RUSSIAN DRAMA IN MARATH I POLYSYSTEM 255

Chapter VI:

RUSSIAN DRAMA IN MARATHI POLYSYSTEM

I

A brief discussion o,n the theoretical aspect of translation of drama: Before examining the specific trends in drama translation, it is essential to place the main streams in the area of theatre translation within the framework of broader main streams in literary translation theory. It is observed that drama translation generally follows these trends. As we have already discussed in Chapter II, in the last twenty-five years there have been two major conflicting developments in the translation theory. The linguistically-oriented trend considers literary translation as a process of textual transfer. This is an ST oriented approach. In this approach translation scholars draw on recent work in descriptive linguistics. They attempt to grasp systematically the syntactic, stylistic and pragmatic properties of the texts in question. Moving away from comparative textual analysis, attempts are also made to set translations and their reception within the context of the receiving culture. This involves the study of the translations in the TL culture. The focus is not on mere textual transfer, but on cultural mediation and interchange. With regard to the first trend, Bogatyrev in discussing the function of the linguistic system in theatre in relation to the total experience states: Linguistic expression in theatre is a structure of signs constituted not only as discourse signs, but also as other signs. (Bogatyrev 1971:517-30) In a study of the specific problems of literary translation, with particular reference to the translation of dramatic texts, Susan Bassnet states that: In trying to formulate any theory of theatre translation, Bogatyrev's description of linguistic expression must be taken into account, and the 256

linguistic element must be translated bearing in mind its function in theatre discourse as a whole. (Bassnett, 1991:123) Other scholars have been equally preoccupied with the linguistic characteristics of the dramatic text. Wellwarth (1981:53) asserts that, the dramatic translator ... must have a sense of the rhythm of speech patterns. The dramatic translator must watch out for an excess of sibilants in a sentence, or awkward consonantal clusters that may make a line hard to pronounce rapidly and thus may cause difficulties in sound projection. With regard to the second trend, Aaltonen (1993:26) in her research states that the translator meikes conscious or unconscious choices, which are not accidental by nature. These choises are imposed on her/him by the system to which the completed translation will belong as an element. She even asserts further: In translation, foreign drama is transplanted into a new environment, and the receiving theatrical system sets the terms on which this is done. A play script must communicate and be intelligible at some level, even if it should deviate from existing norms and conventions. (Aaltonen, 1993:27) Louise Ladouceur (1995) in her study aimed at evolving a descriptive analysis model for the translation of dramatic texts. Other proponents of the target text/target culture and reception oriented approach in drama translation include Alena Moravkova (1993), Annie Brissett (1990), Jean-Michel Deprats 1990), Susan Bassnett (1991), Andre Lefevere (1992) and Michele Laliberte (1995). The debate as to whether the translation of a play should be source-text or target text / reception oriented seems to be rather polarized. However, theatre semiotics has also contributed significantly to this debate. Pavis (1989:'25-45) states that translation theory thus follows the general trend of theatre semiotics, reorienting its objectives in the light of a theory of reception. As Joseph Che Suh puts it, the semiotic analysis provides the audience, reader or theatre translator with a method not only of identifying the signs and situating them within the sign systems of the play but also of explaining the 257 interdependence of sub-systems and their role in theatre communication. He says that, the semiotic approach can be considered a sort of bridge between the two conflicting trends. Some researchers consider that in the final analysis, the decision whether to adapt or not is determined by ideological, political or artistic considerations. Theatre semioticians are of the opinion that such a decision ought not to be based purely on the above factors but rather on the result of a systematic and objective analysis to determine and explain the importance and incidence of the "foreignness" as a sign and, where and how it is manifested. According to Joseph, the semiotic approach allows for a multileveled and multilayered reading of the drama text, analysis of the signs contained therein. This enables the drama translator to take into consideration the greatest number possible of all the elements to be transferred to the target text and target audience/culture.

Theatre semiotics thus enables the mapping and subsequent transfer of the spatio-temporal setting, personal localisation of the dramatic action, parameters of the communicative situation, relationing of the characters with each other in terms of their social identities (relative status, group membership and general attitudes obtaining between interlocutors), extralinguistic information, etc. All of these factors are articulated through a large repertoire of verbal (lexical, grammatical, prosodic, paralinguistic) and non-verbal codes. In this regard, studies have revealed that different transfer strategies would be used by the translator depending on whether the translated play is intended only for reading or for performance. (Alvarez, 1993b: 19-21)2. Furthermore, there is another factor namely the Translation Initiator (Tl). S/he, in drama translation in particular, can be considered the driving force behind the act of translation. Her/his identity and express wishes could exert a fundamental influence on the translation operation. Susan Bassnett with reference to the contemporary British policy as practised by the National theatre, states that. 258

Translators are commissioned to produce what are termed 'literal' translations and the text is then handed over to a well-known playwright with an established reputation so that larger audiences will be attracted into the theatre. (Bassnett 1991: 101) Elsewhere, Aaltonen (1993:31) talks of the common practice for the Stage director to order a tailor-made translation for a particular mise en scene or cases where the translations are revised and fine-tuned by the stage team (stage director, dramaturge, playwright, etc). (Joseph Che Suh) These examples suggest that quite often in drama translation the strategic decisions or choices are not made by the translator but by someone else, i.e, the translation initiator who is one of the factors in the translation chain. There is a need to study and analyse the position and role of the translation initiator (Tl) in the drama translation chain, the reasons and motivations underlying the decisions and choices of the Tl, her/his perception of the expectations of the target audience (as distinct from that of the drama translator), and the strategies her/his strategic decisions inevitably or invariably compel the drama translator to adopt. Works translated by playwrights themselves, and sometimes directed by them, is another area for research. Here, the author-translators are at the same time the source, translation initiator and translator. This review helps us to understand the various approaches in translation of drama. However, we analyse the translation of Russian drama into Marathi within the framework of model defined by us in Chapter II. Our analysis involves contextual as well as textual study of different TT in Marathi. II

Translation of Drama: A Process and Problems: Drama is the most complex and multi-dimensional genre of literature. The reason is it is not simply meant to be read like poetry or novel. It is read as something incomplete, since it is only in performance that the full potential of the text is realized. Drama is written for production in the theatre. Secondly, 259 it incorporates other' literary genres such as poetry and forms of the fine arts like music. And hence, becomes a multi-dimensional form. Hence dramatic text can not be translated in the same way as the prose text. When a dramatist writes a text, s/he has to keep in mind the basic principles of stagecraft; the use of time and space, the creation of the characters, use of dialogue, tone of voice, facial expressions, costumes, scenery etc. Therefore, in a play, it is not just the linguistic element that is important but also the extra-linguistic situation. A drama script is a written form of a play. It consists of certain elements - theme, characters and dialogues. All these elements are inseparable in a play. The language of the monologues, dialogues or conversation of the characters is called theatrical language, which performs several functions. The relationship between the dialogue and the extra-linguistic situation is intense and reciprocal. Robert Corrigan in an article on translating for actors argues that, "The translator must hear the voice that speaks and take into account the 'gesture' of the language, the cadence rhythm and pauses that occur when the written text is spoken." (Bassnet 1980: 124) There are different kinds of plays: historical plays, comedies, tragedies, religious plays, street plays and one-act plays. (We do not consider here the radio and TV plays.) The process of translation of a drama is similar to translation of novels, stories or poetry to some extent. But the translator of drama has an additional problem to tackle i.e. reproducing the 'playability' of the original into the TL. S/he has to grasp certain in-built structures in the play and transform them into the TL. All these facts put before the translator the central problem: whether to translate the text as a purely literary text, or to try to translate it in its 'function' as one element in a complex system. And many a times it is impossible to separate text from performance. The different aspects of translating drama are the potential audience, cultural symbols, names of characters and places, historical and cultural context, the use of language, playability. 260

One purpose of translating dramas may be giving the readers an access to the masterpieces of world literature. And secondly, they may be translated for anthologies or complete works. The volume of 'complete plays' is produced primarily for reading purpose. There is a gap between a reader- oriented translation and a performance-oriented translation. If a text is translated without keeping 'performance' in mind, then the main focus of the translation process is on linguistic fidelity i.e. faithfulness to the SL. If a text is translated for production, the translator has to consider the extra-linguistic criteria. A theatre text, written with a view to its performance, contains distinguishable structural features that make it performable. And the translator has to determine those structures and to translate them in TL. This may lead to major shifts on the linguistic and stylistic planes. The changing concepts of theatre also further complicate the translation process. The concepts of performance, too, change in course of time. There are constant developments in acting style, playing space, the role of audience in different national contexts. These factors influence the translation process. Sometimes the expected response of audience to a play may lead the translator to make changes in the ST. Keeping in view the expectations of the audience, accustomed to a given theatre tradition a translator makes substantial alternations to the play. This also leads to adaptation of drama. Philips' principal criteria for such translations are: 1) Playability; 2) The relationship of the play to the established conventions of the theatre of his day; 3) Clarity of the interrelationship between the characters. (Bassnet 1980: 125-126) If we consider the term "adaptation," it would be necessary to know specifically what is being adapted. Is it the action, space, time, culture-bound expression, style, etc. that is being adapted or does the process involve all of these aspects taken together? Do all these aspects call for the same strategies and procedures? And then, how are these strategies and procedures different from those used to effect translation proper? 261

There is always a criticism on the translation of drama as being too literal or too free. It is very difficult to reach a balance in between literal and free translations of drama. Ill

Russian/Soviet drama: A brief history The Religious drama in its earliest form, that of Mysteries, was introduced into Russia from Poland in the beginning of the twelfth century. They were known as Religious Dialogues, or simply as Histories, and were at first played exclusively in monasteries. It was in 1603, that they were being performed by students in the universities and public schools in Polish or Latin. The earliest Latin Dialogue that has come dovm to us is entitled Adam, and bears on its title page the date of 1507; the earliest in Polish is The Life of the Savior From His Entry Into Jerusalem, and was composed by a Dominican of Cracow, in the year 1533. The latter describes the closing events in Christ's earthly career so minutely that it consists of more than a hundred scenes, and four days were required for its presentation. The Vertep: The history of the early drama in Russia does not differ much from that of other countries. But there was another class of dramatic representations peculiar to Russia. These were exhibited in a species of booth, traveling from place to place, called "Vertep," and divided into three stories; the first and third of which were occupied by the performing figures, the middle one being devoted to the machinery necessary to put the marionettes (a puppet worked by strings) in motion. They formed the chief attraction at the large fairs held in the principal cities during the Christmas holidays, and the card-figures consisted of the Virgin, Joseph, the Savior, Angels, Shepherds, and the Magi. As might be expected in these Christmas pieces, the Nativity and the Massacre of the Innocents usually formed the subjects. To represent the latter, other characters were introduced, including Herod, Death, in the shape of a skeleton, and the Devil, who came in at the end to carry off the soul of the godless monarch. Like the Mysteries, the Vertep plays were at first of a strictly religious character. In their earlier form they were patronized by the clergy, but later 262 they were strictly forbidden. However they continued to enjoy popular favour till as late as the seventeenth century. Thus, the origin of the modem Russian theatre is traced back to the Vertep. From about the middle of the seventeenth century, these shows began to lose their exclusively religious character. In place of biblical legends, they represented humorous scenes, in which history and the follies of the period were broadly caricatured. They started representing rude satires on contemporary life and manners. Towards the end of the seventeenth century - on the eve of the reforms of Peter I - a strong desire to introduce Western habits of life was felt in certain small circles at Moscow. The father of Peter, the Tsar Alexis, took a liking to theatrical representations, and induced some foreigners residing at Moscow to write pieces for representation at the palace. A certain Gregory adapted German versions of plays to Russian tastes. The Comedy of Queen Esther and the Haughty Haman, Tobias, Judith, etc., were represented before the Tsar. A high functionary of the Church, Simeon Polotskiy, did not disdain to write such mysteries. In 1702, Peter I, who was very fond of the drama, opened a theatre. He had a company of actors from Dantsig. Nathalie, another sister of Peter I, being fond of dramatic performances had the representations given in her palace - first in German, and later on in Russian. It is also very probable that she herself wrote a few dramas. School Plays: As early as 1721 it was ordered that the students of all public seminaries "should play comedies twice in a year." These plays included translations and adaptations from the work of foreign dramatists. Moliere seems to have been their favorite author. Among the public schools, the cadet corps at St. Petersburg enjoyed a high reputation for their studies in modern languages and literature. Alexander Sumarokov, who destined to become famous as "the founder of the Russian theatre", came from the same group. It was out of these elements and out of West European models that the Russian drama evolved. The theatre became a permanent institution in Yaroslav, in 1750. The Empress Elizabeth - probably following the advice of Sumarokov, who himself began to write dramas about that time - ordered the 263 actors to move to St. Petersburg, where they became "artists of the Imperial Theatre," in the service of the Crown. Thus, the Russian theatre became, in 1756, an institution of the Government. Sumarokov (1718-1777) wrote, besides verse and fables, a considerable number of tragedies and comedies, and played an important part in the development of the Russian drama. In his tragedies he imitated Racine and Voltaire. He did not care much for historical truth. His heroes were mere personifications of certain virtues or vices, figures quite devoid of life, and indulging in endless pompous monologues. He wrote several tragedies - Horev (1747), Sindv and Truvor, Yaropolk and Dilitza, Dmitri the Impostor. Sumarokov expressed in his tragedies the more advanced humanitarian ideas of the times. His comedies were much nearer to life. They contained touches of the real life of Russia, especially of the life of the Moscow nobility, and had a satirical character. Knyazhnin (1742-1791), like Sumarokov, translated tragedies from the French, and also'wrote imitations of French tragedies, taking his subjects partly from Russian history - Rossldv (1748). Vadim of Novgorod was printed after his death and was immediately destroyed by the Government on account of its tendencies towards freedom. Ozerov (1769-1816) introduced the sentimental and the romantic elements into his pseudo-classical tragedies - Oedipus in Athens, Death of Oleg. They enjoyed a lasting success, and powerfully contributed to the development of both the stage and a public of serious playgoers. At the same time comedies also began to be written by the same authors (The Brawler, Strange People, by Knyazhnin) and their followers. Catherine II contributed a couple of satirical comedies, taken from her surroundings, such as The Fete of Mrs. Grumbler, and a comic opera from Russian popular life. She was perhaps the first to introduce Russian peasants on the stage. Fonwizin became the father of the realistic satirical comedy in Russia by his two comedies. The Brigadier (1768) and Nedorosl (1782). They continued to be played up to the middle of the nineteenth century. Denunciation (Ydbeda), by Kapnist, and a few comedies contributed by the great fable writer Krylov belong to the same category. 264

The 19"* century: During the first thirty years of the nineteenth century the Russian theatre developed remarkably. The stage produced a number of gifted and original actors and actresses, both in tragedy and in comedy, at St. Petersburg and at Moscow. There were a considerable number of writers for the stage. All the forms of dramatic art were able to develop at the same time. During the Napoleonic wars patriotic tragedies, full of allusions to current events, such as Dmitri Domkoi (1807), by Ozerov, came in large numbers on the stage. However, the pseudo-classical tragedy continued to hold its own. Better translations and imitations of Racine were produced (Katenin, Kokoshkin) and enjoyed a certain success, especially at St. Petersburg. At the same time translations of Kotzebue had an enormous success, as also the Russian productions of his sentimental imitators. With Karamzin and Zhukovskiy came the influence of romanticism in drama. Prince Shakhovskoy wrote more than a hundred varied pieces - tragedies, comedies, operas, vaudevilles and ballets. He took the subject for his dramas from Walter Scott, Ossian, Shakespeare, and Pushkin. There were excellent translations of Hmelnitzkiy from Moliere. The public enjoyed the pieces of Zagoskin, the brilliant and always animated comedies and vaudevilles of Shahovskoy, the vaudevilles of A.I.Pisarev, and so on. Most of the comedies were either directly inspired by Moliere or were adaptations from the French, but they depicted Russian characters and Russian manners. This all prepared the way for the truly Russian comedy, which found its embodiment in Griboyedov, Gogol, Ostrovsky, and Chekhov.

As Maria Scherbeikova observes: From the beginning in 1756 until the mid-19th century, Russian audiences regarded the stage primarily as a mirror of public emotions and events, and only secondarily looked to it for artistic irmovations. Consequently, the adoption of European Renaissance genres and styles assumed a uniquely Russian character, because innovatory stage practices were simply equated with looking in the mirror, and treated as something familiar and 'native'. At the same time, however, translators of drama and literature developed a new method of so- 265

called 'moral interpretation', as a result of which translations of new works were adjusted to domestic perceptive and cognitive stereotypes. The first 'moral interpretations' presented on the Russian stage to national audiences were the dramatic works of Goethe, Shakespeare, Rousseau, etc. (Scherbakova 2001: 91) The Soviet drama touched themes like the October Revolution, civil war, socialist way of life, the family, the world wars etc. The socialist rule in the Soviet Union created many dissident playwrights in Russia. They include authors like Venedict Yerofeyev, Josif Brodski, Muza Pavlova and many others.

IV

Evolution of Marathi drama Marathi drama developed from some indigenous forms of entertainment and enlightenment like the puppet-show, the lalit or the deshavatari khel etc. They were mainly of religious or semi-religious character. These forms of entertainment were enriched by the traditions from Karnataka. In Tanjore its king Raja Shahji Bhonsle had written plays during 1594-1664, but they were not performed on the stage. Shivaji's step-brother Vyankoji, who headed a small kingdom in Tanjore, gave patronage to arts and literature. Some Sanskrit plays had been written for their pleasure. A traveling group from North Karnataka, Bhagwat Mandali, visited Sangli in 1843. Inspired by their shows, Vishnudas Bhave (1823-1901) created a new type of pauranik play in Marathi. Bhave is considered to be the pioneer of Modem Marathi Drama. His first play Seetaswayamwarakhyan was performed at Sangali in 1843, under the patronage of the prince of Sangli, Chintamanrao Patwardhan. Seeta-Swayamwara (1843) was undisputedly the first recorded performance in the history of Marathi Theatre, written & performed by Vishnudas Bhave. It received much praise and became very popular.

In Maharashtra the theatrical activity began in 1843 with Vishnudas Bhave's 'Sanglikar Natak Mandali'. Vishnudas Bhave was an extremely gifted scholar - playwright, director and able organiser. A drama school was 266 also set up in Sangli. Bhave came to Mumbai in 1853 and in the beginning he staged his 'Khel-Akhyan' (play-narrations in verse) and plays. The stories of his plays were rooted in Sanskrit mythological and religious literature. Songs and music were the strengths of Bhave's dramas, which were composed on Kamataki base. Besides Bhave's company other drama companies also came into existence, chief among them being Mumbaikar Natak Mandali, Amarchand Wadikar Natak Mandali, and Chaulwadi Hindu Natak Mandali. The plays by these drama companies attracted large audiences. Then gradually came the foreign influence. Social skits, fantasies, and sensational historical themes emerged in the form of light plays called a 'farce'. A wave of translation of Sanskrit plays also set in. Sanskrit classics like Venisamhara (1857), Shakuntala (1861), Mrichchakatika (1862) and others were translated into Marathi by Parashuramtatya Godbole. Krishnashastri Chilpunkar, following his path, enriched the Marathi drama. Meanwhile, university education had begun in Maharashtra, which introduced the youth to the English and American drama. Vinayak Kirtane (1843-1885) entered the Marathi theatre with his historical tragedy Jhorale Madhavrao Peshwe (1861). The plays by Vishnudas Bhave and later playwrights were distinguished by excessive prominence to songs and music, but Vinayak Kirtane's play had absolutely no songs or musical recitals; instead the whole drama was acted with dialogues which were totally in prose. Here the Marathi drama branches off in two directions - Prose Plays and Verse Plays. However, this new trend in this field was a blend of new forms imitated from the English play and the Brahmin values. The distance between the folk literature and the anglicized 'modem' literature widened. This was reflected in the Marathi drama. However, the control of literary taste was done by the British through the Brahmin class. One important play depicting the contemporary situation was Jotiba Phule's Trutiya Ratna (1885). It can be said to be the mirror of the social changes that took place in the Marathi culture during the colonial rule. It was quite explosive in the use of language, realistic in content and was based on the form of 'dialogue' in Europe. It represents how a Brahmin exploits a 267 kunabi (peasant) taking disadvantage of his superstitions and ignorance. This tradition of drama, however, did not continue. In the years 1875-1900 the playwright who gave momentum to the Marathi Theatre was Balvant Kirloskar, who translated Kalidasa's Shakuntala in 1881. He gave new vitality to traditional themes. His play Saubhadra highly appealed the theatre-goers. The translations of some plays of Shakespeare were produced, opening a debate on the merits of literal vs. free translations. The laegest number of adaptations was of Hamlet, which included Gopal Ganesh Agarkar's adaptation Vikarvilasita. Govind Ballal Deval's Sangeet Sharada (1899) was truly contemporary in its theme. It was about the marriage of a very young girl with an old man. Translation of Othello under the name Zunzarrao, adaptation of Moliere's Sganarelle via English by Deval received great popularity. Shripad Krishna Kolhatkar (1871-1934) and his plays Mooknayak (1897) on the evils of drinking and Mativikar (1906) on widow marriage have an important place in the development of Marathi drama. From 1900 to 1947 musical plays and entertaining comedies continued to be performed on the Marathi stage. Marathi theatre also staged many plays inspired by positive commitment to principles. It has made significant contribution to the freedom movement. The British Government had even banned the famous dramatist K.P.Khadilkar's (1872-1948) one of the best plays Kichak-vadh (1907) based on an episode from Mahabharata for political allegory. Ram Ganesh Gadkari (1885-1919), by staging plays written around social problems, made the drama a vehicle for social awareness and thus took the Marathi theatre a step forward. His play Ekach Pyala dealing with the evil of alcoholism created a record on the Marathi stage of that period. Both Khadilkar and Gadkari were influenced by Shakespeare's plays. The eminent dramatist Mama Warerkar drew much from Bernard Shaw and Ibsen, and gave a new direction to the Marathi Theatre. He wrote on the themes like the liberal Hinduism ftropounded by Swami Vivekanand, Gandhiji's non- cooperation movement, the unrest in Bombay's textile labour, the threat of Japanese aggression in the early forties etc. Such themes were new to Marathi drama. 268

In the post-independence period many playwrights have taken the Marathi Theatre forward; besides Mama Warerkar the other outstanding dramatists have been Acharya Atre, Vasant Kanetkar, Vidyadhar Gokhale, M. G. Rangnekar, Madhusudan Kalelkar, V.V.Shirwadkar, Madhav Manohar and the renowned modernist Vijay Tendulkar. Tendulkar (1928-2008) secured a high place among dramatists in India later. His restless search for new themes and techniques and bold probing into the tangle of human relationships, his disturbing consciousness of the tragic that has captured the minds of the audience. His plays Ghashiram Kotwal and Sakharam Bainder have great social significance and can be considered as milestones in Marathi drama. Anant Kanekar was among the founders of the 'Natya-manvantar'. He mainly made adaptations from English. From 1950 to 1965 Sanskrit dramas have been performed in Sanskrit by Brahman Sabha. Smt. Hirabai Badodekar, a reputed and much respected singer of Indian Classical Music, had formed her own drama company and presented Marathi plays. Another illustrious Marathi classical music personality Bal Gandharva, and other talented artists such as Raghuvir Savarkar achieved much fame by performing female characters with telling effect. Both Bal Gandharva and Raghuvir Savarkar have left their imprints in the history of Marathi Theatre. It is important to note that both professional and experimental Marathi drama groups contihue to perform their plays on the Marathi stage with success. Both groups develop and progress. Many drama training institutions, workshops, seminars are held regularly to promote awareness of drama's aesthetic values and qualities. This highly enlightened Marathi spectators. Consequently the Marathi stage has been constantly enriching with the addition of new forward-looking playwrights, directors, artists and technicians. Among other notable Marathi playwrights and their plays are Govind Purushottam Deshpande, Mahesh Elkunchwar, Satish Alekar and Jayavant Dalvi. Shreeram Lagu, Vijaya Mehta, Mohan Agashe, Jabbar Patel, Vaman Kendre, Ajit Bhagat, Pratima Kulkami are some of the highly talented and notable directors and artists of the Marathi stage. 269

The share of Marathi Theatre in the development of Indian Theatre has been not only urlique but a source of valued inspiration for theatrical arts in other Indian languages. Thus Marathi Theatre has a prominent place in the history of Indian Theatre. In general, Marathi drama covers mostly the problems of middle and upper middle class of the society. It rarely represents the life of the masses and hence fails to reach them. The highly commercial nature of the modem Marathi play is a reflection of the new economic conditions based on consumerism and globalization. A number of cheap, comedy plays have been staged and receive audience of low taste. Influence of EnglishAVestern drama: The colonial rule created space for the British and European drama in the Marathi polysystem. Anand Patil (1993), in his study of English influence on Marathi drama, marks four periods: i) 1818-1857 - the period of preparation ii) 1857-1880- Imitation, translation and adaptation iii) 1880-1920 - Shakespeare and Moliere era iv) 1920-1947 - The popularity of Ibsen and the changing trends. Patil lists 183 names of plays imitated, translated or adapted from English during the period 1867 to 1947. They mainly include the Marathi versions of Shakespeare (1564-1666). 83 English plays were performed on the British Theatre in Mumbai, which created an interest in Marathi minds for the British plays, (ibid. 47-50) It was in 1932, when the first translation of Tolstoy's First Distiller appeared in Marathi literary system under the title Madirapratap arthat Artha Prabhav.

The other major dramatists, whose works were brought into Marathi in some or other form, are Moliere, Lord Litton, Sir Walter Scott, Oliver Goldsmith, Edward Young, Reynolds, Sheridan, William Barrier, Joseph Edison, John Milton, Thomas Morton, Ben Johnson, Plansche, Arthur Murphy, Jane Austin, Marie Corelli, James Shirley, Victor Hugo, Ibsen, Oscar Wilde etc. Very few dramatists from foreign languages other than English were translated into Marathi through English. They include German authors Granthold Ifrain Easing and Schiller, French Ernest Rena, Czech Karl Capac, and Russian Leo Tolstoy and Soviet Valentin Kataev. (Patil 1993/2001: 188-199) 270

In 1937, three plays by Tolstoy were translated by V.M.Bhuskute. Two of them were performed in Mumbai. And in 1947, a Soviet play by Valentin Kataev entered the Marathi polysystem, which was staged by Indian National Theatre. This is how very few books of dramas - 13 - from Russian have been translated and brought into Marathi polysystem since 1932. A review of the evolution of Russian and Marathi drama shows that they have their own socio-cultural history. There is hardly any resemblance in the evolution process.

On translation of Drama in Marathi literary system: Durga Bhagwat, a scholar, in her article writes about the trends in the translation practice in Marathi literary system. While discussing the translation of drama in Marathi literary system she criticizes the increasing trend of adaptations.

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(Bhagwat I960: 42) Chandrashekhar Jahagirdar comments on the adaptations of English novels and plays in the 19* century and talks about the problems in translation of creative literature and the solution sought by the adaptors: 271

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(Jahagirdar 1984: 37) Jahagirdar says that the trend of adaptations in Marathi literary system had an adverse effect on the tradition of translations:

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ai^ciKi-cfl wfm, ^<^-ki 3T^"q^trfT-vpft7Tf?Tci5c?l^^. (ibid.) Jahagirdar also talks about the extraliterary factors involved in the translation process. He shows how the translations of American literature in India increased with a support from America. M.D.Hatkananglekar writes about the impact of Western drama on Marathi literary system and the literary compulsions of Marathi to accept this impact. He says:

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(Hatkananglekar 1986:319) Maya Pandit has discussed some aspects of translation of drama from and into Marathi. According to her the language of a drama is a complex phenomenon. She talks about the difference between the colloquial language in practice and that in a play:

"^mrnrm •^]^ ^FCT^ -^ '^tcft' ^j¥f SRT^, CT^ # sffcft STTP'T ciici^Kic^d sft^

•^m '^t^ Tf^^rR 3TTt. sffcft ^TT^^JfT ^=TK, eRT, cTTeT, ^gY^ft^5Rr ^ ^HRIT ^f^ltd^hl

chdlrH<^^FRcRHIcict5M| *n^31lcio6dlT^; tpJT riJiqfcl*^^ vHlvhH , ^i^lrHchdl cf 217

•qcf) -pRITeRT iJM* 'Wm (gesture) SRTer. "^n^, ?npT, cW, ^g^^tfvJRi^cTcf^tTr

aracTKT. cm >Hf^^T>L|l xrfelcfj^ SRTcTM, STfT H\A\i\i[ cf>R^ •^. cf^R^ ^JRcf^f^

^?Tfl^^;^ra" wie^j^ij spnra' ^arRr 3jict>Ki(Hi "^tcfr. rursm J^icWdi aflos^ fcic^Rid

Hd^lTJl amrr. (Pandit 1997: 147-148)

She analyses the linguistic, stylistic as well as cultural problems in the adaptations of Shakespeare's plays into Marathi and similar problems in the translations of Marathi plays into English.

VI

Pre-Soviet Russian 'drama in Marathi polysystem: The Russian dramatists whose works have been translated into Marathi are Leo Tolstoy, Nikolai Gogol, Ivan Turgenev and Anton Chekhov.

(i)

Leo Nikolaevich Tolstoy - A dramatist: Tolstoy received international fame as a novelist. But he has been recognized as a playwright, too. He wrote no less than eight plays and dramatic sketches. Although he was never what might be called a "natural dramatist", yet so rich and varied were his talents that even in this genre he has left behind him traces of a genius. This can be seen in his masterpiece. The Power of Darkness (1886), one of the most impressive plays of the nineteenth century. Tolstoy's first completed play is the little-known 'A Contaminated Family (1864). The play depicts a typically vulgar group of representatives of the progressive movement of the 1860's. It is a farce rather than a comedy, somewhat crude in stagecraft, but full of vitality, humanity, and common 273 sense. Despite his personal sympathies, Tolstoy portrays his characters, who are fairly well individualized, with commendable impartiality, whether they belong to the new radicals or the old order of society. 'A Contaminated Family' was never published or performed in his lifetime. His next play is a comedy in three acts, entitled 'The Nihilist' (1866). The plot concerns a conventional married couple who are visited by a group of young people, one of whom is an attractive student obsessed by the new nihilist ideas. The husband imagines that the student has designs on his wife, but in the end, after some fetching fun-making at the expense of the youthfiil nihilist, all is satisfactorily explained. The roles were acted by the young people, and after several days of rehearsing under Tolstoy's direction, 'The Nihilist' was staged in the large dining room at Yasnaya Polyana. He produced a comedy. The First Distiller (1886), a dramatization of his short story. The Imp and the Crust. Tolstoy intended The Fruits of Enlightenment (1889) for his family circle. The comedy makes a connection to the novel Anna Karenina by ridiculing spiritualism, the obsession of Russian aristocrats in the late nineteenth century. The Power of Darkness (1886) captures the darkest sides of Russian peasant existence. Based on an actual criminal case, which took place in Tula in 1880, The Power of Darkness reveals Tolstoy's conflicting attitude toward the peasants, whose ills were known to him but whom he nonetheless admired. The play stands apart in the history of Russian drama with its naturalistic depictions of murder and incest. The avalanche of events in this play includes seduction, incest, murder, wedding, and public confession. Tolstoy brilliantly employs peasant dialect, colloquial and substandard language. The Power of Darkness was long-banned in Russia. On the basis of the Moscow court case, Tolstoy erects a powerful psychological drama in The Live Corpse (1900). The breakup of the marriage of Fedya and Lisa is not really caused by his persistent drinking, but by the gnawing conviction that his wife, against her own intentions, has never ceased to love her child-hood sweetheart, Karenin. The Light Shines in the Darkness (1902) contains Tolstoy's own experiences, his struggle, his faith, and his sufferings all that was close to his 274 heart. The play reveals his later personal life more fully and as a consistently autobiographical work, he never wrote the last act. The final dramatic effort of Tolstoy The Cause of It All is a brutally realistic little vignette of peasant life in two short acts, which he wrote in 1910. Tolstoy in Marathi polysystem: A drama by Tolstoy was translated into Marathi titled Madirapratap arthat Artha Prabhav in 1922. There is no specific name of the translator mentioned. (Patil 1993/2001: 197) The first collection of two Russian plays was published in Marathi in 1937. V.M.Bhuskute translated dramas by Leo Tolstoy and published them. The two plays were Atmanivedan {The Power of Darkness) and Adikaaran {The Cause of it All) The Cause of It All, the final drama Tolstoy wrote not long before his death, for an amateur performance in the home of a disciple. It falls in the category of the moral tales that he began shortly after his religious conversion, and is designed to show the evils of drink and how human kindness can bring out the best in the lowliest of God's creatures. The drama The Cause of it All was again brought in a book form in Marathi by S.H.Modak in 1984 by Lok-Sahitya publication, Mumbai. The preface to this book explains the purpose of the publisher as an institute:

(Tolstoy/Modak 1984: 3) In 1957, Lok-Sahitya in assistance with the Soviet publication 'Mezhdunarodnaya Kniga' published other Soviet books in Marathi. One of the major contributors-writers of the publication S.H.Modak received a Soviet Land Nehru Award in 1969. He also had a 15 days visit to the Soviet Union. A note on Tolstoy's plays is given at the end of the book. It says that they have no knowledge of any previous translation of Tolstoy's dramas in

Razgrom by Aleksandra Fadeev, The Heart of a Friend by Emanuel Kazakevich, Sketches of India by Ilya Erhenburg and a booklet on astrology The origin of Earth and Planets. 275

Marathi. Translation of the dramas by Bhuskute in 1937 seems to be neglected by the publisher. Modak writes about the drama The Cause of It All: 'gfcTEin" wrHr anf^cpw' ("^ wi^ 3m ^ sflor) t ^^ b«i41ci'51ei "^^i^m ^

^JTToft c?n^ f^TEFT ^lc-JJHd>! TJcjjRTKT aTTeT. ^ Hld^ld ^fTK7 ^TTefcTT *ifc|cbKcb

^ Hiechidc^i i^^ld^j-ni^ vjifJi^Pifcii51-41 doAHcx!) #cr-g^ *i(^di ^nfk ^"id^-yiTii -^

(ibid.) It is clear that the character of 'a guest' associated with the political workers movement in the drama and his statements on the rights of workers and peasants becomes the purpose of the translation. The ideological factor is an important motivation for the translation. Bhuskute has not changed the original names of characters, places etc. in Marathi versions of both the dramas. The drama Adikaaran begins with the scene:

(Tolstoy/Bhuskute 1937: 117) The description of the scene reminds the reader of a typical peasant hut in India, except the names of characters. But at the same time words denoting realia like - 'xjie6' (bread) are replaced by Marathi equivalents 'Bhakari'. The reason may be, the basic food in Russia is 'bread', while that in Marathi culture is 'bhakari'. Secondly, 'bread' in Marathi society during 1930s was not at all acceptable in, affordable and even available to a poor peasant family. However, there is no consistency in this replacement throughout the play. In the same act we find,the word 'Pav' (bread) used instead of'Bhakari'.

[ST^feRT ^3^. isldNcloi vilTrr. tTFT "^f^?^ riJl'ddl ^^ ^^P^ cPNcT 3ff^

WRSTTelT ^.] (ibid. 119)

3i$feHI : [4lguilMI ^IdJ^d W^ m^ anMt ^^\^ ] 'TFfr, 3FT T^, rUTeTT

3TM#Y^^cj„d| <\>\^^. (ibid. 121) 276

The second version of the play by Hadap is the adaptation of the ST in Marathi. The above scene takes the following form:

ant. ''^ cblM^Mdl MIoAUii ^H41d sRTcft 3TTt.] (Tolstoy/Modak 1984: 7) And there is a consistent use of the equivalent 'bhakari' for 'bread'.

m^] . (ibid. 9)

^n^^. (ibid. 9) There are explanations to the culture specific concepts in the foot notes wherever required:

(Tolstoy/Bhuskute 1937: 118) Whereas Hadap gives this information by making an addition in the dialogue:

ailHeiJI J||c|Tj| cTOTSTRTOTt. (Tolstoy/Modakl984: 8) The references of Christian faith, making a cross, church, prayer, lighting a candle in Bhuskute's translation are absent in Hadap's adapted version. Such references of religious acts are either omitted or replaced by some equivalent phrases suitable in a Marathi peasant culture.

^fTFT%cr: [isldlchv^ iRT '^ WfefT ^^3^^] ^ f^, riJMI •=TOT^ t^\^ T?^

^^f^W^ c^FT. eft TT?ii" sneTT ^TH?TT ?R •^en" ^ "q^ (Tolstoy/Bhuskute 1937: 127)

^! (Tolstoy/Modakl984: 16) So Hadap's version is a typical example of domestication of ST done 277 in view of the readers' expectation. Translation of a drama based on peasant life involves a specific problem of use of language in Marathi. The common language used by the peasants is different from that of standard language. Here, if the play is intended to be translated for readers, then it may have standard language. But, if it is meant to be staged, then it must use the language of the peasants in the rural area of Maharashtra, which also varies in accents and styles in different dialects of Marathi. The whole process of translation becomes very complex here. Both Bhuskute and Hadap seem to have used a mixed language in the translation. One more work of Tolstoy was translated into Marathi in 1949 namely Mulanche Shahanpan. It was translated by Vasudev Apte.

(ii)

In 1952, the world famous drama by Nikolai Gogol 'The Inspector General' was brought into Marathi by well-known Marathi writer P.L.Deshpande. It was a complete adaptation, which was staged and received great success.

Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol (1809-1852): The novelist and dramatist Nikolai Gogol was the first outstanding Russian prose writer. He felt a messianic urgency to improve the moral condition of the people of his country. He described with grotesque detail his compatriots' greed, sloth, corruption, and wretchedness. We find it highly expressed in his great story The Overcoat (1842) and in his dramatic masterpiece The Inspector General or The Government Inspector (1836).

The Inspector General or The Government Inspector (1836) It is a satire of the extensive bureaucracy of nineteenth-century Russian government. Gogol once stated that "In The Government Inspector I tried to gather in one heap all that was bad in Russia." The play is a comedy of errors, portraying human greed, stupidity, and the deep corruption of powers in Tsarist Russia. 278

Under the reign of Tsar Nicholas I, Russian writers suffered extremely strict censorship of all written material. But when the drama was brought to the attention of the Tsar Nicholas I, he liked it so much that he insisted on its production. Russians speak of The Inspector General as a key moment in theatre history, the play that brought a realistic sense of national identity into Russian literature. Robert Fulford in his article in The National Post talks about its relevance in today's Russia. As a play about government corruption, The Inspector General means as much in Russia now as it did when it was first produced in St. Petersburg in 1836. Bureaucracy has always been the blight of Russian communal life. It was a plague in Czarist days and a pestilence under the Soviets. Today, if we believe a recent sociological study, it's grown worse. Two million Russian bureaucrats have been inspired by the new market economy to sell their powers as commodities. (Fulford 2006) The drama has been translated and staged or filmed in all European languages and still remains popular as it deals with the hypocrisies of everyday life along with the corruption perpetrated by the rich and privileged. Universal themes of human corruption and the folly of self-deception are explored through this drama of Russian life. The governor's famous line, as he turns to address the audience directly, "What are you laughing at? You are laughing at yourselves," illustrates this theme, which is summed up in the play's epigraph, "Don't blame the mirror, if your face is lopsided." The plot of The Government Inspector is based on a case of mistaken identity, when a lowly impoverished young civil servant from Saint Petersburg, Khlestakov, is mistaken by the members of a small provincial town for a high-ranking government inspector. The Inspector General in Marathi polysystem: The Marathi version of the play came in 1952. Well-known Marathi writer P. L. Deshpande adapted the drama for Marathi theatre under the name Ammaldar (An Officer). It is a total transformation of the ST in Marathi culture done from the English translation of the drama by D. J. Campbell. It 279 was staged firstly by the amateur theatre group 'Nagpur Natya Mandal' and became popular. The popularity of the adaptation can be guessed by the fact that eight editions of the book have been published till now. About the adaptation process Deshpande says:

^ ^^TT^cf^Tcrr ^fT^ ^rt^T^ ^^clt^'ft cJ^T^ "EfJ^^

(Gogol / Deshpande 1952: Preface) Deshpande creates an atmosphere of the old feudal system in Maharashtra as a background of the events in the play. It depicts the typical life of the people in the princely states - the rulers 'Sansthaniks' and the officials -, which, as Deshpande regrets, can not be seen in future. The book also provides instructions for the performance of the play. There is a discussion on the characters and their expected performance. The Marathi version of the drama starts with the scene:

(^^>HI^«|ir|| Rc||U|^Hi. ^^Rj\ trE5## t^RT^t it>Rx|>!. fMcR ^^f^WrsiT cRTfsT^

- ^I^^Hl^sli-fl ^c^c^l *^^!<:^c^)H|T|| XJcp Hi^Hlf^ c^ 3nt - cJl^tlRdv^cKliHl »T^cp

Wt"q^3TTtcT."^Hts||v^Hl cil^3n#?T.^c^l cil>!HMiH Wfl^nt- f^c||U|xaHI

Mf^C^I Hvjic^l41 W^ 3nt. "^5^ cll^l-cilr) i^^^

'^m^ 3nt. "T^g wf^^ IMcR TTw >^>j)j|cii>d^ Tfv^mrt^ ^ "?Mt ^?TTt«r wsm

'Tt^m ^wf^'"eFT^f?qT 3ntw. ^fT#mt«r 'IFT^I'IFT ^^rr^^fji^cf OTS^RTHT^

R>Hl^d Snf^ x!|uJ1>HI^6|f^ ciin-Mi^ H(ic|(^e«lJ| 3J>HMId -

>dct'lai-cll cfoJ)-Tq:g^cRvin?frct^Rc||U|,y|^Jd ^vSHIW'i ^, vJfvKir-g^M STlR

(ibid. 13-14) An article in Russian comparing the original play with this adapted version was published in the periodical Russky Yazik za Rubezhom in 1993. C.S.Thakar and V.G.Stepanov in their article state that Revizor I The Inspector General / was published in English in Calcutta, India in 1890, two years before its London edition. Here the authors try to find out the similarity as well as the difference between the characters in ST and TT and explain 280 how Deshpande has imitated the idea of Gogol and it has reflected in the Marathi version. It is quite interesting to see how Deshpande gave a cultural look to the characters Dmukhanovsky (Mr.Dhere), Lyapkin-Tyapkin (the Judge Tumne) etc. The characters of the postmaster Mr.Dake, doctor Mr.Roge and the headmaster Mr.Gole have resemblance with the respective characters in ST. However, the characters Dobchinsky-Bobchinsky differ from their Russian prototypes. They are the worst representatives of the ruling class of landlords in Russia, while the Marathi Harbhat-Narbhat represent the highest caste Brahman. Deshpande, realizing the social- psychological essence of the Russian characters, created the corresponding Harbhat-Narbhat. Dobchinsky-Bobchinsky make the audience laugh at the landlords, Harbhat-Narbhat make us laugh at the Brahmin caste. Sarjerao and his Russian prototype Khlestakov also represent similar qualities. Thakar and Stepanov accept the universalness of Gogol's Revizor, but at the same time show how the recreation of Ammaldar made it an original literary work in which the situations, characters, motives and the deep currents of Gogol's comedy acquired their own form based on the local traditions and realia.(Thakar, Stepanov 1993:108-117) Ammaldar has seen great success on Marathi stage.

(iii)

Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenev (1818 -1883): Ivan Turgenev was a Russian realistic novelist, poet, and playwright. Turgenev portrayed realistically the peasantry and the rising intelligentsia in its attempt to move the country into a new age. Turgenev's best-known novel. Fathers and Sons (1862), is among the most important works of nineteenth- century fiction. Set during the period of social unrest following Russia's defeat in the Crimean War, the central character, Bazarov, became the archetype of the nineteenth-century nihilist (a word first popularized by Turgenev) and has been described as the "first Bolshevik" in Russian literature. In 1959, a drama based on A Poor Gentleman (1846-1852) by Ivan Turgenev was brought into Marathi. But the preface to the book Kunache Kon - a comedy in three acts - by S.B.Chavan explains that there is a similarity in 281 the main character of the Marathi play with the character Kuzovkin from Turgenev's play A Poor Gentleman. But it can not be said a translation or even a free adaptation. There is merely an intercepting line in between the two above mentioned characters in two plays. Chavan has retained only a dialogue between the father and daughter in one incidence as he found it very skillfull, emotional and touching.

(iv)

Anton Chekhov- a Dramatist: The most important dramatist which Russia has so far produced is Anton Chekhov (1860-1904). Chekhov was an innovator in the field of drama. He created the drama of indirect action. He combined a naturalistic method with a philosophic mind and a humanitarian gentleness of temper. At least four of his plays ~ The Sea Gull, The Cherry Orchard, Uncle Vanya, and The Three Sisters -- have become widely known throughout the world, particularly through the interpretation of the Moscow Art Theater players.

The Cherry Orchard in Russian polysystem: The Cherry Orchard is a Russian playwright and Anton Chekhov's last play. It premiered at the Moscow Art Theatre on 17 January 1904 in a production directed by Constantin Stanislavski. Chekhov intended this play as a comedy and it does contain some elements of farce; however, Stanislavski insisted on directing the play as a tragedy. Since this initial production, directors have had to contend with the dual nature of this play. This play has been translated into many languages and produced around the world, becoming a classic work of dramatic literature. Some of the major directors in the West have directed this play, each interpreting the work differently. One of the main themes of the play is the effect social change has on people. The emancipation of the serfs on 19 February 1861 by Alexander II allowed former serfs to gain wealth and status while some aristocrats were becoming impoverished, unable to tend their estates without the cheap labor of slavery. The effects of these reforms were still being felt when Chekhov was writing forty years after the mass emancipation. 282

The play concerns an aristocratic Russian woman and her family as they return to the family's estate (which includes a large and well-known cherry orchard) just before it is auctioned to pay the mortgage. The family essentially does nothing to save the estate and the play ends with the estate being sold and the family leaving to the sound of the cherry orchard being cut down. The story presents themes of cultural futility — both the futility of the aristocracy to maintain its status and the futility of the bourgeoisie to find meaning in its newfound materialism. It reflects the socio-economic forces at work in Russia at the turn of the 20th century, including the rise of the middle class after the abolition of serfdom in the mid-19th century and the sinking of the aristocracy, the play reflects forces at work around the globe in that period. Ranevskaya is a woman who lives in an illusion of the past (often reliving memories about her sons death, etc). The aristocrats portrayed in the play have outlived their time. Materially they are drifting towards bankruptcy while spiritually they are already bankrupt. Ranevskaya and Gaev have neither the will-power nor the force to of character to save themselves from economic ruin. The speeches by the student Trofimov, attacking intellectuals were later seen as early manifestations of Bolshevik ideas and his lines were often censored by the Czarist officials.

Chekhov in Indian Theatre: Chekhov has been one of the most performed foreign dramatists in India. Many of his plays have been staged in Hindi. The National School of Drama (N.S.D.), New Delhi has staged the following plays: 1. Three Sisters, directed by E. Alkazi in 1967. 2. Uncle Vanya, directed by M. Singh & K. K. Raina in 1979 3. Cherry ka Baghicha, directed by R. Schenchner in 1983.

The Cherry Orchard was staged in Marathi (entitled Chericha Mala) in January, 1991 by Lalit Kala Kendra, University of Pune. It was based on the translation by Sumati Kanitkar and directed by Vijay Kenkare. 283

Chekhov in Marathi polysystem:

T.C.Karkhanis (1950) in his article A discussion on the Theatre writes about the play as Ek Kriyashunya Natak (An Actionless Play). aii^R^d TRPT ^ HidcbNxi 'What's it all about?' 'There is no story;

nothing happens!' (t cfJFT 3iT#? q^ ^ff^ f!fj^ cpgfRcp "^. cfjlft "EI^CR 3Rt

cllddxl ^^!) 3T^gKFJo5-^tcCT?nc?t.'qTiT^ cfjicHid'il-^ Wra"31*^R^d m HlcicblriJI

•^. tbidli^tJl >!f^mi<^cH vifift^RR cnt cfj^ ^fTcg#T, f5h>i|I^J^"M, STTlfrRp- ?TTefT ^tcTT

TiT^ %croy -JTsirasq- f%r5r ^"ivi^^ t '^TTSCF^ Bt^. ^d^-^i cf5t t SFT^ f^«R fxra" "^.

... >HHMd: HldcbNITTFTT?!^ v^f5f5m3TFrJT>HHv^dl d>He^l [h^\-^\ H\*\i^\^

(Karkhanis 1950: 13-14) The Cherry Orchard (1985) was translated by Sumati Kanitkar directly from Russian into Marathi in 1982. In the preface to the book Kanitkar tries to find a relation between Russian and Indian culture. She says:

t?r sfT^IFTFt ^nf^^Fne2T XH>HJ><^^I -vJicToS ^f1e57RTRM *rracT 3RTeTT cT^ >HHM

>{f^iin ^tn^^ FT tMrqixznxr sff^rcf) VJ1C1O6XII ant •^rmr v:^^^ >{f^iin cn^.'^ cira?f

SRmPTT cTRcTR M. snf^ cfrEr sr^^ t\ niesj^dl ciNdni anf^ H^idHi T?!^

(Chekhov/Kanitkar 1982: Preface) Here Kanitkar tries to say that the TT reader has something in common with the elements in'the play and can share the experience of the ST reader to some extent. A note presented before the actual translation of drama has a discussion on Chekhov's intention and its interpretation keeping in view its future performances.

Kanitkar feels that Marathi reader will like the drama because s/he can relate the problem in the play with the similar situation in Maharashtra. 284

Maharashtra, too, has experienced a phase when the feudal structure started shattering and the society faced the rise of capitalism. The old landlords had a pride of the old aristocracy and were unwilling to adapt to the new system. But they had to adjust themselves to the socio-economic changes in the existing system. A new middle class emerged in the society, like that of Lopakhin, who became a representative of those coming from the low strata of the old society.

sfmrf^ •^FfF^rrer c|j|c|j|oi erf ftf^siRPt^^iT ^r^ ^. >HJio6ijid CRXH cpt 'HJiai^jid

•qmrqW fi{oS^. «lcla!)vj|c|aj ?T#Er cTFFJcfj 3TNe?TTcp^ vdx^c||T)lA|icb<^H

do6|J||ai|<^d cftcfJHT ^H?ra" -ftoScT ^^teTefr STlt. rl^ ^ Hldcbldl ^ <^\H^

mij| ^c{ijm4d

MlT<<-mf^lc||il xIl^uiKT^. (ibid. 3) About the translation process Kanitkar says:

^?ct5 ^ xhJl^Klcll cTFrat. HIdcbNI ^ ^fTT*fT, >t*Mdchlct-MRr^<^, >HHlRHcb 3ITf^

^ffRffcfcf) viTg^ -ETgnr m ^fT^ ^yxHclK ^HmrJTT^ 3?^ -^ 5lr^ cbdl

3JIl>!5|cbl^ Tfr^^IT cf^l^lc^l^ tJIdelcfl 3T^. ^MJd'i

ctJ^IdHI, 3TNeqT ^TT^ W^ x)(ifc|uij|xi|| ^^TT^RT ^ESfj^ES^ t ^ SF^TFTcTT ^S^

vjlluiJNI li^T^ SRRlt. ^ eT^IcjTixJt cbdl

(ibid. Preface) So, this is the translator's choice to do literal translation of the drama. Cherry trees in Russia are often seen as symbols of sadness or regret at the passing away of certain situation or of the times in general. This significance of the name and the symbol can not be experienced by the Marathi reader. It needs a note in the TT. The Marathi translation of The Cherry Orchard has certainly served its purpose in introducing the great dramatist Chekhov and his unique contribution to the world drama. 285

VII

The Soviet Drama in Marathi polysystem: The dramas of Soviet authors Valentin Kataev, Vishnevsky Vsevolod, Vladen Dozortsev and Maxim Gorky have been translated by various writers/translators into Marathi. There are two collections of soviet plays in Marathi namely Tin Soviet Natake and Adhunik Soviet Natake.

(i) Squaring the Circle: Valentin Petrovich Kataev (1897-1986) was a Russian novelist and playwright who created penetrating works discussing post revolutionary social conditions in the soviet state. Katayev's relentless imagination, sensitivity, and originality made him one of the most distinguished Soviet writers. His comic play Squaring the Circle (1928) is a comedy based on the housing shortage in Moscow during the 1920s. It portrays the effect of the housing shortage on two married couples who share a room, try to resolve inter-marital conflicts under the new morality of a new regime. This drama came into Marathi as a book form in 1947. A well-known Marathi writer Madhav Manohar brought it into Marathi under the name Sashachi Shinge (Horns of Hare). The first performance of the play was made in Mumbai on 7* March, 1946. Before translating this drama Manohar had already published the translation of Mother, a drama by Carol Chapel, which was well appreciated by Marathi readers. It was felt that good translations of Western dramas would be beneficial to the Marathi theatre. About the Squaring the Circle he says:

'^^rm fcTTTcf, SnR "ffRT W^ ^ ^ ^f^ij,Ji]H cTT ^rt^gc^RTT^ c||d|c|>!U|j^ei T?^

•gT^FJTTR^ ^cfri? 3n%, f^^ %3IO5TM 6|

(Kataev/Manohar 1947: Preface) 286

However, Manohar makes it clear that the depiction of the problem in the story is exaggerated and we should not draw a conclusion about the Russian family system merely from the events in the play. He informs the reader that in Russia law is not an obstacle to divorce. But the social and moral conventions have delimited the freedom of divorce. Manohar calls it 'an honest translation'. About the translation process and his choices he says: 3JN-ciii -craTR^ crKsSt xiMci^iij ciidicix!U||^oi ir^fcrw^ftrsr ^lv^cb ^fv3»^ sRTerr

fc)dclcfl 3TTt. ^ Hldcbl^jl -^HFJ JR^ 3Uf^ v^6|Nc||>J)z}) «)|ujlc| ^ ^ t

31^cl!ciI-ci-cfjPTXTRm>i<^<^3nt. >Wld^"^JvTet3nt'^^pcRT'qcJ5Txrfch<{ch1o6 6||(s|^fld.

^ Hldcbid T?cfJT -dlchchcjl-ci vJMxllyyRlol 3TTt. ^ cfJ^sqT cfi^ cCT^t McfFJJ^ ^qpft

chw^Piwi-cil 3TTci^ y\^ciici^ -EncTetcft antcT. •qc^r "qcjr (cbxtcb'iai anf^ vdi^yu^

(ibid.) The book includes a note on the Indian National Theatre. It presents the purpose behind the establishment of this theatre. The theatre was founded in view of the fact that India was going through a transitional phase. And the thinkers and talented artists have on their shoulders a responsibility of directing the people towards a revolution. There are other political or social institutions, which perform this task. But the strength and spirit coming from the creative works of the artists is indeed very powerfial. And there is no other medium as effective as art for spreading the thought. Secondly, the people in the country on the verge of getting independence have the memories of their sufferings and sacrifices done in hope of freedom from colonial rule. But they also have an abstract world of aspirations and hopes preserved in their heart. It becomes the responsibility of artists to transform this abstract world and give it a concrete ejtistence. This was the objective of the establishment of Indian National Theatre. For this the artists have to make a realistic but aesthetic depiction of the desires and aspirations of the common people. And sometimes there is a need to create new works rejecting the traditional conventions in arts. The institute intended to present the works of talented 287 artists having close association with the current social system and the life of the nation. One more important point here is the that political slavery has made an adverse influence on the cultural life of the nation. Therefore an important task of raising the taste of the society and its cultural level goes to the real nationalist artists. Hence, it says:

... Mar x!|b5^i|cxiN| ^>!>KbK cb^u||-^l •^ i\'^\z\ >Hi'ti»\\-^\

^yyn cbdi^\^ ^HC1>HH1>! ^cfuirrcr -^ 'tf^^FT Hs^Md ^n^s?'

(ibid. (3) Thus the totally ideological and institutional role of the translator as well as the publisher is quite visible. The director, actor of the play Atmaram Bhende in his autobiographical work Atmarang (2006) gives the details of the performance. It was his first experience as a director of a professional play. He feels that it was the first experimental play in Marathi theatre.

cfj^Ff •^RTcfJ 3TTf^ 'e^l'»i*flcHI t •^TT^cP ^ ^ ^fT^TcT ^. W^ 3Icft^ '

(Bhende 2006: 76) Bhende also talks about the problems he faced as a director in getting female characters to act in the play because performing on stage was not considered a profession of dignity in Marathi culture in those days. Hence, young students/ political activists having some inclination towards acting were approached and persuaded to perform in the play. A group of young performers like Usha Kunte, Kusum Phadnis, Sanyogita Hardikar and Indu Mane was organized. This seems to be a cultural contribution of the play. The publication of the translation of the play in a book form, too, was an important event.

?m ct5|alid ^^o5KT^?5RsM^^TTc:% ^JJI^^cIx! %T3nft^ c^ldcfl HHHN •SfFTcfr vin?r.

•=TT3^ tWWRT ^^RTcfT W^ STtST-gt^TT 3TTf&r r^l^lyi^ HldcJ^MI i^WcbNI cfTrjcfj ^f>^^. (ibid. 82) About the audience Bhende writes: 288

sncMt sm '^^m vSeolva cRit SRTT "?^5#rr•^. •^. crr.cr.^ercFfl, fcr.w.$o6ct,uyy, ^.*n".TF5fnTM, ^.R^jfRft, 3IHd cb|u)ch>!t3TTf^^-^^#rr'Hlf^(ciJcb31iriJ| ^Rlcb cf

frrq?lt=ft^ vi<^tldl ^Rl

^leldl IJ^PP M^id 'i'l'^i^ldl f^oAlcll ^uj^H FT H-MH ^Idl, yJljVl didl. (ibid. 83) After the first performance on 7* March, 1946, the play was performed on four Sundays continuously. It was also performed in other cities including Pune. The play was again staged by Sahityasangh in Mumbai during December, 1948 and January, 1949. The events in the drama take place in a small room in the Paral area of Mumbai. The characters in the play are the educated communist youth, reading and discussing the books of Lenin and Platnikov's History of Social Reforms. We find a typical language of the communist party cadre in the play:

HMH-dl, ^ ^m, *«iPlW i^f^chH, ^H|i|^>d W^, ^f€t^ f^I^ "^^fRT, TfT^,

WlfelH, ^TT^ f^f^ etc. The lifestyle of the middle class young people involved in the party work in a place like Mumbai during the 1940s and 1950s is shown in a realistic manner. Though the characters wear Maharashtrian costumes like 'lugade' and 'dhotar', they have an overcoat and blue blazer also. They eat bread. The life depicted in the play has typical Marathi context, but it was limited to the people related with communist circle. The female characters in the play are very different from the common young women in the society at that time. Those who got an opportunity to receive higher education and were introduced to the communist ideology took interest in studying Marx and Lenin. The character of Medha in the play represents that kind of women. The youth in Maharashtra, especially from middle class educated Brahman strata got attracted towards the communist ideology during the pre- independence period. It was much confused with the concept of marriage. Many of such married people lived in communes. There was an influence of the urge for ideal full-time political work. Hence, the words in the play: 289

Manohar has a satirical tone in the whole drama.

(ii)

The Last Appointment: Vladen Dozortsev In 1994, a soviet play by Vladen Dozortsev was published in Marathi in book form. It was an adaptation based on the English translation The Last Appointment. The adaptation titled Ek Zunz Varyashi was done by well- knovm Marathi writer, playwright P. L. Deshpande. It was performed on 5* November, 1988 at ithe Experimental Theatre (N.C.P.A.). Deshpande writes on the occasion of the first performance about his impression as a reader and process of re-creation of the play:

snt. t %cfo5 •qcpT *rT^#rr PiJ|[^

^ ^n^^cR ^ M>!l<51^i ^fc[5^ cfvM T^ofT 3{cra^ clTCer ^^. snl^ ?qT^ "^ ^

(Dozortsev/Deshpande 1994: Seven) A reputed Marathi theatre artist, director Vaman Kendre staged the play for the theatre development project of N.C.P.A. He selected the play after hunting for a theme for nearly a year. After reading it for many times he decided to stage it. Then he approached P. L. Deshpande and after his positive reaction, it was decided that Deshpande will do the Marathi adaptation. The readability and success of the adaptation can be judged by the continuous reprinting of the book. In 2006, the fifth edition of the book was published. As Vaman Kendre writes in his note, the play was first planned for only five performances. But in response to the viewers', critics' and experts' positive reception it went upto 140 performances and reached thousands of people. It received the state government and 'Natyadarpan' awards. Vaman Kendre says about the adaptation that Ek Zunz Varyashi c£in be considered as an ideal lesson for those doing adaptations. 290

3Rft ch>||ell TTcfJT^ 3TTcft ^^W^, ^cT% % SR^TcT Hl(^del ^TTeT STlt. vsmof

3rfcr*nv5^^TPT3TTt, 3T%cn^. (ibid, nau) But he comments further:

^ -iiddpirw fc^^^ ^ ^^i^-ui\ qdv^ddi ^TT^. I^ICIR ^ niect^idcfl wdHi^ cprfoSt 3TTt. smom t^m cbcjiRid # "EI^^ "ETf ^ ^icfjun^. ... t if^m^ •?nscj5 tcfjTrH-

cp^cp >t^'>HKRN^l *|o6|d fclfBel^^qrcr3TRx}4clT^3nf^t^:Tl^cPx;(^l-m6||^>J

tftFT^ ^TcfJeT •JTrar 3fPR cfT^. (ibid. Akara) This can be considered as a successful attempt of adaptation of the play from Russian into Marathi.

(iii)

Vsevolod Vishnevsky (1900-1951):

A Soviet dramatist Vishnevskiy enrolled in Baltic Fleet as sea cadet during World War 1. He participated in the militant rebellion in Petrograd in 1917, in battles of the Russian Civil War as machine gunner in the 1st Cavalry Army. He worked as political agitator attached to Black Sea and Baltic fronts. Later he became an editor of Krasnoflotets (Red Fleet sailor) magazine. He battled at the fronts of Winter War and Great Patriotic War, worked as war correspondent for Pravda newspaper. Since 1944 he worked as editor of Znamya magazine.

His first works were published in 1920. In 1929 his play 1st Cavalry was published. In 1930s he wrote many plays, including We are from Kronstadt (1930), The Last Decided (1931) and Optimistic tragedy (1932). Wrote the script for the film We are from Kronstadt (1936, directed by E.L. Dzigan), which was especially popular. During Leningrad Siege, in 1942, wrote the play The Sea Has Stretched Wide in collaboration with A. A. Kron and V. B. Azarov and had it staged. During the Great Patriotic War he 291 participated in the defence of Leningrad. In besieged Leningrad (from 1944 in Moscow) he was engaged in propaganda and publicist activities, regularly gave talks on the radio.

An Optimistic tragedy is a play written by Vsevolod Vishnevskiy in the Soviet Union in 1933 with the dedication to the 15th anniversary of the Red Army. The play is set in St. Petersburg, and Kronstadt, Russia, after the Russian revolution and during the Russian Civil War. Some scenes are set on ship of the Red Navy on the Baltic Sea near Saint Petersburg. The play has three acts.

The play was translated by Anil Hawaldar as Ek Ashavadi Shokantika in 1985. It was published by Raduga Prakashan, Moscow. The events in the play take place in a few months after the October Revolution in 1917. The blurb narrates the theme and its significance as:

P|c|sSd|: 3RMcf5cn?jfrr cTEfw 3JxHelc^l >adl!^IMI Mdci>jT|-cJ| cfjfJrRTR "f^^,

W\ # -Ere^ ct^leqPlcb •^. st>icflHKir ST^ "S^ ^Erget ^. ct>Pl>bHK-cil cijf^^,y|

(Vishnevskiy/Hawaldar 1985) A theme based on real incident, totally new for the Marathi readers was provided by this translation. Actually, the references of revolution, counter-revolution, anarchists, class struggle, white guards, red guards, a woman commissar, and her bravery everything was new for the Marathi drama. But there is no trace of any performance of this play on Marathi stage. The reason may be the totally alien atmosphere in it. The translation of a collection of plays Three Soviet Plays was published in 1964 by Jayhind Prakashan, Mumbai. It includes the plays The Kremlin Chimes by Nikolai Pogodin, Pleton Kreshet by Aleksander Komeichuk and It happened in Irkutsk by Aleksei Arbuzov. Pogodin has devoted his play to Lenin. And the theme is about a moment in the life of 292

Lenin, which looks at future, the moment shining with a trust in the creative power of people. The second collection of Soviet plays Adhunik Soviet Natake was published in 1986. It was meant for reading. It includes the plays by Aleksei Arbuzov, Aleksander Vampilov and Viktor Rozov.

(iv)

Maxim Gorky - A dramatist: The Lower Depths (At the Bottom: 1902) is perhaps Maxim Gorky's best-known play. Subtitled "Scenes from Russian Life," it depicted a group of lower-class Russians in a lodging house in Volga. It was produced by the Moscow Arts Theatre on December 18, 1902, Konstantin Stanislavski directed and starred in it. It became Gorky's first major success, and a hallmark of Russian socialist realism. The play has been translated / adapted and staged or filmed in many languages of the world like French, Japanese, Hindi and Marathi. When it first appeared. The Lower Depths was criticized for its pessimism and ambiguous ethical message. The presentation of the lower classes was viewed as overly dark and unredemptive, and Gorky was clearly more interested in creating memorable characters than in advancing a formal plot. However, in this respect, the play is generally regarded as a masterwork. The theme of harsh truth versus the comforting lie spreads throughout the play from start to finish, as most of the characters choose to deceive themselves from the bleak reality of their condition. The Lower Depths is an indictment to the fate of the Vaskas and Anyas doomed as superfluous and unnecessary in society. If we see beneath the veil of their cold indifference and stupidity, we discover the deep humanity, the latent possibilities in these lowliest of the low. If within our social conditions they are useless material, or vicious and harmful to the general good, it is because they have been denied opportunity and forced into conditions that kill their faith in themselves and all that is best in their natures. It is the depravity and criminal anti-social attitude of society itself that first creates the underworld and, having created it, wastes much energy 293 and effort in suppressing and destroying the menacing phantom of its own making. It is forgetfiil of the elemental brotherhood of man, blind to the value of the individual, and ignorant of the beautiful possibilities inherent in even the most despised children of the depths.

The Lower Depth in Indian Theatre: In 1946, a Hindi film Neecha Nagar, inspired by Russian writer, Maxim Gorky's The Lower Depths was produced, which was directed by Chetan Anand. Written by Khwaja Ahmad Abbas, this film is said to be a pioneering effort in social realism in Hindi cinema and paved way for many such films by other directors and many of them written by K.A.Abbas. It became the first Indian film to gain western recognition, after it won the Grand Prix Award 1946 at Cannes Film Festival. It took an expressionist look at the gulf between the rich and poor in the society. A play by Gorky Dushman (Enemies) was staged by the 'National School of Drama' (N.S.D.), New Delhi in 1989. It was directed by Habib Tanweer. The Lower Depths was performed in Hindi by the N.S.D. in March, 2006. It was translated by Rekha Kaushik and directed by V.V. Teplyakov, visiting director from The Russian Academy of Theatre Arts (GITIS). Marathi theatre also has taken interest in the The Lower Depths. A reputed institute FTII (The Film and Television Institute of India), Pune showcased their talent through the theatrical performance of Talghar adapted from Gorky's play The Lower Depths in 2006. When asked "Why has this particular play been chosen to introduce your actors to the outer world?", the director Tripurari Sharan answered: Talghar gives a comprehensive chance to a large number of actors, it affords a wide range of performance to the actors and it is also enormously engaging. Directed by NSD stalwart Prof Ram Gopal Bajaj, it was the best way to introduce our actors to the world. (Sharan 2006) A collection of four plays of Gorky was published in Marathi jointly by Raduga Prakashan, Moscow and Lokvangmaya Griha Pvt.Ltd., Mumbai in 1986. The translator was Anil Hawaldar. The collection includes the plays 294

The Lower Depths, Dachniki and Enemies. One more translation of the play by Megha Pansare was published in the periodical 'Kelyane Bhashantar', Pune in January-December, 2006. Translation by Hawaldar was a result of the institutional work of an official publishing house 'Raduga', which intended to bring the Soviet author to Marathi readers. Talagalatil Manase by Hawaldar is a literal translation and no thought is given to the performance aspect of the drama. The problem of cultural transfer has not taken into consideration.There are cases of mistranslation and very odd syntax in TT. For example: the phrase 'H/IH sa nero!' has been translated literally as 'w !l6|x!, v5rT!' (Gorky/Hawaldarl986: 271) instead of 'cTR" cjj^ ?JirsTRft!'. This shows lack of knowledge of common speech patterns in Russian.

C a T H H (ydapHH xyjiaxoM no cmojiy). Mojinaxb! Bbi — Bce — CKOTbi! ^y6fie... MOJinaxt o cxapHKe! (CnoKomee.) Tbi, BapoH, — Bcex xyace!.. Tbi — HHnero ne noHHMaeuib... H — Bpeuib! CxapHK — He mapjiaxan! Hxo xaKoe — npas/ia? HenoeeK — BOX npaB^a! OH 3XO noHHMaji... Bbi — Hex! Bbi — xynbi, KaK KHpnHHH... ^ — noHHMaio cxapHKa... jxa\ OH spaji... HO — 3xo H3 KanocxH K BaM, nepx Bac BOSbMH! Ecxb MHoro jiio^ieH, Koxopbie nryx H3 acajiocxH K GnH^Heiviy... a — 3Haio! a — HHxan! KpacHBo, BfloxHOBCHHO, BosGy^^iaiome jiryx!.. Ecxb Jioacb yxeuiHxejibHaa, jioacb npHMnpaiomaa... Jioacb onpaB/ibiBaex

xy xa^ecxb, Koxopaa pasaaBHna pyKy paGonero... H OGBKHHCX yMHpaiomHX c rojiofla... il — snaio jio>Kb! Kxo cjiaG aymoH... H KXO >KHBex Hy>KHMH coKaMH, — XBM Jioa(b Hy^Ha... oflHHx ona noaz^ep^HBaex, Apyrne — npHKpbiBaiOTca eio... A KXO — caM ce5e xosaHH... KXO HcaaBHCHM H He acpex nyacoro — sancM xoMy jio^cb? Jlo»cb — pejinrHa pa5oB H xosaeB... IlpaBAa — 6or cBo6oAHoro HCJioBeKa! Bap OH. BpaBo! ITpeKpacHO CKasano! 51 — coraaceH! Tbi rOBOpHIHb... KaK nopaAOHHblH HejIOBCK! (Gorky 1902) 295

*^ldMH^d T?cpr3T«RR6ftc5^^Ic|»T! (3lftrcf5^ i^lidMul) sTT^T, ^ >HJ|oMld STfcrail^

fcTSRTR^ sntcT. ^fTeTT eft >HHvj1dl. 3T?rfcT eft ^^afe slldmxll! -qny %q^ ctJt'U'lMlc^.x^dHMl!

3r^ VRT >Wd:T>4l srmcfTSJTTsqT cjftcfTM ^Ife silddld, 'TelT ^TlflcT snt! ift -g^eTc^ cnxTcft 3n%cT. <^MId tfjR ^ -MN" #^ >HiPldeld 3Rra. 'dt ^*^ldl

^^^^ terra, eJH^Id -id066|06 Ml^cldld. cj5# SRlrlT *1|U|>HN >Hi<^H *>idld, e^TTefT

^RftsTRft cT^^^ cRRcTT ^J^ cb-idld. cj^HJIKNI FcT %|^ dlcbuiMl cJ^jHldl

3ra?ft "RT^eT 3n%eT! ^ "cfTEEqi "cfJIoSWcT 3nt?T 3l?TcfT "g^RTTWr v^<^N>{ vii'ldld, valdJjHiJi ci-ddid. tm v5fr ^^TFj^ ^?^ra":^ •Fra:w Hid* 3TTt, vift ^?^ra^ 3nt 3nf^

^cRTrr "?^ ?ft^?r ^ - ?JTTefT ^ifeSTfcit TRVSIW cpPT? 3RTeq" •?! JldHNI STlf^

HIdcbMi ET^Snt.^fTe^^f^RTWHIumNI tcTSnt!

^#T •• c||^c4l!w^^1ddl>H!^5iIT^Hdi!i^'^>H^Hd 3nt. '^'idltll yRif^d HiumiyHiui ^«ildd1>H! (Gorky/Hawaldar 1986: 294-295) The same passage from the second version in Marathi reads:

^?n^ : {^eidici^ ^3m^cr)w^^RTT!^ >HJ|oixi^antral^^gSeT!

^IdMN^d cPT^ T^ sfr^ TTcfTT! {Sj/u/^iti Wd^tj)) sRt^, ^ «HJ|o6iJld "vJTReT ^ ^ 3nt^! ^cTT cf5T^ ^jRvJra ^T#... 3nf^ ^ ^att ^ficicfRT! ^idKi *fi^ ^! ^?TC^ cITRr SRra? fW^ %^ ^Hoq-! o!JTeIT t >HHvj1d "gtcf, ej^^ldl ^! ^ ^ anWlcf

"^^T^RTR^ ... ^fTcIT ^HH^Jldlil cfT ^IdKI... ^! eft "d^t -^([^\^ ^... tnT ^ eiH-ci|N^dt>m cfjUTcTM! ^Il^neT v3TT ^! 3Rft ^ ^TM^ 3Rrara. "^fcToSTZIT

HlumN^d^l ^M^ ^ ^^ "Niddld... ^Rflflef 3TTt ^ReTT! cTTEfeRT ^! ^ "^^ ^MK vde>Hi^H, vsfr^ira ^atci- ejterara! ^^PT "?ira cfROTR^ 3^w^ 3Rra; MRR^efl^JI d>dvjl1vS *x!|ijdl dlc|U|K 3r?Te^ SRTet... *HJ|K|-CJ| -^TeT frl>!-^H dl*u|K gff^ ^IJ^JT^

3TTt 3Rt % 3RT?q- f^ cR?t... Snf^ ^c^ TRtTRri^ ^ tt^ B^^... f^m TlfleT

3TTt! SRIe^T! "^ ^fpTFT CFMT? SH^ 3nf^ ^ ^>H-^MI ^'\\M vjjJ|dld ?qt^

SRTrin^^fR^3R?er, et cbl^vriUMHi siraR teT, WTct^t^ e^MHMl dMdld....3nf^ v^

^?cra":rr "^cra:"!^ ^fTTc^ STTteT...^^ Wef^ STlteT 3nf^ "v^ ^>H-^N ^ftETnT cJReT "^TT^eT 296

•TFRTRTRWsflelcft^! (Gorky/Pansare 2006: 35) The above passage from the drama represents a totally different theme new to Marathi drama. Though it has a reference to the Russian people living at the lower strata of the society, it certainly has relevance to the Marathi society living in similar conditions even today.

VII

Russian dissident drama:

A book An Anthology of Russian Dissident Drama (1998) by Irena Luksic presents the dramas by dissident playwrights in Russia in the post- Stalin era. The book was published in Croatia. The author systematically shows what was banned in the Soviet Union. Along with works by political dissidents and works with political themes, she also selects art dissidents who were supporters of outlawed modes of art. The plays selected by her include the following:

Venedict Yerofeyev: Fanny Kaplan or The Dissidents Josif Brodski: Democracy! Muza Pavlova: A Hand of Preference Alexandar Zinovyev: The Kremlin's Hand Vladimir Kazakov: The Great Deduction, The Acrobat, Breaking the Habit Vladimir Maximov: There Far Away, Across the River Dimitri Prigov: An Introductory Word to the Collection Vladimir Ufljand: The People (Luksic 1998) Not a single work of any dissident Russian writer has been translated into Marathi yet. Hence no account of the above mentioned dramas is taken in this research. 297

IX Though there seems to be quite limited space for Russian plays in Marathi polysystem, most of them has unique literary value. Lev Tolstoy's plays show the depiction of rural life, which is a rare case in Marathi system, while Valentin Kataev's play is said to be the first experimental drama in Marathi polysystem. Anton Chekhov's The Cherry Orchard and Maxim Gorky's The Lower Depth have been performed by the experimental theatre artists even recently. They have contributed to our understanding of new concepts in world drama and still are felt relevant by the Marathi dramatists. The translated dramas from English have contributed significantly in the evolution of Marathi drama. The English and American dramas have occupied a significant space in Marathi literary system. This certainly has a colonial context. But through the interaction with English, Marathi has developed its own rich tradition of drama. This seems to be the reason for less interaction between Russian drama and the subsystem of translated drama in Marathi polysystem. A small space has been created for Russian dramatists in Marathi literary system. The translations from Russian are simply an addition to the existing field of Marathi drama.

* * *