Oikos OIK-02296
Ferger, S. W., Dulle, H. I., Schleuning, M. and Böhning- Gaese, K: 2015. Frugivore diversity increases frugivory rates along a large elevational gradient. – Oikos doi: 10.1111/oik.02296
Appendix 1. Map of Mt Kilimanjaro showing the location of the 64 study plots in 13 different habitat types. Appendix 2. List of all 187 bird species that were observed, their average body mass and their feeding guild. Appendix 3. Effect of bird abundance/richness and fruit color on the proportion of pecked vs. unpecked artificial fruits without controlling for vertical vegetation heterogeneity and natural fruit abundance. Appendix 4. Effect of vertical vegetation heterogeneity, natural fruit abundance and fruit color on the proportion of pecked versus unpecked artificial fruits.
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Appendix 1 Map of Mount Kilimanjaro showing the location of the 64 study plots in 13 different habitat types. The near-natural habitat types are savannah (sav), lower montane forest (flm), Ocotea forest (foc), Podocarpus forest (fpo), Erica forest (fer) and Helichrysum scrub (hel). The disturbed habitat types are maize field (mai), Chagga homegarden (hom), shaded coffee plantation (cof), unshaded coffee plantation (sun), grassland (gra), disturbed Ocotea forest (fod) and disturbed Podocarpus forest (fpd). Each habitat type is represented by five replicate plots, except for the unshaded coffee plantation, which is covered by four replicate plots. One of these five (respectively four) plots per habitat type is used as ‘focal plot’ (yellow squares) for especially labor-intensive studies like the artificial fruits experiment presented in this study. As background map, we used the National Geographic World Map developed by National Geographic and Esri (
2 Appendix 2 List of all 187 bird species that were observed during the point counts (see methods for details), their average body mass and their feeding guild. We calculated the average body mass across both sexes from data given in the CRC handbook of avian body masses (Dunning Jr. 2008). In cases where no means were provided, we calculated the average of minimum and maximum values. Where possible, we used data on Kilimanjaro or African subspecies or populations. ¥ indicates species that where not listed in Dunning Jr. (2008) and for which we used sister species instead (only one case: pale wren warbler Calamonastes undosus for grey wren warbler Calamonastes simplex). We classified the bird species as obligate frugivores (‘ob’, fruits are the only major food item), partial frugivores (‘pa’, other major food items besides fruits), opportunistic frugivores (‘op’, feeding only occasionally on fruits) and non-frugivorous (‘no’, not feeding on fruits) on the basis of a detailed literature survey on their major and minor food items (Kissling et al. 2007). Species are ordered by feeding guild first and taxonomy second.
Common name Scientific name Family Mass Frugivory African green-pigeon Treron calva Columbidae 198.5 ob Eastern bronze-naped pigeon Columba delegorguei Columbidae 133.0 ob Hartlaub's turaco Tauraco hartlaubi Musophagidae 224.0 ob Speckled mousebird Colius striatus Coliidae 51.1 ob Silvery-cheeked hornbill Bycanistes brevis Bucerotidae 1235.0 ob Moustached green tinkerbird Pogoniulus leucomystax Capitonidae 11.8 ob Red-fronted tinkerbird Pogoniulus pusillus Capitonidae 9.6 ob Spot-flanked barbet Tricholaema lacrymosa Capitonidae 22.9 ob Common bulbul Pycnonotus barbatus Pycnonotidae 38.9 ob Mountain greenbul Andropadus nigriceps Pycnonotidae 35.2 ob Zanzibar sombre greenbul Andropadus importunus Pycnonotidae 27.4 ob Kenrick's starling Poeoptera kenricki Sturnidae 46.8 ob Violet-backed starling Cinnyricinclus leucogaster Sturnidae 44.0 ob Sharpe's starling Cinnyricinclus sharpii Sturnidae 44.5 ob Abbott's starling Cinnyricinclus femoralis Sturnidae 34.0 ob Yellow-spotted petronia Petronia pyrgita Passeridae 24.1 ob Scaly francolin Francolinus squamatus Phasianidae 457.3 pa Olive pigeon Columba arquatrix Columbidae 400.0 pa Tambourine dove Turtur tympanistria Columbidae 67.7 pa Lemon dove Aplopelia larvata Columbidae 155.0 pa African orange-bellied parrot Poicephalus rufiventris Psittacidae 120.0 pa Red-fronted parrot Poicephalus gulielmi Psittacidae 275.0 pa White-bellied go-away-bird Corythaixoides leucogaster Musophagidae 217.0 pa Crowned hornbill Tockus alboterminatus Bucerotidae 224.5 pa White-eared barbet Stactolaema leucotis Capitonidae 54.9 pa Brown-breasted barbet Lybius melanopterus Capitonidae 52.4 pa
3 Stripe-cheeked greenbul Andropadus milanjensis Pycnonotidae 37.4 pa Northern brownbul Phyllastrephus strepitans Pycnonotidae 27.1 pa White-starred robin Pogonocichla stellata Turdidae 18.6 pa Cape robin-chat Cossypha caffra Turdidae 28.5 pa Olive thrush Turdus olivaceus Turdidae 61.4 pa Abyssinian ground-thrush Zoothera piaggiae Turdidae 51.1 pa Common whitethroat Sylvia communis Sylviidae 15.1 pa Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla Sylviidae 16.7 pa Montane white-eye Zosterops poliogaster Zosteropidae 11.0 pa Olive sunbird Nectarinia olivacea Nectariniidae 9.9 pa Collared sunbird Hedydipna collaris Nectariniidae 7.4 pa African black-headed oriole Oriolus larvatus Oriolidae 66.1 pa Red-winged starling Onychognathus morio Sturnidae 133.0 pa Waller's starling Onychognathus walleri Sturnidae 87.8 pa Greater blue-eared starling Lamprotornis chalybaeus Sturnidae 86.5 pa Wattled starling Creatophora cinerea Sturnidae 73.1 pa Black-headed weaver Ploceus cucullatus Ploceidae 36.2 pa Red-headed weaver Anaplectes rubriceps Ploceidae 22.6 pa Grey-headed negrofinch Nigrita canicapilla Estrildidae 18.7 pa African citril Serinus citrinelloides Fringillidae 12.8 pa Long-crested eagle Lophaetus occipitalis Accipitridae 1067.0 op Crested francolin Francolinus sephaena Phasianidae 341.5 op Speckled pigeon Columba guinea Columbidae 352.0 op Ring-necked dove Streptopelia capicola Columbidae 142.0 op Red-eyed dove Streptopelia semitorquata Columbidae 176.0 op African mourning dove Streptopelia decipiens Columbidae 134.0 op Laughing dove Streptopelia senegalensis Columbidae 101.0 op Dusky turtle dove Streptopelia lugens Columbidae 155.0 op Klaas's cuckoo Chrysococcyx klaas Cuculidae 27.4 op African emerald cuckoo Chrysococcyx cupreus Cuculidae 37.7 op Red-billed hornbill Tockus erythrorhynchus Bucerotidae 139.0 op Von der Decken's hornbill Tockus deckeni Bucerotidae 170.0 op African grey hornbill Tockus nasutus Bucerotidae 165.5 op Greater honeyguide Indicator indicator Indicatoridae 50.4 op Eastern honeybird Prodotiscus zambesiae Indicatoridae 10.2 op Cardinal woodpecker Dendropicos fuscescens Picidae 26.0 op Lesser striped swallow Hirundo abyssinica Hirundinidae 13.5 op Barn swallow Hirundo rustica Hirundinidae 20.4 op Tree pipit Anthus trivialis Motacillidae 23.4 op Cabanis's greenbul Phyllastrephus cabanisi Pycnonotidae 34.5 op Common rock-thrush Monticola saxatilis Turdidae 50.3 op Common stonechat Saxicola torquata Turdidae 15.5 op Northern wheatear Oenanthe oenanthe Turdidae 23.2 op Pied wheatear Oenanthe pleschanka Turdidae 19.4 op Spotted morning-thrush Cichladusa guttata Turdidae 46.3 op Olivaceous warbler Hippolais pallida Sylviidae 9.0 op
4 Grey-backed camaroptera Camaroptera brachyura Sylviidae 9.3 op Yellow-breasted apalis Apalis flavida Sylviidae 8.2 op Bar-throated apalis Apalis thoracica Sylviidae 12.1 op White-eyed Slaty flycatcher Melaenornis fischeri Muscicapidae 23.8 op Pale flycatcher Bradornis pallidus Muscicapidae 23.6 op Spotted flycatcher Muscicapa striata Muscicapidae 15.9 op African dusky flycatcher Muscicapa adusta Muscicapidae 10.4 op African Paradise-flycatcher Terpsiphone viridis Monarchidae 13.3 op African hill-babbler Pseudoalcippe abyssinica Timaliidae 18.8 op Arrow-marked babbler Turdoides jardineii Timaliidae 78.2 op Hunter's sunbird Chalcomitra hunteri Nectariniidae 11.8 op Long-tailed fiscal Lanius cabanisi Laniidae 73.9 op Black-backed puffback Dryoscopus cubla Malaconotidae 26.3 op Black-crowned tchagra Tchagra senegala Malaconotidae 53.5 op Northern white-crowned shrike Eurocephalus rueppelli Prionopidae 50.7 op White-crested helmet-shrike Prionops plumatus Prionopidae 33.8 op Superb starling Lamprotornis superbus Sturnidae 64.9 op Grey-headed sparrow Passer griseus Passeridae 28.3 op White-headed buffalo-weaver Dinemellia dinemelli Ploceidae 63.9 op Red-billed buffalo-weaver Bubalornis niger Ploceidae 76.4 op Lesser masked weaver Ploceus intermedius Ploceidae 20.6 op Baglafecht weaver Ploceus baglafecht Ploceidae 31.6 op Rufous-backed mannikin Lonchura bicolor Estrildidae 9.9 op Yellow-fronted canary Serinus mozambicus Fringillidae 10.6 op Streaky seedeater Serinus striolatus Fringillidae 22.4 op Oriole-finch Linurgus olivaceus Fringillidae 20.3 op Hadada ibis Bostrychia hagedash Threskiornithidae 1238.0 no Gabar goshawk Micronisus gabar Accipitridae 177.5 no Augur buzzard Buteo augur Accipitridae 1110.0 no Mountain buzzard Buteo oreophilus Accipitridae 700.0 no Hildebrandt's francolin Francolinus hildebrandti Phasianidae 538.5 no Emerald-spotted wood-dove Turtur chalcospilos Columbidae 60.6 no Blue-spotted wood-dove Turtur afer Columbidae 65.6 no White-browed coucal Centropus superciliosus Cuculidae 130.0 no African wood owl Strix woodfordii Strigidae 350.0 no Spotted eagle-owl Bubo africanus Strigidae 645.0 no Alpine swift Apus melba Apodidae 76.0 no Scarce swift Schoutedenapus myoptilus Apodidae 23.5 no Bar-tailed Trogon Apaloderma vittatum Trogonidae 55.0 no Striped kingfisher Halcyon chelicuti Alcedinidae 44.5 no Brown-hooded kingfisher Halcyon albiventris Alcedinidae 65.1 no African pygmy kingfisher Ispidina picta Alcedinidae 14.2 no Little bee-eater Merops pusillus Meropidae 15.1 no Cinnamon-chested bee-eater Merops oreobates Meropidae 24.1 no Lilac-breasted roller Coracias caudata Coraciidae 110.0 no Nubian woodpecker Campethera nubica Picidae 59.7 no
5 Golden-tailed woodpecker Campethera abingoni Picidae 68.5 no Olive woodpecker Dendropicos griseocephalus Picidae 41.0 no Flappet lark Mirafra rufocinnamomea Alaudidae 26.3 no Rock martin Hirundo fuligula Hirundinidae 21.1 no Common house martin Delichon urbica Hirundinidae 14.5 no Red-rumped swallow Hirundo daurica Hirundinidae 22.2 no Black saw-wing Psalidoprocne holomelas Hirundinidae 11.2 no African pied wagtail Motacilla aguimp Motacillidae 27.0 no Mountain wagtail Motacilla clara Motacillidae 17.9 no Grassland pipit Anthus cinnamomeus Motacillidae 27.0 no Long-billed pipit Anthus similis Motacillidae 25.3 no Rüppell's robin-chat Cossypha semirufa Turdidae 27.3 no Alpine chat Cercomela sordida Turdidae 21.0 no Mountain yellow warbler Chloropeta similis Sylviidae 11.1 no Cinnamon bracken warbler Bradypterus cinnamomeus Sylviidae 17.4 no Evergreen forest warbler Bradypterus lopezi Sylviidae 18.9 no Willow warbler Phylloscopus trochilus Sylviidae 8.7 no Brown woodland warbler Phylloscopus umbrovirens Sylviidae 8.6 no Red-faced crombec Sylvietta whytii Sylviidae 9.9 no Winding cisticola Cisticola galactotes Sylviidae 14.6 no Hunter's cisticola Cisticola hunteri Sylviidae 15.5 no Trilling cisticola Cisticola woosnami Sylviidae 13.5 no Tawny-flanked prinia Prinia subflava Sylviidae 8.7 no Grey wren-warbler Calamonastes simplex Sylviidae 13.0¥ no Black-headed apalis Apalis melanocephala Sylviidae 8.8 no African grey flycatcher Bradornis microrhynchus Muscicapidae 19.5 no Chin-spot batis Batis molitor Platysteiridae 11.7 no Forest batis Batis mixta Platysteiridae 12.2 no Blue-mantled crested-flycatcher Trochocercus cyanomelas Monarchidae 10.2 no Abyssinian white-eye Zosterops abyssinicus Zosteropidae 7.8 no Bronze sunbird Nectarinia kilimensis Nectariniidae 15.7 no Tacazze sunbird Nectarinia tacazze Nectariniidae 14.9 no Scarlet-tufted malachite sunbird Nectarinia johnstoni Nectariniidae 15.2 no Eastern double-collared sunbird Nectarinia mediocris Nectariniidae 8.2 no Amethyst sunbird Nectarinia amethystina Nectariniidae 13.7 no Scarlet-chested sunbird Chalcomitra senegalensis Nectariniidae 14.0 no Beautiful sunbird Cinnyris pulchella Nectariniidae 7.1 no Variable sunbird Cinnyris venusta Nectariniidae 6.7 no Common fiscal Lanius collaris Laniidae 40.8 no Isabelline shrike Lanius isabellinus Laniidae 25.2 no Tropical boubou Laniarius aethiopicus Malaconotidae 48.7 no Brown-crowned tchagra Tchagra australis Malaconotidae 32.3 no Sulphur-breasted bush-shrike Malaconotus sulfureopectus Malaconotidae 27.1 no Black-fronted bush-shrike Malaconotus nigrifrons Malaconotidae 34.8 no Fork-tailed drongo Dicrurus adsimilis Dicruridae 40.3 no Pied crow Corvus albus Corvidae 524.0 no
6 Rufous sparrow Passer rufocinctus Passeridae 27.8 no White-browed sparrow-weaver Plocepasser mahali Ploceidae 39.1 no Chestnut weaver Ploceus rubiginosus Ploceidae 30.2 no Taveta golden weaver Ploceus castaneiceps Ploceidae 18.5 no Red-billed quelea Quelea quelea Ploceidae 18.6 no Yellow bishop Euplectes capensis Ploceidae 30.6 no White-winged widowbird Euplectes albonotatus Ploceidae 21.2 no Abyssinian crimsonwing Cryptospiza salvadorii Estrildidae 12.2 no Red-cheeked Cordon-bleu Uraeginthus bengalus Estrildidae 9.9 no Red-billed firefinch Lagonosticta senegala Estrildidae 8.3 no Jameson's firefinch Lagonosticta rhodopareia Estrildidae 9.3 no Yellow-bellied waxbill Estrilda quartinia Estrildidae 6.7 no Bronze mannikin Lonchura cucullata Estrildidae 9.0 no Cut-throat finch Amadina fasciata Estrildidae 18.0 no Eastern paradise-whydah Vidua paradisaea Estrildidae 20.4 no Pin-tailed whydah Vidua macroura Estrildidae 15.8 no Straw-tailed whydah Vidua fischeri Estrildidae 12.3 no Village indigobird Vidua chalybeata Estrildidae 12.5 no Yellow-crowned canary Serinus canicollis Fringillidae 14.0 no Yellow-rumped seedeater Serinus reichenowi Fringillidae 10.9 no Cinnamon-breasted rock bunting Emberiza tahapisi Emberizidae 13.7 no African golden-breasted bunting Emberiza flaviventris Emberizidae 18.3 no Somali golden-breasted bunting Emberiza poliopleura Emberizidae 15.8 no
Reference Dunning Jr., J. B. 2008. CRC handbook of avian body masses. – Taylor and Francis.
7 Appendix 3 Effect of bird abundance/richness (x) and fruit color (color) on the proportion of pecked versus unpecked artificial fruits without controlling for vertical vegetation heterogeneity and natural fruit abundance as in Table 2. Given are the standardized conditionally averaged estimates and their unconditional standard errors, the relative variable importance in the set of best models (ΔAICc ≤ 2) and the standardized fully averaged estimates, as well as the number of models (# models) in the set of best models and their cumulative AICc weight in the full model set of 4 candidate models per analysis. Estimates of predictor variables with a statistically significant effect (+ p < 0.1, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001) are highlighted in bold font. Standardized parameter estimates No. Σ AICc Parameter of interest (x) x color‡ models weights Obligate frugivore abundance 1 0.57 standardized estimate (cond. av. ) 0.78* 0.26* unconditional SE 0.36 0.12 relative variable importance 1.00 1.00 standardized estimate (full av. ) 0.78 0.26 Obligate frugivore richness 2 0.76 standardized estimate (cond. av. ) 0.76* 0.26* unconditional SE 0.38 0.12 relative variable importance 0.68 1.00 standardized estimate (full av. ) 0.52 0.26 Obligate + partial frugivore abundance 1 0.56 standardized estimate (cond. av. ) n.a. 0.26* unconditional SE n.a. 0.12 relative variable importance 0.00 1.00 standardized estimate (full av. ) n.a. 0.26 Obligate + partial frugivore richness 1 0.56 standardized estimate (cond. av. ) n.a. 0.26* unconditional SE n.a. 0.12 relative variable importance 0.00 1.00 standardized estimate (full av. ) n.a. 0.26 Obligate + partial + opportunistic frugivore abundance 2 0.76 standardized estimate (cond. av. ) 0.50 0.26* unconditional SE 0.35 0.12 relative variable importance 0.49 1.00 standardized estimate (full av. ) 0.25 0.26 Obligate + partial + opportunistic frugivore richness 2 0.76 standardized estimate (cond. av. ) 0.39 0.26* unconditional SE 0.45 0.12 relative variable importance 0.34 1.00 standardized estimate (full av. ) 0.13 0.26 ‡ given are the parameter estimates for red and violet artificial fruits (which do not differ) compared to black fruits
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Appendix 4a Effect of vertical vegetation heterogeneity, natural fruit abundance and fruit color on the proportion of pecked versus unpecked artificial fruits. Given are the standardized conditionally averaged estimates and their unconditional standard errors, the relative variable importance in the set of best models (ΔAICc ≤ 2) and the standardized fully averaged estimates, as well as the number of models in the set of best models and their cumulative AICc weight in the full model set of 8 candidate models per analysis. Estimates of predictor variables with a statistically significant effect * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01) are highlighted in bold font.
Standardized parameter estimates No. Σ AICc Parameter of interest (x) x x² color‡ models weights Vertical vegetation heterogeneity 4 0.76 standardized estimate (cond. av. ) 0.72 –1.49 0.26* unconditional SE 2.26 1.97 0.12 relative variable importance 0.36 0.41 1.00 standardized estimate (full av. ) 0.26 –0.61 0.26 Natural fruit abundance 1 0.47 standardized estimate (cond. av. ) 3.55** –3.23** 0.26* unconditional SE 1.37 1.21 0.12 relative variable importance 1.00 1.00 1.00 standardized estimate (full av. ) 3.55 –3.23 0.26 ‡ given are the estimates for red and violet artificial fruits (which do not differ) compared to black fruits
Appendix 4b Pecked artificial fruits (%) in dependence of vertical vegetation heterogeneity (a) and natural fruit abundance (b) on Mt Kilimanjaro. For visual purposes the figures show the fitted values of the ‘cluster’-based GLMMs (Appendix 4a) averaged per habitat type, season and color (± SE). Note that slight noise (1/100 of axis length) has been introduced into the data to avoid completely overlapping points. Solid lines represent significant and dashed lines non-significant relationships between the respective predictor variable and the proportion of pecked versus unpecked artificial fruits.
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