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524 The Emperor

countries - a situation which in many endured until the last third or so of the twentieth century, effectively frustrating their political evolution. In the United States it was from the outset the middle classes who seized power and vigorously pursued their agenda of economic develop­ ment and commercial expansion. The American Revolution was truly a revolutionary movement, while the Latin American wars of independ­ ence were largely aristocratic assertions of self-interest against the mother country. The caudillos and the demagogues pursued their own Chronology interests, sometimes brutally, sometimes in an enlightened way, power alternating between the two all too often, and both based on the cult of personality. As economic growth and the expansion of the middle class have at last occurred in the course of the last third of the twentieth Birth of in century, it has become possible to suggest that the era of extremes has 1750 1759 Accession of Charles III of , passed. How quickly economic and political co-operation between the 1763 Ambrose Higgins arrives in Buenos Aires Latin American nations will follow remains to be seen. 1775 Outbreak of American War ofIndependence , Birth of Thomas, later Lord Cochran~,near Edmburgh, de The Liberators threw off the Spanish yoke - one the greatest mili­ of 1777 Ambrosio O'Higgins becomes Captam-~eneralof Santlag? tary achievements in human history. In their inability to establish viable 1778 Birth of Bernardo O'Higgins in Concepcl6n, southern ~Jle or stable political structures, although most wanted to do so, they were Birth ofJose de San Martin in Yapeyu., north of Buenos res Execution ofTupac Amaru II in Cuzco . the victims of their time and place; and they were aware of their failure. Birth of Sim6n Bolivar in Caracas . d S The tragedy was that this failure, exacerbated by a vicious circle of polit­ Desertion' 0 fM' Iran da firom the Spanish" army to the Unite tates Birth of Agustin de Iturbide in Valladol!d, New Spam ical and economic underdevelopment, was to last the best part of a End of the American War of Independence century and a halE The cycle may now have been broken; if so, the inde­ 1785-89 Miranda's grand tour of Europ~ pendence and self-respect for which the Liberators fought so hard may 1788 Accession of Charles IV of Spam Start of French Revolution at last be in prospect for the millions of Latin America. 1789 1792 Miranda joins French revolutionary army 1793 Miranda arrested 1795 Miranda released; meets Napoleon Bernardo O'Higgins arrives in L?ndon Ambrosio O'Higgins becomes of 1797 Miranda flees France 1798 Birth of Pedro de Braganza in Lisbon 1799 Bolivar arrives in Spain 1801 Death of Ambrosio O'Higgins 180 4 Napoleons coronation in Paris , 1805 In Rome Bolivar swears to liberate South America 1806 Miranda'~Leander expedition leaves New York for Venezu~la

Defeat of~ophdamand,Beresdfopr~:~xg~,d~!~~utg:!~e~:~~~~:s Lisbon for Rio de Napoleon mva es Spam an , Janeiro 1808 Miranda returns to London" .

Whitelocke's expedition defibeda~ed,m B~~~~t:~and succession of Ferdinand VII 11 ult of AranJuez forces a Icatlon 0 N:moleon de oses Ferdinand VII and instals Joseph B,onapa:te Ve!ezuela s!ears loyalty to anti-French junta formed m SeVille 18ID Seville junta overthrown Captain-General of overthrown Chronology Chronology

Bolivar travels to London as Venezuela's emissary, meets Miranda Bolfvar captures Guayana and Angostura Chile declares independence 1818 Bolivar meets Jose Antonio Nez, leader of the Hidalgo and Allende's uprising in Bolivar defeated at EI Semen Buenos Aires declares independence and invades Spanish Upper Peru Spanish reinvasion of Chile Bolivar and Miranda return to Venezuela Spanish defeat of O'Higgins at Cancha Rayada 18I! Defeat of the Argentinians by Spain in Upper Peru San Martin wins Battle of Maipu Venezuela declares independence 1819 Bolivar holds Congress of Angostura Miranda appointed commander-in-chief in Venezuela Bolivar crosses tlre plains of Casanare and the Defection of San Martin from Spanish army Bolivar wins the Battle of Boyaca and retakes Santa Fe de Bogota Hidalgo loses the Battle of Calder6n and is executed 1820 Admiral Lord Cochrane takes Valdivia 1812 Venezuelan earthquake kills 20,000 Mutiny in Cadiz restores the 1812 constitution Miranda appointed dictator of Venezuela Bolivar invades Venezuela Siege of Morelos's forces at Cuautla, south of Mexico Ciry Bolivar concludes an armistice with the Spanish commander Morillo Bolivar routed at Execution of Jose Miguel Carrera in Argentina Miranda sues for peace with Spain San Martin's and Cochrane's expeditionary force leaves Chile for Peru by sea Miranda betrayed into captiviry by Bolivar Cochrane's capture of the Esmeralda Carrera seizes power in Chile 1821 End of armistice in Venezuela Liberals seize power in Cadiz and promulgate new constitution Bolivar wins decisive Battle of and declares independence of Gran Bolivar flees to Cartagena and composes Cartagena Manifesto Colombia Bolivar embarks on River Magdalena expedition Attempted revolution in Rio de Janeiro crushed Morelos proclaims constitution of Chilpancingo in New Spain Plan ofIguala issued by Iturbide in New Spain; Mexico becomes independent San Martin occupies Lima 1813 Bolivar crosses the Cordillera Oriental and wins Battle of Cucuta Bolivar marches on Venezuela and captures Merida Cochrane hijacks San Martin's treasure ship The Spanish reinvade Chile 1822 Bolivar wins Battle of Bombona in southern Colombia Bolivar proclaims the War to the Death Bolivar enters ; meets Manuela Saenz Bolivar recaptures Caracas Bolivar's soliloquy on 1814 Bolivar defeated at the Battle of La Puerta Cochrane returns to Chile Evacuation of Caracas Pedro declares independent and becomes Emperor Bolivar flees Venezuela for Cartagena Bolivar meets San Martin in San Martin becomes Governor of Cuyo in western Argentina San Martin abdicates power and returns to Chile O'Higgins loses Battle of Rancagua in Chile Iturbide becomes Emperor of Mexico Chilean exodus across the Andes Canning promulgates his Latin American doctrine Capture and execution of Morelos in New Spain Earthquake in Valparaiso Bolivar captures Santa Fe de Bogota 1823 Bolivar takes control of Lima Defeat of Napoleon in Spain O'Higgins deposed in Chile Return of Ferdinand VII Bolivar forced out of Lima Restoration of absolutism in Spain Cochrane captures Balria and Maranhao 1815 Battle of Waterloo marks final defeat of Napoleon Following French intervention, absolutism reimposed in Spain under Bolivar sails from Cartagena to Jamaica Ferdinand VII Morillo's army sails from Spain lturbide abdicates as Emperor of Mexico and leaves for Europe Spanish capture Cartagena Monroe Doctrine promulgated by United States Bolivar writes Jamaica Letter Bolivar wins Battle of Junin Bolivar travels to Haiti Sucre wins : final defeat for Spanish forces in Latin America 1816 Bolivar lands again in Venezuela San Martin departs for exile in Europe Bolivar escapes back to Haiti Cochrane subdues Pernambuco Bolfvar returns to Venezuela lturbide returns to Mexico, where he is executed Death of Miranda in gaol in Cadiz Bolivar travels to Cuzco and Potosi San Martin's army crosses the Andes Cochrane returns to Britain San Martin and O'Higgins win the Bolivar draws up constitution for Bolivia, installing Sucre as president San Martin and O'Higgins take Bolivar draws up constitution for Peru 1817 Bolivar establishes his base on the Orinoco Congress of Panama Bolivar executes his rival Death of the Empress Leopoldina of Brazil Brazil invades the Bolivar leaves Peru Chronology

Bolivar's reconciliation with Paez Brazil gives up the Banda Oriental, which becomes Uruguay Death of Canning Sucre is overthrown in Bolivia Convention of Ocana dissolved; Bolivia becomes dictator of Coup and assassination attempt against Bolivar in Santa Fe de Bogota Sucre defeats invading Peruvians at Portete de Tarqui Bolivar travels to Quito and Guayaquil San Martin returns to Buenos Aires, thence to Europe again Bolivar returns to Santa Fe de Bogota Bolivar departs for the coast Sucre assassinated Death of Bolivar at San Pedro Alejandrino Abdication of Emperor Pedro I Pedro arrives in Oporto; siege of the city begins End of the siege of Oporto Pedro captures Lisbon Death of Pedro Death of O'Higgins in Peru Death of San Martin in Boulogne Death of Cochrane (now Earl of Dondonald) in London Chronology

1578 Jumandi leads an uprising against Spanish colonists in the Ecuadorian Amazon 1599 Legendary Shuar revolt in the Ecuadorian Amazon November 1777 A revolt against a census spreads throughout the northern Audiencia of Quito

1791 Indigenous rebellion against a public w~rksmita labor draft at Lita 1803 Indigenous uprising at Guamote, Chimborazo, against diezmos May 24, .1822 Antonio Jose de Sucre defeats Spanish forces at the , leading to 's independence as part of the country of Gran Colombia 1830 Ecuador separates from Gran Colombia 1852 Ecuador eliminates slavery 1857 Ecuador eliminates forced tribute payments December 1871 Fernando Daquilema leads a revolt in the central highland province of Chimborazo September 5, 1884 Alejo Saez leads an uprising against the payment of diezmos in his home community ofLicto, Chimborazo 1892 Foundation of the Sociedad Artistica e Industrial de Pichincha (Artistic and Industrial Society of Pichincha), which subsequently provides logical support to Indigenous movements June 5, 1895 Eloy Alfaro leads the Liberal Revolution to victory August 10, 1895 EloyAlfaro stops in Guamote, Chimborazo, where he elevates Alejo Saez to the grade of general in his liberal army CHRONOLOGY CHRONOLOGY 1896 Junta de Beneficencia (Social Welfare Junta) formed in Quito February 1928 The army massacres fourteen Indigenous workers at Tisa­ January 12,1897 Promulgation of Ecuador's eleventh constitution leo, April 12, 1899 "Patronage Law" regulates but does not abolish the system January 10, 1929 The military and police allegedly massacre hundreds of of concertaje Indigenous workers at Colta, Chimborazo October 12, 1904 Ley de Cultos expropriates church-owned land January 12, 1929 Ricardo Paredes gains control of the PSE at a meeting of December 23,1906 Promulgation of Ecuador's twelfth constitution the Central Committee and brings it closer in line with the Communist November 6, 1908 Ley de Beneficencia (better known as "manos muertas") International passes control of church land to the Junta Central de Asistencia Publica March 26, 1929 Promulgation of Ecuador's thirteenth constitution grants January 28,1912 Mob kills Eloy Alfaro in Quito the right to vote to women and provides for functional representation for October 25, 1918 The Reformas de la Ley de Jornaleros (Reform of the Indigenous peoples . Laborer Law) theoretically abolishes the concertaje system September 29, 1929 Ten workers petitioning for an end to abuses and for March 1920 New agricultural taxes'lead to uprisings in Cuenca lower work demands are massacred on the Tigua hacienda May 1920 Revolts against taxes in Chimborazo leave fifty Indigenous peo­ 1930 Formation of EI Inca, Tierra Libre, and Pan y Tierra peasant syndi­ ple dead cates at the Pesillo, Moyurco, and La Chimba haciendas in Cayambe August 24, 1920 Uprising in Ricaurte, Azuay, against taxes August 21, 1930 The Socialist Party creates Socorro Obrero y Campesino May 1921 Uprising at Guano, Chimborazo (Worker and Peasant Help) to defend Indigenous and peasant struggles November 15, 1922 Police massacre striking workers in Guayaquil December 1930-January 1931 Indigenous workers strike on the Pesillo and September 13, 1923 The army kills thirty-seven Indigenous workers on Moyurco haciendas in Cayambe Leito hacienda in Tungurahua February I, 1931 Military repression prevents the Primer Congreso de Or­ November 16, 1924 Socialists in Quito form La Antorcha, which publishes a ganizaciones Campesinos (First Congress of Peasant Organizations) from newspaper that supports Indigenous struggles taking place inJuan Montalvo, Cayambe 1924 Matilde Hidalgo de Procel is the first woman to vote in Ecuador October 6-15, 1931 At its second congress, the PSE formally changes its July 9, 1925 A military coup leads to the Revoluci6nJuliana (July Revolution) name to the Partido Comunista Ecuatoriano (PCE, Ecuadorian Communist September 22, 1925 The Mexican diplomat Rafael Ramos Pedrueza orga­ Party) nizes the Secci6n Comunista de Propaganda y Acci6n Lenin (Communist October 20-21, 1931 Neptali Bonifaz Ascasubi, owner of the Guachala ha­ Section for Propaganda and Action Lenin), which later becomes the Ecua­ cienda, wjns the presidential election dorian Communist Party (PCE) August 28-31, 1932 Bonifaz is prevented from assuming the presidency of January 1926 JesusGualavisf forms the Sindicato de Trabajadores Campesi­ Ecuador in a four-day war called the Guerra de los Cuatro Dfas nos de Juan Montalvo (Peasant Workers Syndicate of Juan Montalvo), the January I, 1933 Socialists reestablish the PSE first peasant-Indigenous organization in Ecuador; Gualavisf subsequently December 14-15,1933 Jose Maria Velasco Ibarra is elected president for the leads uprisings at the Changala hacienda in Cayambe over land issues first of five times; Ricardo Paredes runs unsuccessfully as a candidate for the 2 May 16- 3, 1926 Leftists hold the founding congress of the Ecuadorian PCE Socialist Party (PSE) in Quito 1934 Jorge Icaza publishes Huasipungo, Ecuador's most famous indigenista October 1926-March 1927 The Kemmerer Mission visits Ecuador, which novel leads to the founding of the Banco Central September I, 1934 Velasco Ibarra takes office for the first of five times 2 19 7-1928 Ricardo Paredes visits the Soviet Union for the tenth anniversary February 1935 Indigenous uprisings on the Licto, Galte, and Pull haciendas of the October Revolution and the Sixth Congress of the Communist Inter­ in Chimborazo for better salaries and an end to abuses national July 25-August 25,1935 Seventh congress of the Communist International

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November .5-7, 193.5 Conferenciade Cabecillas Indigenas (Conference of April 19-23, 1948 Third FEI congress is held in Quito Indigenous Leaders) is held in Quito May 1948 Uprisings in Cayambe end payment of diezmos and primicias September I, 1948 Hacendado Gala Plaza Lasso inaugurated president, intro­ Decemb~r2.5-29, 193.5 I Conferencia Nacionaldel Partido Comunista Ec­ uatoriana (First National Conference of the Ecuadorian Communist Party) ducing the beginning of a twelve-year period of stability and economic growth is held in Milagro August 1-7,1949 Fourth PCE congress is held in Guayaquil 1936 Founding of the Comite Central de Defensa Indigena (Indigenous September 1949 The FEI defends workers on Razuyacu hacienda Defense Committee) November 18-20, 1950 Extraordinary FEI congress discusses responses to November 28, 1936 Paez suppresses the Communist Party as a legal organi­ Ecuador's first national census zation after accusing it of participating in a coup against his government July 24-28, 19.52 Fifth PCE congress is held in Ambato August 6, 1937 Promulgation of the Ley de Comunas (Law of Commu­ August 1952 Fourth FEI congress is held in Quito nities) September I, 1952 Velasco Ibarra becomes president for the third of five August.5, 1938 Promulgation oftne C6digo del Trabajo (Labor Code) . terms in office, the only one he manages to complete September 28, 1938 Formation of the Confederaci6n Ecuatoriana de Obre­ July 22, 1953 An eight-month strike at Galte hacienda in Chimborazo ends ros Cat6licos (CEDOC, Ecuadorian Confederation of Catholic Workers) with gains for Indigenous workers 1941 Border war with Peru leads to the loss of half of Ecuador's territory August 6, 19.53 Massacre at La Merced hacienda in Pintag January 29,1942 Signing of Rio de Janeiro Protocol January 10, 19.54 Police attack workers at Pitana on the Guachala hacienda, September 14, 1943 Urban intellectuals establish the Instituto Indigenista killing four people and injuring others Ecuatoriano (lIE, Ecuadorian Indigenist Institute) in Quito September 1954 Formation of the Federaci6n de Trabajadores Agricolas May 28, 1944 Victory of the Glorious ; Velasco Ibarra takes del Litoral (FTAL, Federation of Coastal Agricultural Workers) power for the second time 1954 First agrarian census July 4-9, 1944 Labor leaders found the Confederaci6n de Trabajadores del September I, 19.56 The conservative Camilo Ponce Enriquez becomes Ecuador (CTE, Confederation of Ecuadorian Workers) in Quito president August 6-8, 1944 Indigenous leaders found the Federaci6n Ecuatoriana de April 27-28, 19.57 Conference of Campesinos from Pichincha, Imbabura, Indios (FEI, Ecuadorian Federation ofIndians) in Quito and Cotopaxi is held in Quito 1945 Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare creates the Departmento de May 24-28, 19.57 Sixth PCE congress is held in Quito Asuntos Indigenas (Department of Indian Affairs) and Junta de Cuestiones January 1,1959 Triumph of the Cuban Revolution Indigenas (Council ofIndian Matters) in order to supervise compliance with 1959 Indians march on Quito and hold a ninety-day strike at Pesillo laws and prevent abuse in regard to land, water, apd other issues August 20,1960 Uprising at Milagro March 6, 194.5 Promulgation of Ecuador's fourteenth constitution September I, 1960 Velasco Ibarra takes power as president for the fourth 1946 Indigenous leaders found bilingual schools at Yanahuaico, San Pab­ time lourco, Pesillo, and La Chimba in Cayambe October 15-17,1960 The CTE organizes the Primer a Conferencia Nacional February 8-12,1946 Second FEI congress is held in Quito Campesina (First National Peasant Conference) in Quito November 16-22, 1946 Third PCE congress is held in Quito December 18, 1960 Uprising on the Carrera hacienda in Cayambe December 31,1946 Promulgation of Ecuador's fifteenth constitution February 5, 1961 Uprising on the Columbe hacienda in Chimborazo 1947 Establishment of the Junta de Cuestiones Indigenas y Campesinas September 13-17, 1961 The Local Association of Jivaro Centers is orga­ (Council of Indian and Rural Affairs) nized in the southern Amazon with the assistance of Salesian missionaries November 7, 1961 Fall of Velasco Ibarra; Vice-President Carlos Julio Arose­ April 19, 1947 The FEI organizes a Conferencia de Dirig~ntesIndigenas (Conference ofIndigenous Leaders) at QUito's Central University mena Monroy takes power

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December 16, 1961 Twelve thousand Indigenous people from the FEI esinas de Napo (FEPOCAN, Provincial Federation of Peasant Organizations march on Quito for agrarian reform ofNapo), which in 1973 changes its name to the·Federaci6n de Organiza­ December 16-18, 1961 Third FBI congress is held in Quito ciones Indigenas del Napo (ForN, Federation ofIndigenous Organizations of March 9-13, 1962 Seventh PCE congress is held in Guayaquil Napo) March 1962 Workers take over the United Fruit Company's Tenguel ha­ February 15, 1972 Military coup led by Guillermo Rodriguez Lara removes cienda on Ecuador's southern coast Velasco Ibarra from office for the fifth and final time May 1962 Protests are held in Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, and June 2, 1972 Activists organize Ecuarunari (Ecuador Runacunapac Ricchari­ Azuay against the agricultural census; Indigenous workers strike at Pesillo mui, a Kichwa phrase that means" awakening of the Ecuadorian Indians") for higher wages and for land for landless workers June 17, 1972 Fifth congress of the FEI is held in Quito August 15, 1962 Salasaca Indians in Tungurahua demanding access to water 1972 The FEI, FENOC, and Ecuarunari together with coastal groups orga­ are massacred nize the Frente Unido de Reforma Agraria (FURA, United Front for Agrarian

July II, 1963 Military coup overth~owsthe civilian government of Carlos Reform) Julio Arosemena Monroy May 17, 1973 Landlords kill Crist6bal Pajufia in Tungurahua, giving Ec­ July II, 1964 Military government promulgates agrarian reform law uarunari its first martyr August 3, 1964 Approximately 150 Indigenous workers revolt on EI Chaupi August 18-20,1973 FURA organizes the I Encuentro Nacional Campesino hacienda, Cayambe por la Reforma Agraria (First Peasant Encounter for Agrarian Reform) in October 22, 1964 The Ministry of Social Welfare approves the statutes that Quito formally establish the Federaci6n de Centros Shuar (Shuar Federation) October 9, 1973 Government implements the second agrarian reform law 'March 9, 1965 CEDOC founds the Federaci6n Ecuatoriana de Trabajadores November 15-18,1973 Ninth PCE congress is held in Guayaquil Agropecuarios (FETEP, Ecuadorian Federation of Agricultural Workers), September 26, 1974 Police kill the Ecuarunari leader Lazaro Condo in which then becomes FENOC ill 1968 Chimborazo March 29, 1966 Military turns government back over to civilian control January II, 1976 Military triumvirate replaces Rodriguez Lara in power October 21 -22, 1966 The FEI holds its fourth congress in Quito October 18, 1977 Massacre of hundreds .of striking workers at Aztra sugar October 28, 1966 Indigenous workers take over the Pisambilla, Muyurco, mill E1 Chaupi, San Pablourco, and Pesillo haciendas November 2, 1977 Police torture and kill Rafael Perugachi, a local Indige­ May 25,1967 Promulgation of Ecuador's sixteenth constitution nous leader in Cotacachi 1968 Strike begins at Pull hacienda mChimborzo and spreads to neighbor- . April 8, 1978 The FEI, FENOC, and Ecuarunari meet in Columbe, Chim­ ing haciendas, paralyzing production in the canton borazo, to form the Frente Unico de Lucha Campesina (FULC, United Front July 2, 1968 Land occupation at the Santa Ana hacienda in Canton Calvas in for Peasant Struggle) Loja leads to a massacre of eight arrimados and injury of twenty-two more 1978 Kichwa, Achuar, Shuar, and Zapara peoples form the Organizaci6n de August 4, 1968 Eighth PCE congress is held in Guayaquil Pueblos Indigenas de Pastaza (OPIP, Organization ofIndigenous Peoples of September I, 1968 Velasco Ibarra assumes presidency for the fifth and final Pastaza) time August 10, 1979 Promulgation of seventeenth constitution gives illiterates November 26-28,1968 Catholics found the Federaci6n Nacional de Orga­ the right to vote, thus extending citizenship rights to many Indigenous nizaciones Campesinos (FENOC, National Federation of Peasant Organiza­ peoples for the first time tions) August 10, 1979 Election of Jaime Rold6s Aguilera as president transfers 1969 Formation of the Federaci6n Provincial de Organizaciones Camp- control of the government from military to civilian control

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1980 Sixth FEI congress is held in Quito 1993 Amazonian Indians in Ecuador file a lawsuit in New York against August 22-24,1980 The Confederaci6n de Nacionalidades Indigenas de la Texaco for environmental damages to their lands Amazonia Ecuatoriana (CONFENIAE,Confederation ofIndigenous National­ June 1994 Peasant and Indigenous groups unify in an uprising called "La ities of the Ecuadorian Amazon) is formed at the First Regional Conference Movilizaci6n Por la Vida" (Mobilization for Life) in protest of a new agrarian ofIndigenous Nationalities of the Ecuadorian Amazon in Puyo law October 16,1980 Ecuarunari, FENOC, and FEI organize the National Peas­ December 15-16,1995 Eighth FEI congress is held in Riobamba ant Indigenous March "Martyrs of Aztra" in Quito May 19, 1996 Luis , president of CONAIE, wins a post as a national October 20-25, 1980 Meeting of CONFENIAE and Ecuarunari in Sucua at deputy in the National Assembly on the Movimiento Unidad Plurinacional the First Encounter of the Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador forms the Pachakutik Nuevo Pais (MUPP-NP, Pachakutic Movement for Plurinational Consejo Nacional de Coordinaci6n de las Nacionalidades Indigenas del Ec­ Unity-New Country) ticket uador (CONACNIE,National Coordinating Council ofIndigenous Nationali- February 5, 1997 Uprising evicts president Abdahl Bucaram from power ties of Ecuador) , June 5, 1998 Promulgation of Ecuador's eighteenth constitution declares April 16-17, 1982 FENOC and Ecuarunari organize the First Peasant and the country to be a pluricultural and multiethnic state Indigenous National Encounter in Quito January 21, 2000 Indigenous-military coup removes president Jarnil Ma- December 2-3, 1983 First FEI provincial congress is held in Riobamba huad from power April 11-14, 1984 CONACNIEholds the Second Encounter of Indigenous March 21-23,2002 Tenth FEI congress is held in Quito Nationalities April 20, 2005 Popular uprising forces President Lucio Gutierrez from power July 15, 1984 FENOC and FEI hold the Second Peasant and Indigenous Na­ tional Convention in Quito July 27-28; 1984 Second FEI provincial congress is held in Riobamba July 27-28,1985 Third Peasant and Indigenous National Convention is held in Chordelt~g November 13-16, 1986 Indians organize the Confederaci6n de Nacionali­ dades Indigenas del Ecuador (caNAlE, Confederation of Indigenous Na­ tionalities of Ecuador) August 10, 1988 Rodrigo Borja inaugurated president November 10-13,1988 See<:md CaNAlE congress is held in Canar July 27-28, 1989 Seventh FEI congress is held in Quito May 28, 1990 Indigenous activists occupy Santo Domingo church in Quito demanding resolution ofland disputes June 4, 1990 Nine-day caNAlE-led Indigenous uprising begins July 17-23, 1990 First Continental Conference on Five Hundred Years of Indigenous Resistance is held in Quito April 11-23, 1992 OPIP leads a march from Puyo in the Ecuadorian Amazon to Quito demanding land titles and the declaration of Ecuador as a plurina­ tional state October 12,1992 Quincentennial of Columbus's voyage to the Americas

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