524 The Emperor countries - a situation which in many endured until the last third or so of the twentieth century, effectively frustrating their political evolution. In the United States it was from the outset the middle classes who seized power and vigorously pursued their agenda of economic develop­ ment and commercial expansion. The American Revolution was truly a revolutionary movement, while the Latin American wars of independ­ ence were largely aristocratic assertions of self-interest against the mother country. The caudillos and the demagogues pursued their own Chronology interests, sometimes brutally, sometimes in an enlightened way, power alternating between the two all too often, and both based on the cult of personality. As economic growth and the expansion of the middle class have at last occurred in the course of the last third of the twentieth Birth of Francisco de Miranda in Caracas century, it has become possible to suggest that the era of extremes has 1750 1759 Accession of Charles III of Spain , passed. How quickly economic and political co-operation between the 1763 Ambrose Higgins arrives in Buenos Aires Latin American nations will follow remains to be seen. 1775 Outbreak of American War ofIndependence , Birth ofThomas, later Lord near Edmburgh, de Chile The Liberators threw off the Spanish yoke - one of the greatest mili­ Cochran~, 1777 Ambrosio O'Higgins becomes Captam-~eneral of Santlag? tary achievements in human history. In their inability to establish viable 1778 Birth of Bernardo O'Higgins in Concepcl6n, southern ~Jle or stable political structures, although most wanted to do so, they were Birth ofJose de San Martin in Yapeyu., north of Buenos res Execution ofTupac Amaru II in Cuzco . the victims of their time and place; and they were aware of their failure. Birth of Sim6n Bolivar in Caracas . d S The tragedy was that this failure, exacerbated by a vicious circle of polit­ Desertion' 0 fM'Iran da firom the Spanish" army to the Unite tates Birth of Agustin de Iturbide in Valladol!d, New Spam ical and economic underdevelopment, was to last the best part of a End of the American War of Independence century and a halE The cycle may now have been broken; if so, the inde­ 1785-89 Miranda's grand tour of Europ~ pendence and self-respect for which the Liberators fought so hard may 1788 Accession of Charles IV of Spam Start of French Revolution at last be in prospect for the millions of Latin America. 1789 1792 Miranda joins French revolutionary army 1793 Miranda arrested 1795 Miranda released; meets Napoleon Bernardo O'Higgins arrives in L?ndon Ambrosio O'Higgins becomes Viceroy of Peru 1797 Miranda flees France 1798 Birth of Pedro de Braganza in Lisbon 1799 Bolivar arrives in Spain 1801 Death of Ambrosio O'Higgins 180 4 Napoleons coronation in Paris , 1805 In Rome Bolivar swears to liberate South America 1806 Miranda'~ Leander expedition leaves New York for Venezu~la Defeat an Lisbon for Rio de Napoleonof~ophdam mva es Spam d,Beresdfopr~:~xg~,d~!~~utg:!~e~:~~~~:s an , Janeiro 1808 Miranda returns to London" . Whitelocke's expedition ,m B~~~~t:~ and succession of Ferdinand VII 11 ult ofAranJuez forcesdefibeda~ed a Icatlon 0 N:moleon de oses Ferdinand VII and instals Joseph B,onapa:te Ve!ezuela s!ears loyalty to anti-French junta formed m SeVille 18ID Seville junta overthrown Captain-General of Venezuela overthrown Chronology Chronology Bolivar travels to London as Venezuela's emissary, meets Miranda Bolfvar captures Guayana and Angostura Chile declares independence 1818 Bolivar meets Jose Antonio Nez, leader of the llaneros Hidalgo and Allende's uprising in New Spain Bolivar defeated at EI Semen Buenos Aires declares independence and invades Spanish Upper Peru Spanish reinvasion of Chile Bolivar and Miranda return to Venezuela Spanish defeat of O'Higgins at Cancha Rayada 18I! Defeat of the Argentinians by Spain in Upper Peru San Martin wins Battle of Maipu Venezuela declares independence 1819 Bolivar holds Congress of Angostura Miranda appointed commander-in-chief in Venezuela Bolivar crosses tlre plains of Casanare and the Andes Defection of San Martin from Spanish army Bolivar wins the Battle of Boyaca and retakes Santa Fe de Bogota Hidalgo loses the Battle of Calder6n and is executed 1820 Admiral Lord Cochrane takes Valdivia 1812 Venezuelan earthquake kills 20,000 Mutiny in Cadiz restores the 1812 constitution Miranda appointed dictator of Venezuela Bolivar invades Venezuela Siege of Morelos's forces at Cuautla, south of Mexico Ciry Bolivar concludes an armistice with the Spanish commander Morillo Bolivar routed at Puerto Cabello Execution of Jose Miguel Carrera in Argentina Miranda sues for peace with Spain San Martin's and Cochrane's expeditionary force leaves Chile for Peru by sea Miranda betrayed into captiviry by Bolivar Cochrane's capture of the Esmeralda Carrera seizes power in Chile 1821 End of armistice in Venezuela Liberals seize power in Cadiz and promulgate new constitution Bolivar wins decisive Battle of Carabobo and declares independence of Gran Bolivar flees to Cartagena and composes Cartagena Manifesto Colombia Bolivar embarks on River Magdalena expedition Attempted revolution in Rio de Janeiro crushed Morelos proclaims constitution of Chilpancingo in New Spain Plan ofIguala issued by Iturbide in New Spain; Mexico becomes independent San Martin occupies Lima 1813 Bolivar crosses the Cordillera Oriental and wins Battle of Cucuta Bolivar marches on Venezuela and captures Merida Cochrane hijacks San Martin's treasure ship The Spanish reinvade Chile 1822 Bolivar wins Battle of Bombona in southern Colombia Bolivar proclaims the War to the Death Bolivar enters Quito; meets Manuela Saenz Bolivar recaptures Caracas Bolivar's soliloquy on Chimborazo 1814 Bolivar defeated at the Battle of La Puerta Cochrane returns to Chile Evacuation of Caracas Pedro declares Brazil independent and becomes Emperor Bolivar flees Venezuela for Cartagena Bolivar meets San Martin in Guayaquil San Martin becomes Governor of Cuyo in western Argentina San Martin abdicates power and returns to Chile O'Higgins loses Battle of Rancagua in Chile Iturbide becomes Emperor of Mexico Chilean exodus across the Andes Canning promulgates his Latin American doctrine Capture and execution of Morelos in New Spain Earthquake in Valparaiso Bolivar captures Santa Fe de Bogota 1823 Bolivar takes control of Lima Defeat of Napoleon in Spain O'Higgins deposed in Chile Return of Ferdinand VII Bolivar forced out of Lima Restoration of absolutism in Spain Cochrane captures Balria and Maranhao 1815 Battle of Waterloo marks final defeat of Napoleon Following French intervention, absolutism reimposed in Spain under Bolivar sails from Cartagena to Jamaica Ferdinand VII Morillo's army sails from Spain lturbide abdicates as Emperor of Mexico and leaves for Europe Spanish capture Cartagena Monroe Doctrine promulgated by United States Bolivar writes Jamaica Letter Bolivar wins Battle of Junin Bolivar travels to Haiti Sucre wins Battle of Ayacucho: final defeat for Spanish forces in Latin America 1816 Bolivar lands again in Venezuela San Martin departs for exile in Europe Bolivar escapes back to Haiti Cochrane subdues Pernambuco Bolfvar returns to Venezuela lturbide returns to Mexico, where he is executed Death of Miranda in gaol in Cadiz Bolivar travels to Cuzco and Potosi San Martin's army crosses the Andes Cochrane returns to Britain San Martin and O'Higgins win the Battle of Chacabuco Bolivar draws up constitution for Bolivia, installing Sucre as president San Martin and O'Higgins take Santiago Bolivar draws up constitution for Peru 1817 Bolivar establishes his base on the Orinoco Congress of Panama Bolivar executes his rival Manuel Piar Death of the Empress Leopoldina of Brazil Brazil invades the Banda Oriental Bolivar leaves Peru Chronology Bolivar's reconciliation with Paez Brazil gives up the Banda Oriental, which becomes Uruguay Death of Canning Sucre is overthrown in Bolivia Convention of Ocana dissolved; Bolivia becomes dictator of Gran Colombia Coup and assassination attempt against Bolivar in Santa Fe de Bogota Sucre defeats invading Peruvians at Portete de Tarqui Bolivar travels to Quito and Guayaquil San Martin returns to Buenos Aires, thence to Europe again Bolivar returns to Santa Fe de Bogota Bolivar departs for the coast Sucre assassinated Death of Bolivar at San Pedro Alejandrino Abdication of Emperor Pedro I Pedro arrives in Oporto; siege of the city begins End of the siege of Oporto Pedro captures Lisbon Death of Pedro Death of O'Higgins in Peru Death of San Martin in Boulogne Death of Cochrane (now Earl of Dondonald) in London Chronology 1578 Jumandi leads an uprising against Spanish colonists in the Ecuadorian Amazon 1599 Legendary Shuar revolt in the Ecuadorian Amazon November 1777 A revolt against a census spreads throughout the northern Audiencia of Quito 1791 Indigenous rebellion against a public w~rks mita labor draft at Lita 1803 Indigenous uprising at Guamote, Chimborazo, against diezmos May 24, .1822 Antonio Jose de Sucre defeats Spanish forces at the battle of Pichincha, leading to Ecuador's independence as part of the country of Gran Colombia 1830 Ecuador separates from Gran Colombia 1852 Ecuador eliminates slavery 1857 Ecuador eliminates forced tribute payments December 1871 Fernando Daquilema leads a revolt in the central highland province of Chimborazo September 5, 1884 Alejo Saez leads an uprising against the payment of diezmos in his home community ofLicto, Chimborazo 1892 Foundation of the Sociedad Artistica