news and notes

Climate/food workshop held in Berlin warnings of impending food shortages on a regional basis; establish- ing research and development pilot projects on ecologically sus- To meet the world's future food needs adequately, it is necessary to tainable food-production practices for each region of the world; and consider climate as both a natural hazard and a natural resource. developing and testing farming techniques that minimize inputs of energy and chemicals. Farmers must learn to cope more effectively with the adverse im- pacts of climatic hazards such as droughts, , and frost, and The climate/food workshop was sponsored by the Aspen Institute governments must work to maintain food security for their people in Berlin and the Federal Environmental Agency of the Federal Repub- the face of climatic variations that affect food production. But cli- lic of Germany. Cosponsors were the German Weather Service, the mate is also an agricultural resource that provides water and solar Society for Technical Cooperation, the International Federation of energy, shaping and conditioning the environment in which food is Institutes for Advanced Study, the Commission of the European produced, stored, and distributed. By using climatic resources effec- Communities, and the United Nations University. Participants came tively, farmers can increase food production in years of favorable from England, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Kenya, the Nether- climatic conditions and governments can protect consumers from lands, Switzerland, and the United States. food shortages and price spirals.

This was the theme of the International Workshop on Climate/ Food Interactions, held 9-12 December 1980 at the Aspen Institute 1980 U.S. weather summary Berlin. More than 30 physical, biological, and social scientists, as well as international development specialists, participated. The The weather in the United States during 1980 was a "downer." workshop was chaired by Wilfrid Bach of the University of Miinster, A three-month heat wave in the Southwest caused ~$20 billion Germany, and Stephen H. Schneider of the National Center for worth of damage in ruined crops, increased power consumption, and Atmospheric Research (NCAR) in Boulder, Colo. damaged roads and highways. Nationwide, the heat killed 1320 The workshop participants concluded that: (1) government poli- people. cies must provide mechanisms that maintain food security for con- Floods caused more than $1 billion in losses. sumers and financial security for producers despite the fluctuations Hurricane Allen caused ~$500 million in property losses and took of climate; and (2) food systems must be ecologically sustainable and two lives. must match the climate, energy, labor, and capital resources of the The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) nations where they are used. has the task of compiling statistics on these damages and casualties. NOAA reported that the highest temperature reading during 1980, Bach said that "providing the increasing world population with 124°F, was reached five times. Locations were at Bull Head, Ariz.; sufficient food is a monumental task that depends on a host of in- Death Valley, Calif.; and three times at Baker, Calif. NOA A's prelim- terrelated physical and societal factors, of which climate is only one. inary figures also show that the lowest temperature for the year was A clear conclusion of this workshop was that supplying the world recorded at Tok weather station, 150 mi southeast of Fairbanks, with sufficient food is not merely a technical problem, but that it in- Alaska. There the mercury plummeted to —68°F. In the lower 48, the volves many complex social and political issues. This is particularly lowest thermometer reading was —47°F at Wisdom, Mont. true in many developing countries where the social structure does Deaths due to lightning were down to 78 last year from the 20-year not give the small farmer access to adequate financing to make use of average of 104. Deaths caused by tornadoes dropped to 28, the appropriate technology and other inputs that can increase food pro- second lowest total in 65 years. Lightning storms also produced duction. A second problem is to find social and political mechanisms more than $750 million in damage. that will allow millions of undernourished people to obtain the food NOAA's Environmental Data and Information Service provided that is now beyond their reach." the following summary of the extraordinarily bad weather: Schneider added: "The mix of natural and social scientists at the Spring flooding began in March in Alabama and Mississippi workshop produced conclusions that would have been difficult for with rainfalls of 18 in, more than three times normal. either group to reach alone. For example, we found that there is a On 27 April heavy and wind gusts of up to serious mismatch between the erratic patterns of climatic fluctuation 42 mph contributed to a ship crashing into the Sunshine Skyline and the rigid annual credit cycle that provides capital for farmers to Bridge at Tampa Bay, Fla.; 30 lives were lost and harbor traffic finance their operations. If two or more years of bad growing was delayed for five days. weather occur in succession, farmers can be left with too little money In May, Mt. St. Helens erupted. Although not of itself a to pay for enough fertilizer and other inputs to raise a good crop the weather event, the huge plumes of ash and gases affected the following year. This prolongs the period of low production and weather. This eruption and two others left 34 dead and caused keeps consumer prices high. We need to develop ways to make agri- more than $150 million in damage. cultural credit available on flexible terms that can be adjusted to cli- The great summer heat wave—between June and mid- matic conditions. This problem exists in developed countries as well August—was the most devastating U.S. weather calamity dur- as developing ones." ing 1980. On 13 July temperature records were shattered in The workshop participants recommended that new policies be several southern states. Dallas, Tex., recorded 100°F or above developed and implemented in the following areas: providing ade- each day from 23 June to 3 August. quate regional food storage and distribution systems; financing food The corn, cotton, peanut, and spring wheat crops were production to match the irregular fluctuations of climate; providing particularly hard hit by the heat. The Consumer Price Index for crop insurance; establishing forecasting centers to provide early food and beverages, which had risen only one-third as much as

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the rest of the Index during the first half of 1980, jumped twice as much during the second half. Though NOAA's National Hurricane Center named 11 tropical storms, only one, Hurricane Allen, struck the U.S. mainland. Autumn brought smog and heat to the Los Angeles basin from 29 September to 11 October. This produced "hazardous" pollution levels for three days and temperatures averaging 14°F above normal. The year ended with floods in the Pacific Northwest, where a 2-5 in rainstorm during 26-28 December hit parts of Washing- ton and Oregon.

Tornado safety rules

Spring is the season, and the peak month for these deadly storms is May. An average of 112 persons are killed each year by tor- nadoes, according to NWS—but the number of fatalities would be much lower if the public learned and practiced a few simple safety rules. Tornadoes form where air masses of contrasting temperature and moisture clash, often creating severe thunderstorms that produce high winds, torrential rainfall, and often damaging hail. But less than 5% of all thunderstorms produce tornadoes, and weather scientists are not sure what triggers them. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) A view of the Cheyenne, Wyo., tornado of 16 July 1979 that killed meteorologists, however, are able to examine large-scale weather one person, injured 57, and left —1000 homeless after destroying patterns and predict areas of likely severe-storm occurrence. When hundreds of home's. The tornado, pictured here ~8 km northeast of such an area is identified, a bulletin is issued to the the NWS forecast office (far right) in Cheyenne, remains the most public through television, radio, and NOAA outlets. destructive tornado in Wyoming's history. (Photo courtesy Singer A watch indicates where and when the threat of severe weather is Photographies, Cheyenne.) highest. Watches usually are issued for areas ~140 mi wide by 200 mi long. Persons near or in the watch area are cautioned to be on the lookout for threatening conditions. Get under something sturdy. Protect your head. A will be issued for an area whenever a tornado actually has been sighted or indicated by weather radar. Warnings • Move to designated shelter areas in schools, hospitals, describe the downstream area that could be affected. A tornado shopping centers, and other public places. Interior hall- warning usually will include the tornado's location, the direction in ways on lowest floors are best. which it is moving (which may be erratic), and speed. When a warn- • Leave mobile homes for more substantial shelter. ing is issued, persons in the threatened area should take immediate action to protect themselves. Because tornadoes are not always sighted or indicated on radar, warnings may not always be given, so when there is threatening weather, people always should be prepared to move to safety in case a tornado forms. New ozone measurement device developed by A tornado is usually easy to identify by its familiar funnel, which NASA drops from its apparent cloud overhead like a dark rope or elephant trunk. A larger storm, however, may appear as a general black mass A new instrument mounted on an aircraft has measured ozone con- descending from the sky to the ground. centration and distribution in a column of atmosphere for the first There is almost complete devastation wherever tornadoes touch time. The instrument is called Ultra Violet Differential Absorption ground. Their terrific winds, which can exceed 200 mph, can roll cars Lidar and was developed by the National Aeronautics and Space end over end, flatten mobile homes, and lift the roof from a house Administration (NASA) for the Environmental Protection Agency. before smashing its walls to splinters. Tornadoes also bring a lethal Previous instruments could give such data on ozone only in the area barrage of flying mud, sticks, rocks, and other debris, including glass immediately surrounding the aircraft. from shattered windows. Lidar (light intensification detection and ranging) is similar to Immediate action in a tornado emergency can save lives. Here are radar but uses electromagnetic waves of much shorter wavelength. the NWS tornado safety rules: Ozone is a component of photochemical smog that can be hazardous • If outdoors with no shelter available, lie flat in a nearby to health. ditch. Shield your head with your arms. In a car or truck, do The new instrument, called "UV-DIAL" for short, uses light of two different wavelengths. One of the wavelengths is absorbed by not try to drive away from the funnel. Leave your vehicle for ozone and the other is not. The difference between the two combined a ditch. signals is analyzed by UV-DIAL to determine concentration and dis- • Stay away from windows, doors, and outside walls in homes. tribution of ozone in a column beneath the aircraft. Go to the basement or an interior part on the lowest level. Air sampling is done simultaneously between the aircraft and the

Unauthenticated | Downloaded 10/08/21 08:59 PM UTC 520 Vol. 62, No. 4., April 1981 ground at 50 ft intervals. Since the system can measure both total amount of ozone and its distribution in the column, three-dimen- Zero-pressure and superpressure balloons sional mapping of ozone can be obtained quickly and cheaply by fly- ing the airplane in a crisscross pattern. This provides information Zero-pressure balloons: For more than 200 years, balloonists needed for modeling ozone's generation, movement, and have attempted to increase the length of their flights by various transformation. means and always have returned to some form of ballast system. Conventional lidar has been used for years to detect particulate A zero-pressure balloon is one equipped with a system for venting matter in the atmosphere. In these lidar systems, an extremely short the lifting gas when the pressure in the balloon's bag exceeds the pulse of light is fired from the airplane toward the ground. The pulse air pressure, because the bag is not strong enough to withstand travels downward through the air at the speed of light and then is extra gas pressure. scattered back to the system in proportion to the amount of fine par- When the gas cools each night, the balloon sinks; its loss of al- ticulates in the atmosphere. titude is compensated for by releasing ballast. And when the bal- Future plans for UV-DIAL include increasing daylight sensitivity last is gone, the flight is over. Double Eagle II pilots, for example, by using a more powerful laser and developing a similar instrument threw 5500 lbs of sand ballast and equipment overboard on their to measure sulfur dioxide. The range now is limited during certain record five-day flight across the Atlantic. daylight hours because solar radiation also scatters light off atmo- Whether the balloon flight is manned (like Double Eagle II) or spheric . unmanned like those launched by the Balloon Facility carrying only scientific instruments, the duration of a flight is a function of the ballast carried and changes in gas temperature between night and day. Ballast is dropped at night to compensate for loss in altitude; when the balloon rises higher, gas must be vented to RACOON balloon sets new flight record equalize the pressure in the balloon. The RACOON flew in the stratosphere where the air tempera- A RACOON balloon launched from French Guiana by scientists ture gradually rises with altitude. During the day the RACOON's from the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) set a altitude was 125 000 ft, with relatively warm air at a temperature of new flight duration record for zero-pressure balloons. Launched 10°F. When the balloon cooled at night, it descended as low as 16 September 1980 near Devil's Island, the balloon circled the globe 60000 ft, where the air temperature was around —100°F. and landed in the Amazon jungle 38 days later, far surpassing the Warmer than the surrounding air, the balloon regained its lift previous record of eight days. and floated until the sun returned to warm it further, pushing it The simple, helium-filled RACOON balloon, once aloft, rises at back to a higher altitude. dawn when heated by the sun to an altitude of 125000 ft. At twilight it sinks to around 60000 ft, where it regains buoyancy from the Superpressure balloons do not vent gas and are designed to with- colder air. It does not jettison ballast to remain in flight. The bal- stand an internal pressure of gas that exceeds the air pressure sur- loon's ability to have its altitude determined by the radiation envi- rounding it. Superpressure balloons launched by NCAR have ronment gave rise to its name: RACOON is short for radiation con- flown in the stratosphere for two years or more, riding the air trolled balloon. currents around the globe much like a beach ball on the ocean. NCAR scientist Vincent Lally and colleagues with the Center have Constructing these balloons, however, requires expensive been developing balloon techniques to provide inexpensive methods materials and precision manufacturing, which makes a super- for gathering weather data in the tropics. pressure balloon system too expensive for routine meteorologi- "With RACOONS, I think we have a simple, workable system," cal monitoring. Lally said. "This balloon technique works best in the tropics—or in the midlatitudes in summer—because it requires a very cold tropo- pause with air temperatures that increase rapidly above the tropopause." RACOONS will be used to provide stratospheric wind data in equatorial areas, information that cannot be gleaned from satellites. devices to measure stratospheric trace chemicals could be recovered after a trip around the world. Right now, expensive rocket soundings provide tropical wind meas- urements used in forecasting and in calibrating satellite measure- Lally is working with technicians from the National Scientific Bal- loon Facility in Palestine, Tex., to perfect techniques to track and ments, but the global rocket sounding network is being phased out. recover balloon payloads after they have circled the globe at strato- The balloons' daily change in altitude can be useful to researchers spheric altitudes. as well. "If the balloons are equipped with a vertical sounding sys- Both NCAR and the Balloon Facility are operated by the Univer- tem, we can get profiles of temperature and wind from them as they sity Corporation for Atmospheric Research under the sponsorship wend their way slowly around the globe. These regular altitude shifts of the National Science Foundation. can be used to monitor aerosol particles and gases in the stratosphere as well," Lally explained. To monitor the RACOON's record-breaking flight, a telemetry system transmitting data to polar orbiting NOAA weather satellites was used. The balloon locations were computed by the French space NASA-developed "Wind Farm" producing electric agency, Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales. power Lally, however, is looking forward to even more uses of the RACOON system, since it has overcome one of the problems inher- ent in zero-pressure ballooning [see Zero-pressure and super pressure The nation's first "wind farm," featuring three of the largest balloons (this page)]. government-built advanced wind turbine systems, is nearing com- Larger balloons can carry heavy payloads of scientific instru- pletion. The turbines are the seventh, eighth, and ninth wind ments, instead of lightweight meteorological measuring devices and turbines to be built under the portion of the federal wind energy telemetry systems carried by the 700000 ft3 balloon used on the first program managed by NASA's (National Aeronautics and Space flight. Telescopes that can look beyond the earth's atmosphere or Administration) Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio, for the

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Department of Energy (DOE). Through the use of a teetering mechanism at the hub, the blade The first of the three new machines began producing electricity for assembly is able to tilt as much as six degrees in response to wind the Bonneville Power Administration at Goodnoe Hills near loads. This design feature reduces loads on all of the turbine compo- Goldendale, Wash., in late 1980. The second machine began to gen- nents and has resulted in lower costs. erate electricity in February, and the third machine was expected to A 100 kW wind turbine test-bed currently is operating at be fully assembled and running before this summer. NASA-Lewis' Plum Brook Station near Sandusky, Ohio. Four The three machines, each rated at 2500 kW, will be the first cluster- larger 200 kW wind turbines are in operation at utility sites located in ing of these experimental wind turbine systems. The new machines Clayton, N.M.; Block Island, R.I.; Culebra, Puerto Rico; and Oahu, have been designed to bring the cost of wind-generated electricity Hawaii. A 2000 kW machine presently is being tested on a utility in very close to the cost of power generated through the burning of fos- Boone, N.C. sil fuels. DOE also sponsors development of small wind turbines, up to When all three are operating—by mid-1981—they will feed 40 kW, for residential, agricultural, and small industrial applications. 7500 kW (7.5 MW) of electricity into the Bonneville power grid, enough to supply 2000-3000 average homes. Designated Mod-2, the machines are the largest and most power- ful wind turbines ever built. The three Goldendale wind turbines, designed to have a system life of 30 years, were built by the Boeing Engineering and Construction Co. of Seattle, Wash., under contract Wind energy programs at the National Climatic to NASA-Lewis. Under earlier DOE-funded projects, started in Center 1974, NASA-Lewis built six smaller developmental units ranging in power output from 100 to 2000 kW. The National Climatic Center (NCC), Asheville, N.C., has been in- In terms of design, size, appearance, and performance, the new volved in the Federal Wind Energy Program from its inception in the machines encompass significant modifications and advancements early 1970s. NCC archives, summarizes, and disseminates the major- over the earlier models. According to NASA-Lewis Project Manager ity of wind data collected in the United States. Jim Couch, "Experience gained in the operation of the earlier tur- Engineering and meteorological communities involved in the bines has enabled us to simplify mechanical operations, reduce sys- national wind energy program met in a workshop atmosphere at tem weight, lower manufacturing costs and improve performance." NCC in 1974 to discuss meteorological problems encountered in site These first three Mod-2 prototype wind turbines cost $13 million evaluation, data requirements, and engineering design. Results of a to build and install. It is estimated by NASA-Lewis engineers that NCC data survey and the workshop discussions were published in they will produce electricity at a cost of less than eight cents per kilo- Initial Wind Energy Data Assessment Study, May 1975. More detailed watt hour. If these same machines were to be produced in quantities catalogs of NCC's available summarized and original wind data (in of 100 per year or more, the 100th wind turbine would provide power manuscript, digitized, and strip chart form) were published in at a cost of less than five cents per kilowatt hour. Index—Summarized Wind Data, September 1977, and National Wind The Goodnoe Hills machines are set up in a triangular pattern, Data Index, December 1978. The latter publication also contains the ranging from 460 to 915 m apart, to form a small turbine "farm." anemometer height and location information required for standard- NASA engineers predict that farms of 25, 50, or 100 wind turbines izing wind data to a constant height. may be producing truly significant amounts of cost-effective electric- In 1975, in response to a request from Sandia Laboratories, perti- ity by the end of the century. nent wind summary data for 750 stations were extracted and keyed The new, Mod-2 wind turbines are 61 m high and produce power to magnetic tape. The resulting Sandia publication, Wind Power from the rotation of their steel rotor blades, which measure 91 m Climatology of the U.S., included the first assessment of seasonal and from tip to tip. Each machine's rated power output of 2500 kW is annual wind power variability on a national basis. achieved at a blade speed of 17.5 revolutions per minute (rpm) in a In the current Department of Energy (DOE) federal program, all rated wind speed at the top of the tower of 44 km/h. (Rated wind wind characteristics research is managed by Battelle's Pacific speed is defined as the lowest wind speed at which full power can be Northwest Laboratory in Richland, Wash. To help guide achieved.) The power output in relation to the wind speed is regu- homeowners and utilities in decisions concerning the use of wind as lated by varying the pitch of the 13.7 m long, articulated blade tips. an energy source, Battelle is assessing the wind resource by dividing It takes 22.5 km/h of wind to start the blades rotating; at a wind the United States into 12 regions and evaluating all wind data avail- speed of 72 km/h, the machine is designed to shut itself off to pre- able within each region. NCC furnished Battelle with 600 station clude excess stress on the blades and possible damage. However, the tapes of hourly wind data as part of this assessment. Batelle utilized machine, in a stationary mode, can withstand winds up to 200 km/h. the data in producing more than 50 sets of wind energy-related statis- A drive train, including an improved, three-stage, planetary gear tics including mean and cumulative wind power, durations below box, converts the 17.5 revolutions of the blade into 1800 rpm of the cut-in and exceeding cut-out speeds, and wind power by direction generator. and interannual variability of power for each station and anemom- Among the major design innovations and cost savings modifica- eter height. These data, together with U.S. Forest Service, Envi- tions that have been incorporated into the Mod-2 wind turbines are: ronmental Protection Agency, and state-collected data, were used in (1) Blade Tip Control: Unlike their predecessors, which were the recently published Wind Energy Resource Atlas—Vol. I, North- feathered along their full length, the speed of the Mod-2's blades is west Region. The final set of approximately 200 000 tables on 600 controlled by varying the pitch of only the 13.7 m long blade tips. microfiche will be archived at NCC and used to answer user requests. This has enabled designers to reduce rotor weight and cost; (2) Battelle Northwest also serves as the lead agency in the selection Tower: Towers for all prior machines were of rigid truss design. and evaluation of sites for current and future wind turbines devel- These have been replaced by the more flexible, more aesthetic, oped by DOE/National Aeronautics and Space Administration. simpler tubular design, a modification that has permitted the use of Meteorologists from NCC have served on panels selecting appropri- less expensive, factory-assembled components and an overall reduc- ate sites for meteorological towers and evaluating data received for tion in the amount of materials required for tower construction; wind turbine siting. NCC has agreed to archive the multi-level wind and (3) Rotor Blades: The welded steel blades are fastened to the hub data for 15 current and approximately 18 planned additional in a straight line fashion and are positioned upwind of the tower. locations.

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The Center also is extracting and digitizing selected, summarized this could have been caused by the sulfur dioxide partially compen- wind data for 3000 locations in Africa, South America, Australia, sating for a sulfur deficiency in the soil. Europe, and Asia. Data will be furnished to Battelle for an assess- "The response of plants to sulfur dioxide," said Miller, "is depend- ment of international wind power potential to be presented at a 1981 ent upon many factors, such as soil fertility, climate, and the species United Nations-sponsored symposium. or variety of plant. Much more research is needed to understand these complex relationships." Many other studies have been done on the effects of sulfur dioxide on plants, but most have been performed in laboratories or in special chambers built over the plants. Miller believes that experiments per- Effects of atmospheric sulfur dioxide on soybeans formed in such artificial environments do not accurately reflect con- ditions in the real world. "It is my feeling," said Miller, "and the feel- ing of a lot of other people, that this type of data cannot be used to Legally permissible atmospheric concentrations of sulfur dioxide make realistic economic assessments of air-pollution effects." That is can cut soybean yields as much as 20%. This is the finding of two why Miller's group works in the open air with plants grown under years of study by the Department of Energy's (DOE) Argonne normal agricultural conditions. National Laboratory. Results of the study were published in the Curiously, a previously reported study performed under Miller's December 1980 issue of Phytopathology, an international scientific guidance by another Argonne scientist, Patricia Irving, at the same journal on plant pathology. Minooka, 111., farm, found that acid rainfall, a phenonemon that oc- The finding is significant because soybeans are one of the Mid- curs when rainwater reacts with atmospheric oxides of sulfur and west's most important cash crops and because the federal govern- nitrogen, potentially may improve soybean yields.1 Again, these re- ment's energy plans call for an increased use of coal to generate elec- sults suggest that this improvement may occur if the soil is deficient tricity. Coal combustion is a major source of atmospheric sulfur in sulfur and nitrogen, important elements in plant nutrition; in that dioxide. case, the acid rain may act as fertilizer by providing these needed Joseph Miller, who heads the scientific team performing the study, elements. points out that, while the experimental soybean plots were exposed Considered together, the results of these studies suggest that sulfur to sulfur dioxide concentrations well within standards set by the dioxide may have either harmful or beneficial effects on plants, de- United States' and the Illinois' environmental protection agencies pending on a number of conditions, including prevailing atmo- (EPA), the plots nevertheless were exposed to relatively high concen- spheric concentrations of sulfur dioxide, amounts of precipitation, trations. "Fields would probably be exposed to this much sulfur nutrient content of precipitation, and soil conditions. Further work dioxide this frequently only in the vicinity of coal-fired power plants is planned to investigate these issues. that do not have adequate scrubbers or in the vicinity of industrial These experiments are funded jointly by the DOE Office of Health complexes where sulfur dioxide was not well scrubbed," he said. and Environmental Research and the EPA Office of Research and In the early summers of 1977 and 1978, a crew of Argonne scien- Development. Argonne National Laboratory is operated for DOE tists descended on a 10-acre soybean plot rented from a Minooka, by The University of Chicago under a contract among DOE, the 111., farmer. During the following week, they erected networks of University, and the Argonne Universities Association. pipes above several 80 X 100 ft plots. During a six-week period in midsummer, these plots periodically were fumigated by the controlled release of weak, but realistic, con- centrations of sulfur dioxide from the pipes. In 1977, three plots were fumigated for an average of —5 h on each of 24 days; in 1978, five Pioneer 6 still sending data after 15 years plots were fumigated for —4 h on each of 18 days. During fumigation, sulfur dioxide concentrations over the treated plots ranged from an average of 94 parts per billion (ppb) for the least fumigated plot in Last December, the National Aeronautics and Space Administra- 1978 to a high of 786 ppb for the most heavily fumigated plot in 1977. tion's (NASA) Pioneer 6 interplanetary spacecraft marked 15 years To put these numbers into perspective, the average sulfur dioxide of circling the Sun and returning good data—the longest operating concentration recorded over nearby unfumigated fields was only life ever attained by an interplanetary spacecraft. The original 5-10 ppb. Federal and Illinois EPA standards permit a maximum 3 h Pioneer 6 specifications called for a working life of six months. average concentration of 500 ppb to be exceeded not more than once Pioneer 6 made the first detailed measurements of the interplane- a year. tary medium, some spanning 0.8 billion kilometers. The workhorse spacecraft has measured the Sun's corona, returned data on solar Of the eight plots treated during the study, only the two most heav- storms, and measured a comet's tail. It has made discoveries about ily fumigated were exposed to sulfur dioxide concentrations in excess the Sun itself and about the solar wind, solar cosmic rays, and the of the three-hour EPA standards designed to protect vegetation. Vis- solar magnetic field, all three of which extend far beyond the orbit of ible injury to plant leaves, in the form of yellowing or the appearance Jupiter. of dead spots, was observed only among plants from these two plots. Pioneer 6's three sister spacecraft, Pioneers 7, 8, and 9, also are Small, but significant, yield losses, however, also were recorded in years beyond their six-month design lives. Together the four those plots that exhibited no visible damage to leaves. Pioneers make up a network of solar weather stations that circle the In the most heavily fumigated plot, soybean yields were —45% Sun, usually in locations millions of kilometers apart. All of the cur- below the yields of unfumigated control plots. Seed size and weight, rent Pioneers (Pioneers 6-11 and the Pionner Venus Orbiter) are still the number of filled seeds per pod, and the number of pods per plant operating, and were designed as rugged, relatively simple, low-cost all were reduced. spacecraft. In the other seven experimental plots, yield reductions ranged from —5% in the plot exposed to concentrations of 94 ppb to —20% in plots exposed to concentrations of —300 ppb. Similar studies by Miller's group in 1979 and 1980 have indicated that the yield reductions may not always occur at low concentrations 'A story on Irving's acid rain study appeared in the "News and (in the range of—90-150 ppb). In fact, in some cases of low concen- Notes" section of the October 1979 BULLETIN {Effects of Acid Rain on tration, an apparent stimulation of yield was observed. Conceivably, Soybeans, p. 1214).—News Ed.

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Pioneer 6 was built by TRW Systems, and the Pioneers are of charged particles constantly blowing out from the Sun; a radio managed by NASA's Ames Research Center, Mountain View, Calif. instrument to measure large-scale segments of the solar wind (be- Five of the six scientific instruments, and all other systems, aboard tween Earth and spacecraft); and two cosmic ray instruments to Pioneer 6 continue to work well. measure the very high energy particles, coming from either the Sun "Pioneer 6 is such a good spacecraft," commented Mission or the galaxy. A seventh celestial mechanics experiment has used the Manager Richard Fimmel, "that we may get another 10 years out of spacecraft itself to measure the Sun-Earth distance, planetary orbits, it." and relativity data. Since launch in December 1965, the 64 kg Pioneer has, like a tiny Pioneer 6 helped to chart the solar wind and the twisting magnetic planet, circled the Sun 17 1/2 times, covering more than 14 billion fields threading it, plus the twisted streams of high-energy particles kilometers. During its 15-year life, the spin-stabilized, solar- that follow the magnetic field out from the Sun. All these phenomena powered craft has radioed back measurements 24 hours a day from co-rotate with the Sun every 27 days. Masses of such data have al- all around the Sun. Because newer missions have required tracking lowed better understanding of the solar corona (from which the solar time on the "big dish" antennas of NASA's Deep Space Network, wind "boils off" into interplanetary space) and of the Sun itself. Pioneer 6 often has been pushed aside. The spacecraft has sent about Pioneer measures little pieces of the Sun—that is, the particles it four billion data bits to Earth. Data are transmitted to Pioneer throws off into space. experimenters, to other space scientists, and to the "solar weather Pioneer measurements also have provided new understanding of forecasters" of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- Earth's magnetosphere, which shields us from high-energy particle tion's Solar Disturbance Forecast Center at Boulder, Colo. radiation. When the spacecraft has passed behind the Sun, relative to At Boulder, measurements by the four Pioneers, whose positions Earth, studies of its radio signal passing through the solar corona on various sides of the Sun change constantly, are used to predict have added to knowledge of the corona, making an eighth solar storms for —1000 primary users. These include the Federal experiment. Aviation Administration, commercial airlines, power companies, Pioneer 6 and the three other Sun-orbiting Pioneers can help pre- communication (radio) companies, military organizations, and or- dict solar storms when positioned behind the Sun, because they "see" ganizations doing surveying, navigation, and electronic prospecting. events on the solar surface up to two weeks before they become In August 1980, it was found that Pioneer 6 had "turned itself off visible from Earth, due to the Sun's 27-day rotation on its axis. Such due to a momentary power shortage" and was "lost." Ames con- "geomagnetic storms" may trigger Earth's long-term weather. They trollers were able to command it back on again by radio signal from are caused by the huge bursts of solar wind that buffet and vastly Earth, and Pioneer instruments resumed their observations. distort the Earth's magnetic field for as long as a week. This in turn In 1976, Pioneer 7 observed the Earth's magnetic tail 19 million throws circuit breakers, causing power blackouts. It makes compass kilometers out, three times farther in space than the tail had ever be- navigation and surveying impossible, and cuts off radio communica- fore been measured. Pioneer 7 now has orbited the Sun 13 times and tions, especially to Europe. traveled 13 billion kilometers in solar orbit. The longevity of Pioneer 6 allowed time for it to get behind the Sun Pioneer 8 has been around the Sun 12 1/2 times and has traveled and see the corona. It also allowed important studies of the same 12 billion kilometers. Pioneer 8 lost its Sun sensor in 1977, but it has solar wind stream by two spacecraft, one millions of kilometers since been found that during the part of each orbit closest to the Sun, "down solar wind" from the other. In August 1972, during a cata- the sensor "comes back to life," timing instrument observations clysmic solar storm, when three huge solar flares were superimposed again. on each other, Pioneer 6 measured effects of the solar shock wave on Pioneer 9, on a smaller orbit inside Earth's, has circled the Sun its side of the Sun. In March 1974, the venerable spacecraft measured almost 15 times and traveled 12 billion kilometers. solar phenomena in a fortuitous three-spacecraft lineup. Pioneer 6 is drum-shaped, —89 cm high and 94 cm in diameter. Its Pioneer 10 was inside the Earth's orbit, while the much younger sides are covered with solar cells and divided by a narrow circular Jupiter and Saturn Pioneers (Pioneers lOand 11) measured the same band with openings from which four experiments and four orienta- solar wind stream —10 and 11 days later out near Jupiter about tion-and-timing Sun sensors look out during the instrument's full- 3/4 billion kilometers away. In September 1975, Pioneer teamed circle scans with spacecraft rotation. Pioneer 6 has three booms with the U.S.-German Helios satellite, which was 9.5 million 120 degrees apart. It provides its own data handling, temperature kilometers inside the orbit of Mercury, closer to the Sun than any control, communications, and power system. It has more than 56000 spacecraft yet had gone. This helped complete the picture with parts. measurements very close to the Sun, tied to a look at the same solar The six scientific instruments include a magnetometer (of which a particles and fields near the Earth. These measurements now are key part has worn out) to measure the Sun's magnetic field; two solar being matched with the earlier looks at solar phenomena seen first by wind instruments to measure the million-kilometer-an-hour"wind" Pioneer 6 and later by Pioneers 10 and 11 far out near Jupiter. •

announcements (continued from page 497) ards, and other problems with which FEMA deals, such as fire pre- vention and control and temporary housing. Emergency Management began quarterly publication in January New FEMA magazine 1981. Contributions in the form of articles, press releases, or photo- graphs are invited. Subscriptions are free. To be added to the list, The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has begun contact: Cheri Steffeck or Sandy Farrell, Editors, Office of Public production of a new magazine that may be of interest to some Bul- Affairs, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington, letin readers. It is designed to help persons in government and in the D.C. 20472 (tel: 202-634-1600). private sector keep abreast of programs and activities that can con- tribute to the improvement of emergency management. Coverage will include all aspects of nuclear, natural, and technological haz- (

Unauthenticated | Downloaded 10/08/21 08:59 PM UTC 524 Vol. 62, No. 4., April 1981 announcements (

THE AMERICAN WATER RESOURCES ASSOCIATION

Announces the publication of SATELLITE HYDROLOGY

M. DEUTSCH, D. R. WIESNET, and A. RANGO, Eds.

Proceedings of the Fifth Annual William T. Pecora Memorial Symposium on Remote Sensing Sioux Falls, South Dakota June 10-15, 1979

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Unauthenticated | Downloaded 10/08/21 08:59 PM UTC about our members1

Werner A. Baum, Florida State University, and Charles L. Hosier, Jr., Joseph H. Harrison has joined the Meteorological Services Division Pennsylvania State University, were elected as institutional trustees of the NWS Eastern Region as the new Regional Marine and Special of the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR), Services Meteorologist. Harrison previously was with the Eastern Boulder, Colo., during the recent UCAR Annual Meeting. Both Region's DATAC Division as the Regional Radar and Satellite Baum and Hosier are AMS Fellows and Past-Presidents of the Meteorologist. He is one of 48 NWS forecasters chosen by their peers Society, and both have served UCAR in the past as trustees. Baum as "Outstanding Forecasters" during 1971. also has been corporate secretary for UCAR.

Dale E. Linvill recently became an Associate Professor of Agricul- Herbert P. Benner has been selected as tural Meteorology, Department of Agricultural Engineering, at Chief of Meteorological Services for the Clemson University in Clemson, S.C. He is in charge of the Agricul- NWS Western Region, headquartered in tural Weather Office at Clemson, which carries out research func- Salt Lake City, Utah. The Western Region tions with the University and is allied with the NWS Forecast Office provides weather services for eight states. in Columbia, S.C. One of the major functions of the office is the Benner is a 34-year veteran of NWS, having development and dissemination of weather information for use in worked at several California locations be- agricultural decision-making. It also operates an observation net- fore being assigned to Western Region work of daily reporting stations located in agricultural areas and is Headquarters in 1965. He is a recipient of developing computerized data stations for use in this network. both the Gold and Silver Medals of the U.S. Department of Commerce and holds the B.S. in meteorology from Utah State University. Marvin R. Maddoxis now the Weather Preparedness Meteorologist at the Forecast Office in Atlanta, Ga. He previously was working in Overland, Mo. Leon F. Graves now is working part-time for the Institute for Storm Research (ISR) at the University of St. Thomas, having Timothy P. Marshall recently joined the Institute for Disaster Re- retired last year from the University of search at Texas Tech University in Lubbock, Tex., where he is pursu- Houston with the title of Associate Profes- ing the M.S. in structural engineering. As a research associate, his sor of Physics Emeritus. Graves has been primary responsibility has been to assess tornado and hurricane associated with ISR as a consultant since damage to structures. During 1980, he surveyed tornado damage in 1968 and has been teaching at the Univer- Grand Island, Nebr., that occurred in June and, at Corpus Christi, sity of Houston since 1946. During Tex., in early August, he monitored meteorological conditions and 1951-52, he chaired the Department of studied wind effects on structures before, during, and after Hurri- Physics at the University. Over the years, cane Allen hit the southern Texas coast. Marshall holds the B.S. in Graves also has taught at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology meteorology from Northern Illinois University and the M.S. in at- (MIT) (where he also was a research staff member), Cambridge, mospheric science from Texas Tech University. Mass.; the University of St. Thomas, Houston, Tex.; and Texas A&M University, College Station, Tex. Previously, Graves has been a Laboratory Assistant, Cornell University (1935-42); a televi- sion weathercaster, KNUZ-TV, Houston, Tex. (1954-55); a Senior William Harrison Mcintosh, Jr., is the new Meteorologist-in-Charge Nuclear Engineer, Nuclear Operations Hazard Group, Convair of the Weather Service Meteorological Office at Patuxent River, Md. Division, General Dynamics, Ft. Worth, Tex. (summers, 1956 and He previously was a Radar Observations Meteorologist, helping to 1957); and a meteorologist with the National Engineering Science administer the NWS Radar Program in the NWS Headquarters Company, Pasadena, Calif. (1962-65). Graves holds the B.S. and the Data Systems Division. His prior NWS assignment was as MIC at M.A. from Cornell University and the M.S. from MIT. He also has the WSMO in Alliance, Nebr. Mcintosh spent his entire Naval career studied at Rice University, Houston, and at Texas A&M University. as a meteorologist, serving tours of duty in Cuba, Newfoundland, He is a member of a number of academic and honorary societies and Bermuda, Miami, Fla., and Rhode Island. For about two years, he was awarded the Alpha Zeta Scholarship Cup in 1934-35 forattain- was Navy Representative/Officer-in-Charge at the Asheville, N.C., ing the highest freshman average in the College of Agriculture at National Climate Center. Just prior to joining NWS, he was Officer- Cornell University that year. He is a Cooperative Rainfall Observer in-Charge of the Naval Weather Service Environmental Detachment for the U.S. Geological Survey, University of Houston campus, and at Patuxent River, Md. a Past-President and Past-Secretary of the AMS Houston Chapter. Graves is a Certified Consulting Meteorologist.

Thomas E. Rosmond and Edward H. Barker of the Numerical Model- 1 Members are encouraged to submit news items on themselves or ing (NuMod) Department, Naval Environmental Prediction Re- colleagues that will be of interest to fellow members. Copy should be search Facility, Monterey, Calif., recently were awarded quality step typed double-spaced; photos accompanying news items should be increases in recognition of their work supporting development of the black and white.—News Ed. prototype Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System

Bulletin American Meteorological Society 525

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(NOGAPS), a forecast model that represents the Navy's premier amateur radio operator since 1931, has been devoting more time to entry into numerical weather prediction on a global scale. Rosmond, this hobby since his retirement. He also has returned to commercial head of the NuMod group, was cited additionally for guiding his de- photography, which he pursued before joining the WeatherService. partment to a "position of eminence" in numerical modeling of at- McLeod continues to live with his wife, Christine, at 1600 S. Summit mospheric analysis/prediction systems since NuMod was founded at Ave., Sioux Falls, S.D. 57105. the Facility four years ago. Barker, a research meteorologist, was cited for developing a number of innovative programs and pro- gramming tools that substantially improve and extend NOGAPS capabilities while effectively conserving computer resources. Norman C. Thomas retired last year from federal service; he had been Lead Forecast- er at the NWS Honolulu, Hawaii, forecast office. Thomas served as an officer in the Robert J. Schmidli recently was selected as U.S. Navy from April 1943 through June Supervising Meteorological Technician at 1956. He joined the Weather Service in the NWS Forecast Office in Phoenix, Ariz. October of that same year at what was then He previously was Weather Service Spe- the National Weather Analysis Center at cialist at that station. Schmidli has been Suitland, Md. He transferred to the NWS with NWS for more than 41 years, the last Pacific Region in 1963 as Meteorologist-in- 20 in the NWS Western Region. He is a Charge of Wake Island, holding that posi- recipient of the Department of Commerce tion until reassignment to the Honolulu office as Lead Forecaster in Bronze Medal (1969) and has received nu- October 1972. Thomas received seven NWS outstanding perfor- merous awards and commendations from mance ratings between 1962 and 1972, and, in 1967, he was the NWS NWS for superior performance of duties. Pacific Region's nominee for "Outstanding Federal Manager." In He is the author of two publications: Weather Extremes and The 1969, he was named "Outstanding Male Federal Employee." In Climate of Phoenix, Arizona. 1970, Thomas' work again was recognized, this time by the Depart- ment of Commerce with a Bronze Medal for superior leadership. Since retirement, Thomas has continued his interest in jogging, and Stephen H. Schneider is now Head of the Visitors Program and during his running career has completed the 26-mi Honolulu Mara- Deputy Director of the Advanced Study Program at the National thon twice. He now maintains his own business, "Thomas' Ap- Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) in Boulder, Colo. In this pliance Repair." new capacity, he is involved with impact activities of NCAR's Envi- ronmental and Societal Impacts Group, in addition to his postdoc- toral fellowship and graduate research assistantship responsibilities. Schneider, who holds the Ph.D. (1971) from Columbia University, New York City, was appointed in 1980 to,the U.S. National Climate about our corporation members Program Advisory Committee. Environmental Research and Technology, Inc. {ERT) of Concord, Mass., recently was awarded a contract by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to develop a model for assessing the impact of Malcolm C. Stewart, an NWS Cooperative Observer at Ashburham, biogenic emissions (emissions produced by vegetation and other liv- Mass., recently received an NWS Thomas Jefferson Award, one of ing organisms) on urban and rural air quality. The ERT study will six awarded by NWS during 1980. The Thomas Jefferson Award was focus on the role of biogenic hydrocarbons in the formation of created by the Weather Service in 1959 to honor Volunteer Weather ozone. Observers for unusual and outstanding achievement and is the high- est award NWS presents to volunteer observers. Stewart received his award during a joint meeting of the AMS Greater Boston Chapter and the Massachusetts Maritime Educators. The broadcasting of shortwave radio weather station KD089 at Saint Louis University (SLU), Mo., is continuing due to a $77 556 grant awarded to the Geophysics Department at the university. The grant was given by the U.S. Department of Commerce through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in cooperation with NWS. The station is operated by meteorology students from both SLU and Parks College 24 h a day from the Weather Service retirements bureau in St. Peters, Mo. The station provides weather information for areas of both Missouri and Illinois.

W. BruceMcLeodretired in June 1980 after more than 34 years of federal service, which included civilian service with both the U.S. System Development Corporation (SDC) of Santa Monica, Calif., Air Force and the U.S. Justice Depart- recently was awarded a $5.5 million contract to provide a Meteoro- ment. McLeod entered the WeatherService logical Data Utilization Center for the government of India. The en- in January 1956 as a Meteorological Aide tire system wil be developed and integrated in Santa Monica, with at the Sioux Falls, S.D., weather office. His final installation and testing beginning in India in about a year. The entire career in weather was spent at the new center will be a ground station that will process and distribute Sioux Falls office, where he was Supervi- data from India's weather satellite to its user community. The data sory Forecaster at the time of his retire- also will be used to provide monsoon forecasting to aid in con- ment. McLeod, who has been a licensed trol and disaster prevention. •

Unauthenticated | Downloaded 10/08/21 08:59 PM UTC Announcing the New Low Cost ECH0S0NDE®lll The ECHOSONDE III is a third-generation Doppler Acoustic Sounding System based on years of field- Features proven experience. It is capable of remotely sensing • Total digital processing and display horizontal and vertical winds to 500 meters, as well • Monostatic or bistatic configurations as thermal or mixing structures to 1500 meters. • Competitively-priced digital backscatter including vertical wind component • Ground-based or trailer-mounted antennas • New advanced 32-bit DART III processing system • Low cost flexible disk or magnetic tape storage • Adaptive noise rejection capability • Signal-to-noise ratio thresholding for maximum altitude coverage • Audible output using digital speech synthesizer

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