IΔΡΥΜA ΜΕΙΖΟΝΟΣ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΣΜΟΥ Συγγραφή : Καμάρα Αφροδίτη Μετάφραση : Καμάρα Αφροδίτη Για παραπομπή : Καμάρα Αφροδίτη , "Antioch ad Orontem (Antiquity)", Εγκυκλοπαίδεια Μείζονος Ελληνισμού, Κωνσταντινούπολη URL:
Περίληψη :
Antioch was one of the most prominent cities of the Hellenistic and Roman East. Since the beginning of the 3rd century it was the capital of the Seleucid kingdom and it maintained its status as a free city even after the Roman conquest. Its strategic position made it the center of Roman administration in the East. The opulent lifestyle of its citizens as well as the high standards of education and artistic production turned Antioch into one of the two major centers of the east, rivaling Alexandria. It often suffered destructions due to earthquakes, the one of 526 being fatal. Today it belongs administratively to the Turkish state and bears the turcisized name Antakya Άλλες Ονομασίες Antigoneia, Antiocheia Daphnei, Antiochia ad Orontem, Antiochia ad Daphnen
1. Topography
Antioch, present day Antakya, was built in the middle of a large plain, covering about 1.400 klms in the Amuq valley. The valley was surrounded by mountainous massifs, the Amanos range to the west, the mount Silpius and the Jebel el Aqra to the south and the low range of Kurt Dağ to the northeast. Three rivers flowed along the valley and irrigated the fertile plain: Orontes, coming from the south, from Syria, Afrin, from a northeast direction and Kara Su from the north. In a small distance from the city there was the lake of Antioch, called Amuq Gölü until the 1960s, when the Turkish state had it dried up in order to extend arable land in the area.1
2. Sources
Our information on the history and topography of the city is based mainly on literary sources. Archaeological evidence exists, naturally, yet it mainly sheds light on the suburb of Daphne, where the sanctuary of Appolo used to be, as well as on the broader plain of Antioch, and less on the city itself. The latter, after a period of abandonment during the early Byzantine period, was rebuilt and populated without interruption until the present. The most important archaeological publications are those by Stillwell and Waage,2 Braidwood,3 and Djobadze,4 whereas valuable information is provided by the research of Doro Levi5 and Sheila Campbell6 on the mosaics of Late Roman villas and public buildings excavated in Daphne and around.
From the literary sources the work which offers the clearest view of the city in the 4th century, yet reflecting even older phases, is the Oration “On Antioch”by Libanius,7 as well as his autobiography.8 An important source is also the “Chronography”by John Malalas,9 whereas for the Late Roman period information is also provided by Zosimos’ “New History”, by the Chronography of Zonaras and by several ecclesiastical sources, such as the homilies of John Chrysostome, the “Homily on Babylas”in particular.10
3. The foundation of the city
Shortly after the battle of Ipsus in 301 B.C., Seleucus Nicator started a policy of founding cities in his newly acquired territories in Syria. His main building programme aimed at the creation of a complex of four cities (Tetrapolis), which would secure the control of the main roads for trade as well as for military purposes. It is noteworthy that two of the cities, namely Antioch and Apamea, were built on the banks of the Orontes, whereas the two others, Seleuceia and Laodicea, functioned as the formers’ports on the sea and were designed from the beginning as such. The plan was probably not an inspiration of Seleucus himself, but rather a continuation of the plans of his main rival and predecessor in the area, the defeated at Ipsus Antigonus the One-Eyed. Antigonus, however, had the time to found only small settlements where he had setlled mainly army veterans.11 The small settlement of Antigoneia was transferred by Seleucus12 closer to the spot where the Orontes formed a small island; he had the inhabitants re-settle there and he founded Antioch, which he named after his father.13 This city was destined to be the crown of the Seleucid cities, capital of the Seleucid kingdom and later on administrative seat of the province Syria Prima.14 More than anything else, though, it constituted a craddle of
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4. Agricultural production
The city of Antioch controlled an extensive territory, its “chora”. The exact boundaries of this area cannot be defined with absolute certainty. Recent research, however, combining archaeological data from surveys and the usage of GIS and aerial photography15 have led to the conclusion that the Amanos range constituted the natural boundary to the West-Southwest (i.e. with the respective “choras”of the cities Rhosos, Seleuceia and Alexandria ad Issum), the Kurt Dağ range constituted the boundary with the territory of Cyrrus, Meleagron (Ceylanlı, Karamağara) constituted the northernmost end, whereas in the South, where the boundaries are more blurred, as they are situated on the so-called Limestone Massif, it seems that the Orontes river was another natural boundary.16
The site where Antioch was built was perfect, as it combined a location protected by the nearby mountains of Silpius and Amanus, with a good irrigation by the river Orontes and the lake that the river formed close to the city. The result of the abundance of water was the fertility of the land in the broader plain of Antioch.
The agricultural production aimed at self-sufficiency as it combined production of grain with that of vines and fruit and vegetables.17 Furthermore, the Orontes, sailable in its larger part in those days, secured the unhindered transportation of products from the Syrian inland to the port of Seleuceia Pieria.18
The fertile plain of Antioch was distributed to the families of the first settlers, most of them veterans of the Seleucid army. Those lots were called “epoikia”or “choria”in some instances. The structure of agricultural production seems to have remained aristocratic with most part of the land being controlled by the city elite. To the east of Antioch, at a distance of about 50 kilometers from the city, rises the Limestone Massif, a mountainous range with low altitude. During the Hellenistic period, mainly local nomads dwelled there. During the Roman period, however, the necessity of procuring more land to distribute to Roman army veterans, as well as the introduction of a new type of more organized agricultural methods led the area to evolve into one of the largest olive-production centers of the empire. Part of the Limestone Massif belonged to the “chora”of Antioch and thus part of the production was transported via the civic centre, forming a new source of prosperity both for landowners and for tradesmen.19
5. Hellenistic Antioch
5.1 The topography of the city
According to the foundation myth of the city, the first settlers of Antioch were the inhabitants of Antigoneia, veteran Athenians and few Macedonians, as well as Cretans, whom Cassos, son of Inachos, had appointed in the fortress nearby along with some Cypriots. In the city immigrated, under the instigation of Seleucus, the Argive citizens of Iopolis, a pre-existing settlement on the Mount Silpius, dating from the age of the Trojan war. The Argives held a prominent position in the local society, due to their antiquity.20 Soon in the city streamed local inhabitants as well, mostly of Syrian origin. The city acropolis was situated high on Mount Silpius. It had been given the name Hemathia, supposedly by Alexander the Great, who wanted in this way to honour his place of origin. The Hellenistic city, built according to the Hippodameian system, spread mainly on the eastern bank of the Orontes. The planning seems to have been particularly careful, as the town planner had taken into consideration the weather conditions, as well as the course of the sun; the orientation helped the houses to be cooler in summer and warmer and lighter in winter.
Two long and perpendicular to each other colonnades marked the four large neighborhoods of the city. In the initial kernel, a second neighborhood was added under Antiochus I, where the Syrian inhabitants settled.21 On the island to the north of the city, Seleucus Callinicus built another neighborhood, protected by its own wall, where the royal palace lay ever since. Finally, Antiochus IV Epiphanes added one more inhabitable area, which he named Epiphaneia.
The suburb of Daphne, where the aristocratic class of Antioch lived during the summer months, seems to have been chosen from early days as a recreation area. There, among the abundant water from springs, an oracle of Apollo had been founded, whereas already
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since the beginning of the 2nd century B.C. there was a stadium for athletic games. Starting from Daphne, an aqueduct brought water into the city of Antioch. In 167 B.C. Antiochus IV, in order to overshadow the triumph of the Romans who had just defeated the Macedonians at Pydna, organized in Daphne a sumptuous procession that the Greek world had seen no precedent of.22
For the rest of the public buildings of the Hellenistic period we know a few things.
5.2. Administration
Antioch probably started to function as capital of the Seleucid state under Antiochus I Soter. The political power was within the hands of the Greek elite. The supreme authority was, naturally, the king. The founder, Seleucus Nikator, held a prominent position both on the city’s coins and as a symbol of the city, since a famous statue of his welcomed the incomers at a short distance before the city, on the site called Hippocephalos.23
Although no traces of a bouleuterion have been preserved, we know from literary sources that the city’s council was large and active. In many instances, particularly during the Late Hellenistic period, when the dynastic friction was at its peak, the council and the citizens did not hesitate to oppose to or even riot against the king. This happened for example in 147 B.C. against the usurper Alexander Balas, or in 129 B.C. against Demetrius II. Finally, the citizens themselves invited the Armenian king Tigranes to occupy the city in order to take it out of decline and political instability and finally they came to terms with Rome in 64 B.C., which offered the city a status of freedom and autonomy.
Such an important city naturally had an analogous theatre. The traces of this theatre have been located at a short distance outside the city, on the foot of Mount Silpius, yet no systematic excavation has yet taken place.
5.3. The pantheon of Antioch
The symbol of the city was the statue of Tyche , made by Eutychides of Sicyon, a student of Lysippos.24 Tyche soon became the protector goddess of the city. Yet in Antioch there were worshipped several gods of the Dodekatheon, who were related either to the site or to the Seleucid dynasty. Thus, under the auspices of Seleucus, a sanctuary in honour of Zeus Botiaioshere was built,25 whereas Athena was also worshipped in honour of the Athenian settlers of the city, as did Minos in honour of the Cretan settlers. Apollo, protector god of the Seleucids, had his sanctuary founded at beautiful Daphne.26 According to a mythological version it was on this spot that Daphne, chased by Apollo, was transformed into a tree.27 During one of his strolls in the area Seleucos perceived the sacred character of the area and he thus founded the sanctuary of Apollo, where the visitors felt such an inner peace that they forgot their sorrows and were healed from their illness. The god’s cultic statue was made by Bryaxis. According to another myth, the first settler of the area was Hercules, who lived there during his exile by the sons of Eurystheus. Games were held every four years named “Herculean”after the hero.28
The priests at Daphne were fully autonomous. The high priest, however, was appointed directly by the king, and usually was a member of the closed circle of the confidant veterans of his army.
Since large part of the population consisted of Syrians, both the Aramaic language and the Syrian cults were maintained, and we know that Artemis of Meroe and Atargatis were also worshipped.
6. Roman Antioch
Antioch maintained the status of civitas libera, i.e. of a free city, throughout the Roman period. The Romans foresaw its strategic and commercial potential and upgraded it to a metropolis equal to Rome for the East, thus undermining Alexandria.29
6.1. Historical facts
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As capital of the province of Syria, and, later Syria Prima, Antioch often received as guests important Roman politicians, generals and emperors. Julius Caesar had already visited it in 47 B.C., whereas in 19 B.C. Germanicus, consul and future emperor, found death there. Commodus (161-192) established the Olympic Games in Antioch, apparently as a sign of the prominence of the city in the Eastern Empire. During the turbulent 3rd century the city was caught amidst war and was threatened several times; in two instances it was conquered by invaders. The first invasion took place in 256 (or 253 according to some scholars),30 when Persian troops of the Sassanian monarch Sapor conquered it. It seems though that the aim of the Persian king was rather showing off his power rather than permanent conquest. A few years later, in 260, the disastrous campaign of Valerian ended up in yet one more conquest of Antioch by the Sassanians and in the humiliating capture of the emperor.31 As a result of these wars, part of the population was transferred within Persian territory. The one who saved Rome from this difficult position was Odainath, king of Palmyra, who aimed however in the expansion of his own territory. A few years later his wife, Zenobia, with a blitz-campaign reached again the outskirts of Antioch.
6.2. The topography of Roman Antioch
The city’s outlook did not change much during Roman times. Yet, the city did expand, whereas particular imperial interventions decorated it with important public buildings.
Octavian Augustus erected a sumptuous temple in honour of Zeus Capitoline on the slopes of Mount Silpius. Tiberius had two more porticoes built with a southern direction, apparently in order to serve the newcomers to the city, who came from all over the empire, particularly from the Syrian inland, in order to profit from the chances for a better living which the big city offered. Within the realm of Roman euergetism, king Herod built also a portico in the eastern part of the city. The theatre was restored and expanded by the early Roman emperors. In order to serve the new Roman recreation habits an amphitheatre for representations of hunt and gladiatorial games was also built. Since the needs for drinkable water increased along with the population, new aqueducts were built, whereas the extant ones were constantly renovated and extended. We know that the most beautiful one was built under Hadrian. Finally, the luxurious life of the inhabitants was served by the large number of baths which were built during the Roman period. Several of them were imperial benefactions to the city.
6.3. The Late Roman city
Although our information on the Early Roman period is rather sparse, Late Roman Antioch is brilliantly sketched, both through the works of Libanius and the marvelous mosaics which decorated the public buildings and private villas in the outskirts.32 The most important of them is possibly the Magnanimity (Megalopsychia) mosaic, also known as the Yakto mosaic.33 It was found in a villa at Daphne34 and consists of a central portrait of the personified Magnanimity, surrounded by hunting scenes and a square freeze with a total length of 28 meters, where the road from Daphne to Antioch is depicted as it was in 459 A.D., with public buildings and professionals at work. It is the only work which shows the famous octagonal church of the city, the Domus Aurea, built under the auspices of Constantius I. With a population surpassing 100,000 the Late Roman Antioch was famous for the opulent lifestyle of its citizens. Important schools of philosophy and rhetoric, like that of Libanius, flourished in the city, whereas its art workshops (for metalworking, mosaics, painting, and sculpture) provided works of art not only to the city and its broader area but to the whole empire.
The Antiochians maintained a sense of autonomy and did not hesitate to express publicly their discontent to measures or decisions taken by the supreme authorities. Thus the emperor Julian who visited the city in 362 faced the enmity of the citizens, and he reciprocated by pronouncing his famous oration “Misopogon”( Beard-hater), with which he criticized the citizens for the laxity of their lives and their disrespect to the gods. A quarter of a century later the Antiochians rioted against the tax measures of Theodosius I and they streamed in the streets, destroying the portraits of the imperial family. This revolt is known as “the Riot of the Statues”( 387).
7. Christianity
Antioch was related at a very early stage with the expansion of Christianity. The Patriarchate of Antioch considers as its founder the
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In the beginning of the 2nd century Ignatius became bishop of Antioch. He was one of the most ardent figures of early Christianity. He was condemned under Trajan, but he managed to instill courage in his flock even from captivity by writing his famous “epistles”. Around the same time Tatian, of “Assyrian”origin moved in the city. His desire was to preach the gospel mainly to the Syrian population. For this reason he wrote the “Diatessaron”,38 a compilation of the four major gospels. However, his views seems to have been influenced by Gnosticism, whereas they put off those who were imbued with Greek “Paideia”since they were fixed on the ideas of purity and ascetic behaviour. Tatian was finally accused as a follower of the Gnostic Valentine and condemned as a heretic.
In the Ecumenical Council of Nicaea (325) the church of Antioch is referred to as “first of the churches of the East (Oriens) and it was soon upgraded to “Patriarchate”. The need for dogmatic enlightenment of the catechumens in Christianity led to the development of a particular philosophic and religious trend, known as the “School of Antioch”. Deeply influenced by Aristotelian philosophy, the School of Antioch emphasized on issues of the incarnation of Christ and of the co-existence of a divine and a human nature. The views stressed there often clashed with those of the other major “School”of the east, that of Alexandreia. Soon there was a religious dipole; representatives of both sides attempted to climb on the patriarchal throne of Constantinople. Important exponents of the School of Antioch was Diodorus of Tarsus and his disciples, among whom counted Theodore of Mopsuestia and John Chrysostome. Soon, however, the effort to define the “correct”doctrine created philosophical questions from which sprang explanations which were considered as heretical. It is not accidental that several bishops were finally condemned as heretics; this happened for example with Paul of Samosata (3rd century) and with Meletius and Eustathius, who dethroned each other over and again, thus creating a schism in the church of Antioch in the middle of the 4th century. Exponents of the school were implicated in the development of the Nestorian and Monophysite doctrines, which gave the empire a hard time particularly in the first fifty years of the 5th century. The steady preference that the School of Antioch showed towards the human nature of Christ soon estranged it from its territory and the Syrian inland, where after the Council of Chalcedon Monophysism seems to have been deeply rooted. In fact, these doctrinal differences reflected the essential differences (in the lifestyle, mentality, and culture) between the Hellenized inhabitants of the cities and the inhabitants of the countryside.39
Although it was soon adopted by the Antiochians, Christianity was not established without bloodshed. In many instances there were conflicts between pagans and Christians, with mutual destruction of monuments and commitment of sacrilege against sacred spaces. Thus the burial of the relics of St.Babylas close to the sanctuary of Apollo created a big havock. The city administration forced the Christians to unearth the relics, for which there was a special martyrium erected by bishop Meletius in 381. The destruction of the sanctuary by fire was considered as a retaliation on the part of the Christians. In Antioch there were, however, built large scale ecclesiastic buildings at an early age, such as the Octagonal church built by Constantius I (it was completed in 341).
8. Cultural and artistic life
The Seleucids did not follow a supportive policy towards sciences and arts similar to that of the Ptolemies in Egypt or the Attalids in Pergamon.40 Yet the Seleucid territory and particularly the city of Antioch became the field of exchange of cultural and artistic achievements among Mesopotamia, Persia and Greece. Antioch found itself in the epicenter of these developments and formed a special cultural and intellectual atmosphere. The official education was naturally based on Greek models. The youth of Antioch studied in schools of rhetoric and philosophy and trained in the gymnasia. In Daphne, the Herculean games were initially hosted. Commodus, however, established the Olympic Games, which probably were more prestigious than those of mainland Greece.
As far as the artistic achievements were concerned, the Late Roman mosaics of the city attest to a long tradition, which had reached its peak. Mosaic makers from Antioch in particular and Syria in general, were invited in all the big centres of the empire, especially in
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Constantinople, in order to decorate with their works both public and private buildings. This art did not decline not even after the Arab conquest. The admirable mosaics at the Ummayad mosque in Damascus attest to the fact that these mosaic makers continued to enjoy the high patronage of the men in power at least until the 8th century. Large and small scale sculpture were also practiced with great success, as attested by the sarcophagi, mainly of the Roman era, which have been discovered in large numbers during accidental excavations and are exhibited today in the archaeological museum of Antakya.41
In the field of philosophy and intellectual life, Antioch was the birthplace of important thinkers, both pagan and Christian. As we mentioned above, from the 3rd century onwards, a broader intellectual atmosphere was formed in the city, known as the “School of Antioch”. Its basic feature was analytical thinking, which influenced not only the most important Christian intellectuals, but also the followers of classical paideia. Among the latter excels the orator Libanius, one of the last lovers of pagan tradition.
1. On topography the most recent and accurate study is by De Giorgi, A.U., “The formation of a Roman landscape: the case of Antioch”, JRA 20 (2007), pp. 283-298, with the relevant older literature.
2. Stillwell, R. –Waage, D. (et al.), Antioch-on-the-Orontes, publications of the Archaeological Excavations in the plain of Antioch, (Princeton 1938-).
3. Braidwood, R. And L., Excavations in the plain of Antioch 1960-1971, Oriental Institute Publications, vol.61, (Chicago 1971).
4. Djobadze, W.Z., Archaeological investigations in the regions West of Antioch on the Orontes, (Stuttgart 1986).
5. Levi, D., Antioch Mosaic Pavements (Princeton 1947).
6. Campbell, S., The mosaics of Antioch (Toronto 1988).
7. Norman A.F (ed.), Antioch as a centre of Hellenic Culture as observed by Libanius, (Translated Texts for Historians 34, London 2000).
8. Libanius, Autobiography and selected letters, A.F.Norman ( London1965).
9. Johannis Malalae Chronographia, (L.Dindorff ed.), Berolini 1847. See also Jeffreys E. and M, The Chronicle of John Malalas, Byzantina Australensia 4 (Melbourne 1986).
10. John Chrysostom, Discours sur Babylas, (ed.) M.A. Schatkin, and Homélie sur Babylas, (ed.) Grillet, B.-Guinot, J.N., (Sources Chrétiennes 362, Paris 1990).
11. On the foundation of the Seleucid cities of Northern Syria see Grainger, J.D., Cities of Seleucid Syria (Oxford 1990).
12. On the foundation myth of Antioch see Appendix I.
13. To the other three cities were given also dynastic names: Seleuceia was named after himself, Laodicea after his mother and Apamea after his Persian wife, Apama.
14. For the role of Antioch in the management of the wealth and in the administration of the Seleucid kingdom see Grainger, J.D., Cities of Seleucid Syria (Oxford 1990), p. 60.
15. See Yener, A., et. al., “The Amuq valley regional project, 1995-1998”, AJA 104 (2000), pp. 163-221 and De Giorgi, A.U., “The formation of a Roman landscape: the case of Antioch”, JRA 20 (2007), pp. 283-298.
16. De Giorgi, A.U., “The formation of a Roman landscape: the case of Antioch”, JRA 20 (2007), p. 285.
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17. The plain of Antioch, a military zone for the Turkish state since 1948, has not been studied as much as the broader “chora”of Antioch, and particularly the late Roman settlements which surround it. Among the older studies count Braidwood, R. and L, Excavations in the plain of Antioch 1960-1971 (Chicago UV, Oriental Institute Publications, v.61, 1971) και Djobadze, W.Z., Archaeological investigations in the regions West of Antioch on the Orontes (Stuttgart 1986). The new possibilities offered by GIS and GPS technologies have revived the scholarly interest, resulting in the publication of two important articles, namely De Giorgi, A.U., “The formation of a Roman landscape: the case of Antioch”, JRA 20, 2007, pp. 283-298 and Yener, A., et. al., “The Amuq valley regional project, 1995-1998”, AJA 104 (2000), pp. 163-221
18. The abundance of alimentary products and the general fertility of the area is praised by Libanius in his oration “On Antioch”, 11.174-175, one of the main literary sources for the city of Antioch in the 4th century A.D.
19. On the Limestone Massif and the settlements which developed there see Tchalenko, G., Villages Antiques de la Syrie du Nord, 3 vols (Paris 1955-1958) and Tate, G., Les campagnes de la Syrie du Nord (Paris 1981).
20. John Malalas,Chtonographia, p. 201.
21. Strab. 16.2.4.
22. A detailed description of the procession is given by Polybius 30.25 ff.
23. Amm. Marc. XXI.15.2.
24. Tyche soon became the protector goddess of the city, whereas the statue type was widely spread in the east. The statue has been preserved in various copies, and Pausanias described it (6.2.7).
25. John Malalas, Chronographia, p. 201.
26. According to some numismatic types it seems that the cult of Apollo was related to that of Athena as well. See Downey, G., Ancient Antioch (Princeton 1963). Waage, D.B. Greek, Roman, Byzantine and Crusaders’ coins. Antioch-on-the-Orontes IV.2 (Princeton 1952) p.3, no. 1- 7.
27. Libanius, “Oration on Antioch”, 94-100. See also the exquisite late Roman mosaic with the mythological scene of the transformation of Daphne in Levi, D., Antioch Mosaic Pavements , v. I (Princeton 1947) pp. 211-214.See also http://www.sacred-destinations.com/turkey/antioch-mosaic- photos/slides/house-of-menander-apollo-and-daphne-nc.html , http://cti.itc.virginia.edu/~jjd5t/ant-pics/
28. These Games were renamed “Olympic Games” in the Roman period. See Downey, G., A History of Antioch in Syria from Diocletian to the Arab Conquest (Princeton 1961), p. 83, fn. 132 and p. 168.
29. This fact triggered a centuries-long conflict between the two cities, which often reflected in the cultural life and in their philosophical and religious trends.
30. See Schwaigert, W., Das Christentum in Khuzistan im Rahmen der frühen Kirchengeschichte Persiens bis zur Synode von Seleukeia-Ktesiphon im Jahre 410, PhD Dissertation, Philips Universität Marburg, 1989, pp. 20-23
31. Shahpur, for the purposes of his dynastic propaganda, commemorated his victories with a series of reliefs and inscriptions carved on the rocks in various areas, particularly in Kuzistan and Bishapur. See Hermann, G., The Sassanian Rock Reliefs at Bishapur, Pl.1: Bishapur III:Triumph attributed to Shapur I [Iranishe Denkmäler, Lief.9.], (Berlin, 1980); G. Herrmann-D. N. Mackenzie and R. Howell Caldecott, The Sasanian Rock Reliefs at Naqsh-i Rustam. Naqsh-i Rustam 6, The Triumph of Shapur I, Representation of Kerdir and Inscription [Iranishe Denkmäler 13] (Berlin, 1989); Kettenhofenn, E., Die römisch-persischen Kriege des 3. Jarhunderts n. Chr. Nach der Inschrift Šâhpuhrs I. an der Ka'be-ye Zartošt (ŠKZ) (Wiesbaden 1982). See also the chronography on the deeds of Shahpur. See Honigmann, E., Maricq, A., Recherches sur les Res Gestae Divi Saporis (Bruxelles 1953).
32. On the mosaics of Antioch see Levi, D., Antioch Mosaic Pavements (Princeton 1947), Campbell, S., The mosaics of Antioch (Toronto 1988) και
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Kondoleon, C.,
33. Lassus, J., “Antioche en 459 d’après la mosaique de Yakto”, in Balty, J. (ed), Apamée de Syrie I, (Bruxelles 1968) pp.137-146
34. Lassus thinks that the villa might belong to Ardabour, Magister Militum per Orientem, one of the most powerful men of the eastern empire under Anastasius.
35. Peter apparently came to the city at about 44 A.D. See Acts of the Apostles 11.19-20. The church of St.Peter at the feet of mount Silpius, still counts among the touristic attractions of the city and it is considered to be built on the exact position where the apostle taught.
36. Galatians 2. This decision actually made Christianity an ecumenical religion and not a heresy of Judaism any more. The fact that the Christins of Antioch were those who pressed for such a solution is not fortuitous: in this metropolis of the east there were many Hellenized Jews, who did not practice circumcision nor som of the other Jewish customs, but desired to adhere to the congregation of the new religion nevertheless. By accepting those the apostles could but accept non-Jews as proselytes.
37. Luke 11.20-26.
38. See Marmadji, A.S. (ed.), Diatessaron de Tatien (Beyrouth 1935) An english translation exists also in electronic form: http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/03d/0112-0185,_Tatianus_Syriacus,_Diatesseron_%5BSchaff%5D,_EN.pdf
39. For doctrinal matters and the School of Antioch there is an extensive literature. See Devreesse, R., Le patriarcat d’Antioche depuis la paix de l’ église jusqu’a la conquête arabe (Paris 1945), Festugière, A., Antioche paienne et chrétienne ,Libanius, Chrysostome et les moines de Syrie, Paris 1959), Meeks, W.A., -Wilken, R., Jews and Christians in Antioch in the first four centuries of the common era (Missoula Mont 1978), Wallace-Hadrill, D.S., Christian Antioch, a study of early Christian thought in the East, (Cambridge 1982), Wilken, J., John Chrysostom and the Jews: Rhetoric and reality in the late 4th century (Berkeley 1983).
40. This did not mean that the Seleucids didn’t have in their court their protégés philosophers an scientists, as Aratos from Soloi, who wrote the famous “Phenomena”. See also Downey, G., Ancient Antioch (Princeton 1963) p. 48.
41. See Himmelmann, N., Sarkophage in Antakya (Mainz 1970).
Βιβλιογραφία : Grainger J.D., The Cities of Seleucid Syria, Oxford 1990
Downey G., A History of Antioch in Syria from Seleucus to the Arab Conquest, Princeton – New Jersey 1961
Festugière A.J., Antioche païenne et chrétienne, Libanius, Chrysostome et les moines de Syrie, Paris 1959
Liebeschuetz J.H.G.W., Antioch, city and imperial administration in the Later Roman Empire, Oxford 1972
Petit P., Libanius et la vie municipale à Antioche au IVe siècle après J.-C., Paris 1955
Liebenschuetz J.H., "The Finances of Antioch in the 4th c. A.D", Byzantinische Zeitschrift, 52, 344-356
Devreesse R., Le patriarcat d’Antioche depuis la paix de l’Eglise jusqu’à la conquête arabe, Paris 1945
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Corwin V., St. Ignatius and Christianity in Antioch, Yale 1960
Levi D., Antioch Mosaic Pavements, Princeton – London –The Hague 1947
Lassus J., Sanctuaires chrétiens de Syrie. Essai sur la genèse, la forme et l’usage liturgique des édifices du culte chrétien, en Syrie du IIIe siècle à la conquête musulmane, Paris 1947, Institut Français d’Archéologie de Beyrouth, Bibliothèque Archéologique XLII
Djobadze W.J., Archeological investigations in the region West of Antioch on-the-Orontes, Stuttgart 1986
Bikermann E., Institutions des Séleucides, Paris 1938
Bowersock G.W., "The search for Antioch: Karl Ottfried’s Müller’s Antiquitates Antiochenae", Bowersock, G. (ed.), Studies on the Eastern Roman Empire: social, economic and administrative history, religion, historiography, Goldbach 1994, Biblioteca Eruditorum 9, 411-427
Campbell S., The mosaics of Antioch, Toronto 1988
Braidwood R., Braidwood L., Excavations in the plain of Antioch 1960-1971, Chicago 1971, Oriental Institute Publications, 61
Downey G., Ancient Antioch, Princeton 1963
Himmelmann N., Sarkophage in Antakya, Mainz 1970
Jeffreys E.M., The Chronicle of John Malalas, Melbourne 1986, Byzantina Australensia 4
Lassus J., Les portiques d’Antioche Antioch on the Orontes, Princeton 1972
Lassus J., "La ville d’Antioche à l’époque romaine d'après l'archéologie", ANRW 2.8, Berlin 1977, 54-102
Lassus J., "Antioche en 459 d’après la mosaique de Yakto", Balty, J. (ed.), Apamée de Syrie I, Bruxelles 1968, 137-146
Lassus J., "Les maisons d’Antioche", Balty, J. (ed.), Apamee de Syrie, 3, Brussels 1980
Le Rider G., "Antioche de Syrie sous les Séleucides", Corpus des monnaies d’or et d’argent, I, De Séleucos I a Antiochos V, Paris 1999
Meeks W.A., Wilken R., Jews and Christians in Antioch in the first four centuries of the common era, Missoula Mont 1978
Norris F.W., "Antioch-on-the Orontes as a Religious Center, I. Paganism before Constantine", ANRW, 2.18.4, 2322-2379
Wallace-Hadrill D.S., Christian Antioch. A study of early Christian thought in the East, Cambridge 1982
Wilken R., John Chrysostom and the Jews. Rhetoric and reality in the late 4th century, Berkeley 1983
Will E., "Antioche sur l’Oronte, Métropole d’Asie", Syria, 74, 1997, 99-113
Waage D.B., Stillwell R., Antioch-on-the-Orontes. Publications of the Archaeological Excavations in the plain of Antioch, Princeton 1938
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Δικτυογραφία : Antioch Mosaics http://www.sacred-destinations.com/turkey/antioch-mosaic-photos/index.html Antioch Mosaics http://cti.itc.virginia.edu/~jjd5t/ant-pics/ Antoninianii from the mint of Antioch under the Reign of Philip the Arab (244-249 AD) http://marchal.thibaut.free.fr/e_buststyle.htm The Antiochene School http://mariannedorman.homestead.com/Antioch.html
Γλωσσάριo : bouleuterion Council house. An assembly hall for magistrates or members of the council. consul, -lis An official of the Roman state. In the period of the Republic, it was the highest military and political office: two consuls were elected each year. The consular office survived into the Imperial period (and further into the early Byzantine period), becoming a honorary post. gymnasium The gymnasium was one of the most important centres of public life in Greek cities. The institution of the gymnasium, directly connected with the development of the Greek city, aimed to create virtuous citizens and gallant warriors. As educational institutions of public character, the gymnasia were intended for the physical and theoretical education of the young and consisted of separate spaces for special purposes. stoa, portico, the A long building with a roof supported by one or two colonnades parallel to its back wall.
Πηγές Eunapius, Lives of the philosophers and sophists, (ed.) W.C. Wright, London 1922 (Loeb series)
John Chrysostom, Discours sur Babylas, (ed.) M.A. Schatkin, and Homélie sur Babylas, (ed.) Grillet, B.-Guinot, J.N., Sources Chrétiennes 362, (Paris 1990).
Libanius, Autobiography and selected letters, A.F.Norman, London1965 (Loeb series)
Libanius, Selected works, 3 vols, (ed.) A.F.Norman, London 1969-1974 (Loeb series)
Theodoret, Historia Religiosa, P.G. 82, 1283-1496 and Canivet, P., Théodoret de Cyr, Histoire Philothée, (Paris 1977).
IGLS = Jalabert,P.- Mouterde R., Inscriptions grecques et latines de la Syrie, (1929-1967). Prentice, W., «Greek and Latin Inscriptions», in Butler, H.C., Princeton Archaeological Expedition to Syria, 1904-1905, (Princeton 1908).
Παραθέματα Immediately after his victory over Antigonus Poliorcetes, [199] Seleucus Nicator, who wanted to establish some eminent cities, began to found [cities] by the coast of Syria. Going down by the sea, he saw a small city situated on the mountain, which had been founded by Syrus son of Agenor. On the 23rd day of the month of Xanthicus, Seleucus went up to Mount Casius in order to sacrifice to Zeus Casius. After completing the sacrifice and cutting the meat, Seleucus prayed [to be shown] where to found a city. Suddenly an eagle snatched the meat from the sacrifice and took it away to the old city. Following behind with his augurs, Seleucus found that the meat had been dropped near the sea below the old city, in the place called the trading-station of Pieria. Immediately he constructed walls
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and built the foundations of a city, which he called Seleuceia after his own name. He returned rejoicing to Iopolis and after three days he celebrated a festival there for Zeus Ceraunius, in the temple which had been established by Perseus, the son of Picus and Danae, on Mount Silpius, where Iopolis is situated. He performed the sacrifice on the first day of the month of Artemisius.
Seleucus came to the city of Antigonia, which had been founded by Antigonus Poliorcetes. The city was surrounded and defended by the river Archeuthas, also called the Iaphthas, which is another river which flows from the lake. There Seleucus performed a sacrifice to Zeus on the altars erected by Antigonus; he cut the meat and prayed with the priest Amphion for a sign to be given, to show whether he should settle the city of Antigonia, [200] and change its name, or he should abandon the city and found another city somewhere else. Suddenly a great eagle came down from the sky and snatched the meat of the offering from the fire on the altar. The eagle flew off by Mount Silpius, where Seleucus followed it and found the consecrated meat, with the eagle poised over it. When Seleucus and the priest and the augurs saw this marvel, they said, "We must settle here, and not in Antigonia; the city must not be there, because the gods do not wish it." And then he consulted with them as to where he might safely build the city, because he was worried by the streams and winter torrents which came down from Mount Silpius. He laid the foundations of the city at the bottom of the valley opposite the mountain, by the great river Dracon which was renamed Orontes, where there was a village called Bottia, opposite Iopolis. After Amphion, the high priest, had sacrificed a virgin girl called Aemathe between the city and the river, Seleucus [founded the city] on the 22nd day of the month of Artemisius which is also May, at the first hour of the day as the sun was rising, and he called the city Antioch, after the name of his son Antiochus Soter.
He immediately started to build a temple, which he dedicated to Zeus Bottius, and he erected imposing walls, designed by the architect Xenaeus. [201] He set up a bronze statue of the slaughtered girl as Tyche [Fortune] in the city above the river, and immediately made a sacrifice to Tyche. Then he went away and razed the city of Antigonia down to the ground; he took away the materials by river, and set up a statue of Tyche of Antigonia, with the horn of Amaltheia in front of it. There he set up a shrine with four pillars, and placed Tyche above it, and he built a tall altar in front of it; [...]
After destroying Antigonia, Seleucus forced the Athenians who lived there to move to Antioch the great. [...] Seleucus set up an imposing statue of Athene at Antioch, on account of the Athenians, who worshipped Athene. Seleucus also brought down from the citadel the Cretans, whom Casus the son of Inachus had allowed to dwell up there; the Cretans came down to live in Antioch along with some Cypriots, because king Casus had married Amyce, also known as Citia, [202] the daughter of Sasalaminus the king of the Cypriots, and some Cypriots had come with her and settled in the acropolis. [...] Seleucus also urged the Argive inhabitants of Iopolis to move away from there, and made them live in Antioch, as priests and noble citizens.
J. Malalas, Chronicle, 8, 198-202. (transl.: http://www.attalus.org/translate/malalas.html)
Χρονολόγιο 300 BC. Foundation of Antioch by Seleucos Nikator by tranferring the habitants of the small settlement of Antigoneia
64 BC Foundation of the Roman Province of Syria. Antiochia became the capital of the Province.
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