The Water Status in China and an Adaptive Governance Frame for Water Management

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

Article The Water Status in China and an Adaptive Governance Frame for Water Management

Jiahong Li 1,2 , Xiaohui Lei 2,*, Yu Qiao 2,3, Aiqing Kang 2 and Peiru Yan 1

1 School of Civil Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300354, China; [email protected] (J.L.); [email protected] (P.Y.) 2 Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research, Beijing 100038, China; [email protected] (Y.Q.); [email protected] (A.K.) 3 Construction and Administration Bureau of South-to-North Water Diversion Middle Route Project, Beijing 100038, China * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-010-68785503; Fax:+86-010-68483366

Received: 10 January 2020; Accepted: 18 March 2020; Published: 21 March 2020

Abstract: China is increasingly facing water-related problems, such as water scarcity, pollution, and overexploitation of groundwater. This paper discusses the water status in China and claims that governance is the cause of water-related problems. The structure of the current water management is analyzed to conclude that the control-command is a static approach which is less capable of dealing with the uncertainty in the water resources system. An adaptive governance frame is introduced, which highlights the learning process and participation. The learning process avoids making the same mistake twice and the participation ensures the diversity of information, which are both necessary for water resources management.

Keywords: water status; adaptive governance; water management frame; adaptive water resource management

1. Introduction Sustainable water management is of fundamental importance for society but remains an extraordinary challenge across the world, with many pressing issues to be addressed, such as the lack of sanitation, the depletion of water resources, and the financial loss associated with hydrological extremes such as floods and droughts [1]. Moreover, this ongoing problem of water resources management has been expedited by the prospect of climate and global change [2] as it can change the availability and distribution of freshwater, as well as the demand for water [3] and groundwater availability [4]. Traditional resource governance frames have evolved over a long period and are closely intertwined with technological infrastructure [5–7]. However, in the last quarter of the 20th century, public discourse has questioned the desirability of relying solely on the scientific rationalist approach to manage and use the natural resources [8]. The traditional water resource management is generally referred to as supply management. Its main feature is to achieve the balance between water resource supply and demand by developing new water sources and large-scale long-distance water transfer. The supply management depends on the perspective of the “endless water,” which ignores the possibility of saving water in management. The traditional decision-making method is top-down and cannot adequately reflect the changes in the demands of water users [9]. The increase of water waste and water inefficiency has resulted from the extensive management method. With the intensification of the contradiction between supply and demand of water resources, the ability to rely solely on the increase of water conservancy projects to solve water shortage problems is increasingly restricted [10]. Therefore, the transformation of water resource management methods and demand management methods has emerged. Water

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2085; doi:10.3390/ijerph17062085 www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2085 2 of 19 demand management is centered on water users, and the decision-making method is bottom-up. It can adequately reflect the water use level and efficiency of water users and improve and coordinate the behavior of water users, achieving the goals of water management. Resource managers underestimated the consequences of feedback effects, non-linearity, time delays, and changes in human behavior, which are important for policy making. Increasing recognition of economic and social uncertainties and policy complexities has prompted a widespread reconsideration of management and governance. It has also become evident that many problems are not primarily associated with the resource base but must be attributed to governance failures [2]. Adger et al. [11] and Rijke [12] claimed that developing resilient water resource management systems is more a governance issue than a technological issue as “adaptation to climate change is limited by the values, perceptions, processes and power structures within society”. Emmanuel et al. [13] established a theoretical framework for sustainable water resource management and framed a strategy which reconciles demand and supply of water while considering environmental, economic, and social interests. Critical voices have argued for major paradigm shifts in management [14,15]. The ability of governance systems to deal with uncertainty and surprise is an essential requirement for sustainability when facing off the increasing uncertainty due to climate and global change [2]. Several types of research have also been led to suggest adaptive governance of water resources in China [16–18]. Adaptation measures in water resource management policies and practices are necessary to meet the challenges of the current and upcoming climate change. Both supply-side and demand-side adaptation strategies can be taken to ensure water supply during average and drought conditions. Meanwhile, climate change affects the function and operation of existing water-related infrastructure, including hydropower, structural flood defenses, drainage and irrigation systems, as well as water management practices [19]. Climate changes influence runoff in wet seasons, and the effect of climate changes on fish habitat quality in lower reach is high in dry seasons but low in flood seasons [20]. In China, water resource scarcity and widespread water pollution, combined with the increasing demands resulting from the rapid social and economic growth, limit its further development and sustainability [21–24]. Water supply shortages in China could also threaten global sustainable development and have worldwide impacts if the country’s ability to produce sufficient food to feed a large and growing population can no longer be maintained [25,26]. Consequently, improvements in water governance present a crucial challenge for better water management. Management should not only guarantee the services provided by the resource (e.g., water for irrigation, fisheries), prevent damage (e.g., flooding), and maintain the use for future generations (e.g., preserve groundwater resource), but also respect the integrity of ecosystems as a goal (e.g., maintenance of a good ecology) [27]. The concept of Adaptive Water Resource Management (AWRM) was developed to manage these multiple stresses and demands on the water environment better. It promotes better coordination between the activities of individual citizens, businesses, and organizations involved in water relevant policies [1]. It helps to handle the contradiction that the current management frame may be successful in the short term, but the adverse effects of long-term consequences may often outweigh the short-term benefits [27]. Water resource management is mainly the responsibility of the government, according to law in China. The development and evolution of China’s water resource management and protection frame have experienced four phases: (1) informal water resources management in engineering, (2) the formal system of executive orders, (3) the management of water abstraction permits, and (4) the management of formal systems based on water rights. Various supply management approaches, such as building large-scale infrastructures of water storage and long-distance, inter-basin transfers, and development of alternative water resources through rainwater harvesting, precipitation enhancement, desalination, and wastewater reclamation, have been carried out to balance the spatial and temporal availability and to increase the supply of water resources [21]. Management refers to activities of analyzing, monitoring, developing, and implementing measures to keep the state of a water resource within desirable bounds [28]. Adaptive management accepts the Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2085 3 of 19 uncertainties of resource management and attempts to sort these uncertainties over time by a process of using management actions as experiments to test policy [29]. Adaptive management is a scientific or technical approach to resource management, but often requires a specific set of social, economic, and governance factors for implementation [30]. Adaptive governance is an experimental approach used by water management agencies around the world to manage and restore aquatic ecosystems. The effectiveness of the approach can often be constrained by an inflexible management frame [31]. Adem and Geneletti et al. [32] investigated a case study of knowledge co-production, to assess the applicability of boundary work as a conceptual framework to support implementing adaptive governance in the water sector. A novel operation chart for a cascade hydropower system has been presented to alleviate ecological degradation in hydrological extremes [33]. Ha and Dieperink et al. [34] published a paper with recommendations both for national, regional, and local policy interventions and for future adaptive freshwater management. Management reform emphasizing adaption can contribute to water security and yield socio-economic outcomes through a systemic understanding of how the water system functions, and by connecting goals and budgets across multiple, currently fragmented policy areas [35]. Using an informal adaptive governance framework, Wolfenden and Wassens et al. [36] delivered return flows from a forested wetland complex into a large lowland river in south-eastern Australia. Combining with the advanced concepts and the status of water resources management in China, this paper puts forward a suitable adaptive governance frame for water resources to maintain and improve the resilience of water resource systems in China; that is, the continuity and adaptability of water resource systems to external disturbances. Adaptive water management is not only an optimization of resources, but also the optimization of management capabilities. What distinguishes adaptive governance from adaptive management is the functional and geographical scope of institutional activities. Adaptive governance makes an obvious connection between the multilevel governance of natural resources as an important component of the overall institutional mechanisms for decision making and implementation in wider society [37]. Hence this paper seeks to provide a set of composite policies or patterns that address and integrate different problem domains. Leadership, multiplicity, changeability in competencies and timing seem to be key factors in adaptive governance. In recent years, with the rapid development of society and the economy, China’s water resources have become increasingly scarce, so the competition among various sectors for water resources has become increasingly fierce. However, water pollution has become very serious. How to carry out the efficient and sustainable use of water resources has become the primary task of water resource management. Water resources form a complex giant system with multiple uncertainties within it. The planning and management of water resource systems face multiple contradictions and conflicts. The previous command and control water management paradigm cannot coordinate the economic development and ecological environment problems well in the utilization of water resources. The current so-called “command-oriented” management model cannot respond to changes in the environment and ecology in a timely manner [38,39]. This type of planning model often fails to cope with unexpected conditions and crises [40–42]. The traditional management model can be regarded as a method focused on maximizing output based on a standard economic model, and its structure often remains unchanged for a long time, which tends to focus on formal administrative structures, those being explicitly stated in policy documents and laws, despite the acknowledgment that these may have little to do with the everyday reality of natural resource management [43]. In many cases, there are often conflicts and contradictions between different goals, and the maximization of short-term goals often comes at the cost of ecological damage. One approach to managing complexities and uncertainties within any complex system is termed adaptive governance, commonly used in the study of social-ecological systems [40], and adaptive water resource management can comprehensively consider the ecological, social, economic, and environmental aspects related to water resources, and continuously adjust the feedback from the bottom to the top to solve water resource planning issues. Adaptive water resource governance can be considered as a systematic Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2085 4 of 19 method for continually improving policies and activities by learning from the outcomes of actions and activities. Water resource adaptive governance arises from the complex adaptive system (CAS), which has complex, non-linear, self-organizing characteristics and can change as the environment changes [44]. The biggest feature of its system is that it can learn actively and learn from past experiences to avoid the sameInt. mistakes.J. Environ. Res. UnderPublic Health adaptive 2019, 16, x FOR governance, PEER REVIEW the concept of water security is not a fixed,4 of 19 pre-set goal, but rather a dynamic process that will be continuously updated and modified to respond to the everchangingorganizing world characteristics [38]. The and adaptive can change water as resourcethe enviro managementnment changes can[44]. comprehensivelyThe biggest feature of consider its the system is that it can learn actively and learn from past experiences to avoid the same mistakes. Under ecological, social, economic, and environmental aspects related to water resources, and continuously adaptive governance, the concept of water security is not a fixed, pre-set goal, but rather a dynamic adjust theprocess feedback that will to be solve continuously water resourceupdated and planning modified issues to respond and to provide the everchanging sustainable world development [38]. for relevantThe adaptive plan decision water resource makers. management The leaders can must comprehensively embrace uncertainty consider the and ecological, seek opportunities social, for learningeconomic, through and environmental experimentation. aspects It isrelated important to water to manageresources, the and uncertainties continuously adjustin the the social and politicalfeedback relationships, to solve water with resource the experimentation planning issues supportedand provide bysustainable broad-based development stakeholders. for relevant Adaptive governanceplan decision is a critical makers. component The leaders for must solving embrace the problem uncertainty of and water seek resources. opportunities for learning through experimentation. It is important to manage the uncertainties in the social and political Therelationships structure， ofwith this paper the experimentation is as follows: supported We first introduce by broad-based water stakeholder status ands. waterAdaptive associated policiesgovernance and practices is a critical in China. component Based for on solving the current the problem political, of water socio-economic resources. and water resources conditions inThe China, structure the of current this paper water is as management follows: We first frame introduce is analyzed. water status To improve and water the associated water resources managementpolicies frame,and practices the adaptive in China. Water Based Resourceon the current Management political, socio (AWRM)-economic theory and water is analyzed. resources Finally, we recommendconditionsthe in waterChina, resources the current adaptive water management governance frame frame is analyzed. in China. To improve the water resources management frame, the adaptive Water Resource Management (AWRM) theory is 2. The Wateranalyzed. Status Finally, in we China recommend the water resources adaptive governance frame in China. 2. The Water Status in China 2.1. Water Resources Management in China 2.1. Water Resources Management in China 2.1.1. Water Resource Management System in China Water2.1.1. resourceWater Resource management Management is S mainlyystem in theChina behavior of the government in managing water according toWater law, managingresource management administrative is mainly authority the behavior according of the to government law, and the in scientificmanaging managementwater of water.according China’s to water law, resourcemanaging management administrative system authority can according be summarized to law, in and the the following scientific stages of management of water. China's water resource management system can be summarized in the development, which can also be seen in the Figure1. following stages of development, which can also be seen in the Figure 1.

Managed by the ministry of ecology environment and the ministry of water resources Establishment of water administrative authority

Preliminary legalization

No rules and regulations about water governance 2018

2002

1988 of transition in in governance watertransition of

1949 Stages Stages Year

Figure 1. Stages of transition in water governance of China. Figure 1. Stages of transition in water governance of China. Before the promulgation of the Water Law in 1988, China implemented a multi-sectoral and Before the promulgation of the Water Law in 1988, China implemented a multi-sectoral and decentralizeddecentralized management management model, model which, which had had differentdifferent and and unclear unclear administrative administrative institutes institutes that that workedworked separately separate forly for water water resource resource management management.. The water The waterresource resource management management system was system was relativelyrelatively fragmented. fragmented. In In the the absence absence of a of legal a legal definition, definition, the intensity the intensity and effectiveness and eff ectiveness of of implementationimplementation were were relatively relatively poor. After theAfter promulgation the promulgation of theof the Water Water Law Law inin 1988 and and before before the thepromulgation promulgation of the new of the Water new Water Law in 2002, China implemented a management model that combines unified management with Law in 2002, China implemented a management model that combines unified management with

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2085 5 of 19 Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 19 gradinggrading and andsub- sub-sectorsector management management,, which which means means the Ministry the Ministry of Water of Resources, Water Resources, province provinces,s, and and citiescities manage manage the different the different parts partsof water of water resources. resources. China's China’s water resource water resource management management has initially has initially embarkedembarked on the on track the track of legalization. of legalization. The The new new Water Water Law Law,, promulgated promulgated in in 2002 2002,, marked the the beginning beginning of of a new a new stage stage in the in construction the constructionof China’s of China's water resourcewater resource management management system. system. The The system system of of combiningcombining the the major major river river basin basinmanagement management and and regional regional administrative administrative managementmanagement of of water water resources resources was was clarified. clarified. The The water wateradministrative administrative department department of the the State State Council Council is responsible is responsible for the for unified the unified management management and and supervisionsupervision of water of water resources resources throughout throughout the country. the country. AlthAlthoughough the thenew new "Water "Water Law" Law" has has made made a a significant significant breakthrough breakthrough in in the the reform reform of water water resource resourcemanagement management systems, system manys, many specific specific systems systems are are not not sound sound due due to tothe the influenceinfluence of various various factors. factors.Moreover, Moreover, in the incurrent the current legal legal environment, environment, the implementation the implementation of these of these imperfect imperfect systems systems is also facing is alsoconsiderable facing considerable difficulties. difficulties. Over past Over years, past China years, hasChina completed has completed legislation legislation for water for water management managementreform, especially reform, especially the revision the andrevision promotion and promotion of the Water of the Law Water in 2002,Law in which 2002,covered which covered every aspect of every aspect of economic and social development. However, the law has not been effectively economic and social development. However, the law has not been effectively implemented. implemented. The existing water resource administrative system of China, which was reformed in 2018, is shown The existing water resource administrative system of China, which was reformed in 2018, is in Figure2. Water resources are managed by both the central and the local governments. However, shown in Figure 2. Water resources are managed by both the central and the local governments. fragmented issues exist due to the involvement of several agencies. From a national point of view, However, fragmented issues exist due to the involvement of several agencies. From a national point there are four Ministries in charge of water resource management: The Ministry of Housing and of view, there are four Ministries in charge of water resource management: The Ministry of Housing andUrban-Rural Urban-Rural Development,Development, the National National Development Development and and R Reformeform Commission, Commission, the the Ministry Ministry of of Water WaterResources, Resources and, and the the Ministry Ministry of of Ecological Ecological and and Environment. Environment.

National People’s Congress＆Standing Committee

The State Council

Ministry of Housing and Urban- National Development and Ministry of Ecological Ministry of Water Resources Rural Development Reform Commission Environment

Department Department Department Department Department Department Department of Water Project of Rural Water of Water of Three gorges of Water Project of Planning and of Policy ,Law Construction and Resource project Operation Programming and regulation Department Department Department Management Hydropower Management Management Management of Urban of Water Price of Water Construction Department Ecological Department Department Department Department Department Department Environment of South-to- Department of Water of Flood and of Soil And Water of River and lake Of water Project North Water of Hydrology Diversion Drought Disaster Conservation management Resettlement Diversion Management Prevention

Local Water ecological Local municipal Local municipal River basin Local Water environment Public Utilities Bureau Commission Authority Bureau Bureau

FigureFigure 2. China’s 2. China’s water m wateranagement management framework framework..

The The major major policy policy is “Three is “Three Red Lines". Red Lines". The first The is first to establish is to establish a red line a red for line controlling for controlling the the developmentdevelopment and andutilization utilization of water of water resources. resources. By 2030, By 2030,the total the totalnational national water water consumption consumption will will be be controlledcontrolled within within 700 700 billion billion m m3.3 .The The second second is is to to establish establish a a red red line line for for water water use use efficiency efficiency control. control.By 2030, By 2030, water water use e ffi useciency efficiency will reach will or reach approach or approach the world’s the advancedworld's advanced level, water level, consumption water per consumptionadded value per 10,000added yuanvalue of10,000 industrial yuan of will industrial be reduced will tobe less reduced than 40to less m3, than and the40 m eff3,ective and the utilization effectivecoeffi utilizationcient of farmland coefficient irrigation of farmland water irrigation will be increasedwater will tobe aboveincreased 0.6. to The above third 0.6. is The to establish third a red is toline establish for limiting a red line water for limiting pollution water in water pollution function in water zones. function By 2030, zones. the By total 2030, amount the total of majoramount pollutants of majorentering pollutants rivers and entering lakes will rivers be and controlled lakes will within be thecontrolled water function within the zone’s water ability function to accept zone's pollutants, abilityand to the accept water pollutants, quality zone’s and the compliance water quality rate zone's will increase compliance to more rate thanwill increase 95%. to more than 95%. Such a fragmented administrative system and policies pose a serious challenge to effective Such a fragmented administrative system and policies pose a serious challenge to effective and and efficient water management. Particularly, due to a lack of a leading agency, none of them are efficient water management. Particularly, due to a lack of a leading agency, none of them are subordinated to one another, meaning the water-related jurisdictions of these involved agencies are subordinated to one another, meaning the water-related jurisdictions of these involved agencies are not clear. Because sometimes one river does not only belong to one province, and the water resources not clear. Because sometimes one river does not only belong to one province, and the water resources managementmanagement problems problems do not do only not belong only belong to one to agency. one agency.

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2.1.2. Major River Management Basins in China 2.1.2. Major River Management Basins in China Because of the unreasonable water management, the problems of water shortages and degraded Because of the unreasonable water management, the problems of water shortages and degraded water quality are still serious [45]. Water environment protection is another popular topic, and the water quality are still serious [45]. Water environment protection is another popular topic, and the water-related problem has troubled many places in China for many years. To achieve better water-related problem has troubled many places in China for many years. To achieve better management management of water resources, the ministry of water resources set up seven affiliated institutions, of water resources, the ministry of water resources set up seven aﬃliated institutions, which are in which are in seven major catchments in China. seven major catchments in China. China has more than 1500 rivers, with drainage areas of 1000 km2 or greater, and more than China has more than 1500 rivers, with drainage areas of 1000 km2 or greater, and more than 50,000 50,000 with a catchment area over 100 km2. The majority of these rivers are located in the eastern parts with a catchment area over 100 km2. The majority of these rivers are located in the eastern parts of of China where the monsoonal climate produces abundant rainfall. Figure 3 shows the location of China where the monsoonal climate produces abundant rainfall. Figure3 shows the location of China’s China’s major river basins. major river basins.

Figure 3. China’s major river basins. Figure 3. China’s major river basins. After decades of evolution, the current water resource management frame has become a After decades of evolution, the current water resource management frame has become a combination of river basin management and administrative region management. From the perspective combination of river basin management and administrative region management. From the of the river basin, the ministry of water resource was set up to plan, manage, and allocate all kinds perspective of the river basin, the ministry of water resource was set up to plan, manage, and allocate of water resources within each river basin (i.e., surface water and groundwater, etc.). It has the all kinds of water resources within each river basin (i.e., surface water and groundwater, etc.). It has responsibility to develop an integrated water-consuming plan in the middle-term and long-term level the responsibility to develop an integrated water-consuming plan in the middle-term and long-term and coordinate every province’s interest. level and coordinate every province’s interest. In water resource management, there are some remarkable results that have been achieved. In water resource management, there are some remarkable results that have been achieved. For For example, the establishment of an integrated management system that combines watershed example, the establishment of an integrated management system that combines watershed management and regional management, the establishment of a water rights management system that management and regional management, the establishment of a water rights management system that focuses on water allocation, water abstraction permits and water resources demonstration, and the focuses on water allocation, water abstraction permits and water resources demonstration, and the establishment of a water price management system based on full cost accounting. There are still establishment of a water price management system based on full cost accounting. There are still problems such as the unclear water resources ownership, and the lack of protection of the water and problems such as the unclear water resources ownership, and the lack of protection of the water and environmental rights. environmental rights.

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Int.Int.2.2. J. Environ. J. Present Environ. Res. S Res.tatus Public Public of Health Water Health 20192020 R,esources 16, 17, x, FOR 2085 I PEERssues REVIEW in China 7 of 7 of19 19

2.2.2.2.1. Present Flood Status and ofDrought Water R inesources China Issues in China 2.2. Present Status of Water Resources Issues in China After decades of industrialization, China has achieved tremendous economic growth and 2.2.1. Flood and Drought in China 2.2.1.development. Flood and However, Drought in China’s China economic growth has come at the cost of resource over- After decades of industrialization, China has achieved8 3 tremendous economic growth and consumption.After decades The total of industrialization, water supply was China 6040.2 has × 10 achieved m in 2016, tremendous which went economic up by 7% growth compared and development. However,8 China’s economic growth has come at the cost of resource over- development.with 5633 × 10 However, m3 in 2005, China’s indicat economicing a significant growth has growth come attrend. the costWith of the resource request over-consumption. for water safety, consumption. The total water supply was 6040.2 × 108 m3 in 2016, which went up by 7% compared Thethe Chinese total water government supply was has 6040.2 invested108 muchm3 in time 2016, and which money went in up the by construction 7% compared of withwater 5633 conservancy108 m3 with 5633 × 108 m3 in 2005, indicat×ing a significant growth trend. With the request for water× safety, ininfrastructure 2005, indicating(Fig aure significant 4),in the growth hope of trend. decreasing With the the request frequency for water of water safety, related the Chinese disasters. government In 2005, the Chinese government8 has invested much time and money in the construction of water conservancy hasonly invested 827.4 × much10 RMB time was and used money for inwater the constructioninfrastructure. of waterBy the conservancyyear 2016, investment infrastructure(Figure has grown4 to), infrastructure8 (Figure 4),in the hope of decreasing the frequency of water related disasters. In 2005, in6099.6 the hope × 10 of RMB, decreasing almost theeight frequency times that of waterof 2005. related Though disasters. so much In effort 2005, onlyhas been 827.4 put10 in8, RMBit did was not only 827.4 × 108 RMB was used for water infrastructure. By the year 2016, investment ×has grown to usedturn forout wateras expected infrastructure., in that the By thetotal year areas 2016, of flood investment-affected has and grown drought to 6099.6-affected10 did8 RMB, not almostreduce 6099.6 × 108 RMB, almost eight times that of 2005. Though so much effort has been× put in, it did not eightobviously times (Figure that of 2005.5). There Though was so not much only e ffnoort significant has been put decline in, it didin the not disaster turn out area, as expected, but also in many that turn out as expected, in that the total areas of flood-affected and drought-affected did not reduce thenew total water areas-related of flood-a issuesff ectedappearing. and drought-a Water quality,ffected for did example, not reduce has obviouslybecome worse (Figure and5). worse. There More was obviously (Figure 5). There was not only no significant decline in the disaster area, but also many notthan only two no-thirds significant of lakes decline have been in the plagued disaster by area, different but also degrees many newof eutrophication, water-related issueswhile appearing.more than new water-related issues appearing. Water quality, for example, has become worse and worse. More Water850 rivers quality, have for been example, polluted has become in 1200 worse monitored and worse. rivers More [46]. than On two-thirdsthe other hand, of lakes the have growi beenng than two-thirds of lakes have been plagued by different degrees of eutrophication, while more than plaguedexploitation by di offf erentgroundwater degrees ofhas eutrophication, given rise to grievous while more consequence than 850 riverss. Land have subsidence been polluted has occurred in 1200 850 rivers have been polluted in 1200 monitored rivers [46]. On the other hand, the growing monitoredin 96 cities riversand regions [46]. On in China. the other For hand, example, the growing in the east exploitation of Beijing, ofthe groundwater average land has subsidence given rise was to exploitation of groundwater has given rise to grievous consequences. Land subsidence has occurred grievous10 cm each consequences. year from 2003 Land–2011 subsidence [47], which hasoccurred initiate the in 96intrusion cities and of regionsseawater in and China. other For ecological example, in 96 cities and regions in China. For example, in the east of Beijing, the average land subsidence was inissues. the east of Beijing, the average land subsidence was 10 cm each year from 2003–2011 [47], which 10 cm each year from 2003–2011 [47], which initiate the intrusion of seawater and other ecological initiate the intrusion7000 of seawater and other ecological issues. issues. 6000 7000 yuan 5000 8 8 6000 y = 490.98x - 304.7 4000

yuan 5000 8 8 3000 y = 490.98x - 304.7 4000 2000 3000

Investment 10 Investment 1000 2000 0

Investment 10 Investment 1000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 0 Year 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Figure 4. Investment in water infrastructure. YearDate source: Statistic Bulletin on China Water Activities. Figure 4. Investment in water infrastructure. Date source: Statistic Bulletin on China Water Activities. Figure 4. Investment in water infrastructure. Date source: Statistic Bulletin on China Water 45,000 Activities. 40,000 Drought-affected areas 45,00035,000 Flood-affected areas 40,00030,000 Drought-affected areas 35,00025,000 Flood-affected areas hectares 30,000 3 3 20,000

25,00015,000 hectares 3 3 20,00010,000

Area: 10 Area: 15,0005,000 10,000 0

Area: 10 Area: 5,000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 0 Year 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Figure 5. Flood-aﬀected areas and drought-aﬀected areas. Date source: Bulletin of Flood and Drought Figure 5. Flood-affected areas and drought-affected Yearareas. Date source: Bulletin of Flood and Drought Disasters in China. Disasters in China. Figure 5. Flood-affected areas and drought-affected areas. Date source: Bulletin of Flood and Drought Disasters in China.

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2.2.2. Low Level of Water Resources and Water Environment Water scarcity and poor water quality are interwoven with many other things, for instance, economicInt. J. Environ. development, Res. Public Health and 2019 life, 16, qualityx FOR PEER [45 REVIEW]. In China, agriculture uses the largest proportion8 of 19 of water. As is widely known, China has the largest population in the world (almost 1/5 of the world’s 2.2.2. Low Level of Water Resources and Water Environment population) and makes up only seven percent of the world’s land. To feed such a large population, food productionWater scarcity is the and primary poor water issue quality to be handled, are interwoven which with also many demands other largethings, amounts for instance, of water. However,economic water development, quality and and quantity life quality directly [45]. determine In China, agriculture food production. uses the As largest such, proportion whether of we can solvewater. water-related As is widely problems known, willChina aﬀ hasect the the largest development population and in sustainabilitythe world (almost of China.1/5 of the world’s population) and makes up only seven percent of the world's land. To feed such a large population, 3. Anfood Adaptive production Governance is the primary Frame issue for to Water be handled Management, which also demands large amounts of water. However, water quality and quantity directly determine food production. As such, whether we can 3.1. Thesolve Weakness water-related of the problems Current Framewill affect the development and sustainability of China.

3.The An currentAdaptive water Governance resource Frame management for Water M frameanagement did solve some water-related problems. Some existing problems are becoming more and more serious. What’s more, more problems are looming on the horizon3.1. The W andeakness the currentof the Current frame Frame has not been ready for climate change and human activities. DueThe to China’scurrent water imbalanced resource development, management frame more did region-specific solve some water policies-related have problem not beens. Some made by consideringexisting theproblem localsrealities. are becoming For instance, more and in more water-shortage serious. What's areas, more, more more water-saving problems are policies, looming such as dropon irrigation, the horizon rainwater and the current collection, frame and has reuse, not been and ready treated for climate wastewater change reuse, and human should activities. be encouraged, while in water-richDue to China’s areas, imbalanced more water development, quality improvement more region- policies,specific polici suches as have advanced not been water made treatment by technologiesconsidering and the more local stringent realities. For water instance, quality in monitoring,water-shortage should areas, be more adopted. water-saving Moreover, policies, it is such critical to enforceas dropthe regulations irrigation, more rainwater effectively collection and, eandfficiently. reuse, The and current treated top- wastewater down approach reuse, should has been be filled encouraged, while in water-rich areas, more water quality improvement policies, such as advanced with difficulties in dealing with the challenges that have appeared, let alone considering underlying water treatment technologies and more stringent water quality monitoring, should be adopted. dangers.Moreover, The water it is critical management to enforce frame the regulations has been evolvingmore effectively for decades, and efficiently. but decision-making The current t wasop- only restricteddown inapproach the government has been filled management with difficulties department in dealing and with decision-making the challenges institution,that have appeared isolating, the broadlet masses alone considering of common underlying people. Meanwhile, dangers. The water water prices management were set frame at an has unreasonably been evolving low for level, and indecades, most cases,but decision people-making did not was attach only importance restricted in to the water govern saving.ment management This management department frame and leaves a greatdecision negative-making effect; institution, that is, much isolating is unknown.the broad masses People of docommon not know people. about Meanwhile, the water water status, prices water allocationwere set standard, at an unreasonabl water price,y low etc. level, This and non-participation in most cases, people finally did gives not attach rise to importance the weak to water-saving water consciousnesssaving. This and management low water-use frame eleavesfficiency. a great negative effect; that is, much is unknown. People do notFor know a long about period, the water the central status, water government allocation has standard, managed water water price, services etc. This directly non-participation and provided finally gives rise to the weak water-saving consciousness and low water-use efficiency. water services to consumers at a low charge, or even free of charge in some underdeveloped areas [48]. For a long period, the central government has managed water services directly and provided Thiswater low price services or freeto consumers of charge at led a low to a charge, pervasive or even misunderstanding free of charge in aboutsome underdeveloped water, the public area thoughts they[4 were8]. This at libertylow price to drawor free and of charge use water, led to with a pervasive the conception misunderstanding that water about was water, free natural the public resource; anyonethought could they use were it at at their liberty will. to draw and use water, with the conception that water was free natural resource;As shown anyone in Figure could6, use the it water at their use will. e ffi ciency is not high in China. The waste of water is serious, and the outputAs shown GDP in Figure per water 6, the is water only use 1/518 efficiency compared is not to high the in world’s China. average,The waste which of water is muchis serious, diff erent fromand that the of output developed GDP per countries. water is only 1/518 compared to the world’s average, which is much different from that of developed countries.

700 ） 600 500 400 300

/ten thousand yuan thousand /ten 200

3 Water Consumption Water

m 100 （ 0

FigureFigure 6. 6.Water Water consumption consumption per per unit unit of of GDP GDP in insome some countries. countries.

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2085 9 of 19

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 19 Agricultural water consumption has been increasing over the past decade, accounting for nearly 65%Agricultural of the total waterwater consumption.consumption has What’s been increasing more, agricultural over the water-usepast decade, effi accountingciency is rather for nearly low. 65%For instance,of the total irrigation water consumption. water efficiency What’s is only more, 0.5, agri muchcultural lower water-use than 0.8 in efficiency developed is countries.rather low. Food For instance,production irrigation capacity water is also efficiency very low, is inonly China, 0.5, onlymuch 1 lower kg of foodthan can0.8 in be developed produced percountries. m3 of water,Food productionhowever, in capacity the developed is also countries very low, this in figureChina, can only reach 1 kg 2 of kg, food such can as 2.35be produced kg in Israel per [49 m].3 Theof water, same however,situation canin the also developed be seen incountries industrial this production. figure can reach The repeat2 kg, such utilization as 2.35 kg rate in of Israel industrial [49]. The water same is situationabout 50%, can lower also thanbe seen the in average industrial level. production. The repeat utilization rate of industrial water is aboutWater 50%, lower pollution than has the also average become level. a crucial problem in China, and many rivers and lakes have beenWater plagued pollution by different has also levels become of pollution. a crucial Wastewater problem dischargein China, hasand grown many torivers 735.3 and10 lakes8 t in have 2015, × beenalmost plagued twice asby muchdifferent as 415levels10 of8 pollution.t in 2000 (FigureWastewater7). The discharge growing has discharge grown to contaminated 735.3 × 108 t in many 2015, × almostlakes and twice rivers. as much In China, as 415 water × 108 quality t in 2000 is classified(Figure 7). into The five growing categories discharge which contaminated can be described many as “good”lakes and (Grades rivers. I, In II, China, and III) water and “poor” quality (Grades is classified IV and into V orfive V+ categories), which cannot which support can be drinkingdescribed and as ‘‘good’’swimming). (Grades V+ meansI, II, and the III) water and has ‘‘poor’’ no economic (Grades or IV practical and V or values V+), which any longer. cannot As support shown indrinking Table1, andthe ‘poor’swimming). quality V+ water means (Grades the water IV and has V orno Veconomic+) in the Haior practical River accounts values forany 62.7 longer. % of As the shown length in of Tablethe river, 1, the while ‘poor’ in thequality Liao water River (Grades and the HuaiIV and River, V or it V+) is 54.7% in the and Hai 46.7%, River accounts respectively. for 62.7 This % number of the lengthis alarming. of the river, while in the Liao River and the Huai River, it is 54.7% and 46.7%, respectively. This number is alarming. 800 700 600 500 400 ton 8 300 10 200 100 0 Waste water discharge 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Year Figure 7. Wastewater discharge in China. (China Annual environmental statistics 2000–2015).2000-2015). Table 1. Water quality of major ten rivers of China in 2016 (China environmental state bulletin). Table 1. Water quality of major ten rivers of China in 2016 (China environmental state bulletin). Name Grade I–III (%) Grade IV, V (%) Grade V+ (%) Name Grade I–III (%) Grade IV,V (%) Grade V+ (%) The Yangtze River 82.3 14.2 3.5 The Yangtze River 82.3 14.2 3.5 The Yellow River 59.1 27 13.9 The Yellow RiverThe Pearl River 59.1 89.6 6.7 27 3.7 13.9 The Pearl RiverThe Songhua River 89.6 60.2 33.3 6.7 6.5 3.7 The Songhua RiverThe Huai River 60.2 53.3 39.5 33.3 7.2 6.5 The Huai RiverThe Hai River 53.3 37.3 21.7 39.5 41 7.2 The Liao River 45.3 39.6 15.1 The Hai River 37.3 21.7 41 The Zheminpian River 94.4 5.6 0 The LiaoThe River River of northwest 45.3 93.5 6.5 39.6 0 15.1 The ZheminpianThe River River of southwest 94.4 90.5 9.5 5.6 0 0 The River of northwest 93.5 6.5 0 The River of southwest 90.5 9.5 0 The Ministry of Water Resources takes charge of allocating and planning water holistically, and the Bureau of Environmental Protection is responsible for the protection of the water environment. From the perspectiveThe Ministry of of results, Water thisResources frame didtakes not charge work of out allocating very well. and When planning planning water water holistically, utilization, and theif the Bureau principal of Environmental of water protection Protection is not included,is responsi theble decision for the protection maker would of the look water down environment. on the water Fromprotection the andperspective try to maximize of results, the economicthis frame benefits did not when work it isout allowed. very well. As such, When when planning the protection water utilization,policies are if enacted, the principal no organization of water protection or individual is not included, is willing the to follow.decision Oncemaker the would water look has down been oncontaminated, the water protection it would and take try much to maximize more human the econ andomic material benefits resources when to it revertis allowed. it. As such, when the protectionAs shown policies in Figure are4 ,enacted, watershed no organization water resource or individual protection is bureaus willing areto follow. in the chargeOnce the of water both hasthe statebeen Bureauscontaminated, of Environmental it would take Protection much more and human the Ministry and material of Water resources Resources. to revert This it. could be unified,As shown but watershed in Figure water 4, watershed resource water protection resource bureaus protection are just bureaus affiliated are departments in the charge of of watershed both the statewater Bureaus resource of commission, Environmental restricting Protection their entitlement. and the Ministry They can of onlyWater carry Resources. out the work This withincould thebe unified, but watershed water resource protection bureaus are just affiliated departments of watershed water resource commission, restricting their entitlement. They can only carry out the work

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2085 10 of 19 decision made by superior departments rather than take protection as a basic principle. This obstacle brings about the concession of water resource protection bureaus when making decisions. There is a great overlap area between the watershed water resource commission and the provincial water resource department. Every provincial water resource department is located within a certain watershed. This overlap led to a bad consequence. On one hand, the seven watershed water resource commissions have a certain level of administrative power, but due to the setup of the provincial water resource department, their powers are greatly cut down. Although watershed water resource commissions could allocate and manage watershed water resources holistically, they still have difficulties in involving provincial water resource management, utilities, and protection. On the other hand, the provincial water resource department belongs to the management of provinces, which means they usually treat water as a tool to achieve official career, because in China, official achievements account for a large proportion when it comes to promotion. In many cases, the provincial water resource departments selectively ignore some plans and decisions made by watershed water resource commission to optimize the provincial benefits. For instance, the upstream province would overlook the integrated water consuming plan made by the watershed water resource commission and over-pump water from rivers to develop local economies. This activity sometimes leads to a water shortage in some downstream provinces; sometimes only crop yield was affected. When it gets worse, domestic water could become a problem [50]. Inadequate public participation, poor management of water resources by management agencies, shortage protection for emergencies, and little communication among river basin management stakeholders are all prominent problems in water resource management. The existing system lacks adaptability, which makes the decision unreasonable, and not comprehensive. It is only a top-down policy implementation mechanism, which lacks the adjustment to the feedback information to increase the adaptability. However, adaptive water resource management can solve these problems, which also needs the supports from appropriate institutions.

3.2. An Adaptive Governance Frame for China Sustainable management of complex adaptive systems is challenged by diﬀerent temporal, spatial, and social scales, nested hierarchies, inevitable uncertainty, multidimensional interactions, and emergent properties [51–53]. According to the weakness of the current frame, the current so-called command-control approach has been increasingly criticized as it insulates itself from the needs and circumstances at the lower levels in response to changing environmental conditions [38,39]. It generates what one may refer to as lock-in situations, a term introduced in economics to describe the dominance of established technologies despite inferior performance due to path-dependence. This kind of planning frame is vulnerable to surprise and crisis because management institutions become rigid. The increasing awareness of the impacts of climate change has led to the insight that water management must become more flexible to deal with uncertainties and surprises [6]. The eco-hydrological system in China is undergoing dramatic changes in recent decades, due to climate change and the construction of cascade dams for power production [54]. In the last decades, a growing scholarship has promoted the development of adaptive governance frames to enhance institutional capacity and rationalize water management policies and practices [42]. The adaptive governance frame is generated from the complex adaptive system (CAS), a complex, nonlinear, self-organizing system that can adapt to a changing environment [44]. The most prominent feature of the adaptive governance frame is the ability to learn. Such a system can learn from the experience and avoid making the same mistakes. A CAS consists of many essential elements (i.e., agents) interacting with each other constantly according to speciﬁc rules. These agents keep interacting, learning, and gaining experience from such behavior. For example, the immune system, the stock market, the economy, and so on. Modular system structure and decentralized control lead to more adaptiveness and robustness of a system [55]. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2085 11 of 19

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 19 Adaptive governance is used to deal with resource management problems that are not easy to understandAdaptive governance and diﬃcult is to used control. to deal Compared with resource with traditionalmanagement management problems that methods, are not adaptive easy to understandgovernance andis mostly difficult characterized to control. by Compared high uncertainty with traditional and low controllability.management methods, The fundamental adaptive governancediﬀerences betweenis mostly adaptive characterized governance by high methods uncertainty and traditional and low controllability. management lie The in that fundamental adaptive differencesgovernance between changes fromadaptive trial governance and error, and methods managers and constantlytraditional adjust management strategies lie to in meet that theadaptive needs governanceof management changes with from the uncertaintrial and error, external and environment.managers constantly The management adjust strategies process to meet is ring-shaped the needs ofbecause management of the feedback.with the u Thencertain traditional external management environment. mode The generallymanagement adopts process the administrativeis ring-shaped becauseinstruction of and the does feedback. not test The the traditional system complexity, management which mode causes generally the lag phenomenon adopts the in administrative management, instructionso the management and does process not istest linear. the system complexity, which causes the lag phenomenon in manageIn China,ment, so within the management an adaptive process paradigm, is linear. the concept of water security would be continuously reviewedIn China, and reconstructedwithin an adaptive to meet paradigm the requirements, the concept of a continuouslyof water security changing would world, be continuously rather than reviewedbeing considered and reconstructed as a predetermined to meet the goal requirements or endpoint of (see a continuously Figure8)[56]. changing world, rather than being considered as a predetermined goal or endpoint (see Figure 8) [56].

Conventional Paradigm Adaptive Paradigm

Known ways of acting: Command and control New ways of Social acting: constraints Integrated and informed Known ways of learning: Research is separate from doing New ways of New ways of understanding: Water working: Knowing Security Integrated and Environment Government through social Known ways of understanding: inclusive constraints constraints learning Knowing through reduction New ways of learning: is part of Known ways of wording: doing and is Fragmentation and demarcation inclusive

Figure 8. ComparisonComparison between between conventional conventional paradigm and adaptive paradigm.

The current current command-control command-control frame frame of water of water resource resource management management in China in is China a static is approach, a static approach,which has helpedwhich has to reduce helped life to andreduce property life and losses property and achieve losses stabilityand achieve in socio-economic stability in socio development.-economic development.However, the developmentHowever, the and development utilization of and water utilization resources of are water still resources a problem are in China. still a Theproblem country in China.may face The several country future may challengesface several related future tochallenges water resources related management:to water resources (1) Human management: activities 1) Humanand population activities growth: and population As the population growth: grows, As the it willpopulation increase grows the water, it will consumption increase andthe water consumptionenvironment. and Human water activities environment. will increase Human domesticactivities waterwill increase demand domestic and water water pollution demand [17 and,57]. water(2) Climate pollution change: [17,5 A7] number. 2) Climate of studies change: also A n suggestedumber of thatstudies climate also changesuggested will that improve climate the change water willresource improve management the water requirements resource management in China [58 requirements,59]. (3) Water in scarcity: China [5 Continuing8,59]. 3) Water destruction scarcity: of Continuingfreshwater resources destruction and of growing freshwater water resources demand and have growing increased water the demandunevenness have in increased water supply the unevennessand demand in in waterChina suinpply recent and years demand [60]. Many in China of the in rivers recent in northwest years [60]. China Many are of already the rivers under in northweststress due to China a high are degree already of exploitation. under stress However, due to a the high challenges degree will of exploitation. exist in the water However, resources the challengesmanagement will of China exist to in accomplish the water sustainable resources developmentmanagement [54 of]. China Hence, to an accomplish adaptive water sustainable resource devemanagementlopment [5 frame4]. Hence, will be an an adaptive important water subject resource in China. management frame will be an important subject in China. 3.2.1. Learning Cycles in China an Adaptive Governance Frame for China 3.2.1.Adaptive Learning governanceCycles in China can be an described Adaptive as G aovernance systematic F process,rame for continually China improving policies and activitiesAdaptive by learning governance from the can outcomes be described of actions as a andsystematic activities. process, Akamani continually et al. [37 ]improving proposed adaptivepolicies governance as a unifying framework for informing policies aimed at promoting the conservation of and activities by learning from the outcomes of actions and activities. Akamani et al. [37] proposed adaptivetransboundary governance water resources as a unifying in an increasingly framework unpredictable for informing future, poli ascies well aimed as preparing at promoting the coupled the conservationsocial-ecological of transboundary system to respond water to resources unpredictable in an increasingly drivers of change. unpredictable Akamani future [61], highlightsas well as preparingfour attributes the coupledof adaptive social water-ecological governance: system (1) to reintegrating respond to humans unpredictable into nature; drivers (2) integrating of change. Akamani [61] highlights four attributes of adaptive water governance: (1) reintegrating humans into nature; (2) integrating diverse sources and types of knowledge; (3) promoting adaptive and

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2085 12 of 19 diverseInt. J. Environ. sources Res. Public and Health types 2019 of knowledge;, 16, x FOR PEER (3) REVIEW promoting adaptive and integrative management12 goals; of 19 and (4) using polycentric institutions and analytic deliberation processes. Pahl-Wostl and Lebel et integrative management goals; and (4) using polycentric institutions and analytic deliberation al. [28] deﬁned the governance system as a broader notion, which encompasses structural features andproces transientses. Pahl processes-Wostl and at bothLebel rule et al. making [28] defined and operational the governance levels, system which as could a broader help formulatenotion, which and implementencompasses water structural policy. features and transient processes at both rule making and operational levels, which could help formulate and implement water policy. According to the literature and our practical investigation, the paper thinks the kernel of adaptive According to the literature and our practical investigation, the paper thinks the kernel of governance is the learning cycle, which can be summarized in Figure9. The whole process contains six stepsadaptive in water governance resources is the management learning cycle in China:, which government can be summarized context, goal in Fig setting,ure 9. policyThe whole formulation, process socialcontains context six steps and in environmentalwater resources context, management policy in implementation,China: government monitoring, context, goal and setting, assessment. policy formulation, social context and environmental context, policy implementation, monitoring, and The learning cycle is embedded in two aspects: assessment. The learning cycle is embedded in two aspects:

Government Context

Monitor and Goal Setting Assessment

Rule Set Experience Set

Policy Policy Implementation Formulation

Society Context

Enviroment Context

Figure 9. Learning cycle related to policy cycle. Government Government context context module, society society context context module, environment contextcontext modulemodule refersrefers toto thethe participationparticipation ofof relevantrelevant agents.agents.

(a) Thea) continuousThe continuous loop: loop: The whole process is a continuous loop. All the policies are not fixed, which allows change and adjustment.The whole The process current is framea continuous is based loop. on the All optimalthe policies mode, are optimizingnot fixed, which the predetermined allows change goaland accordingadjustment. to The known current knowledge frame is and based information. on the optimal Once determined,mode, optimizing change the is lesspredetermined likely to happen. goal Dataaccording integrity to known is a controversial knowledge and topic; information. many researchers Once determined, queried the cha possibilitynge is less oflikely data to integrity,happen. claimingData integrity that the is water a controversial resource system topic; is many highly researchers sensitive and queried nonlinear. the possibility Even if it is ofpossible data integrity, to collect allclaiming the data, that this the massive water resource workload system is unable is highly to finish sensitive under and current nonlinear. conditions. Even According if it is possible to CAS, to thecollect water all resourcethe data, systemthis massive is of highworkload complexity is unable and to unpredictability. finish under current Based conditions. on the aforementioned According to twoCAS, reasons, the water optimization resource is system just an ideal is of model, high which complexity can never and be unpredictability. achieved. Implementation Based on will the graduallyaforementioned deviate two from reasons, the original optimization plan, and is once just serious an ideal emergencies model, which take can place, never the originalbe achie planved. willImplementation lose efficacy. will gradually deviate from the original plan, and once serious emergencies take place,The the continuous original plan loop will could lose efficacy. avoid this problem properly. However, it does not mean it would not makeThe continuous any mistakes; loop due could to the avoid continuous this problem process properly. rather than However, a one-way it does process, not mean the identified it would problemnot make can any be mistake fixed ins; time.due to Monitoring the continuous and assessmentprocess rather are than other a aspects.one-way Including process, the a broader identified set ofproblem stakeholders can be givesfixed accessin time. to Monitoring different kinds and ofassessment knowledge are which other isaspect vitals for. Including a full assessment a broader of set a resourceof stakeholders governance gives problemaccess to and different for finding kinds innovative of knowledge solutions which for is dealingvital for witha full it. assessment of a resourceIn terms governance of water problem resource managementand for finding in China,innovative this loop solutions represents for dealing the management with it. policies that will beIn continuouslyterms of water monitored resource andmanagement evaluated in with China, the influencethis loop ofrepresents various participants,the management environment, policies andthat societywill be during continuously the implementation monitored process and evaluated of the relevant with policies the influence of water of resources various management, participants, thusenvironment forming, aand more society optimized during management the implementation decision. process of the relevant policies of water resources(b) Rule management, set and experience thus forming set: a more optimized management decision.

b) Rule set and experience set:

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2085 13 of 19

In the adjustment, the rule set and experience set play a shaping role. It is an aggregation of gained experience and tested rules. The continuous loop enables the trial and error while the rule set and experience set are established to avert committing the same error twice. Every part or corresponding agent could add their new insights, novel ways into the set, and extract relevant knowledge to prop up their decision. It is an evolutionary and complementary process. For example: without the rule set and experience set, the continuous loop may make the same mistakes again and again; without the continuous loop, the rule set, and experience set cannot be expanded and completed. In China, there are many water management practices that can be considered as a rule or experience. Managers should classify these management rules and experiences into the form of a smart library. In the process of water resources management, according to these practices, policy and water resources management can be better implemented. These rules and experiences are both the basis for progress in water management and the standard for testing water management levels, which are constantly evolving to form new rules and experiences.

3.2.2. Participation Increased interaction between the public and society with policymakers is conducive to the improvement of the decision-making process. Interactions of the participation can change the proposed, discussed, and implemented policy recommendations in detail. As shown in Figure8, The society and environment context are part of the whole loop. It is a reflection of participation. In the current management frame, the entire approach is considered to focus predominantly on biophysical data, neglecting dynamic aspects such as adaptive capacity, vulnerability, and resilience [14,15]. In most circumstances, decision-makers will list several critical parameters on behalf of society and the environment. This isolation is the culprit of many problems discussed in Section3, such as water wasting, flooding, and water quality degradation. There are results from an evaluation of the project that showed that participants had become better informed about climate change issues (e.g., flooding and water quality degradation), and also had an enhanced ability to analyze climate change issues from multiple perspectives [61]. The lack of social context (i.e., the involvement of citizens and social organization) augments the possibility of uncertainty; Newig J. et al. [62] claimed that the participation of interested parties could reduce uncertainties in the implementation phase by reducing the likelihood of unexpected resistance. Nowadays, the segregation of the public in policy making sets up a roadblock in the implementation in China. The Chinese public view an issue from their limited perspective and are unwilling to follow the rules due to the deficiency of requisite information. In China, water resources are seriously wasted, so raising public awareness of water resources protection and the public participation in water resources management is necessary. Water conservation, water protection, and water cherishing from everyone are also beneficial to water resources managers. The public can solve various water resources problems spontaneously and timely.

3.3. Speciﬁc Frame of Adaptive Water Resources Management in China The paper proposes the adaptive governance as a conceptual foundation for adaptive and integrated water resource management, thereby providing a framework for integrating the stakeholder participation into the governance of water resources while simultaneously dealing with uncertainties [63]. According to the framework of adaptive governance of water resources, a frame of adaptive governance of water resources is established, as shown in Figure 10. This management frame is composed of several stakeholders who jointly set targets for water resource management based on complex factors, such as hydrological conditions, resources, environment, and socio-economic conditions in the region, and make use of hydrological, socio-economic, and optimal allocation models of water resources, etc., to verify and improve this goal. After making the phased management Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2085 14 of 19 objectives,Int. J. Environ. theRes. framePublic Health takes 2019 water, 16, x systemFOR PEER construction, REVIEW a strict water resource management system,14 of 19 a river-belonging system, and other measures to guide and strengthen regional water resource utilizationmanagement and system, protection. a river Because-belonging of the system eﬀect,of an thed other implementation measures to ofguide various and measures,strengthen the regional frame adoptswater resource unique and utilization integrated and real-time protection. monitoring Because andof the dynamic effect assessment of the implementation to contrast assessment of various resultsmeasures, with the management frame adopts objectives unique and and integrated carry out real self-adaptive-time monitoring learning and to dynamic determine assessment adjustment to measurescontrast ass andessment plans, then results take with adjustment management measures objectives and plans and as carry input out conditions self-adaptive for the learning next stage to ofdetermine decision-making. adjustment Finally, measures relevant and groups plans, carry then out take a new adjustment round of measures water resource and plans management as input objectives,conditions consideringfor the next otherstage factors.of decision-making. Finally, relevant groups carry out a new round of water resource management objectives, considering other factors.

Stakeholder participation

(Water resource commission, Government Company, Resident… )

Resources, environmental Identify management Hydrologic process curve conditions, social and objectives economic policies, etc.

Modeling

(hydrological model, socioeconomic model, water supply and demand analysis model, groundwater model… )

Dynamic water network system

Water resources allocation model

Strict water resources management system

Real-time monitoring

Self-adaptive learning Dynamic assessment Self-adaptive learning

Figure 10. Water resources adaptive governance frame in China. Figure 10. Water resources adaptive governance frame in China. According to the adaptive governance framework, no matter whether it be the manager or the According to the adaptive governance framework, no matter whether it be the manager or the water using sectors, even each water user, they should participate in the process of water resources water using sectors, even each water user, they should participate in the process of water resources adaptive governance to improve the awareness of water conservation. This type of governance adaptive governance to improve the awareness of water conservation. This type of governance framework is appropriate for facilitating the current emphasis on multiparty stakeholders in water framework is appropriate for facilitating the current emphasis on multiparty stakeholders in water resource governance and for preparing the self-adaptive learning for the dynamic change in response resource governance and for preparing the self-adaptive learning for the dynamic change in response to the uncertainty in the water network system. to the uncertainty in the water network system. In January 2017, President Xi Jinping issued "Each river is going to have a river chief" in the New In January 2017, President Xi Jinping issued "Each river is going to have a river chief" in the New Year message, and in June 2018, the river chief system has been established in all 31 provincial regions Year message, and in June 2018, the river chief system has been established in all 31 provincial regions on the Chinese mainland, with 300,000 oﬃcials appointed chiefs to protect water bodies. The river on the Chinese mainland, with 300,000 officials appointed chiefs to protect water bodies. The river chief system is a signiﬁcant decision considering the adaptive governance framework. River chiefs chief system is a significant decision considering the adaptive governance framework. River chiefs are responsible for organizing and leading the management and protection of relevant rivers and are responsible for organizing and leading the management and protection of relevant rivers and lakes at various levels and assessing the completion situation of objectives and tasks. The river chief lakes at various levels and assessing the completion situation of objectives and tasks. The river chief governance in water resources plays an important role in promoting the harmonious coexistence governance in water resources plays an important role in promoting the harmonious coexistence between human beings and nature and accelerating the construction of ecological civilization. It is between human beings and nature and accelerating the construction of ecological civilization. It is a a major adaptive governance innovation that solves some water problems in China and guarantees major adaptive governance innovation that solves some water problems in China and guarantees water security. water security. According to current regulations, the river and lake management system in China is implemented both at the river basin level and administrative region level, and is carried out both in a centralized manner and a hierarchical manner. The water administrative department in the State

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According to current regulations, the river and lake management system in China is implemented both at the river basin level and administrative region level, and is carried out both in a centralized manner and a hierarchical manner. The water administrative department in the State Council is responsible for the centralized management and supervision of national water resources. It is the leading authority for riverways (including lakes) and it sets up river basin commissions for important rivers and lakes, as determined by the State Council. Local administrative departments in charge of water resources above the county level are responsible for the centralized management and supervision of water resources within the administrative region according to the stipulated duties, and are the authorities for riverways (including lakes) in the respective administrative regions. Relevant government departments at various levels are responsible for relevant work on water pollution control, water environment treatment, and water ecological protection according to their assigned responsibilities. After comprehensively implementing the adaptive governance of the River Chief System, the shorelines of rivers and lakes have gradually recovered, the environmental pollution of some rivers and lakes have basically been eliminated, and the water quality of some rivers and lakes has signiﬁcantly improved, and the scenes of smooth rivers, clear water, and green shores have begun to appear.

4. Discussion There is a complex relationship between governability, governance, and public management. All three are participants in water resources management, and eﬃcient water resource management is inseparable from their coordination and cooperation. Governability provides legal and policy guarantees for water resources governance, but public management is also critical to water resources governance; the main body of governance must be the public institutions of society, and the government manages water resources through public institutions. The main body of governance can be either public or private institutions, or cooperation between public institutions and private institutions. As such, governance is the cooperation between governability and civil society, the cooperation between government and non-government, the cooperation between public agencies and private agencies, and the coercive and voluntary cooperation. Governance is a broader concept than the government, which has more participants. If the government wants to manage the water resources eﬃciently and in an orderly way, it cannot be separated from a government rule and provided with legal and regulatory support, and it cannot be separated from public management and protection. As such, the paper makes relevant recommendations from the following aspects.

4.1. Water Resources Managers Water resource managers should be fully familiar with the previous management cases and experiences, considering social, economic, environmental, and other factors comprehensively. The technicians grasp the real-time monitoring data of water resources and establish intelligent water resource management platforms and systems to help managers make reasonable goals and adjust them in real time based on other impacts during water resource management.

4.2. Water Using Sectors When using water resources, all departments should raise awareness of the rational use of water resources, improving water use efficiency, and combine their water use condition with other departments, recording water usage in real time and providing supervisory feedback to achieve the sharing of water resource information at different levels. According to the external adjustment of the department’s water use, the water management framework can achieve a reasonable allocation of water resources and maximize the overall benefits. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2085 16 of 19

4.3. Water User As the smallest unit of water resources use, each citizen should raise awareness of water conservation, save water, and call on people around to save water resources, protect the water environment, and implement policies related to water resources management, such as the river belong system, etc. If there are some water resource problems, the users should ﬁnd them and deal with them in time.

5. Conclusions With more and more demand for water in agriculture, industry, citizen consumption, and ecology, the current water cannot support it anymore. Coupled with the water environmental pollution, the situation gets even worse. In the literature, we analyzed the water resource management status in China and emphasized the necessity to take complexity into account in the resource management frame and develop adaptive methods. In this paper, the weakness of the current management frame was analyzed. Though the current command-control management has been amended and corrected many times, the disadvantages have become apparent. It gave rise to the isolation of the public, the institutional inertia, the separation of water utilization and protection, etc. The water resource system is a complex adaptive system (CAS), which is a complex, nonlinear, self-organizing system, hence, we introduce adaptive governance to surmount traditional deficiencies. We constructed a feasible and alternative frame for water resource management, which takes learning and participation into consideration. The current command-control management should be replaced by adaptive governance. Adaptive governance is based on the learning cycle, which could learn from experience and adjust according to the actual situation. A fixed and invariable way is unable to deal with emergencies and surprises. The participation of different agents, such as managers, water using sectors, and water users provide more comprehensive knowledge in decision making from water managers to water sectors to each water user. The advantages of adaptive water resource management are 1) the cooperation of different stakeholders, 2) an effective organizational framework, 3) the strengthening of the decision-making process. In short, the adaptive governance frame is aimed at the complex water resources system, carrying out a repeated cycle of identifying, monitoring, assessing, coping, and adjusting a series of actions. The adaptation of the water resources system is accustomed by adjusting the water resource management mode and allocation plan continuously, and then it can promote the development, utilization, and protection of water resources, and constantly adapt to the coordinated and sustainable development from economic, social, ecological, and other aspects.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.L.,Y.Q., and X.L.; methodology, J.L.; formal analysis, J.L., and A.K.; writing—original draft preparation, J.L., and P.Y.; writing—review and editing, J.L., X.L., and Y.Q.; funding acquisition, A.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This research was funded by the National Key R&D Program of China (2018YFC0407902) and the National Science Foundation of China (51809283). Conﬂicts of Interest: The authors declare no conﬂict of interest.

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