BA Semester VI- The Lower Section Society Movement (Peasant, Labour and Lower Caste)- (HISKB 604)

Dr. Mukesh Kumar (Department of History) KMC Language University Lucknow, U.P.-22013

UNIT-I

Revolt in and Eastern -

The establishment and spread of the Company's rule in Bengal and its adjoining areas resulted in many civil rebellions and tribal uprisings beginning from the latter half of the eighteenth century. The British rule in Bengal after 1757 brought about a new economic order which was disastrous for the zamindars, peasants, and artisans alike. The famine of 1770 and the callousness on the part of the Company to redress the sufferings of the common man were seen as direct consequences of the alien rule.

Sanyasi Revolt: Also known as the Sanyasi- rebellion, it was a confrontation between armed wandering monks and the Company's forces in Bengal and Bihar which began in the 1760s and continued until the middle of 1800s. These groups were severely affected by the high revenue demands, resumption of rent-free tenures, and commercial monopoly by the Company. The Company also placed restrictions on their access to holy places. This resulted in organized raids by the sanyasis on the Company's factories and state treasuries in retaliation. Only after prolonged military actions, this revolt was contained.

Chuar Uprising: Famine, enhanced land revenue demands, and economic distress forced the Chuar tribesmen of Midnapur district to take up arms against the Company. The revolted lasted from 1766 to 1772 and then again surfaced between 1795 and 1816.

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Ho Uprising: The Ho and Munda tribesmen of Chhota Nagpur and Singhbhum challenged the Company's forces in 1820-1822, again in 1831 and the area remained disturbed till 1837.

Kol Uprising: The Kols of Chhotanagpur resented the transfer of land from Kol headmen to the outsiders like the Sikh and Muslim farmers. Hence in 1831, they killed and burned over a thousand outsiders. The rebellion spread to , Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, Palamau, and western parts of . Only after a large-scale military operation, which lasted for several years, order could be restored in the region.

Santhal Uprising: The Santhals, living in the area between Bhagalpur and Hills, resented the oppression by revenue officials, zamindars, and the money lenders. They were determined to expel those who were considered to be outsiders, also called the 'dikus'. In 1855, the Santhals rebelled under the leadership of Sidhu and Kanhu and declared the end of the Company's rule and set themselves independent. Extensive military operations had to be conducted by the Company to bring the situation under control by 1856. Several reforms were introduced by the Government of Bengal afterwards, including the creation of a separate district of Santhal Parganas, to pacify the Santhals.

Ahoms Revolt: The Company authorities had pledged to withdraw from the territory of Ahoms (Assam) after the conclusion of the Burmese War (First Anglo-Burmese War, 1824-1826). However, the British attempted to incorporate the Ahoms' territory in the Company's dominion and this sparked off a rebellion in 1828 under Gomdhar Konwar. The superior military prowess of the Company aborted the move. A second revolt was planned in 1830. But the Company, under a pacifying policy, had handed over upper Assam to Maharaja Purander Singh Narendra in 1833. Thus a part of the Kingdom was restored to the Assamese Raja while the rest came under the control of the Company.

Khasi Uprising: The , after occupying the hilly region between Jaintia Hills in the east an Garo Hills in the west, had planned a military road to link the Brahmaputra valley with Sylhet region and brought a large number of Englishmen, Bengalis, and other labourers to work on the project. This was seen as an intrusion by the Khasis into their native lands and

2 was resented by them. This led to an insurrection under Tirot Singh, the ruler of Nunklow who was supported by the Garos, the Khamptis, and Singhpos, in a bid to drive away the lowland strangers. The insurrection developed into a popular revolt against the British rule in the region. However, the revolt was suppressed under the superior English military might in 1833.

Pagal Panthi's Revolt: Pagal Panthis were a semi-religious sect founded by Karam Shah and lived in the northern districts of Bengal. Tipu Shah was the son of Karam Shah and succeeded in taking up the leadership of the cause of the tenants who were oppressed by the zamindars. In 1825, he captured Sherpur and assumed royal power. The insurgents spread their activities to the Garo hills and the region remained disturbed in the 1830s and 1840s until order was restored by the Company's forces.

Paika Rebellion: Also known as the Paika Bidroha. Paikas were a military class under the local zamindars of Orissa. They were peasant militia who rendered military services to the Gajapati rulers of Orissa during the times of war while resorting to cultivation during peace time. They first rose up in revolt in 1803 when the Company tried to extend its control over Orissa, after occupying Bengal in the north and Madras in the south. However, it was brutally suppressed. Again in 1817, they rebelled under the leadership of Baxi Jagabandhu Bidyadhara with an aim of overthrowing the British rule. Paikas attacked the symbols of the British rule, set ablaze police stations, administrative offices, and the treasury. The rebellion received widespread support from zamindars, village heads, and ordinary peasants. The British initially faced several setbacks but managed to regain their control after three months. The Government of India has recently recognized Paika Rebellion as the First War of Indian Independence, which was earlier associated with the Revolt of 1857.

Sambalpur Outbreaks: Frequent interference of the British in the internal affairs of Sambalpur created many problems in the region. Surendra Nath, popularly known as Veer Surendra Sai, led the revolt in 1827 but was arrested by the British in 1840 and the outbreak was crushed.

Mundra Revolt: The Mundas had been struggling against the destruction of their system of common land holdings by the intrusion of jagirdars, thikadars,

3 and money lenders. The rebellion of Munda tribesmen occurred in 1899-1900 under the leadership of Birsa Munda who had mobilized his followers on religious and political grounds. In 1899, Birsa proclaimed a rebellion to establish Munda rule on the land by killing the thikadars and jagirdars. For this, he had gathered a force of 6000 Mundas. However, he was captured in February 1900 and died in jail in June.

Singhpos Revolt: This revolt occurred in 1830 in Assam and continued until 1839 when it was brutally crushed by the British.

Kachanagas Revolt: It took place in 1882 and Cachar, Assam under the leadership of Sambhudhan. It was brutally suppressed by the British. The Wahabi Movement:-

Wahabi movement in India was a part of the greater Indian fight for freedom against foreign rule. The leader of the movement, Syed Ahmed Barelvi, wanted to revive Islam to the way it was during the Prophet’s time, and for this he felt it necessary to overthrow foreign oppression. The Wahabi Movement was a part of the Indian Indian Freedom Struggle as it offered a serious threat to British supremacy in India in the 19th century. The movement was led by Syed Ahmed Barelvi, who was greatly influenced by the teaching of Abdul Wahab of Arabia and the preaching of Delhi saint Shah Walliullah. The Wahabi Movement essentially condemned all changes and innovations to Islam. It was a revivalist movement which held that the return to the true spirit of Islam was the only way to get rid of the socio political oppression. To materialize the desired objectives of the Wahabi Movement, Syed Ahmed looked for the right leader, a proper organization, a safe territory, wherefrom to launch his Jihad. Syed Ahmed was declared as the desired leader or Imam. He built up a countrywide organization with an elaborate secret code. The organization worked under four spiritual associate trustees called Khalifas. The missions of the Wahabis were mainly concentrated in the region of Hyderabad, Chennai, Bengal, U.P. and Mumbai.

The Wahabis played diplomatically with the solemn aim to establish their supremacy. With this intent in mind, the Wahabis first launched a Jihad against the Sikh kingdom in Punjab. In 1830 they occupied Peshawar. But in the following year Syed Ahmed lost his life in his fighting against the Sikhs. After

4 the overthrow of the Sikh ruler and the incorporation of Punjab into the dominion of the British East Indian Company, the sole target of the Wahabis' attack was the English dominion in India. Wilayat Ali and Enayat Ali, the two brothers of the Sadiquepur family of Patna, had come into contact with Syed Ahmed and became his disciples. After the death of Syed Ahmed in May 1831, they kept on working alternatively in faraway places like Sitana in the west and Frontier Rajmahal, Malda and Chittagong in east Bengal and carried on their revolutionary activities to end British domination in India. They were the pioneers in perfecting the system of despatch of men and money from India which continued with wonderful efficiency and fool-proof accuracy for a long time. In 1847, the Wahabis started full preparation for an absolute war against the British rule in India from their base camp in Sitana. Wilayet Ali became the undisputedleader. The British took up brutal measures and the period between 1863-65, witnessed a series of trials by which all the principal leaders of the Wahabi movement were arrested. The Ambala trial of 1864 and Patna trial of 1865 were closely interlinked. Yahaya Ali along with Mohammed Jafar and Mohammed Shaft was sentenced to death in the Ambala trial and the others were sentenced to expatriation for life. The death sentences were later converted to transportation for life. Yahaya Ali was sent to the Andamans to undergo his sentence for life imprisonment. Ahmadullah was convicted in the Patna trial (1865) along with Fayzeli, Yahaya Ali and Farhat Ali. He was convicted for devising a conspiracy and initiating an orchestrated treason. The death sentence of Ahmadullah awarded on 27th February 1865 was later on converted to deportation for life by the high court and he was sent to the Andamans in June 1865. Amiruddin was convicted to life imprisonment in the Malda trial (1870) and was transported to the Andamans and his property was confiscated.

UNIT-II

Reactions against Brahaminical Domination - The Samaj critiques of Brahaminical tradition in Maharashtra formed the basis for a peasant-based mass movement against the shetji-bhatji class of intelligentsia and the moneylender- landlord. In the early 20th century, the Samaj faced difficulty in connecting with the peasant areas of Maharashtra. Finding lectures ineffective, the Samaj turned to tamashas, popular folk dramas, to communicate their messages.

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Satyashodhak tamashas followed the traditional format but subverted the pro- Brahman elements of the dramas. They began with an invocation to Ganpati, a traditional Brahman deity, but added an explanation that the actual meaning of the word came from gan (People) and pati (Leader). The invocation to Ganpati was therefore an invocation to the people as a source of rule. The plays continued with a discussion of brahman tyranny, followed by a story about the efforts of brahmans to cheat peasants. These Satyashodhak tamashas were also used by non-brahman elites for political purposes, including as election propaganda. Through the tamashas, the Samaj was able to connect its activities and those of non-Brahman leaders with general peasant interests. The inculcation of Satyashodhak and non-Brahman ideology in the peasant masses led to rebellion in some parts of Maharashtra. In Satara in 1919, tenants revolted against their brahman landlords in coordination with the Samaj's anti-religious ideology. The Vijayi Maratha newspaper describes the event: “Brahman land rent had greatly soared… no profit remained to the peasants then they decided they didn’t want such a low contract on Brahman lands. In this way, the Satyashodhak Samaj freed them from every type of Brahman slavery.” The process of rebellion in other cities in Maharashtra took a similar shape the Satyashodhak Samaj arrived with its ideology and its tamashas that mocked brahman superiority. Peasants stopped relying on brahmans for religious ceremonies, interrupted brahman ceremonies, violated temples, and broke idols. Poor, low caste peasants had accepted a social ideology which argued that their status was not legitimized in any religious texts and gave them the right to revolt against their brahman landlords in order to achieve a better lifestyle. These peasant revolts in Maharashtra showed that the Satyashodhak Samaj's ideology was salient to common people and capable of stimulating group action. Jyotirao Phule- Jyotirao ‘Govindrao Phule was a prominent social reformer and thinker of the nineteenth century India. He led the movement against the prevailing caste-restrictions in India. He revolted against the domination of the Brahmins and struggled for the rights of peasants and other low-caste people. Mahatma Jyotirao Phule was also a pioneer for women education in India and fought for education of girls throughout his life. He is believed to be the first Hindu to start an orphanage for the unfortunate children.

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Jyotirao Govindrao Phule was born in Satara district of Maharastra in 1827. His father, Govindrao was a vegetable-vendor at Poona. Jyotirao family belonged to 'mali' caste and their original title was ‘Gorhay’. Malis were considered as an inferior caste by the Brahmins and were shunned socially. Jyotirao father and uncles served as florists, so the family came to be known as `Phule'. Jyotirao mother passed away when he was just nine months old. Jyotirao was an intelligent boy but due to the poor financial condition at home, he had to stop his studies at an early age. He started helping his father by working on the family's farm. Recognising the talent of the child prodigy, a neighbour persuaded his father to send him to school. In 1841, Jyotirao got admission in the Scottish Mission's High School, Poona, and completed his education in 1847. There, he met Sadashiv Ballal Govande, a Brahmin, who remained his close friend throughout his life. At the age of just thirteen years, Jyotirao was married to Savitribai. Social Movements- In 1848, an incident sparked off Jyotiba’s quest against the social injustice of caste discrimination and incited a social revolution in the Indian society. Jyotirao was invited to attend the wedding of one of his friends who belonged to an upper cast Brahmin family. But at the wedding the relatives of the bridegroom insulted and abused Jyotiba when they came to know about his origins. Jyotirao left the ceremony and made up his mind to challenge the prevailing caste-system and social restrictions. He made it his life’s work to hammer away tirelessly at the helms of social majoritarian domination and aimed at emancipation of all human beings that were subjected to this social deprivation. After reading Thomas Paine's famous book 'The Rights of Man', Jyotirao was greatly influenced by his ideas. He believed that enlightenment of the women and lower caste people was the only solution to combat the social evils. Efforts Towards Women Education- Jyotirao quest for providing women and girls with right to education was supported by his wife Savitribai Phule. One of the few literate women of the time, Savitribai was taught to read and write by her husband Jyotirao. In 1851, Jyotirao established a girls' school and asked his wife to teach the girls in the school. Later, he opened two more schools for

7 the girls and an indigenous school for the lower castes, especially for the Mahars and Mangs. Jyotirao realised the pathetic conditions of widows and established an ashram for young widows and eventually became advocate of the idea of Widow Remarriage. Around his time, society was a patriarchal and the position of women was especially abysmal. Female infanticide was a common occurrence and so was child marriage, with children sometimes being married to men much older. These women often became widows before they even hit puberty and were left without any family support. Jyotirao was pained by their plight and established an orphanage in 1854 to shelter these unfortunate souls from perishing at the society’s cruel hands. Efforts towards Elimination of Caste Discrimination- Jyotirao attacked the orthodox Brahmins and other upper castes and termed them as "hypocrites". He campaigned against the authoritarianism of the upper caste people and urged the "peasants" and "proletariat" to defy the restrictions imposed upon them. He opened his home to people from all castes and backgrounds. He was a believer in gender equality and he exemplified his beliefs by involving his wife in all his social reform activities. He believed that religious icons like Rama are implemented by the Brahmin as a means for subjugating the lower caste. The orthodox Brahmins of the society were furious at the activities of Jyotirao. They blamed him for vitiating the norms and regulations of the society. Many accused him of acting on behalf of the Christian Missionaries. But Jyotirao was firm and decided to continue the movement. Interestingly, Jyotirao was supported by some Brahmin friends who extended their support to make the movement successful. Satya Shodhak Samaj- In 1873, Jyotirao Phule formed the Satya Shodhak Samaj (Society of Seekers of Truth). He undertook a systematic deconstruction of existing beliefs and history, only to reconstruct an equality promoting version. Jyotirao vehemently condemned the Vedas, the ancient holy scriptures of the Hindus. He traced the history of Brahmanism through several other ancient texts and held the Brahmins responsible for framing the exploitative and inhuman laws in order to maintain their social superiority by suppressing the "shudras" and “atishudras” in the society. The purpose of the Satya

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Shodhak Samaj was to decontaminate the society from caste discrimination and liberate the oppressed lower-caste people from the stigmas inflicted by the Brahmins. Jyotirao Phule was the first person to coin the term ‘Dalits’ to apply to all people considered lower caste and untouchables by the Brahmins. Membership to the Samaj was open to all irrespective of caste and class. Some written records suggest that they even welcomed participation of Jews as members of the Samaj and by 1876 the 'Satya Shodhak Samaj' boasted of 316 members. In 1868, Jyotirao decided to construct a common bathing tank outside his house to exhibit his embracing attitude towards all human beings and wished to dine with everyone, regardless of their caste. Death- Jyotirao Phule devoted his entire life for the liberation of untouchables from the exploitation of Brahmins. Apart from being a social activist and reformer, he was also a businessman. He was also a cultivator and contractor for the Municipal Corporation. He served as Commissioner of the Poona Municipality between 1876 and 1883. Jyotirao suffered a stroke in 1888 and was rendered paralyzed. On 28 November, 1890, the great social reformer, Mahatma Jyotirao Phule, passed away. Satya Shodhak Samaj- was a social reform society founded by Jyotirao Phule in Pune, Maharashtra on 24 September 1873. It espoused a mission of education and increased social rights and political access for underprivileged groups, focused especially on women, Shudras, and Dalits, in Maharashtra. Jyotirao wife Savitribai was the head of women's section of the society. The Samaj disbanded during the 1930s as leaders left to join the Nidian National Congress party under Mahatma Gandhi.

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s Dynamic Role-

Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (14 April 1891 – 6 December 1956), also known as Babasaheb Ambedkar, was an Indian jurist, economist, politician and social reformer who inspired the Dalit Buddhist movement and campaigned against social Discrimination towards the untouchables. He was independent India's first Minister of Law and Justice, and the chief architect of the Constitution of India.

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Ambedkar was a prolific student, earning Doctorates in economics from both Columbia University and the Landon School of Economics, and gained a reputation as a scholar for his research in law, economics and political science. In his early career he was an economist, professor, and lawyer. His later life was marked by his political activities; he became involved in campaigning and negotiations for India's independence, publishing journals, advocating political rights and social freedom for Dalits, and contributing significantly to the establishment of the state of India. In 1956 he converted to Buddhism, initiating mass conversions of Dalits. In 1990, the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian award, was posthumously conferred upon Ambedkar. Ambedkar's legacy includes numerous memorials and depictions in popular culture.

UNIT-III

The Trade Union Movement- Trade Unions in India are registered and file annual returns under the Trade Union Act (1926). Statistics on Trade Unions are collected annually by the Labour Bureau of the Ministry of Labour, Government of India. As per the latest data, released for 2012, there were 16,154 trade unions which had a combined membership of 9.18 million (based on returns from 15 States - out of a total of 28 States and 9 Union Territories). The Trade Union movement in India is largely divided along political lines and follows a pre- Independence pattern of overlapping interactions between political parties and unions. The net result of this type of system is debated as it has both advantages and disadvantages. The firm or industry level trade unions are often affiliated to larger Federations. The largest Federations in the country represent labour at the National level and are known as Central Trade Union Organisations As of 2002, when the last Trade Union verification was carried out, there are 12 Central Trade Union Organisations recognised by the Ministry of Labour. The Meerut Conspiracy Trial- The Meerut Conspiracy Case was a controversial Court Case initiated in British India in March 1929 and decided in 1933. Several trade unionists, including three Englishmen were arrested for

10 organizing an Indian railway strike. The British Government convicted 27 leftist trade union leaders under a false lawsuit. The trial immediately caught attention in England, where it inspired the 1932 play Meerut by Manchester street theatre group the 'Red Megaphones', highlighting the detrimental effects of colonization and industrialization. Papular Government in Provinces and Trade Unionism- The history of the trade union movement in India can be traced back to the days of the rise of the factory industry which, at the same time, brought to the fore the problems of modern capitalism. Notable problems among them were miserable working conditions, recruitment of women and child labour, long and excessive working hours, and soon. All these resulted in agitations, protests and strikes in different industries.

However, these did not make any perceptible impact on the status of the fact that the workers were not united or organised and were ignorant about the conception of the trade union movement. Meanwhile, the first Factory Commission was appointed in 1875 to investigate the conditions of work in factories.

Despite certain recommendations by the Commission, the Government of Bombay refused to implement these recommendations. This refusal spurred the cotton manufacturers in India to launch agitation with the object of minimising the grievances of the labourers. It was at this juncture one Mr. Sashipada Banerjee in Bengal and Mr. Sorabjee Shapurjee Bengalee in Maharashtra came forward to enlighten the workers regarding the utility of the organised movement. Philanthropists and social workers at that time took up the cause of the mill workers. Mr. Bengalee prepared a bill on child labour and sent it to the Governor of Bombay for consideration (in 1878). Mr. Bengalee appealed to Manchester for support.

A fresh agitation was launched in England and agitationists demanded factory legislation in India. Consequently, the Factories Act of 1881 came into being whose provisions went against child and female labour. The chief characteristic of the labour movement of this period was that social organisations, instead of working class organisations, spearheaded the attack. Truly speaking, social organisations played a decisive role in engaging the attention of the Government

11 for legislative intervention with factory conditions. As the Factories Act of 1881 failed to mitigate the problems of child labour and female labour, the Government of Bombay appointed another Factory Committee in 1883. This legislative battle acted as a moralebooster to the labourers and the social workers who realised the necessity of representing the case of the workers to the Government on a common platform, “It is this movement that created the first labour leader in India Mr. Narayan Meghjee Lokhanday”, who actively took up the cause of the Bombay textile workers. In 1884, a Memorial signed by 5,500 workers setting forth their grievances was sent to the Bombay Factory Committee for presentation. The political development of the early twentieth century coincided with the awakening of the working classes of India to move ahead with its economic struggles. The Swadeshi Movement born out of the partition of Bengal in 1905 transcended the bounds of the partition of Bengal and gave the necessary impetus to the working classes for conscious mass action under national bourgeoisie slogans. Now political and social workers came forward to inculcate the sense of a strong and united action among wage-earning classes in a more systematic manner and tried to give the movement a militant character. Consequently, this period saw a series of strikes. In the midst of strike waves, the Printers’ Union, Calcutta (1905), which worked, in fact, as a strike committee, and the Bombay Postal Union (1907) came into being. Being strike committees, these unions became defunct after a few months’ survival.

Another important working-class action was the big strike called by the workers of the East Indian Railway in July-September 1906. A series of strikes in different departments rocked various provinces. The main object of the labour leaders was to give a popular and mass character to the movement. All these unnerved the colonial authorities who now thought that the Indian labour problem merited attention. In the midst of this political action, class consciousness was yet to mature. Even then, one must not lose sight of the fact that the working class was gaining in solidarity. And, above all, organizational activity having the traits of modernity was also noticeable. But as far as trade union was concerned, it achieved little.

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Trade union, in the truest sense of the term, was yet to come out as most of the working class organisations functioned merely as mutual aid societies rather than trade unions. Some notable organisations of the period were the Bombay Kamgar Hitwardhak Sabha (1909), Social Service League (1910) of Bombay, the Mohammedan Association (1895) of Calcutta. The first-named organisation functioned as a workers’ welfare organisation run on a humanitarian cause on behalf of the workers. The last- named association mingled class-consciousness of the workers with religion as it was a forum for only. In this preparatory phase of the labour movement, the World War I of 1914-18 and the Russian Revolution of 1917 gave a new turn to the Indian working class movement. Closely on the heels of these developments began the period of more class-conscious proletarian actions and growth of trade unions in the true sense of the term. In short, the Indian labour classes entered the phase of modern labour movement.

UNIT-IV

The 1855-1856- The Santhal rebellion (1855-1856) was a native rebellion in present day , in eastern India against both the British colonial authority and corrupt upper caste Jamindari system by the . The Santal tribes were turned into slaves by the zamindars and the money lenders who first appeared to them as businessmen and traders and had allured them first by goods lent to them on loans. However hard a Santal tried to repay these loans, they never ended. the Santali women who worked under labour contractors were sexually disgraced and used as concubines and comfort women by the money lenders, zamindars and agents of the Raj. This loss of freedom and respect that the Santals enjoyed turned them into rebels and finally they took oath to launch an attack on the most visible symbol of authority, the .

In 1855, two Santal rebel leaders, Sidhu and Kanhu , mobilized ten thousand Santals and declared a rebellion against British colonists. The Santals initially gained some success in guerilla war tactics using bows and arrows but soon the British found out a new way to tackle these rebels. The British soon understood that there was no point fighting them in the forest but to force them come out of the forest. They stationed at the foot of the hill on which the Santals

13 were stationed. When the battle began, the British officer ordered fire without bullets. As the Santals could not trace this trap set by the much experienced British war strategists, they charged in full force. This step proved to be disastrous for them for as soon as they neared the foot of the hill, the British army attacked with full power and this time by using real bullets. The hapless Santals were cut to pieces. Thereafter the revolution was brutally suppressed. The day of rebellion is still celebrated among the Santal community with great respect and spirit for the thousands of the Santal martyrs who sacrificed their lives along with their two celebrated leaders in their glorious albeit unsuccessful attempt to win freedom from the rule of the zamindars and the British operatives.

Bengal Indigo Cultivator’s revolt 1860- Under the supremacy of the British in India, the economic condition of the rural India was much affected. The peasants were ruthlessly crushed and they were forced to cultivate indigo in their lands instead of foods crops. The peasants continuously crushed, gradually organized a revolt against their oppression. However the Indigo Cultivators Revolt was primarily directed against the British planters who behaved like the feudal lords in their estates. The revolt enjoyed the supports of all categories of rural population. The zamindars, moneylenders, rich peasants and even the karmacharis of indigo concerns. Right from the beginnings of the 19th century many retired officials of the East India Company and some slave traders of England owned several lands from the Indian zamindars in Bihar and Bengal. In these lands they began a large-scale cultivation of indigo. First of all the price was too low in India. Hence the Indigo planters could make enormous profits by cultivations indigo in India.

The indigo planters committed great cruelty and oppressions on the indigo cultivators in the process of forcing them to grow indigo crops under terms, which were least preferable to them. In April 1860, all the cultivators of Barasat subdivision and in the districts of Patna and Nadia resorted to strike to articulate their demands. This strike was the first general strike in the history of Indian Peasantry. The peasants collectively refused to cultivate and to sow the seeds of indigo. The strike gradually spread to Jessore, Khulna, Rajshahi, Dacca, Malda, and Dinajpur and in the extensive regions of Bengal. The British Government

14 got alarmed when s encountered the unified resistance. The Government of India apprehended a great agrarian uprising. The Government ordered a notification to be issued enjoining on the police to protect the riot in the possession of his lands, on which he was at liberty to sow any crop he like. But he was prohibited to interfere in the on the part of the planter or anyone else. The planter however if he liked could move to the civil court for breach of contract. Ultimately the indigo Commission was appointed in 1860. The Commissions made several recommendations, which were embodied in Act VI of 1862. The Indigo Revolutions had widespread influence and it was extended in the regions of Bihar an Uttar Pradesh.

Gandhi ji and Peasant Struggles- Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (2 October 1869 - 30 January 1948) was an Indian lawyer, anti- colonial nationalist and political ethicist who employed to lead the successful campaign for India independence from British Rule and in turn inspire movements for civil rights and freedom across the world. The honorific Mahatma, first applied to him in 1914 in South Africa, is now used throughout the world. Born and raised in a Hindu family in coastal Gujarat, western India, Gandhi was trained in law at the Inner Temple, London, and called to the bar at age 22 in June 1891. After two uncertain years in India, where he was unable to start a successful law practice, he moved to South Africa in 1893 to represent an Indian merchant in a lawsuit. He went on to stay for 21 years. It was in South Africa that Gandhi raised a family, and first employed nonviolent resistance in a campaign for civil rights. In 1915, aged 45, he returned to India. He set about organizing peasants, farmers, and urban labourers to protest against excessive land-tax and discrimination. Assuming leadership of the Indian National in 1921, Gandhi led nationwide campaigns for easing poverty, expanding women's rights, building religious and ethnic amity, ending untouchability, and above all for achieving Swaraj or self-rule. Gandhi's vision of an independent India based on religious pluralism was challenged in the early 1940s by a new Muslim nationalism which was demanding a separate Muslim homeland carved out of India. In August 1947, Britain granted independence, but the British Indian Empire was partitioned into

15 two dominions, a Hindu-majority India and Muslim-majority Pakistan. As many displaced Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs made their way to their new lands, religious violence broke out, especially in the Punjab and Bengal. Eschewing the official celebration of independence in Delhi, Gandhi visited the affected areas, attempting to provide solace. In the months following, he undertook several Fasts unto to stop religious violence. The last of these, undertaken on 12 January 1948 when he was 78, also had the indirect goal of pressuring India to pay out some cash assets owed to Pakistan. Some Indians thought Gandhi was too accommodating. Among them was Nathuram Godse, a Hindu Nationalist, who assassinated Gandhi on 30 January 1948 by firing three bullets into his chest. - The Champaran Satyagraha was the combination of an elements of extra- constitutional struggle as well as the employment of moral force against an adversary, an exemplar of the rule of law; and the use of compromise as a gambit. It marked as the first India’s Civil Disobedience movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi to protest against the injustice meted out to tenant farmers in Champaran district of Bihar. Champaran district was the part of area which consists of the large Jamindari estates under rich and influential landlords. Most of the villages were leased out by the Jamindars to thikafars of whom the most influential were European Indigo Planters. Though, the planters were temporary tenure holders, they not only extracted rent from the peasants, but also exercised civil and criminal jurisdiction. Kheda Satyagraha- The Kheda Satyagraha Kheda Satyagraha of 1918, in the Kheda District of Gujarat, India during the period of the British Raj, was a Satyagraha movement organised by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. It was a major revolt in the Indian Independence Movement. It was the second Satyagraha movement after Champaran Satyagraha Gandhi organised this movement to support peasants. In Gujarat, Mahatma Gandhi was chiefly the spiritual head of the struggle. His chief lieutenant, Sardar Vallabh bhai Patel and a close coterie of devoted

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Gandhians, namely Indulal Yagnik, Shankarlal Banker, Mahadev Desai, Narhari Parikh, Mohanlal Pandya and Ravi Shankar Vyas tion. Many aroused Gujaratis from the cities of Ahmedabad and Vadodara joined the organizers of the revolt, but Gandhi and Patel resisted the involvement of Indians from other provinces, seeking to keep it a purely Gujarati struggle. Patel and his colleagues organised a major tax revolt, and all the different ethnic and caste communities of (Kheda) rallied around it. The peasants of Kheda signed a petition calling for the tax for this year to be scrapped in wake of the famine. The government in Bombay rejected the charter. They warned that if the peasants did not pay, the lands and property would be confiscated and many arrested. And once confiscated, they would not be returned even if most complied. None of the villages flinched. The tax withheld, the government's collectors and inspectors sent in thugs to seize property and cattle, while the police confiscated the lands and all agrarian property. The farmers did not resist arrest, nor retaliate to the force employed with violence. Instead, they used their cash and valuables to donate to the Gujarat Sabha which was officially organising the protest. The revolt was astounding in terms of discipline and unity. Even when all their personal property, land and livelihood were seized, a vast majority of Kheda's farmers remained firmly united in the support of Patel. Gujaratis sympathetic to the revolt in other parts resisted the government machinery, and helped to shelter the relatives and property of the protesting peasants. Those Indians who sought to buy the confiscated lands were excluded from society. Although nationalists like Sardar Singh Caveeshar called for sympathetic revolts in other parts, Gandhi and Patel firmly rejected the idea The Mappila Uprising 1921- The Moplah Rebellion or the Malabar Rebellion was an extended version of the Khilafat Movement in Kerala in 1921. The Government had declared the Congress and Khilafat meetings illegal. So, a reaction in Kerala began against the crackdown of the British in Eranad and Valluvanad taluks of Malabar. But the Khilafat meeting incited so much communal feelings among the Muslims peasants , known as Moplahs, that it turned out to become an anti- hindu movement from July 1921 onwards. The violence began and the Moplahs

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attacked the police stations and took control of them. They also seized the courts, and the government treasuries. It became a communal riot when the kudiyaan or tenant Moplahs attacked their Hindu jenmis or landlords and killed many of them. Thus, the Hindu Landlords became the victims of the atrocities of the Moplahs. The leaders of this rebellion were: 1. Variyankunnath Kunjahammed Haji, 2. Seethi Koya Thangal of Kumaranpathor 3. Ali Musliyar. For two some two months the administration remained in the hands of the rebels. The military as well as Police needed to withdraw from the burning areas. Finally the British forces suppressed the movement with greater difficulty. The situation was under control by the end of the 1921. This rebellion was so fearful that the government raised a special battalion, the Malabar Special Police......

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