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Basque Language Activism and the Politics of Education Reform in France, 1969-1994

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Basque Language Activism and the Politics of Education Reform in France, 1969-1994 GIVING VOICE TO LANGUAGE: BASQUE LANGUAGE ACTIVISM AND THE POLITICS OF EDUCATION REFORM IN FRANCE, 1969-1994 by Kai Alain Heidemann Bachelor of Arts, Fort Lewis College, 1997 Master of Arts, University of Massachusetts at Amherst, 2000 Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Arts and Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Pittsburgh 1.0X 2010 UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH FACULTY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES This dissertation was presented by Kai A. Heidemann It was defended on October 14, 2010 and approved by Kathleen M. Blee, Distinguished Professor, Department of Sociology Suzanne Staggenborg, Professor, Department of Sociology Giuseppina Mecchia, Professor Department of French and Italian Studies Alberta Sbragia, Professor, Department of Political Science Dissertation Advisor: Akiko Hashimoto, Associate Professor, Department of Sociology ii Copyright © by Kai A. Heidemann 2010 iii GIVING VOICE TO LANGUAGE: BASQUE LANGUAGE ACTIVISM AND THE POLITICS OF EDUCATION REFORM IN FRANCE, 1969-1995 Kai A. Heidemann, PhD University of Pittsburgh, 2010 Over the past several decades there has been a wellspring of political debate in Europe regarding the rights of linguistic minorities in education. Perhaps nowhere has this transnational debate sparked more controversy than in France where the notion of linguistic rights has been negatively construed by many political authorities as antithetical to the republican model of universal public education. Despite such enmity a host of ethnolinguistic activists in France have been laboring for decades to transform education from a site of exclusion into a vehicle of empowerment. In this dissertation I explore the mobilization dynamics that characterized a minority language schooling initiative within the French Basque Country from 1969 to 1994. Drawing on qualitative case study data, I pay particular attention to the struggles, strategies and successes of Basque language activists affiliated with a community-based schooling association known as ‘Seaska’. Building on social movement theory, I argue that Seaska gradually accrued the support of reluctant policy-makers by mobilizing an influential repertoire of discursive, organizational and performative strategies. Throughout my discussion I show how these strategic practices allowed Seaska to cope with an enduring tide of political opposition, seize upon several windows of political opportunity and gain increasing levels of recognition within the political arena. By way of conclusion I consider future avenues for conducting comparative research on minority language activism in educational settings beyond the French Basque context. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ........................................................................................................ XII 1.0 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................ 1 1.1 EDUCATION AS A VEHICLE OF MOBILIZATION: THE IKASTOLA SCHOOLING MOVEMENT.............................................................................................. 4 1.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS................................................................................. 9 1.3 ORGANIZATION OF THE DISSERTATION.............................................. 14 1.4 AIMS OF THIS DISSERTATION................................................................... 18 1.5 DEFINITION OF SOME KEY TERMS......................................................... 20 2.0 FRENCH NATIONALISM AND BASQUE LANGUAGE LOSS ........................ 23 2.1 REPUBLICAN NATIONALISM AND LINGUISTIC ASSIMILATION ... 24 2.2 THE CONTINUITY OF LINGUISTIC NATIONALISM IN THE AGE OF MULTICULTURALISM................................................................................................... 34 2.3 MONOLINGUAL STATE, MULTILINGUAL NATION ............................ 40 2.4 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................. 43 3.0 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ........................................................................... 45 3.1 RESOURCE MOBILIZATION THEORY..................................................... 46 3.2 POLITICAL PROCESS THEORY ................................................................. 57 3.3 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................. 63 v 4.0 METHODOLOGY..................................................................................................... 66 4.1 RESEARCH DESIGN....................................................................................... 66 4.1.1 Fieldwork........................................................................................................ 67 4.2 DATA COLLECTION...................................................................................... 69 4.2.1 Interviewing ................................................................................................... 69 4.2.2 Archives .......................................................................................................... 72 4.2.3 Newspapers..................................................................................................... 75 4.2.4 Participant-Observation ............................................................................... 78 4.3 DATA ANALYSIS............................................................................................. 80 4.3.1 Organizing Data............................................................................................. 80 4.3.2 Memoing......................................................................................................... 81 4.3.3 Coding............................................................................................................. 82 4.3.4 Categorization................................................................................................ 84 4.3.5 Theorization ................................................................................................... 84 4.4 LIMITS OF THE RESEARCH DESIGN ....................................................... 85 4.4.1 Representativeness......................................................................................... 85 4.4.2 Timeframe ...................................................................................................... 86 4.4.3 My identity ..................................................................................................... 86 5.0 THE FORMATION OF A STRATEGIC STANCE TOWARD THE STATE: FROM EVASION TO ENGAGEMENT, 1969-1979............................................................... 88 5.1 THE GESTATION PHASE, 1969-1974 .......................................................... 90 5.2 THE EXTENSION PHASE, 1974-1977......................................................... 109 5.3 THE POLITICIZATION PHASE, 1977-1979.............................................. 116 vi 5.4 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................ 124 6.0 OPPORTUNITY FROM THE SOUTH: HOW THE RISE OF THE AUTOMOMOUS BASQUE COMMUNITY OF SPAIN EMPOWERED THE IKASTOLA MOVEMENT IN FRANCE, 1979-1986.................................................................................. 126 6.1 THE RISE OF EUSKADI AND NORMALIZATION OF THE IKASTOLAS IN SPAIN .................................................................................................. 127 6.2 HOW SEASKA’S MEMBERS STRATEGICALLY ENGAGED WITH EVENTS IN EUSKADI ................................................................................................... 134 6.3 GAINING ACCESS TO TEACHER TRAINING IN EUSKADI............... 141 6.4 GAINING TEACHING MATERIALS FROM EUSKADI......................... 144 6.5 PARTICIPATION OF SPANISH BASQUES IN SEASKA’S FUND- RAISERS........................................................................................................................... 146 6.6 FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE FROM EUSKADI .......................................... 148 6.7 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................ 150 7.0 OPPORTUNITY FROM THE LEFT: HOW THE ASCENSION OF SOCIALISTS EMPOWERED THE IKASTOLA MOVEMENT, 1981-1986 .................... 151 7.1 THE POLITICAL PENDULUM SWINGS LEFT ...................................... 152 7.2 FRAMING PRACTICES AND AGENDA-SETTING................................. 159 7.3 LAUNCHING THE CYCLE OF PROTEST................................................ 166 7.4 PROTEST POLITICS AND THE SHADOW OF BASQUE RADICALISM 172 7.5 AN ESCALATION AND BRIEF PAUSE IN PROTEST............................ 176 7.6 RE-INVIGORATING THE PUBLICITY CAMPAIGN ............................. 179 vii 7.7 THE POLITICAL WAITING GAME .......................................................... 180 7.8 A NEW ROUND OF NEGOTIATION AND THE SLOW EMERGENCE OF RECOGNITION ........................................................................................................ 185 7.9 ECONOMIC CRISIS AND THE RENEWAL OF PROTEST ................... 187 7.10 ANOTHER ROUND OF NEGOTIATION EMERGES.............................. 194 7.11 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................ 201 8.0 CONVERTING OPPORTUNITIES INTO OUTCOMES: SEASKA GAINS STATE-LEVEL SUPPORT FOR THE IKASTOLAS, 1986-1994 ...................................... 202 8.1 DISCURSIVE REFLECTION AND ORGANIZATIONAL RE- STRUCTURING..............................................................................................................
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