The Future of Hydrogen in Region Uppsala a Case Study of an Electrolyser As a Node in the District Heating Network

Uppsala University logotype

SAMINT-STS; 21002 Degree project 15 credits June 2021

The future of hydrogen in Region Uppsala A case study of an electrolyser as a node in the district heating network

Vilma Grehn, Fredrik Munters & Lovisa Stenhammar

Master of Science Programme in Sociotechnical Systems Engineering (STS)

Uppsala University logotype

The future of hydrogen in Uppsala

Vilma Grehn, Fredrik Munters & Lovisa Stenhammar

Abstract This report aims to analyse how an electrolyser would benefit Region Uppsala in the transition to a more sustainable society and where it would be most beneficial to place it. The studied locations for placement were in Uppsala, Storvreta and Knivsta. The possibilities of how the residual products oxygen and residual heat could be utilized from the electrolysis process is investigated. The economic calculation includes incomes and expenses of all components in the electrolysis process on a yearly basis and on a 15-years period. The climate calculation includes the reduction of CO2-equivalent emissions when using the waste heat from the electrolyser into the district heating network. Since Uppsala got the bus storage in Kungsängen which makes it possible to utilize the hydrogen, the solar park which makes the electricity cheaper and a district heating network that can utilize the residual heat, it seems like Uppsala is the most beneficial place to build a hydrogen fuel station.

Faculty of Science and Technology, Uppsala University. Uppsala. Supervisor: Marcus Nystrand, Subject reader: Fel! Hittar inte referenskälla., Examiner: Joakim Widén

Faculty of Science and Technology Uppsala University, Uppsala

Supervisor: Marcus Nystrand Subject reader: Lukas Dahlström Examiner: Joakim Widén

Preface

This study is a bachelor thesis from the Master of Science Programme in Sociotechnical Systems Engineering profiling on Energy systems at Uppsala University written in year 2021. The project is an order from Region Uppsala in a close collaboration with Uppsala University and STUNS Energy Stories.

We would like to thank our supervisor Lukas Dahlström at Uppsala University who has been supportive and helpful through the project, it has been invaluable. Also, we want to thank Marcus Nystrand and Mikael Åhlman at Region Uppsala for sharing your great knowledge with us. Many thanks to the people who have lined up for interviews and helped us do this project in the best possible way.

Table of contents

1. Introduction ...... 3 1.1 Purpose ...... 4 1.2 Research questions ...... 4 1.3 Delimitations and limitations ...... 4 2. Background ...... 4 2.1 About electrolysers ...... 4 2.1.1 Polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysis ...... 5 2.1.2 Alkaline electrolyser ...... 6 2.1.3 Solid oxide electrolyser ...... 6 2.2 About hydrogen ...... 6 2.2.1 Hydrogen as fuel in transportation ...... 7 2.2.2 Other uses of hydrogen ...... 7 2.2.3 Hydrogen politics ...... 8 2.3 About district heating ...... 9 3. Methodology ...... 10 3.1 Model description ...... 10 3.2 Case study ...... 11 3.2.1 Uppsala ...... 11 3.2.2 Storvreta and Knivsta ...... 13 3.3 Data ...... 14 3.3.1 Economic Data ...... 14 3.3.2 District heating Data ...... 16 3.3.3 Transport sector Data ...... 16 3.4 Calculations ...... 18 3.4.1 Electrolyser calculations ...... 19 3.4.2 Economic calculations ...... 20 3.4.3 Climate calculations ...... 21 3.4.4 Transport sector calculations ...... 21 3.5 Sensitivity analysis ...... 22 4. Results ...... 23 4.1 Electrolyser as a node in the district heating network ...... 23 4.1.1 Storvreta ...... 24 4.1.2 Knivsta ...... 25 4.1.3 Uppsala ...... 27 4.2 Economic calculations ...... 28 4.3 Vehicles ...... 29

4.4 Oxygen ...... 30 4.5 Safety ...... 32 5. Sensitivity analysis ...... 32 5.1 Different price of hydrogen ...... 32 5.2 Residual heat ...... 34 5.3 Oxygen ...... 36 5.4 Solar plant ...... 37 5.5 Investment support ...... 38 5.6 Bus economy ...... 40 6. Discussion ...... 41 6.1 Locations ...... 41 6.2 Hydrogen usage in the transport sector ...... 43 6.2.1 The market ...... 43 6.2.2 Buses ...... 44 6.2.3 Other vehicles ...... 45 6.3 Oxygen ...... 45 7. Conclusions ...... 46 8. References ...... 48

1. Introduction

One of the main challenges of our time is the climate crisis where the world tries to replace the fossil energy that powers our society with renewable energy to avoid further climate change. The fossil fuels have been the main sources of energy since the industrialisation and now the ambition is to replace them in a couple of decades, which means that this change affects the whole society. Today most of the energy produced in the world is from fossil sources, and the use of energy is also going to increase when new parts of the world get industrialised. Renewable sources are sources as solar power which are renewable in one lifetime or shorter, fossil fuels are energy sources such as coal and oil that takes longer time than a lifetime to reproduce. Therefore, the renewable energy must both replace the fossil energy that is produced today and increase the total energy production (REN21 2017).

Hydrogen gas is one of the most promising upcoming technologies in the energy sector. This is mainly because hydrogen has a high energy density and is possible to utilize in many ways. One important distinction to make is that hydrogen is not an energy source, but it can be used to store energy and therefore it is called an energy carrier. The possibility to store energy is a good complement to the renewable sources that are dependent of the weather (Fossilfritt Sverige 2021). Therefore, hydrogen has a role to play in the transition from fossil to renewable energy. Hydrogen could also be used in the transport sector as fossil-free fuel and there are also many uses of hydrogen in the industrial area (Vätgas Sverige n.d.b). When producing hydrogen an electrolyser could be used to split up water into hydrogen and oxygen with electricity. If this electricity is produced by renewable energy sources, the electrolysis process is a climate friendly method (US Department of energy n.d.b).

Hydrogen has been discussed for decades without much action. However, in the summer of 2020 the European Parliament decided to invest 430 billion euros in hydrogen technology in the next ten years. Therefore, there are possibilities to get subsides for a huge part of the investment cost of hydrogen technology from the EU (EU n.d.). This means that the situation has changed a lot in the last years and the future seems promising. Uppsala has investigated the possibilities of hydrogen gas before. In 2016 a report was made by SWECO on the subject. The preparation study examines the conditions for producing renewable hydrogen in Uppsala (Mohseni, F. & Görling, M. 2016). No hydrogen production has started in Uppsala since then.

Region Uppsala, which is the Regional Council, wants to be a world leader in renewable energy and one way to do that is to use hydrogen as an energy carrier. Therefore, Region Uppsala has assigned a project to engineering students to get some help with implementation opportunities and how profitable the opportunities are. This bachelor thesis is partly built on the chapter about an electrolyser as a node in the district heating network in the preparation study from SWECO (Mohseni, F. & Görling, M. 2016). This is done in a transdisciplinary perspective, focusing on the socially, climatically and economically benefits. The project does not only include the uses of hydrogen but also the residual products created in the electrolysis process.

1.1 Purpose

The aim of this project is to analyse how an electrolyser would benefit Region Uppsala in the transition to a more sustainable society. The possibilities of how the residual products oxygen and residual heat could be utilized from the electrolysis process are investigated. Furthermore, it is discussed where in Region Uppsala it is the most beneficial place the electrolyser. A comparison is done on three different places in Region Uppsala.

1.2 Research questions

The report aims to answer the following questions:

§ Which social, economic and climate effects could an electrolyser connected as a node to the district heating network in Region Uppsala contribute with?

§ Where in Region Uppsala would it be most beneficial to place an electrolyser, in Uppsala, Storvreta or Knivsta?

§ How can oxygen formed during the electrolysis process be utilized for social, economic and climate benefits?

1.3 Delimitations and limitations

In this report the possibilities of placing an electrolyser in Region Uppsala will only be investigated at three different locations in the region, in Storvreta, Knivsta and Uppsala. The main reason why these places are chosen is because all of them got district heating networks which are necessary to utilize the residual heat.

Further, there are a lot of different uses of hydrogen but in this project it was chosen to look deeper into the use of hydrogen in the transportation sector. It would be by interest to investigate other application areas too, but due to a limit of time it is only possible investigate one use in detail. Another delimitation used in the calculations is that it will be assumed that the electrolyser will be a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) at 1.5 MW, no other dimensions or electrolyser types will be investigated.

2. Background

2.1 About electrolysers

In order to produce hydrogen with renewable electricity an electrolyser can be used. In this process electricity is used for splitting water molecules into oxygen and hydrogen. Usually, only the hydrogen is collected and utilized. Since the only residual products from the electrolysis process are oxygen and heat, this is an environmentally friendly method. If it is

powered by renewable electricity the electrolysis process has zero greenhouse gas emissions (US Department of energy n.d.b).

�� + 2�!� → 2�! + �! + �� (1)

The electrolyser consumes lots of electricity and therefore the supply of electricity is important to investigate. An electrolyser can regulate its use of electric power fast, which means that electroysers could be a possibility to help stabilizing the electric grid. For example, The Silyzer 300 electrolyser can regulate its load with 10% per second (Siemens 2020).

To use less electricity from the electric grid there is a possibility to connect the electrolyser to a solar farm and this solution has successfully been tried in Mariestad. The electricity from solar farms is free from taxes and other fees if it is produced on the same site as it is consumed, this concept is called behind the meter. Approximately, the electricity price is half of the price compared to the electricity from the grid. Also, the facility might get a lower cost for the connection to the electric grid if the peak of consumed power can be reduced with the help of solar energy.1 Solar farms produce most energy in the summer when the demand of power in the society is the lowest, which means the solar park will not help much the days when there is a shortage of capacity in the grid (Energimyndigheten 2018).

2.1.1 Polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysis

There are different types of electrolysers, and the electrolysis process is a bit different in each of these. The most usual electrolyser is called PEM, which stands for polymer electrolyte membrane electrolyser. In this process one water molecule is split up into one oxygen molecule and four protons on the anode side of the electrolyser. This is because the water molecule is positively charged on the hydrogen side and negatively charged on the oxygen side, opposite charges are attracted to each other and therefore it splits. Thereafter the residual product oxygen leaves the electrolyser, and the protons move through the PEM to the cathode side. At the same time the electrons move through a circuit from the anode to the cathode. Then on the cathode side the protons react with the electrons, and hydrogen is produced (US Department of energy n.d.b).

1 Sandberg Tom and Dalili Simon, Vattenfall Samenergi, interview from 8th of April 2021

Figure 1: PEM electrolyser (US Department of energy n.d.b).

2.1.2 Alkaline electrolyser

The alkaline electrolyser, hereafter called AEL, has two electrodes in a liquid alkaline electrolyte solution of NaOH or KOH. A diaphragm separates these electrodes to distribute the product gases and transporting the hydroxide ions between the electrodes. It is important that there are ions in the liquid to allow the electrolysis process to occur. AEL is today cheaper than PEM with lower production costs and a mature technology. Furthermore, you could switch the electrolyte which extends the sustainability for the electrolyser (Chen, L., Dong, X., Wang, Y. & Xia Y. 2016).

2.1.3 Solid oxide electrolyser

The solid oxide electrolyser, hereafter called SOEC, needs a temperature of 700-800°C for the membrane to work, which is a much higher temperature than what is needed in a PEM and an alkaline electrolyser. This kind of electrolysers has a cathode side where the water reacts with the electrons moving in the external circuit. In this reaction hydrogen is produced, but also oxygen with a negative charge. The negative charged oxygen is then moving through the membrane to the anode side where it loses its negative charge and becomes oxygen gas. The free electron after this reaction moves to the external circuit. The SOEC technology is still on an experimental stage (US Department of Energy n.d.a).

2.2 About hydrogen

Hydrogen is not an energy source itself, but an energy carrier which is possible to store in gas tanks and has high energy density. These are properties that batteries and many other energy carriers lack, and therefore hydrogen is believed to have a role to play in the future energy systems (DNV n.d.). Hydrogen has many possibilities in the energy system due to its unique properties. For example, there is a Swedish project called HYBRIT which aims to produce the first fossil free steel. The idea is to replace the fossil fuels in that process with hydrogen, that is produced in an electrolyser powered by renewable electricity (Vattenfall 2019).

The production of hydrogen is mainly done with two different methods, reforming of natural gas and electrolysis. In this report the later alternative will be investigated, but just 5% of the

global production of hydrogen is done by electrolysis. If the electrolyser is powered by fossil free electricity, so called green hydrogen is produced with the electrolysis. Reformation of natural gas to hydrogen, which corresponds to 95% of the global market, results in emissions of fossil greenhouse gases and is called grey hydrogen (Fossilfritt Sverige 2021).

2.2.1 Hydrogen as fuel in transportation

The reason why hydrogen is suitable for use in transportation sector is that it has a high energy density and is quick to refuel. With the high energy density, the vehicles can travel longer distances with a lighter fuel load which is an advantage compared to battery cars. These properties make hydrogen suitable for especially heavy transportation were lots of energy is needed which would make batteries with their lower energy density too heavy and slow to reload.2

Currently there are four active hydrogen fuel stations operating in Sweden. These are situated in Mariestad, Arlanda, Sandviken and Umeå. Most of these are used to fuel passenger cars, but in the end of 2021 two fuel cell buses will begin operating in Sandviken.3 In an interview with Boh Westerlund, who is the CEO in the hydrogen fuel station company Oazer, he mentioned how important it is to have a good agreement with the company that will take care of the maintenance of the fuel station. So that it does not break, and it if it breaks, it will not remain broken for a longer period of time. Further he says this is more important than which kind of electrolyser that is used in the fuel station, which could be PEM or alkaline for example.4

In this rapport the term fuel cell is used, and it refers to fuel cell that is powered by hydrogen even though there are fuel cells that can be powered by other fuels. The fuel cell converts hydrogen and oxygen to electricity, water and heat. Almost like a electrolyser but in the other direction. A fuel cell vehicle works as following. Hydrogen is fuelled in a hydrogen tank at a pressure of 300 or 700 bars. The pressure of 300 bars is usually used for heavy transportation and 700 bars is used for passenger cars. From the hydrogen tank in the vehicle, the hydrogen is dispensed into a fuel cell and in the fuel cell hydrogen is converted into electricity, water and heat. The electricity is used to charge a battery which powers the electric engine, the heat can be used for heating in the vehicle and the water is let out (Vätgas Sverige n.d.a).

2.2.2 Other uses of hydrogen

Industrial use

2 Westerlund Boh, Oazer, interview 4th of April 2021 3 Aronsson Björn, Vätgas Sverige, interview 20th of April 2021 4 Westerlund, interview 7

There are many uses of hydrogen in the industry, both in chemical in processes like bleaching, but also in welding and heating. Also, it is an important chemical when producing fertilizers for agriculture (Fossilfritt Sverige 2021).

Fuel cells that transform the hydrogen back to electricity

The electricity price varies a lot and will most likely vary even more in the future. Therefore, one common idea is to produce hydrogen with an electrolyser when the price is low and then transform the hydrogen back to electricity through a fuel cell when the price is higher again (Fossilfritt Sverige 2021). Both an electrolyser and a fuel cell, that does not use the residual heat, has an efficiency of about 70%, this means that the total efficiency of turning electricity to hydrogen and back again is about 50%.5

Creating methane

Hydrogen can be used in a process to create methane, and therefore one possibility is to increase the production in of methane in Kungsängen. The methane is used mainly for the buses, but also other vehicles can use the station. Since the infrastructure is already built and since there are already some methane powered vehicles on the road, the problem with finding customers is eliminated (Mohseni, F. & Görling, M. 2016).

2.2.3 Hydrogen politics

Hydrogen fuel cell technology has existed for decades, but now it seems like a tipping point were both politicians and companies are willing to invest in this technology. This is probably due to that the hydrogen technology has matured a lot, and that the need for environmentally friendly technology has increased.6 To get a perspective of the political initiatives related to hydrogen, a couple of hydrogen related initiatives are listed below. From many of these initiatives it is possible to get financial support.

European Union

In the summer of 2020, the European parliament decided to invest 430 billion euros in hydrogen technology in the coming decade. The money will both support scaling up the production and the demand of green hydrogen. Also, the ambition with these investments is to coordinate the hydrogen actors and engage civil society. There is also an EU financed project called Nordic Hydrogen Corridor with ambition to develop hydrogen fuel station infrastructure in Scandinavia (Nordic hydrogen partnership n.d.).

5 Westerlund, interview

6 Aronsson, interview 8

Sweden

There are several initiatives in Sweden that stive to both investigate and invest in hydrogen technologies (Riksdagen 2021). It is possible to get financial support for hydrogen related technology through industriklivet, which is a project under the administration of Energimyndigheten. From Klimatpremien it is possible to get support for buying heavy transportation fuel cell vehicles such as buses. There are also both electrifying and hydrogen strategies being developed by the government. The electrifying strategy also includes some ideas related to hydrogen.

Organisations

Non-governmental organisations and companies can have a major influence on politics and the development. Many transportation manufacturers have put a lot of money into development of fuel cell vehicles and therefore they have an interest of building hydrogen fuel station infrastructure. For example, Volvo and Daimler demands 300 hydrogen fuel stations in Europe before 2025 and 1000 hydrogen fuel stations before 2030. They mainly see the potential of hydrogen in heavy transportations (Dagens Industri 2021).

2.3 About district heating

More than half of all buildings in Sweden are heated by district heating. District heating is environmentally friendly, cost effective and has reliable maintenance costs. The process for district heating starts with heating up water by incineration in a big central facility. The water is mainly heated by renewable and fossil free fuels, such as wood chips from the forest industry, excess heat from industries or leftover waste. In well insulated pipes the hot water is sent to be able to reach out to households, companies and other buildings that will use the district heating.7

In every building that has district heating there is a heat exchanger so that the heat could be transferred to the buildings own heating system. Only the heat is transferred, not the district heating water. Later, the district heating water travels back to the central facility to reheat and in this way heating up more buildings. On the way back to the main power plant the water could be useful by heating the ground so that no ice layer forms, for example on sidewalks and cycle paths (Energiföretagen 2021).

7 Sandberg and Dalili, interview

Figure 2: District heating principles.8

In the PEM electrolysis process about 30% of the input electricity becomes heat and the rest becomes hydrogen gas. In order not to lose one-third of the energy in this process it can be reused in the district heating system. The generated heat has a temperature of about 70-80°C in a PEM electrolysis process (Mohseni, F. & Görling, M. 2016).

3. Methodology

3.1 Model description

In this project Microsoft Excel was used to do the economic calculations. These include incomes and expenses of all components in the electrolysis process on a yearly basis. Economic calculations on a 15-year period were also done in Excel with the investment costs included. The Excel calculations made it easy to switch parameters, for example the price of the hydrogen, and thereafter all the economically values re-calculated.

The reduction of CO2-equivalent emissions when using the waste heat from the electrolyser into the district heating network was calculated in Excel. Data from Vattenfall, which is an energy company, made it possible to calculate how many tons of CO2-equivalents emissions that could be reduced per year if the residual heat was used into the district heating network.

In this project the three different places Storvreta, Knivsta and Uppsala were investigated.

Also, the use of hydrogen in the transport sector was investigated. Calculations of how many different types of vehicles that a hydrogen fuel station could provide fuel for were done. In these calculations the hydrogen consumption of heavy trucks, light trucks, passenger cars and buses were compared. A comparison between different types of buses was done to investigate the economically differences between fuel cell buses and other types of buses.

When the calculations were done, an analysis of the result from an economically, socially and climatically perspective could be done to find the most beneficial usage of an electrolyser in Region Uppsala.

8 Åberg Magnus, Uppsala university, 6th of April 2021

Semi-structured interviews are one of the most important sources of information in this project. Totally, seven interviews occurred, and all nine interview objects were knowledgeable in their respective fields. Some of the interview objects were experts in hydrogen, while others were experts in district heating and oxygen. In two of the interviews the experts had been involved in hydrogen fuel station projects in other places in Sweden. Most of the interviews were recorded and transcribed afterwards, in that way it was possible to only focusing listening and asking follow-up questions during the interview. All the interviews occurred online at Zoom or Teams, which enabled interviews with people all over Sweden.

3.2 Case study

Three different locations in Region Uppsala were investigated in this project. These places were chosen since all of them have district heating networks.

3.2.1 Uppsala

Almost nine out of ten inhabitants living in Uppsala are connected to the district heating network which means it covers most of the city. There is also a district cooling and a steam network in Uppsala. The heat plant in Boländerna and the district heating network is run by Vattenfall which already is involved in similar projects to reuse residual heat. For example, Lindvalls Kaffe in Uppsala is already connected to deliver residual heat to the district heating network (Vattenfall n.d.f).

Figure 3: Uppsala’s district heating network (Vattenfall n.d.a).

Figure 4: Most of the fuel is waste, especially in the summertime (Vattenfall 2016).

One aspect of the district heating network in Uppsala is that the fuel is much cheaper compared to the other investigated locations since waste is used in the fuel mix. The combustion of waste is enough to cover the need of heat in Uppsala in summertime, from May to September, see Figure 4. Because of this the residual heat is not usable in the summer and that means it must be wasted. Also, Vattenfall is obliged to destroy the waste and therefore it is not possible to affect the use of waste.9

In Uppsala the region has built a couple of solar cell parks, and two of them close to the bus station. For example, one is called Verkstaden and has a capacity of 189.75 kWp (Energiportal Region Uppsala n.d.). Also, the company Vasakronan in collaboration with Vattenfall has built one solar park with a capacity of 4.4 MWp located in Boländerna (Vasakronan 2019). Vasakronan is a real estate company located in Uppsala. The construction of the Vasakronan solar park was finished in 2021 and is intended to produce 4.8 GWh per year (Vasakronan 2019). The electric grid in Uppsala has a shortage of capacity 200 hours per year which means it could be a problem with connecting a new load to the electric grid (Uppsala kommun 2020). The water network in Uppsala is managed by Uppsala Vatten and covers the places that can be seen in Figure 5.10

Uppsala has plans to expand in the southern direction in order to create thousands of new homes. This means that the need of district heating and water will increase in these parts of the city (Uppsala kommun 2018). The electric energy supply to Uppsala is going to increase to 2024, and therefore it will be easier to get allowance to connect a heavy load to the electric grid than it is today (Svenska kraftnät 2020).

9 Sandberg and Dalili, interview 10 Ibid

Figure 5: The water network in Uppsala (Uppsala Kommun 2014).

3.2.2 Storvreta and Knivsta

The district heating network in Storvreta is mainly fuelled by pellet fuel which is a more expensive fuel than the fuel used in Knivsta and Uppsala. Also, the district heating network has a slightly lower temperature compared to the network in Uppsala and this makes this network more suitable for using residual heat of low temperature.11 The district heating networks in Knivsta and Storvreta differs from the one in central Uppsala since the power plants are fuelled by bioenergy instead of waste. This means that fuel can be saved all year through if the residual heat is taken care of in this system instead of the system in Uppsala.12

Figure 6: The district heating network in Storvreta (Vattenfall n.d.c).

Also, the district heating networks in Knivsta and Storvreta differs from the one in Uppsala in another way. That is because the system it is not affected negative way if the temperature of the water on the secondary side, on the way back to the power plant, has a high temperature.

11 Sandberg and Dalili, interview 12 Ibid

Another thing that makes these systems different from the one in Uppsala is that they are of a much smaller scale.13

Figure 7: The district heating network in Knivsta (Vattenfall n.d.b).

3.3 Data

In the following section the data used in the Excel calculations through the project will be presented.

3.3.1 Economic Data

Region Uppsala paid an average price of 0.835 SEK/kWh for electricity in 2020. It is reasonable to assume that the electrolyser will have about the same electricity price if it runs on electricity from the grid and have the same tax. If the electrolyser also uses electricity from a solar farm built on the same site, the electricity cost would be considerably lower. Through the project it will be assumed that if the electrolyser is placed in Uppsala, then some electricity will be bought from the solar plant Vasakronan. Furthermore, if the process qualifies as an electrolytic process according to Swedish law the energy taxes can be reduced and therefore make the electricity from the solar farm cheaper.14 It is likely that the process qualifies since the tax office explicitly uses production of hydrogen gas as an example of such processes that can get a tax reduction (Skatteverket, n.d.). The price when buying electricity directly from the solar plant Vasakronan in Uppsala is 0.221 SEK/kWh, which is the average spot price in 2020 from NordPool (NordPool n.d.).

According to Uppsala Vatten, who take care of water and waste in Uppsala, the water price per kilogram is about 0.025 SEK/kg when having a water consumption of about 1700m3 per year. The same price is valid for Storvreta. Uppsala Vatten is about to increase the price of water soon, but it is not decided how much.15 The same price is assumed

13 Åberg, interview 14 Nystrand Marcus, Region Uppsala, email from 3rd of May 2021 15 Wicén Jan, Uppsala Vatten, email from 3rd of May 2021

in Knivsta, even though Roslagsvatten, which handle the water in Knivsta, did not confirm this during the project.

To find a reasonable hydrogen price, comparisons of different prices have been made with other hydrogen fuel stations. One difficulty is that the price both depends on the cost of producing hydrogen and the demand of the hydrogen gas. The market is yet small and therefore it is difficult to see an established hydrogen price that all the distributors use, like the oil price. Since hydrogen is the main product in the electrolysis process, the result will be highly dependent of this parameter. Arlanda has a hydrogen price of 80 SEK/kg (Alpman, A. 2015). This price is slightly higher than the diesel price in terms of how much it does cost per kilometre according to the calculations made in the report. The other hydrogen fuel stations in Sweden have about the same price or higher. The upper limit could be estimated to 100 SEK per kg since that would make hydrogen considerably more expensive than other comparable fuels.

The heat income parameters are supplied by Vattenfall which operates the district heating network. For Uppsala it is 280 SEK/MWh, for Knivsta it is 220 SEK/MWh and for Storvreta it is 390 SEK/MWh. These numbers are for a heat input of 0.5 MW and is a prognosis and therefore no guarantee. It is possible that the real price can be both higher and lower.16

The oxygen income parameter, 2 SEK/kg, is based on the preparation study from SWECO (Mohseni, F. & Görling, M. 2016). However, income for oxygen is dependent on the possibilities to find a utilization of it, since it is produced more than a million kilograms of oxygen per year.

Table 1: Prices for the products in the electrolysis process summarized in a table. The electrolysis process requires electricity and water and generates waste heat, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Electrolysis process Prices during electrolysis process Input Expenses Electricity from the grid 0.835 SEK/kWh Electricity from Vasakronan 0.221 SEK/kWh Water 0.025 SEK/kg

Output Incomes Waste heat Storvreta 390 SEK/MWh Waste heat Knivsta 220 SEK/MWh Waste heat Uppsala 280 SEK/MWh Hydrogen 80 SEK/kg Oxygen 2 SEK/kg

16 Sandberg Tom, Vattenfall Samenergi, email from 14th of April 2021

Furthermore, a maintenance cost will be added, it is estimated to be 1.525 MSEK per year (Mohseni, F. & Görling, M. 2016).

Table 2: Investments cost for the electrolyser plant at 1.5 MW

Electrolyser plant elements Price [MSEK] Electrolyser 12.0 Storage 4.0 Fuel pump 10.0 Infrastructure 1.6 Planning 2.8 Sum 30.4 Source: (Mohseni, F. & Görling, M. 2016)

3.3.2 District heating Data

This section includes data regarding the district heating networks. Table 3 shows the yearly consumption of district heat in Storvreta, Knivsta and Uppsala. Further, Table 4 presents the emissions of CO2-equivalents from the district heating plant per year, expressed in ton/GWh.

Table 3: Yearly district heat consumption

Location Yearly consumption [GWh/year] Storvreta 13 Knivsta 53 Uppsala 1288 Source: (Vattenfall 2020)

Table 4: CO2-equivalent emissions from the district heating plants

Location [ton/GWh] Storvreta 36 Knivsta 26 Uppsala 181 Source: (Vattenfall 2020)

3.3.3 Transport sector Data

In this section, data regarding the transport sector is presented. Table 5 describes the vehicle fleet in Uppsala Municipality and this table also include a yearly average distance for each vehicle type. Table 6 shows the hydrogen consumption per kilometre for different types of fuel cell vehicles, while Table 7-8 describes information regarding different types of buses.

Table 5: The vehicle fleet in Uppsala Municipality and the average distance per year for each vehicle type 16

Vehicles [vehicles] Average distance [km/year] Heavy trucks 42 40570 Light truck 229 13390 Fossil cars 192 11710 Biofuel cars 259 11710 Source: John Strömfors at Uppsala Municipality17

Table 6: This table shows how much hydrogen different types of vehicles consumes in kg hydrogen per km.

Fuel cell vehicle Consumption [kg H2/km] Passenger cars 0.010 A Light truck 0.046 A Heavy truck 0.080 A Bus 0.090 B Source: A Björn Andersson at Vätgas Sverige18 B (Eurotransport 2017)

Table 7: In Region Uppsala all the buses are divided in two different classifications, class I and class II.

Bus Classification Number of buses Distance per year for a bus of each classification [km/year] Class I: 175 60000 Class II: 365 70000 Source: (Trafikanalys 2020)

17 Strömfors John, Uppsala Kommun, email from 15th of April 2021 18 Aronsson, interview

Table 8: The table below shows different types of fuel for the buses.

Buses in [buses] Fuel price Investment cost Energy Region [millions SEK] consumption Uppsala HVO buses 393 A 17.12 SEK/liter C 2.50 A 9.17 kWh/liter G

Biofuel buses 110 A 17.94 SEK/liter C 3.00 B 9.70 kWh/m3 G Unknown bus 37 A - - - Electric bus 0 A 1.5 SEK/kWh F 4.25 B 1.40 kWh/km H

Fuel cell bus 0 A 80 SEK/kg D 6.00 E 33.00 kWh/kg I Source: A Anders Engvall at Region Uppsala19 B Lena Kristoffersson at Region Uppsala20 C (Circle K 2021) D SWECO preparation study (Mohseni, F. & Görling, M. 2016) E Björn Andersson at Vätgas Sverige21 F (Vattenfall n.d.e) G (Miljöfordon 2020) H (Vattenfall 2015) I (Vätgas 2021)

A biofuel bus has a range around 400 kilometers and sometimes it also has a gas tank in reserve to extend the range further. An electric bus has a range of 200-400 kilometers and the charging time is less than one hour. Fuel cell vehicles has the longest range, approximately 500 kilometers, and it is quick to refuel (Länsstyrelsen Gävleborg 2019).

3.4 Calculations

Four different types of calculations were made in this project with help of the data and with the use of Microsoft Excel. In the following section the method of the calculations will be described. All the calculations resulted in an Excel simulation that made it possible to change parameter values and then receive different results depending on the chosen parameters. In this section the result will not be presented, only the method of the calculations.

19 Engvall Anders, Region Uppsala, email from 16th of April 2021 20 Kristoffersson Lena, Region Uppsala, email from 27th of April 2021 21 Aronsson, interview

3.4.1 Electrolyser calculations

To begin with, it was necessary to calculate a relationship between all the components in the electrolysis process. The calculations are based on the equation (1) which is the chemical formula of the electrolysis process.

The relationship between the components in the chemical formula of the electrolysis process was calculated, it was chosen to calculate how much water, hydrogen, oxygen, and heat that is produced per kWh electricity. To execute the calculations, the relationship between mole (n), molar mass (M) and mass (m) was used:

� � = (2) �

Electricity

The electricity consumption for the electrolyser obtains of the electrolysers effect multiplied with the number of hours per year and by the proportion of the operating time.

Hydrogen

Due to SWECO’s preparation study the electricity required through the electrolysis process is 58 kWh electricity per kg produced hydrogen (Mohseni, F. & Görling, M. 2016). Further, it was possible to convert this to how many kg of hydrogen produced per kWh electricity.

1 �� = ! (3) ��ℎ �� ℎ �� !

The value from equation (3) was multiplied with the total electricity consumption of the electrolyser per year to receive how many kg of hydrogen the electrolyser could produce per year.

Water

Equation (2) was used to calculate how many kg of water needed per kWh electricity. The mole n of water is the same as for hydrogen due to the chemical formula of the electrolysis process, equation (1). Therefore, the mole of hydrogen was calculated. Later, the mole n per kWh water was multiplied with the molar mass of water to calculate how much water that was needed per kWh electricity.

�� = � ∗ � [ ! ] (4) "!# "!# "!# ��ℎ ��

In order to calculate how many kg of water that the electrolyser could produce per year, equation (4) was multiplied with the total electricity consumption per year.

Oxygen

Due to equation (1) oxygen has half the amount of mole compared to hydrogen and water. The molar mass of oxygen was found in the periodic table. Furthermore, the mass of oxygen produced per kWh electricity could be calculated with equation (2).

In order to calculate how many kg of oxygen that the electrolyser could produce per year, equation (5) was multiplied with the total electricity consumption per year.

�� = � ∗ � [ ! ] (5) #! #! #! ��ℎ ��

Heat

In the electrolysis process about 30% of the electricity becomes residual heat (Mohseni, F. & Görling, M. 2016). Therefore, 0.30 kWh waste heat is produced per kWh electricity. Further this means that the electrolyser has an efficiency of 70%.

To receive how many kg of waste heat that the electrolyser could produce per year, the produced waste heat per kWh electricity was multiplied with the total electricity consumption per year.

3.4.2 Economic calculations

For the economic calculations, data from Table 1 was used. In Storvreta and Knivsta, it was assumed that the electricity is all from the grid. The electricity price per year at these two places was calculated by multiplying the yearly consumption with the price per kWh electricity. In Uppsala the electrolyser is modeled as both using electricity from the grid and from the solar plant Vasakronan. Since only 4.8 GWh/year could be used from Vasakronan, the rest will be used from the grid. Therefore, the yearly electricity consumption from Vasakronan was multiplied with an average spot price per kWh from NordPool, and the yearly electricity consumption from the grid in Uppsala was multiplied with the electricity price per kWh from the grid. Then these two prices were added together to get the total price for electricity in Uppsala per year.

From the preparation study from SWECO the operating time is estimated to be 7400 hours per year. That corresponds to 84.5% of a year. The reason why an operating time of 100% is not estimated is for example because of time for maintenance. Also, other factors could stop the process. such as high electricity prices or low demand for hydrogen.

The yearly income for the hydrogen was received by multiplying the price of hydrogen per kg with the amount of yearly produced hydrogen. Furthermore, the same method could be used in order to calculate the total potential income for oxygen per year and also the cost for water. There is a specific price for the waste heat at each location, as described in Table 1. The yearly income for the waste heat was received by multiplying the waste heat price per MWh

with the yearly produced waste heat from the electrolysis process. This was done for all the locations.

3.4.3 Climate calculations

Data from Table 3 and 4 was used to calculate the reduction of the emissions. These calculations were done to measure how many tons of CO2 equivalents that could be saved by using the residual heat from the electrolyser in the districts heating networks in Storvreta, Knivsta and Uppsala. The same calculation method was used in all the three locations.

When using the waste heat from the electrolyser, less heat will be produced in the district heating plants. Therefore, this new district heat consumption per year, without the waste heat included, was calculated. This was done by subtract the district heat consumption in 2020, with the yearly waste heat production of the electrolyser. This was expressed in the unit GWh/year.

Further, by multiplying the new district heat consumption with the CO2-equivalent emission from the district heating plant, expressed in tons/GWh, the reduction of CO2-equivalent emissions could further be calculated. The reduction of CO2 equivalents for Storvreta, Knivsta and Uppsala will be expressed in tons/year in the result section below.

3.4.4 Transport sector calculations

Different calculations were done for different types of vehicles to calculate how many of the specific vehicles the electrolyser could supply hydrogen fuel for. Since there are differences in hydrogen consumption between heavy trucks, light trucks, passenger cars and buses calculations of all these vehicles were done in order to see how many fuel cell vehicles it is possible to have when operating an electrolyser of 1.5 MW.

Vehicles in Uppsala municipality

As presented in Table 5 Uppsala municipality have different types of vehicles; light trucks, heavy trucks, and passenger cars. The aim of these calculations was to calculate how many of these vehicles that could be replaced by fuel cell vehicles.

The calculations were done by using data from Table 6 and Table 7. By multiplying how many kg of hydrogen a vehicle consumes per kilometer with an average of how many kilometers a specific type of vehicle is driving per year, it was given how many kg of hydrogen that the vehicle consumes on a yearly basis. The yearly consumption was calculated for both light trucks, heavy trucks and passenger cars.

Further, it was possible to calculate how many of each vehicle type that the electrolyser could supply fuel for. This was done by dividing the total hydrogen production of the electrolyser per year, with the total hydrogen consumption of each vehicle per year.

Buses in Region Uppsala

There are two different bus classifications in Region Uppsala. Either class I or class II, and these classifications depends on the average drive distances per year, as described in Table 7. To begin with, a yearly average drive distance for these classifications together was calculated. This was done by multiplying the number of class I buses with the yearly average drive distance for a class I bus. The same procedure was made for class II buses. These two results were then added together in order to get the total distance of all buses, class I and class II, per year. To get an average distance for one bus this total distance for all buses were divide by the total number of buses.

The yearly hydrogen consumption for a fuel cell bus was calculated by multiplying the hydrogen consumption for a bus in kg per km from Table 8, with the yearly average distance for a bus. Further, it was calculated how many fuel cell buses that the hydrogen station could supply fuel for if all the produced hydrogen would be used for fuel cell buses. That was done by dividing the yearly produced hydrogen with the amount of hydrogen one bus require per year.

Further, the yearly fuel costs for the different types of buses were calculated. This was done by multiplying the energy consumption described in Table 8, with the fuel price expressed in SEK/kg or SEK/liter. This resulted in the price of fuel expressed in SEK/kWh. Then, the yearly fuel costs could be calculated. This was either done by multiplying the price expressed in SEK/kg with the yearly fuel consumption of a buss expressed in kg. Or by multiplying the fuel price expressed in SEK/kWh with the yearly fuel consumption expressed in kWh/km and thereafter with the yearly drive distance for a bus.

3.5 Sensitivity analysis

A sensitivity analysis was made to investigate how the result was affected if changing values on the parameters in the economic calculations. These parameters are for example the price of electricity, hydrogen and oxygen. The calculations in the sensitivity analysis were made with the same method as described when calculating the original results, the methods can be found in the calculation section.

To begin with, an investigation of how the yearly economy and the economic development over 15 years was affected if changing the hydrogen price to both a lower and a higher price than the original one of 80 SEK/kg. Thereafter, a comparison between with or without utilizing the residual heat was made to see how the economic calculation was affected. The same was done for oxygen.

Thereafter, an investigation of how the economic result in Uppsala was affected with or without buying electricity from the solar plant in Vasakronan. Furthermore, it was also investigated how the economic development would be affected with different amounts of financial support. In the end, it was investigated how the yearly fuel costs for HVO and fuel cell buses would be affected if the fuel prices changed.

4. Results

4.1 Electrolyser as a node in the district heating network

The technology and knowledge about how to reuse heat from industrial processes and other facilities is well established. The energy company Vattenfall AB already runs one project called Samenergi where they reuse residual heat from their customers (Vattenfall n.d.f).

Primary side

A normal electrolyser has a temperature that is on the margin of what is possible to take care of in a district heating network like the one in Uppsala. A lower limit for a usual district heating network is approximately 70°C. If the district heating network has a higher temperature on the primary side than the temperature of the residual heat from the electrolyser process, it means that it cannot directly heat the water on that side without a heat pump. To add a heat pump of the size needed would be an investment of approximately 5 MSEK, with electricity costs excluded.22

Secondary side

The other alternative is to connect the residual heat to the secondary side which has a lower temperature and because of this a heat pump is unnecessary. A problem with this solution is that in certain district heating networks the residual will not be as useful as on the secondary side due to the construction of the power plant. That makes the delivered heat less valuable on the secondary side than on the primary side.23

To summarise, in this project the use of the residual heat in the primary side of the district heat network have been investigated. All the investigated district heat networks in Region Uppsala can receive the heat from the electrolyser without the use of a heat pump, although the residual heat from the electrolyser is on the lower-end limit. The margin is smaller in Uppsala than in Storvreta and Knivsta, because these run on a slightly lower temperature. Some considerations on the placement must be taken since the district heating network is not capable of receiving the quantity at all places in the network. The places that Vattenfall in an initial investigation consider likely to be capable of handling the residual heat are written in the description of the respective places below.24

When having the electrolyser as a node in the district heating network, the result of the calculations shows that both economically and climatically benefits is achieved. The results are different in Storvreta, Knivsta and Uppsala since the fuel mixes are different and the prices for the waste heat given by Vattenfall varies in the different places.

22 Sandberg and Dalili, interview 23 Åberg Magnus, interview 24 Ibid

4.1.1 Storvreta

In Storvreta all the electricity used for the electrolysis process is modeled as electricity from the grid. This is because there are no existing wind or solar farms in Storvreta of the size needed to make up a significant part of the total electricity consumption. There is great potential of using 0.5 MW residual heat from the electrolysis process into the primary side of the district heating network in Storvreta, at a temperature of 70-80°C.25

It is possible to have an electrolyser with a water consumption of 1700 m3 per year in Storvreta, even though further investigations by Uppsala Vatten needs to be done before building the electrolyser.26

Electrolyser in Hydrogen fuel station Storvreta

Waste heat into the district heating network

Figure 8: System sketch in Storvreta

In Storvreta there is already a site where a solar heating park has been delivering heat to the district heating network, the solar heating park is now removed. This place is called Lyckebo and there is already a connection to the district network at the site that has the capacity to receive 0.5 MW residual heat, but also a underground storage for hot water at the site.27

25 Sandberg Tom, email from 14th of April 2021 26 Ibid 27Sandberg Tom, email from 3rd of May 2021

Figure 9: Lyckebo field in Storvreta28

It is climatically beneficial to use the residual heat in the district heating network in Storvreta since a reduction of the fuel consumption in the district heating plant could be done.

Figure 10: The reduction of CO2-equivalent emissions before and after using the waste heat from the electrolyser into the district heating network in Storvreta in one year

This result in a reduction of 198 tons of CO2 equivalents in the plant per year. That corresponds to a reduction of 42.3% of the CO2-equivalent emissions per year in Storvreta.

4.1.2 Knivsta

An appropriate location for an electrolyser in Knivsta is either nearby the district heating plant in northern Knivsta or in the industrial area north of Alsike.29 In Knivsta it is also possible using 0.5 MW waste heat from the electrolysis process into the district heating network

28 Ibid 29 Sandberg Tom, email from 3rd of May 2021

continuously throughout the year.30 Since there is no existing infrastructure of solar plants in this specific location in Knivsta, all electricity is modeled as electricity directly from the grid.

Roslagsvatten have not confirmed yet that it is possible using 1700 m3 of water per year in the electrolysis process. Before building an electrolyser in Knivsta it is important to investigate the possibilities of using the water in the process.

Electrolyser in Knivsta Hydrogen fuel station

Waste heat into the district heating

Figure 11: System sketch in Knivsta

Figure 12: Emissions per year of CO2-equivalents before and after using the waste heat from the electrolyser in the district heating network in Knivsta

30 Sandberg Tom, email from 14th of April 2021

In one year, a total reduction of 143 tons of CO2 equivalents in the plant if the waste heat from the electrolyser is used. That corresponds to a reduction of about 10% of today’s emissions at the plant in Knivsta.

4.1.3 Uppsala

In Uppsala the most beneficial place for the electrolyser is nearby the Vasakronan solar farm. In this way the electricity cost per year for the electrolyser would decrease and the impact on the electricity grid would be reduced. It is possible to use the waste heat from the electrolysis process into the district heating network on the primary side at a degree of 70-80°C even though the price of the residual heat in summer might be zero.31

In Uppsala it is possible to install an electrolyser with a water consumption of 1700m3 per year at many places in the network, but further investigation by Uppsala Vatten is needed before a final answer could be given. At many places in the net even lager water consuming loads are possible to install.32 With this consumption it is not possible to connect to the water network without an investigation by the network owner, because it can affect the water pressure at other places in the system.33

Electrolyser in Uppsala Hydrogen fuel station

Waste heat into the district heating

Figure 13: System in Uppsala

31 Sandberg Tom, email from 14th of April 2021 32 Wicén, email 33 Ibid

Figure 14: The emissions per year of CO2-equivalents before and after using the waste heat from the electrolyser into the district heating network in Uppsala

This result in a reduction of 905 metric tons CO2-equivalent emissions per year in the plant, which is a reduction of 0.4% of the emissions per year.

4.2 Economic calculations

In this section the economic calculations on will be presented. Table 9-10 shows the continuous incomes on a yearly basis for residual heat, electricity, water and hydrogen. Further, Table 11 shows the yearly economic calculations of each location with all incomes and expenses included.

Table 9: The yearly income for the waste heat from an electrolyser of 1.5 MW

Location Income for the waste heat [MSEK/year] Storvreta 1.960 Knivsta 1.110 Uppsala 1.410

Table 10: Continues costs and incomes for electricity, water, and hydrogen in the electrolysis process

Continuous costs/incomes [MSEK/year] Electricity cost in Knivsta and Storvreta 9.326 Electricity cost in Uppsala 6.379 Cost for water 0.042 Income hydrogen 15.100

The different prices of electricity in Knivsta and Storvreta compared with Uppsala is because the use of solar energy from Vasakronan in Uppsala.

Table 11: Table shows the total income in each location, with all incomes and expenses included. In Uppsala the result includes access to the solar park

Location [MSEK/year] Storvreta 6.256 Knivsta 5.402 Uppsala 8.651

Figure 15: Yearly economic development without financial support

Figure 15 shows that Uppsala is the place with the highest economic development over 15 years, while Knivsta has the lowest. The investment cost is earned in after about three years in Uppsala, and about five years in Knivsta and Storvreta.

4.3 Vehicles

When having a PEM electrolyser of 1.5 MW as a hydrogen fuel station in Region Uppsala, the following results show how many vehicles the fuel station could supply fuel for. This section also includes a comparison between the fuel costs for different types of buses.

Table 12: The hydrogen production would be enough for one of the following types of vehicles

Vehicle type Number of vehicles Heavy trucks 101 Light trucks 787 Passenger cars 1621 Buses 31

The vehicle fleet of Region Uppsala can utilize all the hydrogen produced by the 1.5 MW electrolyser.

Table 13: Comparison of fuel prices for different buses

Different types of buses Costs for fuel per year [SEK] Fuel cell bus 480,000 HVO bus 370,000 Biofuel bus 680,000 Electricity bus 140,000

4.4 Oxygen

The electrolyser of 1.5 MW investigated in this study roughly produces 1,500,000 kg of oxygen each year. The oxygen is of high purity and can be used in many applications if it is collected. Through the project a couple of implementation areas have been investigated, but none of these are included in the economic calculation or in the system sketch. This since the alternatives presented below needs further investigations to see if it is technically possible and to determine a price per kilo for the oxygen.

In power plants

It is possible to use oxygen in power plants to achieve better combustion and make it easier to 34 isolate the CO2 from the other fumes. This technology is called carbon capture and storage, CCS, and Vattenfall has the ambition to use it in Uppsala. Vattenfall has even handed in one application for financial support for CCS technology at the power plant in Uppsala, this application was denied. However, this shows that Vattenfall is serious in their ambition to use the CCS technology in Uppsala.35

Medical use

The hospital Akademiska sjukhuset in Uppsala use medical oxygen, about 100,000 kg per year. The amount of oxygen produced in the electrolyser is about 1,500,000 kg per year, which roughly corresponds to the whole need of medical oxygen in Sweden. If oxygen would be sold for medical uses Läkemedelsverket would be involved to control the quality, and this would be an expense.36 Läkemedelsverket is a government agency that regulates the use of medicines and medical equipment in Sweden. Uppsala has LifeScience research at the

34 Sellerholm, interview 35 Ericsson Zillén Sonia, Vattenfall, email from 27th of April 2021 36 Sellerholm, interview

university. The potential to sell the oxygen is not promising according to them.37 According to Per Sellerholm at the gas company Linde, it is a cumbersome process to utilize the oxygen for using it in applications that need high quality oxygen, as the oxygen needs to be dried, purified, pressed up and compressed.38

Technical use

The water treatment plant in Uppsala uses air and not pure oxygen in the process of cleaning water to help the microorganisms in the water breathe. It might be possible to use oxygen instead if the water plant is modified. It also uses heat, and since there is lots of heat from the process it might be useful here.39

Fish farming

The United Nations food and agriculture organ lifts aquaculture as a key for sustainable development. They consider aquaculture as a very productive use of resources that is even higher than the arable farming. This kind of farming is one of the fastest expanding agricultural industries in the world which expands by about 30% each year (FAO, n.d.). Also, this can be combined with growing of vegetables. A couple of aquaponic farms are active Sweden 2021 and there is a society named Svensk aquaponik which coordinate the actors. In this organisation both the universities, local governments and companies are represented (Svensk aquaponik n.d.).

Figure 16: Aquaponic farming (Svensk aquaponik, n.d.).

The fish farming needs both heat and oxygen, which both are by-products of the electrolyser. Some fish farmers use pure oxygen to oxygenate the fish pools, therefore this could be an alternative. Also, in transportation of fish oxygen can be used to keep the fish alive, in some cases half the number of fish die on these transports.40

37 Nedler Karin, SciLifeLab, email from 21st of April 2021 38 Sellerholm, interview 39 Wicén, email 40 Westerlund, inteview

Sell it to a distributor

The oxygen is saturated and to solve that, the oxygen can be dried with special equipment. The oxygen production of 1,500,000 kg per year is relatively small in comparison to other oxygen producers, and therefore it is hard to make a deal with a larger distributor like Linde. To make it interesting from their point of view the production must be many times larger. To collect and use the oxygen further investment would be needed on the site. For example, compressors, machines to dry the oxygen and distillers.41

4.5 Safety

Hydrogen has a high energy density and is flammable even at low oxygen levels, therefore it can explode if handled incorrectly. However, hydrogen has been used in various industrial applications for a long time and lots of experience has been gained through the years. The hydrogen gas is not toxic and is lighter than air which makes the leakage go up in the atmosphere if it leaks. This means that a leakage generally is not dangerous unless it is ignited. If the hydrogen facility is built by a serious company with experience of hydrogen, it can be considered safe (US Department of energy n.d.a).

When building a hydrogen fuel station, the local rescue service must be consulted.42 The safety of fuel cell vehicles is comparable to the safety of gasoline cars, both in case of an accident on the road or if it is ignited on the parking lot. This is mainly because the hydrogen tank is possible to protect even in violent road accidents and will not leak hydrogen in an uncontrolled way. In the case the car is on fire, the hydrogen tanks release the gas into the air in a controlled way to prevent an explosion (Firehouse 2017). From studying locations of the present hydrogen fuel stations on Google Maps it is possible to see that the stations are placed in industrial areas of the town. This might give an indication that industrial sites could be possible locations (Vätgas Sverige 2021).

5. Sensitivity analysis

5.1 Different price of hydrogen

To begin with, it will be investigated how the total income per year in Storvreta, Knivsta and Uppsala affects if changing the kg price of hydrogen. One lower and one higher price of hydrogen will be compared with the price 80 SEK/kg.

Table 14: Total income in Storvreta, Knivsta and Uppsala dependent on different hydrogen prices.

41 Sellerholm, interview 42 Nystrand Markus, Region Uppsala, meeting from 19th of April 2021

H2 [SEK/kg] Storvreta Knivsta Uppsala [MSEK/year] [MSEK/year] [MSEK/year] 60 2.459 1.605 4.853 80 6.256 5.402 8.651 100 10.054 9.200 12.448

Figure 17: Economic development over 15 years in Storvreta with different prices of hydrogen

Figure 18: Economic development over 15 years in Knivsta with different prices of hydrogen

Figure 19: Economic development over 15 years in Uppsala with different prices of hydrogen

From these graphs it could be seen that with a hydrogen price of 100 SEK/kg it takes around one year at each location until the investment cost is earned. Further, it takes 12 years in Storvreta, 19 years in Knivsta and 6 years in Uppsala until the investment cost is earned if having the lowest calculated hydrogen price of 60 SEK/kg. Also, the economic development after 15 years will be more than 100 MSEK higher with a hydrogen price of 100 SEK/kg compared with a price of 60 SEK/kg in Storvreta, Knivsta and Uppsala.

5.2 Residual heat

A hydrogen fuel station where the residual heat take advantages of could generate an increase of the income. In the table below there is a comparison in the economic development with and without residual heat.

Table 15: Hydrogen fuel station in Storvreta, Knivsta and Uppsala with and without utilizing the residual heat.

Location Without residual heat With [MSEK/year] residual heat [MSEK/year] Storvreta 4.279 6.236 Knivsta 4.279 5.382 Uppsala 7.226 8.634

This result shows that the hydrogen station in Storvreta earns 4.279 million per year without the income for residual heat and with residual heat 6.236 million. That is a difference almost 2 million. Even in Knivsta there is a huge difference in income if there is a provision for the residual heat, it could generate an increase of the income more than one million per year. In Uppsala there is a gap of 1.4 million if the residual heat has provision, compared with if the residual heat does not have provision.

Figure 20: The economic development over 15 years in Storvreta with and without utilizing the residual heat

Figure 21: The economic development over 15 years in Knivsta with and without utilizing the residual heat

Figure 22: The economic development over 15 years in Uppsala with and without utilizing the residual heat

These graphs show that if taking advantage of the residual heat, the investment cost could be earned in around one year faster at all locations. The total economic development after 15 years would be around 20 MSEK higher if taking advantage of the residual heat over all these years, compared to not.

5.3 Oxygen

If someone wants to buy the oxygen for 2 SEK/kg, as it is expected in the preparation study from SWECO an electrolyser at 1.5 MW could earn more than 3 million more per year.

Table 16: Total income per year with provision for oxygen

Total income With provision for oxygen Without provision for [MSEK/year] oxygen [MSEK/year] Storvreta 9.270 6.256 Knivsta 8.415 5.402 Uppsala 11.664 8.651

Figure 23: Economic development with and without oxygen in Storvreta

Figure 24: Economic development with and without oxygen in Knivsta

Figure 25: Economic development with and without oxygen in Uppsala

Figures 23-25 show that if it would be possible to take advantage of the oxygen in the future, the economic development over 15 years would increase with 45 MSEK in Storvreta, Knivsta and Uppsala. Further, the investment costs could be earned in a few years faster if the oxygen could be utilized.

5.4 Solar plant

If the hydrogen fuel station has access to Vasakronan’s solar plant in Uppsala the economic development is much more profitable. In the table below there is a comparison in the economic development with and without access to the solar park.

Table 17: Yearly income in Uppsala with or without buying some of the electricity from the Vasakronan solar park

Uppsala [MSEK/year] With solar cells 8.650 Without solar cells 5.700

Figure 26: Economic development with and without solar cells

If an electrolyser is built with connection with a solar cells park at 4.8 GWh per year, the income could generate 90 MSEK include with the investment cost and without solar cells park it could only generate 50 MSEK with the investment cost.

5.5 Investment support

It could be advantageous to be able to get investment and financial support. The financial support could be in the forum of annual grants that could cover the maintenance costs. In the best scenario the investments support covers 70% of the total investment costs and in the worst scenario the requested grant is rejected. In this investigation all the prices will be the same as presented in the result section.

Table 18: Investments cost for the electrolyser plant at 1.5 MW subtracted with investment support.

Investment support [%] Price [MSEK] 0 30.400 25 22.800 70 9.120

To investigate how much different levels of financial support affects the economic development in Storvreta, Knivsta and Uppsala a plot of each location with different percentage of financial support is plotted.

Figure 27: Yearly economic development for Storvreta with different percentage of financial support.

Figure 28: Yearly economic development for Knivsta with different percentage of financial support

Figure 29: Yearly economic development for Uppsala with different percentage of financial support

The Figures 27-29 show that the maximum financial support of 70% makes it possible to earn the investment cost three-four years faster compared to the scenario of not getting any financial support.

5.6 Bus economy

The fuel prices for the buses used in the calculations might change in the future, and in order to investigate how that would affect the economy of the buses a sensitivity analysis is needed. Since primarily HVO and fuel cell buses are compared in this study alternative prices for these will be analyzed.

The HVO price is likely to increase since the demand of HVO is increasing but the supply of HVO is not possible to increase that much. Therefore, HVO prices well above 20 SEK/liter are likely in a near future. In this example a price of 22 SEK/liter is used.

Table 19: The scenario where the HVO price has increased to 22 SEK/liter.

Bus fuel Cost per unit fuel Yearly costs Hydrogen 80 SEK/kg 481000 SEK HVO 22 SEK/liter 481000 SEK

The hydrogen price is likely to drop in the future since the production of hydrogen is getting more efficient. From the levels of about 80 SEK/kg today to 60 SEK/kg is not an unlikely scenario. This would also affect the economy of the fuel station which can be seen in the sensitivity analysis Figure 21.

Table 20: The scenario where the hydrogen price has decreased to 60 SEK/kg.

Bus fuel Cost per unit fuel Yearly costs Hydrogen 60 SEK/kg 361000 SEK HVO 17.2 SEK/liter 374000 SEK

This means that both if the hydrogen price decreases to 60 SEK/kg and if the HVO price increases to 22 SEK/liter the fuel costs for the two kinds of buses would be equivalent. If both scenarios happen this means that the fuel cell bus would have about 100 000 SEK less fuel costs per year.

6. Discussion

6.1 Locations

A preliminary answer is that it is technically possible to connect the electrolyser to the water and district heating networks at the investigated locations. Although further investigations must be made since it was not possible to get an answer about the water connection from Knvista. Also, it seems possible to use the residual heat in the district heating network, on the condition that the electrolyser has a temperature high enough. About 70-80°C is necessary, if the temperature is lower technical reasons in the district heating network makes it impossible to connect without a heat pump. A heat pump would be both expensive and complicated.

The main factors that distinguish the investigated locations are how much incomes that the residual heat could generate, the climate benefits of using the waste heat in the district heating network, if it is possible to find utilization for the hydrogen and to power the electrolyser with solar energy.

A potential benefit of placing the electrolyser in Storvreta is that more greenhouse gas emissions could be saved compared to in Knivsta. Due to the results showed in Figure 10, a reduction of almost 200 metric tons of CO2 equivalents per year could be achieved if using the waste heat in the district heating network. Another benefit with Storvreta is that it is the place where the residual heat generates the most income. Further, a negative aspect of placing the electrolyser in there is that Storvreta is the location where it probably is the hardest to find utilization for the hydrogen, which is a huge problem with this location since the hydrogen is the main product from the electrolyser. A possible solution is to transport the hydrogen via trucks to Uppsala and have a hydrogen fuel station there, but that would result in a more complex and expensive system. In summary, if there was a solar park in Storvreta and a possibility to find utilization for the hydrogen it would have been a promising placement of the electrolyser.

In Knivsta about 150 metric tons of CO2-equivalent emissions each year could be saved when using the waste heat from the electrolyser in the district heating network. Knivsta is also the second largest of the investigated places which means that it is more likely to find customers for the hydrogen there than in Storvreta. A negative aspect of placing the electrolyser in Knivsta is that it is the place where residual heat generates the least income of all investigated places. In summary, Knivsta does not seem like a promising placement and lots of factors must change to make it more attractive.

There are many benefits placing an electrolyser in Uppsala. First, it is possible to connect the electrolyser to the already existing solar farm owned by Vasakronan. That would both decrease the load on the electric grid and reduce the total electricity cost per year for the electrolyser with about 3 MSEK. The buses are stored near Vasakronans’s solar farm which makes it possible to fuel the buses near, or even at, the bus storage. A negative aspect of placing the electrolyser in Uppsala is that it generates a lower income for the residual heat compared to placing it in Storvreta and in summertime it is sometimes not possible to get paid 41

for or find any other possible utilization for the waste heat in Uppsala. Further, the climate effects of using the waste heat into the district heating network will probably be small since the most greenhouse gas emissions come from the waste which is burned anyway. The residual heat will instead replace the other fuels in the colder parts of the year which are less polluting compared to waste. Therefore, Figure 14 is misleading, the reduction of CO2- equivalent emission is probably much smaller than the calculated 900 metric tons of CO2 equivalents per year. Probably the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in Uppsala is comparable with the reduction emissions in Storvreta and Knivsta.

In an economic perspective, Uppsala would be the most beneficial place for the electrolyser since it has a calculated total yearly income of about 8.6 MSEK, while in Storvreta the total income is 6.2 MSEK and in Knivsta 5.4 MSEK. The reason why the yearly income in Uppsala is much higher compared to the other locations is because of the cheaper electricity from the Vasakronan solar farm. It is cheaper buying electricity from a solar plant than from the grid because of the concept “behind the meter”. This means that the electricity price from Vasakronan is the same as the spot price from NordPool, if it is bought from the net additional fees are added.

The Vasakronan solar park produces about 4.8 GWh electricity per year, this means that about 6.2 GWh must be bought from the grid to cover the total consumption of the electrolyser. If all the electricity in the future could be bought from a solar farm, the price of electricity could possibly be even cheaper. If all the electricity for the electrolysis process in Uppsala instead would be from the grid, Figure 26 in the sensitivity analysis shows that the total income a year would be 5.7 MSEK, which is about 3 MSEK less than with electricity from the Vasakronan solar farm. In that case, the most economically beneficial place would be Storvreta since the price for the waste heat is higher there.

Table 19 shows that the investment cost for the hydrogen fuel station could vary from 9.12 - 30.4 MSEK depending on financial support, which is a huge span. Based on Figures 27-29 in the sensitivity analysis shows, it would be advantage to get financial support, but it is not crucial. In the worst case no financial support at all is obtained, the longest time to earn the investment cost is in Knivsta and there the investment cost is earned within six years. In the best scenario 70% financial support is obtained and according to the calculations the investment cost would be earned after one year in Uppsala.

Hydrogen fuel stations and fuel cell cars are not considered much more dangerous than their alternatives. Fuel with high energy density is always combined with a certain risk if handled incorrectly, but there is a lot of experience from the industry of how to handle the hydrogen. Some safety considerations must be made in the placement of the fuel station, these are regulated by law. The fuel cell vehicles are not a safety risk if the rescue service is properly trained. In case of fire in the vehicle hydrogen can be let out in a controlled way and the risk of uncontrolled leakage of hydrogen is generally considered low.

6.2 Hydrogen usage in the transport sector

6.2.1 The market

Hydrogen technology is still in a start-up phase with only four active hydrogen fuel stations in Sweden. If a fuel station would be established in Uppsala, it would be the largest city in Sweden, seen to number of inhabitants, with a hydrogen fuel station. Both to connect an electrolyser to the district heating network and to a solar farm are solutions that would clearly distinguish it from other fuel stations in Sweden and therefore gain publicity. This might be an important social benefit from establishing a hydrogen fuel station. Another social benefit of using hydrogen as a fuel is that it makes the region more independent of other fuels such as HVO, which could be beneficial in case of a crisis. However, the hydrogen production is still dependent of the electricity and water grid. If only one hydrogen fuel station is built, the region must rely on one hydrogen fuel station for all the fuel cell vehicles which makes it vulnerable for disturbances.

Because there are few fuel cell vehicles on the road there is not a demand on the market for hydrogen fuel yet, and if there is no fuel station there is no demand for fuel cell vehicles which make the situation paradoxical. As fuel cell vehicles become more common, fuel cell stations will also become more common because they are interdependent. Therefore, it is important to dare to take the step of, for example, building a fuel station, because then fuel cell vehicles will be bought. Therefore, a reliable hydrogen customer that creates a demand of hydrogen could be Region Uppsala or the municipality if they operate fuel cell vehicles themselves. The other fuel stations in Sweden primarily have work vehicles from companies and from the local municipality as customers. This shows that it is possible to operate hydrogen fuel stations at less populated places, like Storvreta or Knivsta. These fuel stations are of a smaller scale than the one investigated in this report. In Uppsala, fuel cell buses could be reliable customers since they drive every day at the year and has a high fuel consumption. The municipality might also be interested to use hydrogen as a fuel in some of their work vehicles since they operate more than a thousand of them.

The fuel cell vehicles are in comparison to both the combustion engine and the battery car in the beginning of their development. Therefore, the investment cost of each vehicle is likely to decrease, and the performance of the vehicles increase in the coming years. There is also a huge political interest in hydrogen that the technology depends on. Both the Swedish government and the European Union supports hydrogen technology with money and projects.

The economy of different hydrogen prices is investigated in the sensitivity analysis, and it has a huge impact on the economy. A price of 60 SEK/kg barely repays the investment cost of the facility. In Storvreta, Knivsta and Uppsala it takes between 12-19 years to repay the investment cost with this hydrogen price. While having a hydrogen price of 80 SEK/kg seems to be a good investment which is repaid between three-six years at these three locations. In the sensitivity analysis a price of 100 SEK/kg which makes the investment even greater. The sensitivity analysis shows that the hydrogen price has a huge impact of the economic calculation.

6.2.2 Buses

If it is assumed that one fuel cell bus can replace the function of one HVO bus in Uppsala today, the operating costs would be about the same if the hydrogen price is 60 SEK/kg and the HVO price is about as the same as today. The HVO price is likely to increase in the future and therefore it might be possible to have a higher hydrogen price and still have similar operating costs for the buses. If the HVO price increases to 22 SEK/l it corresponds to a hydrogen price of 80 SEK per kg. If the hydrogen is sold at a price of 60 SEK/kg and the HVO at a price of 22 SEK/l, the hydrogen buses would have significantly lower operating costs. As described in Table 8 there are 393 HVO buses in Region Uppsala. If all the produced hydrogen would be used as fuel to buses, it would be possible to replace about 30 of these with fuel cell buses.

The cost of each fuel cell bus is about 6 MSEK, more than twice as expensive compared to a similar HVO bus with a price of 2.5 MSEK. It is likely that the investment cost of each bus will reduce in the coming years and in addition to this it is possible to get subsidies on the cost from Klimatpremien or a similar project. In total it is likely that the fuel cell buses will not be significantly more expensive if the HVO prices increases, and the price of the buses are reduced by either subsidies or falling prices on the market. The buses in region Uppsala are based in Uppsala and are fuelled at the bus storage, therefore the possibilities for using the hydrogen in buses looks more promising in Uppsala than in Storvreta or Knivsta. It would be complicated and expensive to transport the hydrogen from Storvreta and Knivsta to the bus storage in Uppsala with a truck.

It might also be interesting to compare the fuel cell buses with electric buses. Electric buses got lower cost per kilometre and is more energy efficient than the fuel cell buses. However, they got shorter range and it takes longer time to refuel them. Also, If the refuelling of electric buses is not distributed over the day, it will cause a huge peak in the electricity consumption when all buses are charged at the same time. The hydrogen is produced both day and night and therefore the consumption of electricity is more evenly distributed. An electric bus is almost 2 MSEK cheaper than a fuel cell bus. Though, as shown in Table 13, the total costs per year for an electricity bus is much cheaper than for a fuel cell bus. Further the assumption that the electricity used for the electricity buses cost 1.50 SEK/kWh. This assumption could be a bit optimistic; the electricity price might be higher.

Today Region Uppsala operates 110 biofuel buses. These buses have range of 400 km compared with fuel cell buses which have a range of 500 km. As described in Table 13 the yearly cost for a biofuel is around 200,000 SEK higher compared with a fuel cell bus even though the investment cost for a biofuel bus is twice as big as a fuel cell bus. However, these two bus types should not be seen as competitors since both options are climate friendly alternatives. It would be more climatically beneficial to replace some HVO buses with fuel cell buses.

6.2.3 Other vehicles

Uppsala municipality got hundreds of vehicles used in different sectors of the organisation, from passenger cars to heavy trucks. In general, heavy transportation is most suitable for hydrogen since these are more difficult to electrify but also passenger cars that drive long distances each day might be suitable. Selling the hydrogen to the local municipality passenger cars is done in Mariestad and Sandviken.

Both passenger cars owned by companies and private drivers might be interested in using hydrogen. Since passenger cars consume less fuel than other bigger vehicles, and in average drive fewer kilometres per vehicle compared with a bus, a lot more passenger cars would be able to use the hydrogen fuel station compared with buses. If all the hydrogen would go to passenger cars, an amount of 1621 cars would be needed to utilize all the hydrogen. In comparison only 101 heavy trucks, 787 light trucks or 31 buses would be needed to utilize all the hydrogen.

However, there may be a point in not just having one type of vehicle that use the entire production of hydrogen, to spread the risks both for the producer and consumer. For example, if only fuel cell buses are using the hydrogen it will be cause problems if the electrolyser is undergoing maintenance for a longer period of time, since having 30 buses out of service would disturb the bus traffic. If, on the other hand, there are 10 buses and the rest are ordinary cars or light trucks, the disturbances would have lower effect on the society.

6.3 Oxygen

As presented in section 4.4 different options of using the oxygen have been found, though it seems difficult to find economical potential in any of these options. This is mainly because the production of oxygen in a 1.5 MW electrolyser is too small to cover the investment cost of the equipment needed to take care of the oxygen. Oxygen is a common industrial gas, both for welding and bleaching. For example, before using the oxygen at hospital it needs to be dried, purified and compressed. The equipment for doing this is rather expensive in relation to the relatively small production. Furthermore, if used at hospitals Läkemedelsverket needs to be involved to check the quality of the oxygen, which is an expense too. This makes the process rather complicated, and it will probably not be economically beneficial.

Oxygen can be used to make the water oxygenated in a fish farm. Also, heating the water in a fish farm would also be an alternative use for the residual heat. The economic potential for the oxygen in this application is low since the oxygen creating machines on the market today, that the oxygen from the electrolyser would replace, are not that expensive. Since there are no fish farms operating in Uppsala today, this does not seem to be an alternative since it does not seem to be economically beneficial to transport the oxygen to other places in the country. However, if a fish farm is established in Uppsala in the future, it could use the oxygen from the electrolyser. It would probably not make a significant income for the hydrogen station, but maybe be a significant cost reduction for the fish farm.

In the future it might be of interest using oxygen to improve the performance of the water plant since the oxygen could make the process more efficient. The reason why this is not an option today is because Uppsala Vatten does not use oxygen in their process by now. However, in the future it is possible they do, and therefore which benefits the oxygen would bring to the water plant at Kungsängen is left to investigate to determine the economic potential. Another possible option is to have oxygen in order to improve the combustion at the power plant, this would also help to separate the CO2 in a future CCS process. In this project no further investigation of this possibility is done, however this could be an interesting opportunity. Especially since Uppsala has the ambition to implement CCS technology soon.

Another possible option is to have oxygen in order to improve the combustion at the power plant, this would also help to separate the CO2 in a future CCS process. In this project no further investigation of this possibility is done, however this could be an interesting opportunity. Especially since Uppsala has the ambition to implement CCS technology soon.

Even though no profitable utilization of the oxygen has been found by now, these different implementation options might be by interest in the future. The economic calculation does not include any income from the oxygen. But in the sensitivity analysis an investigation of how the yearly income would be affected if the oxygen could be used in the future is done. In this calculation it is assumed that all the produced oxygen could be sold. This would result in a 3 MSEK higher income per year in Storvreta, Knivsta and Uppsala. After 15 years around 45- 50 MSEK more is earned in Storvreta, Knivsta, and Uppsala if all the produced oxygen could be sold. Further, it is not realistic that exactly all produced oxygen from the electrolyser could be sold. Therefore, the yearly income for oxygen will probably be lower.

7. Conclusions

All three locations are technically possible for building a hydrogen fuel station. In conclusion, when taking consideration to the economy, climate and social aspects, Uppsala seems to be the most beneficial place for an electrolyser in Region Uppsala. As Table 11 shows, all locations are economically profitable for an electrolyser, but Uppsala has the best economically opportunities thanks to the potential use of solar energy from Vasakronan. In a social perspective Uppsala also seems to be the best alternative. First, the bus storage Kungsängen is placed near to Vasakronan which makes the possibilities having fuel cell buses in Uppsala better than in Knivsta and Storvreta. Since these buses are the main utilization for the hydrogen found in this report this is a heavy argument favouring Uppsala as the best location. Also, since Uppsala is significantly larger than the other investigates places, it is likely that there is a larger number of other hydrogen cars in Uppsala that might use the station.

It is possible to use the residual heat on the primary side of the district heating at all the three investigated locations, even though the opportunities of getting paid for the residual heat all months per year seems better in Knivsta and Storvreta compared to in Uppsala. There are

positive climate effects of using the residual heat in the district heating network at all three places, as showed in Figure 10, 12 and 14. However, the calculated reduction of CO2- equivalent emission in Uppsala might be misleading since most of the emissions is from waste incineration, and no matter how much residual heat the electrolyser can offer to the district heating network, the same amount of waste will be burned at the district heating plant in Uppsala. Therefore, the opportunities using waste heat from the electrolyser is the best in Storvreta and Knivsta. In total, with all social, climatical and economic parameters included, the most beneficial place for the electrolyser still seems to be in Uppsala.

Another possible climate effect is the use of fuel cell vehicles since it reduces CO2 emissions from vehicles when replacing less environmentally friendly vehicles. Since the only emission from the fuel cell vehicles are water, the air quality could improve. Buses are a promising use for the hydrogen since buses consumes a lot of fuel and are reliable customers. It is also a good idea to also have passenger cars from the municipality and other customers at the station. Both to spread the risk but also since passenger cars and heavy transportation uses different standards, 300 bar and 700 bar fuelling, and this would make both standards used at the station. This would make it possible for private passenger cars to use the station in the future.

There are many possible applications for the oxygen formed in the process, however these need further investigation and, in most cases, close collaboration with the potential customers. These applications are for example in the water treatment plant, in the power plant and in fish farming. But as a conclusion in this project, it does not seem to be beneficial to utilize the oxygen at this time. As seen from Table 17, the economic development would increase with 3 MSEK a year if all the oxygen could be utilized from the electrolysis process.

Since there are just a few hydrogen fuel stations operating in Sweden today a new fuel station would create some publicity. Especially since Uppsala would be the largest city in Sweden with a hydrogen fuel station and if it is connected to the district heating network it would be unique in the world. A hydrogen fuel station would make the region less dependent on other imported fuel which makes the transportation sector less vulnerable for disturbance in the fuel market.

To build a hydrogen fuel station with buses as the main consumers would not affect the economy of the bus fleet in Uppsala significantly in any direction, however it would create environmental and social values. How to use the oxygen remains unsolved, however a lot of ideas of further investigations on the topic has been identified.

8. References

Alpman, M (2015). Nu är nya vätgasmacken öppen. NyTeknik, 18th of september. https://www.nyteknik.se/energi/nu-ar-nya-vatgasmacken-oppen-6344599 [2021-04-27]

Chen, L., Dong, X., Wang, Y. & Xia Y. (2016). Separating hydrogen and oxygen evolution in alkaline water electrolysis using nickel hydroxide. Nature. Doi:10.1038/ncomms11741. https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms11741

Circle K. (n.d.) Drivmedel. https://www.circlek.se/drivmedel/drivmedelspriser [2021-04-27]

Dagens Industri (2021). Volvo och Daimler siktar på vätgas: begär 1000 stationer. 29 april. https://www.di.se/hallbart-naringsliv/volvo-och-daimler-siktar-pa-vatgas-begar-1-000-stationer/

DNV (n.d.). Hydrogen as an energy carrier. https://www.dnv.com/oilgas/download/hydrogen-as-an-energy-carrier.html [2021-05-14]

European Commission. (n.d.). European clean hydrogen alliance. https://ec.europa.eu/growth/industry/policy/european-clean-hydrogen-alliance_en [2021-04-27]

Energiföretagen (2021). Fjärrvärme. https://www.energiforetagen.se/energifakta/fjarrvarme/ [2021-04-27]

Energimyndigheten (2018). Teknisk-ekonomisk kostnadsbedömning av solceller i Sverige. https://www.energimyndigheten.se/globalassets/fornybart/solenergi/ovriga-rapporter/teknisk- ekonomisk-kostnadsbedomning-av-solceller-i-sverige.pdf

Energiportalen Region Uppsala (n.d.). Om projektet. https://energiportalregionuppsala.se/about [2021-04-27]

Eurotransport (2017). Fuel cell buses: A flexible, zero-emission transport solution. https://www.fch.europa.eu/sites/default/files/selection.pdf [2021-05-03]

Firehouse (2017). Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles - what first responders need to know. 11 december. https://www.firehouse.com/rescue/article/12385113/hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles-what-first- responders-need-to-know-firehouse [2021-05-03]

FAO (n.d.). Aquaculture. http://www.fao.org/aquaculture/en/ [2021-04-21]

Fossilfritt Sverige (2021). Strategi för fossilfri konkurrenskraft - Vätgas. https://fossilfrittsverige.se/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Vatgasstrategi-for-fossilfri- konkurrenskraft.pdf

Länsstyrelsen Gävleborg (2019). Vilket förnybart drivmedel passar mig bäst? https://www.lansstyrelsen.se/download/18.7a5fa68e170c024b328303c/1583927070785/broschyr_f%C 3%B6rnybart%20drivmedel_webb.pdf

Mohseni, F. & Görling, M. (2016). Förstudie Vätgasproduktion i Uppsala.

Miljöfordon (2020). Miljöpåverkan. https://www.miljofordon.se/bilar/miljoepaaverkan/ [2021-04-29]

Nordic hydrogen partnership (n.d.) About nordic hydrogen corridor. http://www.nordichydrogenpartnership.com/about-nordic-hydrogen-corridor/ [2021-05-04]

NordPool (n.d.). elspot-prices_2020_monthly_sek. https://www.nordpoolgroup.com/historical-market-data/ [2021-05-06]

REN21 (2017) Renewables Global Futures Report. https://www.ren21.net/reports/global-futures-report/ [2021-05-04]

Riksdagen (2021) Vätgasstrategi för Sverige. https://www.riksdagen.se/sv/dokument-lagar/dokument/skriftlig-fraga/vatgasstrategi-for- sverige_H8111394 [2021-05-04]

Skatteverket (n.d.) Förbrukning av el för kemisk reduktion eller i elektrolytiska processer. https://www4.skatteverket.se/rattsligvagledning/edition/2021.6/356486.html#h-Forbrukning-av-el-for- kemisk-reduktion-eller-i-elektrolytiska-processer [2021-05-04]

Svensk aquaponik (n.d.) Aquaponik. https://www.svenskaquaponik.se/ [2021-04-29]

Svenska kraftnät (2020) Kapacitetsbehovet i Uppsala med omnejd säkrat redan till 2024. https://via.tt.se/pressmeddelande/kapacitetsbehovet-i-uppsala-med-omnejd-sakrat-redan-till- 2024?publisherId=3235391&releaseId=3288897 [2021-04-27]

Siemens Energy (2020) Silyzer 300. Erlangen: Siemens Energy https://assets.siemens-energy.com/siemens/assets/api/uuid:17cdfbd8-13bd-4327-9b26- 383e4754bee3/datasheet-final1.pdf

Trafikanalys (2020) Körsträckor 2019. https://www.trafa.se/globalassets/statistik/vagtrafik/korstrackor/2020/korstrackor_2019.pdf

Uppsala kommun (2014) Underlagsrapport VA 2050 i Uppsala kommun. Uppsala: Uppsala Kommun https://www.uppsala.se/contentassets/b493ca349da240448a5547f85c6e3a6d/op2016- underlagsrapport-va-2050-i-uppsala-kommun.pdf

Uppsala kommun (2018) Södra staden fördjupad översiktsplan. Uppsala: Uppsala Kommun. https://www.uppsala.se/contentassets/fb37b412f1ef45f1bfec9068955bb10f/fop-sodra-staden-del-a- huvudhandling.pdf

Uppsala kommun (2020) #Uppsalaeffekten. https://www.uppsala.se/kommun-och-politik/sa-arbetar-vi-med-olika-amnen/sa-arbetar-vi-med-miljo- och-klimat/uppsalaeffekten/ [2021-04-27]

US Department of Energy (n.d.a) Safe use of hydrogen. https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/safe-use-hydrogen [2021-04-27]

US Department of Energy (n.d.b). Hydrogen production: Electrolysis. https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-production-electrolysis [2020-04-27]

Vasakronan (2019) Vasakronan anlägger solcellspark i Uppsala. https://vasakronan.se/pressmeddelande/vasakronan-anlagger-solcellspark-i-uppsala/

Vattenfall (n.d.a) Uppsala. https://www.vattenfall.se/fjarrvarme/orter/uppsala/ [2021-05-17]

Vattenfall (n.d.b) Knivsta. https://www.vattenfall.se/fjarrvarme/orter/knivsta/ [2021-05-17]

Vattenfall (n.d.c) Storvreta https://www.vattenfall.se/fjarrvarme/orter/storvreta/ [2021-05-17]

Vattenfall (n.d.d) Så fungerar fjärrvärme. https://www.vattenfall.se/fjarrvarme/sa-fungerar-fjarrvarme/ [2021-04-27]

Vattenfall (n.d.e) Hur mycket kostar det att ladda en elbil? https://incharge.vattenfall.se/kunskapshubb/artiklar/hur-mycket-kostar-det-att-ladda-en-elbil/ [2021-04-27]

Vattenfall (n.d.f) Samenergi. https://www.vattenfall.se/foretag/fjarrvarme/samenergi/ [2021-05-21]

Vattenfall (2019) Vätgas - ett viktigt steg mot fossilt oberoende. https://group.vattenfall.com/se/nyheter-och-press/nyheter/2019/vatgas--ett-viktigt-steg-mot-fossilt- oberoende [2021-04-27]

Vattenfall (2020) Miljöredovisning - Vattenfall värme Uppsala 2019. https://www.vattenfall.se/49e9de/globalassets/fjarrvarme/miljoredovisningar/200701_vf_vaerme_upps ala_se.pdf [2021-04-27]

Vattenfall (2015) Eldrivna bussar i den moderna staden. https://www.vattenfall.se/globalassets/foretag/miljo/att-kora-pa-el/broschyr-laddhybridbuss.pdf

Vätgas Sverige. (n.d.a). Vätgas som fordonsbränsle. https://www.vatgas.se/faktabank/vatgas-som-fordonsbransle/ [2021-04-27]

Vätgas Sverige. (n.d.b). Vanliga frågor om vätgas. https://www.vatgas.se/faktabank/faq/ [2021-04-29]

Vätgas Sverige (2021) Stationer. https://www.vatgas.se/tanka/stationer/ [2021-04-29]