Water in Religion

1.1.

Vital factor for human life, but also for animal and vegetal life, water represents one of the most important element that exists, and, at the same time, the symbol of soul cleansing and holy life.

Also, water has an important role in many religions and that results from the quality of being a cleaner and, at the same time, the one that purifies the body and soul. Likewise, the water is vivifying, the one which receives and offers the living possibility, the one which can provide life.The well known historian of the religions, Mircea Eliade, said that water symbolizes the totality of the virtualities, being the matrix of all the living possibilities. Waters implies regeneration, and that’s how it becomes the symbol of life

Water is the one which creates, yet the one that can destroy life and that’s why it is seen from many points of view by the believers of different

1 religions. That’s why the meaning of it in different religions cause not only

curiosity but also interest and diversity.

In Buddhism, water is associated with the life beyond, for that reason water is poured in a bowl placed in front of the dead and the Buddhist monk (who recites the prayer). As rain fills the rivers that pours into ocean, just like how the soul will reach from where he left. In hinduism water has cleaning powers, that’s why it has such a special role that can be seen especially in the 7 sacred rivers: Ganges, Yamuna, Godavari, Sarasvati, Narmada, Sindhu and Kaveri.

In Islam, water is the one that cleans and purifies; without water a

moslem is not clean and he can’t approach the prayer to Allah, that’s why in the mosques it will always be a place for the purifying water.

In Judaism, Torah is the one which commands the jews to clean their hands and feet before taking part at temple rituals.In Hebrew, the rain water is a purifying element; in every synagogue there is a sewerage that collects the water in a tank which is later use for different purification rituals.

In Christianity, water represents a complex symbol, for a complex religion, and, at the same time, a vital element for life. Water appears in the second verse of Holy Scripture which says that after being created, the Spirit of God was hovering over the waters. The real presence of the Holy Spirit over waters shows that He was the one to take care of the aquatic animals. Water is the one to receive the divine creatures at the divine order and the one which always withdraws to defend the land. Therefore, everything was brought to life by Holy Spirit.

In the Old Testament we meet countless testimonials about water and about its role in the human history. God sends the punishment to unbelievers by water that covers the whole Earth, unfaithfuls meeting their death by water. Also, it is quite intresting that God had promised not to lose anymore ground with water, as he did in the flood.

Water’s cleansing role is, thus, underlined by this event, but it is also noticed water’s withdrawn after the Great Flood and the rebirth of the whole nature. And this means a rebirth from the dead, a reshape of the world, of nature, of life. It is to be taken into consideration that God promised that He

3 would never perish the earth through water, the way he did during the Great Flood.

The greatest Prophet of the Jews, Moses, whose life history begins on the water, is the one who will lead the Jewish people towards liberation from

Egyptian bondage. His mother, in order to prevent him from the

Egyptians who killed by order of the Pharaoh all those born of male, put him in a basket on the Nile waters. His way was guided towards the Pharaon's House, where he would be found by his daughter. He will be named by her according to the situation he was found, with the name of Moses, which means from water I have himremoved. (Exit, chapter 2). Moses is the one who will save his people from the Egyptian bondage, passing it through the Red Sea. Water is the miracle of salvation of the Jewish people. Passing through the water to the people is, in the metaphorical sense, the cleansing of sins, and shifting to another world, a world of beauty, of right, of freedom. Also, for the Egyptian people, water becomes, this time a disaster, which is a known truth: water can kill, but water gives life, too.

Moses is the one who will give water to his people while being thirsty in desert. The need for water offers Moses the opportunity to complete a new miracle: to make water come out from rock for his people, by hitting it with his scepter. The miracle is thus produced, water coming out from a rock, water which enables his people to temper their thirst.

Water has also an eschatological sense in the Old Testament , the anticipation of the end of this life and the acquisition of Heaven: The desert and the parched land will be glad; the wilderness will rejoice and blossom.Like the crocus, it will burst into bloom; it will rejoice greatly and shout for joy.The glory of Lebanon will be given to it,the splendor of Carmel and Sharon; they will see the glory of the Lord,the splendor of our God.. (Is.35: 1-2). This exclamation of joy is actually a rich description of Heaven at the end of time, and the joy of those who will taste it.

In the New Testament, perhaps the most important presentation about water is baptism of Jesus Christ, where it enters the Jordan and is baptized by John the Baptist, who sees the miracle of theophany, that revelation of the whole Trinity at the time of Baptism: Father the one who confesses the Son orally, This is baptized, and the Holy Spirit descends like a dove upon the Son of God. The miracle takes place there in Jordan, Jordan turns water magic in demonstration of holiness. Therefore, the combination of the Messiah with water, is not accidental, because He is the first revelation of the Jordan, where he was baptized with water. Like water that comes down from heaven, the Son of God comes down from heaven to water the world with His teachings. Through baptism, Christ sanctifies water and turns it in cleansing water, and therefore in Romania, people who believe in God do not wash their clothes that day and as a sign of sanctity and respect to the water and its nature.

Therefore, the combination of the Messiah with water is one telling in light of the Epiphany or Baptism, the first image of which is associated with the River Jordan, where he was seen for the first time the world.

About water and its magic that has witnessed the Savior, who, in a

discussion with a poor woman (John Chapter 4) talks about water that can 5

give her to drink, and if he drinks from it , she will never be thirsty . It is the water of life, the word of God and His

teachings.

Water is the symbol of birth in Christianity, in this sense, the Savior saying to Nicodemus: Unless a man is born of water and the Spirit, he will enter the kingdom of heaven. (In.3,5). The birth of water and the Spirit is the transformation of the old man, that man of sin in a new man, pure, new life ,sinless and united with God, this being done by water power

The miracle and the transforming by water continues even today on every new Christian, through baptism made with holy water, for whom the priest prays saying: “You, Master of all, show this water, water of redemption, water of holiness, body cleaning and soul absolution, forgiveness of sins, soul lighten, the second birth bath, spirit renewal, spirit adopt, garment of incorruption, source of life.”

The cleansing role of water is shown in the conversation that Jesus

Christ has with His Apostles, when He is washing their feet, telling them: “The one who has bathed does not need to have his feet washed, because all is clean. And you are clean…” (In. 13,10). Also in the New Testament it’s said about the alive water, or the water who rebirths, saying: “The one who believes in Me, like

6 the Holy Scripture said: rivers of alive water will flow from his belly. And this was said about the Spirit they have to receive, the one who believes in Him.” (In. 7,39-39)

The first miracle that Jesus Christ made was through water. He transformed the water into wine at the weeding from Cana Galileii. It’s the symbol of water through which the miracle was produced and of the wine as the embodiment of the Jesus Christ’s blood.

Another miracle that was done in the time of The Saviour by water, a miracle which would seem hard to believe for many, is the one from Vitezda Bathing Place, which is presented in Saint John’s Evangelica, chapter 5, where it is said that the miracle of healing came from the sky; an angel of God fell from the sky and troubled the water, from time to time, and the one who entered the water was cured, no matter of the sickness that he had.

In some places from the New

Testament the water is associated with the God’s Word, an example in this sense is the text from Efeseni, where it is mentioned that Jesus’s Church, was consecrated by Him, by cleaning it through the power of water.

From Jesus’s rib came out blood and water when

7 he was pricked by a soldier on Golgota, as John the Apostle said, and this is why in the Communion it is added water and wine. Thus, water becomes an element component of Holy Communion, of the biggest Mystery of the Church , of the communion between Jesus Christ and Christians, being added twice, once when the holy gifts are prepared, and after the consecration warm water is added. This thing shows that the Communion is made with the Body and the Blood of the Alive Jesus.

Regardless how it is looked at, it shouldn’t be forgotten and must be accepted that water is the gift of God for people. Therefore, the Christian’s journey begins with baptism, as a gift of God for His creation. Christian’s baptism in holy water is a gate opened towards the Christian life. Through baptism, the Christians acquire divine sonship, becoming sons of God by grace, fact that offers the Christians the chance for a new life. The Water of Baptism is the one that makes the baptized perceive and enter the whole life of Christ, dressing his soul in a light coat, as it is said in Baptism’s Ceremony: How many of you baptized in Christ, into Christ have put yourself

In the Orthodox Church there is a special service of blessing the water.

“Aghiazma”, as it is called the holy water in Church, is the one that, once consumed, offers its sanctification of the believer and all those who receive it in faith and holiness take the blessing. Furthermore, even things are sanctified with this holy water - surroundings, gardens, houses, vineyards, being useful for dashing away harmful insects, repellent for fruits and vegetables. The honour which is brought by Christians to the “aghiazma” is special, this being drunk on an empty stomach and no drinking. In the Orthodox Church, there is a day when the Holy Great Water is made, the Epiphany day, the day when Christians believe that the nature of water is holy, and that Jordan is a source of blessing to every home. Therefore, “aghiazma” is blessed water which does never alter, and acts as a remedy that protects man and his entire household.

In addition to the feast of Theophany, in orthodoxy there is a holiday called Life-Giving Spring, which recalls of a spring of the mother of God, to which those who came and drank water from, were cured, regardless of the disease. Also, it is a day in which the Orthodox Christians go to Church to get this consecrated water and bring it to their home, to be helpful and healing.

In conclusion, water in Christian theology is a vital element, which gives life, which blesses, through which God has showen Himself. It is also an element of the presence of the harice divinity among the people. Water is the one who found God, who showed Him to the whole world, it is, in the same time, the component element of the Holy Communion, and, in the same time, the one which is much helpful to the Christians. In other words, where water means life, there is holiness and greatness.

1.2. The impact of water in the spread of population in world and in urbanization

1. Importance of water in Muslim cities

Water is an exceptionally important element in life. Sometimes water is scarce but it remains vital. Sometimes it is scarce because of irrigation matters. This is not the case of the City of Damas in Syria because the spring called Figa has some canals flowing to the houses, the baths, and the gardens. It is also the case of Fes, a city in Morocco in which all the streets have running water thanks to the canals carefully built. Moreover this water provides a better rendering of the fields, the creation of fountains and also a better quality of wheat. The canals were therefore the most used technique of water irrigation. It was used for the cattle, the agriculture, the hygiene and hydration of the population. This common use of water was much appreciated everywhere but in some cities the water irrigation was not correctly done: it was not equally allocated. For instance the city of Fes, is a large city composed originally of two different neighboring cities: a river divides the two parts of the city. On one side the river is only a tiny trickle of water whereas on the other side the water flows in abundance. This creates inequalities between the populations because in the part where the water flows, there is no irrigation system to help the nearby city. We can thus say that water is precious goods that we must preserve, but that we must also share so as not to create social turmoil.

In the Middle Ages as nowadays water has always been an absolute necessity in the life of human beings. Marrakech in Morocco is at the same time situated close to the Mediterranean Sea and near the desert. In the Middle Ages It must have been quite difficult 10 to have access to drinking water. They had to use the wells that were already built that pumped water from the groundwater tables: these groundwater tables were sometimes many meters under the ground or the sand. In that time, a man called UBAYD ALLAHB founded a technique: it helped the city of Marrakech to bloom and have so beautiful gardens and to grow its own food to eat. The city of Tolede is situated east of Talavera in Spain. This city did not have the same problems as the ones in Marrakech. That city has a much better geographical situation: indeed we can notice that the earth is fertile; and what’s more, it is situated close to a large river: the Tage. The population took advantage of that. They even built an aqueduct that allowed them to have access to water in an easy way ; it bloomed and prospered henceforth. The two cities had the same needs when they set up their territory. The most urgent need was to provide water to the population. Then there was a need of water for the fields, which required a lot of water. When these needs could be fulfilled, they could think of designing much more beautiful buildings, creating lovely gardens with many plants. In the same way, they designed fountains. The water was so abundant in Marrakech that huge public baths and Hammam were constructed: indeed for that, hundreds of liters of water were required and the city could face the demand.

2. Historical overview of London population

As a consequence of the growth of the British Empire and the industrial revolution, London experienced an exponential level of growth throughout the 19th century.

During this period the city expanded into a giant metropolis and became known as Greater London.

Population statistics for London Year Population 1 Fewer than 5,000 500 Fewer than 5,000 1066 Est 5,000 - 40,000 1300 Est 200,000 1600 Est 1650 Est 1700 Est 1801 958,863 1821 1,378,947 1841 1,948,417 1861 2,803,939 1881 3,815,544 1891 4,211,056 1899 6,528,434 (Greater London)

Every day, the crowded suburbs from which millions go to work. In 1800 Construction of bridges were necessary, because people wanted to cross the river and had to use a way for the means of doing, or employ a waterman.

3. The Great Stink

At the beginning of the nineteenth century in London the population increased a lot: from 900,000 (nine hundred thousand) it grew to 6.5 million in a hundred years. As a result, there was an increase of poverty and malnutrition. The other problem was a dramatic rise in water because the sewers were clogged and there was a horrible smell in London.

The horrible state of the sewers had a terrible consequence: a cholera epidemic. A lot of people died: 50% of the children died before the age of 5. Doctor John Snow discovered that it was the polluted water that provoked the cholera. Indeed the story tells that in a brewery – a place where they make beer, the people who worked there, were never infected because they did not drink water! The summer of 1858 was particularly hot: it was so hot that the city was asphyxiated by the smell: this is what is called The Great Stink”. The smell became so strong that people could not breathe. The Thames River smelled so bad that the Government – situated by the river in the Parliament could not work. It was terrible. The reasons for this stench, this horrible smell, was that millions of tons of sewage (dirty water) came flowing in the river Thames in the 1850s. As a result the parliament had to close. This had never happened before! We could see people blocking their nose in the streets! The consequence was the project of the construction of five large sewers in London. It was an exceptionally huge project that was prepared very quickly

13 because the people with power – the deputies- were personally concerned since they could not actually work. Mr Joseph Bazalgette was the civil engineer who managed the whole project with a budget of three million pounds. He had 1100 (eleven hundred) miles of street sewers built for example. However it took twelve years to be completely built: from 1858 to 1870. Just before the end of the construction there was another cholera epidemic in 1866. So this is the story of the London period called “The Great Stink” in the 19th Victorian London.

4. Trades and sanitation

Before the sanitation period in London, there were quite a few trades: these trades have disappeared afterwards: 1. The TRASHERS who walked about the whole city sewers, looking for objects to salvage: they worked in groups of families and they were used to having all sorts of diseases.

2. The GRUBBERS who did the same sort of work as the TRASHERS but they rummage through the open air canals.

3. The MUDLARKS who walked along the Thames River mud in order to collect all sorts of objects that they sold afterwards. It was very common to see children doing that sort of work.

4. The NIGHTMEN also called the men of the night, who drained the cesspools and cart off the human excreta. They took the excreta to the countryside where it was used as a fertilizer

5. The FLUSHERMEN who were men hired by the sewer company to knock about the rubbish to give a way to the water. They were wearing some waterproof overall to protect themselves.

6. The RAT CATCHERS who were hired by the city to catch the rats that blocked the sewers. These people helped to stop the propagation of many diseases before and after THE GREAT STINK.

1.3. Water and socio-economic development: agriculture

Water – the life donor and the source of livelihood. Water – the source of energy. Water – the unrestrained element and destroyer. During the course of humankind history we could have met with water in various different forms. Water also plays the main role in many philosofical, religious or historical views of human history.

Water and Bible

In the Book of Revelation we can read „Worship him who made the heavens, the earth, the sea and the springs of water.“ This text reminds us of the fact that God is the lord of creation and that water plays an important part in the creation of the World. Water is also important in the fate of many bible characters because they usually live in those parts of the world where there is a lack of water. We can also read that water is the bearer of death and danger. The evidence of this fact is given in the story of the flood, the Egyptians being drowned in the Red sea or general fear of deep waters and sea. Psalms „Therefore he raised his hand and swore to them that he would make them fall in the wilderness“ (and deep waters) or „The Lord in heaven is stronger than the noise of great waters, yes, he is stronger than the great waves of the sea“ are another proofs of this statement.

Earth's development

Water played a very important role in the creation of the world. Water of the oceans covered majority of the Earth's surface. Its temperature was between 70 to 100°C and it was very acid with a pH of 5,8. The climate was warm and wet, the creation of the Earth's crust was accompanied by an intense volcanic

16 activity. Water evaporated intensely due to high temperatures however dust and volcanic ash caused the condensation of the water vapour. Heavy rains were frequent.

It was proven that water is assential for life. Oceans may have appeared first in the Hadean eon, as soon as two hundred million years after the Earth was formed. The earliest life on Earth existed before 3.5 billion years ago. It originated in the ocean in the form of single-celled organisms similar to bacteria today. First procaryotic and eucaryotic organisms such as seaweed and cyanobacteria appeared. This period of history is known as the Archaeozoic era. Oceans played important role also in other periods of the Earth's history. During Proterozoic era the first many-celled organisms appeared. Until this time the life was possible in water only.

Palaeozoic era was a time of dramatic geological, climatic, and evolutionary change. Life began in the ocean but eventually transitioned onto land, and by the late Paleozoic, it was dominated by various forms of organisms such as Great forests of primitive plants or reptiles.

The dinosaurus era (in the Mesozoic Era) was an interval of geological time from about 252 to 66 million years ago. The Mesozoic was a time of significant tectonic, climate and evolutionary activity. The era witnessed the gradual rifting of the supercontinent Pangaea into separate landmasses that would eventually move into their current positions. The climate of the Mesozoic was varied, alternating between warming and cooling periods. Overall, however, the Earth was hotter than it is today.

Water is important also in the last period of the Earth's development. Two million yeart ago, with the appearence of mankind the Earth's climate became warmer. It made possible for the moderm man to practice sedentary agriculture, domestic plants and animals, thus allow the growth of civilization.

First settlements, first farmers?

In prehistoric times clans of people who lived in caves travelled from place to place following the animals. These hunter-gatherer bands were following animals which were moving near rivers and the sources of water.

Agriculture involving domestication of plants and animals was developed around 12,000 years ago, although earlier people began altering communities of flora and fauna for their own benefit through other means such as fire-stick farmin prior to that. Agriculture has undergone significant developments since the time of the earliest cultivation. The Fertile Crescent of Western Asia, Egypt and India were sites of the earliest planned sowing and harvesting of plants that had previously been gathered in the wild. Independent development of agriculture occurred in northern and southern China, Africa's Sahel, New Guinea, parts of India and several regions of the Americas. Agricultural techniques such as irrigation,crop rotation, the application of fertilizers were developed soon after the Neolithic Revolution but have made significant strides in the past 200 years. The change in the way how people obtained food (domestication and agriculture) also ment that all civilisations have depended on water.

The first settlements were founded in the hottest and most futile regions of the world. For these early settlements the sufficient amount of water was vital. Founding settlements close to rivers and watercourses is a typical feature of all first permanent villages.

The rivers were important from various points of view. Fistly, they were used as the source of livelihood (fishing). Secondly, the river was important for tactical reasons. It was an ideal barrier against animals and various forms of attacks. Lastly, the sufficient amount of water was also important for the whole civilizations that used rich fertile soil resulting from annual inundations of rivers. That was typical for Ancient times.

The Ancient Times

All the major civilizations were established aroud watercourses. The first city states in Mesopotamia region were formed around 3000 B.C. Mesopotamia means the land of rivers and it is a name for the area between two rivers – Euphrates and Tigris. The river Nile was important for ancient Egypt, rivers Indus and Ganga for ancient India and for distant China were vital rivers Huang He (The Yellow river) and the Yangtze River.

The birth and establishment of the oldest empires ment increased productivity and concentration of people. It brought the emergence of irrigation which has been a central feature of agriculture for over 5000 years, and was the basis of the economy and society of early societies.

Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia encompasses the land between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, both of which have their headwaters in the mountains of Armenia in modern- day Turkey. Both rivers are fed by numerous tributaries, and the entire river system drains a vast mountainous region. It is widely considered to be the cradle of civilization in the West. Together with Egypt Mesopotamia had the best conditions for agriculture.

There were frequent rains in the north, on the other hand the land in the south was dry. Therefore a sophisticated system of canals was essencial. Sumerian agriculture depended heavily on irrigation. The irrigation was accomplished by the use of shaduf, canals, channels, dykes, weirs, and reservoirs. The frequent violent floods of theTigris, and less so, of the Euphrates, meant that canals required frequent repair and continual removal of silt, and survey markers and boundary stones needed to be continually replaced. The government required individuals to work on the canals in a corvee, although the rich were able to exempt themselves.

The irrigated farming together with annual replenishment of soil fertility and the surplus of storable food in temple granaries created by this economy allowed the population of this region to rise to levels never before seen, unlike

19 those found in earlier cultures of shifting cultivators. This much greater population density in turn created and required an extensive labour force and division of labour with many specialised arts and crafts. At the same time, historic overuse of the irrigated soils led to progressive salinisation, and a Malthusian crisis which led to depopulation of the Sumerian region over time, leading to its progressive eclipse by the Akkadians of middle Mesopotamia. The year 2350 BC can be marked as the fall of Sumerian empire because it was conquered by Sargon of Akkad.

Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa. It was concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. It is one of six civilizations globally to arise independently. Egyptian civilization is considered to emerge around 3150BC. The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River valley for agriculture. The predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and social development and culture.

A combination of favorable geographical features contributed to the success of ancient Egyptian culture, the most important of which was the rich fertile soil resulting from annual inundations of the Nile River. The ancient Egyptians were thus able to produce an abundance of food, allowing the population to devote more time and resources to cultural, technological, and artistic pursuits. Land management was crucial in ancient Egypt because taxes were assessed based on the amount of land a person owned.

Farming in Egypt was dependent on the cycle of the Nile River. The Egyptians recognized three seasons: Akhet (flooding), Peret (planting), and Shemu(harvesting). The flooding season lasted from June to September, depositing on the river's banks a layer of mineral-rich silt ideal for growing crops. After the floodwaters had receded, the growing season lasted from 20

October to February. Farmers plowed and planted seeds in the fields, which were irrigated with ditches and canals. Egypt received little rainfall, so farmers relied on the Nile to water their crops. From March to May, farmers used sickles to harvest their crops, which were then threshed with a flail to separate the straw from the grain. Winnowing removed the chaff from the grain, and the grain was then ground into flour, brewed to make beer, or stored for later use.

The ancient Egyptians cultivated emmer and barley, and several other cereal grains, all of which were used to make the two main food staples of bread and beer. Flax plants, uprooted before they started flowering, were grown for the fibers of their stems. These fibers were split along their length and spun into thread, which was used to weave sheets of linen and to make clothing. Papyrus growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make paper. Vegetables and fruits were grown in garden plots, close to habitations and on higher ground, and had to be watered by hand. Vegetables included leeks, garlic, melons, squashes, pulses, lettuce, and other crops, in addition to grapes that were made into wine.

I.4. The role of water in development of navigation, industry, trade

Navigation

According to archaeological findings, the first ships sailed in the Aegean Sea in 7000 BC. The Cycladic people (3000-2000 BC) were the first to dominate the Aegean, giving later their position to the Cretans of the Minoan period and these were succeeded by the Mycenaeans. (Expedition of the Argonauts- Trojan War).

From the 9th century onwards many other cities were involved in the trade such as Korinthos, Samos, Aegina, Corfu and Syracuse. Lastly, the Athenians, with the creation of their powerful fleet took over the reins in the marine area. The fact that the first ships were built by Greeks for commercial reasons justifies the specialization acquired by Greek shipbuilders. They constructed not only small and easy-to-use ships, but also remarkably fast. It’s worth mentioning that they had been travelling since 3000 B.C. as far as Cyprus transferring copper. There were many kinds of Greek ships and the most known among them were Thiraean Ships, triremes and olkades. The Thiraean ships were 40 metres long and they used 150 oarsmen in three rows and 50 more people as staff for the rest of their needs.

The Athenian trireme was 35m long and its maximum velocity was 20 km/h. It was used for both commercial purposes and for war. It was equipped with piston at the bow coated with medal that could also be used to sink the enemy ships. It was a sailing boat but it also depended on the strength of the 170 oarsmen, arrayed in 3 rows. It had a small draft (60 cm) and it could sail without a problem on shallow waters.

The olkas was a sailing boat transferring merchandise. The likeness above is a copy of the famous wreck of Kyrinia (in Cyprus) in which 60% of the vessel was rescued. The “Kyrinia” had 14m lengh and 4.5m width. It didn’t have a main deck but two (at the bow and the stern). It had a large sail for its propulsion with a lot of pulleys for its easy handling and four oars to maneuver inside the harbour. Navigation was succeeded with the two big main oars of the stern.

Industry

From the earlier years water was used widely in the field of industry. The most common use was in the watermill for the production of electricity , flour and gunpowder.

Gun-powder watermills Dimitsana, a town of the central Peloponnese, had been the place of the professional production of gun-powder for centuries. This activity was at its acme in the 19th century when 14 watermills, which used the water of the Lousios river and of the rains of the region, worked at the same time to refuel almost all the Greek territory. Before the Greek Revolution against the Ottomans (in 1821) the professional production of gun-powder was restricted to small quantities only by a few families, just to increase their income, and it was based on primitive processing techniques. Just before the outbreak of the revolution, the demand of gun-powder increased rapidly since both the Turks and the Greeks were provided with gun-powder from Dimitsana. This demand led the gun- powder producers to use the motion of water extensively, meaning the construction of the first watermills – gun powder mills – exploiting the chute.

Trade in the Danubian principalities During the 15ο century AD and later a lot of Greeks settled in cities near the Danube river because of the continuous wars and expansion of the Ottomans. They settled in Odessa, Vienna, Trieste, Budapest etc. and dealt with the trade of leather, cotton, carpets etc. very successfully. At the census of 1860 at the three most important ports of Danube were counted: 36,000 Greeks at Galatsi in Romania, 26,000 at Vraila, 3,000 at Soulinas. So, almost the fifth of the population of those most important ports of Danube consisted of Greeks. It is estimated that in the middle of the 19th century the Greeks who lived there were approximately 35-40,000 people, while in the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century – the years of the greatest prosperity of the Greeks of Romania – were almost 60,000.

I.5. Water and the great geographical discoveries

I.6. Water's significance in artistic language: folklore, literature, painting, music

WATER in ART The study of water in art may initially involve examining the different ways in which it has been represented. Water has often been shown or indicated in the form of a symbol or stylized in some way. At other times, during the Renaissance and later, it is represented more realistically. Many artists painted water in motion - a flowing stream or river, a turbulent ocean, or even a waterfall - but also enjoyed views of tranquil waters - lakes, slow-moving rivers, and views of a calm sea. In each case, the water determined the overall mood of the image. While some artists showed a direct interest in water itself, such as Leonardo da Vinci, who was fascinated by water and studied it both as an artist/scientist and as hydrological engineer, many others represented the many attributes of water conveyed literally, metaphorically, symbolically, or allegorically in mythology, religion, and folklore. One category of images can be grouped together under the heading Waters of Change. Another category may be labelled Waters of Destruction. Since ancient times, art has served cults of water, contributing images that personify both the physical and metaphysical aspects of water and the numerous water divinities. Female water divinities have received particular attention from artists, an interest which has evolved into a certain pre-occupation with women bathing. In more practical terms, Roman architects built great aqueducts in order to move water from one place to another, and huge baths and while sculptors have designed many beautiful fountains.

In Ancient Egypt, the hieroglyphic sign for water was a horizontal zigzag line; the small sharp crests appear to represent wavelets or ripples on the water's surface When Egyptian artists wished to indicate a volume or body of water, such as a lake or a pool or the primaeval ocean, the zigzag line is placed vertically and multiplied in an equally spaced pattern. Water can also be signified by horizontal wavy lines. A wavy line in the lowest section of the great alabaster vase found at Uruk in ancient Mesopotamia probably indicates a river, along the banks of which reeds and plants are growing . In ancient Egypt the name for water was uat, which also means the colour green. In early mystical lore, water and green were considered synonymous because water was believed to typify the earliest form of soul or generative essence. WATER in MOTION

(image source National Gallery, Washington, DC) Ludolf Backhuysen Ships in Distress off a Rocky Coast, 1667

The violence of the sea, however, held a special attraction to the Romantic artist during the 19th century. A painting by the English painter, Joseph Mallard William Turner, shows a boat caught in a snowstorm.

(image source) Joseph Mallard William Turner Snowstorm at Sea: Steamboat of the Harbours Mouth, 1842 LEONARDO DA VINCI and WATER Leonardo da Vinci was fascinated by water.

(image source) Leonardo, Old Man with Water Studies, c. 1513

For him it was full of paradox:

"Water is sometimes sharp and sometimes strong, sometimes acid and sometimes bitter, sometimes sweet and sometimes thick or thin, sometimes it is seen bringing hurt or pestilence, sometime health- giving, sometimes poisonous. It suffers change into as many natures as are the different places through which it passes. And as the mirror

changes with the colour of its subject, so it alters with the nature of the place, becoming noisome, laxative, astringent, sulfurous, salty, incarnadined, mournful, raging, angry, red, yellow, green, black, blue, greasy, fat or slim. Sometimes it starts a conflagration, sometimes it extinguishes one; is warm and is cold, carries away or sets down, hollows out or builds up, tears or establishes, fills or empties, raises itself or burrows down, speeds or is still; is the cause at times of life or death, or increase or privation, nourishes at times and at others does the contrary; at times has a tang, at times is without savor, sometimes submerging the valleys with great floods. In time and with water, everything changes"

Leonardo described water as "the vehicle of nature" ("vetturale di natura"), believing water to be to the world what blood is to our bodies.

As Leonardo understood it, water circulated according to fixed rules. It fell as rain or snow, springs from the ground, and runs in streams and rivers to the vast reservoir of the seas.

Water is indispensable to humans, animals and plants, yet it can also be the instrument of their destruction. Its power is irresistible.

Leonardo had witnessed great storms, and conducted numerous studies of the motion of water.

(image source) Leonardo, Study of water passing obstacles, c. 1508-9

(image source) Leonardo, Study of water falling into still water, c. 1508-9

He examined the motion of waves and currents, and was the first to postulate the principle of erosion: "Water gnaws at mountains and fills valleys. If it could, it would reduce the earth to a perfect sphere" (Codex Atlanticus, 185v).

Leonardo studied water also with the view to learning how to control it. Throughout his life, Leonardo was obsessed with a fear of a great watery 30 cataclysm. In his drawings and in his writings he describes terrible floods and inundations and great storms.

(image source) Leonardo, Storm over an Alpine Valley (Windsor, Royal Library, c. 1499)

(image source)

Leonardo, End of the World

(Windsor, Royal Library, 1515)

His drawings indicate a special fear of swirling waters. There is nothing more terrifying, he felt, than a swollen river breaking its banks and sweeping people, animals, houses, trees, and even the land itself down into the sea. Leonardo had witnessed such disasters when the Arno river burst its banks on 12 January 1466, and again in 1478.

Perhaps as a result of these events, and as a way of dealing with his fears, Leonardo devoted a lot energy to developing ways or devices to control and move water around water.

(image source) Leonardo, Machine for raising water (Codex Atlanticus, f. 26v)

He also designed locks and canal systmes, and invented machines for excavating canals.

(image source) Leonardo, Machine for excavating canals (Codex Atlanticus, f. 4v)

One large scale but never realized plan was for a navigable canal linking Florence to the sea. The scheme included cutting a series of giant steps with locks to enable ships to sail up into the hills. The water would be raised from one level to the next by a huge siphon. In Milan, he worked on a system of 32 locks and paddle wheels for washing the streets. He also had plans for draining the unhealthy marshes of the Val di Chiana.

Water magic Human beings always seem to be looking for new ways to contain, channel anddomesticate water; science and technology define it, manipulate it, and keep it in place. Butthere is something in water that seems to defy our every effort to pin it into a specific place,to keep it within boundaries and make it predictable. Sooner or later channels and containersalways overflow or dry up, and no matter how tame it appears at a given moment, the flow of water always carries a potential for chaos.Before modern science confronted water, people recognized its power as somethingrooted in the fundamental supernatural forces of nature, and sought to control it throughmagic. Anthropologists find water playing a major role in the philosophy and mythology of most of the cultures of the world. It may be identified, as among the ancient Greeks, as oneof the few super-natural elements which combine to create all other substances. Or it may play a central role in foundational creation myths, in which previous cycles or worlds weredestroyed by flood, as among the Navajo.Many cultures recognize a dual essence in water. From reading the inscriptions theyleft on monuments and building, we now know a good deal about what ancient Maya peopleof Central America thought about nature. They had a complex religion and philosophy whichlocated power in earth, sky and water, with a particular fascination with plants and animalsliving in water including water lilies, alligators, stingrays, turtles, shellfish and fish. Water was completely sacred, but controlling it was a thoroughly mundane and necessary practicaltask. In much of the area water is highly seasonal, with alternating periods of overabundanceand drought alternate, so channeling and controlling water was a central concern of both stateand supernatural authorities. They built enormous dams, bridges, reservoirs, canals,aqueducts, gardens and moats, and covered thousands of hectares with complexes of aquacultural canals and

33 raised agricultural fields.To the ancient Maya, the most sacred form of water was that which dripped fromstalactites in caves; this “virgin water” was considered an extremely powerful substance, byvirtue of its purity, and because it was seen as elemental, basic, and original. Caves were anentry into the supernatural, places where powerful rulers and priests performed rituals on behalf of the entire society, in the interest of promoting the cyclic harmony of humanrelationships with nature. The cave was an aperture into the underworld, and the liquid whichflowed there was like the life-blood of the earth, with many ritual uses (Brady and Ashmore1999).Part of the goal of this paper is to understand the persistence of this kind of magic, its power, and the long term relationship between the power of nature which infuses water as asubstance, and the other kinds of magical work it performs in the world, particularly thetechnological work of modernity and bureaucracy. The ancient Maya knew abouttechnological power. Their cities were designed to channel and control the flow of water intocommunity reservoirs and cisterns, which were the only source of water security during thedry season. Water may have been sacred, but this did not lead anyone to forget that it is also amundane daily necessity, and that without it, communities cannot exist.In the early 1980s I did fieldwork in modern Q’eqchi’ Maya villages in southernBelize, in Central America. At the time many people in remote communities continued tovisit sacred caves and water sources to burn incense and communicate with indigenousdeities who were thought to live in hills and valleys. Even though these ‘pagan’ practices had been suppressed, often with violence, by church and secular authorities for almost 500 years,these beliefs and practices persisted and formed an essential part of peoples’ everydayrelationships with the natural environment. Before hunting, gathering wild resources, or clearing a field for agriculture, people stopped to pray and ask permission from the deitieswho were the real owners of the land (Wilk 1991).At the same time, the abundance or scarcity of water was an essential source of uncertainty and risk in peoples’ daily lives. Their region of southern Belize is one of thewettest places in Central America with a total annual rainfall over 450 cm, but in the dryseason rivers get very low and springs dry up. If the dry season is too

34 short it does not givefarmers time to prepare and burn their fields; if the rain comes too late, crops cannotgerminate. Rain causes localized flooding every year, cutting villages off from supplies andmedical care, and tropical storms like Hurricane Iris in 1995 causes extensive damage anddeath.Over the last few decades climate change is actively contributing to the uncertainty of the weather in Belize, just as it is doing elsewhere. There no longer seems to be much of a pattern to the time when people can expect the dry season to start, or when the rains finallyarrive, making an already risky environment even more difficult. People do their best to dealwith risk and uncertainty in practical ways, by growing more rice and less corn, for example,or planting several times staggered over three or four weeks. But anthropologists have foundthat when people face forces that are capricious and unpredictable, they often turn to magicand supernatural power (Gmelch 1972). For many people in southern Belize this has meantturning away from traditional beliefs and a Catholic faith which has long been interwovenwith Mayan spirituality, towards new kinds of charismatic and evangelical Christianity which promise the miraculous power of prayer, individual revelation, faith healing, and dramatic public baptism.Rather than disappearing from view then, with “progress” the magic of water constantly rises in new places, through new conduits of power. In many cultures watersmagic is firmly grounded in particular places and localities, in a landscape which is culturallyconstructed. For example in Belize there are a variety of locales where the water has special power; people of the Garifuna ethnic group say that if a woman can get a man to drink water from the creek called Gumagarugu,he will fall in love with her and stay faithful as her captive for the rest of his life. In other villages water creates a lifelong tie between people and place. Belizeans often claim that the water from their particular village is the best in thecountry, particularly soft or sweet. If they are drawn away to somewhere else, they report ayearning for the water of home. And most Belizeans have strong beliefs about the proper uses of particular kinds of water; rainwater for cooking and washing the hair, sea water for bathing to restore health and balance, and river water for washing clothes and the body. Localcooks, bakers

35 and winemakers are insistent about the importance of water quality; their arguments seem to be based in science, but there is clearly a magical element to the power of the wrong kind of water to ruin a process which depends heavily on art and nature.

Water and the music About 70% of our body is made of water. The same percent of the world is covered with water. A human can survive a week without food, but just a few days without water. One of the theories how the life on the world started is that a thunder hit the water ground. The water and the music go together for a very long time. One of the oldest information is from the native population of America. They have used ''water drums’’, that is a drum within drum, but the inner drum is being filled with water to affect the timber of the sound. Water Gong is affected to a modern use of traditional gongs and tam-tams. That instrument was struck and then lowered into a tub of water which lowered the pitch. Or even the everywhere known glass harp which is made of wine glasses. It is played by running moistened or chalked fingers around the rim of the glass. Each glass is tuned to a different pitch, either by grinding each goblet to the tuning is permanent, or by felling the glass with water. In the modern times there is an instrument that uses water to produce sounds it is called hudraulophone which is an instrument played by direct physical contact with the water where sound is generated or affected. Many composers have imitated water sounds. Ludwig van Beethoven was influenced by the water and wrote his 6th Symphony. Jonathan Green imitated the water in his 3rd symphony named ''Water''. The ''Water music'' is a collection of orchestral movements, often published as tree suites, composed by George Frederic Handel. It premiered on17th July 1717 after king George 1 had requested a concert on the River Thames. It was 1994 when the idea to freeze water and observe it with microscope came upon dr.Emoto. With this method, he was convinced that he should be able to see something like snow crystals.

After two months of trial and error, this idea bore fruit. The beautifully shining hexagonal crystals were created from the invisible world. His staff at the laboratory and he were absorbed in it and began to do many researches.

At first, he strenuously observed crystals of tap water, river water, and lake water. From the tap water he could not get any beautiful crystals. He could not get any beautiful ones from rivers and lakes near big cities, either. However, from the water from rivers and lakes where water is kept pristine from development, he could observe beautiful crystals with each one having its own uniqueness. His observe shows that we should not pollute the water. In conclusion the water and the music have their own sides but they can be together if can find the way.

The Hydraulis, or Water Organ, was a musical instrument that produced sound using pressure generated by falling water as the energy source. Water Drums exist in various cultures. The native populations of the Americas constructed a drum within a drum, with the inner instrument being filled with various amounts of water to affect the timbre of the sound. In some areas in Africa and New Guinea, hollow gourds were placed in larger vessels and struck.

Water Gong is the name attached to a modern use of traditional gongs and tam-tams. the instrument was struck and then lowered into a tub of water which lowered the pitch.Likewise, it could be struck while suspended in water, and then removed to raise the pitch.

Water as Inspiration in Music Water has served composers as musical inspiration for a number of reasons: as the backdrop for opera and musical theater, as an image to be represented in musical sound, as a source of natural sound to be imitated in music, and as a cultural icon.

Water and its magic power, and how it affects the music Water has a very important message for us - that should be very carefully look at ourselves. What she shows us her message makes amazing crystal clear. Water is a very malleable substance. Its physical form is easy to adapt to the environment in which it is located. But not only the physical form of the water changes, changes and molecular structure. The energy or vibrations of the environment are those which alter the molecular structure of the water. In this sense water not only has the ability to clearly reflect the surrounding objects, it reflects the molecular state of affairs. Once the music has gained popularity as a form of therapy, Mr. Emoto decided to explore the impact of music on the structure of water. He put the container with distilled water between two speakers. The container remained there for several hours, after which the scientist photographed crystals formed during freezing of the water. "Blue Water" Blue water, Sea without a trace without end Blue water, you're in a hurry where? You're in a hurry where? To the sea blue, where the waves are strong, Where the waves are always strong hiding To the sea blue haste carry me, Quickly carry me, blue water. Blue water, Clouds float by herds Blue water, you're in a hurry where? You're in a hurry where? Willow clones sloping down to the waist, And the song sounds softly breeze To the sea blue haste carry me Quickly carry me, blue water.

The magical power of water in fairy tales The water in the tales there are reverse symbolism of fire – creation, punishment and purification. The creation of the narrative being: “and God made the expanse and separated the water which was under the firmament from the waters which were above the firmament. In fairy tales, regardless of wheather it is a deep lake, river which flows with frantic force or a huge ocean, water has always been the friend and foe. In Biblical symbolism, the importance of water is diverse. It is a symbol of the Holy Spirit, through whom God helps people. The water has a strong presence in Greek mythology. There one is depicted as an endlessly changing surface. In ancient philosophies and mythologies, the water was perceived as the main substance of the world. To the East opposed to fire as it I embodied with the cold and the North. Water is the source of fertility. Connected with life, as drought destroys and creates deserts and the water kept the life. In folk tales, it is presented as a living, source of life, loaded with magical power, has the ability to regenerate, purifies and heals. Many legends about the fountain of life prove the statement that water is a symbol of eternity. Water can carry and death. Rain water is clean and in fairy tales is a symbol of life and creation and the sea is salty and carries a curse. Water can be a place of evil and disorder. Symbolic importance of water in fairy tales is different. Grand river I a symbol of knowledge and ignorance, and the great sea – symbol of the mystery. The water of immortality I a symbol of the people to the immortality of the soul. According to folk tales in the world the beginning was covered with water. Then God created man and gave him a small piece of land. Grand river divided “that” of the “other” world. In water source live mythical monsters, snakes and fairies. In magic the winged Dragon Tales is the patron saint of the waters. Water occupies an important matter in magic fairy tales. It touches everything. According to some stories represent the matter and spirit. The water reflects the diversity of life – good and evil. The water can be the creation and enormous destruction. Reveals the idea of eternity. Water is a memory for life – past, present and future.

MYTHOLOGY AND FOLKLORE ABOUT THE WATER

The water is a chemical compound which is transparent and has no taste or colour. Water plays an important role in the support of the life on Earth. Without it there wouldn't be life. In the past (in the ancient times) chemistry was not so developed, therefore the ancient people considered the water as a god. The different peoples and tribes, had different gods, goddesses and myths about the water. In the Greek Mythology the first god was Pontus (one of the primary gods and according to the mythology he was created by Gaia /Earth/ ) Another god was the titan Oceanus who was the son of Uranus and Gaia. He married the sea goddess Tethys and they gave birth to the oceanids. The next of the most famous gods in Olympian pantheon was Poseidon, who was called Neptune in the ancient Roman pantheon. In the North Germanic Mythology the god of the water was Aegir and his wife was the goddess Ran. Like Niord, who was the patron of seamanship fishing, shipbuilding and he controlled all the sea breezes. According to the myths he was richer than all the Aezirs and like all the Vanirs he was very good, one of the twelve major gods. According to the ancient people from Mesopotamia, Ea was the god of the water and ocean. One of the three superior gods (there are a lot of contradictions with Enki, who actually was the god of wisdom). In Africa, the different tribes had rituals connected with water, expect in Egypt where a god called Sebek was the patron of the river Nile. Not only in the Old World, but also in the American continents there are a lot of myths about the water. The Mayans believed that Chaac was the god of the rain and thunder, and in the Aztec mythology - Atl was the god of the water, Akuekuiotesimuati was the goddess of the ocean and the river/patron of the

40 working women/ and Atlaua - a powerful god of the water/a patron of the fisher men/. The Slavic people also had not only gods, but also believed in the so-called Water Spirit. Dana was the goddess of the water, but also the one of life and fertility/this is how the people connected water with life and fertility/. Dodola, Dudula or Didila was the goddess of the rain, the wife of the ancient god Perun. It was believed that while Dodola was milking her heaven cows,/the clouds/ it was raining on the Earth. That's why at times of drought, the people organised Dodolle festival in honor of the goddess and asked her to support them in front of god Perun. In the beliefs and folklore of the Slavic peoples there is the image of the Water Spirit - a creature with superpowers personification of the water forces. In the meaning of a negative and dangerous being embodying the secrets of the water depts. It was believed that the water spirit inhabited the water pools; most often the lakes, the marshes, the deep river pools, the dams near the millsand etc. It had a lot of names and images it was thought that the Water Spirit, was not nice to the people - he chased the careless ones and drowned them - mostly the ones who were swimming in the pools after sunset. Water can be seen in the stories and fairy tales of the Bulgarian folklore too. The tale ,,The Dark Lake'' tells the story of a girl, who goes to a lake in Pirin mountains./She wants to have blue eyes and golden hair, because of her love to a boy/. Because the lake blue silk in the morning and golden like the sun in the afternoon, but as the plot goes, the girl becomes too proud and wanted to become a queen because of her beauty. The lake becomes dark with anger forever, because it cannot bear the greedy and unthankful girl. A lot of myths and folklore connected with the water were created because of it's magical power and the poorly developed chemistry in the ancient times.

I.7. Unity in diversity - water and local history

1.7.1.

The Role of Water in the Romanian

History

“History is geography in movement” – Herder

The existence of a particular people is connected among other aspects, to the land it inhabits. The setting appearance and wealth of this land have a tremendous impact upon its historical becoming.

The history of our people has unfolded across a vast area. The ancient Dacians and Gets arrived at the peak of the expansion through the Southern Balkans, even Asia Minor towards the northern regions to the marshes of Pripet, Minor Vistula and Middle Oder. To the west up to the Bohemian Cadrilater and the eastern ramps of the Alps to the east beyond Bug River to the cataracts of Nipru. 42

Later the Romanic population of Eastern Europe whose descendents are the Romanian people extended a lot over the borders of Roman Dacia both to the west and the south. In the 13th century Romanian plowmen and shepherds all the way from Pind to Moraria, from the shores of the Adriatic Sea to Podolia. Finally, even to this day, our people live even beyond our statal boundaries, more precisely on the right bank of the Danube in Timoc Valley, Macedonia, Tisa Field and beyond Prut.

However the core of this vast

territory, the nucleus from which our people radiated to all directions was the area of the Carpathian Citadel. Here the Dacian kings Burebista and Decebal ruled the land, here was located the capital of Roman Dacia, here was the birthplace of the most prominent administrative districts(shires) from which the Romanian Principalities later emerged (14th century), here lived and fought the Basarab and Mushatin dynasties and finally here the Romanian people founded our national state.

The aspect of the Romanian land is

one of the most harmonious, of a rare symmetry and unity. In the middle of it, Ardeal Plateau rises, though not very high (500 meters), and is enough to be inhabited. It is surrounded from all sides by mountains which make up a giant crown. The average high mountains (Moldoveanu – 2550 meters, Ceahlau – 1907 meters, Vladeasa – 1847 meters) allowing human habitation even close to their peaks, expand through the hills that in places occupy larger grounds. The hills in their turn, reach their limits by turning into vast fields (grasslands) which border the

43 three main water courses. It is here that the multitude of rivers flow after crossing the Romanian territory and originating from Transylvania or the surrounding mountains.

Our land may be compared to an ancient or medieval citadel. Transylvania and its mountaineous crown make up the citadel, the nearby hills stand for its defense layer while the large rivers serve as the water moats circling the citadel. Through its setting, looks and wealth, the Romanian land has had a major part to play upon a history. Its setting in Eastern Europe was a decisive factor. For over a millennium by the founding of the Romanian principalities we as a people had stood “in the path of all hostilities” as Grigore Ureche suggestively stated that is in the path of barbarian invasions whose way to the warm and civilized south crossed our land. Even after the founding of the Principalities (14th century) our people was constantly attacked and plundered by Turks and Tartars before they moved onwards to their destination.

The second decisive fact is the Danube one of the major international ways which passes through our land and flows into the sea. On this “dust free road”, people have been walking since ancient times, either coming downwards from Central Europe to the sea or going up to Danube’s springs. Whoever masters the Danube in its inferior area or where it meets the sea, also plays an important part and assumes a major responsibility not only in the local history but also in the continental one. Our position in connection to the lower Danube constitutes a second prominent fact which triggered complex historical consequences. Whole episodes of our history, especially the 14th and the 19th centuries can only be deciphered in keeping with the issues of the Danube and the Black Sea. 44

The founding of the first

Romanian medieval states (Moldavia and Valachia) in the 14th century is linked by the historians to the commercial roads bringing great profit which connected the Black Sea to the north and west of Europe passing through the two principalities. Merchants from Genoa developed their business in extremely profitable ways, trading oriental merchandise and unloading it in two Romanian ports: Chilia located where the Danube flows into the Black Sea and Cetatea Alba at the inferior area of the Nistru River. The Romanian control over these two ports and the fortresses in the 14th and 15th centuries coincides with the peak of the economic progress and military glory in the Middle Ages. The conquest of these two ports by the Turks towards the end of the 15th century, which ended the conquest of the entire Black Sea basin turning it into a Turkish lake, will lead to a downfall era for the two Romanian principalities. This period is characterized by the more stressful Ottoman domination upon the Romanian territory. When thinking about the same countries mentioned above one may wonder why two Romanian states were founded at the same time in the 14th century and why these two states remained in this position – one opposite to the other – often on hostile terms for centuries on end. Was this a simple question or maybe the duality of the state type corresponds to some deeply rooted causes, to organic as well as geographical and economic differences which proved to be, in time, stronger than any ethnic cohesion? This duality is thus one of the most important, as well as complex matter pertaining to our history.

The Geographic Aspect of the Water. Indeed the two territories, in which the Romanian states were founded, have distinctive lay-out patterns besides their angled position. During the Middle Ages and even later on, the unity of a land and its lay-out depend firstly on the direction of watercourses. 45

Ancient Geography experts would always mark the direction the territory “headed” for, when describing a certain region(). In this respect , Valachia and Moldavia have divergent directions. During medieval times, rivers as communication channels have greater significance than they do today. It was due not only to the possible navigation along the watercourse in the absence of human-made roads, but also to the exclusive forest land of the those days which stretched across much larger grounds that nowadays; in our country forests, forests used to cover every inch of the Valachian field from Olt River to the borders of Baragau; flood plains would open natural ways crossing these woods. They were the only access through the dense forests which bore names such as “The Mad Forest” (Teleorman), the Romanians’ Woods (Vlasia), the Large Forest (Ilfov). These names show the size and the importance of these woods during the Middle Ages. A comparative study between Valachia and Moldavia from the point of view of watercourse directions, reveals divergent aspects. Valachia(more commonly refered to as Muntenia) makes up a very armonious territory, stretching from the Carpathians in the north to the Danube in the south; a network of rivers appear almost parallel in position and are perpedincular upon these two borders uniting mountaineous gorges to the Danube. The consequence of this situation is the unity among the regions between the mountain ranges and the big river as well as the tight connections among mountains, hills, plateau and wetlands. The specific products of each of these regions, which complete eachother, may easily change. The population must and can stay connected permanently. Since early Valachia in the 14th century, documents testify the existence of dense population all over the lowlands as well as numerous ancient human settlements (dwellings) inhabited by Romanians in the marshes of the Danube especially from today’s Braila to Calarasi. The connections between the mountains and the Danube River were so tight and easily used that during the century of the founding of the principality the monasteries in Oltenia mountain ranges owned large estates comprising 46 villages in the wetlands of Ialomita river mouth; the carts of the monastery carrying dry salted fish would cross the country over. To sum up the inner and outer commercial communication in Valachia took place between the mountains and the Danube as well as the other way around; this rounds and river meadows did not continue upon the Moldavian area and did not complete with the roads of Moldavia which were directed elsewhere . Moldavia has a distinct hydrographic pattern; its major rivers did not go perpendicularly on the mountain lineage, crossing the entire land the way rivers do in Valachia, but rather run parallel to the Carpathians; Siret, Prut and Nistru rivers play the part of barriers towards the east but their springs are located of national borders. Only closed their mouths do they get closer to one another in the south eastern corner of the country to the mouth of Danube and into the Black Sea. In conclusion, Moldavia has a special hydrographic system which sets it apart from the one of the near by principality Valachia. Does the roadway connection between the two major regions was neither natural nor easy in their early stages. Secondly, one might notice that Moldavia is less united, less coherent compared to Valachia. This is why the formal principality was not at first perceived as a political unit stretching from the mountains all the way to the Nistru river and the sea. This unity was made possible in stages; the first

Moldavian state is sure to have contained the basin of Moldova river which is the only way one can account for the name given to the country considering that the river was and still is of secondary importance. Even later it preserved the memory of this initial stage of its founding and the name of the river which is to this day of secondary importance. The advance of the Moldavian state from the North-West corner towards the mouth of the Danube river and of Nistru river which came as a natural consequence of its hydrologic system took place in slow motion in over 50 years. In 1392 the Black Sea coastline was for the first time in the possession of a Moldavian prince. Eventually when Moldavia reached Valachia as its neighbor, the latter had been long standing as a solid unit. The geographic circumstances, manly the setting of the rider valleys, explain the divergent “making” of the two Romanian principalities.

Though this paper only allows a brief and concise mentioning of the connections Romanian history has had with the Danube and the Black Sea, one significant moment is worth noting. The founding of the modern Romanian state in 19th century through the union between Moldavia and Valachia (1859) which was influenced manly by the Danube river. It is a multi-staged process. The first step was marked by a Russian-Turkish treaty in Adrianopole in 1829 which returned to Valachia the territories formally owned by the Turks on the left bank of the Danube while also reestablishing the free commerce along this great river. The main cause of the these decisions is linked to the interests of Great Britain and its ever-growing need of cereals in the British archipelago which experience demographic growth under the impact of the Industrial Revolution. Consequently, the Danube had to offer free acces for the export of Romanian cereals as well as for the import of merchandize produced in British plants. The second step was made in 1856 : the restitution of Southern 48

Basarabia following the Crimea war which ended with the peace treaty in Paris. Worried with the Russian expension towards Bosphorus and the Dardanelles, Britain and France decided to push Russia away from the mouth of Danube River where it had settled ever since 1812 through the annexation of Basarabia. The Western states also decided upon the founding of a Romanian state by uniting Valachia to Moldavia, which would stand for a defense line against the Russian expansion in the lower Danube area. The decision materialized in 1859. As a consequence of the 1878 peace congress in Berlin which ended the Russian-Turkish war, Romania became independent having also recovered Dobrogea county which allowed large exit into the Black Sea with its main port in Constanta. On the downside, Romania was forced to give up Southern Basarabia to Russia. This would trigger an everlasting state of this content among Romanians and the genuine anti Russian trend among the politicians, which would prompt Romania to accept alliances with Germany in order to secure shelter against potential aggressions by Russia.

This concise presentation attempts to illustrate one of the essential coordinates of the historical becoming of today’s Romanian people : the

overwhelming influence that large rivers, the Danube and the Black Sea have played upon the course of the Romania’s history.

I.7.2. The role of the water in the

Greek History

WATER AND RELIGION IN ANCIENT TIMES Deities Water has intense presence in ancient Greeks’ religion. Indeed, a lot of rivers, lakes, seas were considered to be gods. Poseidon, one of the main gods of the ancient Greeks, is a characteristic example. He was responsible for the marine phenomena. Additionally, he was the god of the Land and the Sea, of the rivers, the lakes and potable 50

Water. His characteristic equipment was his trident with which he quelled the seas, created floods, rough seas and even earthquakes. He was considered the patron god of the sailors and the fishermen. He had acquired a lot of children from his relations with both many goddesses and mortal women – most of them were wild giants or monster-like creatures. Cyclops Polyphemus of in Homer’s ‘Odyssey’ was one of his sons, too. His official wife however was Amphitrite. The Romans worshipped him giving him the name Neptunus.

Poseidon’s cupreous statue (National Archaeological Museum, Athens) Amphitrite was the goddess of the Sea, one of the 50 Nereids or Oceanids and Poseidon’s wife. She was the mother of the fish, the whales and the dolphins. Poseidon’s and Amphitrite’s attendants were the sea-horses, the Oceanids and Nereids, the Tritons and other marine daemons, too. According to the Greek Mythology, she transformed the Halcyon to the Halcyonids. Triton was another god of the Sea. He was Poseidon’s and Amphitrite’s son and he was worshipped in Greece and at the coastlines of Libya. His name was connected to the Argonautic expedition. His main symbol was the marine horn which produced sounds to which nobody could resist. Triton is referred in the Roman Mythology, too. He is referred by Virgil and Ovidius. Triton’s figure became a decorative element both in ancient times and nowadays, too.

Important sea goddesses were the 50 Nereids, too. They were nymphs, and daughters of Nereus and the Oceanid Doris. They were worshipped as goddesses of the Sea, they were considered friendly to humans and they had the capability to tranquilize the Sea but also agitate it. According to legends, they dwelled in their father’s palace, in the ocean, and spent their day swimming, playing and prinking their hair. The most famous were Amphitrite and Thetis. Thetis was Nereus’ daughter and Achilles’ mother. She denied Zeus’ love and married a mortal, Peleus, with whom he gave birth to the hero Achilles. Thetis made her son invulnerable and immortal by plunging him into the waters of the sacred spring of Stygx. Proteus is considered the first form of life on Earth because of his ability to take any form he wanted. Sailors called him ‘The old man of the Sea’ and he was considered their patron god. He knew all the depths and the secrets of the Sea.

God-Rivers Rivers were other important aquatic gods. One of them was Alpheus. This river was worshipped mainly in Elis, Messinia and Arkadia, regions of the Peloponnese. He was Oceanus’ son. When Alpheus met Arethousa, the gorgeous nymph of the springs and the forests, he fell in love with her at first sight. By that moment he began beleaguering her but she denied him, so he chased her up to Elis. The moment Arethousa was ready to surrender, the goddess Artemis intervened and transferred her, through a cloud, to the island of Ortygia near Syrakuse of Sicily and transformed her into a spring.

So, he turned himself into a river and plunged into the sea to mingle his waters with his beloved‘s waters.

Neda was a nymph of the region of Arkadia, Oceanus’ daughter. According to the myths she brought up Zeus after he was given to her by his mother Rea to protect him from his father Cronus. Because Arkadia was arid at that time, Rea transformed her to a river. The Peneus River is connected to Hercules’ fifth labour (the cleaning of Augean stables from the dung). According to the legend, Hercules demolished the walls of the stables, turned the rivers Peneus and Alpheus towards the stables and cleaned them.

WATER IN THE ORTHODOX RELIGION Water in the Orthodox religion exists at various events of the Old Testament. First in Noachian Deluge, when God decided to send a huge flood on earth, as a message, having seen how much humans had been corrupted. The flood would clean the earth from sins. Moreover, the Bible refers to the Crossing of the Red Sea by Jewish people in order to escape from the Egyptians’ tyranny. Additionally, a lot of times the Gospel (in Greek “euangelion”), mentions Siloam’s baptistery which was a water pool in Jerusalem, where Jesus sent a blind man to wash his eyes so that his blindness would be cured. After that miracle, once a year an angel came down, stirred the water and the first to plunge into it was cured from his illness. The role of Water is very important in the life of Church nowadays. All the Christians are baptized. The Water of the baptism procedure symbolizes the purity of Soul. It is a spiritual adoption through which we all become God’s

53 children. The sinking into the Water of the Baptism symbolizes Christ’s burial, while emersion from it symbolises his Resurrection. The emersion from the baptistery means egression from the tomb, so it means the beginning of a new life and spiritual rebirth.

Saint Nicholas is considered the patron saint of sailors all over the world and it is not incidental.While he was on a sea trip, the sea turned rough. Saint Nicholas didn’t lose his faith, prayed to God and the sea became calm again. Water is connected to blessings, too. The Blessing of the Waters on Epiphany Day (6th January) commemorates Christ’s baptism in the Jordan River. Also, on the first day of each month a church service is held and Christians can take sanctified water to sprinkle it in their houses to have good luck and to fend off bad spirits. Additionally, sanctification is held at all Greek schools on the first day of every new school year. The Orthodox Christians believe that the Holy Water protects them and even more heals them. That is the reason why they drink it and then they keep it safe in small bottles. In the rite of the Holy Communion the priest doesn’t use only wine and holy bread, but also water. This water symbolizes the water that poured out of Jesus’ rib when it was pierced by a Roman soldier.

THE IMPACT OF WATER ON THE POPULATION GROWTH AND ON THE URBANIZATION Greece is situated at the southern end of the Balkan peninsula virtually surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea and it has a vast number of islands while flooded by lakes and rivers. Therefore, it would not be wrong to conclude that its population growth depended significantly on this extensive existence of water in all its forms.

Athens and Piraeus Piraeus was and still is the largest and most important port in Greece and the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. It is located 10 km away from the center of Athens. No wonder that Athens is the capital of the country and the most densely-populated city in Greece. Piraeus prompted the city of Athens to a great cultural and financial prosperity through trade, shipping and fishing. Indeed, the citizens of Athens had the most powerful fleet in Greece and in the entire ancient world. That was the reason why a lot of people decided to change residence and move there even without full civil rights. It remained the metropolis of progress even during the Byzantine era.

Kilini Kilini had been inhabited since the Paleolithic Age. The first scripted testimony of its existence was done by Homer. It was the seaport of Ancient Olympia and of Ancient Ilis which was the city that organized the Olympic Games. It was the most important port of the ancient western Peloponnese.

Pylos Pylos was mentioned by Homer as Nestor’s kingdom which, according to the legends, was founded by mythical Pylos. In ancient times, it was almost constantly under the domination of Sparta. The modern city was built around the castle which had been constructed by the Ottomans in 1573 AD to control the southern entrance to the bay of Navarino, a bay of great strategic importance.

Patras The great urban center of Patras is connected to the large port of the city. After 280 BC the city played an important role in the foundation of the coalition of cities of the Achaean League. During the Roman times, it was altered to Colonia Augusta Achaica Patrensis (CAAP) or the Colony of the Augustus of the Achaic Patras and became one of the most populous cities in Greece. A cadastre was created, privileges were given, arts flourished with

55 the most important one the creation of earthen lamps which were exported to almost the entire known world of that time, temples were built, roads were constructed which made Patras a famous transport center, new and foreign religions were introduced. In 1204 AD Patras was conquered by the Crusaders and became the seat of the Latin Ducat of Achaia in the princedom of Achaia. During the Ottoman occupation Patras was the largest and the most prosperous port and city in the Peloponnese. The great majority of the population was Greek. The city remained a great port and a cosmopolitan urban center till the beginning of the 20th century.

WATER AND FINANCIAL - SOCIAL GROWTH

Financial growth – Agriculture and Fishing The plains were those which provided life to the population as the biggest production was that of cereals. Naturally the basic requirement for this cultivation was water. The plain of Achaia produces eggplants, tomatoes, pepper, pears and beans. The plain of Elis produces tomatoes, raisin, olives, watermelons and strawberries. The plain of Messinia produces olives and oranges. The cultivation of the raisin was of special importance for the region of Elis. After 1830 AD it was the main export product and contributed to the rapid increase in the state revenues. A huge network of people –small farmers, small tradesmen of rural areas, tradesmen in commercial centers, craftsmen, workers etc. – was created around this product.

Thermal Springs Killini These thermal springs were well known since the ancient times as Pausanias mentions in his script “Eleiaka”. The waters of the springs have valuable therapeutic properties mainly for respiratory disorders. The Baths of Killini was an independent settlement by the year 1912. These springs had been

56 abandoned for centuries and in 1890 their exploitation began again. So, a large hydrotherapy clinic with a large lounge was constructed, containing 50 marble bathtubs, facilities of inhalation therapy, ear and nose washing and throat sprays , hotels etc.

Kaiafa Baths. Well known baths that are connected to the history of the area. Their systematic operation starts in 1907, when the railway line was constructed in the Peloponnese and enabled communication with Kaiafas.

Lagoons. Etoliko’s Lagoon. Etoliko’s lagoon is around the homonymous islet and the town. It has great depth that reaches 28 meters and it has fresh water. For this reason it has bigger fish than those of its neighboring Lagoon of Messolongi. It’s a wetland of great importance. Kotichi’s Lagoon.

Between the river beds of Pinios and Larisos the soil, geological and climatic conditions formed a unique geographical area with some particular features. Those features promoted the cultivation of the areas that surrounded the lagoon. It is a typical Mediterranean lagoon that communicates with the shallow sea region known as “Bouka”. The lagoon is the recipient of the water which comes from 9 dingles that enrich it with freshwater. It is also an immigration area for the fish fauna.

Social Development The villages that thrived thanks to their short distance from large rivers were a lot. Examples of such villages that were built in proximity to the Alpheios River are: Skala, Papa Chine, White Houses, Gyros. Louvro, Nea Kamena, Mouria, Kalivakia, Linaria, Ancient Pisa, Kladeo, Magira Ancient Olympia, Strefi, Makrisia, Epitalio, Alphiousa, Salmoni, Barbasena, Dimitsana, Stemnitsa. But Eritmanthos was the place of settlement of many people who founded the following villages:: Tripotamia, Kapelitsa, Neochori, Xirokampos, Abari, Nemouta, Raches, Achladini, Kastania, Paralogoi.

Watermills The oldest watermill is mentioned by Strabo. In Greece, watermills existed in Roman Times. Often the construction of a watermill was accompanied by the construction of the miller’s house and as a result in many regions there were watermills in every house. In the region of Dimitsana, the first watermills started to appear during the 16th century. The grinding capacity of a watermill reached almost 100 kilos per hour, and with their 12- hour work, the production reached 1,200 kilos. Watermills usually served local needs and ground mainly barley and meslin (mixture of wheat and barley) and more rarely corn, wheat and animal feed.

The role of water in the development of navigation, industry and trade

Navigation According to archaeological findings, the first ships sailed in the Aegean Sea in 7000 BC. The Cycladic people (3000-2000 BC) were the first to dominate the Aegean, giving later their position to the Cretans of the Minoan period and these were succeeded by the Mycenaeans. (Expedition of the Argonauts- Trojan War). From the 9th century onwards many other cities were involved in the trade such as Korinthos, Samos, Aegina, Corfu and Syracuse. Lastly, the Athenians, with the creation of their powerful fleet took over the reins in the marine area. The fact that the first ships were built by Greeks for commercial reasons justifies the specialization acquired by Greek shipbuilders. They constructed not only small and easy-to-use ships, but also remarkably fast. It’s worth mentioning that they had been travelling since 3000 B.C. as far as Cyprus transferring copper. There were many kinds of Greek ships and the most known among them were Thiraean Ships, triremes and olkades. The Thiraean ships were 40 metres long and they used 150 oarsmen in three rows and 50 more people as staff for the rest of their needs. The Athenian trireme was 35m long and its maximum velocity was 20 km/h. It was used for both commercial purposes and for war. It was equipped with piston at the bow coated with medal that could also be used to sink the enemy ships. It was a sailing boat but it also depended on the strength of the 170 oarsmen, arrayed in 3 rows. It had a small draft (60 cm) and it could sail without a problem on shallow waters.

The olkas was a sailing boat transferring merchandise. The likeness above is a copy of the famous wreck of Kyrinia (in Cyprus) in which 60% of the vessel was rescued. The “Kyrinia” had 14m lengh and 4.5m 59 width. It didn’t have a main deck but two (at the bow and the stern). It had a large sail for its propulsion with a lot of pulleys for its easy handling and four oars to maneuver inside the harbour. Navigation was succeeded with the two big main oars of the stern.

Industry From the earlier years water was used widely in the field of industry. The most common use was in the watermill for the production of electricity , flour and gunpowder.

Trade in the Danubian principalities

During the 15ο century AD and later a lot of Greeks settled in cities near the Danube river because of the continuous wars and expansion of the Ottomans. They settled in Odessa, Vienna, Trieste, Budapest etc. and dealt with the trade of leather, cotton, carpets etc. very successfully. At the census of 1860 at the three most important ports of Danube were counted: 36,000 Greeks at Galatsi in Romania, 26,000 at Vraila, 3,000 at Soulinas. So, almost the fifth of the population of those most important ports of Danube consisted of Greeks. It is estimated that in the middle of the 19th century the Greeks who lived there were approximately 35-40,000 people, while in the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century – the years of the greatest prosperity of the Greeks of Romania – were almost 60,000.

WATER AND THE GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES From ancient times, Water played a huge role in peoples’ development. Especially, it had an enormous contribution to the discovery of geographical regions and the establishment of colonies. Specifically, in Greece two major colonies took place, in the 11th and the 8th century BC correspondingly. So, an extensive population movement was made which began from the main Greek peninsula and ended to Macedonia, Minor Asia, the Black Sea, Northern Africa and Gibraltar.

2nd Colonization 2nd Colonization was clearly greater and more important than the first one, and as a result all the coasts of both the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea were specked with a huge number of Greek colonies. This colonization changed radically the lives of the people. The contact of the colonists with other nations widened their spiritual horizon. Many new professions appeared: craftsmen who used the newly discovered metals, potters who took advantage of the large growth of pottery, painters who decorated the creations of the latter ones, merchants who traveled from one place to another

61 to sell their ware contributing to the growth of the markets and the wide consumption, small traders and retailers.

The Greek colonies which were established during the 2nd Colonisation.

Nearchus’ sailing by the coast Nearchus was one of Great Alexander’s generals. Alexander was searching a sea path from the mouth of the Indus river to the mouth of the Euphrates’ river, so with Nearc Ocean. Nearchus began his expedition on the first days of October of 325 BC and ended triumphantly in February 324 BC.

The voyage of Pytheas of Massalia Pytheas of Massalia (approximately 380 – 310 BC.) was an ancient Greek merchant, explorer and geographer from Massalia (modern-day Marseilles in

France). He described his voyages in his books On Ocean and Earth Period, of which only some extracts have been found in other writers’ references. He traveled to Great Britain and counted its perimeter accurately enough – his measurement differs from the actual one only by 2.5%. There, he visited Cornwall, an important tin mining site. After a six- day sea voyage to the north he reached a place that he called Thule. Pytheas mentions about that place that it was an agricultural country, where the longest day is 20 hours. This refers to geographical latitude of 640, so it is presumed that Thule was Iceland, or the coast of Norway, or the Faroe Islands or the Shetland Islands. North of Thule, at a distance of a one- day trip in the sea, he found a land where the sea mixed with ice, land and air. Today it is thought that this place refers to the regions of the Arctic Circle, Iceland or Norway, where the sea water begins to thicken and dense fog exists. This combination (water-ice-fog) gave him the impression of mixing of the fundamental elements of Nature. After that, Pytheas traveled to the Northern Sea and probably to the Baltic Sea, too.

WATER AND TRADITION Our people have captured the power and the value of Water in a lot of folk songs which praise fountains and stone-bridges, where very often the events they want to narrate take place. For example, there are songs which mention the spring that dried up so the plane tree shriveled up and the Greek rebels against the Ottomans can’t find any shade to rest. Moreover, enough folk songs mention love affairs which start when young men and young women meet at the fountain. We find the “immortal Water” in plenty of songs and fairytales, which can make someone immortal or bring them back to life if they are already deceased. Also, according to another popular belief, especially in the songs of death and mourning, the dead drink the Water of Oblivion and forget everything that exists in the upper world and everything they have lived, especially their joys

63 and their beloved people (the song “Tis Arnisias i vrysi”-“The Fountain of forgetfulness” ). A classic theme of folk songs is the life-giving Water which makes a place fertile (for example, in the song “Ena nero kyra-Vangelio”- “Water, Lady Vangelio”). Other songs refer to the beneficial impact of water on the external appearance of people (“Tis kalamatas to nero”-“The water of Kalamata”): the person who drinks this water obtains large black eyes and becomes beautiful. Other songs reflect the ancient belief that the permanence of an edifice under construction is ensured if a living animal or better a human is buried or immured in its foundations. The superstition that a sacrifice is required for every new construction is based on the belief that people have to redeem themselves because with their constructions they interfere in the territory dominated by the gods of the earth and the rivers.

Our folk literature is rich with sayings, expressions and riddles related to water to express its forms and its value. Typical proverbs with allegorical meaning are:  "Water and fire don’t relate by marriage" (for things totally opposite).  "Drip by drip and the large pitcher is filled"(to show the value of savings but also to emphasise that with perseverance and patience we can accomplish our aims).  "Fear the slow rivers" (for sneaky people).

The power and the value of water are reflected in typical phrases found in Greek Philosophy and History, too, such as: “Ariston men hydor “meaning “Greatest however [is] water”: Pindar’s’ verse, cited by Aristotle and Plato (Rhetoric and Euthedemus, correspondingly). Aristotle compares various goods and says: “the useful “has greater value than the “rare” so it was rightly said that water occupies the first place among goods.  The phrase “Ge kai hydor” (earth and water), which is connected to the Greek-Persian wars, is well-known from the ancient Greek history and

represents the demand of the Persians from the cities or people who surrendered to them. In Modern Greek it means unconditional subordination to a conqueror.  The customs which are connected to water are numerous, too. Women used to go to the public fountain on New Year’s Day and leave offerings, especially sweets, “gia na glykanoun ta nera – to sweeten the waters”. A special part in the folklore customs related to water possessed the so- calling «amilito nero – speechless water»: in the morning of New Year’s Day the housewife got up, took a stone from the yard and put it near the fire-place, and then she went to the public fountain to take the “ amilito nero “. It was called so because she didn’t speak to anybody, either when she went to the fountain or when she returned. She acted in that way not to disturb the spirit which dwelled in the water, so the spirit could become useful for her. She threw wheat or cheese at the fountain and she said: «Opos trehei to nero , na trehei to bereketi sto spiti sas– As the water flows, goods will flow in your house, too», meaning that the abundant flow of water resembles the abundance of goods. After that, she returned home with the water, speechless, she wished happy New Year to her family and sprinkled the four corners of the house with the speechless water, “gia na trehoun oli ti hronia ta kaloudia san to nero–so that goods will run all the year, like water”. In some regions, on May Day people ornament the public fountain with flowers and keep that water to knead bread with the new wheat crop. There are also customs connected to praying for rain. “Pirpirouna” is a custom which occurs at the end of the spring, when usually drought exists. According to this custom, the children ornament a little girl (she is Pirpirouna) with greenery and go through all the houses, singing and praying to God for rain. The housewives sprinkle Pirpirouna and treat her for good luck.

The Modern-Greek tradition is full of myths, legends, traditions about the Ladies of the springs, Fairies and Dragons, and Spirits enunciating the

65 ubiquitous presence of Water. Springs acquired supernatural characteristics, while they are sometimes inhabited by beautiful fairies and some other times by monsters ready to punish people who would dare to drink water from the spring they protected. Generally, Water is considered to bring luck in the house. So, in a lot of regions of the Peloponnese water is sprinkled on the way of the traveller so that it will become safe and “flow” as water does. The same custom is related to the bride, too, to bring her good luck. Moreover, the bride’s first exit from the house after the wedding it to be to the fountain of the village to get water for her new house. When a woman is going to give birth, her family sprinkles water so that the baby will “flow” like water. In a lot of dry regions, too, the bridegroom took as dowry, apart from fields, clothes and cookware, a cistern, too, as the most valuable part of the dowry because water was a treasure and its collecting and keeping was priceless: “We have no rivers, we have no wells, we have no springs, only a few cisterns — and these empty — that echo, and that we worship”. - (Giorgos Seferis)

1.7.3. The role of water in the Czech

Republic

Water, from the very beginning, takes a very important role in our country. It is an entire part of our existence till today. That is true mainly if we speak about the first settlements in our area which appeared near rivers. No wonder that even many centuries later, water reached the prominent position again thanks to building of ponds. Fish farming in Bohemia

Ponds are man-made water reservoirs. The inflow can be a river or a stream and the outflow is regulated on the embankment which serves for water retention. At the beginning their function was fish breeding, water supply, reduction of flooding and creating ice in winter. The oldest and the first documented pond in Bohemia is Dvořiště pond from 1115 which was founded during the reign of John of Luxembourg. There are about 21 000 ponds in the Czech Republic today. Fish farming has a long tradition in Bohemia. It was supported during the reign of John of Luxembourg or Charles IV. It was also supported by the noble family Vítkovci, the Rosenbergs or the Schwarzenbergs. The 15th century represents the biggest expansion. The Hussite period meant a big decline. The best known fish pond designers are e.g. Josef Štěpánek Netolický, Jakub Krčín, Josef Šusta, Mikuláš Ruthard of Malešov and Jan Stanovský of Čechtice. Josef Štěpánek Netolický He was one of the best known Czech fish ponds designers. He also worked as an architect and builder. He came from a peasant family in Netolice. On the turn of the 15th century he learnt the fish pond designing craft during the construction of ponds near Lomnice nad Lužnicí. His best known ponds are e.g. Horusický rybník, Opatovický rybník or Kaňov rybník. Zlatá stoka (The Golden Sewer) is also very famous. It is connected to other canals and it controls inflow and outflow of all big ponds in Třeboň region. It is almost 45 km long and it was finished in 1518. The main purpose of the construction was the water supply system. Jakub Krčín His whole name is Jakub Krčín of Jelčany and Sedlčany. He was a significant Czech founder of fish ponds. Although he came from a poor lower noble family, he studied water management at Charles University in Prague. But he is said to quit his studies. In 1561 he entered into the service of the

Rosenbergs. It happened thanks to intercession by Eva of Rožmberk who was saved by him in the forest after falling off a horse. He was named the burgrave of Český Krumlov. He took part in a competition to build the Prague aquaduct and he won. He was a follower of Josef Štěpán Netolický- another fish ponds designer. He designed a few ponds – Spolský pond or pond Potěšil. He also enlarged many other ponds. In 1571 he founded pond Nevděk (today Svět = the World) due to which he ordered partial demolition of the town of Třeboň. Mikuláš Ruthard of Malešov He is also one of the significant Czech fish ponds designers. He came from a lower noble family near Kutná Hora. He worked near Chlum u Třeboně where he created a large system of ponds (in the middle of 16th century). Here the deepest pond in the territory of Bohemia was built – Staňkovský rybník (with its depth of 16 metres = 4 average floors). He invented the 3 – step method of fish farming. The largest pond in the Czech Republic and in the world The Rožmberk pond is the largest pond in the Czech Republic. It was designed and built by Jakub Krčín in 1584–1590. The construction was carried by over 800 people who removed such a big amount of soil that could fill up a cube 90x90x90 metres (for illustration – an average floor 4 metres high). The necessity of this construction was supported by the vast flood that arrived from the South Bohemia to Prague in 1544. The pond was to regulate the occurrance of floods in future. The embankment (built of soil and strengthened by trees) is more than 2.3 kilometres long and almost 60 metres wide. The water volume can reach 6.3 cubic metres, the water surface is 490 hectares and the maximum depth is only 6.2 metres. According to certain definitions the Rožmberk is also considered the largest pond in the world. Water that has been convincing us of its great power and strength let people make new machines. Thanks to those machines it was possible to use energy which was neccessary to help people wirh their work. So that the first water wheels appeared. Water wheels

A water wheel or a mill wheel is the oldest device for acquiring energy from flowing water. First physical evidence of water wheels comes from Mezopotamia from 3th century BC. It was water wheel for lower water – water was coming to the wheel from the bottom. In 14th century water wheels spread in Europe. Those were water wheels constructed for the upper water – water was flowing from the top. Water wheels were used for many kinds of hard work e.g. for mineral and stone extraction. Because of this fact we can say that the widely spread opinion of water wheels being used only near mills, is false. Due to spreading of water wheels all over the world the human kind started the second landscape remaking (the first remaking was in the period of the first farmers). Examples of water wheels: The sawmill: This was the special kind of saw that used water wheel as a source of mechanical energy. Sawmills were usually a property of millers because the milling of grain was only a seasonal case. Stoupa: This machine using water energy was meant to mash various kinds of materials. By this device the first waterproof material was made. Hammer: It was used for smithing of iron and was controlled by two smiths. River mill: Those were two ships anchored on water stream. The water wheel was between the ships and on the ships there was a milling device. River mill served as a mill for grain. Water turbines We know e.g. Pelton turbine, Francis turbine and Kaplan turbine which is considered to be the most important one. For the first time it came to service in the factory manufacturing

69 yarn. Viktor Kaplan invented his turbine in our town – Brno.

Spa The belief in the curative powers of natural healing sources, spa, drinking water and spa therapy goes back to the past and these methods are used in medical care today. Spa resorts were founded near locations rich in natural sources - mainly spring water or thermal water used for bathing procedures and drinking treatment. Deposits of peat, boggy soil and mud provide valued material for hot bath and mud body masks. Many favourite spa resorts were established thanks to their favourable climate. Our biggest and best known spa – Karlovy Vary (Carlsbad) Karlovy Vary is a spa town situated on the confluence of the rivers Ohře and Teplá, the altitude is 380 metres. The spa district runs along the river Teplá. According to the legend the emperor Charles IV. discovered the hot springs while hunting. Carlsbad hot springs are brought to the surface from the depth of more than 2000 metres. Mineral salts and carbon dioxide are among the substances dissolved in the spring water during its passage to the surface. The abundance of springs is about 2000 litres per minute, 9/10 of which is represented by hot spring called Vřídlo itself. The temperature of 12 Carlsbad springs varies from 41,2 °C (Sadový pramen) to 73 °C (Vřídlo). The curative effects of the springs are mainly used for treatment of digestive system organs and metabolic disorders. There are lots of local names in the Czech Republic which are connected with water. It means that in this case water accompanies us almost everywhere. Our students dealt with this theme in special worksheets. Hydronyma are the names of rivers, seas, oceans, lakes, glaciers, ponds, swamps and waters in general. Some examples of Czech names associated with water: The origin of the name Moravia belongs to the oldest European designations with a basic meaning of a swamp. The word Moravia relates to water environment and refers to water, rivers streams etc. The root of the word is mar or mor which means a sea. This word base is possible to be compared

70 with naming of a sea in some ancient languages such as -mare (Latin), -muir (old Irish), -meri (old German), morje (old Slavonic). The base of the name Moravia was used by a Roman historician Plinius at the beginning of the Christian calendar when he was describing so called Amber way that went through Moravia. Approximatelly at the same time Moravia was mentioned by another Roman historician, Tacitus. Jizera The origin name comes probably from Celts and means something like flow fast or move fast. Ostrava is a river Ostravice and also a city. The name designates a river with very fast and wild flow. Vltava is the Czech longest river which rises from Šumava mountains. The origin goes back to an old German word Wilthahwa with the meaning of the wild water. Svratka The river Svratka as Swarta is also known from the old German language and means black water. Svitava is also a river and its name could be explained as clear water.

Brod this word occures in most place names in our country, especially in town names e.g. Český Brod, Havlíčkův Brod, Uherský Brod but the same frequency of naming is known also from Britain (Brod = ford) e.g. Stratford, Oxford. This word is very frequently used in German (furt) such as in Frankfurt or Schweinfurt etc. Some towns or castles end with a German word Bach/Pach (stream in English) e.g Žampach or Adršpach. Brno - our home town

71 originates from 11th century. The base of the name can be seen in an old Slavonic word 'brn' which means mud. The first settlement was founded near the furt accross the river Svratka and was surrounded by swamps. Also some names of the city quarters somehow associate water e.g. Žabovřesky (the place where you can hear the sound of frogs), Komárov (the place with a lot of mosquitoes). All the rivers were till the Middle Ages very important and very often they were considered to be the only possible ways to travel in the landscape which was rarely populated. There existed many different groups of people with various languages and the rivers created a natural border among them. There are lots of towns and cities which were founded on the rivers in our country. Historical towns on the rivers in our area: Moravský Krumlov – river Rokytná Znojmo – river Dyje Ivančice – the junction of the rivers Oslava, Jihlava and Rokytná Dolní Kounice – river Jihlava Rájec nad Svitavou – the junction of the rivers Svitava and Býkovka Veveří castle – river Svratka and stream Veverka Lednice – Valtice area – (UNESCO) – the Dyje valley Hodonín – river Morava etc. Towns in the Czech Republic on the river junction: Jaroměř – three rivers Labe, Úpa, Metuje Hradec Králové – rivers Labe and Orlice Mělník- rivers Labe and Vltava Plzeň – rivers Mže, Radbuza, Úhlava, Úslava Brno – rivers Svratka, Svitava Litoměřice – rivers Labe and Ohře and many others. Ústí nad Labem – rivers Labe and Bílina České Budějovice – rivers Malše and Vltava Ostrava – rivers Ostravice and Odra Olomouc – rivers Morava and Bystřice Děčín – rivers Labe and Ploučnice

I.7.5. The role of the water in the

French space

1910 PARIS FLOOD Between January 16th and 20th 1910, there was an exceptional flood in Paris. The River Seine near the Austerlitz Bridge reached 8 meters high.

1- The origins and the consequences

The reasons for the flood were numerous:  A lot of rain  A lot of snow and frost  Many rivers overflew

It is the meeting of a lot of rain on a soaked ground. There had been an exceptional amount of rain in the previous months – October and November – 1.5 times more than usual. In December the two periods of rain in the river Seine area maintained and accelerated the saturation of the earth. In spite of the first week in January without any rain, the rest of the month was much rainy. Pouring rain that fell from January 18th to 21st created that exceptional and quite sudden flood. Between January 23rd and 25th quite heavy rains fell over the whole area and this created growing floods.

As early as the first heavy rains, the river Seine and its tributaries swelled right away. In eight days, the water levels grew over 8 meters:

 January 18th: 2.32m  January 19th: 2.94m  January 20th: 4.76m  January 22nd: 5.98m

Therefore, in two days 19 mm of rain were noticed falling over Paris, 22mm in Auxerre, 23 mm in Avallon and 36 mm in Bar sur Aube. And that was only the first part! The second step happened when the river Yonne flooded. (it is a river that flows into the river Seine). In the meantime the little rivers Le Loing and the Grand Morin grew higher. These two elements brought about the highest levels of the river ever recorded : 8.62m near the Austerlitz bridge at 12 o’clock. On Saturday January 22nd 1910, the flood is growing everywhere. On January 23rd, the level of the river reached the embankment, though equipped to resist the same sort of flood as in 1876. On January 28th the river reached 8.62 meters high near the Austerlitz Bridge. Of course the origin of the flood is the weather conditions. The previous summer (1909) had been especially rainy. During the following winter heavy rain and snow eventually saturated the earth. This explains the high level of the river. The overflowing rivers ruin the fields and drag hundreds of corpses ; the factories have to close down ; the telegraph is interrupted, the electric lightening does not work anymore.

The flood of the river Seine often called the centennial flood was the most spectacular flood ever known. The river Seine has flown over the streets and the bridges cannot be used; some railways are blocked. The Orleans rail station, the Lyon rail station and the eastbound rail station are no longer under control : the trains are all delayed. The boats cannot navigate on the river. The tributaries of the Seine (l’YONNE, L’EURE) are also very high.

Part of Paris is now flooded.

 In January, 22,000 caves and hundreds of streets were overflowed with ice cold water: it is more and more polluted as the sewers flew back.  Dozens of thousands of skeptic tanks in the underground- that were not connected to the town collectors- were also overflowed.  The tank ships that were supposed to ship away the waste could not navigate under the bridges!  Some diseases appeared: typhoid fever and scarlet fever.  Factories, buildings and even half of the Metropolitan were flooded, so were the dykes.  Some Parisians were evacuated  Some houses collapsed. Some fields were destroyed, many animals died, drowned.

In the suburban town near Paris Choisy le Roi 5000 persons were suddenly homeless. As the flood became more important, epidemics appeared : it was advised to boil water befr drinking it, but that boiled water was hard to digest. The following districts of Paris were covered with water : the 1st, 2nd, 4th, 5th, 6th, the 7th, 8th, 9th, 12th, 13th, 15th, 16th : to sum up 12 districts out of 20 were flooded. Snow and rain together aggravated the sitation. It became very hard to find fresh vegetables.

2- The 1910 Paris flood in the press “the flood is growing everywhere” : that was the front page of LE JOURNAL, the daily paper relating the flood on January 21st 1910. The article was composed of two columns.

Source web : http://www.driee.ile-de-france.developpement- durable.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/Le_Journal_22_Janvier_1910_cle1f495e.pdf On Tuesday January 25th 1910 THE JOURNAL ( a newspaper) showed that  The Austerlitz Bridge had water under it 6.75m high  The Tournelie Bridge : 6.57 m high  The Pont Royal Bridge : 7.57 m high

Source web : http://www.driee.ile-de-france.developpement- durable.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/Le_Journal_25_Janvier_1910_cle16db4f.pdf

That day the river Seine rose 8 cm an hour and the telegraph was cut for a few hours. Here is the day’s article: "Three days later there was another article in LE JOURNAL. The river Seine kept rising 2cm an hour. We can see the evolution with the graph that shows the highest levels and the different floods in Paris." On January 27th 1910, the day before the highest level of the river, half the front page and another whole page are devoted to the event. It was stated that the river would rise one meter higher that day.

On January 28th 1910, the river is at its highest: 8.62 at the Austerlitz Bridge. That day the front page is dedicated to the flood.

Then there is a decrease in the river level but a new problem appears: the water has brought diseases. The flood had lasted 35 days. On February 14th the river was much lower: the press no longer mentioned the flood on the front page, only page 3 with two columns. The telegraph lines are re established On February 19th the news articles are smaller: things are getting much better. All the problems are getting solved. There is no longer any danger.

1.7.6. Bulgarian traditions and the water

In the Christianity the Christianization uses water to put there the person who want to become Christian and the priest sing to him. There is a st.Jordan’s day. On it the priest walk around the village to split holly water to sent away the evil in the village. This halide is deviled to gaseous Christianization in the river. The priest gives holy water to the people to wash to be healthy. The priest throws the cross in the nearest river or please with water and the men jump in the water to find the cross. The man who find it is given a gift from the priest and he goes around the village to the rich man and they give him

80 gifts too. This day is on 6th of January so the water is cold. The holly water Is water but first the priest puts there the cross to give it magical power. In the past if you build a fountain it will symbolize you and the people will remember you. The Bulgarians has their own ritual for rain when the weather is dry they dance pray for rain. We used water mills.

Warm rain awaited rain splashed in the moment and faded away. How the world suddenly become more beautiful and white?

Night crosses my city far, squares break from the mists. Oh, I waited for the spring rain, washed things and souls.

Welcome spring winds which pass over our land. Will elevate new voices grasses will gush in the picturesque forests.

Второто стихотворение

Raining outside, rain, gurgles and a noise gutters and sochnozvuchno around town crack the tiles

wastewater treatment ...

Oh, how hilarious is the rain when you: has a house and an unlocked door, where you to come back. Katrin Shahova

Mythology of water

The water is everywhere around us. The water is our life and we can’t live without water. We will tell you about mythology of water in Bulgarian songs.

In fact they are many and we will tell you some songs and part of them. The one song is “Quite White Dunav”. The lyrics of this song was created by Ivan Vazov special for “ Botev detachment ” in 1876.

„Silent White Danube excited splashing merrily And "Radetzky" proudly swim With golden waves.„

There are many Bulgarian songs for water- for example ; „ruska pour out her water”, „Filed'm cold water”, „ I am looking for a bride for water ”and other. And in the end we will tell you for the Bulgarian special song, which all Bulgarians have to know : “One Bulgarian Rose” – Pasha Hristova . With her we want to say “welcome in our town”.

“Welcome to our town, Welcome in Bulgaria. Get on this fine day one Bulgarian rose by me, Let it tell you with its aromatic vote For the mountain, the sea and all of us.„

History is, one might say, somewhat waterlogged. Since water is absolutely essential to human life, it should not be surprising that it is an important component of human history. Yet it is surprising how little attention water receives in historical accounts. Humans have generally settled near convenient sources of water. Most of the great ancient civilizations depended on a particular source of water. For example, the Egyptians centered their civilization on the Nile. Mesopotamia (Greek for the land between the rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates) was the home of several important ancient empires. Chinese civilization was located principally in the Yellow and Yangzi river basins. In the case of these great civilizations, there usually is considerable discussion of water as a fundamental aspect of the civilization in question.

Water facilitated relatively rapid transportation prior to about 1850 C.E. In the era of exploration and discovery from the late 15th through the 18th centuries, Europeans explored all the major oceans and seas. Water was also thought to be an essential aspect of imperialism from the 16th century on (this is known the "salt water fallacy," the idea that an empire must be separated from the mother country by an ocean; this is why neither the Russian nor the American continental empires were seen as comparable to the Spanish, Portuguese, British, French, and Dutch empires). The history of exploration and trade remains a major area of historical scholarship dealing with water.Some of the most innovative scholarship concerns the way in which a body of water ties together what might otherwise be disparate areas and provides the backbone for a common culture. The great example of this approach is Ferdinand Braudel's The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip the Second, 2 volumes (1972, 1973). A recent example, shorter and less scholarly but highly readable, is Neal Ascherson, Black Sea,1995.Water was also an important source of power in the period before the Industrial Revolution. Even though steam power made water power less necessary, water remained an essential component in all kinds of manufacturing

83 processes. Beginning with the Industrial Revolution, however, water increasingly becomes a hidden factor in human history. For many, it quite literally went underground, hidden from sight until one turned on a faucet or flushed a toilet. Increasing, there was a tendency to view it as something to master and control. This is, of course, in accord with a more general approach to nature as a whole: mastery and control.

Anyone contemplating the rubric "Water in History" is faced with a sea of possible topics. I will be looking at two in particular. One, the improvement of water supplies and waste water removal in French cities at the end of the 19th century, illustrates humanity's capacity for using water to improve the material conditions of life. The other, Soviet efforts to construct canals and dams as part of the Five-Year Plans of the 1930s, mostly illustrates the follies humans commit in their attempts to master and control water. Between the two, we should get some insights into present-day dilemmas concerning the use of water in industrial societies.