfall and occurs on a widewide range of soilssoils at altitudesaltitudes from sea level to 2 300 m. ToleratesTolerates a afew few months months of of mild mild drought drought and and withstandswithstands briefbrief waterloggingwaterlogging (Reckin,(Reckin, 1983; FAO, 1986).1986).

Description

Tree toto 20(-40)20(-40) mm talltall withwith small,small, densedense andand flattenedflattened crowncrown inin wildwild or,or, underunder cultivation.cultivation, to 1515 mm talltall withwith large,large, roundedrounded crown.crown. Both monoecious andand dioecious trees reported.reported. Leaves elliptic, ca. 2525 cmcm long,long, 1010 cmcm broad,broad, somewhatsomewhat leathery.leathery. MaleMale flowersflowers inin terminalterminal racemes, femalefemale flowersflowers inin terminalterminal panicles,panicles, windwind pollinated.pollinated. Fruit aa dehiscentdehiscent oror sometimes semidehiscent, woody capsule,capsule, 3.7-63.7-6.5.5 cm long, 3.2-4.53.2-4.5 cmcm inin diameter,diameter, pericarppericarp thin and brittle, seedsseeds 3,3, 3-sided3-sided (Reckin,(Reckin, 1983;1983; FAO,FAO, 1986).1986) .

Cultivation

Seeds should be preferably sown within 10 days of harvesting, reputed to failfail to germinategerminate after 3535 days;days; distributiondistribution ofof plants plants otherwiseotherwise byby pottedpotted seedlingsseedlings oror vegetativevegetative reproduction.reproduction. Shade is required inin thethe firstfirst year,year, followedfollowed byby fullfull exposureexposure toto thethe sunsun onon transplantingtransplanting whenwhen

67 ca. 5050 cm high at onset of thethe followingfollowing rainy season.season. Recommended spacingspacing 6-10 mm x x 6-10 6- 10 m;m ;interplanting interplanting withwith Azadirachta indica and Derris sppspp.. for source ofof ant-repellentant-repellent insecticidesinsecticides is rrecommendedecommended (Reckin,(Reckin, 1983). In Colombia caterpillars are anan extremelyextremely serious pest causing complete defoliation of thethe treestrees severalseveral times in aa yearyear (Clement and Villachica, 1994).1994).

Plant growthgrowth is rapid, with fruiting usually in thethe seventhseventh yearyear whenwhen treestrees are caca.. 7 m m tall,tall, althoughalthough fruitingfruiting atat 4-5 yearsyears hashas beenbeen reported.reported. Average weight of nut is 8.58.5 g,g, attainingattaining 12.512.5 gg or moremore inin superiorsuperior selections.selections. A 1010 year old treetree cancan yieldyield 100-250100-250 kg ofof (,-.,- --:: ".'-" ':> .• ."':- ..• .. ..r .' .'.. " ..•...... nuts per annum,annum, anan oldold specimenspecimen hashas .r-- ~. ~'; -. /' ' - , - ~ -~ ,> given ca. 800 kg.kg . Potential forfor anan ~." .-, annual production of 3 500-5 000 kg of 2 oil per ha from treestrees bearingbearing nutsnuts with an 3 4 oil content of 57% (Reckin,(Reckin, 1983;1983; FAO,FAO, FigureFig ure 24 1986)1986).. Caryodendron orinocense.onnocense. 1:1: leaves and fruit. 22:: femalefemale flower.flower. 33:: male flower. 4:4 : longitudinal section of fruit to showshow seed.seed. Harvesting

Nuts ripen at the onsetonset of thethe rains andand either fall or are shaken off. TheyThey tendtend toto ripenripen allall at once and must be gathered quickly beforebefore theythey germinate, germinate, rot rot or or are are eaten eaten by by animals. animals. A 10-year old tree can yield 50-90 kg of capsules per tree and large trees produce over 200 kg,kg, although yields may vary considerably fromfrom yearyear toto year.year. AA capsule capsule consists consists ofof 42%42 % seedseed and 29-36% edibleedible kernelkernel (Reckin,(Reckin, 1983;1983; FAO,FAO, 1986).1986).

Post-harvestPost -harvest treatments

Under dry conditionsconditions nutsnuts keepkeep forfor ca. 30 days in thethe capsule;capsule; shell damage or a moistmoist environment can initiate enzyme reaction leading toto acidificationacidification and and rancidity rancidity of of the the oil. oil. The nuts are easilyeasily separatedseparated from thethe thinthin shell and, whenwhen dried and roasted, they can be safely stored for a longlong timetime inin sealedsealed plasticplastic bagsbags (Reckin,(Reckin, 1983;1983; FAO, 1986).1986).

Production andand consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

Crushed nuts and milk fed to weaned children.children. NutsNuts havehave aa pleasantpleasant flavour resembling hazel nuts. AfterAfter removal removal ofof the the leatheryleathery testatesta kernelskernels are eaten raw, roasted, fried or ground for a drink or sweets.sweets. NutsNuts are are source source ofof an an edible edible oiloil richrich inin linoleiclinoleic acidacid (34.4%) and, onceonce extracted,extncted, can bebe safelysafely storedstored forfor aa longlong timetime withoutwithout turningturning rancid (Reckin, 1983;1983; FAO, 1986).

68 Nutritional valuevalue

Kernel contains (33.7-)37.4-54% edibleedible oil,oil, 33.6% starch, 2.6%2.6% glucose,glucose, 20.0%20.0% protein,protein, 44.5%.5% crudecrude fibrefibre andand 3.2%3.2% ashash withwith aa calorificcalorific valuevalue ofof 585585 kcal per 100100 g (Reckin,(Reckin, 1983).1983). According to FAO (1986)(1986) the kernel contains 54-60% ofof a clear, light, edible oil containing 73% linoleic acid, 4%4% moisturemoisture andand ca.ca. 18%18% protein.protein.

By-products and other usesuses

Grown as a shade tree for coffee and cacao inin ColombiaColombia.. Oil from shells, nuts and bark latex used asas anan illuminant.illuminant. NutsNuts andand oiloil anan excellent excellent curecure forfor pulmonary pulmonary complaintscomplaints andand dermatitisdermatitis.. WoodWood isis notnot regarded regarded asas valuablevaluable oror durable,durable, usedused forfor furniturefurniture andand excellentexcellent charcoal (Reckin, 1983;1983; FAO,FAO, 1986).1986).

Marketing

Nuts are sufficientlysufficiently attractive to bebe soldsold inin thethe locallocal markets.markets. Interest in ColombiaColombia inin developing the crop toto overcomeovercome thethe shortfallshortfall betweenbetween existing production of edible oil and domestic demand (Reckin, 1983;1983; FAO,FAO, 1986).1986).

Discussion

The species is widely distributed and plantations establishedestablished with with little little selection. selection. Provenance surveys and trials areare requiredrequired forfor improvedimproved performanceperformance and toto establishestablish priority areas inin the forestforest forfor geneticgenetic conservationconservation (Reckin,(Reckin, 1983).1983). Small germplasm collections exist at University of NaroNaro andand byby CorporaciónCorporaci6n AraracuaraAraracuara at SanSan JoséJose dede Guaviare,Guaviare, ColombiaColombia (Clement and Villachica,Villachica, 1994).1994). The reasonreason for thethe annualannual variationvariation in in yieldyield requiresrequires investigation and solution ifif thethe cropcrop isis toto developdevelop commercially.commercially.

CREAM, PARADISEPARADISE OROR SAPUCAIASAPUCAIA NUT: NUT: Lecythis Lecythis pisonis, pisonis, LecythidaceaeLecythidaceae

Distribution andand ecologyecology

Throughout Brazilian Amazonia, Colombia, Orinoco basin of Venezuela and the Guyanas; also cultivated.cultivated. It occursoccurs inin thethe rainrain forestforest onon fertilefertile floodflood plainsplains andand toleratingtolerating severalseveral months of waterlogging as well as growing onon thethe drierdrier oxisols ofof terraterra firma,firma, the latter at densities between 0.2-11 trees perper ha.ha. The minimum annual rainfall requirement is 2 000 mm (Prance and Mori, 1979;1979; FAO,FAO, 1986;1986; MacraeMacrae et al.,al., 1993).1993) .

Description

Tall deciduous tree, 30-4030-40 m tall,tall, trunktrunk 60-8060-80 cmcm inin diameter.diameter. Leaves petiolate, simple,simple, blade narrowly ovate to widelywidely elliptic, 2.5-12 cm long,long, 1.5-51.5-5 cmcm wide,wide, chartaceouschartaceous toto coriaceous. FlowersFlowers bisexual bisexual inin small, small, terminal terminal racemes.racemes. Fruit aa large,large, woody,woody, dehiscent,dehiscent, bell-shaped, pendentpendent capsule capsule up up to to 2525 cm long; pericarp woody,woody, 1-21-2 cmcm thick; a largelarge operculum becomes detached at maturity, leavingleaving the seedsseeds (nuts)(nuts) danglingdangling by aa slender,slender, fleshy funicle until the funiclefunicle decays and allows the seeds to fall; seedsseeds 30-40,30-40, irregularlyirregularly oblong, resembling Brazil nutsnuts but more roundedrounded with thinner and softer shell, kernelkernel white,white, creamy texture (Prance and Mori, 1979;1979; Rosengarten, 1984; FAO,FAO, 1986; Mori and Prance, 1990; MacraeMacrae etet alal.,. , 1993).1993).

69 Cultivation

Seeds genninategerminate within 7-10 daysdays andand growth is rapid, attainingattaining 60 cm after 11 year and 4 m after 55 years.years. Trees begin toto bear when 8-10 yearsyears old.old. FloweringFlowering isis sporadic, some treestrees bearingbearing everyevery otherother year, othersothers atat 55 yearyear intervals.intervals. Yields maymay bebe 12-20 fruits in the firstfirst fruitingfruiting year,year, with 81 fruitsfruits reportedreported 2 yearsyears later. Average seed weight 5.5 g,g, maturemature . trees maymay yieldyield ca. 80 kgkg annuallyannually. . Average yield for mature trees on terra firmafinna isis lessless thanthan 5050 fruitsfruits per year, probablyprobably more onon thethe fertilefertile floodflood plains. There are no commercial ~ 6 plantations reported. Attempts at grafting sapucaia onto the closely related Brazil nut andand vicevice versaversa havehave failedfailed (Prance and Mori,Mori, 1979;1979; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984; FAO, 1985;1985; ClayClay andand Clement,Clement, 1993).

Harvesting

Fruit mature in ca.ca. 18 monthsmonths afterafter Figure 25 flowering, when the capsulecapsule lidlid dropsdrops Lecythis pisonis. 11:: leaves. 2: ovary.ovary. 3-4:3-4: stamens.stamens. 5:5 :androecium. androecium. off, eventually releasingreleasing thethe nutsnuts afterafter thethe 6: fruitfruit andand operculum.operculum. 7:7: transversetransverse section of ovary.ovary. 8:8 : seed.seed. funicle has decayed.decayed. While suspendedsuspended from the capsule the nuts are liableliable to bebe eateneaten by bats, parrotsparrots andand monkeys,monkeys, althoughalthough less liable to predation around homesteads. TheThe capsulescapsules remain attached toto thethe treetree for a longlong time before theythey tootoo fall.fall. TheThe nutsnuts can,can, withwith somesome difficulty,difficulty, be cutcut downdown fromfrom thethe openopen capsules or gatheredgathered upup fromfrom thethe ground,ground, althoughalthough in the latter case the majority of nuts are eaten by animals,animals, especiallyespecially monkeys and wild pigs. Average yield of nuts per tree is ca. 7575 kg; fruitfruit weighweigh 1-2.51-2.5 kgkg andand containcontain 30-50 nuts, each weighingweighing ca. ca. 4-144-14 g.g. (Howes,(Howes, 1948;1948; Rosengarten, 1984;1984; FAO,FAO, 1986;1986; ClayClay andand Clement,Clement, 1993).1993).

Post-harvest treatments

Seed coat thinthin andand offersoffers littlelittle protectionprotection toto diseasedisease andand insects.insects. Nuts laid on matsmats toto dry;dry; thethe kernelskernels areare ratherrather moistmoist andand mustmust bebe drieddried quickly,quickly, otherwiseotherwise theythey do notnot storestore wellwell (Howes, 1948;1948; FAO,FAO, 1986).1986).

Production andand consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

Kernels are delicious,delicious, andand consideredconsidered to havehave aa superiorsuperior sweetsweet flavourflavour toto thatthat ofof the the BrazilBrazil nut, alsoalso moremore digestible;digestible; eateneaten raw,raw, roastedroasted oror in in confectionary, confectionary, highlyhighly nutritious.nutritious. Kernel yields a lightlight yellow,yellow, almondalmond flavoured,flavoured, edibleedible oil,oil, thethe harmfulhannful seedseed coatcoat beingbeing removedremoved before extraction (Howes, 1948;1948; PrancePrance andand Mori,Mori, 1979;1979; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984;1984; FAO,FAO, 1986;1986; Macrae et al., 1993).1993).

70 Nutritional value

NutsNuts contain 60% kernel. Highly nutritious,nutritious, kernel containscontains 60%60% dry matter consisting of 51-64% oil, 16% protein, 8% fibre,fibre, 4.2%4.2% ash.ash. Seeds likely toto contain toxic quantities of selenium whenwhen growngrown onon soilssoils highhigh inin seleniumselenium (Prance and Mori, 1979; FAO, 1986).1986).

By-products and other usesuses

Oil used locally for making soap and as an illuminant. TheThe capsulescapsules (monkey(monkey pots) are used forfor domestic utensils; when tethered and baited with sugar they are usedused toto trap monkeysmonkeys who, when disturbed,disturbed, areare unableunable toto openopen andand withdrawwithdraw theirtheir hands.hands. Nuts fed locallylocally toto chickens (the vernacular "sapucaia" means chicken)chicken).. TheThe woodwood isis notnot extensivelyextensively usedused as it is tough and difficult toto work;work; usedused forfor railwayrailway sleepers,sleepers, roofingroofing shingles,shingles, constructionconstruction andand general carpentry. TheThe toughtough andand fibrousfibrous barkbark consistsconsists ofof aa successionsuccession of thin layers which can be peeled off and used locally as cigarette wrappers. InfusionsInfusions ofof barkbark andand pericarppericarp usedused in local medicine for liverliver complaints.complaints. Cultivated asas an ornamental (Howes,(Howes, 1948; Prance and Mori, 1979;1979; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984;1984; FAO,FAO, 1986).1986).

Marketing

Marketed locally (Howes,(Howes, 1948).1948).

Discussion

The enotmousenormous loss ofof nutsnuts toto animalsanimals hashas limitedlimited the exploitation ofof nutsnuts fromfrom thethe wildwild.. If sufficient quantitiesquantities were were availableavailable at at thethe rightright priceprice there would be a potentialpotential inin thethe confectionery nutnut industry.industry. ShellShell ofof fresh fresh nutsnuts reputedreputed toto containcontain aa toxictoxic substancesubstance whichwhich maymay affect its commercialcommercial exploitationexploitation for extractingextracting the edibleedible oil.oil. There is a possibilitypossibility of nutnut and timber production from thethe floodplainsfloodplains but more information is first required on growth rates and production (Howes, 1948; Rosengarten, 1984; FAO, 1986). SelectionSelection forfor highhigh andand consistent yields isis required.required.

YICIB (new(new SomaliSomali orthography),orthography), YE-EB YE-EB OR OR YEHEB: YEHEB: CordeauxiaCordeauxia edulis,edulis, LeguminosaeLeguminosae subfamily CaesalpinioideaeCaesalpinioideae

Distribution andand ecologyecology

Central Somalia extending into the Ogaden of Ethiopia, in semi-aridsemi-arid scrub; intolerantintolerant of waterlogging. Introduced on anan experimentalexperimental scale to Israel,Israel, Kenya,Kenya, Tanzania,Tanzania, Sudan.Sudan, Yemen and USA for trials.trials. TheThe plantation plantation established established nearnear Voi,Voi, KenyaKenya isis largelylargely neglectedneglected but, duedue toto thethe SomaliSomali politicalpolitical situation, is currently thethe solesole sourcesource ofof germplasm.germplasm. GrowsGrows in Somalia at 100-1100-1 000 m altitude on coarse, deepdeep redred sandssands withwith aa waterwater tabletable atat 6.5-25.56.5-25 .5 m. TheThe daily daily temperature temperature isis inin excessexcess ofof25·C 25°C andand the mean annualannual temperaturetemperature 2626.3-30°C..3-30 ·C. The meanmean annualannual rainfallrainfall isis 85-40085-400 mm,mm, bimodalbimodal withwith thethe twotwo rainyrainy seasonsseasons ofof varying varying reliability (Baumer, 1983; Wickens and Storey, 1984;1984; BoothBooth and Wickens,Wickens, 1988;1988; FAO,FAO. 1988).

Description

Many-stemmed,Many-stemmed, evergreen shrub to 2.5(-4)2.5(-4) mm talltall withwith deepdeep taproot.taproot. Leaves paripinnate,paripinnate. leaflets (1-3)4(5-6) pairs, with numerous redred glandsglands below.below. FlowersFlowers bisexual,bisexual, yellow.yellow. FruitFruit

71 a 1-4-seeded1-4-seeded indehiscent pod, 4-6 cm long,long, shellshell fragile;fragile; seedsseeds (nuts)(nuts) globoseglobose toto ovoid,ovoid, ca. 1212 mm inin diameter (Baumer, 1983;1983; r~\ ...•. ·.~. 7 Wickens and Storey, 1984;1984; BoothBooth 8 \j;'.' andand Wickens, 1988;1988; FAO, 1988).1988).

CultivationCultivation

Only recently subjectedsubjected to domestication. EarlyEarly aerialaerial growth slow until the massivemassive root systemsystem isIS established. Nodulation observed on youngyoung plants but rhizobia not identifiedidentified.. Good germination withwith fresh seed,seed, lowlow viability ifif kept for aa fewfew months;months; however, seeds coated inin woodwood ashash and stored in a sacksack areare reputedreputed toto remain viableviable forfor at leastleast a year.year. Vegetative propagation possible. Direct seeding is recommendedrecommended asas problems exist with moving sseedlingseedlings fromfrom nursery due to rapid tap-root developmentdevelopment - in IsraelIsrael roots 1515 cmcm deepdeep developeddeveloped withwith onlyonly 11 cm ofof aerialaerial growth.growth.

Shrubs begin to bearbear wellwell afterafter 3-43- 4 years.years. Water harvesting techniques will increase yieldsyields,, however humidhumid conditionsconditions will result inin onlyonly vegetativevegetative growth.growth. Depending on thethe rainfall,rainfall, fruits Figure 26 Cordeauxia edulis edulis.. 1: 1: ffloweringlowering branchbranch.. 22:: flower.flower, partly dissected.dissected. 3:3 : petal.petal. can developdevelop withinwithin 22 weeksweeks fromfrom 4:4 : stamen.stamen. 5:5: apex of style and stigmasstigmas.. 66:: fruit.fruit. 7:7 : fruit (nut).(nut) . 8:8 :seed seed withwith the start of thethe rains; fruit outer coatcoat removed.removed . developmentdevelopment is arrestedarrested whenwhen thethe rainfall ceases ceases andand isis completedcompleted 4-5 monthsmonths laterlater whenwhen thethe rainsrains startstart again.again. Note,Note, these these observations observations referrefer toto SomaliaSomalia wherewhere the rainfall isis bimodalbimodal (Baumer,(Baumer, 1983;1983; WickensWickens and Storey, 1984;1984; Booth and Wickens, 1988; FAO, 1988;1988; Cherfas,Cherfas, 1989;1989; AronsonAronson etet al.,ai., 1990).1990) .

Harvesting

Yield cca.a. 55 kgkg ofof seedsseeds per shrub.shrub. SuchSuch is is thethe demanddemand andand freefree accessaccess to all range plants that the fruits often collected fromfrom thethe shrubsshrubs beforebefore theythey areare fullyfully maturemature (Wickens(Wickens andand Storey,Storey, 1984; Booth and Wickens, 1988;1988; FAO,FAO, 1988).1988).

72 Post-harvest treatments

Pods are openedopened andand seedsseeds roastedroasted oror boiledboiled beforebefore storagestorage toto killkill anyany insectsinsects presentpresent andand toto harden the shellshell againstagainst furtherfurther insectinsect attackattack (Baumer,(Baumer, 1983;1983; WickensWickens andand Storey,Storey, 1984;1984; Booth and Wickens, 1988; FAO, 1988).1988).

Production andand consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

Can be the solesole sustenancesustenance in times of dearth. TheThe delicious,delicious, chestnutchestnut flavouredflavoured seedsseeds maymay be eaten raw, roastedroasted oror boiledboiled asas aa vegetable;vegetable; seedsseeds maymay alsoalso bebe boiledboiled for aa sweetsweet liquorliquor (Menninger, 1977;1977; WickensWickens and Storey, 1984;1984; FAO, 1988).1988).

Nutritional valuevalue

Seeds nutritious, withwith ca.ca. 13%13% protein, 37% carbohydrates, ca.ca. 11%11 % fat, ca. 24%24% sugars;sugars; protein rich inin lysine;lysine; fatfat aa mixturemixture ofof thethe saturatedsaturated acids: 26-32%26-32 % palmitic, ca. 12%12 % stearicstearic and thethe unsaturatedunsaturated acidsacids ca.ca. 32%32 % oleic oleic andand 25-30%25-30% linoleic.linoleic. AA trypsin trypsin inhibitor inhibitor isis presentpresent which is inactivatedinactivated onon cooking. TheThe energyenergy value,value, 446446 KcalKcal per kg,kg, isis twicetwice thatthat ofof the the carob, CeratoniaCeratonia siliqua,siliqua, andand asas muchmuch asas thatthat ofof soya, soya, GlycineGlycine maxmax (National(National Academy of Sciences, 1979; Baumer, 1983;1983; WickensWickens and Storey, 1984;1984; Booth and Wickens,Wickens, 1988; FAO, 1988).

By-products and other usesuses

A tea isis brewedbrewed fromfrom thethe leaves.leaves. Browsed byby sheep, goats and camels; when eaten as thethe sole diet it isis reputedreputed toto causecause intestinalintestinal disorders in goats. TheThe bonesbones ofof browsing browsing animalsanimals become pink causedcaused byby cordeauxiaquinone,cordeauxiaquinone, a brilliant red dyedye whichwhich isis unknownunknown elsewhere in the plant kingdom. CordeauxiaquinoneCordeauxiaquinone producesproduces fast,fast, insolubleinsoluble dyesdyes withwith somesome metals and is used asas aa mordantmordant inin dyeingdyeing factories.factories. The wood is usedused forfor firewoodfirewood ((Wickens«Wickens andand Storey, 1984;1984; BoothBooth and Wickens,Wickens, 1988;1988; FAO, 1988).1988).

Marketing

Marketed locally with productionproduction lessless thanthan demand.demand. The yicibyicib hashas thethe potentialpotential forfor development asas a food resourceresource for thethe semi-aridsemi-arid regions and a veryvery highhigh potentialpotential as aa dessert crop (Booth(Booth andand Wickens,Wickens, 1988).1988).

Discussion

The agronomy isis littlelittle understood.understood. There is an urgent need for a surveysurvey ofof thethe geneticgenetic potential and establishment ofof gene bank and provenanceprovenance trials of thisthis potentiallypotentially veryvery desirable food species. TheThe long long termterm effect effect ofof cordeauxiaquinone cordeauxiaquinone on human teeth and bones requires investigationinvestigation (Booth and Wickens, 1988).1988).

TARA: LemuropisumLemuropisum edule,edule, Leguminosae subfamilysubfamily CaesalpinioideaeCaesalpinioideae

Distribution andand ecology ecology

Native to southsouth westwest Madagascar;Madagascar; thethe preciseprecise distributiondistribution is notnot knownknown due toto difficultydifficulty ofof access but apparentlyapparently confined to two disjunctdisjunct populations somesome 6060 kmkm apart,apart, fromfrom nearnear Itampolo and aroundaround LakeLake Tsimanampetsotsa.Tsimanampetsotsa. It appearsappears to bebe confinedconfined toto thethe exposedexposed

73 seaward facing rockyrocky limestonelimestone escarpmentescarpment andand the sandysandy soils immediately belowbelow,, growing atat altitudesaltitudes betweenbetween 15-10015-100 m.m.

The locallocal rainfallrainfall isis bimodal,bimodal, veryvery erratic,erratic, withwith anan annualannual averageaverage lessless thanthan 400400 m;m; thethe averageaverage temperaturestemperatures ofof 27.4°C27.4 . C inin summersummer andand 19.9°C19.9· C inin winter.winter. TheThe species species isis currently currently underunder investigationinvestigation as aa potentialpotential nutnut cropcrop inin WesternWestern AustraliaAustralia (Willing,1989).(Willing, 1989).

Description

Unarmed,Unarmed, multistemmed,multistemmed, much branched, spreading shrub up to 4-64-6 mm tall,tall , crowncrown dense,dense , branchletsbranchlets sometimes spine-likespine-like.. LeavesLeaves sparse,sparse, semi-persistent,semi-persistent, paripinnate, with 1-41-4 pairs of ovaloval toto suborbicularsuborbicular leaflets,leaflets, 3.5-63.5-6 mmmm wide.wide . Inflorescence a raceme; flowersflowers bisexual, bisexual , withwith 4 whitewhite petals and 1 tinged yellowyellow.. FruitFruit pendent,pendent, subcylindric,subcylindric, depressed betweenbetween the sseeds,eeds, 20-3020-30 cm long,long, 22 cmcm wide, wide, 2-valved, 2-valved, valves valves membraneous, membraneous, dehiscent;dehiscent; seedsseeds 6-12,6-12, ovoid-reniform,ovoid-reniform, 2.52.5 cmcm long,long, 1.61.6 cm cm across, across, testatesta thinthin and and brittlebrittle (Willing,1989).(Willing, 1989).

Cultivation

Not cultivated in Madagascar.Madagascar. SeedsSeeds require require storagestorage underunder conditions conditions ofof lowlow temperaturetemperature andand low relative humidity.humidity. In Australia seed sown in 20 cm long tubes; germination rapid after ssoakingoaking for 10 hours. AerialAerial growth growth characteristically characteristically zigzagzigzag withwith rapidrapid developmentdevelopment ofof sideside branchesbranches requiringrequiring plantsplants toto bebe wellwell spacedspaced inin nurserynursery toto preventprevent entanglement;entanglement; rootroot growthgrowth rrapid.apid. Plant at 44 m m x x 44 m m spacingspacing afterafter 33 months.months. AlkalineAlkaline soils soils preferred.preferred. After 11 year,year, two growth forms areare noted,noted, aa spreadingspreading openopen bushbush or thethe lessless commoncommon compact,compact, somewhatsomewhat fastigiate bush (Willing,(Willing, 1989).1989).

Harvesting

Nuts (seeds) are harvestedharvested fromfrom thethe groundground followingfollowing dehiscencedehiscence (Willing,1989).(Willing, 1989) .

Post-harvest treatments

None required (Willing,(Willing, 1989).1989).

Production andand consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

Nuts (seeds)(seeds) eaten raw, discardingdiscarding thethe brittlebrittle testa,testa, thethe cotyledonscotyledons agreeablyagreeably sweet with a cashew-like flavour, smoothsmooth consistencyconsistency and a flexible, ratherrather plasticplastic texture. ApparentlyApparently notnot used in cookingcooking;; when eateneaten greengreen the flavour reminiscent ofof fresh gardengarden peaspeas (Willing(Willing,1989)., 1989).

Nutritional valuevalue

The nuts contain 38-4338-43% % available carbohydrates,carbohydrates, 26-32%26-32 % unavailable carbohydratescarbohydrates,, 14-16%14-16 % protein and 6-96-9%% fat,fat, comparingcomparing favourably withwith thosethose of of CordeauxiaCordeauxia edulis. edulis. However,However, the ingestion of 100 g kernels, ca.ca. 8484 rawraw seeds, seeds, maymay inhibit inhibit human human productionproduction ofof chymotrypsin chymotrypsin andand cause digestivedigestive upsets, althoughalthough this could possibly be reduced by cooking or roastingroasting the seedsseeds (Willing,(Willing, 1989).1989).

74 By-products and other usesuses

Browsed by goats when little else toto eat,eat, theythey alsoalso eateat thethe seeds.seeds . Possible potential for windbreaks andand hedgeshedges (Willing,1989).(Willing,1989).

Marketing

Apparently not soldsold inin thethe locallocal marketsmarkets (Willing,1989).(Willing,1989).

Discussion

Survey of extent of naturalnatural populationspopulations and genetic variability, and applying measures for its in situsitu andand exex situsitu conservation conservation isis requiredrequired asas wellwell asas investigation investigation ofof its its autecology. autecology. Establish provenance trials; selectselect high-yielding,high-yielding, toxin-free treestrees and evaluate the two lifelife forms; investigateinvestigate potentialpotential forfor micropropagationmicropropagation andand agronomicagronomic requirements;requirements; investigateinvestigate possible potential for Mediterranean regions in addition to the arid tropics (Willing,1989).(Willing, 1989).

GALO OR PROMISING NUf: NUT: Anaco[osajrutescens, Anacolosa frutescens, Olacaceae

Distribution andand ecologyecology

Myanmar, ,AndamanAndaman andand Nicobar Islands, eastern Thailand, PeninsularPeninsular Malaysia,Malaysia, Sumatra,Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan,Kalimantan, north-easternnorth-eastern Sulawesi,Sulawesi, MoluccasMoluccas andand thethe Philippines.Philippines. Found in low toto medium altitude forests, occurrence rare (Sleumer, 1984; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).

Description

Erect shrub or treetree toto 25(-30)25(-30) m.m. LeavesLeaves elliptic elliptic to to elliptic-oblong elliptic-oblong oror lanceolate,lanceolate, (6.6-)7- 15(-22) cm x (3-)4-6.5(-12) cm.cm. InflorescenceInflorescence in leafaxils.leaf axils. FruitFruit aa drupe,drupe, obovoid-ellipsoidobovoid-ellipsoid to oblongoid, 1.5-2.51.5-2.5 cmcm long,long, 1.2-21.2-2 cmcm inin diameter,diameter, yellowyellow or orange,orange, thinthin shelled;shelled; pulppulp 3.5-5.9 mm thick;thick; seedseed 11 (Howes,(Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, 1977;1977; Sleumer,Sleumer, 1984;1984; VerheijVerheij andand Coronel, 1991).1991).

Cultivation

Not even grown experimentally asas anan orchardorchard crop.crop. PropagatedPropagated byby seed,seed, germinationgermination takestakes more than 100 days. CleftCleft grafting grafting ofof selected selected parentparent treestrees highlyhighly successful. SeedlingsSeedlings taketake one year toto reachreach graftinggrafting stagestage (Howes,(Howes, 1948;1948; VerheijVerheij andand Coronel,Coronel, 1991).1991).

Harvesting

Generally harvested when mature green (Verheij(Verheij and Coronel, 1991).1991).

Post-harvest treatments

No information.information.

Production andand consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

Nut resembling a filbert, kernel of good flavour and quality,quality, eateneaten rawraw oror roasted.roasted. PulpPulp eaten raw or boiledboiled (Howes,(Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, 1977;1977; VerheijVerheij andand Coronel,Coronel, 1991).1991).

75 Nutritional valuevalue

Highly nutritious, containing 10-38.5%10-38.5% water,water, 2.9-3%2.9-3% ash,ash, 10.7-11.110.7-11.1% % protein,protein, 7.5-8%7.5-8% fat, 3939.5-75.5%.5-75.5% carbohydrates,carbohydrates, 3.7%3.7% fibre,fibre, providingproviding 22 733733 caloriescalories perper kilokilo (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).1991). .

By-products and other usesuses

Timber heavy but notnot durable,durable, usedused forfor househouse postsposts (Sleumer,(Sleumer, 1984;1984; VerheijVerheij and Coronel,Coronel, 1991).1991).

Marketing

Not known,known, presumablypresumably marketedmarketed locally.locally. Found locally inin backyards and forests as volunteer trees (Verheij(Verheij andand Coronel,Coronel, 1991).1991).

Discussion

Species considered to have a potential for domestication (Mabberley, 1987). Its potential for commercial cultivation is only now beingbeing considered.considered. ThereThere isis nono informationinformation regarding itsits cultural requirementsrequirements oror yields.yields. Trees appear to be highlyhighly variablevariable butbut somesome highhigh yieldingyielding trees havehave beenbeen noted.(Verheijnoted.(Verheij andand Coronel,Coronel, 1991).1991).

AVELLANO, CHILEANCHILEAN NUT, NUT, CHILEAN CHILEAN HAZEL: HAZEL: Gevuina Gevuina avellana, avellana, ProteaceaeProteaceae

Distribution andand ecologyecology

Chile, growinggrowing inin thethe sheltershelter ofof tallertaller treestrees fromfrom thethe snowlinesnowline of thethe PacificPacific slopesslopes of thethe Andes to thethe coast;coast; introducedintroduced intointo Ireland,Ireland, southwestsouthwest England and California in areas withwith mild, moistmoist climates.climates. DueDue to to the the weight weight of of foliage foliage it it requires requires protectionprotection fromfrom strongstrong windswinds (Rosengarten, 1984; Benoit, 1989).1989).

Description

An evergreen tree upup toto moremore thanthan 1515 m. LeavesLeaves pinnate, pinnate, leaflets leaflets ovaloval withwith toothedtoothed margins.margins. Inflorescence racemose; flowers snow- to ivory-white, appearing fromfrom FebruaryFebruary toto May in the latelate ChileanChilean summersummer andand earlyearly autumn.autumn. Fruit a drupe,drupe, coral-red,coral-red, thethe previousprevious year'syear's fruits ripening atat floweringflowering time;time; seedsseeds 1,1, globular,globular, withwith smooth,smooth, toughtough shellshell (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977; Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Cultivation

Difficult toto establishestablish due to thethe weakweak rootroot systemsystem makingmaking itit extremelyextremely sensitivesensitive toto transplantingtransplanting outsideoutside itsits nativenative habitathahitat (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Harvesting

Mainly from thethe wild.wild. Yield caca.. 4.54.5 kgkg perper treetree (Rosengarten,(Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

76 Post-harvest treatments

No information.infonnation.

Production and consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

Kernel similar toto hazelhazel inin appearanceappearance andand flavour, eaten freshfresh oror roastedroasted (Howes,(Howes, 1948; Mabberly, 1987).1987).

Nutritional valuevalue

No information.infonnation.

By-products and otherother usesuses

Timber pale brown, light,light, strongstrong andand easilyeasily worked, used locallylocally forfor picturepicture frames,frames, furniture, oars and shingles. TreeTree growngrown asas an ornamental (Rosengarten, 19841984;; Mabberly, 1987).1987).

Marketing

Marketed locally,locally, soldsold roasted,roasted, inin bagsbags likelike peanuts. Virtually unknownunknown elsewhereelsewhere Figure 27 (Rosengarten, 1984).1984). Gevuina avellana.avellana. 1:1: branchbranch withwith leaves andand inflorescence inflorescence.. 2:2: fruitfruit.. 3: cross section of fruit. Discussion

An interesting tree withwith aa widewide altitudinalaltitudinal range from which it should be possible to select high yielding potential cultivars.cultivars. BothBoth pulp and kernel are edible with onlyonly thethe thinthin shellshell ofof no immediateimmediate use.use. Verheij and CoronelCoronel (1991)(1991) considerconsider the speciesspecies riperipe forfor commercialcommercial development.

QUANDONG OR OR NATIVE NATIVE PEACH: PEACH: Santaium Santalum acuminata, acuminata, Santalaceae

Distribution andand ecology ecology

Disjointed distribution throughoutthroughout southwestsouthwest and and extendingextending into into desertdesert areasareas of centralcentral Australia; salt tolerant,tolerant, growsgrows inin areasareas withwith anan annualannual rainfallrainfall ofof 125-275125-275 mmmm (Brand(Brand andand Cherikoff, 1985; Rivett et ai.al.,, 1989).1989).

Description

Semi root parasite shrub or smallsmall tree up toto 1010 mm tall.tall. Leaves opposite,opposite, grey-green,grey-green, endsends tapering, apex shortly hooked whenwhen young.young. Fruit:Fruit: outerouter fleshflesh red, pulpy, enveloping a largelarge,, wrinkled stone (Rivett, et al., 1989).1989).

77 Cultivation

Seeds germinategerminate within 2 months ofof removalremoval fromfrom ripe fruit.fruit. PotentialPotential forfor grafting and tissuetissue culture as alternative means ofof propagation.propagation. Trees begin toto bear in theirtheir thirdthird year withwith aa maximummaximum productionproduction in seventhseventh yearyear ofof 10 kg; yields upup to 23 kg per tree are known. KernelKernel representsrepresents 40%40 % of thethe total fruit weightweight (Rivett(Rivett et al.al., , 1989)1989)..

Harvesting

Fruits rattle when ripe.ripe. NoNo informationinformation asas to whether picked from the tree or collected when fallen (Brand and Cherikoff, 1985).1985).

Post-harvest treatments

Figure 28 Unpleasant volatile methyl benzoate Santa/umSantalum acuminata.acuminata. 1: branch with leaves and fruits.fruits. 2:2 : branchlet contained in kernelskernels willwill decreasedecrease duringduring with flowers. 3:3 : fruit.fruit. 4:4: openopen fruitfruit showingshowing thethe seed.seed . storage; loss can bebe furtherfurther reducedreduced byby placing kernels in aa vacuumvacuum ovenoven (Rivett(Rivett et al.,ai., 1989).1989).

Production and consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

Fruit pulp maymay bebe eateneaten freshfresh butbut usuallyusually cooked,cooked, mademade intointo pies,pies, jamsjams andand chutneys;chutneys; kernelskernels eaten mainly by Aborigines. KernelsKernels eateneaten eithereither rawraw andand saltedsalted afterafter roastingroasting inin coconutcoconut oiloil not considered very palatable due to the somewhat unpleasant aromaaroma fromfrom thethe volatile methylmethyl benzoate. (Rivett et ai.,al., 1989).1989).

Nutritional value

Kernels have an energyenergy'value 'value ofof 33 000000 kJId andand containcontain ca.ca. 67%67% oil,oil, ca. 15%15% protein,protein, fibre,fibre, free sugars,sugars, togethertogether withwith adequateadequate quantitiesquantities of essentialessential aminoamino acidsacids butbut somesome samplessamples deficient in sulphur amino acids. HighHigh levelslevels ofof santalbic santalbic acids,acids, plusplus doubtsdoubts about the safetysafety of the acetyleneacetylene fattyfatty acidsacids present,present, suggestsuggest thatthat considerableconsiderable caution needs to bebe exercisedexercised before the quandongquandong kernelskernels cancan bebe safelysafely recommendedrecommended forfor humanhuman consumptionconsumption (Brand(Brand andand Cherikoff, 1985; Rivett et al., 1989).1989).

By-products and other usesuses

Timber utilized by Aborigines; used for fuel (Maconochie, 1985; Lazarides and Hince, 1993).1993).

Marketing

Not marketedmarketed andand productproduct currentlycurrently unsuitableunsuitable forfor marketingmarketing without further selectionselection for edible kernels.kernels.

78 Discussion

Very few indigenousindigenous AustralianAustralian food plantsplants havehave beenbeen consideredconsidered forfor cultivation.cultivation. It isis currently being investigated byby CSIRO with aa view to commercial cultivation.cultivation. ConsideringConsidering that the kernelkernel accountsaccounts for 40% ofof thethe fruitfruit andand thatthat therethere areare problemsproblems regardingregarding itsits palatability and digestibilitydigestibility it is doubtfuldoubtful whether thethe quandongquandong hashas a potentialpotential forfor domestication unless improved strains cancan bebe selectedselected oror developed.developed. Should suitable cultivarscultivars be developed there would certainly be a potentialpotential for introductionintroduction to other arid regions.regions.

ARGAN: Argania Argania spinosa,spinosa, Sapotaceae

Distribution andand ecologyecology

Southwestern Morocco,Morocco, introduced inin other MediterraneanMediterranean countries; locally dominant in almost pure standsstands inin areasareas receivingreceiving 100-300(-400100-300(-400 max)max) mmmm annualannual precipitationprecipitation andand growing on a widewide rangerange ofof soils,soils, includingincluding slightlyslightly saline but not drifting sands and water-water­ logged soils;soils; thethe altitude rangerange isis fromfrom seasea levellevel toto 11 500500 m.m. DroughtDrought resistant,resistant, sheddingshedding foliage and remaining in a statestate ofof dormancydormancy forfor severalseveral yearsyears duringduring prolongedprolonged droughtdrought (Baumer, 1983; Morton andand Voss,Voss, 1987;1987; Bouachrine,Bouachrine, 1994).1994).

Description

Spiny, normallynormally evergreenevergreen tree, 4-8(-10)4-8(-10) tall,tall, occasionally attainingattaining 2121 mm with main trunk 1 m in diameter. Leaves clustered, lanceolate. Inflorescence axillary; flowers greenish, bisexual. Fruit anan ovoidovoid drupe,drupe, greenish-yellow;greenish-yellow; epicarpepicarp thick, bitter,bitter, gummy;gummy; mesocarpmesocarp plusplus endocarpendocarp fleshy, containingcontaining an unpleasantunpleasant (for(for humans)humans) milky latex;latex; seeds 2-3,2-3, ca. 22 cmcm long,long, unitedunited in a pseudo-kernel (Baumer, 1983;1983; MortonMorton andand Voss,Voss, 1987; Bouachrine, 1994).1994).

Cultivation

Seed polyembryonic,polyembryonic, germinatinggerminating readilyreadily andand producing several shoots. TreesTrees startstart toto bear when 5-6 yearsyears oldold withwith maximummaximum productionproduction at 6060 years. TreesTrees long-lived, long-lived, to to at at least least 200-250 200-250 yearsyears with some individualsindividuals believed toto be overover 400400 years old. Trees coppice readily whenwhen cutcut (Baumer, 1983; Morton and Voss, 1987; Bouachrine, 1994).1994).

Harvestingqarvesting

Fallen ripe fruits dehydratedehydrate andand pericarppericarp becomesbecomes Figure 29 Argania spinosaspinosa.. 1: 1: fruitingfruiting branchbranch.. 22:: fruitfruit.. tough, wrinkledwrinkled andand difficultdifficult toto remove.remove. Fallen fruits are eaten byby goats,goats, whowho digestdigest thethe subacidsubacid rind and eject the hard seeds during rumination,rumination, whenwhen theythey are are gathered gathered up. up. Average yield of fruit isis ca.ca. 88 kg kg perper annum annum (Hedrick, (Hedrick, 1972;1972; Baumer,Baumer, 1983;1983; MortonMorton andand Voss,Voss, 1987).1987).

79 Post-harvest treatments

None recorded.recorded.

Production andand consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

Kernels are sourcesource ofof anan edibleedible arganargan oil.oil. AfterAfter firstfirst roastingroasting toto eliminateeliminate saponins,saponins, thethe seedsseeds are ground and mixed with tepid water. TheThe oiloil floatsfloats andand isis separatedseparated by decantationdecantation.. TheThe resulting brownish, acridacrid andand unpleasantunpleasant tastingtasting oiloil isis allowedallowed to standstand forfor anyany residuesresidues toto bebe deposited.deposited. The oil isis thenthen lighterlighter inin colour,colour, strongstrong flavoured.flavoured. It may bebe furtherfurther purifiedpurified either by emulsionemulsion with water or byby addingadding bread to produce an oil as sweet as walnutwalnut oil. Approximately 100 kg of seed yield 1-2 kg of oil and 2 kg of press cake plus 25 kg of dried "husk" (Baumer, 1983;1983; MortonMorton andand Voss,Voss, 1987).1987).

Nutritional valuevalue

Argan oil containscontains ca.ca. 80%80% poly-unsaturatedpoly-unsaturated fattyfatty acids of which 31.5% isis linoleic,linoleic, makingmaking it nutritionally interestinginteresting asas itit isis oneone ofof the the mostmost importantimportant essentialessential fattyfatty acidsacids inin thethe humanhuman diet (Morton(Morton andand Voss,Voss, 1987;1987; Bouachrine,Bouachrine, 1994).1994).

By-products and otherother usesuses

Argan oil is used as an illuminant andand forfor makingmaking aa hard,hard, yellowishyellowish soapsoap.. The sun dried cake residue after the oiloil hashas beenbeen expressedexpressed may be fed toto livestocklivestock but it isis notnot acceptedaccepted byby horses; itit containscontains thethe slightlyslightly toxic,toxic, haemolytichaemolytic saponinsaponin sapoarganinesapoarganine whichwhich does notnot harmharm ruminants and passes outout withwith thethe urine.urine. However,However, cakecake fedfed toto dairydairy cattlecattle willwill contaminate the milk,milk, whichwhich maymay causecause diarrhoeadiarrhoea inin children.children. Foliage is a valuablevaluable dry seasonseason fodderfodder source for livestock;livestock; fruitfruit alsoalso eateneaten byby livestock.livestock. Timber very hard, heavyheavy andand durable,durable, suitable for agriculturalagricultural implementsimplements and buildingbuilding poles; thethe woodwood makesmakes goodgood charcoal.charcoal. Brushwood usedused forfor fencesfences.. TheThe speciesspecies coppicescoppices well;well; aa valuablevaluable shade tree, alsoalso usedused forfor soil conservation and windbreaks (Hedrick, 1972; G6hl,Göhl, 1981;1981; Baumer, 1983;1983; MortonMorton andand Voss, 1987;1987; Bouachrine,Bouachrine, 1994).1994).

Marketing

Argan oil waswas importedimported intointo EuropeEurope duringduring thethe eighteentheighteenth centurycentury but,but, beingbeing strongerstronger flavoured was unable toto competecompete with olive oil (Morton(Morton and Voss, 1987).1987).

Discussion

Tree endangered due to exploitationexploitation for fuel and land clearance for agriculture,agriculture, withwith naturalnatural regeneration limited due to herbivore pressure (Morton and Voss, 1987).1987).

SHEA BUITERBU'FTER TREE: TREE: Vitellaria Vitellaria paradoxa, paradoxa, Sapotaceae

Distribution andand ecologyecology

From SenegalSenegal to CameroonCameroon through toto the drierdrier partsparts ofof equatorialequatorial centralcentral AfricaAfrica andand Uganda; in savannas,savannas, preferablypreferably withwith aa shallowshallow waterwater table,table, generallygenerally betweenbetween 500-1500-1 000000 (-1 200)200) mm altitude.altitude. GrowsGrows in in areas areas with with an an annual annual rainfallrainfall 600-1600-1 000000 mmmm and a marked dry season of 6-8 months or 900-1 800 mm and a shorter dry season of 4-5 months but subjected

80 to annual burning. AnAn annual annual averageaverage temperaturetemperature ofof 24-32°C,24-32 ·C, withwith aa minimumminimum ofof21·C 21°C andand a maximum of 36°C36· C preferred.preferred. Yields best on cultivated lands but occurs naturally on drydry lateritic slopes and stony soils, itit prefersprefers drydry alluvial-sandyalluvial-sandy soils rich in humus; intolerant of alluvial hollows and areas subjectedsubjected to flooding (Booth andand Wickens,Wickens, 1988; FAO, 1988).1988).

Description

Deciduous, spreading tree 15(-25)15(-25) mm tall, trunk up toto 22 mm inin diameter,diameter, barkbark corky, firefire resistant.resistant. Leaves oblong,oblong, clustered at the endend ofof branches. branches. Flowers bisexual, producedproduced inin thethe drydry season beforebefore the leaves. Fruits subglobose to ovoid, 4-5 cmcm inin diameter, with fleshyfleshy pericarppericarp ca.ca. 1 mm thick, exudingexuding latexlatex whenwhen greengreen and turning brownbrown whenwhen ripe;ripe; seedsseeds 11(2-4),(2 - 4), shinyshiny brownbrown withwith fragile husk; kernel white (Menninger, 1977;1977; BoothBooth and Wickens, 1988;1988; FAO,FAO, 1988).1988).

Cultivation

Natural populations are often left when land isis clearedcleared forfor cultivationcultivation and relatively littlelittle attentionattention has beenbeen paid to its cultivation. PropagationPropagation by direct sowing of seed recommended as nursery seedlingsseedlings do notnot transplanttransplant well due to thethe developmentdevelopment of aa longlong tap root. Seedlings initially slowslow '-: ! "'f growing due to developmentdevelopment of rootroot ;" "1 system. RecommendedRecommended spacingspacing 22 mm xx 9(i, "· 8 m to 1515 m x 1515 m or in an 88m m Figure 30 triangular pattern withwith finalfinal stockingstocking VitellariaVitel/aria paradoxa,paradoxa. 1:1: leafyleafy shoot.shoot. 22:: inflorescenceinflorescence.. 33:: section of corolla.corolla . 4: sectionsection ofof corollacorolla withwith stamens stamens andand staminodesstaminodes removed.removed. 5:5 : corollacorolla thinnedthirmed to 30-50 trees per ha.ha. segment and stamenstamen.. 66:: staminodestaminode fromfrom anotheranother flower.flower, showing variation Fertilizers possiblypossibly beneficial.beneficial. Yield in shapeshape.. 77:: ovary. 88:: longitudinallongitudinal sectionsection ofof ovaryovary.. 99:: seeds. 1010:: frufruit.it. variable, 15-20(-45) kgkg perper tree ofof fresh fruit.fruit. Annual yields in aa rangerange ofof 9-17 9-17 tonnestonnes perper ha' ha optimistically optimistically predicted.predicted. In Nigeria only one tree in three produces eacheach year.year. TreesTrees startstart toto fruitfruit atat 10-1510-15 years,years, withwith full bearing by 20-25 years with individual yieldsyields rangingranging from from 20-200 20-200 kg kg.. The fruit takes 4-6 months to ripenripen (Booth(Booth and Wickens, 1988; FAO, 1982,1982, 1988).1988).

Harvesting

Harvest from the ground as soonsoon as fruitsfruits fall.fall. One person cancan gathergather caca.. 45 kg in aa day.day. The fleshy pulp rots andand splitssplits to expose the nut, the process can be hastened by burying the freshly gathered fruitfruit forfor a few days in a pit.pit. As harvesting takes placeplace during the rainyrainy season, a periodperiod whichwhich favoursfavours earlyearly germination,germination, the nuts (in the shell) are oftenoften storedstored inin huts until the dry seasonseason or whenwhen required.required. TheThe amountamount harvestedharvested eacheach yearyear appearsappears toto bebe dependent on the price ofof sheashea butterbutter (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977; BoothBooth andand Wickens,Wickens, 1988).1988).

81 Shea butter tree, VitellariaVitellaria paradoxa. (Photo:(Photo: G.G. Blaak)Blaak)

Flowers of VitellariaVitellaria paradoxaparadoxa.. (Photo:(Photo: G.G. Blaak)Blaak)

82 Post-harvestPost-hanest treatments

Depulped nuts sun-driedsun-dried for ca. 1212 daysdays oror drieddried inin anan earthearth oven;oven; thethe dryingdrying processprocess resultsresults in 30-40%30-40 % lossloss ofof weight.weight. Alternatively thethe fruitsfruits areare fermented byby beingbeing keptkept moistmoist for weeks or monthsmonths inin largelarge earthenwareearthenware jars,jars, after which the nuts are roasted.roasted . The skinskin isis removed to expose kernel. DecorticatedDecorticated kernelkernel containscontains 40-60%40-60 % by weightweight of thethe kernel oilcil known as shea butterbutter (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977; FAO,FAO, 1988).1988).

Production andand consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

Shea butter usuallyusually extractedextracted byby women,women, whowho poundpound thethe usuallyusually roastedroasted kernelskernels andand thenthen grind them toto anan oily,oily , chocolate-colouredchocolate-coloured paste.paste . TheThe pastepaste containscontains tannins and is notnot edibleedible until it has beenbeen boiledboiled andand thethe oiloil skimmedskimmed off, thethe bulkbulk ofof thethe impuritiesimpurities beingbeing removedremoved inin the scum.scum. AboutAbout 5050 kgkg ofof freshfresh nutsnuts willwill givegive 1212 kgkg ofof drydry kernels,kernels, requiredrequired toto yieldyield 44 kgkg of sheashea butter.butter.

Shea butter prepared fromfrom unroastedunroasted kernelskernels isis lightlight yellowyellow oror sometimessometimes tintedtinted withwith aa yellowyellow dye, withwith aa strongstrong odour,odour, especially especially whenwhen warmed.warmed. ProperlyProperly preparedprepared sheashea butterbutter keepskeeps perfectly unless adulterated with waterwater oror yamyam flour.flour. TheThe deeperdeeper thethe colourcolour thethe strongerstronger thethe odour and tastetaste resultingresulting fromfrom decompositiondecomposition of proteins which occur in proportion to thethe degree of fermentationfermentation of the nuts and to over-roasting. ButterButter preparedprepared fromfrom nutsnuts subjectedsubjected to littlelittle fermentation,fermentation, asas whenwhen nutsnuts areare lightlylightly sun-driedsun-dried withoutwithout previousprevious maceration of thethe pulp, isis almostalmost tastelesstasteless andand odourless.odourless.

Purified sheashea butterbutter isis edible,edible, usedused inin cooking,cooking, alsoalso suitablesuitable asas cocoacocoa butterbutter equivalentequivalent (CBE)(CBE) for chocolatechocolate manufacturemanufacture (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977; FAO,FAO, 1988)).1988» .

Fruit pulppulp isis eateneaten raw,raw , whenwhen slightlyslightly overripe,overripe, oror lightlylightly cookedcooked after removal of seed and husk (FAO,(FAO, 1988).1988) .

Nutritional valuevalue

Whole seed, includingincluding husk,husk, containscontains 34-44%34-44% fat,fat, thethe kernelkernel 45-60%45-60% fat.fat. The mainmain fattyfatty acids present inin sheashea butterbutter areare 5-9%5-9% palmitic,palmitic, 30-41%30-41 % stearic,stearic, 49-50%49-50% oleicoleic andand 4-5%4-5 % linoleic. TheThe fruitfruit pulppulp isis richrich inin carbohydrates,carbohydrates, isis aa goodgood sourcesource of iron,iron, andand containscontains small amounts of B vitaminsvitamins (FAO, 1988).1988).

By-products and other usesuses

Fruit pulppulp sometimessometimes eaten,eaten, butbut usuallyusually eateneaten byby elephants,elephants, etc. Shea butter usedused commercially inin soap,soap, cosmeticscosmetics andand candlescandles withwith aa potentialpotential forfor pharmaceuticalpharmaceutical preparations.preparations. Used locally in ointments, hair dressing, waterproofingwaterproofing huthut walls andand as a soap.soap. Oil cakecake residue is bitter and contains saponins butbut cancan bebe usedused asas aa fillerfiller forfor feedfeed stuffs.stuffs. SeedSeed huskhusk used as mulch andand fertiliser.fertiliser. Timber heavy, difficult to work, takestakes a finefine polish,polish, termitetermite resistant, usedused for stakes,stakes, househouse posts, shipbuildingshipbuilding andand tooltool handles,handles, alsoalso asas source of firewood and charcoal (Menninger, 1977; FAO, 1982;1982; BoothBooth andand Wickens,Wickens, 1988;1988; FAO,FAO, 1988)1988)..

83 Marketing

Shea butter isis usedused mainlymainly forfor homehome consumptionconsumption especially in rural communitiescommunities and isis soldsold inin thethe local marketsmarkets asas ballsballs oror patspats weighingweighing ca. ca. 2.3-3.72.3-3.7 (-10)(-10) kg. kg. InIn urbanurban areas there isis increasingincreasing competition from alternative imported oils such as sesamesesame andand groundnutgroundnut oils. oils. For export shea butter requires clarifying byby steamsteam toto removeremove volatilevolatile acids acids and and some some of thethe odorous matter. LightlyLightly sun-dried sun-dried nuts nuts without without previous previous macerationmaceration ofof the the pulppulp are preferred for export. AnyAny variation variation in in free free fatty fatty acidsacids inin thethe fatfat isis mostlymostly duedue toto faultyfaulty handlinghandling afterafter leaving the producer (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977; BoothBooth and Wickens, 1988).1988).

Discussion

Research is requiredrequired onon methodsmethods ofof establishment establishment andand generalgeneral agronomy,agronomy, especiallyespecially with with regard toto plantations.plantations. Due to changingchanging agricultural practicespractices there there isis aa danger that withwith increasing cultivatiop.cultivation and lacklack of protection thethe naturalnatural regenerationregeneration willwill bebe inhibited.inhibited. WithWith present aging populations of trees there isis aa dangerdanger ofof aa futurefuture reductionreduction ofof this this resource.resource. There isis aa needneed toto encourage encourage protection protection andand toto establish establish plantations. plantations. Plantations couldcould encourage more efficient,efficient, fuel-savingfuel-saving methodsmethods ofof extraction.extraction. ItIt couldcould leadlead to the establishment of large-scale oiloil millsmills inin Africa,Africa, providedprovided thethe currentcurrent unpredictabilityunpredictability ofof annualannual yieldsyields couldcould be overcomeovercome (Booth(Booth and Wickens,Wickens, 1988).1988).

BiBITTER 1ER COLA,COLA, KOLAKOLA NUT:NUT: Cola Cola nitida,nitida, Sterculiaceae

Distribution andand ecologyecology

Native of Sierra Leone,Leone, CôteCote d'Ivoired'Ivoire eastwardeastward toto Ghana,Ghana, oftenoften cultivatedcultivated elsewhere in West Africa andand obscuringobscuring thethe naturalnatural distribution.distribution. Constituent of the lowlandlowland forest.forest. Requires a hot,hot, humidhumid climateclimate althoughalthough capablecapable ofof withstandingwithstanding 3 oror moremore monthsmonths ofof drydry season.season. It may be cultivated in drier areas where ground water is available. IntroducedIntroduced inin Jamaica and Brazil (FAO, 1982;1982; Purseglove,Purseglove, 1987).1987).

Description

Evergreen tree toto 15-20(-25)15-20( -25) m tall,tall, trunktrunk 20-3020-30 cmcm inin diameterdiameter withwith narrownarrow buttresses.buttresses. Leaves simple, broadly oblong to broadly elliptic, up to 3333 cm xx 1313 cm,cm, apexapex abruptlyabruptly andand shortly acuminate.acuminate. Inflorescence ofof axillary cymes;cymes; flowersflowers malemale oror hermaphrodite, hermaphrodite, apetalous, cream, usuallyusually withwith darkdark reddishreddish markings within. FruitFruit consisting consisting ofof 5 5 ellipsoid,ellipsoid, warty follicles, up toto ca.ca. 1313 cm cm long, long, 7 7cm cm wide, wide, each each follicle follicle containing containing 4-8-(10) 4-8-(10) seedsseeds arranged in 2 rows;rows; seedsseeds ellipsoid,ellipsoid, ca. 2.52.5 cmcm inin diameter,diameter, redred oror whitewhite dependingdepending on the variety (Keay, 1958;1958; FAO,FAO, 1982).1982).

Cultivation

Propagated byby seedseed (germination(germination isis slow, taking 2-3 months) or,or, preferably byby cuttings.cuttings. FinalFinal spacing is 1010 m.m. Initial growth slow, reaching onlyonly 33 m in 44 years.years. InitialInitial weedingweeding isis essential andand interplantinginterplanting withwith aa shadeshade treetree recommendedrecommended (FAO,(FAG, 1982).1982).

Harvesting

Ripe fruitsfruits harvestedharvested beforebefore thethe folliclesfollicles splitsplit open,open, usingusing knivesknives mountedmounted onon longlong poles.poles. Yields of 300300 nutsnuts perper treetree areare consideredconsidered goodgood (FAO,(FAO, 1982;1982; Purseglove,Purseglove, 1987).1987).

84 Post-harvestPost-harvest treatmentstreatments

Follicles split and seedsseeds areare removed.removed. Seeds areare fermented in heaps for 5 days,days, afterafter which the testa isis removedremoved andand thethe nuts washedwashed andand cleaned.cleaned. Nuts areare stored in baskets lined with green leaves, which are regularlyregularly changed.changed. Nuts may be thus stored for severalseveral monthsmonths withoutwithout spoiling but will require regularregular checkingchecking for weevil damage (Purseglove,(Purseglove, 1987).1987).

Production and consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

The bitter tasting seedsseeds areare much appreciated byby Moslems inin thethe drierdrier regions of West Africa,Africa, especiallyespecially after Ramadan. Used as a stimulating masticatory, aa beverage is preparedprepared byby boiling powdered seeds in water (FAO,(FAO, 1982;1982: Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984; Purseglove,Purseglove, 1987).

Figure 31 :\'"Nutritional utritional value Cola nitida. nitida. 1:1: leaves. 2:2: inflorescence. 3:3: fruit.fruit. 4: seed.seed .

Seeds consistconsist ofof 13.513.5% % water, 9.59.5% % crude protein, 1.4%1.4 % fat, 45%45 % sugarsugar andand starch,starch, 7.0%7. a% cellulose, 3.83.8% % tannin,tannin, 3.0%3.0% ash,ash, alsoalso richrich in in alkaloids, alkaloids, caffeinecaffeine (2.8%),(2.8 %), theobrominetheobromine (0.05(0.05%) %) and kolatinekolatine (FAO,(FAO, 1982).1982).

By-products and other usesuses

Widely used in West Africa forfor socialsocial ceremonies.ceremonies. AA non-addictive non-addictive stimulantstimulant usedused medicallymedically for diarrhoea and to preventprevent vomiting inin casescases ofof highhigh fever;fever; reputedreputed to to actact asas a waterwater purifier. TheThe red red nuts nuts are are a a potential potential source source ofof food food colorant.colorant. WoodWood is is susceptiblesusceptible toto borers;borers; suitable for furniture, joineryjoinery andand carvingscarvings (FAO,(FAO, 1982;1982; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

:VIarketingMarketing

Seeds important in local and internationalinternational commerce,commerce, thethe white-seed strainstrain preferredpreferred byby the market. Industrial exploitation isis mainly forfor the caffeine, which is used inin decoctionsdecoctions andand non-alcoholic drinks.drinks. World production ofof cola nuts from ColaCola nitidanitida andand alliedallied speciesspecies estimated as ca. 180180 000000 tonnestonnes ofof which which ca.ca. 120120 000000 tonnestonnes isis producedproduced byby NigeriaNigeria andand usedused either internallyinternally oror inin neighbouringneighbouring countriescountries (FAO,(FAO, 1982;1982; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Discussion

Considering howhow much cola nuts areare appreciatedappreciated inin WestWest AfricaAfrica whilewhile beingbeing virtuallyvirtually unknown elsewhere, there would appear to bebe reasonablereasonable expectationsexpectations for expandingexpanding the market.

85 SUGARSUGAR PLUM,PLUM, ARENG ARENG PALM, PALM, EJOW, EJOW, GOMUTI, GOMUTI, KAONG: KAONG: Arenga Arenga pinnata, pinnata, Pal Palmae mae

DistributionDistribution and ecologyecology

AssamAssam to Malaysia,Malaysia, possiblypossibly introducedintroduced inin thethe Philippines;Philippines; widelywidely cultivatedcultivated (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977; FAO,FAO, 1984; Uhl and Dransfield,Dransfield, 1987).1987).

Description

A solitarysolitary,, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious featherfeather palm palm toto 15 m tall,tall, stem 4040 cmcm in diameter.diameter. LeavesLeaves pirmate,pinnate, long, ascending, upup toto 8.5 mm long.long. Inflorescences large, axillary, pendulous;pendulous; inflorescences appearing in descendingdescending order from thethe uppermostuppermost leaf axilaxil andand continue for ca. 22 yearsyears untiluntil thethe palmpalm isis exhaustedexhausted and dies.dies. Fruit turntum yellowyellow when mature, ca.ca. 5 cmcm inin diameter; diameter; seeds 2-3 (FAO,(FAO, 1984; Purseglove, 19851985;; UhIUhl and Dransfield, 1987).1987).

Cultivation

No information.information.

Harvesting

Propagated by seed or suckers. Flowering at 7-107-10 yearsyears (FAO,(FAO, 1984).1984).

Post-harvest treatments

No information.information.

Production and consumption/utilization Figure 32 Arenga pinnatapinnata.. 11:: part of pinnate leaf. 22-3:·3: sections of inflorescenceinflorescence bearing fruitsfruits.. 44:: longlongitudinalitudinal sectionsection ofof fruit.fruit. 5: transverse section of Immature kernels cookedcooked andand eateneaten inin the fruitfruit.. Philippines, or boiledboiled inin sugarsugar andand mademade into a sweetmeatsweetmeat (Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, 1977;1977; FAO,FAO, 1984).1984).

Nutritional valuevalue

Fruits contain 66.8%.8% moisture, 7.9% ash, 16.2% crude fibre, 10.0% crude protein, 1.5% fat (FAO(FAO,, 1984).1984).

By-products and other usesuses

Stem is a source ofof aa formform ofof sago,sago, whichwhich isis convertedconverted intointo sugarsugar whenwhen the palm first begins to flower.flower. The male spadixspadix tapped daily forfor 2-3 months forfor its sugary sap (ca. 3.53.5 litreslitres daily), ofof whichwhich 9 litreslitres isis evaporated to produce ca. 11 kg of palm sugar (jaggery), palm wine

86 or toddy,toddy, distilleddistilled forfor arrak;arrak; palmpalm cabbagecabbage eateneaten rawraw asas aa saladsalad oror cooked. cooked. Leaf sheathsheath source of aa tough,tough, blackblack fibre fibre (gomuti(gomuti oror yunotyunot fibre)fibre) usedused chiefly for a durable rope tolerant of both fresh and saltsalt waterwater andand fire, usedused forfor marinemarine workwork and thatching;thatching ; fibre also used for brushes. LeavesLeaves usedused forfor thatching; thatching; thethe splitsplit petiolespetioles forfor basketrybasketry andand aa formform ofof marquetrymarquetry work (Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, 1977;1977; FAO,FAO, 1984;1984; Purseglove,Purseglove, 1985;1985 ; Mabberley,Mabberley, 1987).1987) .

Marketing

Sweetmeats marketed (Menninger, 1977).1977).

Discussion

Regarded as the mostmost usefuluseful ofof allall palmspalms (Hedrick,(Hedrick, 1972),1972), however,however, itsits chiefchief economic economic importance is for itsits fibre.fibre.

TUCUMA: Astrocaryum Astrocaryum vulgare,vulgare, Palmae

Distribution and ecologyecology

Amazonia. Occurrence Occurrence abundant,abundant, especiallyespecially inin disturbeddisturbed sites (Prance, 1994).1994) .

Description

Tall, single-stemmed,single-stemmed, spiny,spiny, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, monoecious,monoecious, featherfeather palm.palm. Fruit moremore oror lessless globose (Uhl and Dransfield,Dransfield, 1987).1987).

Cultivation

No information.information.

Harvesting

Method presumably as forfor A.A. aculeatumaculeatum (FAO,(FAO, 1986).1986). BunchesBunches pulledpulled downdown withwith aa hookedhooked stick soon after firstfirst fruitfruit ripensripens andand falls.falls.

Post-harvest treatments

Treatment presumably as for A. aculeatum (FAO,(FAO, 1986). NutsNuts storedstored forfor 33 daysdays inin sackssacks toto ripen and pulppulp softensoften slightly.slightly. TheyThey must must be be eaten eaten within within 3-43-4 daysdays beforebefore theythey drydry andand rotrot where bruised.

Production and consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

Mesocarp edible, juice extracted from the pulp. KernelKernel producesproduces anan excellent oil for cooking and soap-making (FAO, 1986;1986; UhlUhI andand Dransfield,Dransfield, 1987;1987; Prance,Prance, 1994).1994).

Nutritional valuevalue

Mesocarp rich in vitamin;vitamin; freshfresh pulppulp contains 31 mg of carotenecarotene per 100100 gg (FAO,(F AO, 1986:1986: Prance, 1994).1994).

87 By-products and otherother usesuses

Seed oil isis usedused forfor makingmaking soap.soap. Source of fibre from leafleaf epidermis,epidermis, the strongeststrongest inin Amazonia and possiblypossibly commercially viable,viable, usedused byby the AmerindiansAmerindians for fishingfishing lineslines (Mabberley, 1987;1987; UhlUhl andand Dransfield,Dransfield, 1987;1987; Prance,Prance, 1994).1994).

Marketing

No information.information.

Discussion

Because of its abundanceabundance in disturbeddisturbed areas it couldcould havehave a potentialpotential for easy domesticationdomestication (Prance, 1994).1994). AA genus genus of of 50 50 species species of of which which at at least least 40,40, includingincluding A.A. aculeatum,aculeatum, A.A. ayri,ayri, A. jauari andand A.A .m.urumuru m.urumuru deservedeserve furtherfurther attentionattention by economiceconomic botanists (FAO, 1986).1986). See FAO (1986) forfor furtherfurther informationinformation regardingregarding A. aculeatum, whichwhich isis notnot discusseddiscussed here since its potential as an oiloil cropcrop dependsdepends on thethe oilyoily mesocarp,mesocarp, the kernel being hard and inedible.

PEACH PLUM, PALMPALM CHESTNUT,CHESTNlIT, PUPUNHA,PUPUNHA, PEJIBAY(E) PEJIBAY(E) OR OR PEJIVALLE: PEJIVALLE: Bactris Bactris gasipaes, gasipaes, Palmae

Distribution andand ecologyecology

Caribbean and Central AmericaAmerica toto Ecuador;Ecuador; widelywidely cultivated, not truly known in thethe wild,wild, the inferredinferred originaloriginal distributiondistribution fromfrom thethe ColombianColombian Andes,Andes, easterneastern PeruPeru andand northwestnorthwest Brazil where itit occursoccurs onon slopesslopes tootoo steepsteep forfor cultivation.cultivation. OccursOccurs inin tropicaltropical rainrain forestforest toto elevations of 700 (-1 500)500) m inin areas with 2 000-4000-4 000 mm annual rainfall and not more than 2-3 months drydry season;season; optimumoptimum temperaturetemperature 18-24°C18-24'C (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977; Johnson,Johnson, 1983;1983; FAO, 1986;1986; IBPGR,IBPGR, 1986).1986).

Description

Suckering, unarmed,unarmed, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, monoecious,monoecious, featherfeather palmpalm toto 2020 mm afterafter 10-1510-15 plusplus years,years, often 4-5 stemsstems are allowedallowed fromfrom thethe base;base; flushflush ofof suckerssuckers producedproduced from oldold stemsstems afterafter felling; shallow rooted. NodesNodes denselydensely armedarmed withwith 5-105-10 cmcm longlong blackblack spines,spines, leafleaf sheathsheath normally withwith spines;spines; aa newnew leafleaf normallynormally producedproduced everyevery 2-42-4 weeks,weeks, typicallytypically 10-1310-13 frondsfronds per main stem. FlowersFlowers insectinsect pollinated.pollinated. FruitFruit ca.ca. 55 cm cm inin diameter,diameter, firmfirm textured,textured, dry and . mealy, pale orangeorange toto yellowyellow oror redred whenwhen ripe,ripe, skinskin soft;soft; 1-seeded,I-seeded, seedseed conicalconical andand somewhat angUlar,angular, ca.ca. 2 cmcm long;long; mesocarpmesocarp thin, dry, mealy;mealy; endocarp thin, hard, black;black; kernel white, hard (Menninger, 1977;1977; Johnson, 1983;1983; Purseglove, 1985; FAO, 1986;1986; IBPGR, 19861986;; Uhl and Dransfield,Dransfield, 1987).1987).

Cultivation

Suited to thethe wetwet tropics.tropics. Propagation byby seed oror from basal suckers, spacing atat 5.5 m xx 55.5.5 m.m. PalmsPalms forfor palmpalm heartheart productionproduction plantedplanted at 1.5-2m1.5-2 m spacing. spacing. It begins bearing at 3-4 (-8) yearsyears andand continuescontinues productionproduction forfor 50-7550-75 years.years. Usually only 2-4 basalbasal suckerssuckers areare allowed to develop, the others being removed. TheThe palm,palm, onceonce established,established, requiresrequires littlelittle care andand yieldsyields well,well, withwith upup toto fivefive bunchesbunches of fruitfruit perper tree,tree, eacheach weighingweighing ca. 1414 kg.kg. Fruit takestakes aboutabout 66 monthsmonths toto maturemature andand willwill remainremain on the tree forfor longlong periodsperiods inin goodgood

88 condition; individual fruits weigh 29-10029-100 g,g, nutsnuts ca.ca. 3 g. YieldYield of edible fruit 3.4 tt drydry fruitfruit per ha per year.year. DomesticatedDomesticated seedless seedless varietiesvarieties exist,exist, thethe fruitsfruits (pejibaye(pejibaye macho)macho) composed entirely of fibrous pulp (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977; Johnson,Johnson, 1983;1983; Purseglove,Purseglove, 1985;1985; FAO,FAO, 1986;1986; IBPGR, 1986). PalmsPalms areare growngrown as as shadeshade treestrees forfor cocoacocoa andand coffeecoffee (IBPGR,(IBPGR, 1986).1986).

Harvesting

Bunches ofof fruits are cutcut usingusing knivesknives onon longlong polespoles oror byby climbingclimbing upup thethe spinyspiny trunk.trunk . Yields can be as high as 250250 kg perper treetree andand 3030 tonnestonnes per ha.ha. Stems may be tapped for a palm wine (coquillo)(coquillo) andand suckerssuckers (ratoons)(ratoons) for palm hearts (FAO, 1986;1986; IBPGR,IBPGR, 1986;1986; Duke,Duke , 1993).

Post-harvest treatments

Fruits can be storedstored forfor 10-1410-14 daysdays in aa drydry room.room. Fruit isis sometimessometimes canned.canned. Seed separates readily from pulppulp afterafter boilingboiling (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977; IBPGR,IBPGR, 1986).1986).

Production andand consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

Staple food for tribestribes inin lowlandslowlands ofof Colombia,Colombia, VenezuelaVenezuela and Ecuador.Ecuador. Fruits are boiledboiled in salty water for ca. 33 hours,hours, peeledpeeled andand afterafter removalremoval of the seeds, eaten, stronglystrongly resembleresemble chestnuts in appearanceappearance andand flavour;flavour; highlyhighly nutritiousnutritious and an important item of dietdiet forfor ruralrural people. ExtractedExtracted starch starch is is used used as as aa substitute substitute forfor maizemaize flourflour forfor makingmaking tortillas, aa staplestaple food in CentralCentral America;America; cookedcooked fleshflesh maymay alsoalso bebe fermentedfermented toto produceproduce aa beerbeer (chicha).(chicha). Kernel isis starchy andand oily, resemblesresembles coconut in flavour. TheThe oilyoily kernelskernels maymay bebe eaten;eaten; alsoalso a commercial source ofof oil on boiling. PoorPoor qualityquality fruitsfruits maymay bebe fedfed toto pigspigs (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977; Purseglove, 1985; IBPGR, 1986;1986; FAO, 1986;1986; Mabberley,Mabbedey, 1987;1987; Uhl and Dransfield,Dransfield, 1987).

Nutritional valuevalue

The chestnut-like fruit is regardedregarded asas probablyprobably thethe mostmost nutritionallynutritionally balancedbalanced of tropicaltropical fruits; has twicetwice thethe proteinprotein contentcontent of thethe banana and can produce more carbohydrate per ha than maize. TheThe composition composition ofof the the fruitfruit variesvaries enormously from 19-93%19-93 % mesocarp, 18-66%18-66 % dry matter, 3.1-14.7% protein,protein, 2.6-61.7%2.6-61.7% oil,oil, 33.2-88.8%33.2-88.8% starch,starch, 1.8%1.8% ashash andand 1.6%1.6% fibre.fibre . The boiled flesh contains caca.. 48%48 % water,water, 3%3 % protein,protein, 7%7 % fat,fat, 41%41 % carbohydrate carbohydrate andand 0.8%0.8 % ash. Oil compositioncomposition is similarsimilar to thatthat ofof oiloil palmpalm (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977; Purseglove,Purseglove, 1985:1985 : FAO, 1986).1986).

By-products and otherother usesuses

Canned palm hearts exported from Costa Rica. LeavesLeaves usedused forfor thatching.thatching. Fibre (palmiti)(palm it i) is of commercial importanceimportance inin CostaCosta Rica.Rica. Outer 2.5-5 cm of stem are a sourcesource ofof aa veryvery hard timbertimber usedused forfor carpentrycarpentry andand building,building, thethe splitsplit stemsstems usedused forfor reinforcingreinforcing concrete;concrete; hardened stems are usedused forfor longlong bowsbows andand attractiveattractive blackblack floorfloor slabs.slabs. ItIt has potentialpotential asas an energy crop from developing combustible oiloil andand alcoholalcohol from the starch (Johnson,(Johnson, 1983;1983 : FAO, 1986;1986; IBPGR,IBPGR, 1986;1986; Duke,Duke, 1993).1993).

89 A grove of Bactris gasipaes. (Photo: G. Blaak)

Fruits of Bactris gasipaes ready for market. (Photo: G. Blaak)

90 Marketing

Fruit marketed locally. TheThe freshfresh fruitfruit hashas aa shelfshelf lifelife ofof 1 1 week,week, suggestingsuggesting some form of preservation necessary for longer storage (10-14 daysdays inin aa drydry room,room, IBPGR,IBPGR, 1986)1986).. CannedCanned fruit introduced in Costa Rica, but a more desirable and improved productproduct requiredrequired if canningcanning is to develop further (Johnson,(Johnson, 1983;1983; FAO, 1986).1986).

Discussion

Despite its qualities,qualities, pejibayepejibaye isis aa minorminor cropcrop cultivatedcultivated byby thethe small-holdersmall-holder ratherrather thanthan onon a plantationplantation scale;scale; rarelyrarely growngrown outsideoutside CentralCentral andand northernnorthern SouthSouth AmericaAmerica andand thethe Caribbean (IBPGR,(lBPGR, 1986).1986). Its locallocal importanceimportance as a staplestaple food suggests that it could bebe introduced elsewhere in the humid tropics (FAO, 1986). FruitFruit quality quality andand absenceabsence ofof spines spines were characters selectedselected duringduring domestication,domestication, otherwise very little work has beenbeen donedone onon improvement. PriorityPriority in in any any breeding breeding programme programme is is suggested suggested forfor fibrefibre productionproduction because because it isis alreadyalready aa commercial commercial proposition.proposition. Other programmes may consider oil production,production, protein and carotenecarotene richrich pulppulp forfor humanhuman andand animalanimal consumption,consumption, andand flavourflavour (IBPGR,(IBPGR, 1986).

BABASSU, BABACUBABACU PALM PALM OR OR AGUASSU: AGUASSÚ: Orhignya Orbignya phalerata, phalerata, PalmaePalmae

Distribution andand ecologyecology

Babassu palm grows wildwild inin disturbeddisturbed areasareas throughoutthroughout moremore thanthan 100-150100-150 000000 km2 krn2 fromfrom thethe Atlantic Ocean to BoliviaBolivia and especially in Maranhao, Bahia and northern Minas Gerais andand Mato Grosso. TheThe annualannual rainfallrainfall isis 11 200-2200-2 500500 mmmm withwith aa 4-64-6 monthsmonths drydry season.season. Soils range from well-drainedwell-drained uplandupland soilssoils toto gallerygallery forest,forest, althoughalthough inin severelyseverely floodedflooded areasareas itit occurs in elevated,elevated, non-floodednon-flooded areas. AA highhigh lightlight demander,demander, andand thereforetherefore only dominantdominant in disturbed areas (Menninger,(Menninger, 1977;1977; FAO,FAO, 1986;1986; ClayClay andand Clement,Clement, 1993)1993)

Description

Solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, monoecious, featherfeather palmpalm withwith trunktrunk upup toto 30 plus m tall.tall. Leaves 10-25, pinnate, up to 99 mm long.long. Inflorescences variouslyvariously male,male, female or bisexual.bisexual. Bunches of fruit upup toto 11 m m long, long, weighing weighing 14-90 14-90 kg kg andand containing containing (100-)200(-600)(100-)200( -600) fruits;fruits; fruit ellipsoid, 5-155-15 cmcm long,long, 4-94-9 cm,cm, inin diameterdiameter resemblingresembling a small coconut, weighing 150- 200 g;g; epicarpepicarp fibrous,fibrous, 1-41-4 mmmm thick;thick; mesocarpmesocarp mealy,mealy, dry,dry, 2-122-12 mmmm thick; thick; endocarpendocarp woody, 35-7535-75 mmmm inin diameter, diameter, containingcontaining (1-)3-6(-11)(1-)3-6(-11) seeds;seeds; seedsseeds ellipsoid,ellipsoid, flattened,flattened, 2-6 cmcm xx 1-21-2 cmcm (Menninger, (Menninger, 1987;1987; FAO,FAO, 1986;1986; UhlUhI andand Dransfield,Dransfield, 1987;1987; ClayClay andand Clement, 1993).1993).

Cultivation

Collected solely fromfrom thethe wildwild.. GrovesGroves thinnedthinned to ca.ca. 100100 treestrees perper haha inin orderorder toto increaseincrease yields. Seeds may remain dormant within the nut for years provided they are notnot attackedattacked by Coleopteran larvae.larvae. Fire oror heatheat maymay bebe necessarynecessary toto breakbreak dormancy;dormancy; separateseparate kernelskernels may germinategerminate withinwithin aa fewfew months.months. Early growthgrowth isis slow,slow, concentratingconcentrating initiallyinitially on anan extensive root systemsystem andand consequentlyconsequently requiring largelarge bags if grown inin aa nursery.nursery. The palms begin to bearbear whenwhen 8-128-12 yearsyears old.old. Populations reduced toto 80 juvenilejuvenile andand youngyoung fruiting palms considered suitable forfor intercropping andand grazinggrazing byby livestock.livestock. TheThe use of

91 fertilizers to increaseincrease productivityproductivity is still at the trialtrial stagestage (FAO,(FAO, 1986;1986; ClayClay andand Clement,Clement, 1993).

Harvesting

Fallen nuts collected after drying for a fewfew weeks;weeks; theythey maymay alsoalso bebe dislodgeddislodged from the bunches with sticks or the whole bunch cutcut down.down. TheThe finefine silicatesilicate crystalscrystals falling off the fruit can cause seriousserious eye damage toto thethe collectors.collectors. WildWild grovesgroves can yield 1.5-2.5 tonnestonnes per haha but,but, wherewhere thethe grovesgroves areare thinnedthinned yieldsyields range from 7-307-30 tonnes perper ha with an average of 1616 tonnes.tonnes. IndividualIndividual trees trees with with 7 7 bunches, bunches, eacheach bunchbunch ofof 600 600 nutsnuts andand weighingweighing up to 90 kgkg areare knownknown (FAO,(FAO, 1986; 1986; ClayClay andand Clement,Clement, 1993).1993).

Present harvesting practice resultsresults inin only ca. 25%25 % ofof aa potentialpotential 88 millionmillion MTMT fruitfruit cropcrop being harvested. MoreMore efficient efficient harvesting harvesting involvesinvolves cuttingcutting thethe maturemature infructescencesinfructescences just after thethe fruitsfruits havehave begunbegun toto fall,fall, in additionaddition to thethe gatheringgathering ofof fallenfallen fruit.fruit. The introduction of a moremore effectiveeffective transporttransport system involving transporttransport toto collecting pointspoints by pack animals andand onwardonward by by truckstrucks toto thethe villagevillage processingprocessing areaarea isis necessarynecessary (Pinheiro(Pinheiro andand Ferro Franzdo,Franzao, 1995).1995).

Post-harvest treatments

Nuts extremelyextremely hard,hard, difficultdifficult toto crack.crack. Skilled workersworkers manuallymanually place place nut nut in in aa cleft of stones and split open withwith a heavyheavy hatchet, thethe operationoperation repeated several times to releaserelease allall kernels. In an alternativealternative method nut is rested on an axe head held between thethe feetfeet and hit with a heavyheavy cudgel. AA skilled skilled worker worker can can obtain obtain 5-85-8 kgkg ofof whole whole kernelskernels (Pinheiro(Pinheiro andand Ferro Franz-do,Franzao, 1995)1995) oror 2.32.3 kg of cleanclean kernelskernels (Clay and Clement, 1993) a day byby thisthis method (Menninger, 1977; FAO, 1986).1986).

A village scalescale cooperativecooperative industryindustry isis beingbeing developeddeveloped using simple dehusking machines to separate the husk andand mesocarpmesocarp fromfrom thethe endocarp,endocarp, andand aa breakingbreaking machinemachine toto crackcrack thethe endocarp to extract thethe seeds,seeds, andand aa machinemachine toto separateseparate brokenbroken endocarpendocarp fromfrom thethe kernels.kernels. Local presses are thenthen usedused toto extractextract thethe oiloil andand smallsmall kilnskilns to make charcoal and to extract tars (Clay(Clay andand Clement,Clement, 1993;1993; PinheiroPinheiro andand FerroFerro Franzdo,Franzao, 1995).1995).

Production andand consumption/utilizationconsumption/utilization

Whole kernels sometimessometimes are chewedchewed but usually pounded for the cold extraction of aa milkmilk substitute or hot extraction with boiling water forfor oil. KernelKernel containscontains 60-70%60-70 % oiloil whichwhich isis rich inin lauriclauric acid,acid, similarsimilar inin composition composition toto thatthat ofof Cocos Cocos nuciferanucifera (coconut)(coconut) and ElaeisElaeis guineensis (African oiloil palm).palm). FreshFresh oiloil isis usedused for cooking, refined oil forfor margarinemargarine.. TheThe starchy mesocarp is usedused locallylocally asas anan emergencyemergency flourflour substitutesubstitute (FAO, 1986;1986; ClayClay andand Clement, 1993).1993).

Nutritional valuevalue

Kernels containcontain 1.1.2% 2 % water,water, 66.166.1% % oil,oil, 7.2%7.2 % protein, 66% % fibre, 2%2 % ashash andand 14.5%14.5 % carbohydrates (FAO, 1986).1986).

92 77,V677111111R s '

"

Babassu (Orbignya phalerata)phalerata) palm in fruit. (Photo:(Photo: G. Blaak)Blaak)

Crude process ofof makingmaking charcoalcharcoal from babassubabassu shell. (Photo:(Photo: G.G. Blaak)Blaak)

93 By-products and otherother usesuses

Broken kernels are fedfed toto pigspigs asas theythey areare unsuitableunsuitable forfor oiloil extractionextraction byby thethe oiloil factoriesfactories because the oil quickly becomes rancid.rancid. MostMost ofof the the industrialindustrial mealmeal isis exportedexported toto EuropeEurope for dairy cake. SeedSeed oil oil is is excellent excellent for for soap soap productionproduction becausebecause ofo( its its high (45%)(45 %) lauric acid content. The epicarpepicarp (ca. 1515% % of thethe fruit)fruit) isis aa primaryprimary fuelfuel source.source. The mesocarpmesocarp (ca(ca.. 20% ofof thethe fruit)fruit) isis aa potential potential sourcesource ofof industrial industrial starch,starch, glucoseglucose or alcohol.alcohol. TheThe endocarp (ca. 59% of thethe fruit)fruit) isis anan importantimportant sourcesource ofof highhigh gradegrade charcoalcharcoal forfor thethe steelsteel industry as well as sourcesource ofof distillationdistillation by-products suchsuch asas tar,tar, acetic acid,acid, methane, etc.etc.;; also has a potential use as a substratesubstrate for hydroponics. NutNut wastewaste isis alsoalso usedused locallylocally as aa fuel for cookingcooking andand toto repelrepel insects.insects. Palm hearts edible, the waste being fed toto horses.horses. Peduncle can be tapped forfor palmpalm wine.wine. TrunksTrunks used for construction purposes.purposes. LeavesLeaves used for thatchthatch andand basketry;basketry; leaf petiolespetioles used for lathslaths forfor windowswindows andand adobeadobe walls;walls ; unfortunately thethe reduvid or kissing bug that transmits the vector of ChagasChagas disease that normally shelter in the crevices of the leaf petioles wouldwould movemove toto thethe house house walls. walls. Decayed stems and leavesleaves usedused forfor mulch.mulch. Leaves and liquid endosperm used in locallocal medicinemedicine (Menninger, 1977;1977; FAO,FAO, 1986;1986; ClayClay andand Clement,Clement, 1993;1993; PinheiroPinheiro andand FerroFerro Franzdo,Franzao, 1995).1995).

Marketing

Present kernel productionproduction isis insufficientinsufficient for developingdeveloping an efficient seed oil industry (Pinheiro and Ferro Franzdo,Franzao, 1995).1995).

Discussion

An important source of oiloil forfor margarinemargarine andand cookingcooking oil during the First World War andand again during thethe SecondSecond WorldWorld War,War, whenwhen kernelkernel exportsexports peakedpeaked atat 4040 000000 tonnestonnes (26(26 000000 tonnes oil). Exports fell to zero byby thethe mid-1960s,mid-1960s, although,although, depending on the international prices,prices, occasional exports are stillstill processed.processed. Since 1965, the Brazilian soap and cosmeticcosmetic industries have absorbed all babassu oil production (ca.(ca. 150 000 tonnes in 1985). It isis alsoalso Brazil's majormajor sourcesource ofof lauriclauric acid.acid. The potential for developingdeveloping babassu plantationsplantations to provide charcoalcharcoal forfor thethe pig-ironpig-iron foundriesfoundries requiresrequires investigation;investigation; thethe finefine grainedgrained charcoalcharcoal has the disadvantage of requiringrequiring pressingpressing andand gluinggluing intointo briquettesbriquettes beforebefore shippingshipping andand use.use. It is an extremely important palm in the subsistence economy,economy, beingbeing aa sourcesource ofof income,income, foodfood and oil, timber, fibre,fibre, medicine,medicine, etc.,etc., forfor thethe indigenousindigenous population. LittleLittle attentionattention has been paid to developing thethe speciesspecies becausebecause of the availability of large, albeit low yielding, naturalnatural populations. ThereThere is is a a considerable considerable potentialpotential forfor improvingimproving yieldsyields by selectionselection and develop appropriate agronomic practices, especiallyespecially in the drier areasareas thatthat areare unsuitableunsuitable forfor otherother oiloil producing palms.palms. The labour intensive,intensive, lowlow productivityproductivity kernel extraction is the limitinglimiting factor inin developingdeveloping aa commercialcommercial oiloil industryindustry (FAO, 1986; Mabberley, 1987; Clay andand Clement, 1993;1993; PinheiroPinheiro andand FerroFerro Franzdo,Franzao, 1995).1995).

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103 Whitmore, T.C.T.C. (Ed.)(Ed.) (1972)(1972) TreeTree FloraFlora ofof Malaya. Malaya. A manualmanual for foresters,foresters, vol.vol. 11 Longman,Longman, London.

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104 APPENDIX AA

SPECIES WITH EDIBLEEDIBLE "NUTS""NUTS" LISTEDLISTED BYBY FAMILIES'FAMILIESl

ANGIOSPERMS

DICOTYLEDONS

ANACARDIACEAE; fruit fruit drupaceousdrupaceous oror dry, 1-plurilocular,1-plurilocular, 1-51-5 seededseeded stone

Species andand distribution Common namename---· Details References Anacardium giganteum cajui; cajuaçu;cajuac;u; caju-caju- forest treetree;; drupe with enlarged, edible peduncle and kernel, formerformer FAOFAO,, 19861986 Amazonia da-mata; oloioloi freshfresh or for juice, latterlatter roastedroasted ...... o monkey-nut nut edible, conserves made of the fruit HedrickHedrick,, 19721972 VI Anacardium humilehumile nut edible, conserves made of the fruit Brazil Anacardium nanumnanum nut edible, conserves made of the fruit Hedrick,Hedrick, 19721972 Brazil Anacardium occidentale cashew nut kidney-shaped nutnut with hard, acrid pericarp aroundaround seedseed (promotion(promotion Howes,Howes , 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, tropical America; widely nut, coffincoffin nail);nail); pedicelpedicel swellsswells intointo edible,edible, pear-shapedpear-shaped bodybody 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; cultivated (cashew apple) used in preserves, chutneys,chutneys, etc.etc. alsoalso cashewcashew appleapple FAO,FAO, 1982;1982; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, juice;juice; roastedroasted kernelkernel eateneaten asas aa dessertdessert nut,nut, alsoalso inin confectionery; confectionery; 19841984;; FAO,FAO, 1986;1986; pericarp yields the toxic cashew nut-shell liquid - caustic nut shell MabberleMabberley,y, 1987;1987; liquid used in brake linings, clutches,clutches, plastic resins, etc.etc. PurseglovePurseglove,, 1987;1987; BianchiniBianchini et al.,1988;al. ,1988; VerheijVerheij andand CoronelCoronel,, 19911991 AnacardiumAnacardium rhinocarpusrhinocarpus wild cashewcashew edible fruitfruit,, eateneaten likelike cashewcashew HedrickHedrick,, 19721972 South America

Some agricultural cropscrops (e.g(e.g.. somesome speciesspecies of thethe Cucurbitaceae)Cucurbitaceae) areare includedincluded inin thisthis listlist forfor theirtheir potentialpotential asas agroforestryagroforestry species.species. Species andand distribution ConunonCommon name Details References

Antrocaryon micraster fruit pulp edible, may be mademade intointo aa fermentedfermented beverage; seedsseeds Menninger, 1977;1977; West Africa difficult toto extract, kernel edible, rich in oil; timbertimber for planksplanks and Mabberley, 1987;1987; Peters etet furniture al., 19921992 Buchanania latifolia almondette; medium sized tree; fruit black, 1-seeded,I-seeded, kernelskernels pear-shaped, 11 cmcm Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, India, Myanmar,Myanmar, Laos,Laos, cheronjee; long, oily, edible,edible, deliciousdelicious withwith aa combinationcombination ofof almond almond andand 1977; Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Thailand, Vietnam,Vietnam, YunnanYunnan Cuddapah almond; pistachio flavours - knownknown asas "almondettes""almondettes" occasionallyoccasionally importedimported Mabberley, 1987;1987; VerheijVerheij Hamilton mombin into Europe, eateneaten rawraw oror roastedroasted oror inin sweetmeats,sweetmeats, poundedpounded andand and Coronel, 1991;1991; MacraeMacrae dried fruits made into bread in India, seedseed oiloil aa substitutesubstitute forfor et al., 19931993 almond or olive oil; bark and fruit yield a varnish; bark used in tanning; browsed; gum used inin traditionaltraditional medicinemedicine againstagainst leprosy;leprosy; wood for fuel; trees grown forfor erosionerosion controlcontrol kernel 51.8% oil, 12.1%12.1 % protein,protein, 21.6%21.6% starch,starch, 5%5% sugarssugars Gluta elegans rengas seeds edible; sapsap cancan causecause dermatitisdermatitis Menninger, 19771977 Malaysia o>-' 0-. Gluta renghas rengas roasted seeds eaten; timber useful butbut sapsap cancan causecause dermatitisdermatitis Menninger, 1977;1977; Malesia Mabberley, 1987;1987; Purseglove, 19871987 Gluta velutinavelutina rengas seeds edible; sapsap cancan causecause dermatitisdermatitis Menninger, 19771977 Malaysia Lannea schweinfurthiischweinfurthii raw fruit eaten, seedsseeds crushed,crushed, boiledboiled withwith saltsalt andand eateneaten asas aa relish,relish, Menninger, 1977; Peters et var. stuhlmanniistuhlmannii bark made into a tisanetisane al., 19921992 East Africa Mangifera altissima medang evergreen tree; immature fruit eaten raw, pickledpickled or mixedmixed with Verheij and Coronel, 19911991 Solomon Islands toto vegetables; ripe fruit eaten or used in preserves;preserves; seedsseeds saltedsalted and Philippines; cultivated pounded for an edible meal; woodwood forfor generalgeneral constructionconstruction andand indoor woodwork, not durable; locallylocally marketedmarketed Species andand distribution Common name Details References

Mangifera indica mango evergreen treetree;; drupe flesh eaten or mademade intointo chutney,chutney, pickles, Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Indo-MalesiaIndo-Malesia;; widelywidely squashes, commercially marketed; starchy kernels eaten roasted or 1977; FAO, 1982;1982; cultivated in the tropics andand dried and pickled,pickled, aa sourcesource ofof flourflour andand faminefamine food;food; seedseed kernelkernel Mabberley, 1987;1987; subtropics meal fed toto cattlecattle andand poultry;poultry; youngyoung leavesleaves eateneaten asas aa vegetable;vegetable; Purseglove, 1987;1987; VerheijVerheij timber forfor fuelfuel (excellent(excellent charcoal),charcoal), tea-cheststea-chests andand floor-boardsfloor-boards and Coronel,Coronel, 19911991 Mangifera kemangakemanga kemang tree; riperipe fruitfruit eateneaten fresh,fresh, pickledpickled oror made made intointo aa juice.;juice; fresh,fresh, Verheij and Coronel,Coronel, 19911991 Peninsular Malaysia,Malaysia, grated seedsseeds sometimessometimes eaten;eaten; youngyoung leavesleaves eateneaten Sumatra, Borneo;Borneo; commercially cultivated Mangifera odorata kuwini tree; fruitfruit peeledpeeled to removeremove acrid skin, eateneaten freshfresh or mademade intointo Verheij and Coronel, 19911991 not known in wild; cultivatedcultivated chutneys and pickles; seed kernel made into a flour; bark used inin in Sumatra, Borneo and Java traditional medicine; thrivesthrives inin areas too wet for M.M. indicaindica PistaciaPistada mexicanamexicana seeds edibleedible Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, ...... S. MexicoMexico toto GuatemalaGuatemala 1977 0 -...l Pistacia terebinthusterebinthus terebinth;terebinth; CyperusCyperus kernel sweet,sweet, edible; sourcesource ofof tantan galls;galls; formerlyformerly sourcesource ofof Hedrick,Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Mediterranean turpentine turpentine 19771977;; Mabberley, 19871987 Pistacia texana Texas pistacio dioecious shrub or tree;tree; with smallsmall,, nut-like drupedrupe <<1 1 cmcm longlong Krochmal, 19821982 Texas to centralcentral MexicoMexico Pistacia veravera pistachio seed eaten as dessert nut, the pistachiopistachio nut of commerce, used in Howes,Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, Iran to central Asia;Asia; widelywidely ice-cream and confectioneryconfectionery 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; cultivated in Mediterranean Rosengarten, 1984;1984; and USA MabberleyMabberley,, 1987;1987; BianchiniBianchini et al., 1988;1988; Pleiogynium timoriense Burdekin or sweetsweet fruit used in jams and jelliesjellies;; timber good;good; ornamental street tree HedrickHedrick,, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Queensland plum 19771977;; MabberleyMabberley,, 19871987 Species andand distribution Common name Details References

Sclerocarya birrbirreaea dioecious tree subsp.subsp. birrea fruit flesh used to make alcoholic beveragebeverage;; kernel oily, eateneaten Hedrick,Hedrick, 1972; 1972; Menninger,Menninger, NN.. tropicaltropical Africa dioecious tree;tree; fruit eaten,eaten, flesh rich inin vitaminvitamin C,C, stonestone containscontains 2-2- 1977 subsp. caffra 3 highly nutritiousnutritious embryosembryos Hedrick,Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, E. andand southernsouthern AfricaAfrica marula 19771977;; Arnold et ai.al. 1985;1985; Peters et al. 19921992 Semecarpus anacardium marking nut; varnish ripe fruitfruit collected,collected, acrid andand astringentastringent when fresh,fresh, juicejuice ofof which which Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, IndiaIndia;; cultivated inin tropicaltropical treetree;; AustralianAustralian a strong skin irritant,irritant, kernelskernels eateneaten roastedroasted flavourflavour ofof roastedroasted 19721972;; MenningerMenninger,, 1977;1977; AsiaAsia,, Australia and AfricaAfrica corkscrewcorkscrew;; oriental apples,apples, dried with taste likelike dates; roastedroasted pedicel eaten; sap of Mabberley,Mabberley, 1987;1987; Tow,Tow, cashew unripe fruit mixed with lime used for marking linen,linen, hence 19891989;; Verheij and CoronelCoronel,, vernacular namename;; pericarp contains ca. 9%9 % ofof anan irritatingirritating oiloil usedused 19921992 in traditionaltraditional medicine and industrially in lacquers, paintspaints andand insulating material; wood used forfor charcoalcharcoal ..- Semecarpus vitiensis NewNew kernel eaten,eaten, care requiredrequired toto avoidavoid fruitfruit blisteringblistering latex,latex, Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, o 1977 00 Caledonia, Fiji 1977 Spondias mombinmombin yellow Spanish or fresh fruit pulp eaten raw,raw, cooked,cooked, inin confectioneryconfectionery or fermented;fermented; HedrickHedrick,, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, tropical America;America; yellow mombin;mombin; seed eateneaten;; young leaves eaten as a vegetable;vegetable; woodwood used forfor boxes,boxes, 19771977;; MabberJey,Mabberley, 1978;1978; occasionally cultivated jobo; hoghog plumplum pulp or fuel; browsedbrowsed by cattlecattle and pigs;pigs; melliferous;melliferous; growngrown as FAO,FAO, 1982,1982, 19861986 VerheijVerheij shade tree and Coronel,Coronel, 19911991 Trichoscypha longifolialongijolia oily kernel eaten Menninger, 1977;1977; Peters etet West Africa aI.,al., 19921992

ANISOPHYLLEACEAE; fruit indehiscent,indehiscent, woodywoody to drupaceousdrupaceous

Poga oleosaoleosa inoi nutnut,, African nuts with hardhard,, bony shellshell,, marketedmarketed locally;locally; seedseed kernelkernel eaten;eaten; Howes,Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, W.W. tropicaltropical AfricaAfrica Brazil nut, m'poga sseedeed oil used for cooking;cooking; formerlyformerly exportedexported toto LiverpoolLiverpool asas 1987;1987; Mabberley,MabberJey, 1987;1987; oilseed PetersPeters eett al.,al. , 19921992

ARALIACEAE; fruitfruit usuallyusually aa drupe or berry Species andand distribution Common name Details--~ferencesDetails References

Panax trifoliustrifolius groundnut herb with slightly pungent,pungent, edible, subglobosesubglobose rootstockrootstock Howes,Howes, 19481948 EE.. NorthNorth AmericaAmerica

BIGNONIACEAE; fruitfruit a 2-valved capsule,capsule, rarely fleshy and indehiscent

Crescentia a/ataalata Mexican calabash ripe seeds a popular festivalfestival foodfood MenningerMenninger,, 19721972 WW.. Central AmericaAmerica Crescentia cujetecujete calabash tree young fruit pickled, flesh not veryvery palatable;palatable; seedsseeds cookedcooked andand Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, tropical America and eaten and used to make a drink in Nicaragua,Nicaragua, sourcesource ofof aa syrupsyrup 19771977;; Mabberley,Mabberley, 1987;1987; CaribbeanCaribbean;; cultivatedcultivated and oiloil;; woody pericarp used for bowls,bowls, etc. Purseglove,Purseglove, 19871987 Kige/iaKigelia africana sausage tree fruit pulp and bark used for making beer; roastedroasted seedsseeds faminefamine Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, ...... o tropical Africa foodfood;; fruit purgative 1977;1977; Mabberley 1987;1987; \0 Peters et al.,aI. , 19921992 Oroxy/umOroxylum indicum midnight horrorhorror;; seeds eateneaten;; leaves cooked asas aa vegetable; barkbark bitter, used Menninger,Menninger, 1977;1977; FAO,FAO, Philippines pinkapinkahan medicinally; barkbark andand fruits source of dye used in rattan 1986;1986; Mabberley,Mabberley, 19871987 basketry, also for tanning;tanning; wood used for fuel Parmentiera cereiferacereifera candle treetree;; fruit and seeds eaten in Mexico; fodder source Menninger, 1977;1977; PanamaPanama;; cultivated cuachilote Mabberley,Mabberley, 1987;1987; Purseglove,Purseglove, 19871987

BOMBACACEAE; fruitfruit a locucidal capsule, rarely fleshyfleshy andand indehiscentindehiscent Species andand distribution Common namename--- n_ ----- Details References

Adansonia digitata baobab Pulp eaten raw, seed kernel eaten raw, roasted or boiled; bark Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, tropical Africa; for cloth and cordage; all parts of the tree utilised; grown as an 1977; FAO, 1982;1982; Wickens,Wickens, occasionally cultivated avenue tree and ornamentalornamental 1982; Mabberley,Mabberley, 1987;1987; Purseglove, 1987;1987; VerheijVerheij and Coronel, 1991; Peters et aI.,al., 19921992 Adansonia gregorii baobab seeds eaten by Aborigines; source of fibrefibre Menninger, 1977;1977; LazaridesLazarides West Australia and Hince,lince, 19931993 Ceiba pentandrapentandra kapok or silk young fruit edible; seeds eaten pounded in soup or roasted, Menninger, 1977;1977; tropical South America;America; cotton tree source of edible oil; oil used as lubricant, illuminant,illuminant, soapsoap and Mabberley, 19871987 widely cultivated paints; hairs from carpel walls the kapok of commerce; wood used for matchesmatches ...... Durio ziberthinus durian; civet fruit malodorous but highly esteemed fruit, aril ofof unripeunripe fruitfruit eateneaten asas Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, o W. Malesia; widelywidely a vegetable; boiled or roasted seeds eaten; rind used for fuel;fuel; 1977; Mabberley, 1987;1987; cultivated in MalaysiaMalaysia wood light, used for cheap furniture, etc.; plantplant used in Purseglove, 19871987 traditional medicine Pachira aquatica Guyana or delicious chestnut-flavoured seeds roasted and eaten, containcontain ca.ca. Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, tropical America, Malabar chestnutchestnut 50% oil; youngyoung leavesleaves andand flowersflowers eateneaten asas vegetable;vegetable; barkbark 1977; FAO, 1986;1986; estuaries; cultivatedcultivated source of red dye, fibrefibre forfor cordage;cordage; woodwood suitablesuitable forfor paper-paper­ Mabberley, 19871987 making Pachira insignisinsignis maranhao nutnut seeds eaten; young leaves and flowers also eaten Hedrick, 1977;1977; Menninger,Menninger, Central America 1977 Rhodognaphalon seeds cooked and eaten Peters et al.,aI., 19921992 schumannianum tropical Africa Species andand distribution Conunon name Details ReferencesReferences

BURSERACEAE; fruitfruit a drupe withwith 1-51-5 1-seededI-seeded stones or 1 stones with all seeds, rarely aa capsulecapsule

Boswellia serrataserrata Indian olibanum tree; flowers and seeds eaten;eaten; wood used to make paper and teatea Menninger,Menninger, 1977;1977; India; cultivated chests, fuel;fuel ; cultivated for its fragrant gum-resin Mabberley, 19871987 Canarium album canarium; ChineseChinese tree; fruit pulp and seeds edible, soldsold onon thethe worldworld market;market; woodwood Hedrick,Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, S.S. China,China, Vietnam;Vietnam; olive and resin sometimes used; grown as an ornamentalornamental 1977; Mabberley, 1987;1987; cultivated Verheij and Coronel, 19911991 Canarium harveyi Santa Cruz oily nut edible; oil used locallylocally for cosmetics;cosmetics; potentialpotential forfor Pelomo, 19931993 Solomon Islands Ngallinut development Canarium indicum Java almond;almond; tall buttressed tree,tree, drupe, endocarp hard, thin and brittle, Hawes, 1948;1948; Leenhouts,Leenhouts, Malaysia to Melanesia;Melanesia; kanari or ngalingali nutnut triangular in cross section, c 3 g, seedsseeds 3;3; oilyoily "pili""pili" nutsnuts (seeds)(seeds) 1956; Hedrick, 1972;1972; cultivated eaten after removal of testa raw or roasted,roasted, eateneaten inin SriSri LankaLanka asas Menninger,Menninger, 1977;1977; VerheijVerheij ..... a dessert nut, made into bread inin thethe Celebes,Celebes, highlyhighly esteemedesteemed in and Coronel, 1991;1991; MacraeMacrae ..... Melanesia wherewhere severalseveral racesraces cultivatedcultivated;; freshfresh seedseed oiloil mixedmixed et al., 1993;1993; Pelomo,Pelomo, 19931993 with food, also used as an illuminant; grown as a shadeshade tree Canarium littorale nuts small, hard-shelled, kernel edible Menninger, 19771977 Malaysia Canarium luzonicumluzonicum Java almond, pilipili "oily pili" nuts edible; seed oil source of "Manila"Manila elmi"elmi" forfor Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, S.ES.E.. AsiaAsia nut,nut, elemielemi varnishes, etc.etc. 1977; Mabberley, 19871987

Canarium muellerimuelleri deciduous tree; nuts very small,small, eateneaten byby AboriginesAborigines Menninger,Menninger, 1977;1977; LazaridesLazarides Queensland et al., 19931993 Canarium ovatumovatum pili or PhilippinePhilippine evergreen treetree;; oily ""pili"pili " nuts eaten raw or roasted as a dessert HowesHowes,, 1948;1948; Leenhouts,Leenhouts, PhilippinesPhilippines;; cultivated nut nut or used commercially in confectionery,confectionery, emulsion of kernels 19561956;; MenningerMenninger,, 1977;1977; used as milk substitute;substitute; seed oil edible, sourcesource ofof "Manila"Manila elmi"elmi" RosengartenRosengarten,, 1984;1984; VerheijVerheij for varnishes, etc.,etc., alsoalso usedused asas anan illuminant;illuminant; youngyoung shootsshoots and CoronelCoronel,, 19911991 edibleedible;; shell used for fuel and carving; grown as an avenue tree and windbreak Species andand distribution Common name ----DetailsDetails References

Canarium pateninervium kedondong tree; seeds eaten;eaten; soft,soft, lightlight woodwood usedused forfor fuelfuel Verheij and Coronel, 19911991 Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia; Sumatra, Borneo Canarium pilosum damar lilinlilin tree; seeds sweet, eaten;eaten; woodwood durable used forfor houses;houses ; resinresin Verheij and Coronel, 19911991 Indonesia, Malaysia, used to closeclose woundswounds Brunei Canarium pimeiapimela Chinese blackblack tree; oily "pili""pili" nutsnuts edible, fruitfruit candiescandies or pickled;pickled; sold on thethe Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick, SS.. China, Hainan,Hainan, Indo-Indo- olive world market; woodwood and resinresin sometimessometimes used;used; fruitfruit andand leavesleaves 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; China, Borneo; cultivated used in locallocal medicinemedicine Mabberley, 1987;1987; VerheijVerheij and Coronel, 19911991 Canarium salomonense adoa oily nut edible; oil used locallylocally for cosmetics;cosmetics; potentialpotential forfor Pelomo, 19931993 Solomon Islands, New development ...... Guinea tv Canarium schweinfurthii African elemi;elemi; oily nut edible, marketed locally; oily pericarp eaten raw, seeds Menninger, 1977;1977; Burkill,Burkill, tropical AfricaAfrica incense or bush cooked and eaten, seed oil substitute for sheashea butterbutter fromfrom 1985; Mabberley,Mabberley, 1987;1987; candle tree Vitellaria paradoxa;paradoxa; stainedstained timber usedused asas mahoganymahogany substitute;substitute; Peters et al.,aI., 19921992 oleo-gum exudate source of incense Canarium sylvestre oily "pili" nuts edibleedible Hedrick, 19721972 Ambon Canarium vrieseanum solo tree; seedsseeds edible;edible; resinresin burntburnt asas anan illuminant;illuminant; toughtough woodwood used Verheij and Coronel, 19911991 Indonesia, Philippines in construction Canarium vulgare Chinese olives, oily "pili""pili" nutsnuts eateneaten in SriSri LankaLanka asas aa dessertdessert nut,nut, mademade intointo Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, Moluccas; cultivated Java almond, wild bread in the Celebes;Celebes; fresh seedseed oil mixedmixed with food, alsoalso usedused 1977 almond for lamps;lamps; grown as aa shadeshade treetree andand inin plantations;plantations; Santira trimera fruits smelling of turpentine, edible,edible, marketedmarketed locally;locally; oilyoily seedsseeds Menninger, 1977;1977; Burkill,Burkill, West Africa edible 1985 Species andand distribution Common name - Details References

Canarium pateninervium kedondong tree; seeds eaten; soft,soft, lightlight woodwood usedused forfor fuelfuel Verheij and Coronel, 19911991 Thailand, PeninsularPeninsular Malaysia; Sumatra, Borneo Canarium pilosum damar lilinlilin tree; seeds sweet, eaten;eaten; woodwood durable used forfor houses;houses; resinresin Verheij and Coronel, 19911991 Indonesia, Malaysia, used to closeclose woundswounds Brunei Canarium pimeiapimela Chinese blackblack tree; oily "pili""pili" nutsnuts edible, fruitfruit candiescandies or pickled;pickled; sold on thethe Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick, SS.. China, Hainan,Hainan, Indo-Indo- olive world market; woodwood and resinresin sometimessometimes used;used; fruitfruit andand leavesleaves 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; China, Borneo; cultivated used in locallocal medicinemedicine Mabberley, 1987;1987; VerheijVerheij and Coronel, 19911991 Canarium salomonense adoa oily nut edible; oil usedused locallylocally for cosmetics;cosmetics; potentialpotential forfor Pelomo, 19931993 Solomon Islands, New development ...... Guinea tv Canarium schweinfurthii African elemi;elemi; oily nut edible, marketed locally; oily pericarp eaten raw, seeds Merminger,Menninger, 1977;1977; Burkill,Burkill, tropical Africa incense or bush cooked and eaten, seed oil substitute for sheashea butterbutter fromfrom 1985; Mabberley,Mabberley, 1987;1987; candle tree Vitellaria paradoxa;paradoxa; stainedstained timber usedused asas mahoganymahogany substitute;substitute; Peters et al.,aI., 19921992 oleo-gum exudate source of incense Canarium sylvestre oily "pili" nuts edibleedible Hedrick, 19721972 Ambon Canarium vrieseanum solo tree; seedsseeds edible;edible; resinresin burntburnt asas anan illuminant;illuminant; toughtough woodwood used Verheij and Coronel, 19911991 Indonesia, Philippines in construction Canarium vulgare Chinese olives, oily "pili""pili" nutsnuts eateneaten in SriSri LankaLanka asas aa dessertdessert nut,nut, mademade intointo Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, Moluccas; cultivated Java almond, wild bread in the Celebes;Celebes; fresh seedseed oil mixedmixed with food, alsoalso usedused 1977 almond for lamps;lamps; grown as aa shadeshade treetree andand inin plantations;plantations; Santira trimera fruits smelling of turpentine, edible,edible, marketedmarketed locally;locally; oilyoily seedsseeds Menninger, 1977;1977; Burkill,Burkill, West Africa edible 1985 Species andand distribution Common name Details --- References

CAPPARACEAE; fruit fruit oftenoften a a berry,berry, rarely a nut oror drupedrupe

Boscia angustifolia lwrsankursan evergreen tree; berries bitter, edible,edible, cookedcooked seedsseeds eaten;eaten; leavesleaves Menninger, 1977;1977; Burkill,Burkill, tropical AfricaAfrica toto SaudiSaudi and bark used in tisanes; browsed; woodwood hard, usedused forfor locallocal 1985; Peters et al.,aI., 19921992 Arabia carpentry; variously used inin locallocal medicinemedicine Boscia senegalensis evergreen shrub; berries marketed locally, fruit pulp, seedsseeds andand Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Sahel leaves eaten after leaching for 3-4 days andand cooked,cooked, regardedregarded asas 1977; Burkill, 1985;1985; Peters famine food, roastedroasted seedsseeds used asas coffeecoffee substitute;substitute; woodwood usedused et al.,aI., 19921992 for huts; smokysmoky firewoodfirewood Buchholzia coriacea musk tree evergreen tree; fruitfruit thick-skinned,thick-skinned, withwith disagreeabledisagreeable odour, Menninger, 1977;1977; Burkill, West Africa; rain forest boiled and eaten, seeds used asas condiment,condiment, arilaril chewed;chewed; seedsseeds 1985; Peters et aI.,al., 19921992 used medicinally; bark andand leavesleaves usedused medicinallymedicinally ...... w CARYOCARACEAE; fruit fruit aa drupe, stonestone separatingseparating intointo 44 1-seededI-seeded pyrenespyrenes

Caryocar amygdaliferum suari nut; sawarrisawarri seeds woody; almond-flavoured kernelskernels roasted and eaten, source Uphof, 1968; Hedrick, 1972;1972; Colombia nut; caryocar;caryocar; of pleasant-tasting sawarrisawarri or suari fat usedused inin cooking;cooking; fruitfruit usedused Prance and Freitas, 1973;1973; almendron for treating leprosy; fruit pulp used as fishfish poison Usher, 1974;1974; Menninger,Menninger, 1977; Mabberiey,Mabberley, 19871987 Caryocar amygdaliforme caryocar almond-flavoured kernels edible Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Peru 1977 Caryocar brasiliense pequí;pequi; piquí;piqui; tree, drupedrupe 2-seeded,2-seeded, mesocarpmesocarp fleshy,fleshy, endocarpendocarp woody,woody, Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Brazil; occasionallyoccasionally piquia-oil plantplant muricate, stewed kidney-shaped; fruit pulp eaten, mainly as aa 1977; FAO, 1986; Clay and cultivated flavouring, laxative, source of an edible oil; kernelskernels sourcesource of an Clement, 1993;1993; DantasDantas de edible fat; wood used for construction,construction, fencesfences andand fuelfuel Araujo, 19951995 Species andand distribution CommonConunon name Details References

Caryocar coriaceumcoriaceum fruit pulp oily, eaten;eaten; spinyspiny seedseed shellshell difficultdifficult toto remove,remove, kernelkernel Prance and Freitas, 1973;1973; N.E. BrazilBrazil oily, highlyhighly esteemed for food;food; fruitfruit oiloil extractedextracted andand usedused inin Menninger, 19771977 cooking Caryocar glabrum almendro; piquia- kernels eaten fresh, boiled or roasted by natives; timber used for Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, N.E.N . E. SouthSouth America;America; rana shipbuilding; epicarp used as fish poison; inner bark used for 1972; Prance and Freitas, cultivated washing hair andand clothesclothes 1973; Menninger, 1977;1977; FAO, 1986;1986; Clay and Clement, 19931993 Caryocar nuciferumnuciferum souari or swarri large tree; fruitfruit globose, softsoft wooded capsules ca. 1515 cm inin Howes, 1948; Hedrick, Guianas; cultivated in the nut; butternut diameter; pulp yellow, edible; 2-5 pyrenes kidney-shaped,kidney-shaped, up to 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; Caribbean, Surinam, 5 cm long with very hard, woodywoody shell up to 11 cmcm thick,thick, hardhard toto FAO, 1982;1982; PrancePrance andand Malaysia crack; seedsseeds white, almondalmond flavoured, eateneaten rawraw oror roasted,roasted, Freitas, 1973;1973; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, ...... source of pleasant-tastingpleasant-tasting fat.fat. Nuts occasionally marketed in 1984; Mabberley, 1987;1987; ...... +>- Europe, used forfor billiardbilliard balls;balls; timbertimber forfor shipbuildingshipbuilding Verheij and Coronel, 1991;1991; Clay and Clement, 1993;1993; Macrae et al., 19931993 Caryocar villosumvillosum améndoaamendoa de rainforest; kernel, seedseed pulp andand cotyledonscotyledons edible, kernel and Howes, 1948;1948; Prance and N.E. SouthSouth America,America, espinho; arbre a surrounding tissue source of oil; timbertimber forfor heavyheavy constructionconstruction Freitas, 1973;1973; Menninger,Menninger, Atlantic Brazil to French beurre; batsbats and shipbuilding; introduced into Malaysia butbut plantationsplantations lowlow 1977; FAO, 1986; Clay and Guiana sauari; pekea; yielding. Potential for development of fruit and oil Clement, 1993;1993; Prance,Prance, 19941994 pequiá;pequia; piquiápiquia

CHRYSOBALANACEAE; fruit fruit a 1-seeded drupe Chrysobalanus icaco cocoplum; icacoicaco shrub or small tree; cultivatedcultivated for itsits edibleedible fruit;fruit; kernelkernel Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, tropical America and delicious, fruit eaten raw, boiledboiled oror candied;candied; seedseed oiloil usedused asas anan 1977; Burkill, 1985;1985; Africa; cultivated illuminant inin WestWest Africa;Africa; source of timber and fuel; fruit used Mabberley, 1987;1987; VerheijVerheij in tanning and traditional medicine; growngrown asas anan ornamentalornamental and Coronel, 1991;1991; PetersPeters etet al., 19921992 Species andand distribution Conu-nonCommon name -DetaiI-sDetails---- References

Couepia edulis cutia nut; castanhacastanha large forest tree; fruit withwith hard, woodywoody epicarp, veryvery difficultdifficult to Mabberley, 1987;1987; FAO,FAO, Amazonia; occasionallyoccasionally de cutia crack, ovoid;ovoid; nut-likenut-like kernels, eateneaten rawraw oror roasted,roasted, containscontains 1986; Clay and Clement,Clement, cultivated 73%73 % oil, usedused forfor cookingcooking andand soap-makingsoap-making 1993; Prance, 19941994 Couepia longipendula pendula nut;nut; forest tree, bushybushy treetree inin openopen underunder cultivation;cultivation; drupedrupe 4-64-6 cmcm Clay and Clement. 1993;1993; Brazilian, Colombia and castanha de long, epicarp thin, mesocarpmesocarp fibrous,fibrous, woody;woody; nutnut 3-53-5 cmcm long,long, Prance, 19941994 Peruvian Amazonia;Amazonia; galinha; castanhacastanha sweet, eaten raw or roasted;roasted; edibleedible seedseed oiloil semi-drying,semi-drying, easilyeasily formerly cultivated around péndulapendula rancifies, used as an illuminant; seed cakecake edible.edible. WoodWood heavy,heavy, Manaus, some difficult toto work, used in civil and naval constructionconstruction.. ExcellentExcellent experimental plantations potential oil plant. Parinari campestriscampestris drupe small, kernelkernel edibleedible Hedrick, 19721972 Trinidad, Guyana to N. Brazil ..... Parinari curatellifoliacuratellifolia mbula; mupundamupunda evergreen tree; drupe 3-4 cm long, eaten raw, source of a Menninger, 1977; FAO, VI tropical Africa fermented beverage, oily kernel eaten raw, used as anan almondalmond 1982, 1983; Burkill, 1985;1985; substitute or pounded in soup; dr,dry inging seedseed oiloil usedused inin makingmaking Mabberley, 1987;1987; Peters etet varnish or paint; timber for railwayrailway sleepers,sleepers, minemine props,props, al.al.,, 19921992 fuelwood Parinari excelsaexcelsa rough skinnedskinned or evergreen tree; drupes marketedmarketed locally,locally, insipidinsipid pulppulp eateneaten rawraw Hedrick, 1972;1972; FAO, 1983;1983; tropical Africa grey plumplum or fermented, oily kernels eaten raw Burkill, 1985; Peters et al., 1992 Parinari montanamontana drupe large, fibrous, with thick, acrid rind, kernelkernel sweet,sweet, edibleedible Hedrick,Hedrick, 19821982 Guyana, N. BrazilBrazil

COMBRETACEAE; fruitfruit usuallyusually indehiscent, 1-seeded,I-seeded, drupaceous Species andand distribution Common name Details References

Terminalia bellericabel/erica myrobalm kernels eateneaten,, possibly toxic or narcotic; seed source of tannin Exell, 1954; Hedrick, 1972;1972; Indo-Malesia; cultivated and black dye; timber good, sourcesource ofof firewoodfirewood andand charcoal;charcoal; Menninger, 1977;1977; fruit source of commercial myrobalm, used for tanning,tanning, sourcesource of Mabberley, 19871987 a black dyedye Terminalia bentzoébentzoe false benzoin kernels eateneaten Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Mascarine IslandsIslands 1972 Terminalia catappa Barbados, Indian,Indian, kernel enclosed in fibrous flesh and difficultdifficult to open,open, limitinglimiting itsits Howes, 1948;1948; Coode,Coode, 1969;1969; Peninsular Malaysia;Malaysia; Malabar or commercial exploitation; kernelskernels eaten raw or roasted, delicious,delicious, Hedrick, 1972;1972; Thaman,Thaman, widely planted in tropicstropics tropical almondalmond source of Indian almondalmond oil;oil; oiloil cakecake fedfed toto pigs;pigs; timbertimber usedused 1976; Menninger, 1977;1977; for general construction; bark for tanning;tanning; grown as shadeshade tree FAO, 1982;1982; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, and ornamental; oil, leavesleaves andand barkbark medicinalmedicinal 1984; Morton, 1985;1985; Mabberley, 1987; Tow, 19891989 ...... Terminalia chebula myrobalan fruit difficult toto open, kernel edible; dried fruitfruit forfor tanningtanning Menninger, 1977;1977; 0\ India, Sri Lanka,Lanka, MyanmarMyanmar Mabberley, 19871987 Terminalia copelandii kernels edible; source of timbertimber Exell, 19541954 East Indies, PhilippinesPhilippines Terminalia glabrataglabrata kernels eaten, almond flavouredflavoured Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Pacific IslandsIslands 1977 Terminalia impediens kernels edible Coode,Coode, 19691969 New GuineaGuinea Terminalia kaernbachiikaembachii okari nutnut tree; kernelskernels excellent,excellent, oneone ofof thethe best-flavoured,best-flavoured, tropicaltropical nuts Exell, 1964;1964; Coode,Coode, 1969;1969; Papuasia; cultivatedcultivated and a favourite article of diet amongamong the natives;natives; woodwood used forfor Mabberley, 1987;1987; VerheijVerheij furniture and Coronel, 1991;1991; MacraeMacrae et al.,aI., 19931993 Terminalia latifolia kernels eaten, almondalmond flavouredflavoured Hedrick, 19721972 Caribbean Species andand distribution Common name Details References

Terminalia litoralis kernels edible, sometimessometimes eaten by children; usefuluseful timbertimber Smith, 1971;1971; Hedrick,Hedrick, 1972;1972; Fiji, Tonga Menninger, 19771977 Terminalia microcarpa kalumpit fruit 3 cmcm inin diameter;diameter; fleshy,fleshy, acidicacidic kernelskernels eateneaten rawraw oror boiled;boiled; FAO, 19841984 Philippines timber for general construction, ship planking, furniturefurniture and cabinet making

Terminalia nitens sakat fruit oval, 33 cmcm long;long; rawraw kernelkernel eaten;eaten; timbertimber forfor constructionconstruction FAO, 19841984 Philippines and ship planking Terminalia pamea kernels eaten, almondalmond flavouredflavoured Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Guyana; cultivated 1977 Terminalia platyphylla wild plum kernels eaten Smith, 1971; Hedrick, 19721972 N. AustraliaAustralia

--...l COMPOSITAE;COMPOSITAE; fruitfruit usually aa cypsela, usuallyusually withwith persistentpersistent pappus,pappus, rarelyrarely a drupe

Helianthus annuus sunflowersunflower seeds eaten as a dessert nut and health food, boiledboiled or roasted,roasted, Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, North America; widely ground to a flour or inin soup;soup; sourcesource ofof aa commercialcommercial seed oil 1977; Rosengarten, 1984;1984; cultivated used in cooking and margarine; stemstem aa flaxflax substitute;substitute; oilcakeoilcake Purseglove, 1985;1985; and leavesleaves used asas fodder; cultivated as anan ornamentalornamental Mabberley, 19871987

CORYLACEAE; fruitfruit a nut

Corylus americana American filbert nuts with edible seeds,wellseeds, well flavoured but smallersmaller and thickerthicker Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, E. NorthNorth America;America; or hazelnut shelled than C. avellana;avellana; cultivatedcultivated asas anan ornamentalornamental 1972; Krochmal, 1982;1982; cultivated Mabberley, 19871987 Species andand distribution Common namename Details References

CorylusCory Ius avellana Eurasia, filbert, hazel or shrub bearing nuts with edible seeds, seedsseeds marketedmarketed Bobiov, 1936;1936; Howes, 1948;1948; cultivated cob nutnut commercially, source of edible filbert oil; coppicecoppice poles used for Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, hurdles, wattlewattle and daub and firewood; basketry; hybridizeshybridizes 1977; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984;1984; readily with A. maximamaxima Mabberley, 1987;1987; BianchiniBianchini etetaI.,1988; al., 1988; CoryCorylus Ius chinensis Chinese hazelnut,hazelnut, Nuts with edibleedible seedsseeds Howes, 19481948 China Chinese filbert CoryCorylus Ius columacolurna Turkish or IndianIndian tree bearing hard-shelledhard-shelled nuts with edible seeds,seeds, nutsnuts marketedmarketed Bobiov, 1936;1936; Howes,Howes, 1948;1948; SS.E..E. Europe,Europe, S.W.S.W. Asia;Asia; hazelnut, Turkish commercially as cobnuts, kernels sometimes processed for oil; Hedrick, 1972;1972; Mabberley,Mabberley, cultivated filbert, wood used for furniture and turnery, formerlyformerly usedused forfor spinningspinning 1987; Rathore, 19931993 wheels CoryCorylus Ius comutacornuta beaked filbert; nuts with well-flavoured, edible seeds; more coldcold hardyhardy thanthan C.C. Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, ...... N.E. NorthNorth AmericaAmerica beaked hazelhazel americana 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; 00 Krochmal, 1998219982 Corylus feroxferox Himalayan nuts small, thick shelled with edible seeds but bristlybristly involucreinvolucre Howes, 1948; Hedrick, 19721972 Himalayan region hazelnut, curri limits its commercial exploitation for foodfood CoryCorylus Ius heterophylla Siberian hazelnut nuts with edible seeds, marketedmarketed commerciallycommercially Bobiov, 19361936 E. Mongolia,Mongolia, Manchuria,Manchuria, N. China;China; cultivatedcultivated Japan CoryCorylus Ius maxima giant filbert, shrub or small tree bearing nuts with edible seed; seedseed oil for Howes, 1948; Hedrick, S.E. Europe;Europe; cultivatedcultivated Lambert's or cooking, confectionery, especially nut-chocolate,nut-chocolate, formerlyformerly usedused 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; Lombardy filbert,filbert, for paint, soap,soap, etc.;etc.; charcoalcharcoal usedused forfor gunpowder;gunpowder; hybridizeshybridizes Mabberley, 1987;1987; BianchiniBianchini readily with AA.. avellana et al.,aI., 1988;1988; Corylus sieboldiana Japanese hazelhazel nuts edible but bristly involucreinvolucre limitslimits itsits commercialcommercial exploitationexploitation Bobiov, 19361936 (including var. for food mandshsurica) China, Japan Species andand distribution CommonConunon name Details References

Corylus tibetica Tibetan hazelnut, nuts with edible seedsseeds butbut bristlybristly involucreinvolucre limitslimits itsits commercialcommercial Howes, 1948;1948; RoeckleinRoecklein andand China Tibetan filbert exploitation for food Ping Sun Leun, 19871987

CORYNOCARPACEAE ; ; fruitfruit a drupe

Corynocarpus laevilaevigata gata karaka nut,nut, NewNew tree, roastedroasted seedsseeds staplestaple foodfood of thethe Maoris,Maoris, newnew seedsseeds toxictoxic Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, New Zealand Zealand laurellaurel unless steamed for a day and soaked; fleshy pulp eaten raw 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; although embryo considered toxic unless soakedsoaked inin saltsalt waterwater Mabberley, 19871987

CUCURBITACEAE; fruit fruit aa berryberry (pepo if hard-walled), less oftenoften aa capsule, rarely samaroidsamaroid

...... 1.0 Acanthosicyos horrida nara; narram; spiny shrub; gourd pulppulp andand seedsseeds eateneaten byby Hottentots;Hottentots; seedsseeds Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, Namib desert narra melon; oily, marketed in Cape TownTown as almondalmond substitute 1977; Arnold et aI.,al., 1985;1985; butter nut Mabberley, 19871987 Citrullus lanatus watermelon seeds eaten raw or roastedroasted as aa dessertdessert nut;nut; rawraw pulppulp alsoalso eaten,eaten, Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, tropical Africa andand Asia;Asia; seed oil used for cooking,cooking, soapsoap andand asas anan illuminant;illuminant; seedcakeseedcake 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; cultivated fed to livestock; also used asas aa masticatorymasticatory andand inin locallocal medicinemedicine Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Mabberley, 1987;1987; Purseglove, 1987;1987; Peters et al., 19921992 Cucurbita maximamaxima pumpkin; winter annual herbherb;; flesh of maturemature fruitsfruits fine-textured, used as a table Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Central and SouthSouth squash vegetable, in pies and jams; seeds eaten as a dessert nut Purseglove, 19871987 America; cultivatedcultivated Cucurbita mixtamixta pumpkin;pumpkin; winterwinter annual herb; seeds eaten as a dessert nut, fleshflesh stringystringy Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Central America;America; squash; cushaw Purseglove, 19851985 cultivated Species andand distribution Common name Details References

Cucurbita moschata pumpkin, winter annual herbherb;; flesh ofof mature fruitsfruits fine-textured,fine-textured, used asas a table Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Central America;America; squash vegetable, in pies and jams; seeds eaten as a dessertdessert nutnut Purseglove, 19871987 cultivated Cucurbita pepo pumpkin; summersummer annual herbherb;; seeds eaten raw, roasted or fried as a dessertdessert nut or Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Central America;America; squash; vegetablevegetable in food;food ; baked pulpy flesh eaten in pies;pies; pulp fedfed toto livestock;livestock; 1977; Rosengarten, 1984;1984; cultivated marrow some cultivars grown as an ornamental;ornamental; used asas aa vermifugevermifuge Mabberley,Mabberley, 1987;1987; Purseglove,Purseglove, 19871987 TelfairiaTeljairia pedata oyster nut; dioeciousdioecious,, woodywoody stemmed,stemmed, climbing climbing vine; vine; gourd gourd large large,, < <15 15 kg, Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, E.E. Africa;Africa; cultivatedcultivated African pumpkin; deeply ridged, seeds discoid, 3-4 x 1.5 cm, upup toto 140,140, envelopedenveloped 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; Zanzibar oil vinevine in fibrous, bitter husk; seedsseeds washed,washed, sundriedsundried andand dehusked;dehusked; Rosengarten, 1984;1984; kernel eaten raw or roastedroasted and inin cooking,cooking, BrazilBrazil nutnut flavour,flavour, Mabberley, 1987; Peters et seed oil used in cosmetics, soap-soap- andand candle-making;candle-making; the bitterbitter aI.,al., 1992;1992; MacraeMacrae et aI.al.,, ...... husk limits its commercial exploitation as an oilseedoilseed 1993 otv kernel ca. 6%6 % fat, 27%27 % protein,protein, richrich inin edibleedible oiloil

DIPTEROCARPACEAE; fruits,fruits, dry, indehiscent,indehiscent, 1-seeded1-seeded with woody pericarp

Anisoptera thurifera palosapis deciduous forestforest tree;tree; fruit 2-15 mm in diameter; seeds eaten raw FAO, 19841984 Philippines or roasted Shorea sp. Borneo illipe nut emergent rainforest tree; kernels commercial source of specialityspeciality Blicher-Mathiesen,Blicher -Mathiesen, Malaysia, Borneo, NewNew fats (cocoa butter equivalents) used as cocoacocoa butterbutter substitutesubstitute inin 1994; Howes, 1948;1948; Guinea chocolate formulationsformulations alsoalso inin cosmetics, formerly important for Menninger, 1977;1977; soap and candles; valuable timber tree Mabberley, 1987;1987; Vateria indica dammar seeds usedused forfor making aa bread;bread; seedseed fatfat -- "Malabar fat" or Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, S. IndiaIndia "dhupa fat" used for candles, etcetc.;.; resinresin - "white"white danuriar"dammar" or 19771977;; Mabberley, 19871987 "piney varnish" formerly importantimportant Species andand distribution Common name Details References

ELAEOCARPACEAE; fruit fruit aa capsulecapsule oror drupedrupe

Elaeocarpus bancroftii karanda nut; nut edible, excellent flavour, equallingequalling thatthat ofof Macadamia;Macadamia; Mabberley, 1987;1987; Tow,Tow, Australia Johnstone River virtually unknown in cultivation, CSIROCSIRO interestedinterested inin developing;developing; 1989; Lazarides and Hince, almond; karanda timber 1993 quandong

EUPHORBIACEAE; fruitfruit a 3-lobed3-1obed capsule

Aleurites moluccana candle-nut; fruit fleshy; nutnut 1, globose, ca. 3 cmcm inin diameter,diameter, shellshell harsh, Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, S.E. Asia;Asia; widelywidely candleberry; thick, kernel white, oily, ca. 55 g;g; kernelskernels eateneaten whenwhen thoroughlythoroughly 1972;1972; Rosengarten, 1984;1984; cultivated in the tropics balucanat; Indian dry or after roasting to destroy mild toxins, used in curries; Mabberley, 1987;1987; Tow, ...... or source of the edible "China wood oil", "candle-nut oil", tv source of the edible "China wood oil", "candle-nut oil", 1989; Lazarides and Hince,Hince, ...... Otaheite walnut "lumbang"Iumbang oil", oil", "walnut-oil""walnut-oil" oror "artist's"artist's oil", used inin soaps,soaps, paintspaints 1993; Macrae et aI.,al., 1993;1993; and quick-drying varnishes and as an illuminant;illuminant; oilyoily seedsseeds Burkill, 19941994 strung together serve asas candles,candles, hencehence vernacularvernacular name;name; cultivated as an ornamental; wood not durable, usedused forfor fuelfuel andand matches Caryodendron amazonicum Possibly cospecific withwith C. orinocense; uses as for C.C. orinocenseorinocense Reckin, 1983;1983 ; ClementClement andand Villachica, 19941994 NW Brazil, Colombia,Colombia, Peru Caryodendron orinocensorinocense e inchi;inchi; tacay or kernel surrounded by thin shell,shell, easilyeasily brokenbroken withwith fingers;fingers; Howes, 1948;1948 ; Menninger,Menninger, Colombia, Ecuador, taccy nut; orinoco roasted seeds eaten, flavourflavour likelike CorylusCorylus avellana (hazel);(hazel); sourcesource 1977; Reckin, 1983;1983; Venezuela; smallsmall nut of edible oil.oil. Mabberley, 1987;1987; ClementClement plantations in Colombia and Villachica,Villachica, 19941994 and Ecuador Species andand distribution Common name Details References

Cnidoscolus oligandrus seeds with 40-5040-50%% oiloil,, eaten in times of drought Menninger, 19771977 Brazil Elateriospermum tapos tapos seeds largelarge,, oily, eateneaten afterafter boilingboiling to removeremove HCN Menninger, 1977;1977; SS.. Thailand, Peninsular Mabberley, 19871987 Malaysia Manniophytom fulvum gasso nut seed kernel boiled and eaten, marketedmarketed locally;locally; seedseed containscontains Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, Tropical Africa 50% oil, sourcesource of aa dryingdrying oiloil formerlyformerly consideredconsidered forfor paintpaint 19771977;; Mabberley, 1987;1987; manufacturemanufacture;; liane with fibres used for ropesropes andand netsnets Peters et al., 19921992 Omphalea diandra cobnutcob nut seeds edible, embryo deleteriousdeleterious andand requiresrequires removalremoval Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, Caribbean 1972; Menninger, 19771977 Omphalea megacarpa Russell river nutnut large nuts eaten rawraw Menninger, 19771977 Caribbean N -N Omphalea triandra Jamaican cob nut seeds eaten raw or roastedroasted afterafter removalremoval ofof deleteriousdeleterious embryo,embryo, Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, tropical America source of a sweet, fine-flavouredfine-flavoured oil 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; Mabberley, 19871987 Phyllanthus emblica emblic; ambalambal seeds edible, made into sweetmeats; dried fruit provides "emblic"emblic Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, tropical Asia; cultivatedcultivated myrobalan", used in locallocal medicinemedicine and sourcesource of tanbarktanbark andand 1977; Mabberely, 19871987 dyes Pimelodendron seeds edible; bark purgative; milky latex used asas a varnish Menninger, 1977;1977; amboinicum Mabberely, 19871987 Moluccas Plukenetia conophora owusa nutnut liane cultivated forfor its oilseeds for use inin cooking;cooking; kernelskernels eateneaten Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, Sierra Leone to Zaire raw 1977; Mabberely, 19871987 Ricinodendron heudelotii erimado edible nuts and oilseeds; trade timbertimber Menninger, 1977;1977; tropical Africa Mabberley, 19871987 Species andand distribution CommonConuilon name Details References

Schinziophyton rautaneniirautanenii manketti nutnut Raw pulp and seed kernel eaten, aa staplestaple dietdiet ofof thethe KalahaiKalahai Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, S. AngolaAngola and N.N. NamibiaNamibia bushmen; manketti nutnut oil used in food, varnishes, etc. timber 1977; Mabberley, 1987;1987; eastwards to TanzaniaTanzania andand used as a balsabalsa OchromaOchroma lagopus,/agopus, substitutesubstitute with possible use for Peters et al., 19921992 N. MozambiqueMozambique paper-making Tetracarpidium conophor; awusaawusa lianne;liarme; seedseed eateneaten rawraw oror roasted,roasted, marketed locally; fruit,fruit, leaves Menninger, 1977;1977; conophorum nut and young shoots edible;edible; sourcesource of aa dryingdrying oil Mabberley, 1987; Peters et West Africa; cultivatedcultivated al. 19921992

FAGACEAE; fruitfruit a nut

Castanea crenata Japanese chestnut nuts variable in size, some 5 cm in diameter, edible but bitter Camus, 1929; Howes, 1948;1948; Japan; cultivatedcultivated due to tannin content; fed to pigs in Japan; timber used for Uphof, 1968;1968; Usher, 1974;1974; >-' tv Vol sleepers, furniture,furniture, cabinetcabinet work,work, shipbuilding;shipbuilding; cultivated,cultivated, Menninger, 1977;1977; resistant to chestnut blight, grown asas anan ornamentalornamental Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Mabberley, 19871987 Castanea dentata American or nuts smaller and sweeter than C. sativa; bestbest treestrees almostalmost extinctextinct Camus, 1929; Howes, 1948;1948; E. NorthNorth AmericaAmerica North AmericanAmerican due to chestnutchestnut blight, CryphonectriaCryphonectria parasitica andand commercialcommercial Uphof, 1968; Hedrick, 1972;1972; chestnut; sweetsweet market ruined; marketed and sold roasted in towns; eaten by Usher, 1974;1974; Menninger,Menninger, chestnut native Americans, also leaf tea used to treat whooping cough, as 1977; Krochmal, 1982; sedative and tonic, bark for dysentery; importantimportant timber for RosRosengarten, engarten, 1984;1984; furniture, fencing, pulp and source of tannintannin Mabberley, 19871987 Castanea henryi nuts excellent, small, edible; timber for building Camus, 1929;1929; Howes,Howes, 1948;1948; China coast Uphof, 1968;1968; Usher, 19741974 Castanea mollisima Chinese chestnutchestnut nuts edibleedible,, sweeter thanthan C.C. sativasativa butbut lessless sweetsweet than C. Camus,Camus, 1929;1929; Howes,Howes, 1948;1948; N.W.N. W. China;China; cultivatedcultivated dentata, resistantresistant toto chestnutchestnut blight;blight; cultivatedcultivated andand soldsold inin locallocal Uphof, 1968;1968; Usher,Usher, 1974;1974; China, introducedintroduced NorthNorth markets; source of timber andand fuelfuel Menninger, 1977;1977; Krochmal,Krochmal, America 1982; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 19841984 Species andand distribution Common name ---- DetailS-ReferencesDetails References

Castanea ozarkensisozarkensis ozak chinquapin nuts small, edibleedible Krochmal,Krochmal, 1998219982 central USA; limestonelimestone Castanea pumila Virginia chestnut; evergreen tree; nuts small, sweet,sweet, veryvery palatablepalatable butbut difficultdifficult to Camus,Camus, 1929;1929; Howes,Howes, 1948;1948; E. NorthNorth America;America; chinquapinchinquapin;; shellshell,, eaten by local Americans, formerlyformerly soldsold locally;locally; nutsnuts usedused UphUphof,of, 1968;1968; Hedrick, 1972;1972; cultivated Allegheny to fatten pigs; also strung toto makemake necklaces;necklaces; rootroot astridgent,astringent, UsherUsher,, 1974;1974; Menninger,Menninger, chinquapin used as tonic and to treat fevers;fevers; timbertimber forfor railwayrailway sleeperssleepers 19771977;; Krochmal,Krochmal , 1982;1982; Mabberley,Mabberley, 19871987 Castanea sativasativa Spanish or sweetsweet tree; nuts starchy,starchy, soldsold roasted,roasted, flourflour usedused inin cooking,cooking, especiallyespecially Camus, 1929;1929; Uphof,Uphof, 1968;1968; Mediterranean to chestnut in Italy, candiedcandied (marrons glacés);glaces); timber used for sleepers,sleepers, Hedrick, 1972;1972; Usher, 1974;1974; Caucasus; cultivatedcultivated inin coppice timbertimber for fencing, gates, walking sticks, cellulose; bark Menninger, 1977;1977; mild temperate Europe and used in tanning; cultivated as ornamental and for erosionerosion controlcontrol Mabberley,Mabberley, 1987;1987; BianchiniBianchini subtropical regionsregions et al.,aI. , 1988;1988; VerheijVerheij andand ..... Coronel, 19911991 N ~ Castanea seguiniiseguinii nuts small, edible, used for flour CamusCamus,1929;,I929; Uphof,Uphof, 1968;1968; E. andand centralcentral ChinaChina Usher,Usher, 19741974 CastanoCastanopsispsis gon nuts eaten raw or cookedcooked MenningerMenninger,, 19771977 acuminatissima Myanmar Castanopsis argentea seeds edible; bark source of dye; timbertimber MabberleyMabberley,, 1987;1987; VerheijVerheij Indo-Malesia and Coronel,Coronel, 19911991 CastanoCastanopsispsis argyrophyllaargyrophyUa nuts edible Menninger,Menninger, 19771977 India Castanopsis boisii nuts edible, marketed locallylocally UphofUphof,, 1968;1968; Usher,Usher, 19741974 N. VietnamVietnam CastanoCastanopsispsis chinensischinensis nuts edible Menninger,Menninger, 19771977 China Species andand distribution Common name Details References

CastanopsisCastanopsis chrysophyllachrysophylla golden-leaved tree evergreenevergreen;; nuts ripenripen inin secondsecond year,year, 8-128-12 mmmm long,long, sweet,sweet, Howes, 1948;1948; Uphof, 1968;1968; S.W. USAUSA chestnut; golden eaten by native Americans; wood used for agriculturalagricultural Usher, 1974;1974; Krochmal,Krochmal, or giant implements 19821982;; Mabberley,Mabberley, 19871987 chinquapin CastanoCastanopsispsis costata berangan duriduri tree;tree; nutsnuts eateneaten parched,parched, roastedroasted oror boiled,boiled, usedused inin confectionery;confectionery; Howes, 1948;1948; Soepadmo,Soepadmo, Thailand, Peninsular wood hard, difficult to work;work; bark tannintannin source 19721972;; Menninger, 1977;1977; Malaysia, Borneo,Borneo, Verheij and Coronel, 19911991 Sumatra; lowlandlowland toto submontanesub montane forest Castanopsis cuspidatus acorns small, sweet, eaten boiled or roasted; planted in Japan as Uphof,Uphof, 1968;1968; Hedrick,Hedrick, 1972;1972; Korea, S.S. ChinaChina an ornamental; leaves formerly used as rice bowlsbowls UsherUsher,, 1974;1974; Menninger,Menninger, 19771977;; Rosengarten, 1984;1984; ...... Mabberley, 19871987 tv VI Castanopsis hysteris nuts eateneaten;; timbertimber forfor construction,construction ,sleepers, sleepers, cheapcheap furniture,furniture, Howes, 1948;1948; CSIR,CSIR, 19921992 E. HimalayasHimalayas tools, etc.etc. tannintannin potential;potential; coppicescoppices wellwell Castanopsis indica nuts eaten; timber for construction, panelling,panelling, tools, fuel;fuel; Howes, 1948;1948; CSIR,CSIR, 19921992 tropical HimalayasHimalayas browsed Castanopsis inermis beranganbe rang an nuts eaten boiled, parched or roasted,roasted, usedused inin confectionery,confectionery, Camus, 1929;1929; Uphof, 1968;1968; Thailand,Thailand, PeninsularPeninsular marketed in Sumatra; wood hardhard,, difficult to work;work; barkbark tannintannin Usher,Usher, 1974;1974; Menninger,Menninger, Malaysia, Sumatra; source 19771977;; Verheij and Coronel, cultivated 1991 Castanopsis javanicajavanica cultivated in Java for its edible nuts;nuts; post timber;timber; bark usedused forfor Howes,Howes, 1948;1948; Soepadmo,Soepadmo, MalesiaMalesia;; forests rice basketsbaskets 19721972;; Menninger, 1977;1977; Verheij and Coronel, 19911991 Castanopsis lucidaLucida berangan papan nuts eaten raw, boiled or roasted,roasted, usedused inin confectionery;confectionery; woodwood MenningerMenninger,, 1977;1977; VerheijVerheij Thailand, Peninsular hard, difficultdifficult to work;work; barkbark tannintannin sourcesource and Coronel,Coronel, 19911991 MalayMalaysia,sia, Sumatra, BorneoBorneo Species andand distribution ConunonCommon name __ u . DefailsDetails __ u References

Castanopsis malaccensis berangan gajahgajah nuts eaten raw, boiled or roasted,roasted, usedused inin confectionery,confectionery, causescauses Menninger, 1977;1977; VerheijVerheij Thailand, Peninsular diarrhoea if eaten to excess; wood hard, difficultdifficult to work;work; barkbark and Coronel, 19911991 Malaysia, SumatraSumatra tannin source Castanopsis megacarpa nuts bitter, eateneaten Menninger, 1977;1977; VerheijVerheij Malaysia and Coronel,Coronel, 19911991 Castanopsis philipensis nuts eaten; timber Uphof, 1968;1968; Usher, 1974;1974; Philippines Verheij and Coronel, 19911991 Castanopsis sclerophyllasclerophyUa nuts eaten locally Uphof, 1968; Usher, 19741974 E. andand centralcentral ChinaChina Castanopsis sempervirens bush or DudleyDudley nuts eaten by native Americans, good roastedroasted andand servedserved withwith Krochmal, 19821982 California sierra chinquapinchinquapin butter and salt ..... tv Castanopsis tibetana nuts eaten locally Camus, 1929;1929; Uphof,Uphof, 1968;1968; 0\ China, Tibet Usher, 19741974 Castanopsis tribuloides evergreen tree; nuts roasted and eaten; timber durable, used forfor Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, subtropical Himalayas planks, shingles and fuelfuel 1977; CSIR, 19921992 Castanopsis wallichiiwallichii berangan duri tree; nuts small, rindrind thickthick andand difficultdifficult to open, eateneaten parched,parched, Howes, 1948;1948; Soepadma,Soepadma, Thailand, PeninsularPeninsular roasted or boiled, used inin confectionery;confectionery; wood hard, difficult to 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; Malaysia; forest work; bark tannintannin sourcesource Verheij and Coronel, 19911991 Fagus grandifoliagrandifolia American,American, nuts shaken fromfrom tree after frost has opened husks or raked from Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, E. NorthNorth AmericaAmerica Carolina, red, the ground; eaten roasted, consideredconsidered delicious, alsoalso asas coffeecoffee 1972; Menninger,Merminger, 1977; grey or whitewhite substitute; leaves eaten by some nativenative Americans; leafleaf infusionsinfusions Krochmal, 1982;1982; beech used to treat burns,burns, scaldsscalds andand frostfrost bite;bite; leavesleaves andand barkbark sourcesource Rosengarten, 1984;1984; of tannin and dyes; timbertimber source;source; cultivatedcultivated asas ornamentalornamental Mabberley, 19871987 Fagus sylvaticasylvatica European beechbeech nuts eaten fresh, dried or roasted,roasted, inin cookingcooking oror asas coffeecoffee Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, Europe;Europe, cultivatedcultivated substitute, oiloil source of salad oil and butter substitute, also as an 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; illuminant; timber;timber; cultivated as anan ornamentalornamental RosRosengarten, engarten, 1984;1984; Mabber1ey,Mabberley, 19871987 Species andand distribution ConunonCommon name Details References

Lithocarpus cornea evergreen treetree;; ground acorns eaten,eaten, marketed locally;locally; wood CamusCamus,, 1936-54;1936-54; Howes, S. China used for poles, carpentry,carpentry, utensils,utensils, wagons,wagons, 19481948;; Uphof, 1968;1968; Hedrick,Hedrick, 19721972;; Usher, 1974;1974; Menninger, 1977;1977; RosengartenRosengarten,, 19841984 Lithocarpus densiflorusdensiflorus tanoak;tanoak; tanbarktanbark acorns mature end of secondsecond season;season; acornsacorns leachedleached inin hothot waterwater KrochmalKrochmal,, 19821982 AsiaAsia,, introduced W. USAUSA oak to removeremove tannins, dried, groundground andand eateneaten byby nativenative AmericansAmericans Lithocarpus philippinensis ulayan tree; acornsacorns eaten roastedroasted or boiled,boiled, alsoalso usedused inin candiescandies FAO, 19841984 Philippines NothojagusNothofagus proceraprocera rauli roble deciduous tree; acorns edibleedible;; timber used for furniture Menninger, 1977;1977; Hoffmann,Hoffmann, Chile 1978; Mabberley, 19871987

...... Quercus aegilops manna oak deciduous tree; acorns used for makingmaking bread Camus, 1936-54;1936-54; Howes,Howes, N -.l subsp. persica 19481948;; Hedrick, 1972;1972; Iran, IraqIraq Menninger, 19771977 Quercus agrifolia coast live or evergreen tree; acorns eaten raw or roastedroasted byby nativenative Americans,Americans, Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, S.W.S.W. NorthNorth AmericaAmerica Californian field also ground for baking 1972; SaundersSaunders,, 1976;1976; oak MenningerMenninger,, 19771977 Quercus alba white or Quebec deciduous treetree;; acorns sweet, eaten dried, boiled or roastedroasted byby Camus, 1936-54;1936-54; Howes,Howes, E. NorthNorth AmericaAmerica oak native Americans, also ground for bakingbaking oror usedused asas coffeecoffee 19481948;; Uphof,Uphof, 1968;1968; ssubstitute;ubstitute; important source of constructionconstruction timbertimber andand fuel;fuel ; Hedrick, 1972;1972; Usher,Usher, 1974;1974; basketry Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Mabberley,Mabberley, 19871987 Quercus cocciferacoccifera kermes oak evergreen shrubshrub,, acorns ripening in second year, formerlyformerly eaten Howes,Howes , 1948;1948 ; Hedrick,Hedrick, Mediterranean 19721972;; MenningerMenninger,, 1977;1977 ; Species andand distribution Common name DetailsDetails-References

Quercus emoryiemoryi Emory or evergreen tree; acorns sweet and palatable, eaten by native Howes, 1948;1948; KearneyKearney andand S.S. Arizona,Arizona, NewNew MexicoMexico blackjack oak; Americans and Mexicans; timber source; good watershedwatershed Peebles, 1951;1951; bellota protectionprotection;; browsed Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, 1977; USDA, 19881988 Quercus jrainettofrainetto Hungarian oak tree; ground acorns used as aa coffeecoffee substitute;substitute; cultivated 'asas an Davison, 19941994 Balkans ornamental Quercus gambeliigambe/ii Gambel or shin deciduous tree;tree; ground acorns edible, used as flour; browsedbrowsed byby Howes, 1948;1948; Uphof,Uphof, 1968;1968; W. NorthNorth AmericaAmerica oak game and livestocklivestock Usher, 1974;1974; Mabberley,Mabberley, 19871987;; USDA, 19881988 Quercus garryana Garry, westernwestern oror tree; acorns highlyhighly palatable, eateneaten byby nativenative Americans;Americans; Howes, 1948;1948; Uphof, 1968;1968; British Columbia to Oregon white oak important timber tree; browsed by cattlecattle andand sheepsheep Hedrick, 1972;1972; Usher,Usher, 1974;1974; California Menninger, 1977;1977; ...... tv Mabberley, 1987;1987; USDA,USDA, CXl 1988 Quercus g/abraglabra acorns eaten locally Camus, 1936-74;1936-74; Uphof,Uphof, Japan 1968; Usher, 1974;1974; Rosengarten, 19841984 Quercus g/aucaglauca acorns eaten Menninger, 19771977 Himalayas Quercus grisea grey, evergreen, tree or shrub;shrub; acornsacorns eateneaten byby nativenative AmericansAmericans Hedrick, 19721972 S.WS.W.. NorthNorth AmericaAmerica live or Mexican blue oak Quercus ilex holm oak, holly evergreen tree; acorns occasionally eaten; oak timber used forfor Kuzeneva,Kuzeneva, 1936;1936; Camus,Camus, subsp. ilexilex oak; cultivated furniture; galls used for tanning;tanning; alsoalso plantedplanted asas anan ornamentalornamental 1936-54; Howes, 1948;1948; Mediterranean excluding Uphof, 1968;1968; Hedrick,Hedrick, 1972;1972; the Iberian Peninsula Camus, 1974;1974; Merminger,Menninger, 1977; Mabberley,Mabberley, 19871987 Species andand distribution Common name Details ___ u_ References

subspsubsp,. rotundifolia evergreen tree, cultivated in Spain and Portugal for its acorns, Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, Spain, Portugal, N.N. AfricaAfrica which are roasted and eaten, also source ofof oiloil 1977 Quercus kelloggii California black deciduous tree;tree; acorns used by Indians for food;food ; browsed by Saunders,Saunders, 1976;1976; Menninger,Menninger, California or KelloggKellogg oak game and livestock; wood used for fuelfuel 19771977;; USDA, 19881988 Quercus libani Lebanon oak deciduous tree; acorns roasted andand eateneaten Townsend and Guest, 19801980 Middle East Quercus lobataZobala California or massive tree; ground acorns formerlyformerly aa favouritefavourite foodfood ofof native native Uphof, 1968;1968; Hedrick,Hedrick, 1972;1972; California valley white oakoak Americans;Americans; important timber tree Usher, 1974;1974; Saunders,Saunders, 1976; Menninger, 1977;1977; Mabberley, 1987;1987; USDA,USDA, 1988 ...... tv \0 Quercus macrocarpa bur oakoak acorns large, eaten raw oror roastedroasted byby nativenative Americans,Americans, alsoalso Menninger, 19771977 North America ground for bakingbaking Quercus macrolepismacroZepis camata, camatina evergreen tree; ripe acorns eaten boiled or raw;raw; cupscups -- "valonia""valonia" Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick, SS.. Balkan,Balkan, AegeanAegean or valonia oak and unripe fruits - "carnatas""carnatas" or "carnatina""carnatina" usedused forfor tanningtanning 19721972;; Menninger, 19771977

Quercus marilandica black jack oakoak acorns eaten Howes, 19481948 E. USAUSA Quercus nigra black jack or treetree;; acorns formerly used by IndiansIndians for food;food; woodwood forfor fuelfuel Uphof, 1968;1968; Usher,Usher, 19741974 S.E. USAUSA possum oak Quercus oblongifoliaobZongifolia evergreen or live tree or shrub;shrub; acornsacorns eateneaten byby nativenative AmericansAmericans HedrickHedrick,, 19721972 SS.W..W. USAUSA oak QuercuQuercuss petraeapetraea ssessileessile oakoak acorns eaten MabberleyMabberley,, 1987 1987 Europe Species andand distribution CommonConunon namename------DetailsDetails References

Quercus phellos willow oak acorns eaten Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, N.E. NorthNorth AmericaAmerica 1977 Quercus prinus basket, chestnut, deciduous tree;tree; acornsacorns sweet,sweet, 44 cm long, eaten raw or roasted by Camus, 1936-74;1936-74; Hedrick, S. USAUSA chinquapin or cow native Americans, also ground for baking; acorns eaten by 1972; Saunders, 1976;1976; oak livestock; important source of tanbark; timbertimber Menninger, 1977;1977; Mabberley, 19871987 Quercus robur English, French, deciduous tree;tree; acorns bitter, used as famine food, groundground acornsacorns Camus, 1936-54;1936-54; Howes, Europe, MediterraneanMediterranean Scandinavian, used as coffeecoffee substitute;substitute; acorns eateneaten byby pigs;pigs; sweetsweet manna-likemanna-like 1948; Uphof, 1968;1968; Hedrick, Polish, blackblack oror exudate usedused asas sweetener; important timbertimber tree;tree; wood sourcesource of 1972; Usher, 1974;1974; truffle oak acetic acid; bark and galls source of tannin; galls source of acetic Menninger, 1977;1977; acid Mabberley, 19871987 Quercus stellata iron or post oakoak tree or shrub;shrub; acornsacorns eateneaten raw oror roastedroasted byby nativenative Americans,Americans, Camus, 1936-54;1936-54; Howes,Howes, ...... Vl E. USAUSA also ground for baking; wood for charcoalcharcoal 1948; Uphof, 1968;1968; Hedrick,Hedrick, o 1972; Usher, 1974;1974; Menninger, 1977;1977; Mabberley, 19871987 Quercus suber cork oak evergreen tree; acornsacorns sometimessometimes eaten roasted;roasted; thickthick barkbark sourcesource Hedrick, 1972;1972; S. EuropeEurope of commercial cork Menninger, 1977;1977; Mabberley, 19871987 Quercus undulata Rocky Mountain low shrub; acorns sweet, eaten by nativenative Americans;Americans; wood used Camus, 1936-54;1936-54; Howes, California scrub or wavyleafwavy leaf for fuel;fuel; barkbark usedused forfor tanningtanning 1948; Uphof, 1968; Hedrick, oak 1972; Usher, 1974;1974; Menninger, 19771977 Quercus virginiana live oak acorns eaten raw or roastedroasted by nativenative Americans,Americans, alsoalso groundground forfor Uphof, 1968; Hedrick, 1972;1972; E. NorthNorth AmericaAmerica baking, also source of sweet cooking oil; timber formerly Usher, 1974;1974; Menninger,Menninger, important for ship-building; bark used for tanningtanning 1977; Mabberley, 19871987 Species aridand distributiondistriliution Common name Details References

GUTTIFERAE; fruitfruit a drupe, berryberry oror septicidal septicidal capsulecapsule

Allanblackia floribunda tallow tree;tree; seeds edible, source of oils, usedused asas aa butterbutter substitute,substitute, suitablesuitable Menninger, 1977;1977; West Africa kisidwe for soap making; seedcake too bitter cattle food Mabberley, 1987; Peters et ai.,al., 19921992 Allanblackia stuhlmannii evergreen tree; seeds yield an edible fat used in cooking,cooking, asas anan FAO, 1983;1983; Peters et al.,ai., Tanzania illuminant and liniment. Seeds marketed; potentialpotential plantationplantation cropcrop 1992 Allanblackia ulugurensis evergreen tree; seedsseeds yieldyield an edibleedible fatfat usedused inin cookingcooking andand asas FAO, 1983;1983; Peters et al.,ai., Tanzania an illuminant; sapsap producesproduces aa yellowyellow dye.dye. SeedsSeeds exported;exported; 1992 potential plantation crop Garcinia conrauana seeds edible Menninger, 19771977 Cameroon >-' V.l >-' Garcinia cowacowa aril and pericarp good flavour Mabberley, 19771977 Assam, Myanmar Garcinia indica cocum; kokumkokum fruit pulp edible, seeds source of edible fatfat -- "kokum" or "Goa"Goa Hedrick, 1972;1972; Mabberley,Mabberley, tropical Asia butter", pericarppericarp usedused toto flavourflavour curriescurries 1987 Garcinia kolakola bitter or falsefalse kolakola pulp eaten raw, rindrind used inin curries,curries, seedsseeds eateneaten raw,raw, chewedchewed Menninger, 1977;1977; PetersPeters etet West Africa with a bitter, astringent and resinous taste; rootroot aa chewstickchewstick al.,ai., 19921992 Garcinia lateriflora seeds edible Menninger, 19771977 Philippines Garcinia mangostanamangostana mangosteen evergreen tree; arils delicious, one of thethe bestbest tropicaltropical fruit;fruit; Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Malesia; cultivated, not seeds eaten raw or in various preparations; rindrind used for tanningtanning 1977; FAO, 1982;1982; known in the wildwild and source of black dye; wood used for cabinet work and Mabberley,Mabberley, 1987;1987; construction Purseglove, 1987;1987; VerheijVerheij Seeds contain 4545% % fatfat and Coronel,Coronel, 1991 1991 Species and distribution Common name Details References

Garcinia planchonii seeds edible, acidic pulp edible, sun dried for storagestorage Menninger, 1977;1977; VerheijVerheij Viet Nam, N. LaosLaos and Coronel, 19911991

Mesua ferreaferrea ironwood fruit with a rind likelike thatthat of aa chestnut,chestnut, resemblesresembles aa chestnutchestnut inin Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Indo-Malesia size, shapeshape substance and taste; timbertimber veryvery hard,hard, formeillyformerly usedused 1977; Mabberley,MabberJey, 19871987 for lances;lances; sacredsacred treetree inin India;India; flowersflowers usedused medicinally,medicinally, cosmetically andand to scent the stuffing of pillows Pentadesma butyracea butter, candlecandle or young seeds eaten, old seeds source of "Sierra Leone, KangaKanga or Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, West AfricaAfrica tallow tree; blackblack lamy butter", used forfor cooking,cooking, soap,soap, margarinemargarine andand candlescandles 1977; Mabberley,MabberJey, 1987;1987; mango Peters et al.,aI., 19921992

..... HIPPOCASTANACEAE;IDPPOCASTANACEAE; fruitfruit a capsulecapsule w N Aesculus californica Californian deciduous treetree or shrub; seeds boiled or roasted and leached,leached, Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, California buckeye toxic if eaten raw, formerlyformerly muchmuch eateneaten byby CalifornianCalifornian nativenative 1972; Saunders, 1976;1976; Americans Krochmal, 1982;1982; Mabberley, 19871987 Aesculus hiPpocastanumhippocastanum horse-chestnut deciduous tree;tree; seeds bitter and inedible unless leached, may be Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, Balkans to Himalayas used as coffee substitute; horse medicine; leaves and husks yield 1972; Krochmal, 1982;1982; a yellow dye; timber ofof limitedlimited use; cultivatedcultivated asas anan ornamentalornamental Mabberley, 19871987 Aesculus indica Indian horse-horse­ deciduous tree;tree; seeds edible, eaten by hillhill tribestribes asas faminefamine food;food; Howes, 1948;1948; Mabberley,Mabberley, Himalayas chestnut seed oil used externally for rheumatic complaints; fruits given to 1987; Rathore, 19931993 horses for colic; browse lopped for livestock; wood used to building, packing cases, troughs, etc.etc. Aesculus octandra yellow, big or starchy seeds roasted and leached for several days toto removeremove Krochmal, 19821982 S.E. USAUSA sweet buckeye toxic aesculin before eaten by native Americans - a nutritiousnutritious food Species andand distribution Common name Details References

Aesculus parvifloraparviflora buckeye fruit eaten boiled or roastedroasted Hedrick, 19721972 S. USA Aesculus pavia little, red or starch extracted from seeds;seeds; groundground seedsseeds toxictoxic toto fishfish andand KrochmalKrochmal,, 19821982 S.E. USAUSA scarlet buckeye;buckeye; possibly livestock; seeds used to relieve headache firecracker plant

IRVINGIACEAE; fruit fruit aa capsule,capsule, samara, samara, rarelyrarely a berry or drupe,drupe, oftenoften aa schizocarpschizocarp ofof drydry andand sometimessometimes samaroid or fleshy mericarpsmericarps

Irvingia gabonensis dika nut; bread large tree; drupedrupe 5-65-6 cmcm long;long; pulppulp eaten,eaten, seedseed groundground cookedcooked toto Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, tree;tree; wildwild mangomango make dika bread, also source of an edible oil, dika butter, 19771977;; FAO, 1982;1982; formerly considered as a substitutesubstitute for cocoacocoa butter;butter; seedseed oiloil usedused Mabberley, 1987; Peters et ...... for making soapsoap al., 19921992 VJ VJ

JUGLANDACEAE; fruitfruit aa nut or drupe-likedrupe-like

Carya alba shagbark or an important food of native Americans,Americans, alsoalso marketedmarketed andand HedrickHedrick,, 19721972 North America shellbark hickory exported; timber for wagons,wagons, agriculturalagricultural implementsimplements andand tooltool handles; fuelfuel Carya aquatica water or swampswamp nuts small,small, astringent,astringent, sometimessometimes eaten;eaten; source ofof aa brownbrown dyedye HowesHowes,, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, S.E.S.E. USAUSA hickoryhickory,, bitter or 19771977;; KrochmalKrochmal,, 19821982 wild pecan Carya carolinae­carolinae- Caroline hickory,hickory, nuts sweet,sweet, edibleedible Krochmal,Krochmal , 19821982 septentrionalis southern shagbarkshagbark SS.E..E. USAUSA hickory Species and distribution Common name Details References

Carya cathayensiscathay ens is Chinese hickory;hickory; nuts edible, used inin sweetmeats;sweetmeats; woodwood usedused forfor tooltool handleshandles UphofUphof,, 1968;1968; Usher,Usher, 1974;1974; E. ChinaChina mountain walnut MenningeMenninger,r, 1977;1977; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 19841984

Carya cordiformiscordiformis bitternut, swampswamp nuts bitterbitter,, rarely eateneaten by nativenative Americans;Americans; bark formerlyform~rly usedused Howes,Howes, 1948;1948; Uphof,Uphof, 1968;1968; E. NorthNorth America,America, S.S. hickory in making chair seats; woodwood usedused forfor yokesyokes andand hoopshoops Usher,Usher, 1974;1974; Menninger,Menninger, Appalachians 1977; Krochmal, 1982;1982; Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Mabberley,Mabberley, 19871987 Carya g/abraglabra broom, hognut, nuts variable, hard andand tough,tough, kernelkernel sometimessometimes sweetishsweetish butbut Howes, 1948;1948; Uphof,Uphof, 1968;1968; E. NorthNonh AmericaAmerica oval, redheart, redred usually astringent, eaten by native Americans; timber used for Hedrick, 1972; Usher, 1974;1974; or pignut hickoryhickory wagons, agricultural implementsimplements and tooltool handles;handles; fuelfuel Menninger, 1977;1977; Krochmal,Krochmal, 1982; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984; 1984; ...... Mabberley, 19871987 v.> ~ Carya illinoinensis pecan; Illinois nut, common dessert nut, especiallyespecially thin-shelled ones; used like Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, S. USA;USA; widelywidely cultivatedcultivated sof-shelled hickery hazelnuts (Cory/us(Corylus spp.)spp.) or walnuts (Jug/ans(Juglans sp.) inin food;food; seedseed 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; oil formerly used by nativenative Americans to season food, now used Kroclunal,Krochmal, 1982;1982; in cosmetics, etc.;etc.; timber for veneer,veneer, furniture,furniture, flooringflooring and Rosengarten, 1984;1984; panelling; grown as ornamental; firstfirst cultivarcultivar selectedselected inin 1846,1846, Mabberley, 1987;1987; BianchiniBianchini now over 500500 namesnames et al.,aI., 1988;1988; Carya laciniosa/aciniosa big, western,western, nuts thick shelled, considered to bebe ofof finefine quality,quality, marketed;marketed; Howes, 1948;1948; Uphof,Uphof ,19.68; 19.68; central NorthNorth America;America; botton shellbark nuts eaten by native Americans, source of the fermented drink Hedrick,Hedrick, 1972;1972; Usher,Usher, 1974;1974; cultivated or king nut "powcohiccorir"; wood usedused forfor agriculturalagricultural implementsimplements andand tooltool MenningerMenninger,, 1977;1977; Krochmal,Krochmal, hickory handles; fuelfuel 1982; RosengartenRosengarten,, 1984;1984; MabberleyMabberley,, 19871987 Carya myristiciformis numeg or bitter nuts with very thick shell,shell, sometimessometimes eaten by nativenative AmericansAmericans HowesHowes,, 1948;1948; MenningerMenninger S.E.S.E. USAUSA water hickory 1977; KrochmalKrochmal,, 19821982 Carya ovalis smaller loose bark nuts small, sometimessometimes eateneaten byby nativenative AmericansAmericans Howes, 1948;1948; Krochmal,Krochmal, North AmericaAmerica hickory 1982 Species andand distribution Common name Details References

Carya ovata shagbark, nuts edible, marketed - commercial hickory nuts; wood used for Howes, 1948; Uphof, 1968;1968; E. NorthNorth America;America; scalybark, white,white, wagons, axeaxe handles, basketrybasketry andand fuelfuel Usher, 1974;1974; Menninger, cultivated red heart or 1977; Krochmal, 1982; upland hickory Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Mabberley, 19871987 Carya paUidapallida sand, pale or palepale nuts with thick, hard shell, eateneaten byby nativenative AmericansAmericans Menninger, 1977;1977; Krochmal,Krochmal, S.E. USAUSA leaf hickory 1982 Carya texana Texas, Buckley's small nuts often produced from young plants, sometimes eaten Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, var. villosavillosa or black hickoryhickory 1977 S-central USAUSA Carya totnentosatomentosa mockernut; white nut with very hard, thickthick shell;shell; kernelkernel sweetsweet andand inin somesome Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, E.E. NorthNorth AmericaAmerica hickory varieties as large as that of shellbark but difficult to extract. AA 1977; Krochmal, 1982;1982; ...... w variety with prominent angles known as "square"square nut"nut" Rosengarten, 1984;1984; VI Mabberley, 19871987 Carya tonkinensis may-chau kernels source of edible oil, alsoalso usedused asas illuminantilluminant Howes, 19481948 N.E. India,India, VietViet Nam,Nam, S. ChinaChina Jug/ansJuglans ailanthifolia cordate, JapaneseJapanese nuts small, edible; husk used as piscicide; wood used for Howes, 1948;1948; Uphof, 1968;1968; var.var. cordiformiscordiformis or SieboldSiebold walnut;walnut; gunstocks, cabinet work; bark exocarp used in dyeing; hardy, Hedrick, 1972;1972; Usher,Usher, 1974;1974; China, Japan; cultivatedcultivated heatnut cultivated for nuts in Canada; grown as an ornamental;ornamental; rootstock Menninger, 1977;1977; for cultivars of J.J. regiaregia Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Mabberley, 19871987 Jug/ansJuglans australia Argentine walnut nut small with thick shell, edible;edible; woodwood prized,prized, especiallyespecially forfor National Research Council,Council, Argentina, S. BoliviaBolivia making guitars 1989 Jug/ansJuglans baccata walnut nuts edible, rich in starch, sourcesource of oiloil Hedrick,Hedrick, 19721972 Caribbean Species andand distribution Common namename Details References

JuglansJug/ans bolivianaboliviana Bolivian black nuts excellent, good qualityquality;; grows well in Costa Rica Uphof, 1968;1968; Usher,Usher, 1974;1974; NN.. Bolivia, S.S. andand CentralCentral walnut National Research Council, Peru; mountains 1989 JuglansJug/ans californicaca/ifornica black walnut fruit with thick husk, kernels eaten Krochmal, 19821982 SS.. CaliforniaCalifornia JuglansJug/ans cathayensiscathayensis kernels eaten locally; cultivated as an ornamental Howes, 1948;1948; Uphof,Uphof, 1968;1968; central China Usher, 19741974 JuglansJug/ans cinereacinerea butternut; lemonlemon kernels edible, with strong oily taste, used toto thickenthicken pottage, Howes, 1948;1948; Uphof.Uphof. 1968;1968; E. NorthNorth America;America; nut; oil nut;nut; seed oil used for seasoning, immature kernels pickled; sap source Hedrick, 1972;1972; cultivated white walnut of butternut sugar; timber for furniture andand interiorinterior finishing;finishing; Usher, 1974;1974; Menninger,Menninger, nuts laxative, used to treat intermittent fever, tapetape wormworm and 1977; Krochmal, 1982;1982; fungal infection; inner root bark mildly cathartic;cathartic; greengreen huskshusks Rosengarten, 1984;1984;

\.;J yield yellow to orange dye;dye; cultivatedcultivated forfor shadeshade -01 JuglansJug/ans duclouxianaduclouxiana nuts edible Uphof, 1968;1968; Usher,Usher, 19741974 Asian mountains; cultivated in China JuglansJug/ans hindsiihindsii California black nuts edible, harvested from the wild; growngrown inin CaliforniaCalifornia asas aa Howes, 1948;1948; Krochmal,Krochmal, California walnut, Hind's street tree; rootstock used forfor J.J. regiaregia 1982; Rosengarten, 19841984 walnut Jug/ansJuglans kamaonia nuts edible Uphof, 1968;1968; Usher, 19741974 W. HimalayasHimalayas Jug/ansJuglans major Arizona, ArizonaArizona nuts small, eateneaten byby nativenative Americans;Americans; leavesleaves astringentastringent Howes, 1948;1948; Uphof,Uphof, 1968;1968; SS.W..W. NorthNorth AmericaAmerica black or littlelittle Usher, 1974;1974; Krochmal,Krochmal, walnut; nogalnogal 1982; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 19841984 sylvestro Jug/ansJuglans mandshurica Manchurian nuts edible; cultivatedcultivated asas anan ornamentalornamental Howes, 19481948 NN.. China walnut Species andand distribution Common name Defails-Details References

Juglans microcarpa Texas, TexasTexas nuts small, sweet,sweet, edibleedible Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick, W.w. NorthNorth America;America; black, little or 1972; Krochmal 1982;1982; sometimes cultivated river walnutwalnut Rosengarten, 19841984 Juglans neotropicaneotropica Ecuador walnutwalnut semievergreen; nuts thick-shelled, edible, marketed locally,locally, usedused Uphof, 1968;1968; Usher,Usher, 1974;1974; W. Venezuela,Venezuela, Colombia,Colombia, in sweetmeats; wood strong, used inin furniture;furniture; occasionallyoccasionally Rosengarten, 1984;1984; NationalNational Ecuador; highlands cultivated Research Council, 19891989 Juglans nigra black, AmericanAmerican nuts thick-shelled, kernels sweet, edible, usedused inin confectionery;confectionery; Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, E. NorthNorth America;America; or easterneastern blackblack timber prized for cabinet making, furniture, gunstocks, etc.; 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; cultivated walnut rootstock forfor cultivars ofof J.J. regia;regia; huskhusk forfor treatingtreating intestinalintestinal Krochmal, 1982;1982; worms, syphilis, ulcers, fruitfruit juicejuice laxative;laxative; nutsnuts andand barkbark yieldyield Rosengarten, 1984;1984; brown, green or blueblue dye Mabberley, 19871987 Juglans regia English or PersianPersian walnuts of commerce; timber excellent cabinet wood, furniture, Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick, ...... w S.E. EuropeEurope to W.W. Asia;Asia; walnut gunstocks, veneer; seed oil used in cooking, paints and soap; sapsap 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; -..l cultivated source of sugar; dye from husks as floor stain;stain; cultivatedcultivated asas Rosengarten, 1984;1984; ornamental Mabberley, 1987;1987; BianchiniBianchini et aI.,al., 1988;1988; Juglans venezuelensisvenezuelensis Venezuelan walnut nuts edible, now rare National Research Council, N. Venezuela;Venezuela; coastalcoastal 1989 mountains Pterocarya fraxinifolia Caucasian wingnutwingnut nut edible; wood used for matchesmatches and clogs;clogs; cultivatedcultivated asas Uphof, 1968;1968; Hedrick, 1972;1972; W. Asia; cultivatedcultivated ornamental Usher, 1974;1974; Mabberley,Mabberley, 1987 Pterocarya rhoifoliarhoifolia Japanese wingnutwing nut nut edible; wood used for chopsticks,chopsticks, clogsclogs andand matchesmatches Uphof, 1968; Usher, 19741974 Japan Pterocarya stenoptera wingnut nut edible; barkbark medicinalmedicinal Uphof, 1968; Usher, 19741974 China; cultivated Species andand distribution Common name Details References

LAURACEAE; fruit fruit aa I-seeded1-seeded berry berry oror drupe,drupe, rarely dry andand indehiscentindehiscent

Beilschmiedia bancroftii canary ash; yellowyellow ground kernels eaten by Aborigines;Aborigines; goodgood timbertimber Menninger, 1977;1977; Queensland walnut; Mabberley, 1987;1987; LazaridesLazarides wanga et al.,aI., 19931993 BeilschmiediaBells chmiedia mannii seed eateneaten Peters et al.,aI., 19921992 West Africa CryptocaqaCryptocarya albaalba peumo oily seed kernels cooked and eaten in times of scarcity; bark Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, Chile source of tannin;tannin; woodwood forfor firewoodfirewood andand charcoalcharcoal 1977; Hoffman, 19781978 Cryptocarya latifolia ntonga nutsnuts fruit used locally for their oil; fattyfatty kernelskernels usedused byby ZulusZulus forfor Howes, 1948;1948; Mabberley,Mabberley, South Africa flaying leather 1987 Cryptocarya moschata Brazilian nutmeg tree, pungentpungent seed used as spice;spice; timbertimber hard,hard, yellowish,yellowish, Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, w -00 Brazil esteemed 1977; Mabberley, 19871987 Endiandra insignis Boomban roasted, poundedpounded and leachedleached kernel eateneaten by AboriginesAborigines Menninger, 19771977 Queensland Endiandra palmerstonii Queensland walnut pounded kernel eaten by AboriginesAborigines Menninger, 1977;1977; LazaridesLazarides Queensland et al.,aI., 19931993 Umbel/ariaUmbellaria californica California laurel aromatic evergreen,evergreen, drupedrupe withwith 11 nut-likenut-like seed seed <<2cm 2cm in Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, S.W. USAUSA bay or olive; baybay diameter; fruit and seed eaten raw, roasted or ground to a flour 1977; Krochmal, 1982;1982; tree; bay laurel;laurel; and baked by native Americans; rootroot barkbark usedused forfor beverage;beverage; Mabberley, 19871987 Oregon, Pacific,Pacific, aromatic dried leaves as flavouring; leaves used inin internalinternal andand black, whitewhite or external medicines and flea control; good timber yellow myrtle; Cocos cinnamoncinnamon bush, Species andand distribution Common name Details References

LECYTHIDACEAE; fruit fruit aa capsule,capsule, drupedrupe or berry, seedsseeds often nut-like

Barringtonia asiatica fruits eaten as a vegetable; seedsseeds oleaginous,oleaginous, toxictoxic Payens, 1967;1967; Hedrick,Hedrick, Madagascar toto Queensland;Queensland; 1972; Menninger, 19771977 introduced Caribbean Barringtonia edulisedulis cut-nut fruit insipid, eaten raw or cooked; seeds eaten raw,raw, flavour of Payens, 1967;1967; Hedrick,Hedrick, Fiji; semi-cultivatedsemi-cultivated raw peanuts 1972; Menninger, 19771977 Barringtonia niedenzuananiedenzuana cut-nut seeds eaten raw, flavourflavour ofof rawraw peanutspeanuts Payens, 1967;1967; Menninger,Menninger, Melanesia; semi-cultivatedsemi -cultivated 1977 Barringtonia novae-novae- cut-nut seeds eaten raw, flavour ofof rawraw peanutspeanuts Menninger, 19771977 hyberniae Melanesia; semi-cultivatedsemi-cultivated ,.... V) Barringtonia procera nua nut tree with ovoid drupes; seedseed eateneaten onon SantaSanta Cruz;Cruz; youngyoung leavesleaves Payens, 1967;1967; Hedrick,Hedrick, '" New Guinea, Micronesia;Micronesia; eaten as a vegetable 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; planted Duke, 19891989 Barringtonia scortechiniiscortechinii seed used to flavour food Menninger, 19771977 Borneo Bertholletia excelsa Brazil, Amazon or fruit a large woody capsule, seeds with hard, woody testa and Howes, 1948;1948; Hill,Hill, 1952;1952; South America ParáPara nut; oily endosperm, takes 14 months to mature; largelylargely harvestedharvested Hedrick, 1972;1972; Merminger,Menninger, butternut; from the wild, fruit being split open with an axe; seedsseeds withwith hard 1977; FAO, 1982,1982, 1986;1986; creamnut; woody testa,testa, eaten as a dessert nut and in confectionary, also a Mabberley, 1987;1987; source of commercial edible oil, also used inin soapsoap Purseglove, 1987;1987; BianchiniBianchini et al.,aI., 1988;1988; ;; VerheijVerheij andand Coronel, 19911991 Careya arborea patana oak; slowslow seeds edible; leaves used for silkwormssilkworms Hedrick, 1972;1972; Merminger,Menninger, Sri Lanka match tree 1977; Mabberley, 19871987 U Species andand distribution-distribution Common name DetaiisDetails ------References

Chydenanthus excelsusexceLsus seeds eaten Menninger, 19771977 New Guinea EschweileraEs chweilera grandifloragrandiflora seeds edible Hedrick, 19721972 Guyana Eschweilera jaranajarana seeds edible; timber for sleeperssleepers Prance and Mori, 1997919979 South America Lecythis Lanlanceo/ata ceo Lata seeds edible Howes, 19481948 South America Lecythis minor seeds edible but contain toxic seleniumselenium analogueanalogue of thethe amino-amino­ Hedrick, 1972;1972; PrancePrance andand New Granada cystathionine causingcausing temporarytemporary lossloss ofof hairhair and nails and nausea Mori, 1979;1979; Mabberley,Mabberley, when growing on soils high in seleniumselenium 1987 ...... Lecythis ollariao//aria pot nut seeds edible but contain toxic selenium analogue of thethe amino-amino­ Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, o+:-. tropical America cystathionine causingcausing temporarytemporary lossloss ofof hairhair and nails and nausea 1972; Prance and Mori, when growing on soils high in seleniumselenium 1979; Mabberley, 19871987 Lecythis usitata paradise or tall tree; fruitfruit woody,woody, large,large, dehiscent;dehiscent; seedsseeds (nuts)(nuts) 30-40,30-40, Howes, 1948;1948; Hill, 1952;1952; South America; AmazonAmazon sapucaia nut irregularly oblong, resembling Brazil nuts but more roundedrounded withwith Prance and Mori, 1979;1979; rain forest,forest, cultivatedcultivated thinner and softer shell, kernelkernel white,white, creamycreamy texturetexture andand Rosengarten, 1984;1984; MacraeMacrae superior sweet flavour, delicious; kernels eaten raw, roasted or inin et al., 19931993 confectionary, highly nutritious, sourcesource ofof oiloil 62% fat, 20%20% proteinprotein Lecythis zabucajo sapucaia nut oily seeds (sapucaia nuts) c 5 cmcm long,long, edible,edible, withwith delicatedelicate Howes, 1948;1948; Hill, 1952;1952; Brazil, Guyana; cultivatedcultivated flavour suitablesuitable for chocolateschocolates Hedrick, 1972;1972; Mabberley,Mabberley, 1987 PLanchoniaPlanchonia careyacareya cocky apple fruit large, withwith adherentadherent calyx,calyx, eaten eaten byby Aborigines;Aborigines; sourcesource ofof Hedrick, 19772;19772; LazaridesLazarides Australia fuel, toxins,toxins, medicinesmedicines andand fibrefibre and Hince, 19931993 Species andand distribution Common name --DetailSDetails -- References

LEGUMINOSAE subfamilysubfamily CAESALPINIOIDEAE;CAESALPINIOIDEAE; fruitfruit usually a dry legumelegume (pod),(pod), usuallyusually dehiscentdehiscent

Cordeauxia edulis ye-eb,ye-eh, yeheb or seed eaten rawraw oror boiled, potential asas a dessert nut;nut; source of a Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, central Somalia, OgadenOgaden yehib red dye; potentialpotential forfor developmentdevelopment and commercial exploitation 1977; National Academy of Sciences, 1979; Mabberley, 1987; Peters et aI.,al., 19921992 Lemuropisum edule tara nutnut dehiscent legume withwith 6-126-12 sweet, starchy seeds which are eaten Willing, 19891989 S.S.W. W. MadagascarMadagascar raw; shrub browsed by goatsgoats l'ylosemaTylosema esculentum marama or pod hard, 1.5-21.5-2 cmcm inin diameter,diameter, seedsseeds 1-6,1-6, eateneaten as a dessert nut, Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, southern Africa maramba bean tuber also edible.edible. Plant difficult to cultivatecultivate 1977; National Academy of Sciences, 1979; Arnold et al.,aI., 1985;1985; PetersPeters etet al.,aI., 19921992

-~ - LEGUMINOSAE subfamilysubfamily MIMOSOIDEAE; MIMOSOIDEAE; fruit fruit usually usually a a drydry pod

Pithecellobium bubalinum seed edible, although a surfeit cancan causecause kidney damage due to Whitmore, 19721972 Malaysia presence of crystals Pithecellobium dulce Madras thorn; armed shrub or tree; seed oil edible, aril edible,edible, pulppulp made into a Mabberley, 1987;1987; VerheijVerheij Central America;America; Manila tamarind lemonade; seed oil used for making soap, seed meal fed to and Coronel, 19911991 naturalized throughout the livestock; bark, leavesleaves and seedsseeds sourcesource ofof tannin;tannin; browsedbrowsed byby tropics livestock; source of fuelwood, grown forfor shadeshade andand hedgeshedges Pithecellobium jiringajiringa jering;jering; ngapingapi nutnut seed marketed locally, with powerful smell and flavour which Howes, 1948;1948; Whitmore,Whitmore, Myanmar to W.W. MalesiaMalesia disappears onon cooking. Eaten raw, salted, boiled or cookedcooked inin 1972; Menninger, 19771977 coconut milk or oil, surfeitsurfeit cancan causecause kidneykidney damagedamage duedue toto presence of crystals; reputed good for diabetes; pod source of dye Species andand distribution Common name Details References

LEGUMINOSAE subfamilysubfamily PAPILIONOIDEAE;PAPILIONOIDEAE; fruitfruit usually a drydry podpod (leginne)Oegume) usuallyusually dehiscentdehiscent

Apios americana potato or wild climber; sweet tubers boiled or roasted, anan importantimportant IndianIndian food Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, North America; bean, groundnut; and potato substitute; cultivatedcultivated asas anan ornamentalornamental 1972; National Academy of occasionally cultivated Indian potato Sciences, 1979;1979; Mabberley,Mabberley, 1987 Arachis hypogaea peanut, groundnut annual herb with indehiscentindehiscent fruit with 1-61-6 seeds, gynophoregynophore Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, South America; cultivated lengthening, reflexing and stiffening to bury thethe fruit;fruit; seedsseeds 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; throughout the tropics edible raw or roasted, widely used as a dessert nut and as source Verdcourt, 1979;1979; of groundnut oil used in margarinemargarine Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Mabberley, 1987;1987; Purseglove, 19871987 ...... Arachis villosulicarpa seeds edible, locallylocally cultivatedcultivated Rosengarten, 19841984 ~ tv South America Castanospermum australeaustrale Australian or tree of coastal forests with indehiscent,indehiscent, fruitfruit turgid,turgid, 2-valved,2-valved, Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, N.E. Australia,Australia, NewNew Morton BayBay with 2-52-5 chestnut-likechestnut-like seeds;seeds; seedsseeds (black(black beans)beans) leached,leached, roastedroasted 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; Caledonia, Vanuatu; chestnut and eaten by Aborigines, toxic ifif eateneaten raw;raw; decorativedecorative timber;timber; Verdcourt, 1979;1979; Mabberley,Mabberley, cultivated elsewhere street tree 1987 Glycine max soya bean or annual herb bearing dehiscent, ca. 3-seeded3-seeded podspods containingcontaining 30-30- Rosengarten, 1984;1984; E. Asia, nownow widelywidely soybean 45% protein;protein; newlynewly germinatedgerminated seeds used as "bean"bean sprouts" in Menninger, 1977;1977; Verdcourt,Verdcourt, cultivated Chinese cooking; one of the world's mostmost importantimportant legumelegume 1979; Mabberley, 1987;1987; crops, processed beans as soynutssoynuts for dessertdessert andand foodfood industry;industry; Purseglove, 19871987 soya meal and protein used industrially for plastics, adhesives,adhesives, waterproofing, synthetic fibre, fire-fightingfire-fighting foam,foam, etc.etc. Species andand distribution Common namenanie---DetailsDetails References

Inocarpus fagifer Tahiti chestnutchestnut medium sized forest tree withwith kidneykidney shaped,shaped, indehiscent,indehiscent, 1-1- Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, Ma1esiaMalesia to PacificPacific Islands,Islands, seeded fruit borne in terminalterminal clusters;clusters; chestnutchestnut flavoured,flavoured, fleshyfleshy 1972; Verdcourt, 1979;1979; occasionally cultivated seeds eaten raw, boiled or roastedroasted when nearly ripe,ripe, moderatelymoderately Rosengarten, 1984;1984; elsewhere nutritious,nutritious, palatablepalatable but sometimessometimes hard toto digest,digest, knownknown asas ailaaila MabberleyMabberley,, 1987;1987; Macrae et or lalalala inin Neo-melanesian,Neo-melanesian, staple food for somesome islanders;islanders; wood aI.,al., 19931993 used for mouldingsmouldings and interiorinterior finishingfinishing seedsseeds 80%80 % carbohydrates (starch)(starch),, 10%10% protein, 7%7% fatfat Macrotyloma geocarpum Hausa or annual herb withwith geocarpicgeocarpic fruit;fruit; seedsseeds eaten;eaten; mainlymainly cultivatedcultivated MenningerMerminger,, 1977;1977 ; NationalNational West Africa;Afdca; cultivatedcultivated Kersting'sKersting's in West Africa; potential for furtherfurther researchresearch andand developmentdevelopment Academy of SciencesSciences,, 1979;1979; groundnut Mabberley, 1987;1987; Purseglove, 1987; PetersPeters etet al.,aI., 19921992

...... Vigna subterraneasubterranea Bambara annual herb with geocarpic fruitfruit;; seed eaten green and raw or Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, +:>. w tropical Africa; cultivatedcultivated groundnut mature and cooked;cooked; widelywidely cultivatedcultivated 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; National Academy of Sciences,Sciences, 1979;1979; Mabberley,Mabberley, 1987; Purseglove, 1987;1987; Peters et al.ai. 19921992

MONIMIACEAE; fruitfruit aa head of drupes or nuts

Laurelia sempervirenssempervirens Peruvian nutmeg,nutmeg, aromatic seeds used as a spicespice HedrickHedrick,, 1972;1972; Mabberley,Mabberley, Peru and Chile tepa 1987 Species andand distribution Common name DetailsDetails References

MORACEAE; fruit a drupedrupe Artocarpus altilisaltitis breadfruit; evergreen, monoecious tree; seeds (fruits from femalefemale trees)trees) Menninger, 1977;1977; FAO,FAO, Pacific, widelywidely cultivatedcultivated breadnut; pana dede roasted or boiled and eaten, fruit pulp cooked and eaten; staple 1982; Rosengarten, 1984;1984; pepita food in Polynesia, sliced fruit fermented under storagestorage andand Mabberley, 1987;1987; baked; browsed by livestock; bark fibre and latex used for Purseglove, 1987;1987; VerheijVerheij caulking; woodwood usedused forfor canoes, surfboards, crates, light and Coronel, 19911991 construction; cultivated forfor windbreaks, shade and as ornamental Artocarpus elasticuselasticus ripe seeds roasted and eaten, seeds source of small quantities of a Menninger, 1977;1977; W. MalesiaMalesia solid oil; source of bark cloth Mabberley, 1977;1977; Purseglove, 19871987 Artocarpus heterophyllusheterophyllus jack or jak nut;nut; large evergreen, monoecious tree,tree, seeds Gak(jak nuts) eaten raw, Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, Western Ghats, India;India; jak fruitfruit grilled or boiled, pulp eaten raw or variouslyvariously preserved, youngyoung 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; ..... widely cultivated in the fruit pulp boiled as a vegetable, pickled or canned;canned; browsedbrowsed byby FAO, 1982;1982; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, +:­ +:- tropics livestock; good timber,timber, bark sourcesource ofof tannintannin andand yellowyellow dye;dye; 1984; Mabberley, 1987;1987; grown as shadeshade tree inin coffeecoffee andand arecaareca plantations;plantations; variousvarious usesuses Purseglove, 1987;1987; VerheijVerheij in local medicinemedicine and Coronel, 19911991 Artocarpus integer champedak evergreen, monoecious tree; fruit pulp disgusting stench, Menninger, 1977;1977; Myanmar, Malesia; immature fruitsfruits used inin soups, pulp of ripe fruits eaten;eaten; seedsseeds Purseglove, 1987;1987; VerheijVerheij cultivated eaten roasted or boiled; young leaves eaten; wood used for and Coronel, 19911991 building, furniture and boats; bark used for cordage;cordage; latexlatex usedused in preparation of limelime Artocarpus odoratissimusodoratissimus marang evergreen tree; seeds eaten roasted or boiled, pulp eaten fresh, Verheij and Coronel, 19911991 Borneo, cultivated in the cooked as a vegetable or in cakes Philippines Artocarpus ovatus anubing tree; roasted seeds eaten; timber strong and durable, used forfor FAO, 1984;1984; VerheijVerheij andand PhilippinesPhil ippines construction Coronel, 19911991 Species andand distribution Common name Details References

Brosimum alicastrumalicastrum breadnut; evergreen tree, seedsseeds (bread(bread nuts)nuts) boiledboiled eaten inin timestimes ofof Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, central America alicastrun; scarcity or roasted for aa beverage;beverage; latexlatex potable;potable; leavesleaves andand fruitfruit 19721972;; Menninger, 1977;1977; snakewood for fodder;fodder; wood for crates,crates, tooltool handleshandles andand fuel;fuel ; browse;browse; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984;1984; various locallocal medicinalmedicinal applicationsapplications Mabberley, 19871987 Treculia aJricanaafricana African breadfruit;breadfruit; numerous small seeds embedded pulp of massive fruit; roasted,roasted, Howes,Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, tropical Africa mozinda fried or boiled seeds eaten as dessert nut;nut; seedseed embryoembryo ground toto 1972; Mabberley, 1987;1987; meal and eaten Purseglove, 1987;1987; Peters et aI.,al., 19921992

OLACACEAE; fruitfruit usually a 1-seededI-seeded drupedrupe or nut

...... Anacolosa Jrutescensfrutescens galo nut tree;tree; nutnut resemblingresembling a filbert, kernel eaten fresh or roasted,roasted, ofof Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, ~ VI India to PhilippinesPhilippines good flavour and quality; pulp eaten fresh or boiled;boiled; potentialpotential for 1977; Mabberley, 1987;1987; domestication;domestication; wood for househouse postsposts Verheij and Coronel,Coronel, 19911991 Coula edulis Gabon nut, tree;tree; drupdrup 3-43-4 cmcm long;long; seedsseeds (Gabon(Gabon nuts)nuts) eateneaten raw,raw, cookedcooked oror Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, tropical West Africa;Africa; African walnutwalnut fermented,fermented, marketed locally,locally, seedsseeds sourcesource ofof edible edible oil;oil; timber a 1977; FAO, 1982;1982; cultivated in plantationsplantations commercial mahogany substitute,substitute, used forfor constructionconstruction andand Mabberley, 1987;1987; Peters et charcoal al.,aI., 1992;1992; MacraeMacrae et al.,aI., 1993 Heisteria parvifolia shrub; kernelskernels eateneaten Menninger, 1977;1977; Peters et West Africa al.,aI. , 19921992 Ongokea gore tree;tree; fruitfruit anan offensiveoffensive smellingsmelling drupedrupe;; riperipe fleshflesh eaten;eaten; seedseed MenningerMenninger,, 1977;1977; West Africa kernels little eaten;eaten; seed yields a drying oil - isanoisano oil Mabberley, 19871987 ScorodocarpusScorodocarpus borneensisborneensis kulim fruit edible;edible; hard,hard, onion-scentedonion-scented woodwood usedused forfor constructionconstruction MenningerMenninger,, 1977;1977; Malesia Mabberley, 19871987 StrombosiaStrombosia grandifolia kernels roastedroasted andand eateneaten MenningerMenninger,, 19771977 West Africa Species andand distribution Common name Details References

Strombosia pustulatapustulata evergreen tree; seedseed kernelkernel eateneaten asas faminefamine foodfood Menninger, 1977; Peters et West Africa al.,aI., 19921992 Strombosia scheffleri kernels eaten in small quantities in times of scarcity as they can Menninger, 19771977 tropical Africa cause vomiting Ximenia americana tallow nut; wild,wild, densely branched, spinose shrub;, usuallyusually deciduous;deciduous; drupedrupe Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, pantropical beach, hog,hog, ovoid, juicy, 1-seeded;I-seeded; rawraw oror cookedcooked pulppulp eaten,eaten, kernelskernels white,white, 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; tallowwood or palatability varies,varies, purgative, eaten raw or roasted,roasted, seedseed oiloil usedused FAO, 1983;1983 ; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, wild plum;plum; wildwild for cooking and as cosmetic;cosmetic; timbertimber substitutesubstitute forfor whitewhite 1984; Mabberley,Mabberley, 1987;1987; olive sandalwood, used forfor fuelfuel Verheij and Coronel,Coronel, 1991;1991; Peters et al.,aI., 1992;1992; MacraeMacrae et al.,aI., 19931993

-~ PROTEACEAE; fruitfruit aa follicle, nut,nut, achene oror drupe

Brabejum stellatifolium wild, HottentotsHottentots kernels require leaching before eating,eating, formerlyformerly usedused asas aa coffeecoffee Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, South Africa; cultivatedcultivated or bitterbitter almondalmond substitute; grown as hedges, noteworthynoteworthy as firstfirst indigenousindigenous treetree 1972; Palmer and Pitman,Pitman, to be cultivated in SouthSouth AfricaAfriea 1972; Menninger, 19771977 Finschia carrii kernels eaten Menninger, 19771977 W. Pacific Finschia chloroxantha tree; kernels eaten, locallylocally importantimportant food; timber for cabinetcabinet Menninger,Menninger, 1977;1977; VerheijVerheij Papua New Guinea, work; potentialpotential ornamentalornamental and Coronel,Coronel, 19911991 Solomon Islands Finschia ferruginifloraferruginiflora kernels cooked and eateneaten Menninger,Menninger, 19771977 New Guinea Finschia rufa kernels eaten Menninger, 19771977 W.Pacific Species andand distribution Common name . U --- Details References

Finschia sp. nuts eaten inin VanuatuVanuatu W. PacificPacific Gevuina avellana Chilean wild nut; evergreen tree, hazel-flavouredhazel-flavoured seeds eaten fresh oror roasted;roasted; Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, Chile gevuina nut; Chile wood for furniture, picture frames, roofroof shingles,shingles, growngrown asas anan 1977; Rosengarten, 1984;1984; nut; avellano ornamental Mabberley, 19871987

Grevillea annulifera shrub; seeds~eeds hard-shelled,hard-shelled, kernelkernel edibleedible Menninger, 19771977 W. Australia Grevillea elaeocarpifolia kernels eateneaten Menninger, 19771977 Micronesia Helicia cochinchinensis seeds edible; wood used for fuelfuel Menninger, 1977;1977; VerheijVerheij ...... Indo-China, China, Japan and Coronel,Coronel, 19911991 +:>. -....) Helicia diversifolia source of "helicia"helicia nuts"nuts" Mabberley, 19871987 Queensland Hicksbeachia pinnatifolia monkey, rose oror tree, seedseed eaten; potentialpotential asas anan ornamentalornamental Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, N.N. AustraliaAustralia red bopple nutnut 1977; Mabberley, 1987;1987; Tow, 1989;1989; LazaridesLazarides andand Hince, 19931993 Kermadecia leptophylla nuts require lengthy washing and cookingcooking beforebefore eatingeating Menninger, 19771977

Macadamia integrifoliaintegrifolia macadamia seeds edible - "macadamia" oror "Queensland"Queensland nut", tastetaste likelike hazelhazel Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, Queensland; rainforest, (smooth, thin-shellthin-shell nuts, soldsold either inin endocarpendocarp andand thenthen crackedcracked likelike almondsalmonds or 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; cultivated type); QueenslandQueensland shelled, roastedroasted andand saltedsalted Rosengarten, 1984;1984; nut; AustralianAustralian Mabberley, 1987;1987; Tow,Tow, bush nutnut 1989; Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Lazarides and Hince,Hince, 1993 Species andand distribution Common name Details References

Macadamia ternifolia macadamia (thick-(thick- seeds edible Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, Queensland shell) 1977; Mabberley, 1987;1987; Purseglove,1987;Purseglove, 1987; LazaridesLazarides and Hince, 19931993 Macadamia tetraphylla macadamia fruit dehiscing on tree, seeds edible, roastedroasted andand eateneaten inirr TongaTonga Thaman, 1976;1976; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, Queensland, New South (rough-shell type)type) 1984; Mabberley, 1987;1987; Wales Lazarides and Hince, 19931993 Panopsis suaveolenssuaveolens palo de papa;papa; nuts very hard, kernelskernels edibleedible Menninger, 19771977 Costa RicaRica palon de la montañasmontanas

...... ROSACEAE; fruitfruit a head ofof folliclesfollicles oror achenes inin swollenswollen hypanthium hypanthium oror aa pome, rarely a capsulecapsule ~ 00 Prinsepia utilisuti/is deciduous thorny shrub; kernel source of an edible oil, alsoalso usedused Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Himalayas as anan illuminantilluminant 1977 Prunus armeniacaarmeniaca apricot, ChineseChinese cultivated in N. China for itsits edibleedible kernels, where it has been Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, N. China;China; widelywidely almond grown since 2000 BC, kernels smaller than the almond but used 1977; Mabberley, 1987;1987; cultivated in EurasiaEurasia andand in similar ways; fruit pulppulp thethe apricotapricot ofof commercecommerce Verheij and Coronel, 19911991 America Prunus bucharica suffructose, exceptionally drought resistant, 98.5%98.5% bitterbitter kernels,kernels, Kovalev, 19411941 Central AsiaAsia 1,5%1,5 % sweet kernels; kernels source of edibleedible oil; rootroot barkbark yieldsyields yellow dye and tanningtanning Prunus dulcisdulcis almond kernel eaten as a dessert nut, usedused inin confectioneryconfectionery andand asas Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, W. Asia;Asia; cultivatedcultivated almond butter; seed oil usedused medicinally;medicinally; cultivatedcultivated as an 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; ornamental Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Mabberley, 1987;1987; BianchiniBianchini etal.,1988;et al., 1988; Species andand distribution Common namename-· Details References

Prunus fascijasciculata culata desert or wildwild kernels baked and eaten; browsed Kearney and Peebles, 1951;1951 ; SS.W..W. USAUSA almond; wild Hedrick, 1972;1972; Krochmal,Krochmal, peach 1982 Prunus ulmifoliaulmifolia kernels edible; attractive, early floweringflowering tree Kovalev, 19411941 Turkestan

RUTRUTACEAE;ACEAE; fruitfruit schizocarp,schizocarp, berryberry oror drupe

Calodendrum capensis Cape chestnutchestnut nuts eaten; seeds source of an oil used inin cosmetics;cosmetics; timbertimber Mabberley,Mabberley, 1987;1987; Martin etet East Africa to CapeCape useful; cultivated as anan ornamentalornamental al.,aI., 19881988

...... ~ SANTALACEAE; fruit fruit aa nutnut or drupe,drupe, 1-seededI-seeded

Santalum acuminata quandong;quandong; nativenative root parasitic tree; fruit globose,globose, fleshflesh eateneaten rawraw oror cooked;cooked; seedseed Howes,Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, AustraliaAustralia;; cultivated peach shell hard, kernel oily, nutritious,nutritious, usuallyusually eateneaten roasted,roasted, flavourflavour 19721972;; Menninger, 1977;1977; harshharsh;; nuts as necklaces,necklaces, etc.; timbertimber forfor cabinetcabinet makingmaking andand Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 1984;1984; MacraeMacrae engraving;engraving; kernel 6060% % fat, 25%25 % proteinprotein et al.,aI., 19931993 Santalum spicatum sandalwood parasitic tree; fruit pulp thin,thin, seedseed shellshell thin,thin, crushedcrushed byby hand,hand, Menninger, 19771977 W. AustraliaAustralia kernels eaten;eaten; timber,timber, fuelwoodfuel wood

SAPINDACEAE Fruit fleshyfleshy or dry, dehiscentdehiscent oror indehiscent,indehiscent, seedsseeds with arils oror sarcotestassarcotestas

Alectryon macrococcusmacrococcus mahoe aril and kernelkernel eateneaten MennMenninger,inger, 19771977 Hawaii Species andand distribution Common name Details ---References

Blighia sapida akee evergreen tree; ripe fruit pulp eaten fried oror boiled,boiled, toxic if green Hedrick,Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, West Africa; cultivatedcultivated or overripe, seedseed coatcoat toxictoxic butbut finefine flavourflavour whenwhen cookedcooked andand 11977;977 ; Purseglove, 1987;1987; roasted with the fleshyfleshy arilaril Peters et al.,al ., 19721972

CubCubilia ilia cubili kubili nutnut seeds eaten boiled or roasted,roasted, leavesleaves usedused asas vegetable;vegetable; cultivatedoultivated Howes,Howes , 1948; 1948 ; Menninger,Menninger, central MalesiaMalesia in Java 19771977;; MabberleyMabberley,, 19871987 Cupania americana seeds sweetsweet,, chestnut-like,chestnut-like, eaten in the Caribbean,Caribbean, also source of Hedrick,Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Mexico fermented liquor 1977 Deinbollia grandifolia fruit pulp edible,edible, seedsseeds slightlyslightly oilyoily andand eateneaten Menninger,Menninger, 19771977 West Africa Glenniea penanpenangensis gensis kernel boiled and eateneaten Menninger, 19771977 Malesia

VI Lepisanthes fruticosafruticosa lunan nut fruit with edible flesh and kernelkernel,, the latterlatter roastedroasted andand chestnutchestnut HowesHowes,, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, -0 Malesia (not in New flavoured; root used inin traditionaltraditional medicinemedicine 1977; Mabberley, 1987;1987; Guinea); cultivated Verheij andand Coronel,Coronel, 19911991 Magonia pubescens tingui seed oil used for cookingcooking andand soapsoap makingmaking Menninger, 19771977 Paraguay, Brazil Melicoccus bijugatus Spanish lime;lime; fruit pulp eaten, seedsseeds usually eateneaten after roastingroasting Hedrick,Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Caribbean honney berry; 1977 genip; mamoncillomamoncillo Nephelium lappaceum rambutan;rambutan; evergreen treetree;; fruit pulp edible, seeds bitter andand narcotic,narcotic, Hedrick,Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Malesia; widely cultivated rampostan sometimes roastedroasted and eaten, source of anan edibleedible cocoa-butter;cocoa-butter; 1977;1977; FAO,FAO, 1982;1982; in the humid tropicstropics fruit and seeds source of dyes; wood usedused inin generalgeneral Mabberley,Mabberley, 1987;1987; VerheijVerheij construction; fruit used inin traditionaltraditional medicinemedicine and Coronel,Coronel, 19911991 Seed contains upup toto 3131% % dry weight of fat Nephelium ramboutan-ake pulasan fruit pulp edible; seeds boiled or roasted for aa cocoa-likecocoa-like Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Philippines; cultivated beverage, also source ofof anan edibleedible cocoa-butter,cocoa-butter, alsoalso usedused asas anan 1977;1977; Mabberley, 1987;1987; iIIuminantilluminant Purseglove,Purseglove, 19871987 Species andand distribution Common name Details References

Paullinia cupanacupana guarana climbing shrub;shrub; whole roasted seeds source of commercial Hedrick, 1973;1973; Menninger,Menninger, South America; cultivatedcultivated "guarana", containing 4.24.2% % caffeine;caffeine; seeds pounded for a bread, 1977; Mabberley, 19781978 seeds with cassava and water source of alcoholic beverage; used inin local medicine as stimulantstimulant and digestive Paullinia subrotunda aril and seeds eaten Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Asia 1977 Pometia pinnata Fijian longan;longan; raw fruit eaten; oily seeds boiled or roasted and eaten; timber Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Malesia langsir; malugaimalugai used locally for constructionconstruction purposespurposes 1977; FAO, 1984;1984; 4.4% fat, 4.4% protein,protein, 39.9%39.9% fibrefibre Mabberley,Mabberley, 19871987 Sapindus indicum soapberry fruit latex caustic, riperipe seedseed eaten,eaten, containcontain 50%50 % oiloil Menninger, 19771977 Asia

...... Schleichera oleosa lac tree; CeylonCeylon unripe fruit pickled; aril eaten;eaten; seeds commercial source of the MenningerMenninger,, 1977;1977; VI...... Indo-Malesia oak; kussum;kussum; edible "Macassar oil"oil",, used for candles, hair dressing, batik Mabberley, 1987;1987; kosumba; gum lac work, soapsoap and illuminant;illuminant; leaves edible; timber hard, usedused forfor PurseglovePurseglove,, 19871987 mortars; bark for tanning;tanning; hosthost ofof laclac insectsinsects

SAPOTACEAE; fruit fleshy,fleshy, indehiscentindehiscent

Argania spinosa argan treetree seed oil used for cookingcooking and illuminant;illuminant; drupe eateneaten byby livestocklivestock Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Morocco; cultivatedcultivated 1977; Mabberley, 19871987 Baillonella toxispermatoxisperma djave; false shea forest tree; fruits sourcesource of edibleedible seedseed oil; goodgood timbertimber Menninger,Menninger, 1977;1977; Nigeria to Zaire butternut; AfricanAfrican Mabberley,Mabberley, 1987;1987; Falconer,Falconer, pearwood 1990;1990; Peters et al.al. 19921992 DipDiploknema loknema butyraceabutyracea Indian butter tree;tree; deciduous tree; kernelkernel sourcesource ofof anan edibleedible phulwaraphulwara butter;butter; seedseed Menninger,Menninger, 1977;1977; FAO,FAO, India pholwara cake edible, source of fat used in soap;soap; durabledurable timbertimber usedused forfor 19821982;; Mabberley, 19871987 cabinet work, constructionconstruction and fuelfuel kernel contains 60-6760-67% % fat Species andand distribution Common name Details .._-- References

Madhuca longifolia illipe nut; mahua kernel commercial source of "illipe butter" used in margarinemargarine and Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, India soap; seed-cake,seed-cake, "mahua meal", usedused asas worm-killerworm-killer onon lawns;lawns; 1977; Mabberley, 1987;1987; flowers edible Purseglove,Purseglove, 19871987 Madhuca motleyana seed source of edible oil Menninger,Menninger, 19771977 MalesMalesia ja PalaPalaquium quium amboinense seed source of fatfat Menninger, 19771977 S.E.S.E. AsiaAsia PalaPalaquium quium gutta gutta-percha evergreen tree; seed source of fat; latexlatex commercialcommercial source of Menninger, 1977;1977; Malaysia "gutta-percha" Mabberley, 19871987 Palaquium hexandrum fruit sour, edible, seedseed sourcesource of fat,fat, usedused forfor foodfood MenningerMenninger,, 19771977 Sumatra ...... VI PalaPalaquium quium philippensephilippense seed source of fat, used for foodfood andand asas anan illuminantilluminant Menninger,Menninger, 19771977 N Philippines PalaPalaquium quium rostrarostratum tum fruit green, sweet and edible, seed source of a bitter oil Menninger, 19771977

Pouteria caimitocaimito egg fruit; abiuabiu evergreen tree;tree; fruit 4-12 cm in diameter, seeds 1-5, edible, fresh Merminger,Menninger, 1977; FAO,FAO, Peru; cultivatedcultivated mucilaginous pulp eaten 1986 Pouteria campechianacampechiana canistel; egg-fruit; fruit pulp edible, dehydrated, powdered and used as food Menninger, 1977;1977; Central America, yellow sapote additive; seed edible Mabberley, 1987;1987; Caribbean Purseglove, 1987;1987; VerheijVerheij and Coronel, 19911991 Pouteria glomerataglomerata seed edible Menninger,Merminger, 19771977 Central America Pouteria obovataobovata lucuma seed edible; fruit pulp edible,edible, dehydrated,dehydrated, powderedpowdered andand usedused asas Menninger, 1977;1977; VerheijVerheij Peru food additive and Coronel, 19911991 Species andand distribution Common name Details References

Pouteria sapota sapote; mammeemammee fruit pulp edibleedible,, kernel large, oily, finelyfinely ground for a Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Central America;America; zapote; marmalademarmalade confection, also boiled, roasted,roasted, groundground andand mixedmixed withwith cocoa;cocoa; 1977; Verheij and Coronel, cultivated plum seed oil potential in soap, cosmeticcosmetic andand pharmaceuticalpharmaceutical industries;industries; 1991 wood used in construction, for carts and furniture Pouteria viridisviridis green apote

Tieghemella heckelii makore; cherrycherry fleshy fruit; kernels source of cooking oil, also used forfor soapsoap andand Menninger, 1977;1977; Peters et West Africa mahogany; bacu, medicine; timber a mahoganymahogany substitute al.,aI., 19921992 baku Vitellaria paradoxaparadoxa shea nut; sheashea tree;tree; fruitfruit sourcesource ofof edibleedible seedseed oil, sheashea butter,butter, usedused inin foodfQod andand Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, N. tropical Africa butternut illumination, thethe fractionated shea oil commercial source of cocoa 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; butter equivalentsequivalents used inin chocolatechocolate formulations;formulations; melliferous.melliferous. FAO, 1982;1982; Mabberley,Mabberley, I-' VI 1987; Purseglove, 1987;1987; W Peters et al.,aI., 19921992

SIMMONDSIACEAE; fruitfruit a loculicidalloculicidal capsule, 2 emptyempty loculeslocules

Simmondsia chinensis jojoba; jajoba;jajoba; dioecious, evergreen shrubshrub bearingbearing 1-seeded,I-seeded, acorn-likeacorn-like capsules;capsules; Howes,Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, S. California, ArizonaArizona and goat, sheepsheep or seeds readily eaten by children, nativenative Americans and caprivores,caprivores, 1972;1972; Saunders, 1976;1976; northern Mexico deer nut; wildwild ground as a coffee substitute; seed oil substitutesubstitute for spermwhalespermwhale Menninger, 1977;1977; hazel oil, widely used inin cosmeticscosmetics and industryindustry Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Mabberley, 19871987

STAPHYLEACEAE; fruit fruit aa headhead ofof follicles,follicles, drupe drupe oror berryberry or inflated capsule

StaphStaphyleaylea bolandbolanderieri California shrub or tree;tree; inflatedinflated capsule with edible seeds, seed oil sweet,sweet, Krochmal,Krochmal , 19821982 California bladdernut used for cookingcooking Species andand distribution ConunonCommon namename ' Details References

Staphylea pinnatapinnata European bladder kernels taste of pistachio, eaten by children; cultivated as an Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Europe nut ornamental 1977; Mabberley, 19871987

Staphylea trifolia American shrub oror tree,tree, inflatedinflated capsulecapsule withwith edibleedible seeds;seeds; seedsseeds sometimessometimes Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, N.E. USAUSA bladdernut eaten like a dessert nut, seedseed oiloil sweet,sweet, usedused forfor cooking;cooking; 1977; Krochmal, 19821982 cultivated as anan ornamentalornamental

STERCULIACEAE; fruitfruit dehiscent oror indehiscent, fleshyfleshy toto leatheryleathery oror woody,woody, oftenoften separatingseparating intointo mericarpsmericarps

Brachychiton acerifolius bottle tree, deciduous tree; roasted seeds eaten; timber; Aborigine source of Tow, 1989;1989; LazaridesLazarides andand E. AustraliaAustralia kurrajong fibre; cultivatedcultivated asas anan ornamentalornamental Hince, 19931993 ...... VI Cola acuminata Abatacola, kola or evergreen tree, fruitfruit edible,edible, "nut""nut" (seed)(seed) chewedchewed asas aa masticatorymasticatory Dalziel, 1937;1937; Howes,Howes, 1948;1948; ..j:::.. West Africa to Angola,Angola, bata nut and stimulant to promote digestion; used inin colacola drink;drink; sun-driedsun-dried Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, introduced inin America;America; seeds formerly exported as a source of caffeine;caffeine; used in locallocal 1977; Rosengarten, 1984;1984; cultivated medicine Mabberley, 1987;1987; Purseglove, 1987;1987; Peters et al.,aI., 19921992 Cola anomala Bamenda cola "nut" (seed) chewed as a masticatorymasticatory to promotepromote digestion;digestion; usedused Mabberley, 1987;1987; Cameroon inin colacola drink;drink; Purseglove, 19871987 Cola caricaefoliacaricaejolia false or monkeymonkey seed kernel eateneaten Dalziel, 1937;1937; Menninger,Menninger, West AfricaAfrica cola 1977; Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Peters et al., 19921992 Cola heterophylla monkey cola seed kernel eateneaten Menninger, 19771977 West AfricaAfrica Cola millenii false or monkeymonkey whole seed eateneaten Dalziel, 1937;1937; Menninger,Menninger, West AfricaAfrica cola 1977 Species andand distribution Common name --- -- Details References

Cola nitida kola nut;nut; gbanjagbanja evergreen treetree;; fruit eateneaten as aa masticatorymasticatory and stimulant, used as Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, West Africa; cultivatedcultivated kola an ingredient or flavouringflavouring inin beveragesbeverages andand mineralmineral waterswaters 1977; FAO, 1982;1982; Purseglove, 1987;1987; Peters etet al., 19921992 Cola rostrata seed eaten Dalziel, 1937;1937; Peters et al., West Africa 1992 Cola verticillataverticil/ata OwéOwe kola,kola, kernel eaten, alsoalso chewedchewed asas aa masticatorymasticatory toto promotepromote digestion;digestion; Dalziel, 1937;1937; Menninger,Menninger, West Africa slippery colacola used in cola drink;drink; caffeinecaffeine presentpresent 1977; Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Mabberley, 1987;1987; Purseglove, 19871987 HeritiHeritiera era fomes starchy seeds eaten as famine food afterafter leachingleaching tanninstannins Menninger, 19771977 Indo-Malesia

VI -VI HeritiHeritiera era littoralia seeds eaten with fish; timbertimber forfor dhowdhow mastsmasts Menninger, 1977;1977; coasts of IndianIndian andand PacificPacific Mabberley, 19871987 Oceans PteryPterygota gota alataalata Buddha's coconutcoconut seeds winged eaten; reputedly used as opium substitute;substitute; grown as Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, India a street tree 1977; Mabberley, 1998719987 Sterculia apetala Panama tree oily seeds eaten raw, roasted or friedfried Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Central AmericaAmerica 1977 Sterculia balanbalanghas ghas seeds roasted, chestnut flavour Hedrick,Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, tropical E. AsiaAsia 1977 Sterculia chicha maranhao nut seeds eaten; seed oil used for lubrication, etc. Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, N.EN.E.. SouthSouth AmericaAmerica 1977; Mabberley, 19871987 Sterculia diversifolia bottle tree seeds andand young taproots eaten by AboriginesAborigines Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Australia 1977 Species andand distributiondistnbution Common name Details References

Sterculia joetidafoetida Java olive,olive, seeds eaten rawraw or roasted, taste like filberts, source of oil Howes, 1948;1948 ; Hedrick,Hedrick, Old World tropics sterculia nuts 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; Mabberley, 19871987 Sterculia guttata seeds eaten Hedrick,Hedrick, 19721972 tropical India Sterculia oblonoblongata gata malaboho seeds eaten rawraw or roasted; root edible; bark fibre for cordage, Menninger,Merminger, 1977;1977; FAO,FAO, Philippines wood for lightlight carpentry andand matchesmatches 19841984;; Guzman et aI.,al., 1986;1986; Verheij and Coronel,Coronel, 19911991 Sterculia quadrifida peanut tree;tree; deciduous tree; roasted seeds eaten by Aborigines; also source of Menninger, 1977;Tow, Australia gorarbar medicine and fibre 1989; Lazarides and Hince, 1993 ..... VI 0\ Sterculia rupestris narrow leavedleaved roasted seeds eaten Menninger, 19771977 Australia bottle tree Sterculia setigera seeds eaten as famine food; sourcesource ofof aa gumgum exudateexudate Dalziel, 1937;1937; Hedrick,Hedrick, tropical Africa 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; Purseglove,Purseglove, 1987;1987; Peters etet al.,aI., 19931993 Sterculia treubii seeds eaten, also source of oiloil Menninger,Menninger, 19771977 Lesser SundaSunda IslandsIslands Sterculia trichosiphon broad leaved roasted seedsseeds eateneaten Menninger, 19771977 bottle tree Sterculia urceolata seeds eaten, also source of oiloil MenningerMenninger,, 19771977 Lesser SundaSunda IslandsIslands Species andand distributiondistnbution Common name Details __ u__ References

Sterculia urens seeds roasted and eaten, also used as coffee substitute; source of Howes, 1948; Hedrick, India "karaya gum"gum" or "Indian"Indian tragacanth''tragacanth" 1972;1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; Mabberley, 19871987 Theobroma bicolor patashte evergreen tree;tree; fruit 10-15 x 6-18 cm, seeds numerous, 1.6-3 x FAO, 19861986 tropical central and South 0.8-1.3 cm; pulppulp eaten raw, seeds eaten cooked toastedtoasted or mademade America intointo inferior chocolate; cocoa butter of good quality; pericarp used for containerscontainers Theobroma cacao cocoa tree;tree; fruit 10-30 x 5-12 cm, seedsseeds numerous;numerous; pulppulp eateneaten raw,raw, Menninger, 1977;1977; FAO,FAO, tropical South America; made into jams or jellies, oror fermentedfermented forfor alcoholalcohol oror vinegar;vinegar; 1986; Mabberley, 1987;1987; widely cultivated seeds commercial sourcesource ofof cocoa butter for chocolate, contains Purseglove,Purseglove, 19871987 stimulantstimulant theobromine,theobromine, alsoalso used in cosmetics and industry; ...... widely cultivated in the tropicstropics VI -...l

STYLOBASIACEAE; nut-like

Stylobasium spathulatum nut bushbush nut eaten by AustralianAustralian aboriginesaborigines Brand andand Australia Cherikoff, 19851985

TILIACEAE; fruit a drydry oror not, not, dehiscentdehiscent oror indehiscent indehiscent

Diplodiscus paniculatuspaniculatus baroba nutnut tree; starchy seeds boiled and eaten; bark used forfor cordage;cordage; woodwood Howes,Howes, 1948;1948; Mabberley,Mabberley, Philippines for lightlight construction andand domesticdomestic utensilsutensils 1987; Verheij and Coronel.Coronel . 1991 Species andand distribution Coiiimon-iiameCommon name Details References

TRAPACEAE; fruitfruit indehiscent, persistent stony endocarp,endocarp, one cotyledon retainedretained in fruit

Trapa bicornis ling nut annual aquatic herb; fruit eaten boiled, preserved, candiedcandied oror Howes, 1948;1948; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, S.E. Asia;Asia; cultivatedcultivated ground into flour for baking;baking; fruitsfruits makemake aa bitterbitter medicinemedicine forfor 1984; Anderson, 1986;1986; treating stomachstomach complaints, spleen and ulcers; widelywidely cultivatedcultivated Mabberley, 19871987 in China, JapanJapan andand KoreaKorea

Trapa cochinchinensiscochinchinensis annual aquatic herb; fruitfruit eateneaten Hedrick, 19721972 S.E. AsiaAsia Trapa incisa annual aquatic herb; fruitfruit eateneaten Hedrick, 19721972 Japan, cultivatedcultivated Trapa natans var. natans Eurasia,Eurasia, European water annual aquatic herb; fruit eaten, ground to flourflour oror boiled,boiled, staplestaple Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, ...... Vl Africa, naturalizednaturalized North chestnut, horn food inin NeolithicNeolithic 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; 00 America; cultivatedcultivated nut; Jesuit's nut,nut, Rosengarten, 1984;1984; saligot, water Mabberley, 19871987 calthrops var. bispinosabispinosa tropical Asia; cultivatedcultivated singhara nut annual aquatic herb;herb; fruitfruit eateneaten raw,raw, boiled,boiled, roasted,roasted, friedfried oror Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, ground into flour for baking, staple food for HindusHindus 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Mabberley, 1987;1987; PetersPeters et al., 19921992 var. africana Lake Victoria annual aquatic herb; fruit eateneaten by thethe WagandaWaganda Menninger, 19771977

UMBELLIFERAE; fruitfruit a schizocarp of 2 mericarps faciallyfacially united Species andand distribution Common name Details References

Conopodium majus earth or pig nut; annual herb; globose root tubers eaten boiled or roastedroasted Hedrick, 1972;1972; Mabberley,Mabberley, W.Europe arnut; jurnutjurnut;; 1977 earth chestnut

VOCHYSIACEAE; fruit fruit a a loculicidalloculicidal capsule capsule or or wingedwinged sainarasamara withwith accrescentaccrescent calyx

Erisma japurajapura japurd;japuni; quaruba evergreen tree; indehiscent fruitfruit 12-13 xx 44 cm, seeds 1, 3-4 cm Hedrick, 1972;1972; FAO, 1986;1986; Amazonia branca long; seeds a famine food, eaten raw, roastedroasted or boiled,boiled, sourcesource MabberleyMabberley,, 19871987 of a vile-smellingvile-smelling edible oil, also used for candles,candles, etc.etc .

...... VI 'D Species andand distribution CoalitionC()lnmon name Details References

MONOCOTYLEDONS

CYPERACEAE; fruitfruit an acheneachene

CyperusCy p erus esculentuses culentus tiger, chufa,chufa, bush,bush, perennialperennial,, stoloniferous herb, stolonsstolons terminatingterminating inin aa tuber;tuber; Howes,Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, Africa and W. Asia;Asia; rush or ZuluZulu nut;nut; tuber rich in starch, sugar and fat, eateneaten raw or roasted,roasted, inin 1972;1972; Saunders, 1976;1976; cultivated earth almondalmond confectionary, made into flour or juice served as aa beveragebeverage - Menninger, 1977;1977; "horchata dede chufas" in Spain, source of the edible "chufa"chufa oil",oil" , Purseglove,Purseglove, 1985;1985 ; also used in soap-making;soap-making; cultivated in warm climatesclimates for itsits Mabberley, 19871987 edible tubers and for feedingfeeding pigs.pigs. Cyperus rotundus nut grass perennial stoloniferous herb bearing root tubers; root tubertuber eateneaten Hedrick, 1972;1972; Saunders,Saunders, pantropical weedweed raw 1976

...- Eleocharis dulcisdulcis Chinese water perermial,perennial, stoloniferous herb;herb; cultivated inin ChinaChina,, etc. inin floodedflooded Rosengarten, 1984;1984; o0\ Old World tropics chestnut fields which are drained for harvesting the tubers or corms which Mabberley, 19871987 constitute the chief crunchy white vegetable in chop suey, etc.,etc., exported fresh and cannedcanned

IRIDACEAE; fruit aa loculicidalloculicidal capsule

Gynandriris sisyrinchiumsisyrinchium Spanish nut iris-like with spring-flowering corms, corms eaten; grazed byby Hedrick, 1972;1972; TownsendTownsend Mediterranean to sheep and Guest, 19851985 Afghanistan Species andand distribution Common namename---~-~-- - DetailsDetails References

NYMPHAEACEAE; fruit bexry-likeberry-like

Euryale ferox fox or gorgongorgon nut;nut; aquatic herb, pulpy fruit with 8-158-15 black,black, globoseglobose seeds;seeds; Hedrick, 1977;1977; Menninger,Menninger, N. India to China prickly water lily cultivated byby Chinese forfor 3000 years; seeds eaten rawraw beforebefore 1977; Mabberley, 19871987 fully ripe, nutty flavour, roastedroasted or boiledboiled whenwhen mature;mature; fruitfruit pulp, stems and rhizome also edible Nelumbo lutea American lotus;lotus; aquatic rhizomatous herb; seeds and rhizomerhizome edibleedible Hedrick, 1972;1972; Mabberley,Mabberley, North America, Caribbean water chinquapin 1987 Nelumbo nucifera sacred lotus; waterwater aquatic rhizomatous herb with white, 1-seededI-seeded carpelscarpels embeddedembedded Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, warm Asia to Australia; cinquapin; water in flat-topped, fleshy receptacle which at maturity dries and riperipe 1977; Menninger, 1977;1977; cultivated or rattle nut;nut; seeds rattle within; revered by Buddhists; unripe seed eaten rawraw Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Egyptian bean (lotus nutnut or seed), ripe seed roasted or boiledboiled afterafter removalremoval of Mabberley, 1987;1987; MacraeMacrae etet ...... bitter, green embryo;embryo; rhizomerhizome source of ChineseChinese arrowroot;arrowroot; ai.,al., 19931993 ...... 0\ cultivated as an ornamental seed contains 6868% % carbohydrates (starch)(starch),, 1717% % protein, 2.5%2.5 % fat, richrich inin vitaminvitamin CC

PALMAE;P ALMAE; fruitfruit usually a fleshy or fibrous drupe, rarelyrarely moremore oror less less dehiscentdehiscent

Acrocomia aculeata mucuja;mucujá; macatíba;macauba; solitary, spiny,spiny, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, monoecious,monoecious, featherfeather palm;palm; kernelkernel Howes,Howes , 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, Martinique, Dominica gru gru nutnut edible, source of an edible oiloil;; pulp oily, sweet,sweet, edible,edible, used in 1972;1972; FAO, 1986;1986; cooking and soapsoap;; nuts fed to pigs;pigs; palmpalm cabbagecabbage eaten;eaten; leavesleaves Menninger,Menninger, 1977;1977; Johnson,Johnson, used for browse,browse, thatchthatch and basketry;basketry; trunkstrunks forfor postsposts 1983;1983 ; Uhl and Dransfield,Dransfield, 1987 AcroAcrocomiacomia lasiospatha macawmacaw;; mucujamucuja pleonanthic,pleonanthic, monoeciousmonoecious,, feather palmpalm;; fruit with thin,thin, edibleedible Hedrick,Hedrick, 1972;1972; UhlUhl andand Caribbean,Caribbean, BrazilBrazil pulp;pulp; nut oilyoily and bitter,bitter, esteemedesteemed locallylocally Dransfield,Dransfield, 19871987 Species andand distribution Common name Details References

Acrocomia totai gru gru; pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; kernels anan importantimportant Menninger, 1977;1977; N.E. Argentina,Argentina, ParaguayParaguay mbocarya; source of oil, usedused locallylocally forfor cooking,cooking, soapsoap andand asas anan illuminantilluminant Mabberley, 1987;1987; UhlUhl andand Paraguay palm Dransfield, 19871987 Aiphanes minimaminima coyor solitatry, spiny, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, monoecious,monoecious, featherfeather palm;palm; kernelkernel Menninger, 1977;1977; UhlUhl andand Central AmericaAmerica thick, white, edible, similarsimilar to thatthat of coconut; thin, sweetsweet pulp Dransfield, 19871987 edible Areca catechu betel or arecaareca solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, monoecious,monoecious, featherfeather palm;palm; Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, tropical cultigen;cultigen; cultivatedcultivated palm; bungaa;bungaa; masticatory, sliced endospern of ripe oror unripeunripe seedsseeds (nuts)(nuts) 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; in S. and S.E. AsiaAsia jamba; pinangpinang chewed in a wad of betel pepper (Piper betle,betle, Piperaceae)Piperaceae) withwith Johnson, 1983;1983; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, lime, a mildmild narcoticnarcotic containingcontaining arecaine,arecaine, causingcausing salivation,salivation, 1984; Purseglove, 1985;1985; dulling of appetite and reddening of saliva; palm cabbage eaten; Mabberley, 1987;1987; UhlUhl andand leaves for thatch; leaf sheaths for hats and containers; seed used Dransfield, 19871987 ...... as a vermifuge and in veterinary medicine; fruit source of tannin 0\ N and dye; cultivatedcultivated as ornamentalornamental Areca laxa pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; used as substitute for Hedrick, 19721972 Andaman Islands betel nut . Arenga pinnata black sugarsugar palm;palm; solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, monoeciousmonoecious feather palm; Miller, 1964;1964; Hedrick, 1972;1972; Malesia from W. India to sugar plum; toddy immature kernels cooked and eaten in Philippines,Philippines, boiled and Menninger, 1977;1977; FAO, Hainan, PhilippinesPhilippines andand palm; arengareng palm;palm; marketed as a sweetmeat; male spadix tapped for palmpalm sugar,sugar, 1984; Purseglove, 1985;1985; Papua New Guinea; widely ejow; gomuti;gomuti; jaggery, palmpalm winewine oror toddy,toddy, distilleddistilled forfor arrak;arrak; palmpalm cabbagecabbage Mabberley, 1987;1987; UhlUhl andand cultivated in the tropicstropics kaong eaten raw or cooked; stem pith source of sago; leafleaf sheathsheath source Dransfield, 19871987 of good fibre; leavesleaves forfor thatching;thatching; splitsplit petiolespetioles forfor basketrybasketry AstracaryurnAstrocaryum aculeatum star nutnut palm;palm; solitary, spiny, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, monoecious,monoecious, featherfeather palm;palm; mesocarpmesocarp Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Amazonia tucumátucuma thin, edible, contains 15-75%15-75 % oil; kernels hard andand inedible,inedible, 19771977;; FAO, 1986;1986; contain 37% edible oil, usedused commercially,commercially, residueresidue usedused asas cattlecattle Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and feed; leaf fibres marketed commecially, used forfor hammocks.hammocks. Dransfield, 19871987 Potential oil crop Species andand distribution Common name Dei-ailsDetails -- -ReferencesReferences

Astrocaryon jauarijauari jauari; awarraawarra solitary, spiny,spiny, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, monoecious,monoecious, featherfeather palm;palm; kernelkernel Johnson, 19831983 South America source of edible oil; leavesleaves used for thatchthatch Astrocaryum murumuru murti-murumuru-muru or spiny, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; kernelkernel chiefchief sourcesource Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Amazonia murumuru of edible oil in Pará,Para, Brazil,Brazil, usedused commercially;commercially; leafleaf fibresfibres usedused 1977; Mabberley,Mabberley, 1987; Uhl for hammockshammocks and Dransfield, 19871987 Astrocaryon tucumoidestucumoides awarra spiny, pleonanthicpleonanthic monoecious, feather palm; kernel sourcesource ofof Menninger, 1977;1977; N.E. SouthSouth AmericaAmerica edible oil used commercially; leaves used for mattingmatting Mabberley, 19871987 Astrocaryon vulgarevulgare tucuma spiny, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; mesocarpmesocarp edible,edible, Purseglove,Purseglove, 1985;1985; tropical America rich inin vitaminvitamin A; kernelskernels sourcesource ofof edibleedible oil,oil, excellentexcellent forfor Mabberley, 1987;1987; UhlUhl andand cooking and soap-making, used commercially; leaf fibres used Dransfield, 1987;1987; Prance,Prance, for fishingfishing lines and nets, hammocks,hammocks, strongest fibre inin 1994 Amazonia, possiblypossibly commerciallycommercially viable.viable. Plant often of ...... disturbed areas therefore probably easily domesticated 0\ disturbed areas therefore probably easily domesticated VJ Attalea oleifera solitary, unarmed,unarmed, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, monoecious,monoecious, featherfeather palm;palm; Menninger, 1977;1977; UhlUhl andand Brazil extremely hard nut; kernels source of aa cookingcooking oil Dransfield, 19871987 Bactris gasipaes peach palm; palm suckering, spiny,spiny, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, monoecious,monoecious, featherfeather palm;palm; starchystarchy Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, Amazonian Peru;Peru; chestnut; fruit pulp dry andand mealy,mealy, edible;edible; boiledboiled kernelskernels edible;edible; kernelskernels aa 1972; National Academy of unknown in thethe wild,wild, pejibay(e); commercial oilseed; fruit regarded as thethe mostmost nutritionallynutritionally Sciences, 1975;1975; Menninger,Menninger, widely cultivated inin SouthSouth pejivalle; pupuha balanced of tropical foods; palm hearts an important export; fruit 1977; Johnson, 1983;1983; America, especially for residues fed to livestock;livestock; leavesleaves forfor thatching;thatching; woodwood forfor longlong Purseglove,Purseglove, 1985;1985; FAO,FAO, palm hearts, introducedintroduced inin bows and floor slabs, sourcesource ofof cellulose cellulose forfor cellophanecellophane paperpaper 19861986;; Mabberley, 1987;1987; UhlUhl S. E.Asia and rayon. PotentialPotential forfor improvementimprovement asas anan oiloil crop.crop. and Dransfield, 1987;1987; Verheij and Coronel,Coronel, 1991;1991; Clay and Clement, 1993;1993; Clement and Villachica, 19941994 Species andand distribution Common name Details References

Bactris major prickly plum;plum; spiny, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, monoeciousmonoecious,, feather palm;palm; nut marketed as Hedrick,Hedrick, 1972;1972; Caribbean black roseau "cocorotes", cultivatedcultivated asas anan ornamentalornamental MabberlyMabberly,, 1987;1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 19871987 Borassus aethiopumaethiopum African fan palm;palm; solitary, unarmedunarmed,, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, dioeciousdioecious,, fan palmpalm;; fibrous pulp Menninger, 1977;1977; Johnson,Johnson, Tropical Africa deleib palm eaten raw of cooked;cooked; germinating radicle of buried nutnut cookedcooked asas 1983;1983; Purseglove, 1985;1985; UhlUhl famine food; palm cabbage eaten; sap source of toddy;toddy; leavesleaves and Dransfield,Dransfield, 19871987 used for thatch and basketry Borassus flabelliferflabellifer palmyra, toddy or solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, dioeciousdioecious,, fan palmpalm;; fruit pulp Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, India to Myanmar;Myanmar; wine palm;palm; roasted and eaten, seedlings edible;edible; inflorescenceinflorescence sap source of 1877; Johnson, 1983;1983; cultivated siwalan sugar and toddy; timber for rafters, leavesleaves forfor thatch,thatch, basketry,basketry, Purseglove, 1985;1985; writing paper,paper, etc.; fibre exportedexported Mabberley, 1987;1987; UhlUhl and DransfieldDransfield,, 1987 ...... hapaxanthic, monoeciousmonoecious,, feather palm, leaves bipinnate with FAO, 1986; Uhl and 0\ Caryota cumingiicumingii pugahan FAO, 1986; Uhl and ~ Philippines fishfish-tail-tail leafletsleaflets;; seedsseeds used as substitute chewing gum; sap Dransfield,Dransfield, 19871987 source of palm wine and alcohol, stem source of sago;sago; palm cabbage eateneaten;; soft petiole fibre used for tinder, caukingcauking andand stuffing pillowspillows;; petioles forfor basketry; leaves .used for thatch;thatch; timber slats used forfor flooring;flooring; cultivatedcultivated asas anan ornamentalornamental Caryota mitismitis fishtail palm hapaxanthic, monoecious, feather palm, leaves bipinnate with Menninger, 1977;1977; Johnson,Johnson, Indo-Malesia fish-tail leafletsleaflets;; mesocarp toxic with numerousnumerous oxalateoxalate crystals,crystals, 1987;1987; Mabberley, 1987;1987; UhlUhl immature kernel edible; fruits used as aa masticatorymasticatory afterafter and Dransfield, 19871987 leaching maceratedmacerated fruit;fruit; palmpalm cabbagecabbage eaten,eaten, sapsap sourcesource ofof wine, stem source of sago;sago; leaves used for thatching, leafleaf sheath source of fibre;fibre; cultivatedcultivated as an ornamentalornamental Caryota obtusa giant mountainmountain solitarysolitary,, hapaxanthic,hapaxanthic, monoecious, feather palm, leavesleaves bipinnatebipinnate Whitmore,Whitmore, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, var.var. aequatorialisaequatorialis fishtail palm with fish-tail leafletsleaflets;; mesocarp toxic withwith numerousnumerous oxalateoxalate 19771977;; Uhl and Dransfield,Dransfield, Malaysia crystals, kernel edible;edible; fruits usedused asas aa masticatorymasticatory afterafter leachingleaching 1987 macerated fruit Species andand distribution CommonConnnon name Details References

Cocos nucifera coconut solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; fruit Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, western Pacific, nownow I-seeded1-seeded drupe;drupe; fibrousfibrous mesocarpmesocarp (husk) yieldsyields fibrefibre coir for 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; pantropical coasts;coasts; doormats, matting, cordage, coir-dustcoir-dust a peatpeat substitutesubstitute in Johnson, 1983;1983; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, cultivated horticulture; endocarp hard,hard, woody,woody, 3-pored3-pored withwith adherentadherent seed; 1984; Purseglove,Purseglove, 1985;1985; endosperm hollow,hollow, edible,edible, containing ca.ca. 500 ml of reffeshingrefreshing Mabberley, 1987;1987; UhlUhl andand coconut milk which is also used in plant physiologyphysiology experiments, Dransfield, 19871987 dried endospermendosperm (copra)(copra) usedused inin confectioneryconfectionery (desiccated(desiccated coconut), also important sourcesource ofof oiloil forfor margarine, soap, etc., residue used in stockfeed; apical buds of over maturemature treestrees usedused for tinned palm hearts; axis tapped for toddy which, when evaporated yields jaggery (palm sugar), whenwhen fermented,fermented, produces arrak and may be furtherfurther fermentedfermented to vinegar;vinegar; leavesleaves for basketry, thatch,thatch, etc.;etc.; timbertimber (porcupine(porcupine wood)wood) forfor building.building...... Copernica prunifera wax or carnaubacarnauba solitarysolitary,, unarmed, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, hermaphrodite, fanfan palm;palm; Menninger,Menninger, 1977;1977; Johnson,Johnson, 0\ Vl N.EN.E.. BrazilBrazil wax palm immature kernels edible; leaf wax used commercially in shoe 1983; Mabberley, 1987;1987; UhlUhl polish, gramaphone records,records, candles, etc.; leaves for basketry, and Dransfield, 19871987 etc.; trunktrunk forfor woodwood Elaeis guineensisguineensis African oil palm solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, monoecious,monoecious, featherfeather palm;palm; Howes, 1948;1948; Kedrick,Kedrick, tropical Africa; cultivatedcultivated pericarp and kernel processedprocessed commerciallycommercially for edibleedible oil,oil, pulppulp 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; and kernel eaten, an importantimportant source of vitamin A; sap used toto Johnson, 1983;1983; Mabberley,Mabberley, make wine and alcohol; shell used for fuel and road surfacing;surfacing; 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, palm heart eaten;eaten; leavesleaves for thatch,thatch, weaving;weaving; petiolepetiole forfor fencingfencing 1987; Hartley, 1988;1988; Falconer, 1990;1990; Peters et al.,aI., 1992 Elaeis oleifera American oil palm solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, feather palm; nuts source of Johnson, 1983;1983; UhlUhl andand Central and SouthSouth AmericaAmerica edible and industrial oil; germplasmgermplasm source for hybridshybrids withwith E.E. DransfieldDransfield,, 1987;1987; Hartley,Hartley, guineensis for disease restistancerestistance etc.etc. 1988 Species andand distribution CommonConunon name DetailDetailss RReferenceseferences

Eugeissona utilis bertam palm ssuckering,uckering, didioecious,oecious , feather ppalm;alm; frufruitit edible;edible; starchstarch fromfrom trunktrunk JoJohnson,hnson, 1983; Mabberley,Mabberley, S.E.S.E. Asia;Asia; locallylocally a staple food of some natives; leavesleaves forfor thatchthatch 1987 cultivated Gastrococcus crispa corojocorojo;; belly palm solitarysolitary,, heavily armed,armed, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, monoecious,monoecious, feathejfeatheJ palm;palm; MenningerMenninger,, 1977;1977; UhlUhl andand Cuba fruit with hard shell;shell; kernelkernel edible,edible, appreciableappreciable quantitiesquantities ofof oil;oil; DransfieldDransfield,, 19871987 leaf fibres for cordage;cordage; cultivatedcultivated as anan ornamentalornamental Hyphaene compressa solitarysolitary,, spiny, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, dioecious, fan palm;palm; fibrous flesh of Uhl and Dransfield,Dransfield, 1987;1987; East Africa frufruitit eateneaten,, seedseed kernelkernel ofof unripeunripe fruit fruit eaten eaten,, also also the the part of Peters aI.al.,, 19921992 germinating seedlingseedling justjust belowbelow groundground;; endocarp a substitute vegetable ivory used for buttons; palm heart eaten;eaten; leavesleaves usedused for thatch, matting, baskets, cordage,cordage, paperpaper andand fuelfuel Hyphaene coriacea clustered or solitary, spiny,spiny, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, dioecious,dioecious, fanfan palm;palm; Uhl and Dransfield,Dransfield, 1987;1987; ...... 0\ East and South Africa, fibrous fleshflesh of fruit eaten, seed kernel of unripe fruitfruit eaten,eaten, alsoalso Peters et al.,aI. , 19921992 0\ Madagascar the partpart of of germinating germinating seedlingseedling justjust belowbelow ground;ground; endocarpendocarp a substitute vegetablevegetable ivoryivory usedused forfor buttonsbuttons;; palm heart eaten;eaten; leaves usedused forfor thatch, matting, baskets, cordage, paperpaper andand fuelfuel

Hyphaene petersianapetersiana gingerbread palm solitary or rarely clustered, dioecious fan palm; pulp and seeds Menninger, 1977; Uhl and tropical Africa eaten rawraw,, germinating seeds eaten; seed kernel of unripe fruit Dransfield,Dransfield, 1987; Peters et eateneaten,, also the partpart ofof germinating germinating seedlingseedling just below ground; al.,a\. , 19921992 endocarp formerly a substitute source of vegetrable ivory for buttons; palm heart eaten;eaten; leaves used for thatch, matting,matting, baskets, cordage, paperpaper andand fuelfuel Hyphaene thebaica doum or dum solitary, armed, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, dioecious,dioecious, fanfan palm;palm; fibrousfibrous mealymealy Howes,Howes , 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, Sudan and EgyptEgypt palm mesocarpmeso carp (husk)(husk),, which tastes of gingerbread and seed kernel of 19721972;; Menninger, 1977;1977; unripe fruit eaten, also the partpart of of germinating germinating seedlingseedling just JohnsonJohnson,, 1983;1983; Purseglove,Purseglove, below ground; endocarp a substitutesubstitute vegetable ivory used for 1985; MabberJeyMabberley,, 1987;1987; UhlUhl buttons; palm heart eaten; leaves used for thatch,thatch, matting,matting, and Dransfield, 1987; PetersPeters baskets, cordage,cordage, paperpaper andand fuelfuel et al.,aI. , 19921992 Species andand distributiondistnbution Common mUllenarre Details References

Jessenia bataua batawa; chapil;chapil; solitary, unarmed (except forfor short fibres on upper parts of leafleaf Menninger, 1977;1977; FAO,FAO, tropical South AmericaAmerica jagua; millemille pesos;pesos; sheath) pleonanthic,pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palmpalm;; kernels eaten 1986; Mabberley, 1987;1987; UhlUhl palma de leche;leche; mainly by the poor; thin, oilyoily pulp edible, mademade intointo a wine,wine, and Dransfield, 19871987 ClayClay palma patavona;patavona; mesocarp oil usedused for food, soap and cosmetics,cosmetics, residue fed to and Clement,Clement, 1993;1993; pataua;patauá; serie;serje; pigs; leaves used for thatching;thatching; leaf sheath and petiole source of Clement and Villachica,Villachica, ungurauyungurauy;; yaguayagua soft andand stiffstiff fibresfibres.. ManagedManaged inin thethe wildwild 1994 Jubaea chilensischilensis Chilean wine-wine­ massivemassive,, solitarysolitary,, unarmed,unarmed, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, monoecious,monoecious, featherfeather Howes,Howes, 1948;1948; Uphof,Uphof, 1968;1968; coastal ChileChile palm; coquito;coquito; palm; nuts - "little"little cokernuts" or "coquitos""coquitos" usedused inin ChileanChilean Hedrick,Hedrick, 1972;1972; Usher,Usher, 1974;1974; honey-palm;honey-palm; little, confectionery, occasionally marketed,marketed, source of an edible oil; Menninger,Menninger, 1977;1977; pigmy or monkeymonkey massive bolebole formerlyformerly felledfelled andand tappedtapped forfor sap (up to 300 litres) Mabberley, 1987;1987; UhlUhl andand coconut which is reduced by boiling for treacle (palm(palm honey) and palm Dransfield, 19871987 wine; leaves used for basketry; cultivatedcultivated as ornamental;ornamental; occasionally exported ...... 0\ -.] Livistonia cochinchinensiscochinchinensis solitary, pleonanthic, hermaphroditehermaphrodite,, fan palm; ripe fruits eaten Uphof,Uphof, 1968;1968; Menninger,Menninger, SS.E..E. AsiaAsia in N.N. Vietnam;Vietnam; cultivatedcultivated as anan ornamentalornamental 19771977;; Uhl and Dransfield,Dransfield, 1987; Braun, 19841984 Livistonia sarisaribus bus solitary, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, hermaphrodite fan palm of swampswamp forests;forests; Uphof,Uphof, 1968;1968; Menninger,Menninger, Indo-Malesia endosperm macerated in vinegar or salt solution and eaten in S.E.S.E. 1977 Asia Lodoicea maldivicamaldivica double coconut robust, solitary,solitary, unarmed,unarmed, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, dioeciousdioecious fan palm; fruit Hedrick,Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Seychelles coco de mer large, requires six years toto ripen;ripen; immatureimmature fruitfruit atat 10-1210-12 monthsmonths 19771977;; Purseglove,Purseglove, 1985:1985 ; with sweetsweet,, translucent,translucent, jelly-like,jelly-like, edible kernel;kernel; maturemature endocarpendocarp Mabberley,Mabberley, 1987;1987; UhlUhl andand a vegetable ivory, hard and inedible, used for bowls,bowls , etc.;etc.; leavesleaves Dransfield,Dransfield, 19871987 used for thatch and plaiting, downdown fromfrom youngyoung leavesleaves forfor stuffingstuffing pillows; wood used for pallisades, troughs;troughs; cultivatedcultivated as ornamental Species andand distribution Common name Details References

Manicaria saccifera busso, monkeymonkey solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm of Menninger, 1977;1977; tropical AmericaAmerica cap or sleevesleeve fresh water swamps; seeds a source of oil - "ubusou";"ubusou"; palmpalm Mabberley, 1987; UhlUhl andand palm source of sago in Venezuela; leavesleaves usedused forfor thatchthatch andand sails;sails; Dransfield, 19871987 spathe used for a hat

Mauritia flexuosa tree of life;life; massive, solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, dioecious,dioecious, fanfan palm;palm; Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, N. SouthSouth America,America, buriti; guagaraguagara farinaceous kernelkernel eaten; mesocarp used to make iceice cream, 1977; Johnson,Johnson, 1983; FAO, Trinidad muriti; ta or refreshing drinkdrink and oil; pith source of sago, sapsap sourcesource ofof palmpalm 1986; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl temiche palm wine; leaves for thatching and fibre for cordage, petiole source of and Dransfield, 1987;1987; ClayClay cork; trunk for rafts and dug-out canoes; roots medicinal. PalmPalm and Clement, 19931993 of local importanceimportance as "tree"tree ofof life" life" Maximiliana maripa cucurite; huacava;huacava; masive, solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, monoecious,monoecious, featherfeather Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, N.E. SouthSouth America,America, inaja; incham;incham; palm; outer huskhusk providesprovides aa salinesaline flourflour usedused forfor seasoningseasoning food;food; 1977; FAO, 1986;1986; ...... Trinidad kokerite pulp edible, yellow and sweet, made into drinks; kernelkernel toastedtoasted Mabberley, 1987;1987; UhlUhl andand 0'1 and eaten, source of an edible oil; palm cabbage eaten; leaves Dransfield, 1987 00 and eaten, source of an edible oil; palm cabbage eaten; leaves Dransfield, 1987 used for thatch, basketrybasketry and matting,matting, peduncle bract as aa container; cultivated for landscapinglandscaping kernels 44.7%.7% moisture, 59.3% oil, 19.3%19.3% proteinprotein Medemia argun argun robust, solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, dioecious, fan palm; Mabberley, 1987;1987; UhlUhl andand N. Sudan,Sudan, S.S. EgyptEgypt germinating fruit eaten; anan endangeredendangered speciesspecies Dransfield, 19871987 Nypa fruticosafruticosa nipa palm suckering fan palm; immature seeds edible, tootoo hardhard whenwhen Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, India to Australia;Australia; mature, pulpy immature kernels eaten raw, mature kenerls 1977; Johnson, 1983;1983; mangove swamps;swamps; pounded and eaten; inflorescences tapped for sugar; leavesleaves usedused Mabberley, 1987;1987; UhlUhl andand cultivated locallylocally for thatch, cigarettecigarette papers, basketry,basketry, mattingmatting Dransfield, 19871987 Orbignya cohunecohune cohune nut; solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, monoecious,monoecious, featherfeather palm;palm; egg-egg­ Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, Central AmericaAmerica corozo sized, hard-shelled fruit with kernel tastingtasting likelike coconutcoconut but moremore 1972; Purseglove, 1985;1985; oleaginous andand thethe oiloil superior,superior, unripeunripe kernelkernel usedused asas cookingcooking Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and "milk"; young leaves edible; endocarp used as fuel;fuel; subsistencesubsistence Dransfield, 1987; Clay and oil crop; leavesleaves used for thatch,thatch, rachisrachis forfor lightlight constructionconstruction Clement, 1993;1993; McSweeney,McSweeney, 1995 Species andand distributiondistnbution ConunonCommon name Details--Details -- ReReferences erences

Orbignya cuatrecasana taparos solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, monoecious,feathermonoecious,feather palm; seedsseeds Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Colombia edible Dransfield, 19871987 Orbignya martiana babassu or babacubabacu solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; fruit Purseglove, 1985;1985; Uhl andand Amazonian Brazil palm formerly exported now processed locally for oiloil Dransfield, 19871987 Orbignya oleifera babassu or babacubabacu solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; fruit Uhl and Dransfield, 1987;1987; South America palm source of an edible oil, oiloil exported;exported; leavesleaves usedused forfor thatchthatch Clay and Clement, 19931993 Orbignya phalerataphalerata babassu or babacubabacu solitary, unarmed,unarmed, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, monoecious,monoecious, featherfeather palm;palm; hard-hard­ Menninger, 1977;1977; FAO,FAO, Amazonia from the palm; cocococo dede shelled fruit; kernels important source of palm kernel oil; source 1986; Mabberley, 1987;1987; UhlUhl Guianas to Bolivia macaco; of shade, fibre, timber,timber, fuelfuel andand medicinemedicine and Dransfield, 1987;1987; palmaguassil;palmaguassu; Pinheiro and Frazao,Frazao, 19951995 Orbignya speciosaspedosa babassu or babacubabacu solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; fruit Johnson, 1983;1983; UhlUhl andand ...... South America palm source of an edible oil, oiloil exported;exported; leavesleaves usedused forfor thatchthatch Dransfield, 19871987 0\ \0 Orbignya spectabilis babassu or babacubabacu solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, monoecious,monoecious, featherfeather palm;palm; fruitfruit Purseglove, 1985;1985; Central Brazil palm formerly exported now processed locally for oil Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 19871987 Parajubaea cocoidescocoides Quito palm solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, monoecious,monoecious, featherfeather palm;palm; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Ecuador, S. Colombia;Colombia; mesocarp sweet, fleshy, eaten raw; kernelskernels sourcesource ofof oil;oil; Dransfield, 1987;1987; NationalNational mountains cultivated as an ornamental; potentialpotential forfor developmentdevelopment Research Council, 19891989 Parajubaea torallyitorallyi janchicoco solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, Mabberley, 1987; UhlUhl andand SS.. and central BoliviaBolivia monoecious palm;palm; mesocarp sweet, fleshy, eateneaten raw;raw; kernelskernels Dransfield, 1987;1987; NationalNational source of oil; fruitfruit asas animalanimal feed;feed; palmpalm heartshearts eaten;eaten; leafleaf fibrefibre Research Council, 19891989 for cordage and basketry; leaf midrib for fuel,fuel, petiolepetiole forfor locallocal construction; cultivated as an ornamental; potential for development Species andand distribution Common name Details References

Phytelephas aequatorialisaequatorialis vegetable ivory; solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, dioecious,dioecious, featherfeather palm;palm; FAO, 1986;1986; UhlUhl andand Panama to Peru and W. coroso; corozo; immature pericarp and endosperm provides refreshing drink and Dransfield, 19871987 Brazil; riverine tagua at a later stagestage eaten; veryvery hard;hard; maturemature cellulosecellulose endospermendosperm used as vegetable ivory for buttons, carvings, ornaments, etc. Phytelephas macroearpamacrocarpa ivory nut; taguatagua solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, dioecious,dioecious, featherfeather palm;palm; 'youngyoung Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Panama to Peru; riverineriverine seed provides refreshing drinkdrink and at a later stage eaten; very 1977; Johnson, 1983;1983; hard, cellulosecellulose endospermendosperm usedused asas vegetablevegetable ivoryivory foi-for billiard Purseglove, 1985;1985; balls, chessmen, buttons, etc. Mabberley, 1987;1987; UhlUhl andand Dransfield, 19871987 Raphia fariniferafarinifera raphia palm suckering, armed, hapaxanthic,hapaxanthic, monoecious, feather palm; boiled Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, S. tropicaltropical Africa,Africa, kernels eaten, yellow, oilyoily pulppulp edible and source ofof raphiaraphia 1977; Purseglove, 1985;1985; Madagascar; cultivatedcultivated butter, oil used inin cooking,cooking, alsoalso as illuminant, lubricant and Mabberley, 1987; UhlUhl andand pomade; young leaves formerly important sourcesource ofof raffia,raffia, older Dransfield, 19871987 -..) leaves source of raffia wax -0 Raphia viniferavinifera bamboo or wine armed, hapaxanthic, monoecious, feather palm; pulppulp andand seedseed Hedrick, 1972;1972; Purseglove,Purseglove, West Africa palm eaten; sap source of palm wine; palm cabbage eaten; leaves for 1985; Uhl and Dransfield,Dransfield, thatch, matting, etc. 1987; Peters et al.,ai., 19921992 SalaccaSalaeea zalaccazalaeea salak palm; snakesnake creeping and tillering, armed, dioecious, feather palm; pulp sour- Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, S.W. Java, S. Sumatra;Sumatra; fruit sweet, eaten raw, candied or pickled,pickled, canned;canned; kernels kernels sweet,sweet, 1977; Johnson, 1977;1977; widely cultivated in S. E.E. edible, sometimes pickled; leaves for thatch and matting; petiole Purseglove, 1985;1985; Asia and Queensland bark for matting;matting; growngrown forfor hedgeshedges Mabberley, 1987;1987; VerheijVerheij and Coronel, 19911991 SeheeleaScheelea butyraeeabutyracea oil or winewine palmpalm solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, monoecious,monoecious, featherfeather palm;palm; oiloil Hedrick, 1972;1972; Mabberley,Mabberley, tropicaltropical America seed; sap source of palm wine;wine; cultivatedcultivated asas anan ornamentalornamental 1987; Uhl and Dransfield,Dransfield, 1987 SeheeleaScheelea macroearpamacrocarpa yagua palm solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious, featherfeather palm; fruitfruit Menninger, 1977;1977; UhlUhl andand tropicaltropical America edible but kernels hard and rarely eaten,eaten, sourcesource ofof oil;oil; cultivatedcultivated Dransfield, 19871987 as an ornamentalornamental Species andand distribution Common name Details References

Scheelea magdalenica mamarron solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, monoecious,monoecious, featherfeather palm;palm; fruitfruit Menninger, 1977; Uhl and tropical America edible but kernels hard and rarely eaten Dransfield, 19871987 Scheelea martiana chopaja; maripd;maripa; solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, monoecious,monoecious, featherfeather palm;palm; FAO, 1986;1986; Uhl and tropical South America uricuri; urucuri;urucuri; starchy/oily mesocarp cooked and eaten; seeds ground to aa flour;flour; Dransfield, 19871987 urucurizeiro peripericarp carp used for smokingsmoking rubber latexlatex Serenoa repens saw palmettopalmetto suckering, rhizomatous, more oror lessless stemless,stemless, hermaphrodite,hermaphrodite, SaundersSaunders,, 1976;1976; Menninger, E.E. USAUSA fan palm; kernelskernels formerlyformerly anan importantimportant foodfood ofof nativenative 1977 Americans; palm cabbagecabbage edibleedible Syagrus cocoides pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm withwith leavesleaves appearingappearing 3-3- Menninger, 1977; UhlUhl andand tropical America ranked; kernel sourcesource ofof pururimapururima oiloil Dransfield, 19871987 Syagrus coronata nicuri plum;plum; solitary, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; kernelkernel Howes, 1948;1948; Johnson,

>-' arid Brazil; limitedlimited ouricuri or licurilicuri sometimes eaten;eaten; palmpalm kernelkernel oiloil -- "urucury wax" edible, also 1983; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl -...l >-' cultivation palm used in soap and asas substitutesubstitute for carnaubacarnauba waxwax and Dransfield, 19871987 Syagrus edulisedulis pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; nutsnuts deliciousdelicious Menninger, 1977; Uhl and N.E. BrazilBrazil Dransfield, 19871987 Veitchia joannisjoannis solitary feather palm; kernels slightly astringent, readilyreadily eaten,eaten, Menninger, 1977;1977; Braun,Braun, Fiji; introduced South especially by children; cultivated as anan ornamentalornamental 1984 America Washingtonia filiferafilifera Californian fan robust, tall, solitary,solitary, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, hermaphrodite,hermaphrodite, fanfan palm,palm, fruitfruit Hedrick, 1972;1972; Saunders,Saunders, Colorado Desert, palm a 1-seededI-seeded berry; pulp thin and sweet, seedseed large,large, eateneaten fresh,fresh, 19761976;; MenningerMenninger,, 1977;1977; California dry or groundground intointo aa mealmeal byby nativenative Americans;Americans; leafleaf fibrefibre usedused MabberleyMabberley,, 1987; Uhl and for basketry;basketry; source of building materials; palm grown as a street DransfieldDransfield,, 19871987 tree Washingtonia robusta Mexican fan palmpalm robust, tall, solitary,solitary, pleonanthic,pleonanthic, hermaphrodite,hermaphrodite, fanfan palm,palm, fruitfruit Hedrick, 1972;1972; Saunders,Saunders, Mexico a 1-seededI-seeded berry; fruitfruit edibleedible 19761976;; Mabberley, 1987; UhlUhl and Dransfield,Dransfield, 19871987 Species andand distribution Common name Details References

PANDANACEAE; fruit fruit berryberry or drupe

Pandanus brosimosbrosimos screw pinepme cultivated for its edible, oil-richoil-rich seedsseeds PurseglovePurseglove,, 1985;1985; VerheijVerheij New GuineaGuinea;; highlandshighlands and Coronel,Coronel, 19911991 Pandanus conoideusconoideus karuka screwpine;screwpine; oily seedsseeds edibleedible Verheij and Coronel,Coronel, 19911991 New Guinea Pandanus dubiusdubius screwpine;screwpine; seeds edible; leafleaf fibresfibres usedused forfor basketrybasketry Verheij and Coronel,Coronel, 19911991

Pandanus ju!ianetUjulianett:i screw pinepine dioecious screwpine;screwpine; multiplemultiple fruitfruit large,large, dense, up to 1616 kg,kg , MenningerMenninger,, 1977;1977; New Guinea; highlands individual fruitsfruits readilyreadily separated,separated, upup toto 10 x 1.51.5 cm;cm; pulppulp sweetsweet Purseglove, 1985;1985; VerheijVerheij coconut flavour, eaten raw or smoked,smoked, kernelkernel eateneaten rawraw oror and Coronel,Coronel, 1991;1991 ; MacraeMacrae normally roasted,roasted, sourcesource of oil et al.,aI., 19931993 ...... -..l tv Pandanus luzoniensisluzoniensis alas-as arborescent screwpine, multiple fruit,fruit, subglobose, 99.1.1 cm inin FAO,1984FAO, 1984 Philippines diameter, individual fruits 3-4 x 2-2.62-2.6 cm,cm, seedsseeds (nuts)(nuts) 1-10;1-10; seeds eaten boiled or roasted;roasted; decoctiondecoction of propprop rootroot medicinal;medicinal; grown as ornamentalornamental 55.89%.89% fat, 12.1%12.1 % protein,protein, 36.9%36.9% fibrefibre

ZOSTERACEAE: fruitfruit a small drupe or irregularlyirregularly dehiscingdehiscing

msteraZostera marina water nut; eel or submerged marine grass-like herb, ripe,ripe, seed-bearingseed-bearing portionportion Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Atlantic and Pacific coasts sea grass; grass floats to surface and isis harvested;harvested; threshedthreshed graingrain eateneaten byby SeriSeri 1977; Felger andand Moser,Moser, of North AmericaAmerica andand wrack; alva or Indians of Baja California, grain withwith economiceconomic potential for 1985;1985; Mabberley, 1987;1987; Eurasia ulva marina development; drieddried leavesleaves usedused forfor packingpacking glass,glass , pillows,pillows, etc. ; Irving et al.al.,, 19881988 plant useuse forfor compostcompost u

Species andand distribution Common name Details - n_ n__ References

GYMNOSPERMS

ARAUCARIACEAE; femalefemale conescones large, large, moremore or less globose, disintegrating when seeds mature

Araucaria angustifoliaangustifolia Brazilian or seeds largelarge,, edible, marketedmarketed in RioRio dede Janeiro;Janeiro; importantimportant timbertimber Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick, S. Brazil, N.N. ArgentinaArgentina ParanaParaná pine tree 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; Mabberley, 19871987 Araucaria araucana Chilean pine; evergreen tree,tree, seeds - "Chile nut''nut" eaten fresh, boiledboiled or roasted,roasted, HowesHowes,, 1948;1948; Hedrick, Chile; introducedintroduced andand monkey puzzle also distilled for spirit. Eighteen good-sized trees will provide a 1972; Menninger, 1877;1877; cultivated year's sustenance;sustenance; cultivatedcultivated as anan ornamentalornamental Mabberley, 19871987 Araucaria bidwilliibidwillii bunya-bunya pine large tree, cones large, seeds starchy, up to 6 x 2 cm;cm; seedsseeds Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick, Queensland edible, sold in supermarkets, eaten roasted or boiledboiled by 1972; MenningerMenninger,, 1977;1977; ..... Aborigines, flavour of chestnuts, also storedstored untiluntil germinatinggerminating MabberleyMabberley,, 1987; Tow, -..l w and then eaten; good timber and cultivated as anan ornamentalornamental and 1989; Lazarides and Hince, street tree 1993

CUPRESSACEAE; conescones woody,woody, leatheryleathery or berry-like

Juniperus californicacalifornica Californian evergreen tree or shrub; fruitfruit eateneaten by IndiansIndians SaundersSaunders,, 1976; Mabberley, Californian desert juniper 1977 Juniperus communiscommunis juniper evergreen shrub with sweet, aromatic fruit; edible,edible, usedused toto Kedrick, 1972;1972; Mabberley,Mabberley, north temperate region flavour gin, liqueursliqueurs andand meatmeat dishes;dishes; cultivatedcultivated asas anan ornamentalornamental 1987 Juniperus deppeanadeppeana var.var. check-barked or evergreen tree;tree; fruitfruit eateneaten byby nativenative AmericansAmericans Kedrick,Kedrick, 1972;1972; Saunders,Saunders, pachyphlaea alligator juniper 1976; Menninger,Menninger, 19771977 SS.W..W. USAUSA Juniperus occidentalis western juniper fruit eaten by native AmericansAmericans Menninger,Menninger, 19771977 California Species andand distribution Common name Details References

Juniperus osteospermaosteosperma Utah juniper evergreen tree or shrub; fruitfruit eateneaten byby nativenative Americans Americans Kedrick, 1972;1972; Saunders,Saunders, arid S.W. USAUSA 1976

CYCADACEAE; femalefemale conescones leafy, leafy, toothedtoothed toto deeplydeeply lobedlobed withwith large,large, naked seedsseeds terminallyterminally

Cycas media Australian nutnut seeds first leached to remove toxic substancessubstances before cooking and Menninger, 1977;1977; Australia palm eating; boiled seeds aa staplestaple dietdiet ofof thethe AboriginesAborigines Mabberley, 19771977 Cycas pectinata dioecious, palm-like tree; seedsseeds firstfirst leachedleached toto removeremove toxictoxic Verheij and Coronel,Coronel, 19911991 E. HimalyasHimalyas substances before cooking and eating; stem pith source ofof sago;sago; young leaves as vegetable;vegetable; ornamentalornamental Cycas revoluta seeds first leachedleached to removeremove toxictoxic substancessubstances before cookingcooking and Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, ...... -....) Japan eating; sago from pith used for flourflour andand breadbread 1977; Mabberley, 19771977 ~ Cycas rumphii sago palm dioecious, palm-like tree; seedsseeds firstfirst leachedleached toto removeremove toxictoxic Hedrick, 1977;1977; Menninger,Menninger, Malesia to PacificPacific substances before cooking and eating; stem pith source of sago;sago; 1977; Mabberley, 1987;1987; young leaves as vegetable; ornamentalornamental Verheij and Coronel, 19911991 Cycas siamensis dioecious, palm-like tree; seedsseeds firstfirst leachedleached toto removeremove toxictoxic Verheij and Coronel, 19911991 Myanmar, Thailand,Thailand, Indo-Indo­ substances before cooking and eating; stem pith source of sago;sago; China, MalaysiaMalaysia young leaves as vegetable; ornamentalornamental Dioon edule seeds foul smelling, yield a starch used as arrowroot, cookedcooked andand Hedrick, 1972;1972; Menninger,Menninger, Mexico eaten 1977; Mabberley, 19871987 Species andand distribution CommonConunon name Details References

GINKGOACEAE; femalefemale gametophytegametophyte pedunculatepedunculate inin leafleaf axil,axil, 22 ovules,ovules, seedseed 1i by abortion

Ginkgo biloba ginkgo; dioecious tree, widelywidely cultivated as an ornamental and street treetree Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, E. China,China, cultivatedcultivated maidenhair; Kew thoughthough female treestrees are objectionable because the fallen seedsseeds 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; elsewhere tree stink of rancid butterbutter.. GinkgoGinkgo nutsnuts eateneaten after firstfirst removingremoving Krochrnal,Krochmal, 1982;1982; nauceous outerouter layer to leaveleave femalefemale gametophyte,gametophyte, cannedcanned andand RosRosengarten, engarten, 1984;1984; marketed inin USA, eaten roasted or in birds nest soup; alsoalso sourcesource Mabberley, 1987;1987; BianchiniBianchini of an edible oil which is also usedused fuelfuel andand cancan causecause dermatitisdermatitis et al., 1988;1988; LiLi PenglaiPenglai andand in sensitive people.people. PeelPeel sourcesource ofof insecticideinsecticide Song Zexia, 19901990

GNETACEAE; femalefemale strobolistroboli bearingbearing drupe-likedrupe-like fruitfruit ...... -..I VI Gnetum costatum Dioecious tree;tree; bitter fruits boiled and eaten;kernels nutritious; Verheij and Coronel, 19911991 Papua New GuineaGuinea bast fibre for cordagecordage kernels 40-45%40-45 % starch, 8-10%8-10 % proteinprotein Gnetum gnemongnemon incl. var.vaL gnetum; bago; dioecious, evergreen tree,tree, fruit ca. 22 cmcm long;;long;; seedsseeds eateneaten inin Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, brunonianum melindjo Ambon roasted, boiled or fried,fried, marketedmarketed locally;locally; youngyoung leavesleaves 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; Indo-Malesia; cultivatedcultivated and inflorescences used as a vegetable; fibre fromfrom innerinner barkbark FAO, 1984;1984; Mabberley,Mabberley, 1987; Verheij andand Coronel,Coronel, 1991 Gnetum indicum kuliat woody vine, fruit ovoid, 3.1 cm long,long, seedsseeds 1;1; fruitfruit eateneaten boiledboiled FAO, 19841984 Philippines or roasted;roasted; seedsseeds boiledboiled with sugar and eaten; bast fibre forfor cordage andand baskets;baskets; cutcut stemstem sourcesource ofof waterwater Gnetum latifoliumLatifolium incl.incl . woody vine; fruit eaten boiled or roasted;roasted; seedsseeds boiledboiled withwith sugarsugar FAO, 1984;1984; Menninger,Menninger, varvar.. junicuLarefuniculare or fried andand eateneaten after removalremoval of thethe inner,inner, hairyhairy seed-coat;seed-coat; 1977; Verheij and Coronel,Coronel, Malaysia to PhilippinesPhilippines 1991 Species andand distribution Common name Details . ----- References

Gnetum nodiflorum curucuda; ituaitua woody vine; fruit ellipsoid, 4-5 x 2.5 cm;cm; roastedroasted seedsseeds chestnut-chestnut­ FAO, 19861986 Amazonia flavour, also ground to a flour; stemstem fibresfibres forfor cordage,cordage, alsoalso usedused as a cellulose base for somesome paper Gnetum tenuifolium dagum slender liana; boiled seeds eaten; decoction of the rootsroots drunkdrunk Menninger, 1977;1977; VerheijVerheij Malaysia after childbirth and Coronel, 19911991

PINACEAE; female cones usually 2 seeds per scalescale

Pinus albicaulis whitebark, nut,nut, seeds and inner bark eateneaten by nativenative AmericansAmericans Menninger, 1977; Krochmal,Krochmal, Rocky Mountains scrub or alpinealpine 1982 pine ,..... -.J Pinus armandii Armand or seeds commonly soldsold in markets and eaten Howes, 19481948 0\ W. China Chinese white palm P. bungeanabungeana lace-bark pine seeds small, eaten in China; hardly in USAUSA Menninger, 19771977 N.N.W. W. China; cultivatedcultivated Pinus cembracembra Swiss stone pine;pine; seed wingless, edible, sole winter food of peasants in Siberia; Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, Alps and Carpathians; Siberian ceder leaves source of turpentine; timber tree 1972; Mabberley, 19871987 cultivated Pinus cembroides single leaved or evergreen tree; seeds eaten fresh or lightly roasted by native Howes, 1948;1948; KearneyKearney andand S.W. NorthNorth America;America; big cone pine; Americans Peebles, 1951;1951; Hedrick,Hedrick, cultivated Mexican piñonpinon nut 1972; Saunders, 1976;1976; Menninger, 1977;1977; Rosengarten, 19841984 Pinus coulteri Coulter, enormous cones, seeds large, edibleedible Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, California Californa, nut or 1972; Krochmal, 19821982 big cone pine Species andand distribution Common name ------u--DetailsDetails -- -ReferencesReferences

Pinus edulis Nevada two-two- evergreen tree; seeds - "piñon"pinon nuts" important food of native Howes, 1948;1948; KearneyKearney andand S.W. NorthNorth AmericaAmerica leaved, two-two- Americans and Mexicans, eaten raw or roasted,roasted, marketedmarketed Peebles, 1951;1951; Hedrick,Hedrick, leaved, RockyRocky commercially; resinresin chewedchewed forfor soresore throats, also used for 1972; Saunders, 1976;1976; Mountain, treating boils, soressores andand insectinsect bites, hothot resinresin forfor poulticingpoulticing Menninger, 1977;1977; Colorado or piñonpinon muscular pains, boiled needles with sugar for syphilissyphilis Krochmal, 1982;1982; pine Rosengarten, 19841984

Pinus flexillsflexilis limber, Arizona or seeds large, eaten by nativenative AmericansAmericans Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, W. USA;USA; cultivatedcultivated Rocky Mountain 1972; Krochmal, 19821982 pine Pinus gerardiana Nepal nut pine;pine; seeds large, ca. 2.52.5 cmcm long;long; highhigh proteinprotein "neoza"neoza nuts"nuts" marketedmarketed Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, Himalayas, 300-400 m; chilgoza, locally inin India, stored for winter use, potentialpotential forfor export;export; 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; cultivated chilghoza or noosa grown for social forestry but has not adapted to European or Anthony et al.,aI., 1993;1993; ...... pine North American climatesclimates Rosengarten, 19841984 -.) -.) Pinus koraiensis Korean nut or seeds edible, exported from mainland China; cultivated as an Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, China, Korea, Japan;Japan; cedar pine ornamental 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; cultivated Rosengarten, 19841984 Pinus lambertiana California sugar, evergreen tree bearing cones ca. 50 cmcm long;long; seedsseeds eateneaten byby Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, S.W. USAUSA sugar, big oror giantgiant native Americans; resin catharticcathartic 1977; Krochmal, 19821982 pine Pinus monophylla single-leaf pinonpiñon,, evergreen tree; seeds edible, eaten roasted or made into cakes by Kearney and Peebles,Peebles, 1951;1951 ; Great Basin to BajaBaja nut, one-leaf or native Americans, resin used to sweetensweeten food Hedrick, 1972;1972; Saunders,Saunders, California; cultivatedcultivated stone pine 1976; Menninger,Menninger, 1977;1977; Krochmal, 1982;1982; Rosengarten,Rosengarten, 19841984 Pinus monticola western white, seeds edible Merringer,Merringer, 19771977 S.WS.W.. USAUSA silver or IdahoIdaho pine Speciesspecies andand distributiondistnbution Common name Details References

Pinus nelsonii Nelson pinyon seeds edible Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, Mexico pine 1977 Pinus pinea pignolia; stone, evergreen tree; seeds with wings small or absent;absent; seeds,seeds, Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, N. MediterraneanMediterranean andand parasol or pignolias, eaten as dessert nutnut andand inin confectionery,confectionery, cultivatedcultivated 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977; Portugal; cultivatedcultivated umbrella pine and marketed commercially; brokenbroken kernels source of an oil; Rosengarten, 1984;1984; cultivated as an ornamental Mabberley, 1987;1987; BianchiniBianchini et al.,ai., 1988;1988; Pinus ponderosa western yellow, seeds small, edible Howes, 1948;1948; KearneyKearney andand Pacific North America bull or ponderosaponderosa Peebles, 1951;1951; Meninger,Meninger, pine 1977 Pinus pumila Japanese dwarf seeds eaten locally Rosengarten, 19841984 E. Asia;Asia; cultivatedcultivated stone pine ...... -..I 00 Pinus quadrifolia Parry's oror four-four- evergreen tree; seeds eateneaten by nativenative AmericansAmericans Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, Baja California leaved nut pine 1972; Saunders, 1976;1976; Menninger, 19771977 Pinus roxburgii chir or emodiemodi pinepine seeds eaten in times of scarcity; source of terpentine, charcoal for Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick,Hedrick, Himalayas Chinese fireworks 1972; Mabberley, 19871987 Pinus sabiniana digger, bull or evergreen treetree upup to 25 m tall, conescones up toto 2020 cmcm long,long, Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick 1972;1972; California (Great ValleyValley gray pine containing upup toto 180 seeds, cones require only 2 years toto developdevelop Saunders, 1976; Menninger, and Coast Ranges)Ranges) and produce seed compared toto 3 years for the ItalianItalian stone pine, 1977; Krochmal, 1982;1982; PP.. pinea; seedsseeds eateneaten by nativenative Americans; timber source of Farris, 1983;1983; Mabberley,Mabberley, fuelfuelwood, wood, pit props and oleoresin; pitch for treating burns and 1987 sores, bark infusioninfusion forfor consumptionconsumption Pinus sibirica Siberian stone seeds eaten locally Rosengarten, 19841984 N.E. RussiaRussia eastwardseastwards to pine 57°E5TE Species andand distribution ConunonCommon namename Details References

Pinus torreyana Torrey, del mar, seeds cca.a. 2.5 cmcm long,long, edibleedible Howes, 1948;1948; HedrickHedrick 1972;1972; California lone or soledad Menninger, 1977;1977; Krochmal,Krochmal , pine 1982; Mabberley, 19871987

TAXACEAE; fruit usually aa 10-ntunerouslO-numerous seedsseeds

Torreya grandis seeds eaten and used medicinally Howes, 1948;1948; Menninger,Menninger, China 1977 Torreya nucifera Japanese torreya; evergreen tree; seeds eaten, also source of seed oil used for Howes, 1948;1948; Hedrick, China and Japan kaya nut cooking in Japan;Japan; regardedregarded mildlymildly laxativelaxative andand anthelmintic;anthelmintic; 19721972;; Menninger, 1977;1977; cultivated as anan ornamentalornamental Mabberley, 19871987 ...... -..l \0 ZAMIACEAE; femalefemale conescones determinate, determinate, scalesscales moremore oror lessless peitatepeltate bearing 2(-3) olvulesvules on adaxial marginsmargins

Encephalartos hildebrandtii husks of ripe seed dried and ground to a flour,flour, brokenbroken kernelskernels Menninger,Menninger, 1977;1977; Peters et dried, ground to a flourflour andand leached,leached, then drieddried andand stored;stored; stemstem al.,al. , 19921992 pith source of sagosago Lepidozamia hopei arumba treated nuts used for flourflour byby AboriginesAborigines Menninger,Menninger, 1977;1977; LazaridesLazarides Queensland and Hince,Hince, 19931993 Macrozamia riedlii zamia nut with volatile toxin removed by roasting Menninger,Menninger, 1987;1987; LazaridesLazarides West Australia and Hince, 19931993 Macrozamia spiralis Queensland nut seeds eaten if soaked and pounded oror bakedbaked,, ssourceource of good Mabberley,Mabberley, 19871987 New South WalesWales quality arrowroot Zamia chiguachigua seeds boiled and mashedmashed before eating Menninger,Menninger, 19771977 New Granada Species andand distribution Common name Details References

Zamia fioridianafloridiana seminole bread; seeds edible MenningerMenninger,, 19771977 Central AmericaAmerica coontie; comptiecomptie

-o00 APPENDIXAPPENDIXB B

COMPOSITION OF NUTSNUTS PER 100100 g EDIBLEEDIBLE PORTIONPORTION (Raw(Raw unlessunless otherwiseotherwise indicated)indicated) (Farris, 1983;1983; Rosengarten, 1984; Arnold et aI.,al., 1985;1985; BrandBrand andand Cherikoff,Cherikoff, 1985;1985; BoothBooth and Wickens, 1988;1988; Willing, 1989)1989)

N i

cC C 0o R P a tt ii

I1 r V ii b V a b ini n ToT 0 i S n P o0 t ii h f t P t E r h a c ii I a e n W 0o d F m a a m c p e a tt r ii iai a mvm v ii ii a r tt e F a b A n c i i i n e r g e i' a t r s ii n n 00 - s t y r n t e e hhCaP Ca P K NaNaMgFeZnCuAdee Mg Fe Zn Cu A d e e C - kJid/100g- / 1OOg------//100g1OOg ------mg/100gmg/ 1OOg ------Average daily requirements 1300 55 800 800 4000 2200 350 15 15 800 1.4 1.1 1.3 60 ANACARD1ACEAEANACARDIACEAE - - 0 Pistacia vera 594 55.3.3 19.3 53.7 17.1 1.9 2.7 131 500 972 7.3 230 1.4 0.67 Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra nut 2703 44.0.0 28.3 57.3 33.7.7 22.9.9 3.8 118 808 601 3.81 462 4.87 55.19.19 2.81 0.72 0.42 0.120.12 BOMBACACEAE Adansonia digitata fruit 12921292 8.7 2.7 0.2 73.773 .7 8.9 55.8.8 335 76.2 2409 11.211.2 167 2.65 1.0 0.37 2.73 00.62.62 0.14 kernelkernel 18031803 8.1 33.7 30.6 4.8 16.9 5.9 273 5.125.12 1275 2.48 640 6.556.55 6.68 2.78 1.0 0.25 0.14 209 BURSERACEAE Canarium ovatum 669 6.3 11.4 71.1 55.7.7 2.7 22.8.8 140 554 489 3 3.4 40 00.5.5 0.88 0.09 Tr CARYOCARACEAE Caryocar sp. kernelkemel 629 3.8 23.7 61.2 8.48.4 - 2.9 COMPOSITAE HHelianthus elianthus annuus dry kernels 560 4.8 24.0 4747.3.3 16.1 3.8 4.0 120 837 920 30 7.1 50 5.4 1.96 0.23 CORYLACEAE Cory/usCorylus avellana kernel 634 5.8 12.6 62.4 13.7 3.0 22.5.5 209 337 704 2 3.4 0.9 0.46 Tr CUCURBITCUCURBITACEAEACEAE Cucurbita spp. dry kemelskernels 553 4.4 29.0 46.7 13.1 1.9 4.9 51 1144 11.2 70 2.4 0.24 190. N ii Cc C o0 R P a tt i II r ViV i b V a b ini n ToT 0 i S n P o0 tit i hfh f t a Pp t E r h aca c iil I a e nWon W 0 dFd F m aaam a m c p eate a t r ii iamvi a m v i i a r t e F a b A nciin c i i n e r ge.g e i a t r s ii nnn n s tt yY rnr n t e e hCaPKh Ca P K NaMgFeZnCuAdeeCNa Mg Fe Zn Cu A d e e C EUPHORBIACEAE Schinziophyton rautaneniirautanenii flesh 1410 8.68.6 7.8 0.5 75.075 .0 2.9 5.25.2 85.0 74.3 2145 2.392.39 214 2.542.54 1.68 1.30 kernel 2715 4.2 26.3 58.158 .1 4.64.6 2.7 44.1.1 223 869 674 3.353.35 493 3.42 3.54 2.522.52 FAGACEAE Castanea dentata 33.4 10.2 1010.2.2 42.342 .3 1.9 1.9 00 -N Castanea mollissima 57.657 .6 4.4 0.90.9 34.634.6 1.4 1.1 Castanea sativa fresh 194 5252.5.5 2.9 1.5 41.0 1.1 1.0 27 88 454 6 1.7 0.6 0.22 00.22.22 dry 377 8.4 6.7 4.1 7676.1.1 2.5 2.2 52 162 875 12 3.3 1.2 0.32 00.38.38 Fagus sp.sp. 568 6.6 19.4 50 1616.6.6 3.7 3.73.7 JUGLANDACEAE Carya alba 673 3.3 13.2 68.768 .7 10.9 1.9 2.0 Tr 380 2.4 Carya illinoensisiIIinoensis 687 3.4 9.2 71.2 12.3 2.3 1.6 73 289 603 Tr 2.4 130 0.9 0.86 0.13 2 Juglans nigranigra 628 3.13.1 2020.5.5 59.3 13.1 1.7 22.3.3 Tr 570 460 3 6.0 300 0.7 0.220.22 0.11 Juglans regia 651 3.53.5 1414.8.8 64.064.0 1313.7.7 2.1 1.9 99 380 450 2 3.1 30 0.9 0.330.33 0.13 2 LECYTHIDACEAE Bertholletia excelsaexcelsa 654 44.6.6 1414.3.3 66.966.9 77.8.8 3.1 3.33.3 186 693 715 1 3.4 Tr 1.6 0.960.96 0.120. 12 LEGUMINOSAE-CAESLEGUMINOSAE-CAES.. Cordeauxia edulis seedseed 446 7.8- 10.8-10.8- 9.99.9 31.4- 2.1 2.2- 31-33 221- 625- 452- 79-79-8282 22.3.3 1616.9.9 15.9 13.4 41.5 3.83.8 232 633 493 163 Guibourtia coleosperma seedseed 1589 9.1 14.3 4.4 6262.3.3 4.4 1.9 323 198 390 20.3 295 4.69 2.7 0.87 Tylosema esculentum seedseed 2253 3.73.7 3232.9.9 2.1 20.520.5 2.1 3.03.0 183 463 780 2222.6.6 3.87 3.33 1.38 1.89 0.620.62 00.52.52 Lemuropisum edulen seedseed 14-26 6-9 38-43 26-32 N i Cc C o0 R P a t i i V I1 r V i b V a b ini n ToT 0 i S n P o0 t i h f t a e i I1 a Pp t E rr h a c e n W o0 d F m a a m i m v i c pP e aa t rr i iaa my i a r t e F a b A n c i i n e r g e ii a tt r s i n n s t yY rr n tt e e h Ca P K Na Mg Fe Zn Cu A d e e C LEGUMINOSAE-PAP, Arachis hypogaea raw with skins 564564 55.6.6 2626.0.0 4747.5.5 1616.2.2 2.4 2.3 69 401 674 5 2.1 1717.2.2 1.14 00.13.13 0 raw less skinsskins 568568 5.4 2626.3.3 48.4 1515.7.7 1.91.9 2.3 59 409 674 5 22.0.0 0 1515.8.8 00.99.99 0.13 00 boiled 376 36.4 15.515 .5 31.5 1212.7.7 1.8 22.1.1 43 181 462 4 1.3 10.0 0.48 00.08.08 0 ...... roasted with skins 582 1.8 26.226.2 48.7 1717.9.9 22.7.7 22.7.7 72 407 701 5 2.2 17.1 0.32 00.13.13 0 00 roasted and saltedsalted 585 1.6 26.026.0 49.8 16.416.4 2.4 33.8.8 74 401 674 418 2.1 1717.2.2 00.32.32 0.13 00 \j.) Vigna subterraneasubterranea seed 14--24 c.60 PROTEACEAE Macadamia 691 33.0.0 7.8 71.6 13.413.4 22.5.5 1.7 48 161 264 2.0 0 1.3 00.34.34 0.11 0 ROSACEAE Prunus dukcis kernelkernel,, dried 598 4.74.7 1818.6.6 54.2 16.9 2.6 3.0 234 505 773 4 4.7 0 3.53.5 00.24.24 0.92 Tr roasted and saltedsalted 627 0.70.7 18.6 57.7 16.916.9 2.6 3.5 235 504 773 198 4.7 0 3.53.5 0.05 0.92 00 SANTALACEAE SantalurnSantalum acuminata kernelkemel 3000 1.6 1515.5.5 67.6 3.1 20.8 1.3 SAPOTACEAE VitellariaVitellaria paradoxaparadoxa kernelkernel 45-60 SlMMONDSIACEAESIMMONDSIACEAE SimmondsiaSimniondsia cchinensishinensis nut cc.. 3030 c.50c. 50 STYLOBASIACEAE StylobasiurnStylobasium spathulaturnspathulatum kernelkemel 1988 1.3 11.6 0.9 0 3 TRAPACEAE Trapa tartansnatans fruitfruit 79 78.3 1.4 00.2.2 118.28.2 00.8.8 1.1 4 65 5005(X) 20 00.6.6 0 1.0 0.140.14 0.200.20 4 7070.0.0 44.7.7 00.3.3 0.6 20 150 0.8 N i Cc C o0 R P a t i I r V i b V a b ini n ToiT 0 i S n P o0 tit i hf h f t Pp t E r h aca c iil I a e nnWo W 0 d F m aaa a m ec p eeat a t r i iai a my m v i ii a r t e F a b A ncn c iii i n e r geig e i a t r s i nnn n s t y r n t e e hCaPKh Ca P K NaMgFeZnCuAdeeCNa Mg Fe Zn Cu A d e e C PINACEAE Pinus edulisedulis seed 635 3.1 13.0 60.5 19.4 1.1 2.9 51 1144 11.2 70 00.24.24 00.19.19 Pinus pinea seed 552 55.6.6 31.1 47.4 10.7 0.9 4.3 12 604 5.2 30 Tr 1.28 0.23 Tr Pinus sabiniana seed 571 3.6 25.0 49.4 17.5 4.5 5.1 53.87 8.39 13.04 1.69 ...... 00 +>- APPENDIXAPPENDIXC C

BOTANICAL NAMESNAMES (bold)(bold) CITEDCITED IN IN THE THE TEXT TEXT AND AND THEIR THEIR SYNONY1VIS SYNONYMS (italics)(italics ) USED IN THE CITEDCITED LITERATURELITERATURE

Acanthosicyos horrida Welw.Welw . exex Benth.Benth. && Hook.f.Hook.f. CUCURBITACEAECUCURBITACEAE Acioa edulis Prance = CouepiaCouepia edulis edulis CHRYSOBALANACEAE CHRYSOBALANACEAE Acrocomia aculeata (Jacq.)(Jacq.) Mart.Mart. PALMAEPALMAE A. lasiospatha Mart.Mart. A.A. sclerocarpa Mart.Mart. == A.A. aculeataaculeata A. totaltotai Mart.Mart. PALMAEPALMAE Adansonia digitata L.L. BOMBACACEAEBOMBACACEAE A. gregoriigregorii F.Muell.F.Muell . Aesculus californica (Spach)(Spach) Nutt.Nutt. HIPPOCASTANACEAEHIPPOCAST ANACEAE A. hippocastantunhippocastanum L,L, A. indicaindica (Wall.(Wall. exex Cambess.)Cambess.) Hook.Hook. A. octandraoctandra Marsh.Marsh. A. parvifloraparviflora Walt. Walt. A. paviapavia L.L. Aiphanes minimaminima (Gaertn.) (Gaertn.) BurretBurret PALMAEPALMAE Alectryon macrococcus Radlk. SAPINDACEAESAPINDACEAE Aleurites moluccana (L)(L) Willd.Willd. EUPHORBIACEAEEUPHORBIACEAE A. triloba J.R.J.R. && G. Forst. == A.A. moluccana moluccana Allanblackia floribunda Oliv.Olivo GUTTIFERAE GUTTIFERAE Allantoma cylindricacylindrica Miers = A.A. lineatalineata LECYTHIDACEAE LECYTHIDACEAE A. lineatalineata (Mart.(Mart. exex Berg.)Berg.) MiersMiers A. stuhlmanniistuhlmannii (Engl.)(Engl.) Engl.Engl. A. ulugorensisulugorensis Engl.Engl. Amygdalus bucharicabucharica KorshKorsh.. == Prunus bucharicabucharica ROSACEAEROSACEAE AA.. communis L. L. = P.P. dulcisdulcis A. ulmifoliaulmijolia (Franch.) (Franch.) Popov. Popov. = = P. ulmifoliaulmifolia Anacardium gigantetungiganteum Hanc.Hanc .ex ex Engl.Engl. ANACARDIACEAEANACARDIACEAE A. Inunilehumile St.St. Hil.Hil. A. nanumnanum St.St. Hil.Hil. A. occidentale L.L. A. rhinocarpus DC.DC. Anacolosia frutescensfrutescens (Blume) (Blume) BlumeBlume OLACACEAEOLACACEAE A. luzoniensis Merr.Merr. = A.A. frutescensfrutescens Anisoptera thuriferathurifera (Blanco) (Blanco) Blume Blume DIPTEROCARPACEAEDIPTEROCARPACEAE Antrocaryon micrastermicraster A.Chev. A.Chev .& & Guill.Guill .ANACARDIACEAE ANACARDIACEAE Apios americana Medik. Medik. LEGUMINOSAELEGUMINOSAE subfamily subfamily PAPILIONOIDEAE PAPILIONOIDEAE A. tuberosa Moench == A. americanaamericana Arachis hypogaeahypogaea L.L. LEGUMINOSAE LEGUMINOSAE subfamily subfamily PAPILIONOIDEAEPAPILIONOIDEAE A. villosulicarpavillosulicarpa HoehneHoehne Aralia trifoliatrijolia Decne && Planch.Planch. = PanaxPanax trifoliustrifolius L.L. ARALIACEAEARALIACEAE Araucaria angustifolia angustifolia (Bertol.) (Bertol.) Kuntze Kuntze ARAUCARIACEAEARAUCARIACEAE A. araucanaaraucana (Molina) (Molina) K.KochK.Koch A. bidwelliabidwellia Hook.Hook. A.A. brasiliana R.RichR.Rich.. = A.A. angustifoliaangustifolia A. imbricata PavPav.. = A.A. araucanaaraucana Areca catechu L. PALMAEPALMAE A. laxalaxa Buch.-Ham.Buch.-Ham.

185 Arenga pinnatapinnata (Wurmb)(Wurmb) Merr.Merr. PALMAEPALMAE A.A. saccarifera Labill.Labill. == A. pinnatapinnata Argania sideroxylon Roem.Roem. & & Schultes Schultes = A.A. spinosaspinosa SAPOTACEAESAPOT ACEAE A. spinosaspinosa (L.)(L.) SkeelsSkeels Artocarpus altilisaltilis (L.)(L.) Fosb.Fosb. MORACEAEMORACEAE A.A. champedenchampeden (Lour.) Spreng.Spreng. A.A. communis J.R. J.R. & & G G.Forst..Forst. = A.A. altilisaltilis A. elasticuselaSticus Reinw.Reinw . exex BlumeBlume A. heterophyllusheterophyllus Lam.Lam. A. integerinteger (Thunb.)(Thunb.) Merr.Merr. AA.. integra (Thurb(Thurb.).) Merr. Merr. == A.A. heterophyllusheterophyllus A. integrifolia L.f L.f.. = A.A. heterophyllusheterophyllus A. ovatusovatus BlancoBlanco Astrocaryum aculeatumaculeatum G.Mey.G. Mey. PALMAEPALMAE A. jauari C.Mart.C.Mart. A. murunwrumurumnru C.Mart.C.Mart. A. tucuma C.Mart.C.Mart. A. tucumoides DrudeDrude A. vulgare C.Mart.C.Mart. Attalea cohune Mart.Mart. = OrbignyaOrbignya cohtmecohune PALMAEPALMAE A. oleifera Barb.Rodr.Barb.Rodr. Azadirachta indicaindica A.Juss.A.Juss. MELIACEAEMELIACEAE Bactris gasipaesgasipaes KunthKunth PALMAEPALMAE B. major Jacq.Jacq. B. maraja Mart.Mart. B. minor Jacq.Jacq. Baillonella toxisperma PierrePierre SAPOTACEAESAPOT ACEAE BarringtordaBarringtonia asiaticaasiatica (L.) (L.) Kurz Kurz LECYTHIDACEAELECYTHIDACEAE B.B. butonica J.R.J.R. && GG.Forst..Forst. == B.B. asiaticaasiatica B.B. careya FF.Muell..Muell. = PlanchoniaPlanchonia careya B. edulisedulis Seem.Seem. B.B. excelsa auct.auct. nonnon Bl. Bl. == B. procera B. magniferarnagmfera Laut.Laut. == B. proceraprocera B. niedenzuananiedenzuana (K.Schum.) (K.Schum.) KnuthKnuth B. novae-hyberniaenovae-hyberniae Laut.Laut. B. proceraprocera (Miers)(Miers) KunthKunth B. scortechiniiscortechinii KingKing Bauhinia esculenta Burch. == TylosemaTylosema esculentum esculentum (Burch.)(Burch.) A.Schreib.A.Schreib. LEGUMINOSAE subfamily. CAESALPINIOIDEAE Beilschmiedia bancroftii C.WhiteC.White LAURACEAELAURACEAE B. mannii (Meisn.)(Meisn.) Benth.Benth. && Hook.f.Hook.f. Bertholletia excelsaexcelsa Humb.Humb. && Bonpl.Bonpl. LECYTHIDACEAELECYTHIDACEAE Blighia sapida KönigKonig SAPINDACEAESAPINDACEAE Borassus aethioptunaethiopum Mart. PALMAEPALMAE B. flabellifer L.L. Boscia angustifolia A.Rich.A.Rich. CAPPARACEAECAPPARACEAE B. senegalensissenegalensis (Pers.) Lam.Lam. exex Poir.Poir. Boswellia serrataserrata Roxb.Roxb . exex Colebr.Colebr. BURSERACEAEBURSERACEAE Brabejum stellatifoliumstellatifolium L. PROTEACEAEPROTEACEAE Brachychiton acerifoliusacerifolius (G.Don)(G.Don) F.Muell.F.Muell. STERCULIACEAESTERCULIACEAE Brosimum alicastrum Sw.Sw. MORACEAEMORACEAE Buchanania lanzanlanzan Spreng.Spreng. = B.B. latifolialatifolia ANACARDIACEAE ANACARDIACEAE B. latifolia Roxb.Roxb . Buchholzia coriacea Engl.Engl . CAPPARACEAECAPPARACEAE Butyrospermum parkii parkii (G. (G.Don) Don) Kotschy Kotschy = =Vitellaria Vitellaria paradoxaparadoxa SAPOTACEAESAPOT ACEAE

186 Calodendrum capensiscapensis Thunb.Thunb. RUTACEAERUT ACEAE CanariwnCanarium albumalbum (Lour.) (Lour.) RaueschRauesch BURSERACEAEBURSERACEAE C. amboinense Hochr. Hochr. = = C.C. indicwnindict= C. commune L. L. == C.C. indicum indicwn pro pro major major parte,parte, C.C. vulgarevulgare propro minorminor parteparte C. harveyiharveyi Seem.Seem. C. indicumindicwn L.L. C.C. littorale L.L. C. luzonicumluzonicwn (Blume)(Blume) A.GrayA.Gray C. mehenbethe Gaertn Gaertn.. == C. indicumindicwn C. moluccanummoluccanum Bl.Bl. =--- C.C. indicwnindicum C.C. muellerimuelleri BaileyBailey C. nungi Guill.Guill. == C. indictunindicwn C.C. ovatumovatwn Engl.Engl. C. pachyphyllum Park Park.. = = C. ovatumovatwn C. patentinerviumpatentinerviwn Miq.Miq. C. pilostunpiloswn BennettBennett C. pimelapimela Leenh.Leenh. C. rufumrujum BennBenn.. == C. litoralelitorale C. salomonensesalomonense B.L.BurnB.L.Burtt C. schweinfurthiischweinfurthii Engl.Engl. C. sylvestresylvestre Gaertn.Gaertn. C. vrieseanumvrieseanwn Engl.Engl. C. vulgarevulgare Leenh.Leenh. Careya arboreaarborea Roxb. Roxb. LECYTHIDACEAELECYTHIDACEAE Carya albaalba Nutt.Nutt. JUGLANDACEAEJUGLANDACEAE C. aquatica (Michx.)(Michx.) Laud.Laud. C. carolinae-septentrionaliscarolinae-septentrionalis (Ashe) (Ashe) Engl.Engl.& & Graebn. Graebn. C.C. cathayensiscathayensis Sarg.Sarg. C. cordiformiscordiformis (Wangenh.) (Wangenh.) K.KochK.Koch C. glabraglabra (Mili.) (Mill .) SweetSweet C. illinoinensisillinoinensis (Wangenh.)(Wangenh.) K.KochK.Koch C. laciniosa (F.Michx.)(F.Michx.) LoudonLoudon C. microcarpa Nutt.Nutt. == C.C. (walls ovalis C. myristiciformismyristiciformis Nutt.Nutt. C. olivaeformis Nutt. Nutt. = C.C. illinoinensis illinoinensis C. ovalisovalis (Wangenh.)(Wangenh.) Sarg.Sarg. C. ovataovata (Mi!!.)(Mill.) K.KochK.Koch C. pallidapallida (Ashe) (Ashe) Engl.Engl. && Graebn.Graebn. C. pecan (Marsh.)(Marsh.) Engl. && GraebnGraebn.. == C.C. illinoinensis illinoinensis C. porcina Nutt.Nutt. = C.C. glabraglabra C. sulcata Nutt.Nutt. = C.C. laciniosalaciniosa C. texanatexana Buckl.Buckl. var.var. villosavillosa (Sarg.)(Sarg .) LittleLittle C. tomentosatomentosa (Poir.)(Poir.) Nutt.Nutt. C. tonkinensistonkinensis LecomteLecomte C. villosa Sarg.Sarg. = C.C. texanatexana var.var. villosavillosa Caryocar amygdaliferumamygdaliferum Mutis Mutis CARYOCARACEAECARYOCARACEAE C. amygdaliforme G.DonG.Don C.C. brasiliense brasiliense Cambess. Cambess . C. brasiliensebrasiliense Cambess.Cambess. C. butyrospermum Willd Willd.. = C.C. villostunvilloswn C. butyrosum Willd Willd.. = C.C. villostunvilloswn C. coccineumcoccineum PilgerPilger == C.C. glabrum C. coriaceumcoriacewn Wittm.Wittm. C. glabrumglabrum (Aubl.)(Aubl.) Pers.Pers. C. nuciferumnuciferum L.L.

187 C. tomentosum L. L. = C.c. nuciferumnuciferum C. villostunvillosum (Aubl.)(Aubl.) Pers. Caryodendron amazonicum amazonicum Ducke Ducke EUPHORBIACEAE EUPHORBIACEAE C. orinocense Karst.Karst. Caryota aequatorialisaequatorialis (Becc.)(Becc.) Ridl.Ridl. == C.C. obtusaobtusa var.var. aequatorialisaequatorialis PALMAE PALMAE C. cumingii Lodd.Lodd. C. mitis Lour.Lour. C. obtusa Griff.Griff. var.var. aequatorialisaequatorialis Becc.Becc. Castanea crenatacrenata Sieb. Sieb. && Zucc.ZUCCo FAGACEAEFAGACEAE C. dentata (Marsh.)(Marsh.) )) Borkh.Borkh. C. henryi RehderRehder && WilsonWilson C. mollisima BlumeBlume C. ozakensis AsheAshe C. pumila (L.)(L.) Mill.Mill. C. sativa L.L. C. seguinii DodeDode Castanopsis accuminatissimaaccuminatissima (B1.) (Bl.) A.DC.A.DC. FAGACEAEFAGACEAE C. argentea (Blume)(Blume) A.DC.A.DC. C. argyrophylla KingKing C. boisii HickelHickel && A.CamusA.Camus C.C chinensischinensis HanceHance C. chrysophylla (Dougl.)(Dougl.) A.DC.A.DC. C. costata (B1.)(Bl.) A.DC.A.DC. C. cuspidata (Thunb.)(Thunb.) SchottkySchottky C. hullettii KingKing C. hystrix Miq.Miq. C. indica (Roxb.)(Roxb.) Miq.Miq. C. inermisinermis (Lindl.(Lindl. exex Wall.)Wall.) Benth.Benth. && Hook.Hook. C. javanicajavanica (B1.) (Bl.) A.DC.A.DC. C. lucidalucida (Nees (N ees exex Wall.)Wall.) SoepadmoSoepadmo C. malaccensismalaccensis GambleGamble C. megacarpa GambleGamble C. philippensisphilippensis (Blanco)(Blanco) VidalVidal C. rufescensrujescens HookHook.f.. f. && ThonnThonn.. == C. hystrixhystrix C. sclerophylla SchottSchott && KotschyKotschy C. sempervirens (Kellogg)(Kellogg) DudleyDudley C. sumatrana A.DC. A.DC. = C.C. inermisinermis C. tibestana HanceHance C. tribuloides A.DC.A.DC. C. wallichiiwallichii KingKing exex Hook.f.Hook.f. Castanospermum australeaustrale A.Cunn. A.Cunn. && FraserFraser ex ex Hook.Hook. LEGUMINOSAE subfamily PAPILIONOIDEAE Ceiba pentandrapentandra (L.) (L.) Gaertn. Gaertn. BOMBACACEAE BOMBACACEAE Chrysobalanus icaco icaco L. L. CHRYSOBALANACEAE CHRYSOBALANACEAE Chydenanthus excelsusexcelsus MiersMiers LECYTHIDACEAE LECYTHIDACEAE Citrullus lanatuslanatus (Thunb.) (Thunb.) Matsum Matsum & & NakaiNakai CUCURBITACEAE CUCURBITACEAE C. vulgaris Eckl.Eckl. && Zeyh.Zeyh. == C. lanatuslanatus Cnidiscolus oligandrusoligandrus (Muell. (Muell. Arg.)Arg.) Pax Pax EUPHORBIACEAE EUPHORBIACEAE Cocos aculeataaculeata JJacq. acq. = AcrocomiaAcrocomia aculeataaculeata PALMAE PALMAE C. butyraceabutyracea (Mutis)(Mutis) L.f.L.f. = ScheeleaScheelea butyraceabutyracea PALMAEPALMAE C. coronatacoronata Mart. = SyagrusSyagrus coronatacoronata C. nuciferanucifera L.L. C. ventricosaventricosa ArrudaArruda == AcrocomiaAcrocomia aculeataaculeata

188 Cola acuminataacuminata (Beauv.) (Beauv . )Schott Schott & & Endl. End!. STERCULIACEAESTERCULIACEAE C. anomalaanomala Schumann Schumann C. caricaefoliacaricaefolia (G.Don) (G .Don) K.Schum.K.Schum. C. heterophyllaheterophylla (P.Beauv.) (P.Beauv.) Schott Schott && Endl.End!. C. milleniimillenii K.Schum.K.Schum. C. nitidanitida (Vent.) (Vent.) SchottSchott && Endl.End!. C.C. rostratarostrata K.Schum. K.Schum. e.C. togoensis Engl.Engl. && K.KrauseK.Krause = C.C. milleniimillenii e.C. vera K.Schum.K.Schum. == C. nitida C. verticillataverticillata (Thonn.) (Thonn.) A.Chev.A.Chev . Conopodium denudatum Koch UMBELLIFERAEUMBELLIFERAE C. majusmajus (Gouan) (Gouan) LoretLoret UMBELLIFERAE UMBELLIFERAE Copernicia pruniferaprunifera (Mill.) (Mill.) H.Moore H.Moore PALMAEPALMAE Cordeauxia edulis edulis Hemsl. Hemsl. LEGUMINOSAE LEGUMINOSAE subfamily subfamily CAESALPINIOIDEAE CAESALPINIOIDEAE Corylus americanaamericana Marshall Marshall CORYLACEAECORYLACEAE C. avellanaavellana L.L. C. chinensischinensis Franch.Franch. C. colurnacoluma L.L. C. cornutacomuta Marsh.Marsh. C. feroxferox Wall.Wall. C. heterophyllaheterophylla Trautv.Trautv. C.e. mandshurica Maxim. & Rupr.Rupr. C. sieboldianasieboldiana var. mandshuricamandshurica - C. maximamaxima Mill. C.e. rostrata Ait.Ait. == C.C. cornutacomuta C. sieboldianasieboldiana BlumeBlume var. sieboldiana var. mandshuricamandshurica (Maxim. (Maxim. && Rupr.)Rupr.) Schneid. Schneid. C. tibeticatibetica BatalinBatalin C.e. tubulosa Willd Willd.. == C.C. maximamaxima Corynocarpus laevigatalaevigata Forster Forster & & Forster Forster CORYNOCARPACEAE CORYNOCARPACEAE Couepia edulis (Prance)(Prance) PrancePrance CHRYSOBALANACEAECHRYSOBALANACEAE C. longipendulalongipendula PilgerPilger Coula edulis Baill. OLACACEAEOLACACEAE Crescentia alataalata Kunth Kunth BIGNONIACEAEBIGNONIACEAE C. cujetecujete L.L. Crossonephelis penangensispenangensis (Rid!.) (Ridl.) Leenh.Leenh. == GlennieaGlenniea penangensispenangensis SAPINDACEAESAPINDACEAE Cryptocarya albaalba (Mol.) (Mol.) Looser Looser LAURACEAE LAURACEAE C. latifolialatifolia Sond.Sond. C. moschata NeesNees & Mart.Mart. e.C. peumuspeumus Nees Nees == C. alba Cubilia blancoiblancoi BlumeBlume == CubiliaCubilia cubili cubili SAPINDACEAE SAPINDACEAE Cubilia cubilicubili (Blanco)(Blanco) Adelb.Adelb . Cucurbita maxima maxima Duchesne Duchesne ex ex Lam. Lam. CUCURBITACEAE CUCURBIT ACEAE C. mixta Pang.Pang. C. moschatamoschata (Duchesne (Duchesne exex Lam.)Lam.) DuchesneDuchesne ex Poir. C. pepopepo L. Cupania americanaamericana L.L. SAPINDACEAESAPINDACEAE Cycas circinaliscircinalis L.L. = C.C. rumphiirumphii CYCADACEAE CYCADACEAE C. media R.Br.R.Br. C. pectinata Griff.Griff. C. revoluta Thunb.Thunb. C. rumphii Miq.Miq. C. siamensis Miq.Miq.

189 Cyperus esculentusesculentus L.L. CYPERACEAECYPERACEAE C. rotundus L.L. Deinbollia grandifolia Hook.f. Hook.f. SAPINDACEAESAPINDACEAE Derris spp.spp. LEGUMINOSAELEGUMINOSAE subfamily subfamily PAPILIONOIDEAEPAPILIONOIDEAE Dioon eduleedule LindleyLindley ZAMIACEAEZAMIACEAE Diplodiscus paniculatus Turcz.Turcz. TILIACEAETILIACEAE Diploknema butyraceabutyracea (Roxb.) (Roxb.) H.J.Lam H.J.Lam SAPOTACEAE SAPOTACEAE Durio zibethinuszibethinus MurrayMurray BOMBACACEAE BOMBACACEAE Elaeis guineensis Jacq.J acq. PALMAEP ALMAE E. oleiferaoleifera (Kunth)(Kunth) CortésCortes Elaeoc,arpusElaeocarpus bancroftii F.F. Muell.Muell . ELAEOCARPACEAEELAEOCARP ACEAE Elateriospermum tapos tapos Blume Blume EUPHORBIACEAE EUPHORBIACEAE Eleocharis dulcisdulcis (Burm.f.)(Burm.f.) HenschelHenschel CYPERACEAECYPERACEAE EE.. tuberosa Schultes == E. dulcisdulcis Encephalartos hildebrandtiihildebrandtii A.Braun A.Braun & & Bouché Bouche ZAMIACEAE ZAMIACEAE Endiandra insignis insignis F.M.Bailley F.M.Bailley LAURACEAE LAURACEAE E. palmer4oniipalmers'tonii (Bailey) (Bailey) C.WhiteC.White && FrancisFrancis Erisma japurajapura Spruce Spruce VOCHYSIACEAE VOCHYSIACEAE Eschweilera grandifloragrandiflora (Aubl.) (Aubl.) SandwithSandwith LECYTHIDACEAELECYTHIDACEAE E. jaranumjaranum (Huber) (Huber) DuckeDucke E. subsubglandulosa glandulosa Miers Miers = = E.E. jaranajarana Eucarya acuminata (R.Br.) Sprague = SantalumSantalum acuminata acuminata SANTALACEAE SANTALACEAE Eugeissona utilis Becc.Becc. PALMAEPALMAE Euryale feroxferox Salisb.Salisb .NYMPHAEACEAE NYMPHAEACEAE Fagus ferruginea Ait.Ait. = F.F. grandifoliagrandifolia FAGACEAEFAGACEAE F. grandifolia Ehrh.Ehrh. F. sylvatic.asylvatica L. Finschia carriicarrii (Sleumer) (Sleumer) WhiteWhite PROTEACEAEPROTEACEAE F. chloroxanthachloroxantha DielsDiels F. ferruginifloraferruginiflora WhiteWhite F. rufa Warb.Warb. Fusanus acuminatusacuminatus R.Br. R.Br. == SantaltunSantalum actnninata acuminata SANTALACEAE SANT ALACEAE Ganua motleyana (de(de Vriese)Vriese) PierrePierre exex DubardDubard == Madhuca motleyanamotleyana SAPOTACEAESAPOTACEAE Garcinia barrettianabarrettiana conrauana conrauana Engl. Engl. GUTTIFERAE GUTTIFERAE G. cowacowa Roxb.Roxb. exex DC.DC. G. indicumindicum (Lour.)(Lour.) Merr.Merr. G. kolakola HeckelHeckel G. lateriflora Bl.BI. G. mangostana L.L. G. planchoniiplanchonii PierrePierre Gastrococos crispacrispa (Kunth) (Kunth) H.MooreH.Moore PALMAEPALMAE Gevuina avellana MolinaMolina PROTEACEAEPROTEACEAE Ginkgo bilobabiloba L.L. GINKGOACEAE GINKGOACEAE GlennieaGlemnea penengensispenengensis Ridl.Ridl. SAPINDACEAESAPINDACEAE Gluta eleganselegans (Wall.)(Wall.) Hook.f. Hook.f. ANACARDIACEAE ANACARDIACEAE G. renghasrenghas L.L. G. velutinavelutina Bl.BI. Glycine max (L.)(L.) Merr. Merr. LEGUMINOSAE LEGUMINOSAE subfamily subfamily PAPILIONOIDEAEPAPILIONOIDEAE Gnetum brunonianumbrunonianum Griff. Griff. = = G.G. gnemon varvar.. brunonianum GNETACEAEGNET ACEAE G. costatum K.Schum.K.Schum. G. edule BI.Bl. = G.G. latifoliumlatifolium var.var. funicularefuniculare G. gnemon L. var. bruninianum (Griff.)(Griff.) Markgr.Markgr. G. indicum (Lour.)(Lour.) Merr.Merr.

190 G. latifoliumlatifolium Bl.Bl. var. ftmicularefuniculare (B1.)(Bl.) Markgr.Markgr. G. nodiflorumnodiflorum Brogn.Brogn. GG.. scandens nomen.nomen. G. tenuifoliumtenuifolium Ridl.Ridl. Grevillea annulifera F.Muell.F.Muell. PROTEACEAEPROTEACEAE G. elaeocarpifolia Guill.Guill. == FinschiaFinschia chloroxantha Guilielma utilisutilis (Kunth)(Kunth) Bailey Bailey = = Bactris gasipaes Gynandriris sisyrinchiumsisyrinchium (L.)(L.) Parl.ParI. IRIDACEAEIRlDACEAE Heisteria parvifoliaparvifolia Sm.Sm. OLACACEAEOLACACEAE Helianthus annuusannuus L.L. COMPOSITAE COMPOSIT AE var. macrocarpusmacrocarpus (DC.)(DC.) CockerellCockerell Helicia cochinchinensis Lour.Lour. PROTEACEAEPROTEACEAE H. diversifolia C.WhiteC. White Heritiera fomesfomes Buch.-Ham.Buch.-Ham. STERCULIACEAESTERCULIACEAE H. littoralislittoralis Ait.Ait. H.H. minor RoxbRoxb.. = H.H. fomesfomes Hicksbeachia pinnatifoliapinnatifolia F.Muell. F.Muell .PROTEACEAE PROTEACEAE Holopyxidium jaranum jaranum (Huber) (Huber) Ducke Ducke = = Eschweilera jaranwnjaranum LECYTHIDACEAE LECYTHIDACEAE Hyphaene compressacompressa H.Wendl.PALMAEH.WendI.PALMAE H. coriaceacoriacea Gaertn.Gaertn. H. petersianapetersiana Mart.Mart. H. thebaicathebaica Mart.Mart. H. ventricosaventricosa JJ.Kirk .Kirk == H. petersianapetersiana Inocarpus edulis J.RJ.R.. && G.Forst.G.Forst. = =I. I.fagifer fagifer LEGUMINOSAE LEGUMINOSAE subfamily subfamily PAPILIONOIDEAE PAPILIONOIDEAE I. fagiferfagifer (Parkinson) (Parkinson) Fosb.Fosb. Iris sisyrinchiumsisyrinchium L.L. = GynandririsGynandriris sisyrinchiinn sisyrinchium IRIDACEAE IRlDACEAE Irvingia gabonensisgabonensis (O'Rorke) (O'Rorke) Baill. Baill. IRVINGIACEAEIRVINGIACEAE var. excelsaexcelsa OkaforOkafor var. gabonensisgabonensis Jessenia batua (Mart.)(Mart.) BurretBurret PALMAEPALMAE J.J. polycarpapolycarpa KarstKarst == J.J. batua Jubaea chilensischilensis (Molina)(Molina) Baill. PALMAEPALMAE J.J. spectabilisspectabilis Kunth = J.J. chilensischilensis Juglans ailanthifoliaailanthifolia CarrièreCarriere JUGLANDACEAEJUGLANDACEAE var. cordiformis (Makino)(Makino) RehderRehder J. australisaustralis Griseb.Griseb. J. baccatabaccata L.L. J. bolivianaboliviana (C.DC.)(C.DC.) DodeDode J. californicacalifornica S.Wats.S.Wats. J. cathayensiscathayensis Maxim.Maxim. J. californicacalifornica S.Wats. S.Wats. J. cinereacinerea L.L. J. duclouxianaduclouxiana DodeDode J. hindsiihindsii (Jeps.)(Jeps.) R.E.Sm.R.E.Sm. JJ.. honoreihonorei DodeDode = J.J. neotropicaneotropica J. kamaoniakamaonia DodeDode J. majormajor (Torr. (Torr. exex Sitsgr.)Sitsgr.) HellerHeller J. mandshuricamandshurica Maxim. Maxim. J. microcarpamicrocarpa Berland. Berland. J. neotropicaneotropica DielsDiels J. nigranigra L.L. J.J . regiaregia L.L.

191 J. rupestrisrupestris Engelm.Engelm. == J. microcarpamicrocarpa var.var. major Torr.Torr. exex Sitsgr. Sitsgr. == J. majormajor J. sieboldianasieboldiana Maxim.Maxim. var.var. cordiformiscordiformis MakinoMakino = J.J. ailanthifolia ailanthifolia var. var. cordiformiscordifonnis var. sieboldianasieboldiana = J. ailanthifoliaailanthifolia var.var. ailanthifoliaailanthifolia J. venezuelensisvenezuelensis ManningManning Juniperus californicacalifornica Carrière Carriere CUPRESSACEAECUPRESSACEAE J. communiscommunis L.L. J. deppeanadeppeana Steud. Steud. var.var. pachyphlaeapachypblaea (Torr,) (Torr,) Martinez Martinez J. occidentalisoccidentalis Hook.f.Hook.f. J. osteospermaosteosperma (Torr.)(Torr.) LittleLittle J. pachyphlaeapachyphlaea Torr.Torr. = J.J. deppeanadeppeana var.var. pachyphlaeapachypblaea J.J. utahensisutahensis (Engelm.)(Engelm.) Lemmon == J. osteospermaosteosperma KennadeciaKermadecia leptophyllaleptophylla Guill. Guill. PROTEACEAEPROTEACEAE Kerstingiella geocarpa Harms == MacrotylomaMacrotyloma geocarpum geocarpum LEGUMINOSAE LEGUMINOSAE subfamily subfamily PAPILIONOIDEAE Kigelia africana (Lam.) (Lam.) Benth.Benth .BIGNONIACEAE BIGNONIACEAE K. pinnatapinnata (Jacq.)(Jacq.) DC DC.. == K. africana Lannea schweinfurthiischweinfurthii (Engl.) (Engl.) Engl. Engl. ANACARDIACEAE ANACARDIACEAE var.var. stuhlmanniistuhlmannii (Engl.)(Engl.) KokwaroKokwaro L. stuhlmannii Engl.Engl. == L. schweinfurthiischweinfurthii var. stuhlmanniistuhlmannii Laurelia aromatica JussJuss.. exex Poir.Poir. == L.L. sempervirens sempervirens MONIMIACEAE MONIMIACEAE L. sempervirenssempervirens (Rufz (Rufz && Pavón)Pav6n) Tul.Tul. L. serrata Bert.Bert. = L.L. sempervirenssempervirens Lecythis davisii Sandw.Sandw. LECYTHIDACEAELECYTHIDACEAE L. grandiflora Aubl.Aubl. == EschweileraEschweilera grandifloragrandiflora L. lanceolatalanceolata Poir.Poir. L. minorminor Jacq.J acq. L.L. ollaria Loefl.Loefl. L. pisonispisonis Cambess.Cambess . L. urnigera Mart. ex BergBerg.. == L.L. pisonispisonis L. usitata MiersMiers L. validissimavalidissima MierMierss == L. zambucajozambucajo L. zabucajo AubletAublet Lemuropisum eduleedule H.Perrier H.Perrier LEGUMINOSAE LEGUMINOSAE subfamily subfamily CAESALPINIOIDEAECAESALPINIOIDEAE Lepisanthes fruticosafruticosa (Roxb.) (Roxb . )Leenh. Leenh .SAPINDACEAE SAPINDACEAE Leptozamia hopeihopei RegelRegel ZAMIACEAEZAMIACEAE Litchi chinensischinensis Sonn.Sonn. SAPINDACEAESAPINDACEAE Lithocarpus corneacornea (Lour.)(Lour.) RehderRehder FAGACEAEFAGACEAE L. cuspidatuscuspidatus (Thunb.)(Thunb .) Nakai = CastanopsisCastano psis cuspidata L. densiflorusdensiflorus RehderRehder L. philippienisphilippienis (A.DC)(A .DC) RehderRehder Livistonia cochinchinensiscochinchinensis BlumeBlume PALMAEP ALMAE L. saribussaribus (Lour.)(Lour.) Chev.Chev. Lodoicea callipygecallipyge Comm Comm.. == L. maldivicamaldivica PALMAEPALMAE L. maldivicamaldivica (J.Gmel.)(J.Gmel.) Pers.Pers. Lucuma caimito (Rufz(Rufz && Pav.)Pav.) RoemRoem.. && Schult. = PouteriaPouteria caimito caimito SAPOTACEAE SAPOTACEAE Macadamia integrifoliaintegrifolia Maiden Maiden && BetcheBetche PROTEACEAEPROTEACEAE M. ternifolia F.Muell.F.Muell. M. terrufoliaternifolia F.Muell.F.Muell . var.var. integrifoliaintegrifolia (Maiden(Maiden && Betche)Betche) MaidenMaiden && BetcheBetche MM.. integrifolia M. tetraphylla L.L. JohnsonJohnson Macrotyloma geocarpum geocarpum (Harms) (Harms) Maréch Marech & & Baudet Baudet LEGUMINOSAE LEGUMINOSAE subfamilysubfamily PAPILIONOIDEAE

192192 Macrozamia riedliiriedlii (Gaudich.) (Gaudich. )C.Gardner C.Gardner ZAMIACEAE ZAMIACEAE M. spiralisspiralis (Salisb.) (Salisb.) Miq.Miq. MadhucaMadhuca butyracea (Roxb.)(Roxb.) Pierre ex Dubard == DiploknemaDiploknema butyracea butyracea SAPOTACEAE SAPOTACEAE M.M . latafolialatifolia (Roxb(Roxb.).) Macbr.Macbr. = M.M. longifolialongifolia M.M. longifolialongifolia (Koenig.) (Koenig.) Macbr.Macbr. M.M. motleyanamotleyana (de (de Vriese) Vriese) Baehni Baehni SAPOTACEAE SAPOT ACEAE Magonia pubescenspubescens A.St.-Hil.A.St .-Hil. SAPINDACEAESAPINDACEAE Mangifera altissima altissima Blanco Blanco ANACARDIACEAE ANACARDIACEAE M. caesiacaesia JackJack M. indicaindica L.L. M. kempangakempanga BlumeBlume M. odorataodorata Griff.Griff. Manicaria saccifera saccifera Gaertn. Gaertn. PALMAEPALMAE Manniophyton ajricanum africanum Muell. Muell. Arg. Arg. = M.M. fulvumfulvum EUPHORBIACEAEEUPHORBIACEAE M. fulvumfulvum Muel.Muel. Arg.Arg. Mauritia flexuosaflexuosa L,fL:f PALMAE PALMAE Maximiliana maripamaripa (Correa) (Correa) DrudeDrude PALMAEPALMAE M. regia CC.Mart..Mart. = M.M. maripamaripa Medemia argunargun Wiirtetemb. Wiirtetemb. PALMAEPALMAE Melicoccus bijugatus Jacq.Jacq. SAPINDACEAESAPINDACEAE Mesua ferreaferrea L.L. GUTTIFERAE GUTTIFERAE Mimusops djdjave djdjave Engl. Engl. = BaillonellaBaillonella toxispermatoxisperma SAPOTACEAESAPOT ACEAE M . heckelii (Pierre(Pierre exex ChevChev.).) Hutch.Hutch. && Dalz.Dalz. = TieghemellaTieghemella heckeliiheckelii Nelumbium nelumbonelumbo Druce Druce == NelmnboNelumbo nuciferanucifera NYMPHAEACEAE NYMPHAEACEAE Nelumbo lutealutea (Willd.) (Willd.) Pers. Pers .NYMPHAEACEAE NYMPHAEACEAE N. nucifera Gaertn.Gaertn. N. speciosa Willd.Willd. = N.N. nuciferanucifera Nephelium lappaceum L.L. SAPINDACEAESAPINDACEAE N. litchi CambCamb.. = LitchiLitchi chinensischinensis N. mutabile Bl. Bl. == N. ramboutan-ake N. ramboutan-ake (Labill.)(Labill.) Leenh.Leenh. NothofagusNothojagus alpinaalpina (Poepp(Poepp.. && EndI.)Endl.) Oest.Oest. == N. proceraprocera FAGACEAEFAGACEAE N. proceraprocera (Poepp.(Poepp. && Endl.)EndI.) Oest.Oest. Nypa fruticans WurmbWurmb PALMAEPALMAE Omphalea diandra L.L. EUPHORBIACEAEEUPHORBIACEAE O. megacarpamegacarpa Hemsl. HemsI. O. triandra L.L. Ongokea goregore (Hua)(Hua) PierrePierre OLACACEAEOLACACEAE Orbignya barbosianabarbosiana BurretBurret == O.O. phalerata PALMAEPALMAE O. cohune (C.Mart.)(C .Mart.) DahlgrenDahlgren O. cuatrecasana DugandDugand o.O. martiana BarbBarb.-Rodr..-Rodr. = = O.O. phalaris O. oleiferaoleifera BurretBurret o.O. phalerataphalerata Mart.Mart. OO.. speciosa (C.Mart.)(C.Mart.) Barb Barb.Rodg..Rodg . = = O.O. phalerataphalerata O. spectabilis (C.Mart.)(C .Mart.) BurretBurret Oroxylum indicumindicum (L.)(L.) Kurz Kurz BIGNONIACEAE BIGNONIACEAE Otophora jruticosafruticosa Roxb.Roxb. = LepisanthesLepisanthes fruticosafruticosa SAPINDACEAE SAPINDACEAE Owenia cerasiferacerasifera F.Muell. == PleiogyniumPleiogynium timoriense timoriense ANACARDIACEAE ANACARDIACEAE Pachira aquaticaaquatica Aubl.AubI. BOMBACEAEBOMBACEAE PP.. grandiflora TussacTussac == P. aquaticaaquatica P.P. insignis (Sw.)(Sw.) SavignySavigny

193193 Palaquium amboinenseamboinense Burck Burck SAPOTACEAE SAPOT ACEAE P. guttagutta (Hook.f.) (Hook. f.) Baill.Baill. P. hexandrumhexandrum (Griff.)(Griff.) Baill.Baill. P. javense Burck = P.P. amboinenseamboinense P. philippensephilippense (Perrott.)(Perrott.) Rob.Rob. P. rostratumrostratum (Miy.) (Miq.) BurckBurck Panax trifolius L.L. ARALIACEAEARALIACEAE Pandanus brosimosbrosimos Merr. Merr. && Perry Perry PANDANACEAE PANDANACEAE P. conoideusconoideus Lam.Lam. P. dubiusdubius Spreng.Spreng. P. julianettii MartelliMartelli P. luzoniensisluzoniensis Merrr.Merrr. Panopsis suaveolenssuaveolens PittierPittier PROTEACEAEPROTEACEAE Parajubaea cocoidescocoides BorretBurret PALMAEPALMAE P. torallyitorallyi (Mart.)(Mart.) BurretBurret Parinari campestriscampestris Aubl. Aubl. CHRYSOBALANACEAE CHRYSOBALANACEAE P. curatellifoliacuratellifolia Planch. Planch. exex Benth.Benth. P. excelsaexcelsa SabineSabine PP.. mobola Oliv.Oliv. = P.P. curatellifoliancuratellifolian P. montana Aubl.Aubl . Parinarium campestre Aubl.Aubl. == ParinariParinari campestris campestris CHRYSOBALANACEAE CHRYSOBALANACEAE P. montanum Aubl. Aubl. = = ParinariParinari montana Parmentiera cereiferacereifera Seem. Seem. BIGNONIACEAEBIGNONIACEAE Pasania cuspidata Oerst. == CastanopsisCastano psis cuspidatus cuspidatus FAGACEAE FAGACEAE Paullinia cupanacupana Kunth Kunth SAPINDACEAESAPINDACEAE P. subrotunda (Rufz (Ruiz && Pay.)Pav.) Pers.Pers. Pentadesma butyraceabutyracea Sabine Sabine GUTTIFERAEGUTTIFERAE Phyllanthus emblicaemblica L.L. EUPHORBIACEAE EUPHORBIACEAE Phytelephas aequatorialisaequatorialis SpruceSpruce PALMAEP ALMAE P. macrocarpa RuizRuiz && PavónPav6n Pimelodendron amboinicumamboinicum Hassk. Hassk. EUPHORBIACEAE EUPHORBIACEAE Pinus albicaulisalbicaulis Engelm.Engelm. PINACEAEPINACEAE P. armandii Franch.Franch. P. bungeanabungeana Zucc.ZUCC o ex ex Endl.Endl. P. cembra L. P. cembroidescembroides Zucc.Zucco var. edulis (Engelm.)(Engelm.) Jones Jones == P. edulisedulis var. monophylla (Torr. (Torr. & & Frem.) Fran.) VossVoss == P. monophyllamonophylla var. parryana (Engelm.) Voss Voss == P. quadrifoliaquadrifolia P. cembroidescembroides Zucc.Zucc. var. quadrifoliaquadrifolia (Parl. exex Sudw.)Sudw.) DeDe Laub.Laub. P. coultericoulteri D.DonD. Don P. edulisedulis Engelm.Engelm. P. flexilisflexilis JamesJames P. gerardianagerardiana Wall. Wall . exex D.DonD. Don P. koraiensis Sieb.Sieb. && Zucc.Zucco P. lambertiana DouglasDouglas P. longifolia RoxbRoxb.. == P. roxburghiiroxburghii P. monophyllamonophylla Torr.Torr. && Frém.Frem. P. monticolamonticola DouglasDouglas ex D.DonD. Don P. nelsoniinelsonii ShawShaw PP.. parryana Engelm. = P.P. quadrifoliaquadrifolia P. pineapinea L.L. P. ponderosaponderosa DouglasDouglas exex LawsonLawson

194 P. pumilapumila (Pallas) (Pallas) RegelRegel P. quadrifoliaquadrifolia Parl. ParI .ex ex Sudw.Sudw. P. roxburghiiroxburghii Sarg.Sarg. P. sabinianasabiniana Douglas Douglas exex D.DonD. Don P. sibiricasibirica DuDu TourTour P. torreyanatorreyana Parry Parry ex ex CarrièreCarriere PistaciaPistacia mexicanamexicana Kunth Kunth ANACARDIACEAEANACARDIACEAE P.P. terebinthusterebinthus L.L. P. texanatexana Swingle Swingle P. veravera L.L. Pithecellobium bubalinumbubalinum (Jack) (Jack) Benth. Benth LEGUMINOSAE. LEGUMINOSAE subfamily subfamily MIMOSOIDEAE MIMOSOIDEAE PP.. dulcedulce (Roxb.)(Roxb.) Benth.Benth. P.P. jiringa (Jack) (Jack) PrainPrain PP.. lobatumlobatum BenthBenth.. == P. jiringa Planchonia careyacareya (F.Muell.) (F.Muell. )Kunth Kunth LECYTHIDACEAE LECYTHIDACEAE PleiogyniumPleiogynium cersiferumcersiferum (F(F.Muell.).Muell.) ParkerParker = P.P. timoriensetimoriense ANACARDIACEAE ANACARDIACEAE P. timoriensetimoriense (DC.)(DC.) Leenh.Leenh. Plukenetia conophoraconophora Muell. Muell. Arg. Arg .EUPHORBIACEAE EUPHORBIACEAE Poga oleosaoleosa PierrePierre ANISOPHYLLEACEAE ANISOPHYLLEACEAE Pometia pinnata Forst.Forst. && Forst.f.Forstf. SAPINDACEAE SAPINDACEAE Pouteria caimitocaimito (Ruiz (Rufz && Pay.)Pav. )Radlk. Radlk .SAPOTACEAE SAPOT ACEAE P.P. campechanacampechiana (Kunth) (Kunth) BaehniBaehni P. glomerataglomerata (Miq.) (Miq.) Radlk.Radlk. P.P. hypoglaucahypoglauca Standi.Standl. == P. glomerataglomerata P. obovataobovata (R.Br.) (R.Br.) BaehniBaehni P. sapotasapota (Jaq.)(Jaq.) H.E.MooreH.E.Moore && StearnStearn P. viridisviridis (Pittier)(pittier) CronquistCronquist Prinsepia utilisutilis RoyleRoyle ROSACEAEROSACEAE PritchardiafilifPritchardia filiferaera Linden = WashingtoniaWashingtonia filiferafilifera PALMAEPALMAE Prunus amygdalus BatschBatsch == P.P. dulcis dulcis ROSACEAE ROSACEAE P. armeniaca L.L. P. bucharicabucharica (Korsk.) (Korsk.) Hand.-Mazz. Hand.-Mazz. P. domesticadomestica L. P. dulcisdulcis (Mill.)(Mill.) D.A.WebbD.A.Webb P. fasciculatafasciculata (Torr.)(Torr.) A.GrayA.Gray P. ulmifoliaulmifolia Franch.Franch. PterocaryaPterocarya caucasicacaucasica C.A.Mey.C.A.Mey. == P.P. fraxinifolia fraxinifolia JUGLANDIACEAE JUGLANDIACEAE P. fraxinifoliafraxinifolia (lam.(lam. exex Poir.)Poir.) SpachSpach P. rhoifoliarhoifolia Sieb.Sieb. && Zucc.Zucco P. stenopterastenoptera C.DC.C. DC. Pterygota alataalata (Roxb.) (Roxb.) R.Br. R.Br .STERCULIACEAE STERCULIACEAE Pyrularia puberapubera Michx. Michx. SANTALACEAESANT ALACEAE Quercus aegilopsaegilops L.L. FAGACEAEFAGACEAE subsp. persica (Jaub.(Jaub. && Spach.)Spach.) BlakelockBlakelock Q. aegi/opsaegilops sensusensu auct.auct. == Q. macrolepismacrolepis QQ.. agrifolia NéeNee Q. alba L.L. Q. ballotaballota Desf.Desf. = Q.Q. ilex ilex subsp. subsp. rotundifoliarotundifolia QQ.. bicolor WilldWilld.. == Q. prinusprinus QQ.. californica (Torr.)(Torr.) CooperCooper = Q.Q. kelloggiikelloggii QQ.. calliprinos WebbWebb == Q. cocciferacoccifera Q. coccifera L. QQ.. cornea Lour.Lour. ==Lithocarpus Lithocarpus cornea Q.Q. cuspidatacuspidata Thunb Thunb.. = CastanopsisCastanopsis cuspidata

195195 Q. emoryi Torr. Q. frainetto Tenn.Tenn. Q. gambelii Nutt.Nutt. Q. garryanagarryana DouglasDouglas Q. glabreglabre Thunb.Thunb. Q. glaucaglauca Thunb.Thunb. Q. griseagrisea Liebm. Q. ilexHex L. subspsubsp.. Hexilex ssubsp.ubsp. rotundifolia rotundifolia (Lam.)(Lam.) T.MaraisT .Marais var. baLLotaballota Desf.Desf. = Q.Q. ilex Hex subsp. subsp. rotundifolia Q. kelloggii Newb.Newb. Q. libaniIibani Oliv.Oliv. Q. lobatalobata NéeNee Q. marilandica Q. macrocarpamacrornrpa Michx.Michx. Q. macrolepis KotschyKotschy QQ.. michauxii Nutt. = Q.Q. prinusprinus Q. nigra LL,, QQ.. oblongifolia Torr.Torr. = Q.Q. griseagrisea QQ.. obtusiloba Michx Michx.. = Q.Q. stellatastellata QQ.. persica Jaub.Jaub. & Spach. == Q.Q. aegilopsaegilops subsp.subsp. persica Q. petraea (Matt.) Liebl. Q. phellos L. QQ.. prinoidesprinoides Willd Willd.. == Q. prinus Q. prinus L. Q. robur L. QQ.. sessilis Ehrh. Ehrh. =Q.=Q. petraeapetraea Q. stellatastellata Wangenh. Wangenh. Q. subersuber L. Q. undulataundulata Torr.Torr. Q. virginiana Mill. Raphia fariniferafarinifera (Gaertn.)(Gaertn.) Hyl.Hyl. PALMAE R. vinifera P.Beauv. P.Beauv. Ravensara aromatica Sonn. LAURACEAELAURACEAE Ricinodendron heudelottiiheudelottii (Baill.)(Baill.) Heckel Heckel EUPHORBIOACEAE EUPHORBIOACEAE R. rautanenii Schinz == SchinziophytonSchinziophyton rautanenii EUPHORBIACEAEEUPHORBIACEAE Rhodognaphalon schumannianumschumannianum AA.Robyns.Robyns BOMBACACEAE Salacca edulisedulis Reinw Reinw.. == S. zalacca PPALMAE ALMAE S. zalacca (Gaertn.)(Gaertn.) VossVoss Santalum acuminataactuninata (R.Br.)(R.Br.) DCDC.. SANTALACEAE S. spicatum (R.Br.) DC.DC. Santiria trimera (Oliv.) (Oliv.) Aubrév. Aubrev. BURSERACEAE BURSERACEAE Sapindus indicumindictun Poir.Poir. (status(status uncertain) SAPINDACEAESAPINDACEAE Scheelea butyracea butyracea (Mutis (Mutis ex ex L.f.) L.f.) KarstKarst.. exex H.A.Wendi.H.A.Wendl. PALMAEPALMAE S. macrocarpa Karst.Karst. S. magdalenica S. martiana BurretBurret Schinziophyton rautanenii (Baill.)(Baill . )Radc1.-Sm. Radcl.-Sm. EUPHORBIACEAEEUPHORBIACEAE Schleichera oleosoleosa a (Lour(Lour.).) Oken SAPINDACEAE S.S. trijuga Willd. == S.S. oleosa oleosa Sclerocary birreabirrea (A.Rich.)(A.Rich.) Hochst. ANACARDIACEAEANACARDIACEAE subsp. birrea subsp. caffracaffra (Sond.)(Sond.) Kokwaro

196 Scorodoarpus borneensisborneensis (Baill.)(BailI.) Becc.Becc. OLACACEAEOLACACEAE Semecarpus anacarditunanacardiwn L.f. L.f. ANACARDIACEAE ANACARDIACEAE SS.. atra Vie11.Viell. == S. vitiensisvitiensis S. vitiensis (A.Gray)(A . Gray) Engl.Engi. Serenoa repensrepens (Bartram) (Bartram) SmallSmall PALMAEP ALMAE Shorea amplexicaulisamplexicaulis AshtonAshton DIPTEROCARPACEAEDIPTEROCARPACEAE S. beccariana BurckBurck S. fallax MeijerMeijer S. gysbertsiana Burck = S.S. macrophyllamacrophylla S. hemsleyanahemsleyana (King)(King) KingKing exex Foxw.Foxw. S. lepidota (Korth)(Korth) Bl.BI. S. macrantha BrandisBrandis S. macrophylla (de (de Vriese)Vries e) AshtonAshton S. mecistopteryx Ridl.Ridi. S. palembanica Miq.Miq. S. parvistipulata HeimHeim S. pilosapilosa AshtonAshton S. pinangapinanga Scheff.Scheff. S. scaberrima BurokBurok S. seminisseminis (de(de Vriese)Vriese) SlootenSlooten S. smithiana Sym.Sym. S. splendidasplendida (de(de Vriese)V riese) AshtonAshton S. stenoptera BurckBurck S. sumatranaswnatrana (Slecten (Slecten exex Thor.)Thor.) Sym.Sym. SimmondsiaSimmandsia califcalifornicaarnica Nutt. Nutt. == S.S. chinensis chinensis SIMMONDSIACEAE SIMMONDSIACEAE S. chinensischinensis (Link)(Link) C.SchneiderC.Schneider SorindeiaSarindeia longifolialangifalia (Hook.f.) OlivoOliv. == TrichoscyphaTrichoscypha longifolia longifolia ANACARDIACEAE ANACARDIACEAE SpondiasSpandias lutea L. == S.S. mombin mombin ANACARDIACEAE ANACARDIACEAE S. mombin L.L. Staphylea bolanderibolanderi STAPHYLEACEAE STAPHYLEACEAE S. pinnatapinnata L.L. S. trifolia L.L. Sterculia alata Roxb. == PterygotaPterygota alata alata STERCULIACEAE STERCULIACEAE S. apetalaapetala (Jacq.)(Jacq.) Karst.Karst. S. balanghas L.L. S. carthaginensis Cav. Cav. == S. apetala S. chichachicha A.St.Hil.A.St.HiI. S. diversifoliadiversifolia G.DonG. Don S. foetidafoetida L.L. S. guttata Roxb.Roxb. S. oblongata R.Br.R.Br. S. quadrifida R.Br.R.Br. S. rupestris (Lindl.)(LindI.) Benth.Benth. S. setigera Del.Del. S. tomentosatamentasa Guill.Guill. & & Perr. Perr. == S. setigerasetigera S. treubii Hochst.Hochst. S. trichosiphon Benth.Benth. S. urceolataurceolata Sm.Sm. S. urensurens Roxb.Roxb. Strombosia grandifoliagrandifolia Benth. Benth . OLACACEAEOLACACEAE S. pustulatapustulata Oliv.Olivo S. scheffleri Engl. StylobasiumStylobasiwn spathulatumspathulatwn Desf. Desf. STYLOBASIACEAE STYLOBASIACEAE

197 Syagrus cocoidescocoides Mart. PALMAEPALMAE S.S. coronatacoronata (C.Mart.) (C.Mart.) Becc.Becc. S. edulis (Barb.-Rodr.)(Barb.-Rodr.) FlambachFlambach Telfairia pedatapedata (Sims) (Sims) Hook. Hook. CUCURBITACEAE CUCURBIT ACEAE TerminaliaTenninalia bellerica bellerica (Gaertn.) (Gaertn. )Roxb. Roxb .COMBRETACEAE COMBRETACEAE T. bentzoebentzoë (L.) L. T. catappa L.L. TT.. chebulachebula Retz.Retz. T. copelandiicopelandii ElmerElmer T. glabrataglabrata Forst.f.Forst. f. T. impediensimpediens CoodeCoode T. kaernbachiikaembachii Warb.Warb. T. latifolialatifolia Sw.Sw . T. litoralislitoralis Seem.Seem. T. mauritianamauritiana Lam Lam.. = T.T. bentzoëbentzoe T. microcarpamicrocarpa BlumeBlume T. nitensnitens PreslPresl T. okari C.C.White White == T. kaernbachiikaembachii T. pameapamea DC.DC. T. platyphyllaplatyphylla F.Muell.F.Muell. TetracarpidiwnTetracarpidium conophorum conophorwn (Muell.-Arg.) (Muell .-Arg. )Hutch. Hutch. & & Dalz. Dalz. EUPHORBIACEAE EUPHORBIACEAE Theobroma bicolorbicolor Humb. Humb .& & Bonpl.Bonpl. STERCULIACEAESTERCULIACEAE T. cacaocacao L.L. TT.. leiocarpleiocarpaa BernBern.. == T. cacaocacao Tieghemella heckelii (Pierre ex Chev.)Chev.) SAPOTACEAESAPOTACEAE Torreya grandisgrandis Fortune Fortune exex Lindl.Lindl. TAXACEAET AXACEAE T. nuciferanucifera (L.)(L.) Sieb.Sieb. && Zucc.Zucco Trapa bicornisbicornis Osbeck Osbeck TRAPACEAETRAPACEAE TT.. bispinosa RoxbRoxb.. == T.T. natansnatans var.var. bispinosabispinosa T. cochinchinensiscochinchinensis lour.lour. T. incisaincisa Sieb,Sieb, && Zucc.Zucco T. natans L.L. var. africana BrenanBrenan var.var. natans var.var. bispinosabispinosa (Roxb.)(Roxb.) MakinoMakino Treculia africanaafricana Decne. Decne .ex ex Trécul Trecul MORACEAE MORACEAE Trichoscypha longifolialongifolia (Hook.f.)(Hook.f.) Engl.Engl. ANACARDIACEAEANACARDIACEAE TTylosemaylosema esculenttunesculentwn (Burch.)(Burch.) A.Schreib.A.Schreib. LEGUMINOSAE subfamily CAESALPINIOIDEAE Umbellularia californicacalifornica (Hook. (Hook. && Am.)Am.) Nutt. Nutt. LAURACEAE LAURACEAE Vateria indicaindica L. L. DIPTEROCARPACEAE DIPTEROCARPACEAE Veitchia joannis Wendl.Wendl. PALMAEPALMAE Vigna subterranea (L.) (L.) Verdc. Verdc. LEGUMINOSAE LEGUMINOSAE subsp. subsp. PAPILIONOIDEAE PAPILIONOIDEAE Vitellaria paradoxaparadoxa Gaertn. Gaertn .f. f. SAPOTACEAESAPOT ACEAE Voandzeia subterraneasubterranea (L.)(L.) ThouarsThouars = VignaVigna subterraneasubterranea LEGUMINOSAE LEGUMINOSAE subfamilysubfamily PAPILIONOIDEAE Washingronia filiferafilifera (Linden)(Linden) H.Wendl.H.Wendl . PALMAEP ALMAE W. robustarobusta H.Wendl.H.Wendl. Ximenia americana L. OLACACEAEOLACACEAE Zamia chiguachigua Seem.Seem. ZAMIACEAEZAMIACEAE Z. floridiana A.DC.A.DC. Zostera marinamarina L. L. ZOSTERACEAE ZOSTERACEAE

198 Most edible nutsnuts containcontain concentratedconcentrated foodfood reservesreserves and are a valuable source of energy,energy, protein, oils,oils, minerals and vitamins suitable for humanhuman consumption. Apart from directdirect consumptionconsumption inin thethe raw form asas well asas coated and salted, edible nuts find useuse inin confectionery,confectionery, ice ice creams creams and and sweets,sweets, beverages, oils,oils, etc. This document examinesexamines the importance of edibleedible nutsnuts asas a non-wood forestforest product. ItIt dealsdeals with thethe distribution,distribution, ecology, ecology, harvesting, processing,processing, storage,storage, marketingmarketing andand economic benefitsbenefits of severalseveral major, minor andand potential edibleedible nut-producingnut-producing plants plants andand their products.products.

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