Lumber and Millwork

CHAPTER 14 Lumber and Millwork

Objectives pitch pockets shop grade plain sawing soft rot After studying this chapter, you should beableto: • Explain the sequence of steps used to convert plain sawn spindles trees to usable lumber. quarter sawing splits • Describe the three methods of sawing. raised grain surfacing • Explain hardwood and softwood grading random widths and systematic felling practices. lengths (RWL) torn grain • Order lumber and millwork. remanufacture grade trim • Identify various lumber defects. rift sawing twist seasoning wane Technical Terms sectional felling warp Selects air drying (AD) finish lumber wavy dressing Selects and Better bark pockets Firsts and Seconds (FAS) wormholes shakes blue stain flat sawn board foot grub holes Wood is a natural material available worldwide bow heart rot for use in cabinetmaking and construction. Trees are brown rot honeycomb a renewable resource for lumber, millwork, and man- checks kilns ufactured wood products. Wood used for softwood construction is purchased in nominal size boards construction grade kiln drying (KD) (1 × 3, 2 × 4, etc.). Nominal size boards are rough- crook kink sawn dimensional lumber, before planing. Wood cup knots used in hardwood construction is purchased in decay knot hole random widths and lengths (RWL). RWL is wood dimension grade machine burn sawn to various widths and lengths, maximiz- ing the yield of usable wood from a log. Millwork dimension lumber millwork includes manufactured dowels, mouldings, and dec- dog hole moulding orative wood products. Manufactured wood materi- dowel No. 1 Common als include plywood, particleboard, and fiberboard. dry rot No. 2 Common All wood species are brought to market as lumber through a sequence of steps. These include har- factory grade No. 3 Common vesting, sawing, drying, and grading. Individuals or FAS 1-Face nominal size boards industries then order lumber and millwork to meet FAS 1-Face and Better pattern lumber their needs.

/ 184 Section 3 Materials 14.1 Harvesting

Lumber begins its journey to you as a mature tree that is harvested. Logging industries select and fell (cut) trees for market by sectional felling and systematic felling.

14.1.1 Sectional Felling Sectional felling is the harvesting of large sections of forest at one time using heavy machinery, Figure 14-1.Clearing large portions of a forest is less expensive than cutting individual trees. Sectional felling occurs most often in softwood harvesting. Christopher Kolaczan/Shutterstock.com These trees grow faster and mature quicker than Figure 14-2. New seedlings are replanted after hardwoods. The cleared sections are replanted and sectional felling of softwood forests. reach maturity within a person’s lifetime. Seed- lings are grown at tree farms and later transported Trees marked for systematic felling are notched to planned forests. See Figure 14-2. Replenish- and cut with a saw. The trees are cut near the ground. ing wood resources is under the guidance of the Systematic felling is done using hydraulic American Tree Farm System. It is the largest and machines that both cut and transfer the tree. Single oldest woodland management organization in trees are difficult and more costly to harvest. Nearby North America. They help ensure that wood will trees may be destroyed in the process. Large scale be harvested in a sustainable and environmentally replanting is impossible. responsible manner. Once the trees are felled, small branches are trimmed from the main trunk. The trunk is cut into logs suitable for transporting. This process is called 14.1.2 Systematic Felling bucking. Logs are then transported to the sawmill Systematic felling is the harvesting of single by truck or railroad cars. trees. They may be selected because wood of a cer- Most lumber mills are located near harvest- tain species is needed. They may also be cut because able forests and at least one body of water. See they are diseased or infested with insects. Removal Figure 14-3. Logs can be stored in the water until of these trees allows those nearby to grow quicker sawing. Water prevents insect damage and end and healthier. checking (short separations in ends and surfaces of

Western Wood Products Assoc. Western Wood Products Assoc. Figure 14-1. After felling, a log loader stacks the lumber. Figure 14-3. Water may be used for transporting and storing logs.

/ Chapter 14 Lumber and Millwork 185 seasoned boards) due to premature drying. Some Lumber is sawn one of three ways: plain sawn, denser species may not float, so they are often quarter sawn, or rift sawn. Quarter-sawn and rift- stacked and sprayed with water. sawn lumber are more costly than plain-sawn lumber because they require additional handling time. Once a log is quartered for quarter-sawn and rift- 14.1.3 Sawing sawn lumber, each piece must be loaded onto the At the lumber mill, logs are loaded onto a jack lad- carriage and positioned for sawing. In plain sawing, der and transported to a preparation area. There they the log only needs to be rotated. are washed and sometimes debarked in preparation for sawing, Figure 14-4. Each log is placed on a car- Plain Sawing riage that moves it through a large band saw or circu- Plain sawing cuts are made tangent to the lar saw. SeeFigure 14-5.The saw creates rough-edged annual rings. This is the most common sawing planks. The angle at which the saw cuts through the method, Figure 14-6A. Softwood cut by this method log determines the grain pattern, amount of shrink- is often called flat sawn and hardwood is called age during seasoning, and value of the lumber. plain sawn. Plain sawing is less costly and wasteful than any other method. The average plank width is larger. More lumber can be produced per log. The wood is also easier to kiln dry. However, plain-sawn lumber is more likely to be lower quality and has a greater tendency to warp. Annual rings attempt to straighten during drying. Plain-sawn lumber also tends to check and split more than lumber sawn by quarter and rift methods. Knots often appear round, caused by saw cuts across branches. Plain-sawn grain is more figured, and is often referred to as cathedral grain because of its charac- teristic V shape. These V shapes are formed by the earlywood and latewood of a single growing season.

M. Bohlke Veneer Corp. Quarter Sawing Figure 14-4. Bark is removed before sawing. It will be Quarter sawing involves cutting logs into four used to make other products. sections, called quarters. Each quarter is then sawn at an angle between 60° and 90° to the annual rings. See Figure 14-6B. The grain pattern, for the most part, will be straight lines. Cuts farthest from the center of the log will produce the most figured grain. Cuts near the center are perpendicular to the annual rings and will produce straight grain. Quarter-sawn lumber twists and cups (curves across its face from edge to edge) less than plain- sawn lumber. There are fewer checks and splits because cuts are parallel with the wood rays. The rays appear as flakes running along the length of the board.

Rift Sawing Rift sawing begins by cutting logs into quarters, but the quarters are sawn at between a 30° and M. Bohlke Veneer Corp. 60° angle to the annual rings. See Figure 14-6C. The Figure 14-5. Logs are mounted on a carriage to be advantages of rift sawing over plain sawing are the sawn. The carriage moves the log into a circular saw same as those gained by quarter sawing. However, or band saw blade.

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Wood rays

A. Plain (Flat) Sawn

Wood ray Wood ray

James L.Taylor Mfg. Figure 14-7. Boards are ripped manually to maximize Saw cuts Saw cuts width. Use of scanners to automate this process is B. Quarter Sawn C. Rift Sawn increasing.

Georgia-Pacific Corp. Figure 14-6. Each method of sawing produces different appearance and structural qualities. the straight grain pattern runs lengthwise and is very thin and uniform. Wood rays are apparent, but are less pronounced than as in quarter sawn.

Ripping Once the logs are sawn, the boards are ripped to width and crosscut to length. See Figure 14-7. Each cut must be determined by the saw operator, or sawyer, to achieve the longest and widest possible board. Hardwood lumber is sold in random widths and lengths. Timetable for Air-Seasoning (in days) 14.2 Drying Hardwoods

After sawing, lumber must be dried to reduce Ash 70–110 Gum 70–160 the moisture content. The drying process is called Basswood 30–60 Hickory 150–200 Beech 150–200 Mahogany 70–110 seasoning. Wood can be seasoned either by air dry- Birch 150–200 Maple 150–200 ing or by kiln drying. Cherry 150–200 Oak 180–300 Chestnut 85–125 Walnut 120–170 14.2.1 Air Drying Elm 80–130 Softwoods Air drying (AD) requires that boards be stacked using stickers (narrow strips) to separate the layers, Red cedar 50–140 White pine 45–150 allowing for air movement. Drying is done either Cypress 200–275 Redwood 60–180 outdoors or in a shelter, Figure 14-8. When dried Hoge Lumber Co. Hoadley Western Wood Products Assoc. outdoors, the top of the stack is covered to prevent Figure 14-8. Reducing moisture content by air drying water from wetting the wood. takes time.

/ Chapter 14 Lumber and Millwork 187 Beware of air-dried lumber. Even after years 14.2.2 Kiln Drying of sheltered protection, the moisture content may remain at 15% to 19%.Remember, wood used for cab- Kiln drying (KD) uses large ovens, called kilns, inetmaking should be between 6% and 8% moisture to reduce the moisture content of the lumber. Like content. Always measure the moisture content of the air drying, the lumber is stacked and air is circulated stock when it is received and before machining. through the pile. SeeFigure 14-9.The temperature and

Dry Kilns for Soft or Hardwood, Conventional or High-Temperature Fans

Ventilators Recirculating blower

Burner combination Kiln control Burner gas/oil center controls

Western Wood Products Assoc. Harvey Engineering and Manufacturing Corp. Figure 14-9. Kiln drying. Lumber is transported into kiln on rails and dried using circulating, heated air.

/ 188 Section 3 Materials humidity of the air are controlled to promote gradual, 14.3.1 Natural Defects even drying. Steam is added at first to increase humidity. This prevents sudden surface drying that could Wood contains various natural defects.Most are not cause checks and splits. The humidity is then reduced seen until the wood has been cut and seasoned.Some and the temperature gradually increased to a constant affect the strength of the wood, while others make the level until drying is complete. The time required to appearance unique and potentially desirable. Defects complete this process depends on the type of wood, its include knots, pitch pockets, bark pockets, and peck. thickness, the efficiency of the kiln, and the amount of wood to be seasoned.Kiln schedules can vary from 24 Knots hours to more than 28 days. A knot is a dense cross section of a horizontal For many commercial purposes, lumber is air branch that grew from the tree and was later sur- dried and then kiln dried. Air drying removes the rounded by subsequent growth of the stem. They free water to reach the fiber saturation point. No are encountered when sawing across a part of a log shrinkage occurs at this point. Controlled kiln dry- that had a branch. Branches typically grow from the ing then removes the bound water. During this time pith across the trunk or stem. During growth, the the lumber shrinks. For construction-grade lumber, tree stem forms around the branch. Although the the moisture content is reduced to between 15% and knot itself is as strong as the wood, the grain pat- 19%. For cabinetmaking lumber, the moisture con- tern surrounding it weakens the lumber. The wood tent is reduced to 6% to 8%. dries, shrinks, and may split. Wood fibers can separate and cause loose knots. 14.3 Identifying Lumber There are different shapes and types of knots. See Figure 14-10. Round knots, called branch knots, Defects are found in wood that was cut tangentially to the annual rings. The cut gives a cross-section view of Lumber defects detract from the appearance the branch. Spike knots are found in wood cut radi- and workability of the wood. The Wood Handbook, ally to the annual rings. The saw splits the branch published by the Forest Products Laboratory, con- through the center. Oval knots are found when the tains information about the formation and nature of wood was cut at an angle to the branch. defects. Cabinetmakers need to know how defects Knots are further described as intergrown or affect both the aesthetic and structural properties of encased. As long as a branch is alive, there is continu- the wood. The three categories of defects are natu- ous growth at the intersection of the limb and trunk. ral defects, defects caused by improper seasoning or Knots cut from live branches are called intergrown. storage, and defects caused by machining. They retain their contact with the surrounding wood

Intergrown Knot Encased Loose Knot Checked Knot

Spike Knot Knot Hole Western Wood Products Assoc. Figure 14-10. Knot defects come in all shapes and sizes. Intergrown knots are more stable than encased knots.

/ Chapter 14 Lumber and Millwork 189 and are called tight knots. If a branch dies, addi- attack the heartwood (rarely the sapwood), but cease tional growth on the trunk will surround the branch. after the tree has been cut. The cypress family is Knots cut from this area are encased by surrounding especially susceptible. Fungi attacking bald cypress growth. They often become loose knots when they cause brown pockets called peck. See Figure 14-13. lose contact with the wood surrounding them. Those attacking Douglas fir cause white pockets. A checked knot contains a split in the knot Grub holes are voids in the wood left by insects. caused by seasoning. A knot hole results from a The insects burrowed through the wood while the loose, encased knot that has been knocked out dur- tree was alive. Residue from the insect may also be ing seasoning or by rough handling or machining. found in the holes.

Pitch Pocket Pitch pockets are openings in the wood that contain solid or liquid resins, called pitch. See Figure 14-11. The pocket is formed by resin ducts. Pitch pockets are found in various softwoods, such as pine, spruce, and fir.

Bark Pocket Bark pockets contain bark material that was enclosed during growth. See Figure 14-12. This barky section is undetected until the log is sawn. These sections are very weak and unattractive.

Other Natural Defects Heart rot, peck, and grub holes are other natural defects. Heart rot is a form of decay that occurs while the tree is still alive. Certain decay fungi

Western Wood Products Assoc. Figure 14-13. Peck is caused by fungus. Grub holes are caused by insects.

14.3.2 Defects Caused by Improper Seasoning or Storage Various lumber defects are caused by improper Western Wood Products Assoc. seasoning and the resulting shrinkage. These include Figure 14-11. Pitch pockets include hardened resins. warp, splits, checks, shakes, honeycomb, blue stain, decay, and insect damage.

Warp Warp is the deviation from a flat plane along the face, edge, or length of the board. The five types of warp are bow, crook, twist, kink, and cup, Figure 14-14. Bow is a curve lengthwise along the face of the board from end to end. Crook is curve along the edge of a board from end to end. Twist is a corkscrew effect. Kink is a deviation along the Western Wood Products Assoc. board caused by a knot or irregular grain pattern. Figure 14-12. Bark pockets are formed when bark cells Cup is a curve across the face of the board from are enclosed during growth. edge to edge.

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Tendency to Warp

Softwoods

Low Intermediate

Cedars Bald cypress Bow Pine, ponderosa Douglas fir Pine, sugar Firs, true Point of greatest Pine, white Hemlocks deflection Rise of fourth corner Redwood Larch, western Crook Spruce Pine, jack Pine, lodgepole Pine, red Pine, southern

Twist Hardwoods

Point of greatest Low Intermediate High deflection Alder Ash Beech Kink Aspen Basswood Cottonwood Point of greatest Birch, paper, Birch, yellow Elm, American deflection and sweet Elm, rock Sweetgum Butternut Hackberry Sycamore Cherry Hickory Tanoak Walnut Locust Tupelo Cup American tulip Magnolia, Forest Products Laboratory southern Figure 14-14. Warp is the result of uneven shrinkage or Maples internal stress. Oaks Pecan Willow

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher Various types of warp occur during seasoning. Figure 14-15. The warp tendencies for some types of Most are caused by the shrinkage of the wood cells. wood. Internal stress in the wood is another cause of warp- ing. Constant pressure from weight of a limb or lean- ing trunk causes reaction wood. The growth rings are compressed or spread apart. Natural irregulari- Green Note ties during growth can also cause eccentric annual rings. Certified sustainable lumber comes from Warp also occurs as a result of improper stor- forests around the world that are managed age. As different surfaces are exposed to moisture, responsibly. It is now possible to specify certified the grain (wood cells) expands. Warp caused by sustainable lumber for residential and commer- improper storage can be minimized by stacking the cial projects. Look for well-established certifica- lumber neatly and maintaining the humidity level of tion labels such as those offered by the the room. Wood is best stacked flat with ample sup- Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI). This inde- port to prevent bowing, usually every 24–36″. The pendent group certifies that lumber was planted, weight of the wood minimizes cupping. If the wood grown, cut, and renewed in a way that protects must be stored outdoors, put it on a firm foundation the forest’s long-term health. above the ground. The wood should be covered with tarps and the pile sloped slightly to allow water to drain if it gets in the stack. Checks and Splits The frequency and severity of warped stock in a Checks and splits are separations of the wood given quantity of lumber is often related to the wood fibers along the grain and across the annual rings. species. See Figure 14-15. The grain patterns of some See Figure 14-16. Splits travel along the length of the wood are more apt to cause warp than others. wood and run from face to face. Checks are short

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A B Berka7 Pincasso/Shutterstock.com Figure 14-16. A—Splits run along the length of the board. B—End checks are caused by moisture loss Patrick A. Molzahn Western Wood Products Assoc. through the ends of the board. Figure 14-17. Honeycomb is caused by separation of wood rays. Top—Appears as voids in the end of cut lumber. Bottom—Honeycomb as depressions in surfaced separations, found in the ends and surfaces of sea- lumber. soned boards. Checks and splits are caused when wood rays separate during seasoning.

Shakes Shakes are separations of the wood between two growth rings. Separation may occur while the tree is standing or when it is felled. Ring failure is also a separation of growth rings, but occurs during drying. It is caused by the weakening of the bond between rings because of high heat in the kiln.

Honeycomb Honeycomb is an internal void, usually along the wood rays, caused by excessive heat during seasoning while free water is still present in the wood cells. See Figure 14-17. This usually is not detected until the lumber is being machined.

Blue Stain Forest Products Laboratory Blue stain is discoloration of the wood caused Figure 14-18. Abnormal coloring known as blue stain. by a mold or fungus. SeeFigure 14-18.It occurs after the wood has been cut and left in an area of high humidity. Decay Blue stain is found mostly in sapwood and col- Decay is the disintegration of the wood fibers ors range from a bluish-black to brown. The mold due to decay-producing fungi. It is found in both or fungus that causes blue stain penetrates into the heartwood and sapwood. Decay causes the wood to sapwood and cannot be removed by surfacing. The become spongy and unsuitable for use, Figure 14-19. stain doesn’t affect the strength of the wood but can The two types of decay are brown rot and white detract from its appearance. The stain may com- rot. With brown rot, only the cellulose (material mak- pletely cover the sapwood or may be specks, spots, ing up wood cells) is removed. The wood becomes streaks, or patches of different shades. brown in color and tends to crack across the grain.

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Brown rot that has dried is commonly called dry rot. for both insects and fungi. These preservatives are With white rot, both the cellulose and lignin deterio- used to treat more susceptible woods. Commonly rate. The wood loses color, but does not crack until used chemicals are listed in Figure 14-20. the white rot is severe. Preservatives can be applied by pressure treat- Serious decay occurs when the moisture content ment, hot-cold bath, cold-soaking, and brushing is above the fiber saturation point (typically around or spraying. Pressure treatment is most effective 30% MC). Wood exposed to rain, or in contact with because chemicals penetrate deep into the wood. the ground, usually decays rapidly, depending on species. A less common form of decay is soft rot. Soft rot 14.3.3 Defects Caused by is caused by molds, not decay-producing fungi. It Machining only affects the surface and can be removed by plan- Lumber defects or blemishes may appear during ing. It is found on wood exposed to both constant and intermittent moisture levels above 20%. the manufacturing process. Most occur during surfacing. Defects include machine burn, raised grain, torn grain, wavy dressing, skip, and dog holes. See Insect Damage Figure 14-21. Worms and other insects bore into wood, leaving small holes called wormholes. You can cover Machine Burn unwanted wormholes with wood filler. Pinholes are wormholes smaller than 1/4″ (6 mm). They are Machine burn is a darkening of the wood caused by heat. It occurs when dull tools are used. If the often left to enhance the wood’s appearance. Minor defects in the wood make it unique. board stops during surfacing and the cutter head rubs in one place, a burn may occur. Too slow of feed can also cause burn. Preventing Stain, Decay, and Insect Damage Wood that is consistently exposed to insects or Raised Grain moisture levels above 20% should be protected using Raised grain is a variation in surface texture chemical preservatives that poison the food supply caused by machining wood of high moisture content. As the cutter knives smooth the face, they press latewood into the softer earlywood. After leaving the surfacer, the earlywood recovers and expands, causing the grain to lift. Raised grain is most apparent in construction-grade softwoods.

Wood Preservatives

Common wood preservatives are rated according to various characteristics. Symbols are: ★ = Usable ★ ★ = Better ★ ★ ★ = Best Preservative contact ToOxicdColoroitryPaSoilinPermeabiltability Creosote ★★★ ★ ★ ★ ★★★ ★★★ Penta ★★★ ★★ ★★★ ★★★ ★★★ ★★★ Water soluble preservatives* ★★★ ★★★ ★★ ★★★ ★★ ★★ Patrick A. Molzahn Figure 14-19. Decay ends the useful purpose of wood. *Containinflugor-chrome-arsenate-phenol, or chromated zinc chloride. The pointed projections are the pith sections of Goodheart-Willcox Publisher branches. Notice how they converge toward the tree’s Figure 14-20. Wood preservatives can be used to center. prevent decay.

/ Chapter 14 Lumber and Millwork 193

Wavy Dressing Skips in Dressing Dog Hole

Machine Burn Raised Grain Torn Grain—Planer Torn Grain—Saw Western Wood Products Assoc. Figure 14-21. Various machine-caused defects occur during surfacing.

Torn Grain board needed to achieve a certain grade will differ Torn grain occurs when wood fibers are torn between hardwood and softwood. It can also differ from the board by the saw, shaper, jointer, or planer. between species. Torn grain occurs most in softer wood and around knots where the grain pattern is irregular. 14.4.1 Hardwood Grading

Wavy Dressing Hardwood is graded as factory, dimension, or finished-market lumber. Factory grades, also called cut- Wavy dressing results when boards are fed into ting grades, specify the amount of clear lumber that the surfacer faster than the knives can cut. Each can be cut from a board. They are established by the knife makes a small arc in the wood. You can feel a National Hardwood Lumber Association (NHLA). slight rippled texture even though rough-sawn spots These pieces will have random widths and lengths, have all been removed. and slight variations in thickness. Wider and longer boards receive higher grades. Dimension grades are Skip surfaced to specific thicknesses and/or cut to specific A skip is a section of a board that is unsurfaced. lengths and widths. They are more expensive, thus, Skips appear when the board is not flat. The sawyer specified less frequently. Factory grades are quality may not cut the board straight. The board may also lumber for mouldings and trim. warp. Slight depressions are formed. These areas are not hit by the surfacer and the texture remains rough.

Dog Hole A dog hole is a scar in the board caused by the metal hook, or dog, that grips a log while it is sawn. It differs from torn grain because of the amount of wood removed. A dog hole may be 1/4″ (6 mm) deep. Torn grain is only a surface blemish.

14.4 Grading

After seasoning, lumber is graded according to quality. Lumber grading is a matter of judgment and experience. SeeFigure 14-22. Graders rate each piece Southern Forest Products Assoc. according to the size of board and amount of defect- Figure 14-22. Graders inspect each board for size and free lumber in it. The clear cuttings, or yield, of a clearness.

/ 194 Section 3 Materials

Factory Grades FAS 1-Face and Selects lumber are used in prod- Factory grades are based on the amount of ucts where only one face of the board will be seen. clear lumber that can be cut into given lengths Chests, dressers, and other storage cabinets require from a single board. Each grade requires that only the outer face to be free from defects. the board be at least 3″ (76 mm) in width. Long, No. 1 Common lumber is also called thrift lum- narrow boards are used for making mouldings. ber because it provides the greatest amount of clear Smaller scraps are processed into particleboard lumber for the cost. However, clear cut lengths can and fiberboard. Figure 14-23 shows a large board be as short as 2′ (610 mm). The board must be 66% with three cuttings. clear, yet most exceed 75% clear. Thrift grade is an A board may exceed the minimum percentage of excellent choice for small to medium projects. clear wood and minimum dimension of boards cut. Grades not listed in Figure 14-24 include No. 2 It is graded as Firsts and Seconds (FAS). The dif- Common and No. 3 Common. These grades have ferent grades and minimum specifications are indi- the same dimensions as No. 1 Common lumber, but cated in Figure 14-24. The specifications listed can No. 2 Common requires only 50% clear wood, and vary according to species. The percentage of clear No. 3 Common requires only 25% clear wood. These wood may differ. Check with your supplier first to lumber grades are usually not suitable for cabinet- determine the specifications for the species you plan making purposes. to purchase. FAS is the top grade for hardwoods. The board must be at least 84% clear. It is graded on the poorer 14.4.2 Combination Grades face of the board, so you can assume the other side Some suppliers have combined grades to sell is as good or better. FAS 1-Face lumber main- lumber that is not often requested. For example, peo- tains the same specifications as FAS. However, it ple shy away from FAS grades because of price. The is graded on the better surface of the board. The FAS 1-Face and Better combination grade includes poorer surface may contain pitch pockets or wane. FAS 1-Face and FAS grade boards. They are sold at Wane is bark incorporated in the wood or on the a price lower than the FAS grade. Consumers pur- edge of the board. Selects lumber is the same as chase this combination grade knowing that they are FAS 1-Face, except the minimum length is reduced getting better-grade lumber along with FAS 1-Face by 2′ (610mm) and the minimum width is reduced wood. The Selects and Better grade includes shorter by 2″ (50 mm). length boards along with higher grades.

6′8″ 5′1″

8″ 13″ 5″

1′0″ 8′9″ 2′3″

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher Figure 14-23. Size of clear cuttings determines the grade of the board.

Generalized NHLA Hardwood Grade Minimums (Does not show species variations.)

Minimum Size Minimum Maximum Waste Grade Side Graded Price Estimate Width Length Cutting Sizes in Board FAS Poorer 6″+ 8′+ Up to 16% Highest FAS 1-Face Better 6″+ 8′+ 4″ × 5′ or 3″ × 7′ Up to 16% – 5% Selects Better 4″+ 6′+ Up to 16% – 10% #1 Common (Thrift) Poorer 3″+ 4′+ 4″ × 2′ or 3″ × 3′ Up to 34% – 30%

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher Figure 14-24. General hardwood grading rules. Some species vary in clear cutting sizes.

/ Chapter 14 Lumber and Millwork 195 14.4.3 Dimension Grades lumber has a variety of building construction appli- cations. Construction grades are classified as finish, Dimension-grade hardwoods come in flats and board, or dimension lumber. squares. Flats refer to nominal, surfaced, standard sizes that are wider than they are thick. Examples Finish Lumber are 1 × 2, 1 × 4, and 2 × 4. Squares are 2 × 2, 3 × 3, etc. Finish lumber is less than 3″ (76 mm) thick Dimension-grade hardwoods are graded according and 12″ (305 mm) or less in width. It is used where to appearance as follows: appearance is important, such as flooring, siding, • Clear two sides. wall covering, etc. Grades are: • Clear one side. • A Select. Fewer defects. Used when clear and stained finishes will be applied. • Paint. May consist of two pieces attached by finger joints. • B Select. Fewer defects. Used when clear and stained finishes will be applied. • Core. Used between veneers for lumber core plywood. • C Select. Suitable for painted finishes. • Sound. Includes defects. • D Select. Suitable for painted finishes. Rough-sawn squares are clear, select, or sound Board Lumber grades. Surfaces on squares are clear, select, paint, or Board lumber is less than 2″ thick and 2″ to 12″ second grades. wide (50 mm thick and 50 mm to 305 mm wide). It Few cabinetmakers specify dimension-grade is used for general construction. Boards are graded hardwood because it is expensive. You might use from No. 1 to No. 5. Inspect them closely to deter- clear squares for turning on a lathe. mine finishing capabilities. Higher numbered grades contain more knots and pitch pockets. 14.4.4 Softwood Grading Dimension Lumber Softwood grading also applies to appearance. In Dimension lumber is used for structural fram- addition, softwoods are graded according to use and ing and has a minimum nominal size of 2″ thick by moisture content. See Figure 14-25. The two catego- 2″ wide (50 mm by 50 mm). Dimension lumber is ries are construction and remanufacture grades. divided into the three areas: light framing, structural light framing, and structural joists and planks. Construction Grades Light framing grades are used where high Construction-grade lumber is the least expen- strength is not required. Grades for light framing sive and most widely available. It is also called yard are as follows: lumber. The moisture content is reduced to only • Construction. 19%, making it likely to warp, split, and check when • Standard. it dries further. It may also bleed liquid sap that did • Utility. not harden during seasoning. Construction-grade • Economy. Grades for structural light framing are as follows: • Select structural. • No. 1. • No. 2. • No. 3. • Economy. The nominal size of structural joist and plank lumber is 2″ to 4″ thick and 6″ wide (50 mm to 102 mm and 152 mm wide).

Remanufacture Grades Remanufacture-grade lumber is divided into factory and shop grades. The moisture content ranges Southern Forest Products Assoc. from 6% to 12%. This lumber is more suited to cabi- Figure 14-25. Boards are sorted according to grade. netmaking than construction-grade materials.

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Factory Grade • No. 3 Common—Larger defects including Nominal sizes of factory-grade lumber are 1″ spike knots, pith, and shakes. to 4″ (25 to 102 mm) thick and 5″ (127 mm) or more • No. 4 and No. 5 Common—Contain many in width. It is used for sash and door construction. defects. It has good appearance for any type of finish. The Local lumberyards typically supply only con- grades are as follows: struction-grade softwoods. Few handle remanu- • No. 1 and No. 2 Clear Factory. facture grades. Their open sheds are not suitable • No. 3 Clear Factory. for remanufacture lumber, which must maintain a • No. 1 Shop. low moisture content. Enclosed, heated sheds add to • No. 2 Shop. lumber cost. Although not recommended for cabinetmaking, construction grades can be used if left • No. 3 Shop. to dry indoors for a period of time. Before using any Although the word shopis used, it is not the shop wood, always check the moisture content to see if it grade of softwood. This is a quality level for factory- is at equilibrium moisture content. grade lumber. 14.5 Ordering Lumber Shop Grade Shop-grade softwoods are remanufacture-grade Ordering hardwood and softwood lumber lumber that is available in a variety of sizes and involves properly specifying what you want. In quality. Ratings include Select, Moulding, Cutting, addition to the quality, you have to identify quanti- and Common grades. ties, and species. • Select grades include A through D Select. Grade D is recommended for painting. Others may be finished as desired. Select grades are 14.5.1 Qualities more often specified as follows: Quality refers to hardwood and softwood • B and Better—Clear on both sides. grades. Be familiar with grading policies of the • C Select and Better—Clear on one side. National Hardwood Lumber Association and West- ern Wood Products Association, which deals with • D Select—Contains numerous small, tight softwood. Before ordering, check with your supplier knots. for any special grading practices. • Moulding grade exhibits characteristics of both Select and Shop grades. Pieces are long, narrow, and clear strips used for trim and moulding. 14.5.2 Quantities • Cutting grades fall in sequence below Select Most lumber used in cabinetmaking is sold by grades. They contain a few too many small quantity, not by single boards. Only construction- knots. Grades, as for hardwoods, depend on the grade softwoods, dimension-grade hardwoods, and amount of clear lumber that can be cut from a some shop-grade remanufacture softwoods are sold board. Cutting grades are: by nominal widths and lengths. Unless you specify • Third Clear—A few small knots. width and length, lumber will be sent in random widths and lengths. • No. 1 Shop—More hard knots and smaller cutting yields. Because logs are sawn to minimize waste, boards may not be the same size. As a result, hardwood is • No. 2 Shop—Not recommended for measured by volume, not size. The unit of measure cabinetry. is either the board foot or cubic meter. • No. 3 Shop—Not recommended for cabinetry. Board Feet • Common grades contain knots. They are for A board foot is equal to a board that is 1″ knotty furniture or paneling and utility thick by 12″ long by 12″ wide. The total volume is purposes such as shelving. They are graded 144 cubic inches. The board footage of any piece No. 1 through No. 5 Common. Combination of lumber can be determined by multiplying the grades are usually marketed for Common- thickness (T), width (W), and length (L) in inches, grade softwoods. They include: then dividing by 144. You can also multiply the • No. 2 Common and Better—Tight knots. thickness and width in inches times the length in

/ Chapter 14 Lumber and Millwork 197 feet, and divide by 12. However, there are some Cubic Meter rules to follow: Countries following the metric system use the • Board thicknesses under 3/4″ (18.5mm) are cubic meter for volume measurements of random figured as square foot measure (multiply width widths and lengths lumber. A cubic meter (m3) con- by length). Thickness is not taken into account. tains 423.77 board feet. For those accustomed to the • Thicker boards, 1″ or over, are marked to the board foot, it is best to convert metric measurements. nearest 1/4″. It is common practice to express For example, suppose you purchase plans that call the thickness of cabinet-grade lumber in quar- for 0.12m3 of oak. At a local lumberyard, the price ters of an inch. For example, 1 1/4″ = 5/4″, and for the oak will be $86.50. What is the cost per board is verbally stated as five-quarters. foot? • Thickness is based on measurement before 0.12m3 lumber × 423.77 = 50.86 total bd ft surfacing. Therefore, 86.50 price per bd ft = The general formula for calculating board footage is 50.86 as follows: price per bd ft = $1.70 N × T (in) × W (in) × L (in) bd ft = 144 Where 14.5.3 Special Lumber Processes bd ft = board feet. Special lumber processes include the surfacing N = number of pieces of that size. performed, type of seasoning, preservatives, and T = rough thickness in inches (1″ for pieces less milled pattern lumber. than 1″). W = rough width in inches. Surfacing L = length in inches or feet. If you use feet for length use the following formula: Lumber is either rough or surfaced when you buy it. Surfacing removes from 1/8″ to 1/4″ (3 mm N × T (in) × W (in) × L (ft) bd ft = to 6 mm) from the nominal (rough) size. Standard 12 surfaced thicknesses are developed by the NHLA Examples and the American Lumber Standards Committee, How many board feet are in one piece of 1″ rough Figure 14-26. cherry, 6″ wide, and 48″ long? 1 × 1 × 6 × 48 bd ft = 144 288 bd ft = Standard Surfaced Thicknesses 144 S2S S2S bd ft = 2 Rough Hardwoods Softwoods Thickness How many board feet are in four pieces of 6/4″ (1.5″) (NHLA standard) (WCLB*standard) by 12″ by 8′ rough-sawn oak? 3/8 3/16 5/16* 4 × 1.5 × 12 × 8 bd ft = 1/2 5/16 7/16* 12 5/8 7/16 9/16* bd ft = 576 3/4 9/16 11/16* 12 1 13/16 3/4 bd ft = 48 1-1/4 1-1/16 1 1-1/2 1-5/16 1-1/4 How many board feet are in three pieces of surfaced 1-3/4 1-1/2 cherry, 1″ rough cherry, surfaced to 3/4″, 5 1/2″ × 4′? 2 1-3/4 1-1/2 3 × 1* × 6* × 4 2-1/2 2-1/4 2 bd ft = 12 3 2-3/4 2-1/2 72 3-1/2 3-1/4 3 bd ft = 12 4 3-3/4 3-1/2 bd ft = 6 *Therehas been no standard established, but material of these sizes may be available. The asterisks in the previous example indicate Goodheart-Willcox Publisher that the nominal thickness and width before surfac- Figure 14-26. Nominal (rough) and standard surfaced ing were used when calculating board feet. thickness, expressed in inches.

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Lumber is surfaced on the sides you specify. See Figure 14-27. It can be left rough or have one edge sawn straight. Keep in mind that you pay for surfacing. Order only the surfacing services you cannot perform. Several abbreviations for surfacing options are designated as follows: • S1S. Surfaced one side edges and back rough. • S2S. Surfaced two sides edges rough. • S4S. Surfaced both sides and both edges. • RGH. No surfacing. • SLR1E (Straight-Line Ripped One Edge). In addition to surfacing, the SLR1E process rips a straight edge. This might save you time when gluing boards edge to edge because you save time jointing the edge.

Seasoning Another condition that is always specified on the order form is the type of seasoning. As a cabi- netmaker, you will always want to specify KD (kiln dried). If you do not, you might receive air dried (AD) lumber with a high moisture content. Newman Machine Co., Inc Preservatives Figure 14-27. Lumber is surfaced on one, two, or four sides. Wood subject to excessive moisture or insects is frequently impregnated with preservatives. Oil or water-based preservatives are used to prevent decay and repel insects. Most are applied under high pressure to penetrate layers of wood cells. See Figure 14-28. Window sash, stair treads, and other millwork exposed to moisture are usually dipped or sprayed with chemicals.

Pattern Lumber Beyond surfacing and seasoning, lumber can be specified with milled ends and edges, such as tongue-and-groove or rabbet joints. Milled boards are referred to as pattern lumber and are used for flooring, siding, and decorative purposes. Lumber with a tongue-and-groove on the edges is marked “T & G.” To specify tongue-and-groove on both ends and edges, as found in oak flooring, mark “T & G & E-M” (end-matched). Lumber with Georgia-Pacific Corp. rabbet joints to permit accurate edge fitting is called Figure 14-28. Wood preservatives are applied in a high shiplapped. Other effects are available to decorate pressure container. both interiors and exteriors. SeeFigure 14-29.

abundant than others. Many grow in North Amer- 14.5.4 Species ica, while others grow on other continents. There are hundreds of species of trees from Tree species have both common and botanical which lumber is obtained. Each has different physi- names. For example, ash is a common name for a cal and mechanical properties. Some trees are more familiar tree. Its botanical name is Fraxinus. There

/ Chapter 14 Lumber and Millwork 199

Tongue-and-Groove Tongue-and-Groove V-Joint Ceiling and Partition

Channel Rustic Tongue-and-Groove with Pattern V-Rustic

Tongue-and-Groove End Matched Shiplapped

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher Figure 14-29. Pattern lumber is shaped for special uses, such as flooring and paneling. are multiple species within the ash family, the most 14.6 Millwork common of which are white ash (Fraxinus Ameri- cana), green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), blue ash Millwork consists of specialty items frequently (Fraxinus quadrangulata),black ash (Fraxinus excelsior), processed from moulding-grade lumber. Examples pumpkin ash (Fraxinus profunda), and Oregon ash include moulding, trim, and specialty items. Only (Fraxinus latifolia). Except for Oregon ash, most grow a few wood species are processed into millwork in the eastern half of the United States. items. These species have excellent machining The species of wood you choose depends on properties and are less likely to warp. Matching many factors including color, grain pattern, and colors of millwork to lumber is sometimes a prob- strength. You might choose a wood to match other lem because not every species is produced as mill- furniture or to fulfill a structural requirement. The work. You may choose to produce millwork of the various wood species are covered in Chapter 15. same wood species or select a wood type to fit a particular design. 14.5.5 Written Orders A typical supplier’s order blank is shown in 14.6.1 Moulding and Trim Figure 14-30. Note the categories for board feet, Moulding and trim decorates the edges of thickness, etc. Both single grades and combination most cabinetry, furniture, doorways, and win- grades are specified. Dimensions are specified for dows. Each shape has its own name and varies in several items. size. See Figure 14-31. Typical uses for moulding are shown in Figure 14-32 and Figure 14-33.

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ORDER BLANK

DATE 10 May SCHOOL DISTRICT No. 213 ORDER No. 369

CHARGE TO Board of Education

CITY Anytown STATE Kansas 66132

SHIP TO Anytown High School 220 Main Street

CITY Anytown STATE Kansas 66132

ORDERED BY John Doe (913) 545-1234 TITLE I.A.I. TERMSOF SALE:WE SELLOPENACCOUNT TO BOARDSOF EDUCATION AND TO MEMBERS OF SCHOOL FACULTIES

L U M B E R FEET THICKNESS CHECK ONE GRADE AND KIND OF LUMBER RGH × 200 4/4″ S2S No. 1 Com., Basswood, K-D RGH 250 3/4″ S2S × No. 1 Com. & Btr. Aromatic Red Cedar, K-D 100 3/4″ RGH Selects & Better Cherry, SLRIE, K-D THICKNES2SS × S RGH – 400 3/4″ S2S × Selects Pin Mark Natural Philippine Mahogany, K-D RGH 300 5/8″ 3rd Clear Ponderosa Pine, K-D WOOD S2S × 200 3/4″ RGH Same SHS2YSOUWN S2S × OF RGH 150 1×12″ No. 2 Com. & Btr., Ponderosa Pine, S4S, K-D OR S2S × KIND 100 3/4″ RGH No. 1 Com. & Selects Hickory, K-D YOU S2S × – RGH RGH THANK100 5/8″ S2S × Clear 1 Face Steamed Walnut, 4′ & 5′, S2Sto 1/2″, K-D 100 4/4″ RGH × FAS 1 Face & Btr. Steamed Walnut 6′ & Lgr., K-D HGAVRAEDE S2S – RGH × 150 5/4″ S2S No. 1 Com. Steamed Walnut, K-D RGH × 200 4/4″ S2S No. 1 Com. & Selects Willow, K-D 100 3/4″ RGH Selects & Btr., Northern Birch, 6′ to 11′, K-D QUANTITYS2S × RGH 50 13/16″ S2S × Sel. & Btr. Birdseye Hard Maple, S2S to 7/8″, K-D GOOD 1 SIDE PLYWOOD – SQUARES – DOWELS – ETC. OR GOOD 2 SIDES PIECES SIZE DESCRIPTIONOF WOOD (PLYWOOD ONLY) 4 1/4 × 48 × 96″ D-3 Natural Birch Plywood, V.C. G1S

2 3/4 × 48 × 96″ Premium Walnut, Sound Walnut Back, Solid Jointed Veneer Core G1S-So. Bk.

12 2 × 2 × 30″ Walnut Furniture Squares Clear

20 3/8 × 36″ Hardwood Dowel Rods

1-Pkg. 9 × 11″ Sheets Garnet Finishing Paper 220-A

1 1-Gallon Paxbond Liquid White Glue

1 1-Gallon Clear Deft Wood Finish, Semi-Gloss

CHECK HERE IF YOU WOULD LIKE FREIGHT PREPAID AND ADDED TO INVOICE

FRANK PAXTON LUMBER COMPANY . . . serving the schools since 1914.

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher Figure 14-30. Filling out the order form properly saves time and prevents confusion.

/ Chapter 14 Lumber and Millwork 201

Base Caps Chamfer Strip

Wainscot/Ply Base Shoes Cap Mouldings Squares

Picture Mouldings Shelf Edge/ Back Bands Screen Mould

Panel Strips/ Mullion Casings Lattice Rounds Flat Stools

Battens Shingle/ Panel Mouldings Chair Rails

Casing

Quarter Rounds Flat Astragals Shelf Cleat

Glass Beads

Stops Drip Caps

Hand Rail Inside Corner

Corner Guards Half Rounds

Brick Mould

Panel Mouldings

Coves Screen/ Base Mouldings T-Astragals Crowns Beds S4S Stock

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher Figure 14-31. Many moulding shapes are available.

/ 202 Section 3 Materials

A – Flat stool B – Window trim

B C – Door trim D – Crown moulding A E – Panel mould F – Base and base shoe G – Cap mouldings H – Quarter round I – Back band

D E H

Lange Bros. Woodwork Co., Inc., Milwaukee, WI Figure 14-32. Mouldings are used as decoration for interiors.

14.6.2 Moulding Grades P-grade is intended for paint finishes or veneer- ing. P-grade mouldings may contain two or more Wood mouldings are available in two grades: pieces of wood. P-grade and N-grade. Finger joints are used for edge N-grade is suitable for natural or clear finishes. gluing. The exposed face must be one continuous piece of

/ Chapter 14 Lumber and Millwork 203

to order in this manner. Larger quantities may be ordered by specifying the total lineal feet desired, as opposed to the number of pieces.

14.7 Specialty Items

There are a number of millwork items you can make or buy. Those you buy can save production time. However, they may not be available in the species of wood you want. Some of these items are legs, spindles, finials, dowels, plugs, buttons, and carvings.

14.7.1 Legs, Spindles, and Finials The legs on most tables are produced by millwork companies. Spindles are used as both sup- port and decoration on stair rails, baby cribs, etc. See Figure 14-34. A sample order might read “1 set (4 per set)—#5936 spindles, 24″ (610 mm).” Finials are decorative ornaments found on the ends of curtain rods or applied to chairs and furniture. William and Mary furniture had finials at the top of arches. Finials are inserted into a hole, usually Goodheart-Willcox Publisher at a peak or on a post, for ornamentation. Figure 14-33. Mouldings are used on this cabinet to add interest to the piece.

Spindle—11″ wood. Based on one 2″ face by 12′ long piece (50 mm by 3.66 m), N-grade moulding may have the follow- Spindle—8 1/2″ ing defects: • A small spot of torn grain, 1′ of medium pitch, light skip in dressing on back. • One small and one very small pitch pocket. • One short, tight, seasoned check and a light snipe at one end. Finial • Medium stain in occasional (10%) pieces for one-third the area in an otherwise perfect Spindle—21/8″ surface. P-grade moulding should be the same quality Shaker peg as N-grade, except that stain is not a defect. Glue joints (laminated or finger joints) must be precision Mug peg machined and assembled with tight joints. Patch- ing, filling, or plugging is permitted as long as the moulding still has a paintable surface. When ordering millwork, you may specify the type, grade, size, and length. Lengths begin at 4′ and continue in 2′ increments. For example, an order for moulding might be “4 pieces of cove moulding—3/4″ × 1 3/4″ × 12′.” Many millwork suppliers provide cat- alogs showing the patterns and sizes available, each identified with a pattern number. You may then Goodheart-Willcox Publisher order your material with less chance for error. When Figure 14-34. Finials add decoration. Spindles add to you want continuous pieces without joints, it is best the appearance, but also perform a structural function.

/ 204 Section 3 Materials 14.7.2 Dowels 14.7.3 Plugs and Buttons Dowels are round stock used primarily to Plugs and buttons are used to cover holes over strengthen joints. A short piece of dowel is glued countersunk screws. Flat-head plugs fit flush with into two matching holes. Sizes range from 1/8″ to 1″ the face of the wood. Round-head plugs have a (3 mm to 25 mm) in diameter, and are usually 36″ or slightly curved surface. See Figure 14-36. 48″ (914mm or 1219mm) long. Buttons, frequently called screw-hole buttons, Dowels are ordered in bundles of 25 to 1000, also cover the screw but overlap the edge of the hole. depending on diameter size. The ends are usually They have an advantage over plugs. Buttons will color coded according to size, to prevent mix-up. cover chipped edges of a countersunk hole. They Precut dowels, called dowel pins, come with straight can also be removed to tighten screws if the wood flutes or spiraled grooves, Figure 14-35. These per- shrinks. mit glue to spread evenly inside the hole. Straight- flute dowel pin diameters range from 1/4″ to 7/16″ (6 mm to 11 mm) and lengths from 1 1/4″ to 2 1/2″ 14.7.4 Manufactured Wood (32 mm to 64 mm). Spiral-grooved dowel pin diam- Carvings eters range from 5/16″ to 1/2″ (8 mm to 13 mm) and lengths from 1 1/4″ to 4″ (32 mm to 102 mm). Metric Wood carvings can decorate an otherwise plain dowel pins are available in diameters of 5 mm and surface. See Figure 14-37. Some are actually carved. 8 mm, and in lengths of 25 mm, 30 mm, 35 mm, and Others are produced by pressing wood or wood 38 mm. fibers in a mold. Molded shapes look like hand A longer form of round stock is available to use carved decorations. Carvings will accept both stain for closet rods. It is sometimes called drapery rod. and filler. The diameter is over 1″ (25 mm), most often 1 1/4″ (32 mm). Lengths vary in feet, like moulding.

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher Figure 14-35. A—Dowels are made in varying diameters and lengths. B—Dowels may be straight or spiral fluted.

Diam Flat-Head Plug Button Round-Head Plug

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher Enkeboll Designs® Figure 14-36. Plugs and buttons cover counterbored Figure 14-37. Manufactured wood carvings include holes. many shapes and sizes.

/ Chapter 14 Lumber and Millwork 205 Summary 3. Which of the following statements regarding plain-sawn wood is true? • Lumber begins its journey to you as a mature A. Cuts are made tangent to annual rings. tree being harvested. B. It is less costly and wasteful than other • Logging industries select and fell trees for mar- sawing methods. ket by sectional felling and systematic felling. C. Boards have a tendency to warp. • Lumber is sawn by one of three methods: plain D. All of the above. sawing, quarter sawing, or rift sawing. Because 4. What is the difference between quarter sawing of increased handling time, quarter-sawn and and rift sawing? rift-sawn lumber are more costly than plain- 5. After sawing, lumber is dried to reduce sawn lumber. the _____. • After sawing, lumber is either air dried or kiln 6. Name two methods for seasoning wood. dried to reduce the moisture content. This pro- 7. _____ are a dense cross section of a horizontal cess is called seasoning. branch that grew from a tree and was later sur- • Lumber defects detract from the appearance rounded by the vertical trunk. and workability of wood. Cabinetmakers need A. Buttons to know how defects affect both the aesthetic B. Plugs and structural properties of the wood. C. Knots • Three categories of defects are natural defects, D. Checks defects caused by improper seasoning or stor- 8. Identify the type of warp shown in each age, and defects caused by machining. illustration. • After seasoning, lumber is graded according to quality. Lumber grading is a matter of judg- A. ment and experience. • Graders rate each piece according to the size of board and amount of defect free lumber in it. • The yield of a board needed to achieve a certain grade differs between hardwood and softwood, and can differ between species. B. • Ordering hardwood and softwood lumber involves properly specifying what you want. In addition to the quality, you have to identify quantities, and species. • Millwork consists of specialty items frequently processed from moulding-grade lumber, such C. as moulding, trim, legs, spindles, finials, dowels, plugs, buttons, and carvings. • Only a few wood species are processed into millwork items. These species have excellent machining properties and are less likely to D. warp.

Test Your Knowledge Answer the following questionsusing the information provided in this chapter. E. 1. _____ are used in softwood construction. James L. Taylor Mfg 2. Name two methods of harvesting trees.

/ 206 Section 3 Materials

9. _____ are separations of the wood between two 18. Determine the board feet in three pieces of growth rings. 1 1/32″ thick × 9 1/2″ × 10′ kiln-dried white 10. True or False?Soft rot is caused by mold. pine, surfaced on two sides and A Select finish grade. Write an order for the wood. 11. Name six defects caused by machining. 19. Explain the difference between spindles, finials, 12. Identify four hardwood factory grades for cabi- and dowels. netmaking wood. 13. Name two grading systems for softwoods. 14. Remanufacture-grade softwoods have a Suggested Activities moisture content that ranges from _____% 1. Obtain several boards. Using the formula given to _____%. in this chapter, measure the boards and calcu- A. 6 12 late the board feet (BF) for each. Ask your B. 10 20 instructor to check your answers. C. 25 30 2. Given a value of $2.95 per BF, calculate the cost D. 35 40 of the boards you measured in Activity 1. 15. Most lumber used in cabinetmaking is sold 3. Using the sample order form in this chapter as by _____. an example, create your own order form for a 16. A(n) _____ is equal to a board that is 1″ thick × project of your choice. Share your completed 12″ long × 12″ wide. form with your instructor. 17. Determine the board feet in two pieces of 4. Using a contour gauge, find and trace four 1/2″ × 8″ × 6′ rough-sawn, kiln-dried willow moulding profiles. Using the profiles shown in that is FAS grade. Write an order for the wood. this chapter as a guide, categorize the profiles you found by type, such as base, casing, or crown. Share your results with your class.