LICE-WCSNE-2020-Proceedings.Pdf

Virtual Conference November 23-25 | 2020 London | UK

Message from the Steering Committee

Welcome to the LICE and WCSNE. The London International Conference on Education (LICE-2020) and World Congress on Special Needs Education (WCSNE-2020) are collocated conferences. The double- blind paper review method was adopted to evaluate each of the conference’s submissions and their specific research contribution to the knowledge domain within the subject matter.

Due to COVID-19, the LICE and WCSNE 2020 will be hosted online. The "New Normal" way of life is changing the whole concept of our well-being. The reality of our research capability has been called to question, our quick response to any changes that can affect our existence as academicians and professionals, most especially what we can collectively contribute to the knowledge domain within our research areas now depend mostly on online resources. Please note that selected papers will be invited for publications in high impact International Journals and Book Chapters.

The Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4 show all the submissions received and accepted per conference:

Table 1. Abstracts

Conferences Countries Abstracts First Peer Accepted Submissions Review Review Abstracts LICE 61 109 31 24 14 WCSNE 27 68 32 11 5

Table 2. Extended Abstracts

Conferences Countries Extended First Peer Accepted Abstracts Review Review Extended Submissions Abstracts LICE 18 36 31 25 19 WCSNE 15 27 19 13 10

Table 3. Full Papers

Conferences Countries Initial Paper First Peer Accepted Submissions Review Review Papers LICE 29 36 32 16 15 WCSNE 16 37 14 11 6

Table 4. Speakers Proposal

Conferences Countries Speakers First Peer Accepted Proposal Review Review Speakers Submissions Proposal LICE 36 46 36 22 17 WCSNE 21 34 17 5 2

Many people have worked extremely hard to make this conference possible. We would like to thank all who have helped in making the LICE and WCSNE 2020 a success. The Steering Committee and reviewers each deserve credit for their excellent job. We thank the authors and participants who have contributed to each of the conferences and all our Session Speakers. We would also like to acknowledge our appreciation to the following organisations for their sponsorship and support: Infonomics Society and

Canadian Teacher Magazine. The long-term goal of the LICE and WCSNE is to build a reputation and respectable collocated conferences for the international community.

The Steering Committee members would like to encourage you to contribute to the future of LICE and WCSNE as authors, speakers, panellists, workshop organisers, participants and volunteers. We wish you a pleasant virtual conference and London tour. Please feel free to exchange ideas with other colleagues while online or after the conference.

Professor Charles A. Shoniregun LICE and WCSNE Steering Committee Chair

Table of Contents

Message from the Steering Committee Chair 3

Table of Contents 5

LICE-2020 Programme Committees 9

Speakers’ Sessions 11

Speakers’ Session 1 12

Title: A Global Crisis Transforming Teaching from Didactic to Online Overnight 13 Author: Ismini Vasileiou DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0001

Title: Co-Labs – An Approach to Professionalize Vocational Education Teachers 14 Authors: Valentina Conty, Nina Langen DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0002

Title: Teaching TALL: Developing Critical Consciousness in Teaching and Learning 16 Authors: Jennifer T. Stephens, Laura M. Pipe DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0003

Title: The Implementation and Application of Best Practices for Online Teaching 18 Author: Paula F. Jordan DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0004

Title: Interpreting Results from Research Study of Urban Schools to Inform Program Changes 22 Authors: M. Kathleen L. Cripe, Kenneth L. Miller, Crystal Ratican, Susan M. Miller DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0005

Speaker's Session 2 24

Title: Quality and Equity Issues in Kazakhstani Rural Schools 25 Authors: Mir Afzal Tajik, Duishon Shamatov, Lyudmila Fillipova DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0006

Title: The School Yard as an Educational Opportunity – Introducing a Practical Course for Pre-Service 30 Primary School Teachers Author: Mika Leon-Beck DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0007

Title: Goal-oriented Teaching Method – The Way of Maintaining the Quality of Education for Both Online 31 and F2F Author: Tongpil Min DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0008

Title: “Batman Can’t Wear a Skirt - He’s a Boy!” - An Investigation into how Children’s Drawings are 32 Influenced by Gender, Race and Sexuality Stereotyping Presented in Superhero Media Author: Chloe Keegan DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0009

Title: Adjusting to CoVid 19 33 Authors: Pam Epler, Twyla Williams-Damond DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0010

Title: Learn to Publish with the Greatest of Ease 35 Organiser: Barba A. Patton DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0011

Sessions 36

Session 1: Pedagogy and Psychology 37

Title: Social Representations on the Concept of Formation of Higher Education Teachers in México 38 Author: Elí Orlando Lozano González DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0012

Title: A Challenge for Engineering Students in the Context of the Industry 4.0 44 Authors: Pascal Vrignat, Estelle Courtial DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0013

Title: A Review on the Use of Writing Outlines as Part of Study Habits to Increase Academic Performance 50 of the Students Author: Shara May T. Espinol DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0014

Title: A Triadic Model of Regulated Learning Perspectives 53 Author: Eman Faisal DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0015

Session 2: Inclusive Education and Practices 55

Title: Role Stress in Adolescents: Differences in Terms of Gender and Employment Status of Mothers 56 Author: Ajit Kaur DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0016

Title: Training Part C Early Intervention Providers to Screen for Autism Spectrum Disorder 61 Authors: Darby Batchelor, Trisha L. Self, Douglas F. Parham DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0017

Title: The Impact of Implementing Words Their Way with an Adolescent Who Uses AAC: A Case Study 65 Authors: Megan Stein, Karissa Marble-Flint, Holli Steiner, Ashly Elliott DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0018

Title: Implementing the Stickwriting Approach: A Case Study of Two Children with Social Communication 69 Challenges Authors: Ana Astoquilca, Karissa Marble-Flint DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0019

Session 3: Learning / Teaching Methodologies and Assessment 74

Title: The Relevance of Using Games for Teaching Figures of Speech in English Language Teaching Class 75 Authors: Abhipriya Roy, Sumanjari S. DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0020

Title: Group-based Assessments in Project Management Higher Education 79 Authors: Roksana Jahan Tumpa, Samer Skaik, Ghulam Chaudhry, Miriam Ham DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0021

Title: Useful Activities for Increasing Awareness in Teacher Education on Satoyama Environmental Learning 86 Using BL Authors: Isao Miyaji, Hirokazu Fukui DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0022

Session 4: Learning / Teaching Methodologies and Teacher Education 92

Title: Metamemories: An Auto-Ethnographic Inquiry of Transformed Memories of Schooling 93 Author: James A. Bernauer DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0023

Title: The Missing Pieces of Nurturing Students’ Needs in Doctoral STEM Mentoring Relationships 102 Authors: Anna Sanczyk, Lisa Merriweather, Niesha Douglas, Cathy Howell DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0024

Title: Teacher Training in the Use and Educational Appropriation of Learning Objects Based on Critical 107 Pedagogy in Education Author: Alfonso Claret Zambrano DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0025

Session 5: Global Issues in Education and Research 112

Title: Healthcare Informatics Technology: A Tool to Improve Rural Healthcare Literacy 113 Authors: Alexis Bain, Emily Reeves, Alistair Fyfe DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0026

Title: Contradicting Learning Environments between Rural and Urban: The case of Malawi: 120 Author: Albert K. M. Y. Kayange DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0027

Title: Latent Class Analysis 128 Author: Diana Mindrila DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0028

Session 6: Cross-disciplinary Areas in Education 135

Title: Dialogue and Saudi Tradition: an empirical case study of religious education at a Saudi university 136 Author: Adel Abubaker Bawazeer DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0029

Title: Critical Theory, Fascism and the 2016 Trump Campaign 137 Author: James Curiel DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0030

Title: Promoting health and well-being of immigrants in Europe. The persective of Human Development and 141 the Capabilities Approach Authors: Gallelli Rosa, Renna Pasquale DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0031

Session 7: Global Issues in Education and Research 143

Title: Critical Reflection and Professional Development: Insights from an Educators’ Community of Practice 144 Authors: Devi Akella, Anna Gibbs, Belinda Gilbert, Brandon Henry, Valerie Lee, Daphine Mathis, Victor Williams DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0032

Title: Higher Education Academic Resilience: The HDR Process – Hurdles, Successes and Opportunities 151 Author: Marie B. Fisher DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0033

Title: Equity Conjectures in a Computer-Science Problem-Solving Focused Collaboration 156 Authors: Kimberley Gomez, Ung-Sang Lee, Amy Berkhoudt Woodman DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0034

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 7 Title: How to Achieve a Constructive Alignment in a Curriculum Underpinned by Conflicting Education Aims 158 Author: Elaine Aaltonen DOI: 10.2053/LICE.2020.0035

LICE-2020 Programme Committees

Steering Committee Chair Charles Shoniregun, Infonomics Society, UK and Ireland

Steering Committees Emmanuel Hooper, Harvard University, USA Cynthia Northington-Purdie, William Paterson University, USA Mona O’Moore, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland Debbie Holley, Bournemouth University, UK Tintswalo V. Manyike, University of South Africa, South Africa

Publicity Chair Galyna Akmayeva, Infonomics Society, UK and Ireland

Conference Coordinator Margaret Smith, Infonomics Society, UK

PhD and Research Student Forum Chairs Robert Foster, University of Wolverhampton, UK Mitra Zibanejad Rad, University of Burgundy, France

Programme Committee Chair Maureen Finlayson, Cape Breton University, Canada

Program Committee Regis Chireshe, College of Education, University of South Africa, South Africa Norma Nel, University of South Africa, South Africa Isao Miyaji, Okayama University of Science, Japan Olaniyi Alaba Sofowora, Obafemi Awolowo University, Nigeria Marta Cabral, Teachers College, Columbia University, USA Lorayne Robertson, University of Ontario Institute of Technology (UOIT), Canada Christopher Kong, Hua Chin University of Tasmania, Australia David M. Chapinski, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, USA Elizabeth Magaret, St. Ann’s College for Women, India Mikhail A. Rodionov, Penza Pedagogical State University, Russia Ahmed Ibrahim Usman, Federal College of Education, Kano, Nigeria Barba Aldis Patton, University of Houston-Victoria, USA Arend E. Carl, Stellenbosch University, South Africa Florence Nkechi Okeke, Imo State University, Nigeria

Zilungile Sosibo, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa Zhanna Dedovets, The University of The West Indies, Trinidad and Tobago Kamla Suleiman Salim Al Aamri, Sultan Qaboos University, Sultanate of Oman Abiodun Popoola, University of Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria Julie A. Holmes, Louisiana Tech University, USA Luyanda Dube, University of South Africa, South Africa Maria Dorota Stec, University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland Veli Jiyane, University of South Africa, South Africa Faten Saad Mahmoud Abdel-Hameed, University of Bahrain, Bahrain Ben John Siyakwazi, Great Zimbabwe University, Zimbabwe Paul Walsh, Cork Institutie of Technology, Ireland Barbara Hong, Penn State University, USA Margarita Elkina, HWR, Germany Emre Erturk, Eastern Institute of Technology, New Zealand Natalia Frolova, Samara State Academy of Social Sciences and Humanities, Russia Ria Hanewald, Deakin University, Australia Zeynep Kızıltepe, Boğaziçi University, Turkey Shradha Kanwar, NIIT University, India Pedro José Canto, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mexico Christian Kahl, Taylor’s University, Malaysia Ismini Vasileiou, De Montfort University, UK Bernard Mulo Farenkia, Cape Breton University, Canada

Speakers' Sessions

Speakers’ Session 1

Title: A Global Crisis Transforming Teaching from Didactic to Online Overnight Author: Ismini Vasileiou

Title: Co-Labs – An Approach to Professionalize Vocational Education Teachers Authors: Valentina Conty, Nina Langen

Title: Teaching TALL: Developing Critical Consciousness in Teaching and Learning Authors: Jennifer T. Stephens, Laura M. Pipe

Title: The Implementation and Application of Best Practices for Online Teaching Author: Paula F. Jordan

Title: Interpreting Results from Research Study of Urban Schools to Inform Program Changes Authors: M. Kathleen L. Cripe, Kenneth L. Miller, Crystal Ratican, Susan M. Miller

A Global Crisis Transforming Teaching from Didactic to Online Overnight

Ismini Vasileiou De Montfort University, UK

Abstract

2020 has a been a year of rapid transformations and the Education 4.0 impact is evident across the globe. But why did Institutions not see it coming? How did Institutions manage to transform within days or hours their offer and their learning spaces? Academia has been promoting online and blended learning for quite some time. Still, even in 2020, the majority of academic staff would teach in the traditional didactic approach of using lectures. Despite the fact that data and research evidence the need of teaching in unique and adaptable way, Institutions have failed to embrace 100% the pedagogical importance of adapting content, approaches and outcomes to the unique needs of individuals. Then the pandemic hit us globally. Overnight, all HE Institutions were able to transfer all teaching and learning activities online. Suddenly the platforms they have invested money on, transformed from a repository of documents, to an interactive space. So how did Institutions achieve this? Why did we need a global crisis to revamp our approaches, understand the diverse background of our students and tailor the activities not based on Institutional KPIs, but course needs and student needs? Institutions managed well this transformation, but this has also brought possibly greater problems too. We see the digital divide growing and education becoming accessible by the elite. The talk will draw upon experiences from HE Institutions, provoke thinking and further strategic developments in an attempt to develop learning spaces for all with emphasis on equal and inclusive opportunities.

Co-Labs – An Approach to Professionalize Vocational Education Teachers

Valentina Conty, Nina Langen Department of Education for Sustainable Nutrition and Food Science Technische Universität Berlin Germany

The German vocational education and training system (VET) is highly acknowledged due to its combination of theory mainly taught in specialized schools and practical work embedded in the real-life working environment of a company. The main characteristic of this dual system is the cooperation between companies and publicly funded vocational schools. The OECD specifically highlights the strong practical relevance of vocational training and the associated smooth transition from school to working life as a solid foundation for those trained in the VET system [1]. Nevertheless, the attractiveness of VET decreased during recent years and the young generation tends to follow general higher education programs in Germany. This may be one of the reasons, why the number of profession-aspirants decreased in the last years [2]. Several strategies are in place to counteract this development, targeting the young generation, companies, and vocational schools. Concerning the quality of the vocational school, this depends on the teachers to an extended degree. Hence, the professionalization of future teachers is an essential and crucial factor. Teacher education for VET teachers in Germany takes place in universities. There, future teachers are trained to design differentiated, action-oriented lessons. So far, this is rarely done in an interdisciplinary manner. The aim of the study program is that the students can help their future trainees to adequately master their everyday working life and to empower trainees to lead a sustainable lifestyle and to transfer those values [3]. Current challenges for vocational education are not only the increased diversification of jobs on the labor market but also a new focus on inclusive education, sustainability, and digitalization in teacher education [4]. Students are aware of the discrepancy between the material taught in school and the issues of interest, the real-life working requirements to the apprentices in the companies [5]. This difference might lead to unrealistic expectancy from vocational trainees regarding their training professions, reduction of VET prestige, and may be one of the reasons why the drop-out rate in 2018 raised to 25% in Germany [6]. To overcome the outlined challenges, we currently have implemented and evaluate a novel approach to teacher education at Technical University Berlin. In Cooperation Laboratories (Co-Labs), the university and several companies provide an integrated learning environment during the first phase of teacher education [7]. Based on the hypothesis that Co-Labs support the acquisition of professional knowledge and skills by designing teaching-learning situations and school tasks through practical cooperation, we developed a curriculum with distinct skill progressions. In this program, students gain experience with operational requirement situations in companies, identify up-to-date occupation- specific competencies, which they later integrate into their lesson plans and receive feedback from a multi-professional team of experts. In our talk, we outline current challenges for VET from an internationally comparative perspective and show how universities can contribute to the professionalization of vocational education teachers with the Co-Lab approach.

References

[1] Fazekas, M.; Field, S. (2013). A Skills beyond School Review of Germany, OECD Reviews of Vocational Education and Training, OECD Publishing.

[2] Federal Institute of Vocational Education and Training [BIBB] (2018): Datenreport zum Berufsbildungsbericht. Informationen und Analysen zur Entwicklung der beruflichen Bildung [Data Report on the Report on Vocational Education and Training. Information and Analyses on the Development of Vocational Education and Training]. Bonn.

[3] Roche, J.; Terrasi-Haufe, E. (2016): Sprachlernort Berufsschule: Aktuelle Entwicklungen in Bayern [Language Learning at Vocational Schools: Current Developments in Bavaria]. BWP Berufsbildung in Wissenschaft und Praxis 2016.

[4] Drahmann, M. (2020). Teacher Education in Germany: A Holistic View of Structure, Curriculum, Development and Challenges. In Pushpanadham, K. (Eds.) Teacher Education in the Global Era. Springer.

[5] Grundmann, S. et al. (2018): Vorschläge zur Überwindung des Theorie-Praxis- Gap in der universitären Ausbildung der beruflichen Fachrichtung Ernährung und Hauswirtschaft [Proposals for Overcoming the Gap between Theory and Practice in University Education in the Professional Specialisation of Nutrition and Home Economics]. HiBiFo 7.

[6] Federal Ministry of Education and Research [BMBF] (2020). Berufsbildungsbericht 2020 [Report on Vocational Training 2020]. Rostock.

[7] Grundmann, S.; Langen, N. (2019). Praxiskooperationen in der Lehrkräftebildung als Beitrag für ein gutes Leben [Practice Cooperation in Teacher Education as a Contribution to a Good Life]. HaBiFo-Tagung 2019. Berlin.

Teaching TALL: Developing Critical Consciousness in Teaching and Learning

Jennifer T. Stephens, Laura M. Pipe UNC Greensboro, USA

Abstract

In today’s socio-political climate, a justice- concept of the Learning Spirit, Tanaka’s [8] approach forward approach would ask that educators blend to trust and tender resistance, Yosso’s [9] model of equity pedagogy, culturally-responsive pedagogy, cultural wealth, King’s [3] steps for nonviolent direct and experiential approaches into the learning action, and Moon’s [4, 5, 6] process of learning environment. In this session, the speakers took reflection and meaning-making, the model charts a educators, curriculum writers, and faculty developers process for learning that disrupts traditional through the TALLS (Toward a Liberated Learning colonizing teaching practices toward direct action and Spirit) Model for Developing Critical Consciousness. liberated learning. TALLS blends Martin Luther King, Jr.’s Six Steps of Nonviolent Social Change with the sustained wisdom 2. Objective and Motivation of North American Indigenous learning practices, cultural wealth frameworks, and traditionally- Today’s polarized socio-political environments considered equity approaches. Through a series of require educators to think intentionally about how transferable activities and guided reflection, pedagogical design can move learners from the participants pushed the understanding of intellectual development of individual critical consciousness curiosity to one of curiosity for change. toward direct action and a liberated understanding of shared fate. Critical and liberation pedagogies have 1. Scope evolved in response to pivotal social change movements that require intellectual resistance through Traditionally, the structural inequalities consciousness raising but often lack justice-forward proliferating the socio-political environments that action. Pipe and Stephens [7] have developed the shape learning interactions have been met with TALLS (Toward a Liberated Learning Spirit) model justice-seeking approaches. These approaches are for developing critical consciousness, which blends often ill-defined and lack engagement with the direct Martin Luther King, Jr.’s [3] Six Steps of Nonviolent action required for true social change [2]. For Social Change with the sustained wisdom of educators, the process of moving the learning social Indigenous learning practices, cultural wealth consciousness forward to inclusive equity frameworks, and traditionally-considered equity mindedness, requires that our pedagogy and teaching approaches. TALLS moves learners from a space of practice shift the learning focus from merely academic detachment and unlearning to direct identifying systems of oppression to an action- application and embodied liberation. In this session, oriented, praxis-based model. Particularly, educators the speakers provided an overview of this justice- need a justice-forward model that offers clarity on the forward approach to teaching and learning that principles and methods of direct action for developing disrupts common misconceptions that reproduce critical consciousness. A justice-forward approach to postcolonial paradigms with the aim of developing learning would ask that educators blend equity new strategies for nonviolent intellectual resistance pedagogy, culturally-responsive pedagogy, and and humility. Through a series of transferable experiential approaches into the curricular activities and guided reflection, educators were able environment. to consider the potential of teaching choices to create In this presentation, the speakers shared their spaces of curiosity, protest, and resilience that Toward a Liberated Learning Spirit (TALLS) model, challenge students to examine the broader world with which weaves together common principles of new sensibilities. inclusive and culturally-responsive pedagogy in a focused progression. Anchored by Battiste’s [1]

3. References

[1] Battiste, M. (2010). Nourishing the Learning Spirit: Living our way to new thinking. Education Canada, 50(1), 14-18.

[2] Hytten, K., & Bettz, S. C. (2011). Understanding education for social justice. Educational Foundations, 25(1- 2), 7-24.

[3] King, M. L. (1963). Why we can’t wait. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.

[4] Moon, J. (1999). A handbook of reflective and experiential learning: Theory and practice. London, UK: Routledge Falmer.

[5] Moon, J. (2001). PDP working paper 4: Reflection in higher education learning. LTSN Generic Centre. https://www.brandeis.edu/experientiallearning/currentpdfs/ reflectioninhighered.pdf

[6] Moon, J. (2004). A handbook of reflective and experiential learning: Theory and practice. London, UK: Routledge.

[7] Pipe, L. M., & Stephens, J. T. (2020). Toward a Liberated Learning Spirit: A model for developing critical consciousness [Manuscript submitted for publication]. University Teaching & Learning Commons, UNC Greensboro.

[8] Tanaka, M. (2017). Learning and teaching together: Weaving Indigenous ways of knowing into education. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia Press.

[9] Yosso, T. (2006). Whose culture has capital? A critical race theory discussion of community cultural wealth. Race Ethnicity and Education, 8(1), 69-91.

The Implementation and Application of Best Practices for Online Teaching

Paula F. Jordan National Louis University USA

Abstract

Teaching online is a developed skill. There are a those professionals teaching in the online delivery of number of published best practices for online education. teaching. A short summary of the current research on National Louis University (NLU) is a not-for- best practices for online teaching is presented. profit, private institution celebrating its 134th year of Specifically, I address National Louis University’s operations based in Chicago, Illinois. NLU has been (NLU’s) 10 Principles of Online Teaching, developed providing blended delivery programs since 2000 and in an effort to “create a signature educational has recently developed 10 Principles of Online experience in a safe and intellectually stimulating Teaching in an effort to “create a signature environment.” These guidelines developed for faculty educational experience in a safe and intellectually supports NLU’s commitment to students in creating a stimulating environment.” These guidelines more standardized experience across courses, which developed for faculty supports NLU’s commitment to will hopefully create a higher level of student students in creating a more standardized experience learning. Each principle is further discussed, and across courses, which will hopefully create a higher several practical applications are provided that level of student learning. support each principle. These practical applications can be easily implemented into anyone’s online 2. Community of Inquiry teaching foray. The 10 Principles of Online Teaching guidelines 1. Introduction were developed to reinforce the Community of Inquiry framework of learning [2]. The Community Since the advent of online education, professionals of Inquiry identifies 3 domains; Cognitive Presence, have discussed pedagogy on how to connect with Social Presence, Teaching Presence. students and create a positive learning experience. There are a number of published guiding principles Community of Inquiry Framework of for online teaching. Brown University has established Learning a set of best practices for faculty teaching online. They identified 6 guidelines for faculty to use when teaching online courses [1]. Magna Publications offers a free e-newsletter and dedicated website through its Faculty Focus program dedicated to effective teaching strategies at the college level. They’ve published 10 Principles of Effective Online Teaching: Best Practices in Distance Education on their web site [4] as a guidebook for those teaching online for the first time. The Southern Regional Education Board [3], a non-profit, 16 state member organization that works to improve public education at all levels, has published Standards for Quality Online Teaching. These 12 standards were developed around Academic Preparation, Content Knowledge, Skills and Temperament for Instructional Cognitive presence has to do with guiding student Technology, Online Teaching and Learning inquiry in the course content. Faculty have a role to Methodology, Management, Knowledge, Skills and direct students as they explore, integrate and apply the Delivery. Everywhere there are guiding principles for content. Social presence includes setting up effective and open communication between and among

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 18 students and faculty. Creating and supporting group 4.1. Principle 1 Establish relationships and a cohesion is an important part of social presence as it safe learning environment is essential students feel safe in their communications. Teaching presence is very important when it comes to This principle utilizes the Community of Inquiry online learning. This area is very often correlated Domains: Teaching Presence; Social Presence. This with student satisfaction. Facilitation and direct principle surrounds the basic need of creating a safe instruction are the main components of teaching learning environment. Providing clear and consistent presence. information about my online presence allows students These 3 domains overlap creating the whole to experience a safe learning environment. A educational experience. NLU’s 10 principles of minimum of one daily posting (announcements, online teaching attempts to integrate the learning discussion topic posts, frequently asked questions experience in each of these 3 domains. When students topic posts, Cyber Café topic posts) is one tool used have a similar experience across courses, they can to create a teaching presence and a social presence. spend less time trying to figure out what to expect Responding to each student introduction is my best from each individual course experience and spend practice to begin the course. more time learning and applying course content. 4.2. Principle 2 Communicate frequently 3. Ten Principles of Online Teaching through diverse channels in the learning platform, including Announcements, Email, Principle 1 Establish relationships and a safe Discussion topics, and Dropbox feedback learning environment. Principle 2 Communicate frequently through This principle utilizes the Community of Inquiry diverse channels in the learning platform, including Domains: Teaching Presence; Social Presence. This Announcements, Email, Discussion topics, and principle ties into Principle 1. The lack of face to face Dropbox feedback. contact with students creates challenges to staying in Principle 3 Post responses to discussion boards at contact and showing a presence in the online course. least 2-3 times per week. Providing students with a guideline of when and how Principle 4 Return grades and feedback for often I return email and other communication from assignments within 7 days. them manages their expectations. Providing students Principle 5 Communicate high expectations. with my intentions to respond to their emails and Principle 6 Provide multiple formats of content in voicemail messages within 24 to 48 hours during the your course. week, and 48-72 hours on the weekend is my best Principle 7 Encourage and create community practice for this principle. This small effort reinforces engagement. the teaching presence and the social presence in the Principle 8 Log in at least every other day (every course. day is preferable). Principle 9 Use consistency and patterns. 4.3. Principle 3 Post responses to discussion Principle 10 Be ready to teach. boards at least 2-3 times per week

4. The Ten Principles at Work This principle utilizes the Community of Inquiry Domains: Teaching Presence; Social Presence. This This section will further discuss each principle and principle creates a presence in the online course that provide several practical applications that support students can see and expect, thus showing a social each principle. These practical applications can be presence and a teaching presence (facilitating the easily implemented into any online teaching foray. discussion). My best practice for this principle is To help students in their expectations and twofold: 1. A Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) understanding of the NLU guiding principles, I post discussion topic is in each of my courses. Pinning or the guiding principles in the course site along with my setting up alerts for this discussion topic assures my commitment to make these principles my best immediate response when logging into the course practice. This helps students to know what to expect, every day. Students know I’m there and it reinforces e.g. I will be in the online course every day; I will be a social presence in the course. 2. For discussion topic returning assignments within the 7-day period after assignments, making a post to each student at least the due date; I will post up questions and comments to once a week during the course assures students of a students in the weekly discussion topics 2 to 3 times a teaching presence in the course. week.

4.4. Principle 4 Return grades and feedback 4.8. Principle 8 Log in at least every other for assignments within 7 days day (every day is preferable)

This principle utilizes the Community of Inquiry This principle utilizes the Community of Inquiry Domains: Teaching Presence; Cognitive Presence. Domain: Teaching Presence. To say you are going to Prompt feedback on student assignments is very log into the course on a daily basis is one thing. important, particularly in an online course. The Follow up in this area is imperative. Logging into an earlier students receive feedback on their work, the online course is your only connection to the students, better they are able to adjust their efforts and improve so you have to login and login frequently. If you say their submissions. Prompt feedback is my best you are going to do it daily, then you need to do it practice for this principle which reinforces a teaching daily. My best practice is to create a footprint presence and provides students with information to showing my presence. I make a post, create an reinforce the cognitive presence. announcement, or send a class email. This reinforces the teaching presence in an online course. 4.5. Principle 5 Communicate high expectations 4.9. Principle 9 Use consistency and patterns

This principle utilizes the Community of Inquiry This principle utilizes the Community of Inquiry Domain: Teaching Presence. This principle focuses Domains: Teaching Presence. Creating consistence on clear, concise, and consistent communication via patterns of behavior goes a long way to meeting this the syllabus, course schedule, grading rubrics, due principle. Communicate with your students about dates, etc. This is about communicating expectations what to expect on a weekly basis. Sending an email for students. Using grading rubrics for all graded to students that I’ve received their submissions is my assignments is my best practice for this principle. By best practice. This small effort allows them some providing the grading rubrics to students ahead of comfort that I’ve received their assignments and am time, they can clearly see how assignments are reviewing them. They know that I’ll send notification evaluated. Utilizing grading rubrics reinforce a when I’ve completed my review and returned all teaching presence. assignments. This reinforces the teaching presence in the course. 4.6. Principle 6 Provide multiple formats of content in your course 4.10. Principle 10 Be ready to teach

This principle utilizes the Community of Inquiry This principle utilizes the Community of Inquiry Domain: Cognitive Presence. Providing course Domains: Teaching Presence; Cognitive Presence. materials in variety of formats, allows students, who Preparing to teach can help faculty manage their time have diverse learning preferences, to succeed. The once a course begins. Checking all course material, course content in my courses provides a mix of course links, and dates before the course starts can go a long materials which reinforces this principle. For my best way to enable faculty to quickly respond to student practice, students are given access to a variety of questions and inquiries. Web links can change from content such as video, and transcripts which one day to the next, so checking these links is my best reinforces the cognitive presence in the course. practice for this principle. Spending a little more time up front before the course starts benefits both faculty 4.7. Principle 7 Encourage and create and students. Getting ahead of some trouble areas community engagement saves time and allows students to review content and continue with their learning without interruptions. This principle utilizes the Community of Inquiry Domains: Social Presence; Cognitive Presence. This 5. Conclusion principle is about engaging students in learning from each other. Courses that have discussion assignments When students have a similar experience across provide students accessibility to all information and courses, they can spend less time trying to figure out provides an opportunity for them to interact and assist what to expect from each individual course experience each other with the content. The “Questions” and spend more time learning and applying course discussion topic in my courses is my best practice and content. The 10 principles initiated by NLU for online allows students to benefit and add to a conversation teaching goes a long way to help support create this about a particular question area. This type of tool consistency for students. reinforces the social presence and cognitive presence.

6. References

[1] Teaching and Learning Resources, https://www.brown.edu/sheridan/teaching-learning- resources/teaching-resources. Presented by Brown University School of Professional Studies, (Access date: August 13, 2020).

[2] Garrison, D. R. Online Community of Inquiry Review: Social, Cognitive, and Teaching Presence Issues. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 11, 1, 61-72, 2007.

[3] Standards for Quality Online Teaching. https://www.sreb.org/publication/standards-quality- online-teaching. Presented by the Southern Regional Education Board, 2006, (Access date: August 8, 2020).

[4] Ragan, L. C. 10 Principles of Effective Online Teaching: Best Practices in Distance Education. https://www.facultyfocus.com/free-reports/principles -of-effective-online-teaching-best-practices-in-distan ce-education/, 2009, (Access date: Retrieved August 13, 2020).

Interpreting Results from Research Study of Urban Schools to Inform Program Changes

M. Kathleen L. Cripe1, Kenneth L. Miller1, Crystal Ratican1, Susan M. Miller2 Youngstown State University1, Miami University2 USA

Abstract

This research work will address results of a three-year longitudinal study of pre- service teachers’ perceptions of urban schools as they matriculated through a four- year teacher education program that involves field experiences in urban school settings. Students completed the Pre-Clinical Candidate Perceptions of Urban Schools Scale (PCCPUSS) in the First-Year Experience (FYE) course at the beginning of their first semester in order to assess their perceptions of urban schools (specifically in three areas: urban schools, students, and teachers) and a posttest at completion of a second required education course. Results of a principle axis factor analysis and analyses of pre-post paired dependent t-tests are reported. This paper will address the how the researchers intend to use these findings to make programmatic changes designed to improve students’ efficacy in urban school settings. Challenges facing urban schools are numerous and well known. One of the greatest concerns is staffing qualified teachers and retaining them for more than three years [2]. A shortage of qualified teachers is increasing exponentially placing an added burden on teacher preparation programs to prepare candidates for the challenging work in urban school districts. Teacher education programs need to recruit and prepare candidates with the strategies and skills needed to work in diverse settings [1]. The goal of this study is to examine the results of the students’ perception survey to implement program changes needed in order to best prepare students for working and staying in urban schools. This research focuses on examining perceptual change over a four-year time frame where students were surveyed during their first semester in the education department (pre-test), and three subsequent administrations of the perception survey after each of the extended experiences (posttest 1, posttest 2, and posttest 3). An objective of this research is to use results to make program and curricular modifications designed to promote attainment of requisite knowledge, skills, and dispositions for effective teaching practice in urban schools. This research was conducted with the knowledge that preparing candidates with accurate information and experiences that promote objective beliefs about urban schools may influence their decisions to stay and work in urban school districts. In order to assess students’ perceptions of urban schools, students, and teachers, researchers developed the Pre-Clinical Candidate Perceptions of Urban Schools Scale. Items selected for inclusion on the scale were drawn from the research literature and our collective experiences as educators working with students before and after their urban field experiences. The final survey consisted of thirty-three items to which participants were asked to respond on a six-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree to 6 = strongly agree). Some items were worded positively and others negatively; select items were recoded prior to analysis to establish a consistent response directionality. The goal of this study is to determine the impact of student field experiences in urban school settings (based on partnerships between the university and urban districts) on teacher candidates’ perceptions of urban schools, teachers, and students. Our hope is that such experiences will produce program graduates who possess the knowledge, skill, and dispositional competence to have a positive impact

on student learning and personal growth. The results of these studies will also be used to foster a critical analysis of preparation programs at our home institutions in order to inform program revisions designed to better prepare successful educators in ALL school districts.

References

[1] Truscott, S., & Truscott, D. (2005). Comprehensive Handbook of Multicultural School Psychology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons.

[2] Truscott, S, and D Truscott. "Differing Circumstances, Similar Struggles: Commonalities that Define Urban and Rural Education." Phi Delta Kappan, vol. 87, no. 2, 2005, pp. 123-30.

Speakers’ Session 2

Title: Quality and Equity Issues in Kazakhstani Rural Schools Authors: Mir Afzal Tajik, Duishon Shamatov, Lyudmila Fillipova

Title: The School Yard as an Educational Opportunity – Introducing a Practical Course for Pre-Service Primary School Teachers Author: Mika Leon-Beck

Title: Goal-oriented Teaching Method – The Way of Maintaining the Quality of Education for Both Online and F2F Author: Tongpil Min

Title: “Batman Can’t Wear a Skirt - He’s a Boy!” - An Investigation into how Children’s Drawings are Influenced by Gender, Race and Sexuality Stereotyping Presented in Superhero Media Author: Chloe Keegan

Title: Adjusting to CoVid 19 Authors: Pam Epler, Twyla Williams-Damond

Mir Afzal Tajik, Duishon Shamatov, Lyudmila Fillipova Nazarbayev University, Graduate School of Education Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan

Abstract

Spread over an area of 2,724,900 square in the country, there, however, are concerns that the Kilometres, Kazakhstan is the ninth largest country in investment in educational reforms has created the world. Since its independence in 1991, the country inequality between urban and rural schools and has initiated several major reforms to enhance quality colleges. One of the main reasons for inequality in of education at all levels. However, there are educational provision and quality are limited significant gaps and inequalities in the quality of financial, material, and human resources [18]. educational provision and achievements between Although, there are growing concerns about the rural and urban schools. About 57% of schools are quality of education in rural schools in Kazakhstan, rural schools which face declining achievements and however there is lack of empirical studies that fully completion rates, lack of school infrastructure, capture, analyze, and present this issue. Therefore, shortage of qualified teachers, high dropout rates and this mixed method study, comprising a quantitative many other issues. The study discusses how key survey and qualitative interviews with key stakeholders (school leaders, teachers, students, stakeholders (school leaders, teachers, students, parents and education managers) perceive quality of parents, and education managers) from rural schools education in rural schools in Kazakhstan. It presents across the country, was conducted. The present study the stakeholders’ vision, priorities and aspirations of aims at exploring education quality and equity issues quality of education, the opportunities, resources and in rural Kazakhstani schools from the perspectives of support available to them as well as the gaps, key stakeholders by taking a broad definition of challenges and issues they face in achieving their quality to involve quality of learners, curriculum, perceived quality of education. The study also makes processes, environments, and outcomes [17]. recommendations for enhancing quality of education in the rural schools in Kazakhstan. 2. Theoretical framework

1. Introduction Quality of education has been a contested concept within the wider literature. The fact that there is no In line with the Kazakh government’s universally accepted standard definition of education commitment of providing quality education to its quality makes discussing the concept even more people, the “State Program for Education problematic [1]. Thus, we employed a theoretical Development in the Republic of Kazakhstan for 2011- framework of contexts, inputs, process and outputs to 2020” has set policy directions for the kind of reforms understand stakeholders’ conceptions of education needed to transform the entire education system in the quality and associated challenges, issues and gaps in country [14]. The abovementioned reforms include an rural Kazakhstani schools. The given framework is introduction of a robust curriculum, improvement of primarily drawn from Tikley [16] and UNESCO [17]: education infrastructure and technology, enhancement of capabilities of school leaders and teachers, establishment and management of new educational institutions, financing and financial management of institutions, and development of more effective management structures. The education reforms aim at turning Kazakh classrooms into modern refineries of the human capital and talent pool needed to power the country’s industrial development and sustain its ever-increasing integration into global economy [8]. While these initiatives taken by the Kazakh government are positive steps toward reforming the education system Figure 1. Quality framework

2.1. The Contexts/Environments Oskemen (Ust-Kamenogorsk) regions. The interviewed participants included teachers, principals, The contexts or learning environments comprise vice principals, subject coordinators, students Grades physical, psychological, and academic environments 7–11, regional and district education managers, and in schools. This study examined how school leaders, parents. Semi-structured interviews and focus-group teachers, students, parents, and education managers discussions, with deep probing questions, allowed us perceived and articulated the quality of the physical to obtain information-rich, descriptive data in the (school buildings, classrooms, class size, computer participants’ own words [5]; [4]. labs, libraries, cafeterias, and washrooms), psychological (non-violent, peaceful, and safe), and 4. Research Findings academic (stimulating, attractive, and nurturing) environments in which rural schools operated. The study findings are presented in the form of several themes corresponding to the framework and 2.2. Inputs research questions used to examine education quality in rural Kazakhstani schools for this study. We present The input indicators comprise the a summary of the findings derived from the study content/curriculum, teaching and management staff, below. and financial, material, and human resources provided to schools. This study investigated how the key 4.1. Stakeholders’ perceptions about the stakeholders construed the quality of teachers, school leadership, curriculum, teaching and learning quality of environments (context) in rural methods, resources, and associated challenges faced schools by rural schools. 55% of the survey responses indicated poor 2.3. Processes infrastructure and lack of facilities as one of the major issues affecting quality of education in rural schools. To unveil various processes at the classroom, The participants described their school buildings as school, and education system levels, this study old with a limited number of classrooms and lack of examined various educational processes in terms of space. For example, the building of a rural school in decision-making, inclusion, participation, east Kazakhstan was built several decades ago with a collaboration, and recognition of voices from capacity of 500 students. However, the same building different groups. today accommodates over 1900 students in multiple shifts. Similarly, a school not very far from Almaty 2.4. Outputs city was built for about 600 students, although it accommodates over 2000 students today. The The study also explored the key stakeholders’ participants also mentioned that most schools in conceptions and views about students’ learning villages lack spaces and facilities such as computer outcomes, including those measured by various tests, labs, libraries, washrooms, workstations for teachers, assessments, and examinations conducted by schools, and playgrounds for students. In fact, some schools do parents’ satisfaction about their children’s learning, not even have the provision of clean drinking water or related outcomes, and challenges associated with proper functional sewage systems. these. The school leadership, in most of the regions surveyed, shared the challenges they face regarding 3. Research methodology the physical environment and access to facilities at rural schools. The challenges included overcrowded In line with the purpose of the research, this study classes, managing multiple shifts of students due to employed a mixed methods research design, which shortage of classrooms, lack of resources such as includes both quantitative and qualitative surveys textbooks and computers, and poor Internet [10]. The quantitative survey included over 200 connectivity. However, the participants in schools teachers from 40 rural schools (10 schools from each with newly constructed buildings said that their of the north, west, south, and east provinces of schools were well-equipped with modern Kazakhstan), but only 125 participants responded. To technologies and resources. The students and teachers obtain rich, in-depth, and descriptive data from a in these schools had access to high-speed Internet and relatively small sample [6]; [10]; [3], a total of 90 used online platforms such as Kundelik.kz, Bilimland, qualitative interviews (41 individual and 49 focus and smk.edu to organize their timetables and home group) were conducted with participants from rural assignments, and to download study materials. One of schools in Almaty, Kyzylorda, Shymkent, Aktau, and the school principals said: “These are very useful

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 26 educational tools as they provide opportunities for is a prerequisite for Kazakhstan to realize its vision of distance learning, Olympiads, and professional joining the 30 most developed countries of the world courses”. by 2050. The participants see it as a vehicle to develop not only new knowledge but also to build practical 4.2. Stakeholders’ perceptions about the skills among students. The teachers, during the focus quality of inputs in rural schools group interviews, in different schools indicated that the updated curriculum aimed at deepening According to the survey results, around 43% knowledge of school subjects and enabling students to participants were fully satisfied, 46% were somewhat efficiently and effectively use that knowledge in their satisfied, and 11% were dissatisfied with the quality daily lives and for the growth of their careers. The of teachers in rural schools. While defining the quality students mentioned that the curriculum allows for of teachers, the participants explained, “A teacher independent learning, critical thinking and creativity, must have strong knowledge of content [subject with a student saying, “We are encouraged to choose matter], methods of teaching and assessment, a problem, study it independently or in teams, and find classroom management, children’s needs and interests a solution.” . . . and be punctual and committed to his [or her] job.” The interview and focus group discussions 4.3. Stakeholders’ perceptions about the revealed both the strengths and limitations of the pool quality of learning outcomes in rural schools of teachers currently serving in the rural schools. The strengths included high level of devotion and Data obtained from stakeholders indicated that commitment to their schools; application of effective rural school students were lagging behind their teaching methods in classrooms; care for students and counterparts in urban schools in various national level rural communities; and fair treatment of students, competitions such as Olympiads, UNT (secondary colleagues, and parents. Most teachers, during the school leaving examination and entrance test for focus group interviews, mentioned that they were higher education institutions in Kazakhstan), and committed to stay and work in rural schools because PISA. According to the stakeholders, the main reason they believe that the schools, the local community, for gaps in achievements of rural and urban schools is and the students need them. “I was offered a job with that rural schools are far less equipped than their a high salary and other incentives at a big school in counterparts in cities. “Our students are performing the capital city, but I declined the offer and decided to quite [well] but we cannot compete with big schools stay here because I believe I can make a difference,” in Nur-Sultan or Almaty because we do not have the said a teacher in the eastern region of Kazakhstan. same resources as they have,” said a principal. The limitations highlighted by the participants Moreover, a teacher said, “In a village, students not included shortage of well-qualified teachers, only study at school, but they work after school. They especially for STEM subjects, lack of proficiency in look after livestock, work in the fields, take care of English language, resistance to change in teachers young siblings, and assist their parents at home.” who are close to their retirement age, and lack of While these non-academic activities may take professional development opportunities. The regional students’ time away from studies, they develop useful education officials, as well the principals interviewed, life skills. The teacher explained, “For rural school pointed out that the majority of young people who students it is important to learn these skills, which attend universities in big cities do not return to their may not help them in the UNT and PISA but will villages owing to a variety of reasons including lack certainly be useful for their practical life.” of professional development opportunities, career Participants, particularly teachers, from all regions growth, and social life or entertainment besides the spoke about the students’ learning outcomes and poor quality of life in rural areas. Heavy paper work, performances in the UNT and EEEA (External bureaucratic rules, too many reforms at once, and low Evaluation of Educational Achievements). “Our salaries were also mentioned by the teachers as some students usually score lower in mathematics, ICT, and of the reasons behind young teachers’ attrition in rural some STEM subjects as compared to students from schools. urban schools,” a teacher said. Other participants Since 2014, an upgraded curriculum has been referred to statistical data from the National Testing implemented in schools in Kazakhstan. The Centre (NTC) of Kazakhstan that shows a gap of 25 curriculum draws from international best practices points between urban and rural students in TIMSS and also responds to the educational needs and 2015. In fact, urban school students are one academic aspirations of Kazakhstani people. The participants year ahead of their rural peers. The overall believed that the updated curriculum was a positive achievements of Kazakh students were lower than the step toward improving the quality of education, which

OECD average, and rural students lagged behind city inequalities and gaps between rural and urban schools students by an average of 7.08 points [9]. cannot be attributed to the education system alone as the very cause of such disparities may be linked to the 5. Discussion broader political, economic, and social realms of society. However, inequalities may continue to exist Kazakhstan has demonstrated a steady progress as long as the distribution of resources, on the part of in addressing the challenges of political, economic, the education system, to schools remains uneven and and social transformation since its independence in high-stakes tests serve as the measure of quality of 1991 [19]. Its education system, established and education. Therefore, we suggest that the education developed under Soviet rule, has undergone different policy be re-examined and used to minimize socio- phases of transformation [12];[15]. The first phase economic disparities in the short-term and, at the same (1991–2000) focused on reduction of public time, a long-term plan for more equitable distribution expenditure on education and the second phase of resources and social benefits between rural and (2001–2010) emphasized adapting best international urban schools be developed. practices—standardized assessment systems, curriculum reforms, learner-centered pedagogies [7], 7. References and restructuring of higher education in line with the Bologna Process. The third phase (2011–2020) [1] Barrett, A. M., Chawla-Duggan, R., Low, J., Nikel, J., & focused on creating new educational institutions—the Ukpo, E. (2006). The concept of quality in education: A Nazarbayev Intellectual Schools (NIS) and review of the international literature on the concept of Nazarbayev University [15]. New teaching and quality in education. EdQual Working Paper Number 3. assessment methods, and content delivered with [2] Bridges, D. and A. Sagintayeva. 2014. “Introduction”. instructions in Kazakh, Russian, and English were In Educational reform and Internationalization: The Case developed and tested at the NIS and replicated in all of School Reform in Kazakhstan, edited by D. Bridges, xxii. secondary schools across the country [12];[11]. While Cambridge: Cambridge University press. these, along with some other recent reforms, have been encouraging, a major challenge for the [3] Bryman, A. (2016). Social research methods. Oxford Kazakhstani government has been the need to strike a University Press. balance between urban and rural schools in terms of access to quality education [2]. Abovementioned facts [4] Cohen, L., & Manion, L. (1997). Research methods in education (4th ed.). Routledge. have occurred because 57% of public schools are in villages that lack proper infrastructure, transportation, [5] Creswell, J. W. (2014). Educational research: Planning, health facilities, access to information and conducting and evaluating quantitative and qualitative communication technologies, and living conditions research (4th ed.). Pearson. [13]. The COVID-19 pandemic has further exposed the inequalities and gaps that exist between rural and [6] Glesne, C. (2011). Becoming Qualitative Researchers: urban schools. UNICEF Kazakhstan (April 22, 2020), An introduction (4th ed.). Pearson Education, Inc. revealed that over 300,000 children in Kazakhstan could not access e-learning due to lack of technical [7] McLaughlin, C., Winter, L., Kurakbayev, K., Kambatyrova, A., Ramazanova, A., & Torrano, D. (2017, facilities, whereas about 3,000 small rural schools August 21–25). Introduction of the New Curriculum, were only able to provide group learning during the Pedagogy and Assessment in Primary Schools (Grade 1) in pandemic. Kazakhstan [Paper presentation]. ECER, University College UCC, Copenhagen. 6. Conclusion [8] Nazarbayev, N. (1997). Kazakhstan 2030 Strategy: This study looked at education quality and Prosperity, Security and Improvement of the Well-being of all Kazakhstan Citizens [Speech]. Annual State of the inequalities in rural schools from a social justice Nation Address of the President of the Republic of standpoint, drawing from the perspectives of key Kazakhstan, Astana, Kazakhstan.www.akorda.kz/en/ stakeholders such as school leaders, teachers, category/gos_programmi_razvitiya. students, parents, and regional education managers in rural areas of Kazakhstan. According to Tikley [16], a [9] National Testing Centre. (2018). Uniform National Test good quality education may be possible if the policy -UNT- Data. National Testing Centre, Ministry of makers consider from a social justice perspective the Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan. “interactions between three overlapping http:// www.testcenter.kz/ru/stats/stat/ent/2018/. environment[s], namely, the policy, the school and the home/community environment” (p. 11). The

[10] Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Collins, K. M. (2007). A typology of mixed-methods sampling designs in social science research. The Qualitative Report, 12(2), 281-316.

[11] Oralova, G. (2012). Internationalization of higher education in Kazakhstan: Issues of instruction in foreign languages. Journal of Teaching and Education, 1(2), 127- 133.

[12] Organization of Economic Coorperation and Development (OECD). (2014). Secondary Education in Kazakhstan 2014, Reviews of National Policies for Education. OECD Publishing.

[13] OECD. 2017. Reviews of National Policies for Education Higher Education in Kazakhstan 2017. OECD Publishing.

[14] State Program of Education Development (SPED). (2010). State Program of Education Development in the Republic of Kazakhstan for 2011-2020. https://www.akorda.kz/upload/SPED.doc.

[15] Tastanbekova, K. (2020). Professional prestige, status and esteem of teaching in Kazakhstan: Temporal, regional and gender analysis of payroll data. Journal of Eastern European and Central Asian Research, 7(2), 175-190.

[16] Tikly, L. (2011). Towards a framework for researching the quality of education in low-income countries. Comparative Education, 47(1), 1-23. DOI: 10.1080/03050068.2011.541671.

[17] United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2005). Measuring Educational Quality by Means of Indicators. [Unpublished Paper]. UNESCO, New York.

[18] Whitsel, C. M., Junisbai, B. & Junisbai, A. (2019). Polarization during institutional decline: Variation in educational attainment in post-soviet Central Asia in 1991– 2006. Journal of European Education, 51(3): 186-2011. DOI: 10.1080/10564934.2019.1601020.

[19] World Bank. (2018b). Kazakhstan Country Economic Update: The Quest for a New Growth Model: The Urgency of Economic Transformation. ABC (2017).

The School Yard as an Educational Opportunity – Introducing a Practical Course for Pre-Service Primary School Teachers

Mika Leon-Beck David Yellin College of Education, Israel

Abstract

Can trees teach us math? Can birds teach us a new language? One of the numerous advantages for teaching children outdoors is their ability to explore the world at first hand and experience natural phenomena such as the weather and the changing of the seasons. Moreover, children learning outdoor has been shown to develop positive and caring attitudes to the wider environment. In this talk, I will introduce an innovated practical course which reveals the potential of outdoor learning in school yards. This course is intended for pre-service primary school teachers and designed for experiencing the natural learning resources available in the school yard. The course is ultimately enabling the teachers to implement outdoor learning activities for children at their schools, without the need to go on a field trip in order to experience nature. I will demonstrate how teaching the course exclusively in the college yard results in the students' ability to acknowledge and understand the pedagogical, emotional and social aspects involved with the ongoing changes of the natural environment nearby. The talk will include examples to various outdoor learning practices such as games, observations, art & crafts, poetry, and storytelling in order to develop learners’ ability to investigate and appreciate their nearby environment in different ways. The practice of these tools and methods in the yard is applied considering diverse subject matters (as language, mathematics, science and more) and therefore can enrich the students’ interdisciplinary teaching toolbox. Moreover, all activities in such course are designed to nurture students’ curiosity and creativity in the yard and therefore to acknowledge their own personal connection to nature. In addition to the numerous educational and emotional opportunities obtained in learning outdoors, there are also limitations in outdoor learning which I will address. The first and obvious limitation is the weather which influences the ability to study outside. In this course, the students practice and develop methodologies which can be taught outside in different weather conditions. Weather alteration can potentially be taught as a pedagogical opportunity to investigate environmental changes. Another important limitation which will be addressed is the dissimilarities between yards at different schools in aspects such as size, condition and distance from the main school building. In order to adapt outdoor learning activities to different schools, I will demonstrate how peer-learning was used effectively to enrich problem solving techniques. Lastly, I will discuss the teachers’ knowledge and skills which are required for applying authentic educational activities in nature in contrast to traditional methodologies in the classroom. The importance of this course is shown to provide pre-service teachers with the recognition and appreciation of the unique methodologies and skills needed for teaching outdoors and consequently enable them to benefit the educational opportunities mentioned above. Appreciating nature’s surrounding is highly important these days, when children’s learning and gaming environments are more and more computerizes.

Goal-oriented Teaching Method – The Way of Maintaining the Quality of Education for Both Online and F2F

Tongpil Min PonderEd Education, University Canada West Canada

Abstract

It seems educational sector is facing big challenges due to COVID-19. Since classes have moved to online or blended format, the quality of education has become one of the major issues. Many educators look for ways to provide the same quality education as f2f. If students are motivated enough, there shouldn’t be any quality related issues because students will study by themselves with basic support from the educators regardless formats. So, the first question should be ‘how to make students motivated?’. The teaching methods that are focusing on knowledge wouldn’t be able to motivate student enough as seen from current situation. And the gaps between online and f2f will be still open. When students are in the f2f, educators can monitor their progress and provide guidance as needed. However, online classes are more dependent on students. If students provide feedback, educators can provide individualized supporting materials. If students are quiet, there is no way for educators to know students’ current standing. This means that educators will lose more students who could improve their learning if supported and the outcomes will drop. This doesn’t mean that motivation is affecting only the online classes. It plays major role in f2f as well even with more flexibilities. The reason that students are not being motivated lies in the teaching method itself – focusing on knowledge. Knowledge is something that is already known and delivering knowledge means that students don’t have to work to learn. What they need is to memorize knowledge by understanding the result. In this way, students can use and even teach others who don’t have the knowledge. This teaching method can be compared to the fast food. Students eat the food that is already prepared instead of learning how to harvest and cook. One of the goals of education is for students to be leaders or decision makers. The skills required to be a leader, or a decision maker are thinking processes that involve data collection, data analysis and predictions. This series of thinking process is what students need to learn to become a leader or a decision maker. In order to build these thinking skills, students should engage from harvesting (collecting data) and cooking (analyzing data) instead of being provided with ready- to-eat meals. Basically, the students’ future life should be linked with their current study which is study methods. In this way, students will be motivated and eager to study. Once students are being motivated and willing to learn, now the real education can be started. Goal-oriented learning (students) and teaching (educators) method is extended version of ‘research methodology’ in general. This teaching method will tackle students learning process systematically by applying goal-oriented teaching method to each subject. In this way, students will build thinking skills as they build concepts of subjects. This method also has another advantage. Educators can individualize each students’ learning process. Educators can add lecture materials, teach students various ways of collecting and analyzing data and how to make logical predictions. This might increase workload for educators because it is the educators from whom students are learning directly. However, this is only the method that can maintain the quality of education for both online and f2f without reducing the amount of course materials. In this presentation, brief background of the development, basic methods and their outcomes in university setting will be discussed.

“Batman Can’t Wear a Skirt - He’s a Boy!” - An Investigation into how Children’s Drawings are Influenced by Gender, Race and Sexuality Stereotyping Presented in Superhero Media

Chloe Keegan Maynooth University Ireland

Abstract

This research aimed to explore children's drawings of superhero characters in order to understand whether superhero themed play can encourage learning on complex themes such as gender, race and sexuality through exposure to stereotypes. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with children aged 5-12 years where each child was asked to design their own superhero and their own villain. This method was chosen in order to give children maximum freedom and time to express their ideas. One visual chart of various Marvel and DC Comic characters was then used alongside the children’s drawings in order to compare and contrast their understanding of gender, race and sexuality themes to further emphasise their viewpoint. Results indicated that children are influenced by stereotypes presented in superhero media such as gender, race and sexuality themes. Heroes reflected the child’s own gender and skin colour suggesting they relate to superhero characters when designed by themselves. However, villains were more likely to have darker skin, a troubled background and to be male. Furthermore, this research discovered that children of ages 5-12 years have the capacity to express deep insight into complex superhero themes and storylines with adult support. This research was a key example of why children’s research needs to be conducted with children as fellow researchers rather than having adults talking on their behalf. Therefore, this study demonstrates that superhero themed play should be embraced more openly to inspire children to voice their own views in a child-friendly manner. Difficult and complex areas such as gender, race and sexuality themes can be explored safely by children through superhero play and for our society, we need future generations to embrace diversity, not fear it.

Adjusting to CoVid 19

Pam Epler1, Twyla Williams-Damond2 Youngstown State University1, Grand Canyon University2 United States

Abstract

Most undergraduate, graduate or doctoral learners take online classes for convenience because they can attend to their course work any time of day or night from the comfort of their home. However, when a life changing or stressful event happens, this ‘convenience’ goes away and this changes how the undergraduate, graduate or doctoral learners’ lives in regards to their education. This quantitative time series design study examined the patterns of adjustment made by students (undergraduate, graduate and doctoral) who attend a traditional online university or college (Students have to do all their learning in an online synchronous or a synchronous learning environment) throughout the United States at the beginning, middle and “end” of the COVID-19 pandemic. Students were asked to complete the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) in which their global cognitive judgments of satisfaction with their life was assessed at seven different time intervals during COVID-19 pandemic.

Workshop

Title: Learn to Publish with the Greatest of Ease

Writing for national and international journals is relatively simple if you follow the guidelines and consider explicit writing practices. The published guidelines by a journal explain specifies of format, font size, length of paper, etc. this paper will help you with many of the general considerations one must review as a paper is being constructed. A rubric at the end of this writing provides additional information on the mechanics of a paper. Your job as the author is to write content, which is interesting, noteworthy and above all focused. In the body of the writing many of the components of a paper which will be published are discussed. The sections are in the specific order one might write a paper; however, all must be considered in the formation of a good paper.

Organiser: Barba A. Patton, University of Houston-Victoria, USA

Sessions

Session 1: Pedagogy and Psychology

Title: Social Representations on the Concept of Formation of Higher Education Teachers in México Author: Elí Orlando Lozano González

Title: A Challenge for Engineering Students in the Context of the Industry 4.0 Authors: Pascal Vrignat, Estelle Courtial

Title: A Review on the Use of Writing Outlines as Part of Study Habits to Increase Academic Performance of the Students Author: Shara May T. Espinol

Title: A Triadic Model of Regulated Learning Perspectives Author: Eman Faisal

Elí Orlando Lozano González National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico

Abstract

The objective of this paper is to analyse the social example Yurén [4] and Horlacher [5]. All these representations of the concept "formation". Two authors speak of human formation in general, but they sources of information are taken. First, papers begin to approach the specific issue of teacher dealing with the subject of teacher formation formation, in this sense we reviewed Ferry [6], Pérez published in the proceedings of an important Gómez [7] and Lozano-Andrade [8]. Congress on Educational Research held in Mexico in With the reading of these authors we realized the 2017, here we analyse the use and treatment given to complexity within the concept of formation, a the concept of "formation" in documents published in polysemic concept and without exact definition (as it a specialized medium. On the other hand, we used the happens with most of the concepts used in and technique of natural semantic networks, applied to 76 emerged from the social sciences and humanities), teachers from Teacher Training Schools in Mexico however it raises certain conditions and precisions. and 62 teachers from the National Autonomous We also realized that it is a very popular word, not University of Mexico. The semantic network helps only in academic specialist circles, but in any setting. capturing the Social Representations of these teachers In Mexico, we have noticed an indiscriminate use of regarding formation. The results show that in the the word formation and therefore its content is lost and current use of the concept of formation, its limits are its limits are blurred with other concepts. For this blurred and mixed with other similar, but not the reason, we included a line of research within the same, concepts: education, training, updating, project “Theories, problems and experiences around professionalization, schooling, among others. A naive the formation of higher education teachers” entitled: and without rigor use of this concept dominates. But Social Representations regarding formation in higher above all, the idea that formation can be given and education institutions. We investigated around the that it is limited to what can be certified predominates, ideas, attitudes, opinions and beliefs that are held in leaving aside its reflexive dimension. This could lead universities and teacher-training schools of Mexico to mechanized formation processes that are far from City regarding formation. For this purpose, we used the original meaning of the concept. the theory of Social Representations (SR in forward), a proposal by Moscovici [9] that provides tools to 1. Introduction analyse how certain concepts that originally arise from scientific disciplines are gradually integrated This paper is the result of work on the research into the daily life of societies, and become part of project “PAPIIT IN406019: Theories, problems and common sense knowledge, fundamental to the experiences around the formation of higher education support of daily life, but lacking the precision of teachers" with funding from the General Directorate specialized knowledge. of Academic Personnel Affairs (DGAPA) of the We have the assumption that the concept of National Autonomous University of Mexico formation is going through a process of re-meaning in (UNAM). As part of the actions that we have the language of everyday life; process in which it undertaken among the members of the project is the gradually loses its limits and its precision. This, we reading and analysis of various works that deal with consider, is normal in everyday life, since the the subject of human formation in general, and teacher knowledge that predominates here is common sense, formation in particular. We have worked with classic the SR. But, after reviewing various publications that authors such as Hegel [1] and Gadamer [2], who deal with the subject of higher education teachers discuss about human formation from a philosophical formation (since it is the central theme of our project) position located in the tradition of romanticism; we we realized that something very similar was also reviewed the contributions of Honoré [3], who happening. proposes a theory about formation. The previous We took on the task of searching and analysing authors are taken up by others in contexts closer to articles published in indexed journals dealing with the ours, both geographically and temporarily, for formation of higher education teachers. We found that the predominant position is to understand formation

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 38 as equivalent or synonymous of training or schooling; Honoré [3] studies this phenomenon carefully and Thus, when speaking about teacher training or proposes certain conditions to formation: it requires a formation, pedagogical training or didactic training; progressive knowledge of reality; to get out of the this is equivalent to saying that certain teachers have comfort space and face new realities; it happens in the taken courses, diplomas or postgraduate courses in the community, in the inter-experience; and it is a process area of education, didactics or pedagogy [10, 11, 12, that requires reflexive activity, which implies the 13, 14]. transformation of oneself, of our practices, our From a specialized point of view, the concept of actions, our meanings, our speech, and thereby we "formation" refers to the process of transformation of transform the environment, the culture; in the same the individual in relation to otherness, entails the way, it opposes the reflexive activity to the reflective thoughtful thinking and individual consciousness of activity (as it happens in a mirror); the reflective those who are assumed in formation [1, 2, 3]. This activity equates to the processes of education or largely transcends the processes that are described in training, while the reflexive activity conduces to several of the investigations that we reviewed formation. (processes of schooling or training), however they are Ferry [6] says that formation can only happen as a called, without greater rigor, formation processes. project of personal transformation: “formation can We enter here into a linguistic controversy, only be a work on oneself, freely imagined, desired because in Spanish formation is not, or should not be, and pursued, carried out through the means offered or the same as training; but in the English language this that one seeks oneself” (p. 43). seems to be the case. In English people talk of teacher training processes as an equivalent for teacher 3. Methodology formation. Formation, education and training are very similar concepts, but they are not the same. This 3.1. Phase one: analysis of papers research is carried out in Mexico, therefore in

Spanish, and it is from this linguistic perspective that We consulted the electronic memory of the we reach the conclusions here presented. National Congress of Educational Research (CNIE) In these pages we analyse the papers that address organized by the National Council of Educational the issue of teacher formation presented at the Research (COMIE) held in November 2017 in the city National Congress of Educational Research (CNIE) of of San Luis Potosí, Mexico [15]. More than 2000 the Mexican Council for Educational Research proposals for papers were sent to this congress in total, (COMIE) held in November 2017 in Mexico. This is of those 1183 were accepted for presentation [16]. For a congress where hundreds of papers are presented their part, 131 (more than 10%) were presented in the and it represents the state of educational research line of research called “Formation Processes”, issues in Mexico. although not all of them specifically deal with the Based on the previous analysis, a second stage of subject of teacher formation. At this point we applied this research was to apply a questionnaire among the first filter, we identified that only 68 of the 131 higher education teachers from various educational papers focus on it. These 68 papers are the ones that institutions in Mexico to find out their SR regarding were carefully analysed for the preparation of this the concept of formation. This document briefly document. discusses the results in this regard. First of all we read each of the 68 rescued papers,

in all of them the authors discuss about teacher 2. Brief approach to the concept of formation processes at various levels, either as a Formation central or secondary topic. We used the qualitative content analysis strategy proposed by Cáceres [17] to It is very difficult to summarize in a few lines what analyse the uses of the concept of formation in each formation is, but we will try to do it in this paper for paper. To systematize and organize the analysis, we expository purposes. Hegel [1] and Gadamer [2], use a synthesis table with 4 columns: 1) objective of mention that formation is the process by which the paper, 2) methodology, 3) main results, 4) individuals appropriate culture, it is the passage from concept, notion or idea about “formation”. particularity to generality. In other words, it implies Once the papers were synthesized and the concept, accessing to new knowledge and ways of life and notion or idea about formation identified, we made a accepting them as your own; it is to overcome one's classification of the papers, the results in this own nature through the access to culture. With the use document are presented based on that classification. reason involved, formation implies the development of tact, prudence and recognition of the other; 3.2. Phase two: questionnaire therefore it goes beyond skills, knowledge and behaviours. These authors also mention that In order to know the SR regarding formation of formation is a duty to oneself. higher education teachers in Mexico, a mixed

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 39 questionnaire was designed and applied to teachers that were presented in the line of “formation assigned to various higher education institutions in processes” deal with teacher formation. Mexico. We divided the sample into two categories: • Of the 68 papers analysed, except in 11 of 1) teachers from Teacher-Training Schools in Mexico them, there is no discussion or theorizing about City and its Metropolitan Area, since these Higher what formation is as a concept. It is often used Education spaces focus on the professional education as an umbrella term, a concept in which other of future teachers at the basic level; and 2) teachers concepts fit, but in this mixture the content and from UNAM, in particular from the Iztacala Higher limits of each one is diluted. It is used as an Studies School (FESI), which is a school that offers equivalent of education, training, updating or university degrees in the area of health and biology, it professionalization; and the reality is that each is a professionalizing Higher Education space. of these concepts refers to different processes. Both scenarios are higher level educational spaces, The concept of formation is not usually but with different purposes and objectives; one defined in the papers, it is only used. focused on the formation of future teachers (therefore Figure 1 shows the six classifications obtained from focused on issues of education and formation); and the analysis of the papers and the number of papers another of health professionals (less closely related to included in each one. It is worth mentioning that the formation topics). Despite their differences, as same paper could be included in more than one educational institutions they have teaching as their category depending on its content. fundamental task, so the questionnaire was applied among their teachers. There are 76 questionnaires 33 applied to teachers from Teacher-Training Schools 35 and 62 at UNAM-FESI. The questionnaire is of a mixed nature, consisting 30 of 5 sections. The first is general data and 25 identification. The second, third and fourth sections 18 20 are natural semantic networks [18], with three 15 inductor words: Formation, Education and Teaching; 14 15 here the instruction for the participants are to write 3 11 words that they associate with the corresponding 10 6 inductor word, then they are asked to assign a number 5 from one to three according to the importance that each one gives them, finally they are asked to write 0 the reasons why they wrote each of the words they associated with the inductor word. The fifth section consists of three open questions: 1) I define “formation” as… 2) describe in which situations or scenarios of daily life you use the word formation and briefly explain the reasons for it, and 3) at some point in time in your life, have you studied, read or discussed anything about "formation"? Briefly describe your experiences in this regard. In this paper, the results of these inquiries are presented in a very synthesized way. We focus only on the semantic network and leave aside the other Figure 1: Classification of papers sections of the questionnaire for future analysis. At this point, it is necessary to clarify that all the 4. Results analysed papers are written in Spanish, and in all of them the word formation (formación) is used, alone or 4.1. Analysis of papers in different expressions. Now, in the presentation of this work, it has been decided to translate the Spanish Due to space, these pages do not present an word “formación” as “formation”, and not to training exhaustive analysis of the papers found in the CNIE (entrenamiento), because we understand that 2017 memories, however, it is possible to present here formation and training are different processes and certain conclusions that we reached from their review their definition is also different. and analysis: Back to the results, in the papers included in the • The issue of teacher formation is a current, first 5 categories, the word formation frequently relevant and problematic topic that requires appears in different expressions, for example: teacher investigation. This can be affirmed by the formation institutions (instituciones formadoras de simple fact that more than half of the papers docentes), initial formation, teacher formation,

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 40 pedagogical formation of teachers. In these cases, the Education and Teaching. Only the 10 associated concept of formation is used as equivalent to school words that make up the core of the network are education. There is one expression that is frequently presented here, those with the highest Semantic used, but is hard to translate to English, it is “teacher Weight (SW). The core of the network was obtained educator” (in Spanish formador de docentes, by multiplying the frequency (fr) of each associated formador de formadores, or docente formador), it word by the Weighted Value (WV), depending on the refers to a teacher-traning school (Escuela Normal) level of importance that the subjects have given to the teacher. Here formation is equivalent to the teaching words they wrote for each inductor word [17]. The activity (enseñanza). words that make up the core of the network define the Other expressions also appear: formation devices, content of the SR under study, in this case, the SR formation program, formation offer, formation needs, about Formation. formation system, formation experiences, transfer of pedagogical formation (which refers to the transfer of Table 1: Core of the semantic network (UNAM- pedagogical learning), continuous formation devices. FESI) In these cases, formation refers to training or updating processes, translated into specific courses or Formation workshops. In all cases, they are processes focused on Word Fr SW the modification of behaviour or knowledge through Education 18 39 programs directed and planned from the outside. Learning 14 32 These training processes are expected to directly Studies 8 20 impact the modification of teaching practice, student Students 5 14 learning, or the institutional life of schools. Development 8 13 We consider that training is different to formation Training 5 12 because training is defined as the “preparation to Preparation 4 10 acquire or improve the knowledge and skills to carry Overcoming 6 10 out a task that professional formation has not School 5 9 provided” [19], and formation goes beyond that. Academy 4 8 Formation, in all these cases, is understood as Education something that can be given and others can receive, as Word Fr SW something designed and sent from the outside and that Formation 10 23 people internalize. Therefore, an externalist and Knowledge 10 22 controlled vision of formation predominates. Learning 12 22 On the other hand, there are 11 papers located in Family 7 17 the category “theoretical dissertations”, 6 are Teacher 6 14 theoretical essays on formation and 5 are empirical School 6 13 investigations with strong theoretical support around Teaching 5 12 Process 2 6 the same concept. Within the theoretical essays, the Work 2 6 concept of formation is linked to some other concepts Values such as aesthetics, memory, culture, daily life, 5 6 Teaching communicative action, and ethics. In the empirical research papers, the authors analyse phenomena such Word Fr SW as: the use of theory in teaching practice, reflection of Teaching 19 43 practice, teacher formation in a rural teacher-training Teacher 9 21 school, development of scientific thinking skills and Learning 9 18 Commitment 7 16 professionalization of teachers. Formation 8 16 In these papers a more rigorous use of the concept Education 6 15 is noted, here formation is not compared to other Knowledge 6 13 concepts as in the previous categories. A clear Responsibility 5 13 relationship between formation and reflexive activity Upgrade 6 12 is distinguished, and therefore the idea that formation Student 6 11 can be granted or that it comes from outside is abandoned. It is recognized that formation is a Table 2: Core of the semantic network (UNAM- personal work, that even transcends school processes FESI) and the curriculum. Formation 4.2. Questionnaire Word Fr SW Education 12 31 This section presents the results of the semantic Preparation 10 24 network of the three inductor words: Formation, Building 5 18

Development 8 18 precision, opposition” [20]. What we have here, then, Knowledge 6 16 are not concepts, but everyday words whose meanings Upgrade 9 14 dilute within each other, whose use refers to very Learning 6 12 similar processes. They are SR, knowledge that arises Profession 5 12 from and for everyday life. Teacher 6 11 Due to space, in this presentation we will not be School 4 11 able to analyse the results obtained from the other Education sections of the questionnaire, but it is worth Word Fr SW mentioning that there are few teachers who have Formation 15 29 studied something about formation, therefore, they Learning 11 24 cannot be considered specialist; their knowledge Process 9 23 arises from everyday life interactions. Also, when Values 10 21 asked to provide a definition to formation most of the Teaching 7 15 teachers coincide that it is a process that happens in Preparation 8 15 the institutional framework of schools; so they define Culture 7 14 formation almost as a synonym of education, which is Knowledge 6 13 School 7 13 closely related to the act of teaching. Integral 6 12 Teaching 5. Discussion

Word Fr SW In the analysed papers, formation resembles other Teaching 9 44 Teacher 14 36 concepts such as school education, Learning 8 15 professionalization, updating, training, learning or Vocation 5 14 teaching; on many occasions all these terms are used Art 4 10 interchangeably. Furthermore, most of the papers did Formation 4 10 not make a theoretical discussion about the concept, Example 4 8 but simply used it, without theoretical-conceptual Guide 4 8 rigor. On the other hand, the findings of the Upgrade 3 7 questionnaire showed a very similar situation. This is Students 3 7 understandable in everyday life because it is the terrain where common sense predominates. But the These three inductor words (Formation, Education worrying thing is that these uses are also mixed among and Teaching) were chosen because we have the specialists, people doing pedagogical or educational assumption that, from common sense thinking, the research. limits of these concepts are very ambiguous with each In most of the analysed publications, it is other. Furthermore, as we saw in the previous section, happening what Bourdieu [21] calls “spontaneous the use of the concept of formation is equated with the sociology”, where preconceived notions, prejudices other two. Two tables are presented below; one is the and the popular use of the concepts predominate: in core of the network of teachers from the UNAM-FESI other words, research is being made from SR. and the other from the teachers of Teacher-Training ‘Formation’ is used without rigor, its limits are Schools. blurred; it is equated with other concepts like the When reviewing the words that appear in each of previous ones. When formation is equated with the tables it is evident that there are many similarities training its content is limited. It is reduced to between the content of the core of the semantic processes of transmission of information and the network of each of the inductor words. In fact, the development to perform specific actions. The results words Education, Formation and Teaching occupy the also show that the current use of the word “formation” first places in the two population groups. This shows is associated to processes that occur in school settings. that, from the SR of higher education teachers, there A naive and lack of rigor use of this concept prevails, is no clear distinction between the concepts of both in specialized documents and in the daily life of Formation, Education and Teaching. We can say this higher education institutions. because there is not a very clear distinction between This is worrying for educational research, as it the responses obtained from the two population shows little rigorous research practices. The analysis groups. reveals that the concept of formation has a popular Strictly speaking, these concepts are not the same, use, and that its uses are diverse, and this is not they refer to different things, similar yes, and even necessarily a negative thing. But in this case it is, related to each other, but ultimately different. because 57 of the 68 papers that were analysed here According to Fullat “the concepts are defined, they are do not discuss the concept, they only use it, as if it was rigorous. The concept of triangle cannot be confused used in any daily conversation: without rigor. with that of a circle. The concept has limits, borders,

For educational reality this also has implications, [11] Campos, N., “La formación pedagógica de profesores since the emancipating, liberating and transforming de medicina”, Revista Latinoamericana de Enfermagem, content of the concept of formation is lost. It is diluted 18(1), 2010, pp. 1-7. in simpler processes, like training. [12] López de la Madrid, M. C. and Chávez, J. A., “La It appears that the hegemonic discourse of formación de profesores universitarios en la aplicación de productivity and consumption had won the battle las TIC”. Sinéctica: revista de educación, 41, 2013, pp. 1- against critical discourses, such as that of the classical 18. theorists of formation. In the productivity logic, formation is reduced to an object that can be designed, [13] Pinilla, A., “Modelos pedagógicos y formación de given and received, like any product manufactured in profesionales en el área de la salud”, Acta médica a factory. colombiana, 36(4), 2011, pp. 204-218. We have showed in this paper that the idea that formation can be given and received prevails, thus, it [14] Sánchez, M. y Mayor, C., “Los jóvenes profesores universitarios y su formación pedagógica”, Revista de becomes a product, something manufactured, even Educación, 339(2006), 2006, pp. 923-946. sold and bought [22]. The predominance of this idea has repercussions, since for educational institutions [15] Consejo Mexicano de Investigación Educativa- and for teachers themselves, formation is limited to COMIE, Memoria electrónica del Congreso Nacional de schooling and training: the certifiable dimension of Investigación Educativa. San Luis Potosí: COMIE, 2017, formation. Leaving aside the personal dimension of http://www.comie.org.mx/congreso/memoriaelectronica/v1 formation that refers to personal reflexion and 4/index.htm (Access date: 6 November 2020). transformation. In this sense, a formed teacher is one who has the certificates that endorse it as such, not one [16] Rodríguez Gómez-Guerra, R., COMIE: El congreso invisible, 2018, available on: who has thought over his practice to improve and http://www.comie.org.mx/v5/sitio/2018/07/06/congreso_in transform it. visible/ (Access date: 6 November 2020).

6. References [17] Cáceres, P., “Análisis cualitativo de contenido: Una alternativa metodológica alcanzable”. Psicoperspectivas, II, [1] Hegel, G. W. F., Propedéutica filosófica, UNAM, 2003, pp. 53-82. México, 1984. [18] Reyes Lagunes, I., “Las redes semánticas naturales, su [2] Gadamer, H. G., Verdad y Método, Sígueme, conceptualización y su utilización en la construcción de Salamánca, 2012. instrumentos”, Revista de Psicología Social y Personalidad, IX(1),1993, pp. 81-97. [3] Honoré, B., Para una teoría de la formación: Dinámica de la formatividad. Narcea, Madrid, 1980. [19] Ander-egg, E., Diccionario de pedagogía, Magisterio del Río de la Plata, Buenos Aires, 1999. p. 46. [4] Yurén Camarena, M. T., “Formación, horizonte al quehacer académico (Reflexiones filosófico- [20] Fullat, O., “Prólogo”, in Ponce Rivas, A. Columnas pedagógicas)”. UPN, México, 1999. metodológicas o Sócrates nada sabe acerca de Zeus, INAD, México, 1996. p. 15. [5] Horlacher, R., Bildung, la formación, Octaedro, Barcelona, 2015. [21] Bourdieu, P., El oficio del sociólogo, Siglo XXI, México, 2008. [6] Ferry, G., El trayecto de la formación: Los enseñantes entre la teoría y la práctica, UNAM – Paidós, México, [22] Lozano González, E. O., “Teacher formation and 1990. teaching culture in everyday school life at university: the area of health case”, The international journal of humanities [7] Pérez Gómez, Á., “La función y formación del education. 16(1-2), 2018, pp. 33-43. profesor/a en la enseñanza para la comprensión. Diferentes perspectivas.”, in Sacristán, J. G. and Á. Pérez Gómez, Comprender y transformar la enseñanza. Morata, Madrid, 2008.

[8] Lozano Andrade, I., Teoría y práctica en la formación docente. Una mirada sociológica. Newton, México, 2017.

[9] Moscovici, S., El psicoanálisis, su imagen y su público. Huemul, Buenos Aires, 1979.

[10] Benito, E., “La formación en psicología: revisión y perspectivas”, Revista Psciencia, 1(2), 2009, pp. 1-12.

A Challenge for Engineering Students in the Context of the Industry 4.0

Pascal Vrignat1, Estelle Courtial2 Université d’Orléans, Laboratoire PRISME, EA 4229, 1 IUT de l’Indre, Département GEII, 2 Avenue François Mitterrand 36000 CHATEAUROUX 2 Polytech Orléans, 8 Rue Léonard de Vinci, 45072 ORLEANS Cedex 2

Abstract

Among the many pedagogical strategies for end of a project, a learning process unfolds what improving students' motivation, know-how, and Midler [5] describes as "an irreversible dynamic scientific skills, project-based learning is often cited where one goes from a situation where one knows as an example. To strengthen team spirit and maintain nothing or little but where everything is possible, to engagement throughout the project, nothing is better another where, on the contrary, the level of knowledge than a competition between teams to create has reached its maximum and where all of the emulation. It’s in this context that the challenge enti- flexibility has been used". Figure 1 could be an tled "New digital processes for the Industry 4.0" has illustration of this situation. This finite duration been set up for engineering students in an induces coherence in action and management apprenticeship at Poly-tech Orléans. Two teams organizational structure of the group or working chosen were randomly constituted among the 5th year groups. It is then necessary to be vigilant and students in "Production Management". The scientific anticipate certain actions to avoid the possible drifts objectives of the challenge were numerous and met issued from PBL (see Figure 2). needs and services linked to the issues of Industry 4.0. This article details the pedagogical strategy adopted, the technical specifications as well as the general organization of the project. The results obtained both from a technical and pedagogical point of view showed the benefits of this challenge for the students and made us possible to refine our pedagogical strategy thanks to the return of experience.

1. Introduction Figure 1. Adapted representation of the dynamics of the Among the many pedagogical strategies for so-called "project" situation in Midler [5] improving students' motivation, attitudes and skills, Project-Based Learning (PBL) has often been cited as an example for several decades [1], [2], [7]. Widely used in vocational education, PBL is increasingly adopted in higher education. It integrates knowing and doing. This student-centered pedagogy rests on several founding pillars: 1) Students' skills are sufficiently developed to carry out work where the answer is not necessarily known in advance by the teacher (existence of several solutions and not a unique solution is given by the teacher), 2) Students can carry out long-term projects in an autonomous way, 3) Higher education increasingly favors Figure 2. Possible drifts from PBL industrial collaborations. As teachers, we have noticed that there is an The main characteristic of projects or challenges is enthusiasm of students for a project if the topic is at their duration, longer than the usual teaching the same time attractive, motivating, playful and activities. However, the duration of a project is limited concrete. The topic for this experiment was de facto by a pre-defined end. Between the beginning and the found regarding the current industrial stakes. Indeed, the French training and technological research sectors

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 44 are fundamental for the development of the industry process. From the information obtained from the and the country. They must recruit the best students studied process, the different teams must develop and train them for the development of companies in several solutions to be implemented to carry out a various activity domains. Many companies and start- large panel of tests and use several IT customers in a ups driven by innovation have set up in France. The SCADA1 approach [3]. For this purpose, the data are development of such companies will only be possible centralized in an OPC DA server2 and made available through the development of the industry of the future to different OPC clients (Figure 4). The entire solution with the emergence of new talents. This is why must also allow the real-time monitoring of a certain Industry and Higher Education must work hand in number of variable contents (Items3) associated with hand. These far-reaching changes in Industry raise the quality of the manufactured products. consequently many questions about the content of The operational and dysfunctional modes of the training courses: process must also be displayed for a visual process management. Information related to production (e.g ✓ What content needs to be developed, the Overall Equipement Efficiency - OEE) must be particularly in terms of skills? sent to a predefined recipient (maintenance or ✓ At what levels of training should the effort production manager) through two transmission be focused? means: 1) SMS with an associated message on a ✓ How should the training offer be structured? mobile phone, 2) Mail with an associated message on ✓ How to teach? a mailbox. Figure 4 shows in detail the different ✓ Should pedagogies evolve? technical constraints (hardware and software) that ✓ Which equipment and infrastructures are students have to manage. The network administration needed to teach these new disciplinary is also a technological challenge. They have to select fields? the information on a process that they consider relevant to ensure efficient monitoring of production. The Higher Education, specially the technical, They have to define the thresholds triggering alarms technological and scientific education, already and choose the different means of information (sensor provides elements of response by offering appropriate information, buzzer information, actuator training on many topics related to the industry of the information, safety information, ...) without future. However, the need for skills is such that it is disturbing the production process. necessary to rapidly multiply adapted training Considering the example of the industrial process courses. described in Figure 3, students may choose to follow the OEE and the temperature if they believe that the In this article, we present the scientific challenge two indicators play a major role in the quality of the about the industry of the future, Industry 4.0, proposed finished product and can be considered as key to engineering students. The pedagogical approach is performance indicators. detailed by presenting the tools used to avoid the drifts inherent to project-based pedagogy and to maintain the commitment and motivation of the teams throughout the project. Both scientific and pedagogical results are discussed. In section 2, we present the scientific and technical context of the challenge as well as the two industrial partners. Section 3 describes the pedagogical approach adopted by the students. Section 4 presents the technical results of the challenge and the assessment of the pedagogical strategy. We end with a conclusion.

2. The framework of the challenge Figure 3. A simplified automated painting line 2.1. The scientific topic: the Industry 4.0 2.2. Industrial partnerships The challenge proposed to the students is to set up an operational structure based on a communicating The industrial controller used is a PLC industrial architecture in a production follow-up (Programmable Logic Controller) from the manufacturer Phoenix Contact (ILC 151

1 SCADA: Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition interface devices like Human-Machine Interfaces (HMI), 2 OPC Data Access is a group of client-server standards that SCADA systems and also ERP/MES systems. provides specifications for communicating real-time data 3 Items: This point represent data that may be accessed via from data acquisition devices such as PLCs to display and an OPC server.

GSM/GPRS). The platform allows the information the first agreement for France with this network [9]. required by the individual customer to be processed This close partnership has enabled us to integrate new on request (see Figure 4). Hardware solutions must fit technologies for the challenge with negotiated rates into a context where digital wireless communications for hardware and software purchases. A software are extending their influence [4]. platform (PC Worx, see Figure 5) is available to With the help of the international Education configure, program and diagnose the PLC. Network EduNet, Phoenix Contact promotes The second partnership is an international software exchange and collaboration between several publisher: Skkynet [10]. We have been working for 3 universities working with the professional community years with this software publisher, which markets an in the field of process automation and research and environment called Cogent DataHub. Cogent development [6]. To date, the EduNet international DataHub (see Figure 6) is a unique tool that allows network of contacts and expertise comprises 110 you to connect, concentrate, integrate and redistribute schools and universities in 30 countries [8]. The data in real-time between users and different devices educational institutions, using the Phoenix Contact (PLCs, tablets, smartphones....). The publisher has material offered by this partnership, undertake in agreed to provide us with the necessary licenses for exchange to make available their teaching/course the challenge so that the students can use this platform materials and experiences to the community on their personal or school computers. Software registered on the EduNet Internet platform. Phoenix platforms (AutomationWorx 2018, Cogent DataHub Contact laboratories are settled within universities in V9, and an office suite Office or other > 2010-) have a collaborative manner, thus facilitating the entry of been implemented. students into the professional world. In July 2017, the University of Orléans and the IUT de l'Indre signed

Figure 4. Hardware and software architecture of the challenge

Figure 5. PC Worx development platform

Figure 6. Cogent DataHub proposed by Skkynet

3. The pedagogical strategy

3.1. The project-based learning

For the last decade, the Higher Education (University) has realized that pedagogical modalities and strategies must evolve to take into account the new stakeholders. The teaching of the course entitled "Industrial Supervision" has until now been given in the form of lectures (12hours) and tutorials (12hours). This year we have decided to adopt a project-based Figure 7. A fun demonstrator to start the challenge learning strategy and the number of teaching hours was redistributed as follows: 8 hours (2 sessions of 4 3.2. The active pedagogy hours) were devoted upstream to support the theoretical elements, 12 hours over 1.5 days were From a pedagogical point of view, we have dedicated to the development of a solution, and combined the PBL with an active pedagogy. The latter finally, 4 hours to the presentation of the technical makes possible to validate the capacity of the students solutions developed, a real-time experiment of the for restitution/transmission of information, from the solution and an oral synthesis in a video format. team leader to the other participants in the group (see Furthermore 15 hours of Autonomy Teaching Period Figure 8, a) and from students to other students (see (ATP) were added to the student’s timetable. All the Figure 8, b). necessary resources were available on the digital environment of the University of Orleans (CELENE): technical documents, programs examples to start, a video presentation of the challenge... Figure 7 gives access to an important digital resource called "La Cagnotte de Pascal". For the organization of the challenge, a first step was to set up the two teams. We had tested, in another study modules, teams formed by affinity or teams created according to the own students’ skills. For this experiment, we opted for a random choice. Two Figure 8. Reverse classroom groups of nine students were randomly designated and competed at the same time, over a limited and supervised period (see Figure 9). The planning of the The specific knowledge inputs on the different different tasks to be carried out in the challenge was software environments were given only to the team under the responsibility of a team leader. All the leaders (see Figure 8, a). The team leaders were then material resources were identical for both groups. required to restitute, as needed, the knowledge they Each student had all the necessary software on his/her had previously acquired (Figure 8, b). Spread over personal computer. He/she could therefore work at several weeks, the knowledge and skills provided his/her own pace. At the end of the challenge, each were slowly disseminated individually and group had to present their work in English in a "My collectively project in 180 seconds" format, and with a fun video showing the technical results of the challenge.

Figure 9. Temporal organization of the challenge

4. Results The video in Figure 11 presents the result in a 180 seconds format of the work carried out by a team. 4.1. Technical results

The distribution of the various tasks was agreed by the team leader of each group according to the students' skills and motivation for each task. One team set milestones per task giving more autonomy to the participants. The other team established time milestones to synchronize the progress of the different tasks. This choice encouraged mutual help within the group and a greater sharing of knowledge. Even if the project management strategies were different, both Figure 11. My project in 180 seconds groups successfully completed the many technological challenges. Face to a technical problem 4.2. Assessment of the learning strategies to be solved, one can and must contextualize the problem with the use of formalization tools To assess the pedagogical aspect of the challenge, a (functional blocks, Boolean equation, flowchart, quiz with the Kahoot environment was offered to all structured analysis, and design technics, algorithm...). students at the end of each half-day of work [11]. Before any operational intervention, the various Kahoot is an online application for generating groups had to consult each other to bring out the interactive multiple-choice questions. The latter, used essential information issued by the system (without in class on a tablet, a smartphone or a computer, modifying the wiring of the electrical breadboard). allows students to self-assess while viewing their The both groups wanted to be able to process the success rate as well as their colleagues' ones. The following information: - Management of on and off system is similar to that of voting boxes and allows modes: system on or off, emergency stop, analog the teacher to assess, for each student, the degree of sensor, digital sensor; knowledge acquisition. The objective was to measure - Management of the manufacturing recipe depending their level of motivation, involvement, coordination, on the system they had chosen. and skills. The results of the various surveys are presented in Figure 13. We can see a strong Figure 10 shows some results obtained in a team. motivation for the teams at the beginning of the This team had chosen to control and monitor a mixer. challenge. This level was initially at 3.18 and ended at The results satisfy the technical constraints expressed 3.6 (4 is the maximum score). We noted a decrease at in the challenge requirements. mid-term on this criterion due to the technological locks that had to be opened. The students greatly increased their knowledge and skills throughout the challenge: from a level 2 at the beginning of the challenge, they reached a level 4 at the end. Concerning their level of knowledge, the results are significant. In the beginning, students were a little stressed due to the no knowledge of the various software and hardware tools. As expected the degree of ability to act on the challenge was very important at the beginning and declined as the work progressed. The general debriefing conducted on January 20, 2020, with the two team leaders is transcribed in the two interviews opposite (see Figure 12). These interviews in French reflect the previous concerns and the satisfaction obtained during and after the challenge.

Figure 10. Example of a developed solution for a mixer

throughout the project, leading to a significant increase in their technical knowledge: real-time communication, supervision, PLC, data analysis. The PBL combined with the freedom of organization within each team has reinforced the students’ skills in project management and human management (mutual aid, communication, involvement, self-confidence). As we have shown, this learning strategy requires an important preliminary work from the teaching staff. Figure 12. The interviews of the two team leaders This project has reinforced our commitment to the need for transformation of our teaching and skills transfer strategies. Acknowledgements Four partners contributed to this project, the University of Orleans (institutional partner), Phoenix Contact, Edunet, Skkynet DataHub (industrial partners).

6. References

Figure 13. Quiz results [1] Bavota G., Lucia D., Fasano F., Oliveto R. and Zottoli C., Teaching software engineering and software 4.3. Messages of the industrial partners project management: An integrated and practical approach, 34th International Conference on Software Engineering, 2012, pp. 1155-1164. Message from M. Louis PARENT (Sales and Marketing Automation Manager / Phoenix Contact - [2] Blumenfeld P.C., Soloway E., Marx R. W., Krajcik J. France): "Through the International University S., Guzdial M. and Palincsar A., Motivating project- based learning: Sustaining the doing, supporting the Network, EduNet, we encourage exchange and learning, Educational psychologist, 26 (1991), pp. collaboration between various universities by setting 369-398. up joint research and training projects. We promote the teaching of the latest technological advances [3] Boyer S. A., SCADA: supervisory control and data acquisition, International Society of Automation, through specialized conferences on current topics in 2009. the field of automation technology (PLCnext Technology). We are setting up automation [4] Louberg J. A., Johnson P. A. and Korevaar E., laboratories, with practice-oriented programs. Wireless communication system, Google Patents, 2010. Finally, teachers develop common learning documents which they exchange between university [5] Midler C., L’auto qui n’existait pas, Management des partners, which facilitates the entry of students into projets et transformation de l'entreprise, Dunod, the world of work. It is through this commitment, in (1993). France, and around the world, that Phoenix Contact [6] Phoenix Contact, Update 2|17, Le magazine client de contributes to improving practices and needs." Phoenix Contact (2017), pp. 1-28. [7] Vrignat P., Millet J-F., Duculty F., Begot S. and Avila Message from Mr. Paul THOMAS, CEO of M., A technology shift for a fireworks controller, Skkynet: "Skkynet is pleased to note the use of the International Congress in Education, Innovation and different possibilities offered by Cogent DataHub. We Learning Technologies, Grenada, Spain, 2015. are always ready to contribute to the students training [8] https://elms.ccad.eu/moodle/, (Access date: 12 April on the topic of the industry of the future." 2020). [9] http://pascal.ajoux.free.fr/pdf/scan0003.pdf, (Access 5. Conclusion date: 10 Mach 2020). [10] https://skkynet.com/, (Access date: 1 April 2020). Initiated for the first time in this training module, the [11] https://kahoot.com/, (Access date: 10 March 2020). challenge "Industry 4.0" is a complete success for both stakeholders. The topical issue has succeeded in maintaining students’ involvement and motivation

A Review on the Use of Writing Outlines as Part of Study Habits to Increase Academic Performance of the Students

Shara May T. Espinol University of Batangas, Philippines

Abstract

Technology introduced gadgets such as On a day-to-day basis, the researcher observed computers, laptops, and mobile phones to help how college students would simply take pictures of people in their tasks. For the students, these things the lecture on their mobile phones instead of had been replacing the use of notebooks and other copying them. They come to school with a very writing materials in the past decades. There had small bag containing just their wallets and been conflicting pieces of evidence however about cellphone. Some of them do not even bring pens how it affects the learners' attitude and perception anymore. And it is somehow puzzling that even with of the learning process. This research was the ease in acquiring information the grades of the conducted to review if making outlines is still a great students are still only average for most of them and way to help students learn or should all students just even low for several students in the major subjects. rely on their gadgets. The results showed that there Does this mean technology failed in supporting the is no significant difference in the academic students to achieve academic ease and excellence? performance of the students who were required to Different study habits are being used by the outline compared to those who did not outline. students and prescribed by the teachers for better However, data revealed that students perceived that learning. It is the goal of every academic institution they can do better and perform better in class when to cater to the unique learning needs of the students. making outlines. The extraneous variables at play in One of the most effective habits that students used this field study may be the reason for the results in the past is outlining the lesson and taking down obtained. This goes to show that there is still a need notes. According to Natalie Smith [3], outlining to review teaching pedagogies and classroom could help the students to organize their thoughts management techniques to incorporate study habits and to remember their lessons. Whenever students which are effective based on the needs of the study, they are encouraged to make outlines so that students. they can arrange their thoughts in a way that they could easily recall or remember it later. Huge concepts may be broken-down into bits that are 1. Introduction easier to recall and ideas could easily be connected in ways that the students could comprehend. Since the time that the students have been the It was discussed in another article that effective center of the educational system, educators use, note-taking leads to better listening and recording developed, modified, and implemented different skills which is an important part of working as a teaching strategies to help them succeed. With the professional in the future. The task of listening to development of technology, acquiring information lectures while taking-down notes also enhance the had been easier. In the older days, people used ability of the learners to focus. In addition to this, the dictionaries and copy the information they need by practice also prevents students from being distracted hand. Books are hard to come by and photocopies by digital variables. Since the task allows them to were costly. Today, students could easily download experience the information several times – visual, all types of information online and print at the auditory, and kinesthetic – it allows them to retain comfort of their own homes. They could even save the information longer [4]. it on their devices for reading later. However, do In comparing the learners who used note-taking these improvements help students to learn what they from those who use modern technology, a need? comparative study cited in the article of Doubek [1] suggested that students who take down notes tend to perform better in class than those who used their gadgets. The experiment showed that note-takers

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 50 remember information better as well. This article result presented through the composite mean is in also categorized note-taking as generative and non- Table 1. generative. Generative note-taking pertains to transforming information by paraphrasing or Table 1. Perceived academic efficiency summarizing what is heard in the process of writing from making an outline it down. Non-generative note-taking simply means writing what is heard. And regardless of the note- Item Composite Verbal taking category, those who used notes instead of Mean Interpretation 1 3.72 Efficient recording on laptops and gadgets still did better at 2 3.50 Efficient the task. 3 3.72 Efficient Making an outline or taking down notes is also 4 3.44 Efficient one of the requirements being asked from 5 3.61 Efficient Psychology students on some of their major subjects 6 3.67 Efficient starting the academic year 2016-2017. The 7 3.54 Efficient 8 3.78 Efficient researcher wanted to evaluate the efficiency of this 9 3.81 Efficient method by conducting this research. It was 10 3.70 Efficient hypothesized that there is a significant difference in TOTAL 3.65 Efficient the academic performance between batch 2015- 1-1.75 – not efficient; 1.75-2.5 – low efficiency; 2.5-3.25 – 2016 and batch 2016-2017. moderate efficiency; 3.25-4.0 - efficient

Taking these factors at hand, the researcher conducted this study to see if the college students of Based on the results of the survey, the students perceive that they become more efficient learners the university will also show better learning capacity when taking down notes and outlines. They agree when taking down notes. Specifically, this that it allows them to remember lessons better and researcher formulated the following statement of the organize their thoughts better. This was supported problem: (1) what is the level of academic efficiency of the students who outline the lesson and those who by the article that says note-taking or outlining did not; (2) is there a significant difference in the results to better listening skills as well as recording ability [4]. The repeated exposure to the stimulus, grades of the students who were required to outline which is the lesson, through listening or reading and those who did not outline; and (3) what intervention then writing results to storage of information in the may be applied in the teaching strategy of teachers long term memory. based on the results of the study. Efficiency pertains to a person’s ability to accomplish something with less time and effort. It 2. Methods translates to a person’s competence to perform something. The survey measured whether the The researcher used a descriptive-comparative students thought that outlining helped them in design which was also supported by a qualitative achieving higher grades and made studying easier. method done by using an unstructured interview in When interviewed about how using outlines and the form of guide questions. The researcher taking down notes affect their study habits, the constructed a survey to measure the perception of students expressed how they felt motivated and the students about making an outline and its effects efficient in studying. Based on the qualitative data on their studies. This instrument was validated by gathered, they expressed feeling smart and looking experts in the field of education and research. It is a smart when making outlines. They also felt like they 4-point scale which is all positively stated. were good students and they hoped that making the The researcher also compared the grades of the outline would help them remember their lessons students on one subject on the grades of the students later during the exams. from the previous batch who were not required to outline by using a t-test for paired samples. A total Table 2. T-test for paired samples comparing 2 of 23 students from each batch were paired and their groups of students who took the subject grades were compared.

3. Results and Discussion

With the general goal of finding out if requiring the students to outline will improve their academic performance; data were gathered and analyzed To support this result, a t-test of paired samples qualitatively and quantitatively. The descriptive was conducted on the data composed of the students'

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 51 grades. Based on the results, there is no significant 04/17/474525392/attention-students-put-your-lap difference between the grades of the students from tops-away#:~:text=Live%20Sessions-,Taking batch 2015-2016 and batch 2016-2017. Therefore %20Notes%20By%20Hand%20May%20Be%20Be the hypothesis is rejected. The average of the tter%20Than%20Digitally%2C%20Researchers,re students on the said subject is almost the same. %20forced%20to%20slow%20down. (Access date: The reason for this could be attributed to other 6 March 2018). study habits and classroom strategies for helping students to learn. Batch 2015 was not required to [2] MindTools.(n.d.). VAK Learning Styles: have an outline of their lessons but some of them are Understanding How Team Members Learn. also doing it. Also, it is common among students to Retrieved December 2017; from just copy the outline of their classmates, defeating https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/vak- the purpose of them being able to read before learning-styles.htm. (Access date: 6 March 2018). writing. Plus, according to the different theories of learning, there are different modes of processing [3] Smith, N. (2017). What are the Benefits of Using information. Some students are visual and would An Outline When Writing? https://classroom.syno- tend to remember drawings, charts, and graphs. nym.com/benefits-using-outline-writing-27307. Some students are auditory and would rather listen html. (Access date: 6 March 2018). than look. And also, some kinesthetic learners need to experience things to keep them in mind [2]. [4] The Learning Center (n.d.). Effective Note- Another possible extraneous variable that is at taking in Class. University of North Carolina at play in this situation is the motivation of the students Chapel Hill. https://learningcenter.unc.edu/tips-and- to learn. This is based on the interview conducted on tools/effective-note-taking-in-class/#:~:text=Why% some of the students. The grades of the students in 20good%20notes%20matter&text=Taking%20goo Theories of Personality were the data used in this d%20notes%20in%20class,comprehension%20of% study. The subject is completely theoretical and 20material%2C%20and%20retention. (Access date: contains a lot of concepts and facts based on 6 March 2018). informal interviews are very difficult to study. The theories are closely related to each other and often very confusing. One concept may be defined in varied ways by different theorists. Admittedly, some students agreed that outlining is effective, however, due to lack of time they were unable to write proper lesson outlines. Poor handwriting is also a factor that demotivates them from using their outlines when studying.

4. Conclusion and Recommendation

Based on this study, there is a need to use another type of teaching strategy and to promote other types of study habits that could help the students to learn better. The department may coordinate with the Guidance, Counseling, and Health Office to reinforce their program on Study Habits through guidance classes. If making outlines or note-taking would be prescribed as a class requirement, the students should be equipped about how to use generative note-taking instead of simply doing it for the sake of subject completion.

5. References:

[1] Doubek, J. (2016). Attention, Students: Put Your Laptops Away. NPR. https://www.npr.org/2016/

A Triadic Model of Regulated Learning Perspectives

Eman Faisal Department of Curriculum and Instruction, College of Education, King Saud University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom

Abstract

Purpose – This study aimed to investigate the structural relationships between self-regulated learning (SRL), co-regulated learning (CoRL), and socially shared regulation of learning (SSRL) among Saudi first-year undergraduates. Design/methodology/approach – This mixed-methods research included two sequential stages as presented in the following Figure 1:

Stage 2 Stage 1 Developing (the dominant stage) Interviewing a questionnaire Administrating a first-years using the questionnaire to explore wording of on a survey sample of their meaning of the students first-years to investigate the SRL, CoRL, from relationships between SRL, and SSRL Stage 1 and CoRL, and SSRL (3 weeks) pilot it (6 weeks) (5 weeks)

Figure 1. The research design

First, qualitative data was collected by conducting semi-structured interviews with 28 students to explore their understanding of SRL, CoRL, and SSRL. Second, by using the collected qualitative data, in addition to the literature, a structured questionnaire was developed and administrated on a survey sample of students (n = 1778). The measurement and structural models were analysed using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modelling (SEM). Findings – The model fit the data well (2[df] = 638.301[98]; p < .001; CFI = .940; TLI = .926; RMSEA [90% confidence interval] = .056 [.052-.060]; SRMR = .039). Figure 2 shows the structural model.

CoRL

-0.169***

0.711*** SRL

0.097ns

SSRL

Figure 2. SEM (standardised betas) of SRL (self-regulated learning), CoRL (co-regulated learning), and SSRL (socially shared regulation of learning). ***p < .001, ns = not significant

There is a significant, but negative, directional relationship from CoRL toward SRL (β = -0.169, p < .001). SSRL is not related to SRL (β = 0.097, p = .078). The correlation between CoRL and SSRL is the largest in the model (r = 0.711, p < .001). Originality/value – This study provides that SRL, CoRL, and SSRL are not related to each other as was proposed in the literature. This is perhaps due to the fact that these relationships were mainly investigated in Westernised societies, whereas the current study was conducted on Saudi students who live in a society with collectivist culture norms. In addition, it targeted first-years who are typically more independent learners than dependent ones.

Session 2: Inclusive Education and Practices

Title: Role Stress in Adolescents: Differences in Terms of Gender and Employment Status of Mothers Author: Ajit Kaur

Title: Training Part C Early Intervention Providers to Screen for Autism Spectrum Disorder Authors: Darby Batchelor, Trisha L. Self, Douglas F. Parham

Title: The Impact of Implementing Words Their Way with an Adolescent Who Uses AAC: A Case Study Authors: Megan Stein, Karissa Marble-Flint, Holli Steiner, Ashly Elliott

Title: Implementing the Stickwriting Approach: A Case Study of Two Children with Social Communication Challenges Authors: Ana Astoquilca, Karissa Marble-Flint

Role Stress in Adolescents: Differences in Terms of Gender and Employment Status of Mothers

Ajit Kaur University of South Australia, Australia

Abstract

The present study was undertaken to investigate effects of role stress include, poor social and coping role stress among adolescents of employed and skills, often leading to avoidance of social unemployed mothers. The sample of the study interactions, loneliness, low self-esteem, perception consisted of 200 adolescent students from both the of rejection and difficulty in forming friendships private and public secondary schools of Amritsar, [10]. Therefore, gaining insight into the role stress in India. Equal number of students were taken from adolescents of both employed and unemployed year level 9 and 11. Bisht Battery of Stress Scales mothers adds to the existing body of knowledge. As (BBSS) was used to measure role stress among tendency to enter the workforce has been increased students. The analysis of the data revealed that no among women, therefore, to know whether mother’s significant difference exists in the level of role stress employment affects adolescents’ level of role stress among boys and girls of both employed and is an issue of scientific enquiry [5]. unemployed mothers, that is, level of role stress is With respect to employed and unemployed independent of gender and employment status of mothers’ researchers are divided in their opinions. mothers. The study fills the gap in the literature by Some researchers are of the view that adolescents of underscores the usefulness of role theory for employed mothers are more under stress as explaining role stress among adolescents of both compared to their counterparts as they do not have employed and unemployed mothers. Furthermore, enough time to spend with their children and to adolescents’ role relationships should be the focus of attend their problems [7], [8], [13], [16]. On the intervention and prevention to promote their healthy contrary, other researchers suggested that psychosocial development. Findings are discussed in adolescents of employed mothers face less stressful the light of previous literature. Theoretical and situations as they are emotionally mature and can empirical implications of findings and directions for handle the situations much better than the future research are also discussed. adolescents of unemployed mothers, who encounter more such situations in comparison [1], [9], [12]. 1. Introduction Either way, adolescents of both employed and unemployed mothers are reported under stress. From the time of birth an individual plays a Moreover, mothers’ employment status had a greater variety of roles such as that of son/daughter, effect on female adolescents than on their brother/sister/, friend/foe etc. each of these positions counterparts and they tended to assure greater or roles occupied by an individual are connected by a responsibility for household tasks [5]. Therefore, an set of norms or guidelines for appropriate behavior understanding of employment status of mothers and [7]. These guidelines or role prescriptions are gender differences in role stress among adolescents devised by society. The individual’s understanding may help in developing plans to optimize the of these roles (role perception) may be faulty or adolescents’ productive activities for achieving goals correct, determine the ways in which he/she behaves of education. (role enactment) [10]. Furthermore, every individual plays a variety of roles simultaneously in life: 2. Objectives student, son, brother etc., where each of these roles require different types of behavior which often cause • To study the level of role stress among problems in relationships. The ensuing stress, that is, adolescents of employed and unemployed stress due to the multiple roles an individual plays in mothers life called role stress [6], [7]. • To study the level of role stress among boys Stress is associated with substantial effects on and girls of employed mothers individuals’ social, emotional, and academic • To study the level of role stress among boys development [2], [14], [15]. Some of the negative and girls of unemployed mothers

3. Hypotheses Table 1. Showing category-wise distribution of adolescents of employed and unemployed mothers • No statistically significant difference exists on the variable role stress in the level of role stress among adolescents of employed and unemployed mothers Categories Adolescents Adolescents Total • No statistically significant difference exists of of in the level of role stress among boys and employed unemployed girls of employed mothers mother mothers • No statistically significant difference exists High 35 23 58 in the level of role stress among boys and stress girls of unemployed mothers Average 47 45 92 stress 4. Method Low stress 18 32 50 Total 100 100 200

Cross-sectional quantitative survey was It is clear from the Table 1 that majority of conducted to investigate gender differences in role adolescents of employed and unemployed mothers stress among adolescents of both employed and lie in the category of average stress on variable role unemployed mothers. Purposive and incidental stress. To find out whether this difference is sampling techniques was used to select the sample statistically significant or not, various statistical for current study, where sample consisted 200 techniques, that is, mean, standard deviation (SD), students studying in year level 9 and 11 from 10 standard error (S.E) of difference between means and secondary schools of Amritsar, a major city of t-value were calculated and presented in Table 2. Punjab state in India.

Table 2. Showing the level of role stress among 5. Measures adolescents of employed and unemployed mothers

To measure the role stress in adolescents Scale of Group N Mean SD S. E t- Role Stress (SRS) from Bisht Battery of Stress value Scales developed by Abha Bisht (1987) was used. Adolescents 100 106 23.3 3.20 1.72 Reliability of the scale of the battery was calculated of in three ways dependability: short term test-retest employed correlations (.78); stability: retest after longer mothers interval (.76); internal consistency: split half Adolescents 100 100.5 21.9 correlations and score on each of the component (α = of .84). unemployed

mothers 6. Data analysis While looking at the Table 2 mean of role stress To achieve the objectives and to test the null among adolescents of employed mothers and hypothesis of the current study mean, SD, and t-test unemployed mothers is 106 and 100.5, respectively. analysis was conducted. Figures and Tables were The standard deviation of employed and unemployed drawn to make the results transparent mothers is 23.3 and 21.9, respectively. While looking at mean scores it is found that adolescents of employed mothers are better than adolescents of 7. Result and Discussion unemployed mothers with respect to their role stress. To find whether this difference is significant or not t- Hypthesis-1 No statistically significant difference test was applied, and calculated t-value. This test was exists in the level of role stress among adolescents of found to be statistically insignificant t (200) = 1.72, p employed and unemployed mothers. For the = 0.001. Thus, the result indicated that adolescents of verification of above-mentioned hypothesis, raw both employed and unemployed mothers do not scores of adolescents of employed and unemployed differ with respect to their level of role stress. Which mothers were calculated, based on their raw scores contradicts the finding of other research studies who they were categorized as follows: were of the view that significant difference exists in stress level of working and non-working mothers [13], [16]

Hypthesis-2 No statistically significant difference exists in the level of role stress among boys and girls

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 57 of employed mothers. For the verification of above- of unemployed mothers. For the verification of mentioned hypothesis, raw scores of boys and girls above-mentioned hypothesis, raw scores of boys and of the employed mothers were calculated, based on girls of the unemployed mothers were calculated, their raw scores they were categorized as follows: based on their raw scores they were categorized as follows: Table 3. Showing category-wise distribution of boys and girls of employed mothers on the Table 5. Showing category-wise distribution of variable role stress boys and girls of unemployed mothers on the variable role stress Categories Boys of Girls of Total employed employed Categories Boys of Girls of Total mother mothers employed employed High stress 13 22 35 mother mothers Average 27 20 47 High stress 15 08 23 stress Average 18 27 45 Low stress 10 08 18 stress Total 50 50 100 Low stress 17 15 32 Total 50 50 100 It is clear from the Table 3 that majority of boys and girls of employed mothers lie in the category of It is clear from the Table 5 that majority of boys and average stress on variable role stress. To find out girls of unemployed mothers lie in the category of whether this difference is statistically significant or average stress on variable role stress. To find out not, various statistical techniques, that is, mean, whether this difference is statistically significant or standard deviation (SD), standard error (S.E) of not, various statistical techniques, that is, mean, difference between means and t-value were standard deviation (SD), standard error (S.E) of calculated and presented in Table 4. difference between means and t-value were calculated and presented in Table 6. Table 4. Showing the level of role stress among boys and girls of employed mothers Table 6. Showing the level of role stress among boys and girls of unemployed mothers Group N Mean SD S. E t- value Group N Mean SD S. E t- Boys of 50 104.4 24.9 4.7 0.71 value employed Boys of 50 100.1 24.3 4.4 0.18 mothers unemployed Girls of 50 107.7 21.7 Girls of 50 100.9 19.7 employed unemployed mothers mothers

While looking at the Table 4 mean of role stress While looking at the Table 6 mean of role stress among boys and girls of employed mothers are 104.4 among boys and girls of unemployed mothers are and 107.7, respectively. The standard deviation of 100.1 and 100.9, respectively. The standard boys and girls of employed mothers are 24.9 and deviation of boys and girls of employed mothers are 21.7, respectively. While looking at mean scores it is 24.3 and 19.7, respectively. While looking at mean found that boys of employed mothers are better than scores it is found that boys of unemployed mothers girls of employed mothers with respect to their role having near about same level of role stress as that of stress. To find whether this difference is significant girls of unemployed mothers with respect to their or not t-test was applied, and calculated t-value. This role stress. To find whether this difference is test was found to be statistically insignificant t (100) significant or not t-test was applied, and calculated t- = 0.71, p = 0.001. Thus, the result indicated that both value. This test was found to be statistically boys and girls of employed mothers do not differ insignificant t (100) = 0.18, p = 0.001. Thus, the with respect to their level of role stress. Which result indicated that both boys and girls of supports the finding of other research studies who unemployed mothers do not differ with respect to were of the view that maternal involvement is their level of role stress. Which conforms the finding important for the mental health of both boys and girls of Sunita (2005) that no significant differences were [13]. found in frustration scores of boys and girls of non- working mothers. Hypthesis-3 No statistically significant difference exists in the level of role stress among boys and girls

8. Future directions [2] Andersen, S. L., & Teicher, M. H. (2008). Stress, • The study was limited to adolescent boys sensitive periods and maturational events in adolescent depression. Trends in neurosciences, 31(4), 183-191. and girls. Future studies can be conducted to examine gender differences in role stress [3] Anshu, J. (1993) The effect of family climate in level among other age groups. of aspiration, motivation and adjustment of adolescents. • The study was limited to adolescents Unpublished, M.Ed Dissertation G.N.D.U, Amritsar. studying in year level 9 and 11. Future studies can include adolescents from other [4] Bisht, A.R. (1987) Manual of Bisht Battery of Stress year levels such as year level 8, 10 and 12 Scales. Agra, national psychological corporation.

• The study was limited to secondary schools [5] Burke, R. J., & Weir, T. (1978). Maternal employment of Amritsar city only. Future studies can be status, social support and adolescents' well- conducted among adolescents of other cities being. Psychological Reports, 42(3_suppl), 1159-1170. and states of India and other countries. • Future research can apply qualitative [6] De Bryn Eddy, H. (2005). Role Strain, engagement, research methods to gain in-depth and academic achievement in early adolescence. Journal of understanding of adolescents’ experiences Educational studies, Vol.31, 15-27. of role stress, which may highlight gender differences and/or differences due to [7] Dunifon, R., Kalil, A., Crosby, D. A., & Su, J. H. (2013). Mothers’ night work and children’s behavior employment status of mothers. problems. Developmental Psychology, 49(10), 1874.

[8] Hoffman, L. W. (1980). The effects of maternal 9. Conclusion employment on the academic attitudes and performance of school aged children. School psychology review, 9, 319 - The study investigated the role stress in 336. adolescents and highlighted stress levels of [9] Jain, M. (1994). The relationship of adjustment, adolescents in terms of gender differences as well as frustration, and academic achievement in the children of employment status of mothers. Study results showed working and non-working women. Buch, M.B. fifth survey that adolescents of both employed and unemployed of Research in Education, New Delhi, NCERT. mothers were experiencing the same level of role stress. Results of the study also revealed that both [10] Liu, R., & Kaplan, H. (2004). Role Stress and boys and girls of employed mothers as well as Aggression Among Young Adults: The Moderating unemployed mothers reported the same level of role Influences of Gender and Adolescent Aggression. Social stress. Therefore, this study has important Psychology Quarterly., 67(1), 88-102. implications for all stakeholders. Firstly, families and [11] Pearlin, L. I. (1983). Role strains and personal stress. schools should create such an environment that may Psychosocial stress: Trends in theory and research, 3-32. decrease the level of role stress among adolescents to develop a positive attitude and self-confidence in [12] Sarita (2006). psychosocial problems of adolescent them. Role stress of adolescents did not differ children of working and non-working mothers. Recent significantly with respect to employment status of researches in education and psychology, vol. 2(3), 12-18. mothers. Both employed and unemployed mothers need to be more careful regarding their time [13] Seenivasan, P., & Kumar, C. P. (2014). A comparison management and need to be available to their child of mental health of urban Indian adolescents among as and when they need care and guidance. Moreover, working and non-working mothers. Annals of community health, 2(2), 39-43. current study highlighted the importance of role stress in adolescents, which the educational policy [14] Sherrifrye (1998). Dealing with stress and studying its makers should consider while framing plans and effect among preadolescents. New York, MC-Graw-Hills policies for adolescent students. Thus, present study series publications. brings awareness about role stress in adolescents among their parents and other stakeholders and can [15] Siddique, C., & D'Arcy, C. (1984). Adolescence, guide them to take necessary interventions. stress, and psychological well-being. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 13(6), 459-473.

10. References [16] Singh, A., Kumar, H., & Kumari, S. (2020). Mental health of adolescents of working and non-working [1] Aghdam, F.B., et al., (2015). The effect of maternal mothers. The International Journal of Indian Psychology, employment on the elementary and junior high school 8(3), 961-966. students’ mental health in Maku. Global general of health science, 7 (2), 379-385.

[17] Sunita (2005). A comparative study of frustration among the children of working and non-working mothers. Unpublished M.Ed. Dissertation, GNDU, Amritsar.

Training Part C Early Intervention Providers to Screen for Autism Spectrum Disorder

Darby Batchelor, Trisha L. Self, Douglas F. Parham Wichita State University United States

Abstract This situation highlights the need to consider alternative approaches to early screenings that The American Academy of Pediatrics’ capitalize on existing frontline service delivery recommendation that all children be screened for systems for toddlers and young children under 3 years autism at 18 and 24 months has not been widely of age. The Part C early intervention (EI) system adopted by the medical community. Early intervention presents a possible infrastructure for implementing (EI) providers who work with high-risk children early screenings, providing timely and informed through Part C of IDEA and can serve as an initial diagnostic referrals, and offering targeted services to point of contact in detecting those at risk for autism young children who demonstrate characteristics of spectrum disorder (ASD). Yet, EI providers have ASD [7]. varied training backgrounds that affect their views Part C programs are available to most U.S. regarding autism. The ASD Knowledge and Attitudes communities and services are provided to families Survey (ASK-Q) was administered to EI providers regardless of their ability to pay. Further, early and prior to and following an ASD-specific training. sustained relationships typically develop between EI Participants' responses to the ASK-Q were analyzed providers and families. Therefore, while EIs cannot to determine if participants' knowledge of ASD diagnose autism, they are well-positioned to offer improved following the workshop. Results indicated families information and support to act quickly and that the professionals' overall knowledge of autism persistently on behalf of young children with possible improved after attending the training. This supports ASD [7]. the literature recommending that EI providers be To facilitate this outcome, early interventionists trained in conducting ASD-specific screenings to who work with infants and toddlers need specific assist with the early identification of autism. training to recognize the signs and symptoms of ASD, conduct ASD-specific screenings, confidently discuss 1. Introduction the results of an ASD-screening/evaluation with parents, and assist families to locate and secure Today, approximately 1 in 54 children below age 8 appropriate resources as early as possible [7]. Poor have been diagnosed with ASD [1]. It has been well knowledge and lack of proper training across various documented that ASD can be accurately diagnosed EI professions impede early screening, accurate between 2-3 years of age. When children are identification, and early referral of children with identified early, they can gain access to targeted possible ASD [8]. As indicated by Harrison and services, which can produce positive outcomes [2]. colleagues, quantification of ASD knowledge may aid Despite this documented evidence, the practice of in the design of training programs that target specific screening young children for ASD has continued to areas [8]. lag. In response, the American Academy of Pediatrics The purpose of this study was to determine EI established guidelines to screen children for ASD, providers’ knowledge of ASD prior to and following recommending that pediatricians screen for ASD at 18 an ASD-specific training tailored to meet the needs of and 24 months using ASD-specific screening tools [3] EI providers. This full-day workshop was designed to [4]. Survey data reveals, however, that most provide attendees with information on the pediatricians and family physicians do not screen characteristics of ASD and the importance of early children for ASD in accordance with the guidelines. screening, training on and simulated practice to Consequently, children are not being diagnosed until implement an ASD-specific screening tool, the 4-6 years of age, which means they might not be Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers-Revised getting the help they need. This adversely affects (M-CHAT-R) [9], and strategies for discussing quality of life for the child and the family [5] [6]. screening results with family members. This study

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 61 was approved by the University Institutional Review responding “agree,” “disagree,” and “don’t know.” Board. The statements were then analyzed to determine if the participants’ knowledge of ASD improved following 2. Method the workshop.

2.1. Survey Instrument 3. Results

The Autism Stigma and Knowledge Questionnaire Given participants’ responses to the ASK-Q, it was (ASK-Q) [8] was used to determine participants’ pre- determined that their overall knowledge of ASD did and post-knowledge of ASD. The ASK-Q consists of improve after attending this training. Prior to the 55 statements designed to comprehensively assess training, participants’ correct responses averaged multiple subdomains of ASD knowledge while 86.2% across all survey statements. Following the maintaining strong psychometric support and cross- workshop, participants’ correct responses were cultural utility. The ASK-Q items, derived from 94.3%. One of the largest changes in participant published research are comprised of four subscales (a) knowledge was on the statement “Genetics plays an diagnosis, (b) etiology, (c) treatment, and (d) stigma important role in the development of autism.” Prior to [8]. the training, 18 agreed; following the training, 30 agreed. On the statement “There is currently no 2.2. Participants medical test to diagnosis autism,” 15 people agreed prior to the training and 26 agreed post training. Thirty-five early intervention providers, employed When presented with the statement “Autism is a by an early intervention agency in Kansas, attended a brain-based disorder,” 19 agreed on the pre-training full-day training titled, “ASD Screening Workshop survey; following the training, 29 agreed. Given the for Early Interventionists.” The Part C EI providers statement “Autism occurs more commonly among represented disciplines including early childhood higher socioeconomic and educational levels,” 23 educators, speech-language pathologists, physical disagreed on the pre-training survey and 31 disagreed therapists, occupational therapists, behavior post training. When asked if “Medication could interventionists, social workers, and audiologists. alleviate the core symptoms of autism,” 20 disagreed Prior to the workshop, all attendees were given the prior to the training, with 28 disagreeing at the option to participate in this study, which consisted of conclusion of the workshop. completing the paper-based ASK-Q prior to and Part C EI providers demonstrated that they following completion of the training. Participants understood the value of early intervention for children were informed that their decision to participate would with ASD. All 31 participants, on both the pre- and not affect their relationship with the university. A total post-surveys, acknowledged that the earlier children of 31 professionals consented to participate and received treatment for autism, the more effective the completed the questionnaires. No identifying treatment; and, that early intervention could lead to information was collected, and surveys were coded significant gains in social and communication skills. for pre- and post-workshop comparison. Providers were also well-informed on the general characteristics of autism. All 31 participants prior to 2.3. Procedure and following training indicated that they recognized children with ASD may demonstrate the following behaviors: become excessively focused on one thing, A faculty member from a local university with show the need for routines and sameness, have strange expertise in ASD conducted the workshop. The reactions to the way things smell, taste, look, feel, or faculty member introduced the research project and sound, and have trouble understanding others’ facial the purpose for collecting the information. An expressions (see Table 1 for sample statement administrator from the EI agency distributed the analyses). ASK-Q to all attendees prior to and at the conclusion of the workshop. Those who chose to participate completed the questionnaires. The administrator 4. Conclusion collected the questionnaires and gave them to the faculty member following the training. Based on the results of this study, it was determined that for these EI providers, their knowledge of ASD 2.4. Analysis improved following completion of this training. EI providers had a high level of knowledge prior to the training and this level was enhanced after attending A comparison of the before and after questionnaire this workshop. These results support the idea that Part responses for each participant was completed. For C Early Interventionists can conduct ASD-specific each statement, the participants had the option of

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 62 screenings to assist with the early identification of ASD. Thus, assisting to ensure that children and families gain timely access to vital services and resources.

5. References

[1] Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020, April 15). Data and statistics on autism spectrum disorder. https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/data.html

[2] Zwaigenbaum, L., Bauman, M., Stone, W., Nurit, Y., Estes, A., Hansen, R., McPartland, J., Natowicz., M., Choueiri, R., Fein, D., Kasari, C., Pierce, K., Buie, T., Carter, A., Davis, P., Granpeesheh, D., Mailloux, Z., Newschaffer, C., Robins, D., Roley, S., Wagner, S., and Wetherby, A., “Early identification of autism spectrum disorder: Recommendations for practice and research”, Pediatrics, 136(1), 2015, pp. 810-840.

[3] Johnson, C., Myers, S., and American Academy of Pediatrics Council on Children with Disabilities, “Identification and evaluation of children with autism spectrum disorders”, Pediatrics, 120(5), 2007, pp. 1183– 3447.

[4] Hyman, S., Levy, S., Myers, S., and Council on Children with Disabilities, “Identification, evaluation, and management of children with autism spectrum disorder”, Pediatrics, 145(1), 2020, pp. 1-7.

[5] Crais, E.R., McComish, C.S., Humphreys, B.P., Watson, L.R., Baranek, G.T., Reznick, J.S., Christian, R.B., and Erls, M., “Pediatric healthcare professionals’ view on autism spectrum disorder screening at 12-18 months”. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44, 2014, pp. 2311- 2329.

[6] Baio, J., Wiggins, L., Christensen, D. et al., “Prevalence and characteristics of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years – Autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 11 sites, United States, 2014”, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Surveillance Summaries, 67(6), pp. 1-23.

[7] Stone, W., Ibanez, L., Carpentier, P., Posner, E., Bravo, A., Frederick, L., and Locke, J., “Early intervention providers’ perspectives about working with families of toddlers with suspected ASD: A qualitative study”, Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders”, 2019, Advance on-line publication. doi.org/10.1007/s10803-019-04337-x.

[8] Harrison, A., Bradshaw, L., Naqvi, N., Paff, M., and Campbell, J., “Development and psychometric evaluation of the autism stigma and knowledge questionnaire (ASK- Q)”, Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47, 2017, pp. 3281-3295.

[9] Robins, D., Casagrande, K., Barton, M., Chen, A., Dumont-Mathieu, T., and Fein, D., “Validation of the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers, Revised with Follow-up (M-CHAT-R/F)”, Pediatrics, 133(1), 2017, pp. 37–45.

Table 1. Sample statements from the ASK-Q

Statement # # Correct % Correct # Correct % Correct on the Statement from Pre- from Pre- from Post- from Post- ASK-Q Survey Survey Survey Survey

Children with autism may have strange reactions to the way 6 31 100% 31 100% things smell, taste, look, feel, or sound.

Many children with autism have 7 trouble understanding facial 31 100% 31 100% expressions.

Medication can alleviate the core 11 20 64.5% 28 90.3% symptoms of autism.

The earlier treatment of autism 22 starts, the more effective it tends 31 100% 31 100% to be.

Many children with autism show 25 the need for routines and 31 100% 31 100% sameness.

Genetics plays an important 33 role in the development of 18 58.1% 30 96.8% autism.

Autism occurs more commonly 36 among higher socioeconomic 23 74.2% 31 100.0% and educational levels.

Early intervention can lead to significant gains in social and 39 31 100% 31 100% communication skills of children with autism.

Many times, children with autism 43 get excessively focused on one 31 100% 31 100% thing.

There is currently no medical test 46 15 48.4% 26 83.9% to diagnose autism.

Autism is a brain- based 52 19 61.3% 29 93.5% disorder.

Total Total 55 survey statements 47.4 86.2% 51.9 94.4%

The Impact of Implementing Words Their Way with an Adolescent Who Uses AAC: A Case Study

Megan Stein1, Karissa Marble-Flint2, Holli Steiner3, Ashly Elliott3 Salina Public Schools1, Wichita State University2, Heartspring3 United States of America

Abstract Davis and Williamson [2] adapted spelling developmental stages from Bear et al. [3] and Word study interventions (e.g., Words Their Way) described the stages as phases. The term phases was have been used for individuals with autism spectrum used because there is not strong evidence to support disorder (ASD) to support progress in reading. While the claim that individuals with ASD pass through the decoding abilities have been investigated, spelling same spelling stages as typically developing peers has not been widely researched. This case study (Gabig) [4]. project describes a student who communicated To support students who struggle to achieve through augmentative and alternative communication spelling proficiency, including individuals with ASD, (AAC) by typing novel utterances; however, his one intervention approach that has been used by spelling did not follow conventional rules. Therefore, speech-language pathologists and educational this created communication breakdowns for his professionals is word study. Apel [5] defined word communication partners as he could not utilize the study as “the specific and focused attention to the spelling prediction features on his device. As a encoding and decoding of words, using one’s possible solution to this problem, the Words Their knowledge for the linguistic properties of words for Way intervention was implemented to improve reading and spelling.” (p. 13). Individuals apply spelling. While this student made progress in his phonological, orthographic, morphological, and spelling abilities, more research is needed to semantic components to increase proficiency in generalize results to other AAC users. spelling. Furthermore, Paul and Norbury [6] state that word study intervention assists students’ 1. Introduction understanding of the relationship between sound structure and semantics. Apel [5] indicated that word There is a paucity of research surrounding spelling study skills prompted better spelling abilities and interventions implemented with individuals included WTW as a resource for implementation of diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) who word study. use augmentative alternative communication (AAC) Some researchers have explored the use of the systems. The current case study adds to the literature WTW intervention for students with ASD. For example, a multiple baseline study completed by Solís by describing the implementation of a spelling program, Words Their Way© (WTW) with a 17-year- et al. [7] included a modified WTW program for five old male who uses an AAC system. The study aims participants with ASD in fifth through seventh grades. were to: 1) discuss the acquisition of spelling in They found the WTW program to be effective in typically developing peers and individuals with ASD, improving word reading skills. Gutkencht [8] 2) describe benefits of using word study intervention implemented WTW with teenage boys with ASD to and WTW, and 3) analyze the impact of WTW with determine its efficacy when used as a spelling an individual diagnosed with ASD who uses AAC. intervention. The study included five males with a Shipley & McAfee [1] indicated spelling diagnosis of ASD between the ages of 15 and 19. Over proficiency requirements include phonemic six weeks, participants showed an average increase of awareness, orthographic awareness, semantic 21% in spelling accuracy. knowledge, and morphological knowledge. Smith Based on these findings, the use of the WTW Davis and Williamson [2] proposed a framework for program for spelling intervention with individuals instructional decisions which suggests that encoding with ASD is an area of research that needs to be (spelling and writing) and decoding should occur strengthened. The present case study aimed to simultaneously. These tasks can assist the student in evaluate the use of the WTW program for an learning to read and increase accuracy in producing individual with ASD who uses an AAC device to written words. For individuals with ASD, Smith communicate. In addition, the current study analyzed one student diagnosed with ASD over a longer

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 65 intervention period than the study conducted by administered prior to the intervention. In addition, Gutkencht [8]. both the Primary and Elementary WTW Inventories were administered to determine the participant’s spelling error patterns. The WTW Feature Guide was 2. Method used to select a starting point for the program and to establish the participant’s developmental spelling age. 2.1 Participant Each week a different spelling pattern was introduced. With each spelling pattern (e.g., -ck, -ke, -k), the This case study focused on a 17-year-old male with fourth author used words from the word list and a diagnosis of ASD, intellectual disability, and a mild administered a spelling test with 10 randomly selected bilateral hearing impairment. At the time of the study, words. Next, the participant was provided with the he lived and attended school at a residential and spelling list (15-20 words) for that week and each educational facility for students with special needs. word was read aloud. The participant then sorted He appeared to enjoy socializing and sought out words (listed on notecards) according to spelling communication opportunities. He was non-verbal and pattern after the SLP provided a model. The SLP used AAC to communicate with others. Based on the checked the participant's work and provided results from an AAC assessment and his ability to corrections. The participant then read a short story and spell (although not at grade level), an alphabet board circled words from the story that followed the spelling which included common phrases was implemented. pattern. These procedures were repeated each week Later, the Tobii Dynavox Lightwriter SL40 Connect, with a new spelling pattern. At the conclusion of each an AAC device with keyboard capabilities, was week, the SLP gave a spelling post-test of 10 determined to be a more appropriate communication randomly selected words from WTW. At the end of system because of its high-tech abilities which the six-month intervention period, Form B of the included word prediction, creating messages in a more TWS-5 and the WTW Primary Spelling and rapid and efficient manner, and a tactile keyboard. He Elementary Spelling Inventory post-tests were communicated most often by typing novel utterances; administered. however, his spelling did not follow conventional rules. Therefore, it was difficult for the device to 3. Results utilize spelling prediction to produce correct words, and in turn, this created communication breakdowns The participant’s performance on the standardized for his communication partners. assessment, the TWS-5 Form A (administered at prior Following Institutional Review Board approval, to the intervention) and Form B (administered at the the participant completed an assent form and his conclusion of the intervention) was compared. Results guardian signed a consent form. At the educational from the TWS-5 indicated that the participant’s facility, the WTW intervention was implemented by standard score increased by one. A Percentage of the fourth author in a room separate from the Words Correct (PWC) was calculated from the participant’s classroom. This was done to provide a participant’s performance on the Primary and quiet environment because the participant has hearing Elementary Spelling Inventories, from WTW, which loss. are curriculum-based measures. The participant’s PWC increased by 8% on the Primary Spelling 2.2 Materials Inventory and by 4% on the Elementary Spelling Inventory. For this study, the WTW intervention was utilized. From pre-test to post-test, the standardized The Test of Written Spelling, Fifth Edition (TWS-5), assessment did not yield significant change in spelling Form A was administered prior to the beginning of accuracy; however, the post-test revealed the intervention. When the intervention concluded, the participant’s misspellings were more closely TWS-5 Form B, WTW Primary Spelling Inventory, representative of the target spellings than prior to and WTW Elementary Spelling Inventory were intervention. Therefore, this led to additional analysis administered to the participant. using a Spelling Sensitivity Score (SSS) (Masterson & Apel) [9]. These calculations were done using the SSS computerized program [10]. 2.3 Procedures The SSS computerized program produced both an Element (SSS-E) and Word (SSS-W) score. Elements Across six months, the participant engaged with consisted of the following three components: the fourth author, his speech-language pathologist phonemes (speech sounds), juncture changes (spelling (SLP), or a trained speech-language pathology changes related to changes to a root word when adding assistant, in the WTW intervention for 20-minute a prefix or a suffix, e.g., the spelling change that sessions, five days a week. The Test of Written happens to the word run when it changes to running), Spelling, Fifth Edition (TWS-5), Form A, was and affixes (i.e. prefixes and suffixes) (Masterson &

Apel) [9]. An element score was determined by the Following the intervention, an interview was number of elements in the target word and the conducted with the participant’s classroom teacher to elements the participant produced. Each element was gather qualitative results. The teacher reported that awarded points based on the rating system of 3 while the amount of spelling errors made by the (correct), 2 (incorrect, but possible spelling), 1 participant had not changed, he did appear to want to (incorrect and not a possible spelling), and 0 (element correct errors more than he did prior to the is missing). After the points were calculated, the intervention. Initially, the participant was “okay” element points awarded were divided by the total with spelling errors and “moved on” without number of elements possible to find the SSS-E score. correcting the errors. In addition, his teacher reported For this participant, his SSS-E pre-test average score he wanted to communicate more and discuss a wider was 2.38 and the post-test average score was 2.53 with range of topics. The teacher reported that an 0.15 increase in the overall average. participation in the WTW intervention seemed to have The SSS-W identified if the word was correct. The increased his confidence in his spelling abilities when rating system for the SSS-W included 3, communicating using his AAC systems. (legal/correct), 2 (represented but illegal), 1 (not fully represented), and 0 (illegal). It is determined by 4. Conclusion dividing the word points awarded by the total number of words in the sample. The SSS-W pre-test score was While the participant’s score demonstrated only a 1.62 and post-test was 1.88. These scores indicated the slight increase in PWC, assessing the participant’s participant’s spellings were frequently phonologically change in spelling accuracy using the SSS was crucial correct.[9] Overall, the increases in both the SSS-E in understanding how the participant’s spelling and SSS-W were not significant; however, scoring accuracy had changed post-intervention. The PWC using the SSS provided more detailed information on exclusively assessed correct or incorrect spelling. the participant’s spelling patterns as compared to However, the SSS provided a more descriptive outline PWC (see Table 1 for selected participant examples at of the results and permitted a deeper understanding of pre-test and post-test using SSS scoring). the spelling errors. For example, when looking at the post-test Primary Spelling Inventory, the participant Table 1. Words Their Way Primary Spelling spelled the target word “coached” as “cosht.” Using Inventory Examples PWC, this spelling is incorrect. However, the SSS element score was 1.67. Although this score was less than it was during the pre-test, this spelling confirms that the participant was thinking in terms of phonemes (sounds) rather than graphemes (letters). In summary, it is important to understand patterns of spelling errors and to not focus solely on the correct or incorrect spellings.

5. Future Directions

Future directions include a longer duration for the study. While it was found that WTW increased spelling accuracy slightly, a longer intervention duration with the word study may result in greater improvements. In addition, future studies with participants with similar needs may focus on the alphabetic principle prior to implementing WTW. WTW may be beneficial for spelling skills with other adolescents who use AAC, but further research is needed. Speech-language pathologists and educators will need to assess the individual needs of students to determine if WTW should be implemented. Further, the link between spelling skills and users of AAC remains a research area in need of strengthening. To determine the educational implications of using WTW with individuals with autism who use AAC, additional research is needed.

5. References

[1] Shipley, K. G., & McAfee, J. G. Assessment in speech- language pathology: A resource manual. Cengage

Learning, Boston, MA, 2016.

[2] Smith Davis, H. & Williamson, P. “Word recognition”.

In C. Carnahan & P. Williamson (Eds.), Quality literacy instruction for students with autism spectrum disorders (pp.

253-285). AAPC Textbooks, Shawnee Mission, KS, 2010.

[3] Bear, D. R., Invernizzi, M., Templeton, S., & Johnston,

F. Words their way: Word study for phonics, vocabulary and spelling instruction (4th ed.). Pearson, Upper Saddle

River, NJ, 2008.

[4] Gabig, C. S. “Phonological awareness and word recognition in reading in children with autism.”

Communication Disorders Quarterly, 31(2), 2010. pp. 67-

85.

[5] Apel, K. “Word study and the speech-language pathologist.” Perspectives on Language Learning and

Education 11(3), 2004. pp. 13-17

[6] Paul, R., & Norbury, C. Language disorders from infancy through adolescence: listening, speaking, reading, writing, and communicating (4th ed). Mosby, St. Louis,

MO, 2012.

[7] Solís, M., El Zein, F., Black, M., Miller, A., Therrien,

W. J., & Invernizzi, M. “Word Study Intervention for

Students with ASD: A Multiple Baseline Study of Data-

Based Individualization.” Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 53(3), 2018, pp. 287–298.

[8] Gutknecht, E. A. Exploring the Effects of Using the

Words Their Way Program with Teenage Boys with Autism.

(Master’s Thesis), 2015. Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.brockport.edu/ehd_theses/536

[9] Masterson, J. J., & Apel, K. “The Spelling Sensitivity

Score: Noting Developmental Changes in Spelling

Knowledge.” Assessment for Effective Intervention, 36(1),

2010, pp. 35-45.

[10] Masterson, J.; Hrbec, B. Computerized Spelling

Sensitivity [computer software]. Missouri State University

Language-Literacy Lab; Springfield, MO: 2011.

Implementing the Stickwriting Approach: A Case Study of Two Children with Social Communication Challenges

Ana Astoquilca, Karissa Marble-Flint Wichita State University United States

Abstract

Writing is important for students’ success in and writing interventions for children with language- school and for college and career readiness. With the learning disabilities, there is a lack of research on the introduction of the Common Core State Standards in effects of drawing and writing interventions in the United States, there has been an increased focus supporting children with autism and social on writing skills to meet these standards. For children communication disorder in developing written receiving special education services, this can be language skills. Ukrainetz developed one writing challenging. One approach that has been effective intervention approach, known as stickwriting, and with children with language-learning disabilities is studied its use with both typically developing children the stickwriting approach. Stickwriting involves and children with language-learning disabilities [3,4]. creating simple drawings to help children plan their Stickwriting, also known as picture drawing, is an writing. However, there is limited research available approach for children to take notes using simple stick- related to stickwriting and children with social figure drawings [3,4]. The purpose of this case study communication challenges. The purpose of this case was to determine the effectiveness of the stickwriting study project was to describe the use of the approach for two children with social communication sitckwriting approach for two children with social difficulties, one with a diagnosis of autism, and one communication challenges. Both students attended with a diagnosis of social communication disorder. one-hour sessions, once a week, for ten weeks at a university speech-language clinic. They first read a 3. Literature Review story, and then wrote bulleted notes or paragraphs in each session. Participants’ bulleted notes were rated 3.1 Children with Autism using a 3 to 0 scale that measured form and content. Overall, the results demonstrated the intervention was Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) effective for these two students in the form-related display two main characteristics: restrictive, repetitive aspects of notetaking. Future research directions are patterns of behavior, activities, and interests; and provided. difficulties with social communication/social interaction [5]. Since autism is considered a spectrum disorder, a range of symptoms and characteristics can 1. Introduction occur [6]. In the area of cognition, children with ASD have weaknesses in working memory, executive function, theory of mind, and central coherence which During the elementary school years in the United influence the ability to plan writing and to write States, students learn how to read and write, and these cohesively for an audience [7]. two skills develop from oral language abilities. These Children with autism demonstrate countless three skills are intertwined [1]. Students have different learning strengths. For example, children with ASD strengths and needs related to reading, writing, and process chunks of information rapidly, use visual speaking. Students who have social communication information successfully, and can focus on topics of challenges including a diagnosis of autism or social their chosen interest [8]. If educators determine the communication disorder perceive language favored topics of a student with autism, then the differently, and therefore require specialized student’s attention and motivation might be increased instruction [2]. throughout an activity. These qualities can give students with ASD an advantage when learning new content. 2. Purpose of the study According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, 5th edition (DSM-5), to be diagnosed with a Although there are numerous studies related to social communication disorder, autism spectrum writing development in typically developing children disorder must first be ruled out. If a child demonstrates

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 69 difficulty with the pragmatic aspects of language and These SLPs described how the simplicity, the quick and social interaction, and does not display restrictive, easy pictures, the oral practice, and the repeated repetitive behaviors, a diagnosis of social communication opportunities involved in stickwriting allowed students to focus and build confidence while writing [13]. In disorder is appropriate. [5]. addition, the SLPs saw the progress their students made and surmised that this strategy could be implemented in 3.2 School Children and Written Language the general education classroom.

Although Ukrainetz has studied children with In the U.S., the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) language learning disabilities who used a stickwriting [9] were developed to achieve consistent curriculum approach, to date, there is not published information on expectations. In addition, the CCSS increased the this approach for children with a diagnosis of autism or importance of writing for all students [10, 11]. Writing is a social communication disorder [4]. Researchers have a skill that continues to be essential for children in agreed that while the available evidence for writing today’s technological society. For example, accurate instruction for learners with ASD is positive, a need for writing skills are needed for social activities such as additional studies remains [14]. The paucity of research texting and developing social media posts [12]. As part in this area makes it difficult for educators to provide of an interprofessional team, speech-language evidence-based instruction to support children with pathologists (SLPs), special educators, and other autism or social communication disorders who may be educational professionals should continue to emphasize struggling to write. the importance of writing to help children succeed.

3.3 Children with Autism and Writing 4. Methodology

As mentioned previously, children with autism have 4.1 Participants weak central coherence, meaning they focus on the details, but struggle to determine the main idea. They For inclusion in this study, participants were may also have difficulties with executive functioning, between 9 and 12 years of age, native English speakers, which is related to the following cognitive functions: and had a diagnosis of autism or social communication attention, perception of incoming stimuli, planning, disorder. Participants were recruited from a social skills memory, suppressing inappropriate responses, and group designed for children who need support for making moral judgements [6]. One executive function appropriate social conversation skills and social that impacts a student’s writing skills is planning. interaction. The two participants met the above Therefore, because of difficulties with executive inclusion criteria. For purposes of anonymity and functioning, when writing a passage, a child with ASD confidentiality, Lucy and Tom will be used as may encounter problems in developing ideas and pseudonyms throughout this paper. At the time of the formulating a plan for their writing. study, Tom was a 12-year-old male diagnosed with a social communication disorder, and Lucy was a 9-year- old female with a diagnosis of autism. 3.4 Stickwriting

Stickwriting, pictography, or picture drawing is a 4.2 Design “quick and easy” strategy for children to plan their writing and take notes using simple stick-figure The current study adapted its procedures from [4]. drawings [3]. For some children, especially children Of note, a 2018 article [13] was not available to the with social communication challenges, the act of authors of this paper until data collection for this study writing can be stressful and complicated. Ukrainetz had commenced. There are significant differences created a strategy allowing students to alleviate the between the current study and that of [13], as in that stress of writing paragraphs by focusing on drawing study there were 44 participants engaged in the their ideas before writing short, bulleted notes, and stickwriting strategy twice a week for 30 minutes, and finally writing a passage [3]. the project lasted four weeks for a total of three hours of Twenty years after her initial study, Ukrainetz treatment. In addition, the participants worked with an implemented the same picture drawing strategy but SLP, and the students completed pictography in one session and bulleted notes in the second session. focusing on children with language-related learning th th disabilities [4]. She added a new component to the Furthermore, [4, 13] worked with 4 –6 graders whose strategy to help students create oral reports. In her Individualized Education Plans (IEP) included services previous study, the results demonstrated that related to oral language, reading, or writing. pictography created longer narratives for participants In this study, there were only two participants, 9 and [3]. In her 2018 [13] study, she collaborated with 11 12 years of age, one female and one male. They SLPs working with 4th–6th graders whose Individualized attended the sessions for one hour, once a week, with Education Plans (IEP) included services related to oral graduate student clinicians in a speech-language language, reading, or writing. pathology master’s program, who were trained in the Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 70

Table 1. Pre- and post-test writing scores stickwriting approach. The sessions for this project spanned a period of 10 weeks. During each session, the Form – Tom Pre-test Post-test participants read a story and wrote bulleted notes or Topic 2 3 paragraphs with the help of graduate student clinicians. Bullets 0 3 Quick & Easy 2 3 4.3 Procedures Use Own Words 0 3 Content - Tom Pre-test Post-test Prior to the picture drawing intervention, Lucy and Important/Interesting ideas 1 2 Tom completed a pre-test of written notes, and an oral Just Enough to Remember 2 0 report over a social studies passage about an ancient Use Categories 3 0 civilization from http://www.readworks.org. During the From Article 3 1 first week of treatment, they read a story aloud about a science topic covering an interesting animal, taken from Form – Lucy Pre-test Post-test http://a-z-animals.com. The researchers replicated the Topic 0 3 passage selection procedures from [4, 13] by using Bullets 0 2 social studies passages from the Read Works website Quick & Easy 1 2 for the pre-test and the post-test, and the science Use Own Words 0 2 passages from the interesting animals website during Content - Lucy Pre-test Post-test the treatment sessions. After reading, the participants Important/Interesting ideas 0 1 identified interesting ideas with support from the Just Enough to Remember 0 0 graduate student clinicians. Lucy and Tom were Use Categories 1 1 instructed to write just enough to remember, using From Article 1 2 picture drawings with stick people. Next, they gave a full report orally from the pictography they produced. As Table 1 illustrates, pre-test scores were generally They also wrote bulleted notes from their pictography, low for both participants. Lucy’s pre-test ratings and they gave a full report orally from bullet points. consisted of 0s and 1s on the form and content They revised their writing if needed and then gave the categories. Her post-test ratings significantly increased oral report from the revisions. These procedures were for the form categories, obtaining almost perfect ratings repeated during each weekly session. On the third and for each aspect. However, her post-test content category the seventh week, both students were asked to complete scores were not as high, with scores ranging from 0 to a written paragraph that expanded from their bulleted 2. Tom’s pre-test ratings on the form category consisted notes. During the 10th session, they read another ancient of 0s and 2s. His ratings on the pre-test content category civilization passage for the post-test, following the were higher, with scores ranging from 1 to 3. On his same procedure as the pre-test. At the conclusion of the post-test, Tom obtained perfect ratings on the form intervention, Lucy and Tom received a portfolio of their category. However, he obtained ratings ranging from 0 work to share with their families and friends. to 2 on his post-test content categories. 5. Results 6. Discussion and Limitations A scoring rubric was used by the graduate student clinicians to evaluate the bulleted notes in the areas of Lucy’s scores in the form categories increased from form and content from the pre-test and post-test. In the pre-test to post-test. She nearly obtained a perfect rating area of form, the following aspects were rated: topic; on her post-test. In the content categories, her scores on bullets and periods; quick and easy; and use of own the post-test either stayed the same or showed a words. For content, the following attributes were rated: minimal increase compared to her pre-test. Overall, important and interesting ideas, just enough to Lucy’s scores on the post-test were higher than her pre- remember, use of categories to select and organize, and test. This suggests that the treatment sessions were usage of information from the article. A 0- to 3-point effective for Lucy. scale was used to determine scores. The rating scale In comparing Tom’s pre-test to post-test scores, his was developed by [3, 4] based on treatment experiences form scores increased while his content scores and material available about effective notetaking. The decreased. He obtained a perfect rating in his post-test current study followed the scoring scale and form categories. However, his content scores descriptions from [4]. Further details on the scoring decreased, which may have been the result of his system can also be found in [15]. inclusion of information that was not directly linked to the article. The rating criteria specifically state that the ideas must match the source, even if it is unclear. In Tom’s case, the treatment sessions were more effective on the form categories than on the content categories.

The first and last readings (pre-test and post-test) 7. Conclusion described an ancient civilization. This topic may not have been as interesting for the participants, especially This study explored the effectiveness of the compared to the animal articles. It is possible that the stickwriting approach for two children with social students favored the animal articles over the ancient communication challenges. It indicated that the civilization articles. Further, both Tom and Lucy were intervention was effective for the form aspects of note aware they were in a testing situation, which may have taking, more so than the content aspects. In the future, impacted their performance. Specifically, the observer this technique should be used with a variety of age effect might have influenced performance: the groups with a diagnosis of autism or social participants may have noticed they were being communication disorder. Educators and researchers observed, and consequently altered their behavior in should consider expanding the use of stickwriting to response. Further, the sessions were scheduled after students with this diagnosis who are entering high school, so, it is possible that the activities may have school. Further, it may be beneficial for students in been viewed by the participants as merely an extension earlier stages of learning, given the drawing aspects of of their schoolwork. the approach, and their appeal to younger students. This study has limitations and areas for further Since this study was conducted in a clinical setting with research. The first limitation is the case study design. two participants, educational professionals should Although Tom and Lucy met all inclusion requirements, implement the stickwriting approach with children with their results may not be fully representative of other social communication challenges in the school setting children with similar diagnoses. However, the to determine whether similar results can be found. researchers obtained a more detailed report regarding Writing can be a difficult task for students in general, the effects of this intervention based on the experiences and this approach proved successful in helping students of these two students. Since autism is a spectrum with autism and social communication disorders learn disorder with a range of abilities and disabilities, some new techniques to become better writers. strategies may work better for some children than others. Future studies should include a larger sample 8. References size. A second possible limitation was the timing of the [1] Paul, R. & Norbury C. (2012). Language disorders from sessions. The treatment sessions were in the afternoons, infancy through adolescence; Listening, speaking, reading, after school. Each session during the ten weeks writing, and communicating (4th ed.). St. Louis, MO: included a short break for Tom and Lucy to eat snacks Elsevier Mosby. and walk outside of the treatment room, if needed, to maintain attention and motivation. However, given the [2] Carnahan C. & Williamson, P. (2010). A conceptual time schedule of the sessions, it is unknown whether the framework for literacy instruction: Meeting the needs of all students on the autism spectrum. In Carnahan C. & participants felt tired during the session. It is possible Williamson P. (Eds.) Quality literacy instruction for that the timing of the sessions explains Tom’s low students with autism spectrum disorders. (pp.7–20). scores on the post-test content categories. Shawnee Mission, KS: Autism Asperger Publishing A consideration in this case study was Tom Company. previously worked with one of the graduate student clinicians as part of that student’s practicum experience. [3] Ukrainetz T. (1998). Stickwriting stories: A quick and He had previously established rapport with this easy narrative representation strategy. Language, Speech, graduate student clinician. and Hearing Services in Schools, 29(1), 197–206. Tom’s scores decreased on the content categories [4] Ukrainetz T., Ross C. & Peterson A. (2017). Improving because he added content that was not included in the expository speaking, writing, and comprehension for article. Future studies should consider scoring students with LLD [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved from extension of topics. This modified rubric would give ASHA Convention. higher scores for students who demonstrate that they learned about the topic and applied it in other settings [5] American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic such as at home or in school. Another possible change and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM- 5 (5th for future replications includes allowing the Ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing. participants to choose which articles they want to read for their weekly sessions. If the articles are selected [6] Zenko, C. (2014). Practical solutions for executive function challenges created by the unique learning styles based on their interests, the students’ motivation to for students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). ASHA complete the bulleted note-taking tasks may increase. perspective in School Based Issues, 15(4), 141-150.

[7] Price, J. R., Martin, G.E., Chen, K., Jones, J.R. (2020). A preliminary study of writing skills in adolescents with autism across persuasive, expository, and narrative genres. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 50. 329-332. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-019-04254-z

[8] Janzen, J. & Zenko, C. (2012). Understanding the nature of Autism: A guidebook to the Autism Spectrum Disorders (3rd ed.). San Antonio, TX: Hammill Institute on Disabilities.

[9] Common Core State Standards Initiative. (2012). Common core state standards for English Language Arts and Literacy in History/Social Studies, Science, and Technical Subjects. Retrieved from http:// www.corestandards.org.

[10] Koutsoftas A.D. (2017). Writing in two children with autism: A case study for assessment and goal development. Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups, 2(1), 20–33.

[11] Nelson, N. (2018). Using writing to enhance critical thinking and language [Webinar]. Retrieved from ASHA Professional Development Spoken and Written Language in Adolescents: Fresh Solutions.

[12] Koutsoftas A.D. (2020). Foundations of writing for school-age children and adolescents. [Live Webinar]. Presented on September 16, 2020 via American Speech- Language-Hearing Association Professional Development.

[13] Ukrainetz T. (2018). Sketch and Speak: An expository intervention using note-taking and oral practice for children with language-related learning disabilities. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 50(1), 53–70.

[14] Accardo, A.L., Finnegan, E.G., Kuder, S.J., & Bomgardner, E.M. (2019). Writing interventions for individuals with autism spectrum disorder: A research synthesis. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. [Online ahead of print]. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10803-019-03955-9.

[15] Astoquilca, A. (2019). Stickwriting approach for children with autism and social communication disorders. Wichita State University McNair Scholars Program Journal of Research Reports 2018-2019, 24.

Session 3: Learning / Teaching Methodologies and Assessment

Title: The Relevance of Using Games for Teaching Figures of Speech in English Language Teaching Class Authors: Abhipriya Roy, Sumanjari S.

Title: Group-based Assessments in Project Management Higher Education Authors: Roksana Jahan Tumpa, Samer Skaik, Ghulam Chaudhry, Miriam Ham

Title: Useful Activities for Increasing Awareness in Teacher Education on Satoyama Environmental Learning Using BL Authors: Isao Miyaji, Hirokazu Fukui

Abhipriya Roy, Sumanjari S. Department of English, Christ University India

Abstract

Game-based learning facilitates the teaching- has become an important part of every existing field. learning process by allowing collaboration, It is now an international language of communication, communication, interaction and teamwork. Strategic business, science, information technology, games improve mind functioning. Gaming creates a entertainment, and other activities. Today, the dynamic atmosphere that can inspire learners for knowledge of English language is absolutely essential developing skills and emotionally connecting the for an individual’s survival. People with a good learners to the subject matter. The present study is command of English language are respected designed to identify the impact of using games for everywhere. Moreover, it opens a sea of career teaching figures of speech in English class. The opportunities for people. It has become an inevitable research paper focuses on the classroom usage of requirement for, professions such as computing and games and favours games as a good teaching method medicine. for teaching figures of speech. It suggests the use of Games provide unique opportunities to learn and experimental method with a pre-test and a post-test use the English language in an innovative manner. for data collection. It states that language games They create useful and meaningful contexts for improves the teaching of figures of speech while language use, and their pedagogical value, facilitating language comprehension and language particularly in foreign language teaching and learning. production. It also discusses educational implications Games motivate, lower students’ stress, and provide of language games in teaching figures of speech and opportunities for real communication. Linguistic highlights the limitations along with further scope of games focus on accuracy. It teaches creative and research. The research makes a significant productive use of language, while communicative contribution to the research field by analysing the games presuppose successful exchange of impact of using language games for teaching difficult information and ideas. Games when played in pairs or literary concepts like figures of speech to learners of in small groups, facilitates development of English language teaching class from middle school interpersonal skills. In groups or in pairs, learners are and suggesting five language games for solving the more willing to ask questions, communicate and problem of teaching difficult figures of speech to discuss topics with their partners and think creatively learners of English language class. about foreign language use for goal achievement. Competitive games allow learners to work together 1. Introduction while communicating with each other. Figures of speech enhance the author's creation and Benjamin Lee Whorf once said, “Language shapes brings alive words, phrases and sentences. They the way we think, and determines what we can think express the author's intent and take the reader on a about.” Language is an essential tool of journey through what he or she experienced, imagined communicating thoughts and ideas, and building or witnessed at a specific time. It beautifies, friendships, economic relationships and cultural ties. emphasises and clarifies a mundane and impoverished It distinguishes the differences and celebrates the rendition. It makes reading enjoyable. The readers can uniqueness of cultures. It shapes one’s perception of feel the author’s feelings, perceive his visions, the culture of a society. Language improves efficiency empathize, experience his joys, frustration, pain and and skillfulness. It opens one’s minds to a magical anger and understand and appreciate his thoughts and world of fancies and dreams. Language develops our ideas. Students must be encouraged to convert literal minds, and personality. interpretations to figurative expressions. Explicit English has been considered as the first global instruction encourages learners to transfer specific lingua franca. In today’s world, the English language metaphorical expressions from a first language to a second [8]. Students need to be aware of the significance of metaphors in daily life. Learners need

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 75 to learn how to locate the figurative language (word sample consisted of people who are between 20-25 or phrase) within the passage being read, decipher the years old and live in Lefke. It was determined that literal meaning and determine if that is the message games should be employed in second language the author is actually trying to convey to the reader, learning classrooms for providing an atmosphere for use background knowledge about the word or phrase EFL learners in which there are fun, motivation and to decide what meaning the author intended, and high learning performance. connect to the real world. Palmer and Brooks [7] The Effect of Using Educational Games on the suggest teachers must discuss with students when and Students’ Achievement in English Language for the why figures of speech are used and instruct students Primary Stage - A research paper titled The Effect of to use different types of figurative language. Students Using Educational Games on the Students’ must comprehend the meanings of figures of speech, Achievement in English Language for the Primary but also the context in which they are used. Evans and Stage by Mania Moayad Mubaslat [2] aims to find out Gamble [5] establishes that children relate more to how educational games helps in learning a foreign visual imagery in figurative language than do adults. language, compares games with more traditional Thus, if learners are figures of speech through games, practices as effective learning tools on the basic it would help to create visual imagery and helps in educational stage students at governmental schools in good comprehension and fast acquisition of figures of Jordan.” An experimental research is conducted using speech teachers help students identify what resources three groups out of six randomly. To determine the or knowledge they already possess to understand the relationship between learning a foreign language and figurative text. Boers and Demecheleer [6] point out educational games among the participants, a one-way some figurative expressions share metaphoric themes Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is performed based across language. Games help learners to use familiar on achievement levels. For the relation between metaphors, analogies, and experiences to the text at educational games and learning a foreign language a hand. Figures of speech activate the learners’ Pearson's Correlational analysis is used. The results of metaphorical knowledge in their native language the post test for the experimental group are better than through comparison and contrast, thus helping them the controlled one which shows that games have a transfer knowledge into English. good effect on improving the achievement for the primary stage and to create an interactive 2. Literature Review environment.

The Use of Songs in Increasing Students’ 2.4. Analysis and Use of Figures of Speech Understanding of Figurative Language - A research paper titled The Use of Songs in Increasing Students’ A research paper titled Analysis and Use of Figures Understanding of Figurative Language by Salwa of Speech by Lok Raj Regmi[ 3] primarily analyzes Salwa and Ayu Liskinasih [4] aims to find out how the representative figures of speech, states some students at Kanjuruhan University of Malang perceive examples with their language features and ultimately about the use of songs as supplementary materials in justifies how figures of speech support language understanding the meanings of figurative language teaching and learning. such as metaphor, hyperbole, personification, etc. This study employed a mixed-methods approach. The 3.Research Question data were collected through questionnaire, videorecording and focus-group discussion. The The research paper aims to answer the following participants of this study were 30 students attending research question: Do games enhance the vocabulary class in the third semester. The results comprehension and the production of figures of showed that most of the students (85%) have positive speech? attitudes towards the use of songs as considerable media to help them understand the meanings of 4.Methodology figurative language and improve their motivation in learning English. The research paper aims at analysing the impact of The importance of using games in EFL classroom using games in teaching figures of speech to - A research paper titled The importance of using secondary school learners. games in EFL classroom by Emine Gozcu and Cagda Kivanc Caganaga [1] aims to find out how games are • Sample of the study - The data would be collected important and effective when used in EFL classrooms. from grade VIII of two CBSE board schools. Semi-structured interviews and observation were used • Instrument - The researcher aims at designing five for data collection. Multi-method triangulation is used language games for teaching specific figures of throughout in this study. Here two undergraduate speech to learners of class VIII of two CBSE board students are taught English by using the game called schools. ‘Twister’ which is adapted for teaching. The study

cards with pictures of different objects. The learners 4.1. Instructional Design in each group have to identify any one symbolic meaning of the object. The learners will then have to The researcher has devised five language games manufacture sentences to clearly interpret the for teaching figures of speech. Metaphor magic, symbolic meanings of the objects. The rest of the class Singing similie, Puzzle personification, Altered need to identify some other symbolic meanings of the Alliteration, and Symbolic Interpretation. The objects and make sentences to clearly interpret their researcher will evaluate the impact of these language meanings. games in teaching figures of speech to secondary school learners. The tool will gauge the impact of 4.2. Experiment and Analysis using language games in helping learners comprehend figures of speech and produce sentences using them. The experiment will be conducted on a group of 80 Metaphor Magic - the learners are evaluated on learners from grade VIII of two CBSE board schools. understanding metaphors. The teacher divides the It will be carried in two phases – a pre-test and a post- learners into several groups. Then he or she shows test. During the pre-test, the sample group will be some objects, and images to the learners. The learners tested with the teaching of the figures of speech need to construct metaphors from the clues given without using any language games. During the post- using their previous knowledge. The teacher may test, the same sample group will be taught the figures facilitate by giving suggestions in between and of speech using language games. The data will be helping the learners to guess the correct metaphor. collected from both the tests and compared with each The students in each group will then need to make a other. Hypothesis The hypotheses of the research will sentence clearly implying the meaning of the be divided into two categories – the null hypothesis metaphor. and the alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis Singing Similie - the learners will again be divided states that there is no significant difference between into different groups. The teacher will pay audio learners being taught figures of speech without games recordings of different poems including different and the learners who are being taught figures of figures of speech. Each group would need to identify speech using games. at least one similie from the poem. Then a representative of each group would be asked to come 5. Limitations in front of the class and represent the similie through diagrammatic clues on the blackboard. The rest of the The researcher will restrict her research zone only class would be asked to guess the similie and form to two CBSE board schools and only to grade VIII. sentences with them. The teacher may facilitate by The gender, the time and the demographic variable giving clues in between. will not be taken into consideration. The research will Puzzle Personification - the learners will be only evaluate the comprehension and the production divided into several groups. Each group will be shown abilities of the learners from the perspective of sheets of different poems. In each poem there will be analysing figures of speech through games. at least one stanza with a personification. Then, each group will be given a crossword puzzle from where 6.Conclusion they need to identify the personified word and the object it personifies. Each group would then be asked Games create a friendly atmosphere and develop to come in front of the class and explain the linguistic skills like understanding figures of speech. personification. Then the rest of the class would be Games provide a welcome break from the usual asked to make a sentence to clearly express the figure routine of the language class. Games help in making of speech. and sustaining the effort of learning figures of speech. Altered Alliteration - the learners will be divided They encourage interaction, communication, active into several groups. Each group will be shown some learning, analysis, synthesis, evaluation, foster a more alphabets. The alphabets will be followed by two positive attitude toward the classroom experience, pictures. Each group needs to give at least two words more attention, better attendance, and better beginning with the alphabet shown which are in participation. Games improve retention of complex alliteration with each other. The alphabet needs to be linguistic structures, decision-making skills, and in alignment with the picture shown. The students comprehension of complex linguistic structures like would then be asked to place the words of alliteration figures of speech. Games aids the successful learning in sentences of their own. Then each group would be of figures of speech as they are based on specific time asked to come in front of the class to present their allocation, clear relevance to the material, sentences. The rest of the class need to identify the appropriateness, and the enjoyment of the learners alliteration of their sentences. through their active linguistic engagement. In ‘Symbolic Interpretation’, the learners will be divided into several groups. Each group will be given

6. References

[1] Gozcu, E and Caganaga, C.K., (2016), The importance of using games in EFL classrooms. Cypriot Journal of Educational Science. 11(3), 126-135. https://www.research gate.net/deref/http%3A%2 F%2Fsproc.org%2Fojs%2Finde x.php%2Fcjes%2F (Access Date: 4 April 2020).

[2] Mubaslat, M.M., (2012), The Effect of Using Educational Games on the Students’ Achievement in English Language for the Primary Stage. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED529467.pdf.

[3] Regmi, Lok Raj, (2015), Analysis and Use of Figures of Speech. Journal of NELTA Surkhe (4), 1-80. https://www.researchgate.net/deref/http%3A%2 F%2Fdx. doi.org%2F10.3126%2Fjns.v4i0.12864?sg%5B0%5D=- 8XRNjO6cFw-SRU7oE1_m9Axj5aoqc 4vMkeQsOUnaEk Kch9TRtBquo4qEasfuaF4ShCPg-4qANtN5ldwYXQmZA acQ.tY0moQUy88ymZ8xA2o_N2idempMSrbpE-l5H25S B187Z65OzVcFnHlhTaziCyckfKeqgXG-cPYtDPWwhmj 739Q. (Access Date: 7 April 2020).

[4] Salwa Liskinasih, A., (2016), The Use of Songs in Increasing Students’ Understanding of Figurative Language. IJEE (Indonesian Journal of English Education), 3(1), 75-88. doi:10.15408/ijee.v3 i1.344. https://www.resea rchgate.net/publication/312272034_The_Use_of_Songs_in _Increasing_Students'_Understanding_of_Figurative_Lang uage (Access Date: 27 February 2020).

[5] Evans M.-A., Gamble D. L., (1988). Attribute saliency and metaphor interpretation in school-age children. J. Child Lang. 15 435–449 10.1017/S0305000900012447.

[6] Boers, F., Demecheleer, M., (2001). Measuring the impact of cross-cultural differences on learners' comprehension of imageable idioms. ELT journal. Oxford University Press, Vol 5 Issue 3.

[7] Palmer, B. C., Brooks, M.A., (20014). Reading until the Cows Come Home: Figurative Language and Reading Comprehension Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, v47 n5 p370-379 Feb 2004. ISSN: ISSN-1081-3004.

[8] Palmer, B. C., Bilgili, E. M., Gungor, A., Taylor, S. H., & Leclere, J. T. (2008). Reading Comprehension, Figurative Language Instruction, and the Turkish English Language Learner. Reading Horizons: A Journal of Literacy and Language Arts, 48 (4). https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/rea ding_horizons/ vol48/iss4/5. (Access date: 12 February 2020).

Group-based Assessments in Project Management Higher Education

Roksana Jahan Tumpa, Samer Skaik, Ghulam Chaudhry, Miriam Ham Central Queensland University, Sydney, NSW1, Central Queensland University, Melbourne, VIC2, Central Queensland University, Sydney, NSW 3, Central Queensland University, Cairns, QLD 4 Australia

Abstract

The skill sets required for the successful desirable to employ a project manager with a civil completion of projects have changed dramatically in engineering degree [3]. Project management hard recent years. Employers now expect project skills include management of time, cost and quality practitioners to possess a balanced mixture of soft and within a project [32]. However, the effects of the soft technical skills. However, employers are often skills of project managers have a greater impact than dissatisfied that project management graduates are technical skills on project management (PM) practices not equipped with the right set of skills. The use of [12]. group-based assessments in higher education Employers are often dissatisfied that PM institutions (HEIs) is becoming increasingly graduates are not well equipped with the right set of important to develop the demanded project skills and often demonstrate a lack of soft skills in management competencies. This study aims to particular [33]. Employers often claim that develop a framework for designing and administering universities do not place sufficient emphasis on the group-based assessments through a systematic development of soft skills. In order to respond to literature review (SLR). The proposed framework is employers’ demands, considerable efforts have been then be validated to improve its effectiveness and made to develop graduate employability by teaching rigour by interviews and focus groups. It is expected and developing soft skills [28]. Although there are that the higher education sector will benefit from the many approaches to developing project management outcomes of this research as the validated framework competencies in graduates [8], this research focuses will guide academics to design group-based on the function of group-based assessments to assessments rigorously and systematically. This paper cultivate PM competencies in graduates. This study discusses the identified gaps in the literature, the proposes a framework to inform the design and research method, and the implications of the findings. administration of group-based assessments in higher education to enhance employability and readiness to join the workforce. 1. Introduction 2. Identified knowledge gaps The project environment is a dynamic system. Project managers are required to perform through the A scoping literature review was conducted to uncertainty and complexity of the project verify whether there are SLRs conducted on the best environment [47]. As a result, they require skills to practices of group-based assessments in the context of quickly adapt to situations that are within and outside project management. There are SLRs done in the of their control [8]. context of higher education, however, none was found Employers now require employees to possess a which accumulates best practices. For instance, [13] mixture of soft skills, disciplinary technical skills and explored and synthesised the studies about group project management hard skills [3]. Soft skills include assessments in educational settings and found that communication skills, teamwork, problem-solving, social skills development, peer assessment, and group creativity, interpersonal skills, critical thinking, and processes have become the focus of group leadership traits [31]. On the other hand, disciplinary assessments instead of the assessment of knowledge technical skills refer to industry-specific skills. For acquisition. On the other hand, [34] investigated the instance, for a construction project manager job, it is factors perceived to afford or constrain teamwork

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 79 pedagogy in higher education. Although this research the engagement of teams across geographical regions, focused on the pedagogical aspects of teamwork, the commitment, and participation to deliver the projects review did not provide any best practice advice on the within budget and time [8]. As projects involve the design features of group-based assessments. In collaboration of numerous stakeholders, employers addition, the inclusion criteria of the review did not expect project management graduates to work mention whether the literature included in the review collaboratively in a team [5]. As a result, several was based on group-based assessments. On the other disciplines have incorporated group-based hand, [27] conducted a SLR on the group formation assessments to develop soft skills and promote deep techniques. However, the review on the group learning in graduates [10, 18]. formation was based in the context of Computer- Group-based assessments provide students and Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL). teachers with numerous benefits [6]. Teachers use The existing literature suggests that there are group assessments as a tool to deal with a large cohort several good practices of group-based assessments of students in the class and at the same time for and strategies to reduce the challenges of group work. evaluating students [7]. Group work is known to There are some studies which integrated the good improve students’ soft skills such as interpersonal practices of group-based assessments [10, 30, 36]. skills, team building, leadership and communication Nevertheless, those studies did not systematically skills [10], behavioural competencies, problem- evaluate the best practices for group-based solving skills, and leadership [18]. During assessments. There is no consensus which integrates collaborative learning, students react to each other, all the best practices of group-based assessments provide and receive information, develop constructive following a SLR approach in the area of project learning and create a collaborative learning platform management. [20]. In collaborative learning, students achieve better Considering group-based assessments are a outcomes, obtain deep learning, acquire greater widespread tool to develop PM competencies in communication and teamwork skills, and gain a better graduates, there is a dearth of research which understanding of the environment in which they will systematically considers all best practices, be working as professionals. particularly in the area of project management. It is hoped that the development of a framework for group- 5. Good practices of group-based based assessments will enhance the benefits, reduce assessment the drawbacks and address the clear gaps which need attention. 5.1. Course considerations

3. Research aims and objectives Before including group assessments in a course, teachers should consider whether group assessments This research aims to propose a framework for are appropriate or not in a course. Excessive use of designing and administering group-based assessments group-based assessments limits students’ ability to to foster competencies of PM graduates. The think, learn, work independently and create “group objectives of this research are to (1) identify the good fatigue” thus developing coping strategies including practices for conducting group-based assessments, (2) cognitive shortcuts [15]. Academics believed that the evaluate the good practices based on evidence-based weighting, frequency and timing of group scholarly works to identify best practices, (3) develop assessments should be considered in a whole-of- a framework for group-based assessments, and (4) course approach. It is recommended to keep a group validate the proposed framework for improving its assessment’s weightage 30% both in each subject and effectiveness. in a course [4]. The initial literature research suggests that there is 4. Group-based assessments a lack of literature about the number and timing of group-based assessments in the course. Hence, a A group-based assessment can be defined as “a thorough investigation is required to explore graded assignment requiring students to work empirical studies around the aspect and whether collaboratively across multiple class periods and programme consideration should be recognised while involving some time outside the normal class designing and administering group assessments in the meeting” [11, p. 357]. In order to respond to curriculum. employers’ demands and enhance employability of project management graduates, group-based assessment has been introduced as a pedagogical tool in higher education in recent years. Projects require

5.2. Prior instructions groups do not seem to contribute to collaborative learning [48]. Teachers should consider ethical Before implementing a group assessment in the background, gender, acquaintance, skills, and level of curriculum, students need to be trained in group work motivation to form an effective group and facilitate skills and should be provided with teamwork collaborative learning [25]. knowledge, skills, and abilities [35]. Training students On the other hand, the results of carefully in teamwork can lead to higher academic engineered groups (balanced) and random groups achievements [35]. Instructional strategies of group showed that there was no significant difference in work included the introduction of team training tools outcomes between balanced and randomly selected such as simulations, role-play, the use of Tuckman’s groups [17]. The results of this study were in (1965) model to introduce students to the stages of accordance with the study of [5]. They demonstrated teamwork [16]. If the development of teamwork skills that there is no correlation between the group is a learning outcome in a course or program of study, formation process and the decrease in the tendency of then relevant training and instruction in teamwork a social loafing attitude. [27] conducted a SLR on the must be incorporated into its design at the planning group formation techniques. The findings proposed phase. [34] conducted a SLR on the factors that afford the attributes of group formation and grouping teamwork pedagogy in higher education. They found techniques. However, the review on the group that educators often place students in teams with little formation was based in the context of Computer- or no instruction on how to work in teams before Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL). assigning complex team projects. It is apparent from the above discussion that although the literature suggests that group formation 5.3. Group formation is a design feature of group-based assessments, there is a disparity in pedagogical implementation of group The most frequently used group formation formation techniques among academics. Hence, this processes are student-selected, the selection made by research will identify the best practices of group instructors [19], and randomly selected groups [17]. formation methods by employing a SLR based on Student-selected groups are generally evidence-based scholarly studies. homogeneous which results in members establishing better communication, getting along with each other 5.4. Group size and demonstrating enthusiasm towards working efficiently than members of randomly assigned There is no consensus in the studies as to the size groups [17]. The effectiveness of collaboration in of groups. However, a smaller group size was groups was enhanced in student-selected groups preferred in the existing literature [5]. The small group compared to teacher-selected groups [48]. Despite the size was preferred as with the increased group size, benefits of student-selected group formation, this the complexity of the task and the interpersonal formation process is not without its concerns. When relationship among students increase [37]. In addition, students form self-selected groups, some students are there is a proportional relationship between task avoided because of their race, lifestyle, personality complexity and rise in social loafing [40]. Larger and attire [29]. Students demonstrating low levels of group size stimulates social loafing attitude in ability are excluded and do not engage in learning. students because it is easy for social loafers to hide in Eventually, they will have fewer opportunities to learn the large group. from 'model' students [29]. Smaller groups generally perform better than Similarly, student-selected group formation was larger teams. This finding has been obtained in the discouraged as close friends were not found to be study of [5], [10], [30], [36], [45]. In these studies, sincere in the context of education and learning in the small group size was preferred to reduce social loafing team and they were not task-oriented [24]. The and free-riding issues. The minimum and the outcomes of the assessment tended to be pessimistic maximum number of group members were three and as the quality of the work was compromised at the five respectively [30]. expense of exchanging mutual benefits [24]. It is apparent from the discussion that there is Considering the drawbacks of student-selected disparity about the group size in group-based groups, teachers should take discretion when forming assessments. Although the empirical studies suggest groups [19]. Although teacher-selected groups are that smaller group size is recommended, there is a lack productive and provide satisfactory outcomes, they of consensus about the exact number of team may have some drawbacks [21]. One of the members and its pedagogical implementation in the disadvantages is that students feel obliged to work curriculum. This gap calls for a need for a SLR to with unknown people [21]. Besides, teacher-selected identify the best practice regarding group size.

expert person is also questionable due to the quality, 5.5. Group member evaluation reliability and the degree of student’s understanding about the expectation of work [43]. Students’ In order to reduce free-riding issues in group judgement ability and behaviour in assessing group assessments and to better evaluate an individual’s members were assessed when it comes to summative contribution, self and peer evaluations are commonly and formative assessments [38]. Although the used in group-based assessments [9,43]. [42] students demonstrated good judgmental behaviour discussed the inclusion of group member evaluation and avoided bias in the formative assessment, they for effectively completing group activities and showed grading bias when the marks contributed to diminishing social loafing. Self-assessment is a the final grades. In contrast, 74% of students agreed method of reviewing one’s own work and peer that assessing an individual’s contribution to group- assessments include reviewing peers work and based assessment was fairer than allocating a group judging the performance of a peer qualitatively mark to all the students in the group [44]. (written or verbal feedback) or quantitively (scores or grades) [39]. The advantages of self and peer 6. Research method assessments include engaging in critical thinking, improving team-building skills, becoming an Data collection will be conducted in three stages independent learner [2] and developing interpersonal (see Figure 1). As there is a wealth of literature attributes in students [45]. available regarding group-based assessments in The use of group member evaluation to moderate higher education. Academics differ in their opinion on a group score or grade into individual scores has been how to design group-based assessments as evidenced discussed in many studies [14]. Some techniques to by the literature. In the first stage, a SLR will be extract individual scores include Self and Peer conducted to collect evidence-based best practices in Assessment Resource Kit (SPARK) [14]; Web-based group-based assessments. The review will be Self and Peer Assessment System (Web-SPA) [46] adhering to the Preferred Reporting Items for and Collaborative e-learning Structures (CeLS) [23] Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) systems. Recent advancement in computer technology [26]. However, the limitation of the SLR is the lack of has made the interaction easier among group members contextualisation of the findings of the SLR in the enabling them sharing their files and logs [22]. domain of project management. Hence, in the second The grading structure of group-based assessments stage, project management academics will be should be based on the team learning model interviewed to collect their good practices of group- performance evaluation system [41]. As per this based assessments. Semi-structured interviews will be model, an individual’s grade in a group assessment conducted for this research as this approach will allow should be based on individual performance, group the interviewees to answer to the predefined questions performance, and peer evaluation. A small percentage set by the researcher along with an open-ended of the grade (10%) taken from the group member discussion about academics’ practices. A purposive evaluation prompted students to work more diligently. sampling technique will ensure the right selection of However, such grading structure sometimes is not the interviewees. Interviewees will be providing their approached appropriately by students while their opinion about the identified best practices derived marks are dependent on their group members. from the SLR. Integrating the academics’ good Group member evaluation papers were introduced practices of conducting group-based assessments and to discuss the evaluation and progress of the group the best practices emerged from the SLR, a framework [41]. The group member evaluation paper has two will be proposed in the context of project parts. In the first part, students need to explain what management. they learnt about the behaviour of the group from the The proposed framework from the second stage textbook and lecturer. In the second part, students will then be validated to improve its rigour, provide anonymous feedback to their group members. effectiveness and practicality using focus groups. To This is the opportunity to see the presence of social validate the framework, two focus groups will be loafers or free riders in the group [41]. employed at two Australian universities. The target Although group member evaluation enhances population of the focus groups will be project students’ engagement and interaction in collaborative management academics selected through a purposive learning, it might have biases when it comes to sampling technique. The participants of the focus assessing group members, thus being questioned groups will be selected based on their diverse about its reliability and validity. Students raised experience and background in learning and teaching concerns about the fairness and accuracy of the group and their involvement in designing group-based member evaluation [1]. Feedback provided by a non- assessments. The essential inclusion criterion for

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 82 academics is to be full-time academics teaching in based assessments. It is believed that the outcomes of higher education institutions in Australia with a this research will assist academics in higher education position ranging from lecturer to professor. The to design and operate group-based assessments feedback from the focus groups will be analysed systematically based on the best practices in the thematically using NVivo. The emerged themes will curriculum. If group-based assessments are designed then be compared and contrasted with the framework appropriately, not only can project management derived from the interview process. The agreement graduates develop employers’ demanded and disagreement among focus group participants competencies, but they can also be even more regarding the framework will be critically analysed employable in the labour market. and reported. 8. Conclusion

Employers in the project management industry are often discontented claiming graduates are not ready for the challenges of a dynamic project environment and that they lack a range of soft skills in their skill sets. In order to address this problem, the research will examine how group-based assessments in higher education can be designed in a systematic way in order to cultivate soft and technical skills in PM graduates. The research aims to develop a reliable framework for designing and administering group-based assessments in PM higher education which will fill the gap in the literature. It is anticipated that academics and educators will benefit from this piece of research as the identified best practices will guide them to design group-based assessments. One can expect that industry partners will be able to recruit PM graduates with the demanded attributes in their skillset.

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Useful Activities for Increasing Awareness in Teacher Education on Satoyama Environmental Learning Using BL

Isao Miyaji1, Hirokazu Fukui2 Former Professor in Okayama University of Science 1, Shujitsu University 2 Japan

Abstract

Lessons on satoyama environmental education environment. After which, the students then made were held for undergraduate students who are recommendations to renegotiate the relationship training to be educators. The lessons blend inquiry- between forests and humans for modern society [3]. based learning through research using ICT tools and As education to cultivate leaders for a sustainable experiential learning in a complementary manner. society, UNESCO has been promoting Education on Students learn about the underlying concepts about Sustainable Development (ESD) [8]. ESD aims to the environment from a global perspective through encourage students to catch global problem as own inquiry-based learning; experiential learning can problem and to address the issues at hand at the encourage students to get involved with the community level. This brings new sense of values and environment at the local level and also develop action to be connected for problem solution. While abilities and skills to conduct classes in this philosophy is widely known, the implementation environmental education. This paper investigated of ESD currently is far from ideal. Therefore the which activities in the lessons were effective in practice method is still suggested now. For example, increasing their awareness of abilities. With Nakaguchi et al. proposed experiential learning of awareness of abilities listed in the rows and activities satoyama and satoumi: the part of the ocean listed in the column, responses of students are created environment where humans and nature interact [13]. as a cross-tabulation table. Cluster analysis is The dilemma faced was that: Studying the earth’s conducted for the table to find some ability clusters environment requires a deep understanding of science and some activity clusters. Using table constructed by and hence, exploration of this topic may end up being ability and activity cluster, χ2 test and residual a paper exercise on theory and concepts. However, analysis show activities useful for improving abilities. fieldwork can cause one to be myopic so as to focus “Activities related to presentation in the classroom” too much on the activities at hand, and incur the risk are effective in improving awareness related to of losing sight of the bigger picture. abilities to listen and evaluate. “Activities related to Finding a balance between intellectual exploration ICT use” are effective in improving awareness related and experiential learning is difficult. Most practice to computer and of abilities to present. tends to focus on one at the expense of the other. René Dubos advocated the ideal of “Think globally, act 1. Introduction locally” at the UN Conference on the Human Environment in 1972. The philosophy of ESD that With a recent social economy change, it becomes UNESCO is promoting is based on this maxim. difficult to maintain and manage natural environments Edsand & Broich found some statistical evidence that full of changes peculiar to satochi and satoyama, and environmental education can promote a higher level the blessing that come there, and in addition rich of environmental awareness [2]. biological diversity [14]. A survey conducted previously shed light on how Satoyama and satochi are the mountains and the children interact with nature during daycare. This lands at the interface of nature and human settlement. survey also presented concrete suggestions from This was a finding reported in a survey of nursery schools for nursery teacher training school in organizations which promote the preservation of order to be effective [9]. Then a problem on satoyama. There have been attempts to improve the promoting natural environmental education was situation through educational programs with a heavy considered. In another example, Ida, et al. conducted focus on experiential learning. E.g. In collaboration a survey about views in familiar nature and nature with an elementary school, the students were taught education accordingly for students in university for about the origins of satoyama and the health of the training teachers [7]. The survey found that the natural forests within it. They made continuous observations experience of the teacher own which supports of the forest and spent time immersing in the forest children decreases [15]. It is thus vital to include interactions with nature as part of the curriculum for

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 86 students in university for training teachers. To further analysis. As a result, abilities are divided four clusters promote environmental education, concrete evidence and activities are divided three clusters. After on the effectiveness environmental education is summing up the frequencies for each cluster, a 4 by 3 essential. Unfortunately, there are almost no attempts table can be drawn up. Using this table, χ2 test is to collect and evaluate data in this area. Students in performed. In the last time, a residual analysis is university for training teachers hold the key to the performed. The results show activities useful for education of young children who will become our improving abilities. future leaders. Getting students in university for training teachers to understand the importance of 2. Class Practice and Study evaluations is thus critical. Currently, there are no theses which have reported to measure and analyze 2.1. The Class Practice the effectiveness of education programs on the natural environment for students in university for training In the class, the space, method and media for teachers. conducting environmental education were modified to To realize Dubos’ vision, this paper focuses on suit the contents to be covered in the BL-style “blended learning” (BL), a teaching method that environmental education on satoyama. It is hoped that accommodates both inquiry-based learning and the BL method helps to increase knowledge, cultivate experiential learning. BL combines traditional practical skills and to increase the desire to do more classroom-based instruction, in which students go for environmental education in the students. As part through similar learning experiences in the same time of the lessons, student research on the earth’s natural and space, with e-learning done on an individual environment using ICT tools. The knowledge gained basis. It is hoped that the two learning methods can and the critical thinking and decision-making skills complement each other to raise the overall learning fostered would help them develop a global effectiveness [10]. In one example, Fujimoto et al. perspective. On the other hand, efforts were also made observed that critical communication skills were to cultivate interest and desire in the students to fostered in elementary school students when they interact with their surrounding environment, and to share their observations on flowering plants on gain practical skills to protect the environment. This electronic bulletin boards [5]. In another case, junior process would develop the local perspective in high school students learn were tasked to publish a students. newsletter by actively using digital contents as part of The subject for the BL-style class is third-year a geology lesson [4]. trainee elementary school teachers who are taking the The students also went through classroom-based elective module “Science II”. This module covers the instruction, along with group learning and individual theories on the various aspects of science education learning. A class which combines e-learning and other and the foundation of safety instruction in science. Six media with a lecture is at present called a blended lessons of this module are dedicated to fieldwork on class [17]. It is possible to support many and various outdoor activities and environmental education. The student learning styles and to deepen understanding six lessons are usually done through experiential by using more than one medium [1]. In this example, learning in the university learning forest. The numbers the increase in the awareness of issues is significant (1)-(6) refer to the number of lessons held. For the through the BL method. Beyond elementary and class, all students learn about the theories of junior high schools, BL has proven to be effective in environmental education simultaneously through a different contexts including early discovery of poor lecture in lesson (1). In lessons (2), (3) and (4), basic performers in class [6], acquisition of techniques in skills on ensuring safety in outdoor activities and nursing school [16], IT-related classes in higher conducting vegetation survey are taught in groups. In education [11], student guidance, special education lesson (5), students conduct their own research on etc. environmental problems, an inquiry-based individual There are no precedent studies on the effect of learning approach. Students then present their conducting classes on environmental education about findings to each other in lesson (6) in their own satoyama on trainee teachers using the BL method. In groups, thus group learning occurs in this lesson. To order to better fulfil Dubos’ vision, BL which investigate the effects of the class, pre- and post- combines inquiry-based learning and experiential surveys are conducted with the trainee teachers learning, will be the teaching methodology adopted in outside class time. The total number of trainees who this study on the effect of environmental education on took part in this module is 22. satoyama. Learning effects in this teacher education The lessons are conducted through the following on satoyama environmental learning has been ways: a lecture using a textbook, group instruction on reported already [12]. The purpose of this paper is to practical skills by forestry experts, individual research know reasons that this learning shows effects by using ICT equipment such as computers and revealing activities useful for improving abilities. smartphones, and group learning through Responses of students were analyzed using cluster presentations. BL occurs over three types of spaces

(classroom, satoyama and students’ own homes), numbers for activities in the survey questionnaire. For through three learning methods (lecture in a each ability, the number of activities which classroom, group learning and individual learning), contributed to its improvement was tallied. With 30 and through three forms of media (textbook, experts items on awareness of abilities listed in the rows and and ICT), with each space, method and media chosen 30 items of activities listed in the column, a 30 by 30 to suit to the objectives of each lesson. cross-tabulation table is created. The sum of the tally of activities identified to be helpful in improving each 2.2. The Survey Method ability is 1,688. Using Ward’s method, cluster analysis is performed with of abilities as cases and To find out if learning effectiveness is increased activities as the dependent variable. As a result, the through a blend of learning spaces, methods and dendrogram is obtained. The horizontal axis is the media, two types of survey questionnaires were degree of dissimilarity and the vertical axis is the designed. awareness. When the degree of dissimilarity is about Pre-surveys were held on November 2015. The 12 in the dendrogram, the abilities can be grouped into post-survey held on December 14 consisted of 3 parts four clusters, I-IV. (1)-(3) in pre-survey and an additional part on (4) Cluster I consists of 13 items from the awareness activities that were perceived to be effective in of abilities. Among these 13 items, item (30) on improving abilities. A total of 22 students took this “Interest and concern about environmental module. All of them were present for the surveys and education”, item (24) on “sense of fulfilment and all responses were used in the analysis. satisfaction” and item (25) on “sense of (4) Activities which were effective in improving accomplishment and achievement” have higher abilities frequencies. As a result, cluster I is named as For each of the ability asked in (3), respondents “Awareness related to interest in and satisfaction of were also asked that they felt which activities among activities”. the list of 30 activities contributed to the improvement Cluster II consists of two items—item (16) “ability in the ability. Multiple responses are allowed. to listen and ask questions” and item (19) ability to appropriately evaluate thoughts of other people. As a 3. Analysis of Survey Results result, cluster II is named “Awareness of abilities related to listen and evaluate”. The following three types of analysis were Cluster III consists of six items. Among the six conducted from the survey data. items, item (8) “ability to study by oneself and to [Analysis I] Clustering of (4) abilities that were learn” and item (21) “ability to pursue and explore perceived to have improved by activities that are matters deeply” have higher frequencies. Hence, this effective by cluster analysis cluster is named “Awareness of abilities related to [Analysis II] Clustering of activities by the learning”. frequency with which they contributed to (4) the Cluster IV consists of nine items. Among the nine awareness of abilities improved by cluster analysis items, item (15) “ability to give presentations” and [Analysis III] χ2 test and residual analysis to see item (4) “ability to broaden usage and situations of which activity cluster contributed to the change in computers” have higher frequencies. Hence, this awareness of ability cluster cluster is named “Awareness related to computer and For significance testing, the significance level of of abilities to present”. 5% is adopted. Significance levels of 0.1%, 1%, and 5% are represented by ***, **, and * respectively. 3.2. Clustering of activities by the frequency with which they contributed to the awareness 3.1. Clustering of abilities that were perceived of improvement in abilities to have improved by activities that are effective Using Ward’s method, cluster analysis is performed with activities as cases and awareness of Cluster analysis is performed to cluster abilities abilities as dependent variables using the cross table. that were perceived to have improved on post-survey As a result, the dendrogram is obtained. When the by the number of activities that contributed to the degree of dissimilarity is about 15 in the dendrogram, improvement. Results are as follows. In survey (4), the activities can be grouped into three clusters, 1-3. there are the 30 items on awareness of abilities and the Cluster 1 consists of 19 items. Among these, item 30 activities which were effective in improving each 26 “evaluating the presentation of the own group by of these abilities. Multiple answers are allowed. The oneself”, item 27 on “listening to the presentation of numbers in brackets are the item numbers for the other groups” and so on have higher frequencies. As a awareness on abilities in the survey questionnaire, result, cluster 1 is named as “Activities related to while the non-bracketed numbers refer to the item presentation in the classroom”.

Cluster 2 consists of eight items. Among these, to perform a residual analysis. The results are shown item 25 “presenting research contents”, item 19 on the bottom left of Table 1 in the column on adjusted “researching about presentation contents”, item 3 residuals. For cells that contain results that bias show “discussing with friends about lecture contents” and significance, cells with positive adjusted residuals item 9 “discussing about technical terms by a group” correspond with the cells which have higher than etc. have higher frequencies. As a result, cluster 2 is expected frequencies. These cells are marked with named “activities related to research and discussion”. asterisks as seem at the right bottom corner of Table Cluster 3 consists of three items, namely item 24 1. “Using PowerPoint”, item 8 “Looking up technical From the results, it is evident that students terms using smartphone” and item 23 “consolidating perceived that cluster 1 on “activities related to the information gathered from research and presentation in the classroom” is effective for investigation”. Hence, this cluster 3 is named improving the abilities in cluster I “Awareness related “activities related to ICT use”. to interest in and satisfaction to activities” and cluster II “Awareness related to ability to listen and evaluate”. 3.3. Analysis of activities which are effective in Students also felt that cluster 2 “activities related to improving abilities as perceived research and discussion” were effective in raising “Awareness related to interest in and satisfaction to Crossing abilities that were perceived to have activities” (cluster I). Activities related to ICT use improved with the effective activities would have were perceived to be effective in improving produced a 30 by 30 table. With the analysis as “Awareness related to abilities to learn by oneself and described in 3.1 and 3.2, the items can be rearranged to research” (cluster III) and the “Awareness related according to the dendrogram. After summing up the to computer and ability to present” (cluster IV). From frequencies for each cluster, a 4 by 3 table can be these results, we can conclude that the combination of drawn up. Using this table, χ2 test is performed. As a three types of learning spaces and three types of result, the observed frequencies are not evenly learning methods with various types of media for distributed, χ２(6) = 322.8, p<.001. The next step is classes on

Table 1. Results of chi-Squared test and adjusted residuals based on the cross table of awareness cluster and activity cluster Observed frequency Expected frequency

Activity Cluster

Total

Awareness Cluster 1. Activities related to presentation in the classroom 2. Activity related to research and discussion 3. Activities related to ICT use 1. Activities related to presentation in the classroom 2. Activity related to research and discussion 3. Activities related to ICT use I. Awareness related to interest in 408 355 62 825 370.0 291.3 163.7 and satisfaction to activities II. Awareness related to abilities to 89 16 2 107 48.0 37.8 21.2 listen and evaluate III. Awareness related to abilities to 129 138 90 357 160.1 126.0 70.9 learn IV. Awareness related to computer 131 87 181 399 178.9 140.9 79.2 and abilities to present Total 757 596 335 1688 757.0 596.0 335.0 Adjusted residual Significance probability I. Awareness related to interest in 3.7 6.5 -12.4 *** *** and satisfaction to activities II. Awareness related to abilities to 8.2 -4.6 -4.8 *** listen and evaluate III. Awareness related to abilities to -3.7 1.5 2.9 ** learn IV. Awareness related to computer -5.5 -6.5 14.6 *** and abilities to present *** p<.001, ** p<.01

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 89 environmental education on satoyama is effective. [2] Edsand, H., & Broich, T. (2020). The impact of Different abilities are improved in different learning environmental education on environmental and renewable situations; activities that support intellectual energy technology awareness: Empirical evidence from exploration and activities that support experiential Colombia. International Journal of Science and Mathmatics Education, 18, 611–634. doi:10.1007/s10763-019-09988-x learning complement each other to improve abilities as perceived by the students. [3] Forestry Research Institute Kansai Branch (2009). Collaboration with forest study and the natural learning: A 4. Conclusion concept and activity example. pp.1-19.

Some lessons in the module of Science II were [4] Fujimoto, Y., Miyaji, I., & Noine, S. (2005). Practice and delivered in the satoyama blended learning with a evaluation of the class using the digital content which a viewpoint and the way of thinking of the mineralogist are blend of three types of learning spaces and learning added to. Proceedings of the 21st Japan Society of methods. Depending on the objectives of the lesson, Educational Technology, pp.637-638. three types of media (textbook, experts, ICT) were employed. The purpose of study is to establish the [5] Fujimoto, Y., & Miyaji, I. (2008). An Information lesson contents for environmental education in the Exchange Study on the Electronic Bulletin Board about satoyama and to raise the learning effectiveness Observation of Plants to Foster the Expression Ability through BL-style lessons. To find out if the goals of Required to Communicate. Transactions of Japanese the study were achieved, data on recognition of Society for Information and Systems in Education, 25(1), 54- technical terms, confidence and desire in engaging in 63. environmental education, awareness of abilities and [6] Hasegawa, S., Niimura, M., Suzuki, H., Komatu, H., & activities effective in improving abilities were Fuwa, Y. (2016). Consideration of the early detection collected from the participants. Various analyses were technique of the poor results person through characteristic performed on the data, including cluster analysis, chi- analysis of the learning behavior. Japanese Society for squared test, significance testing and correlation Information and Systems in Education Research Report, analysis. 30(6), 41-48. The new knowledge gained from the analysis of data is as below. [7] Ida, H., & Aoki, M. (2006). Outlook on nature familiar Cluster 1 “activities related to presentation in the with teacher training college students and natural education depending on it. Japanese Journal of Conservation Ecology, classroom” are perceived to be effective in improving 11(2), 105-114. the scores of cluster I “Awareness related to interest in and the satisfaction to activities” and cluster II [8] Japanese National Commission for UNESCO, (2016). “Awareness of abilities related to listen and evaluate”. Education for sustainable development. Retrieved from Cluster 2 “activities related to research and http://www.mext.go.jp/unesco/004/1339957.htm. discussion” are perceived to be effective in improving the scores of cluster I “Awareness related to interest in [9] Maesako, Y. (2006). Nature activity in childcare centers and the satisfaction to activities”. and the education for natural environments in a professional Cluster 3 on “Activities related to ICT use” is training college. Nara Saho College Research Bulletin, (14), pp.63-81. perceived to be effective in improving cluster III

“Awareness related to abilities to learn by oneself and [10] Miyaji, I. (Ed.) (2009). Toward Blended Learning from to research” and cluster IV “Awareness related to E-learning. Tokyo, Japan: Kyoritu-Shuppan. computer and of abilities to present”. For this study, subjective data on how students [11] Miyaji, I. (2013). Effects of Blended Class on "History perceive their own abilities are collected. Going of Computers" with Peer Assessment for an Assignment to forward, focus can be placed more on objective data Introduce a Historical Character, Journal of Modern that measures the increase in the competencies and Education Review，3(10), 760-770. abilities of the students. Tests on facts and comprehension can be conducted to collect objective [12] Miyaji, I., & Fukui, H. (2019). Change in Knowledge and Awareness in Three Learning Methods Blended data for analysis to complement the subjective data. Satoyama Environmental Education，Proceedings of 2019 Follow-up studies can also be done on the students to International Conference on Education and Psychology see their abilities in instruction as a teacher. (ICEAP 2019), pp.225-235, Kyoto, Japan.

5. References [13] Nakaguchi, K., & Asada, H. (2016). Experience training which viewpoints mountain village and sea [1] Bersin, J. (2004). The blended learning book: Best learning: For the learning which is cooperated with locality. practices, proven methodologies, and lessons learned. San Ishikawa Prefecture Education Center Research Bulletin, Francisco, USA: Pfeiffer. Nature in Ishikawa, No.40, pp.1-19.

[14] Natural Environment Bureau, Ministry of the Environment (2012). Results of "questionnaire on the promotion effect of the maintenance activity of satochi and satoyama". pp.1-30.

[15] Nozaki, K. (2012). Drafting of the river investigation training and the education effect in a childcare person and primary school teacher training course. Japanese Journal of Ecology, 62(1), 51-58.

[16] Okamoto, C., Takiuchi, R., Komatsu, T., et al. (2015). Effect of the support of mastering nursing technique using blended learning. Journal of Gifu Nursing Society, (7), 67- 74.

[17] Thorne, K. (2003). Blended learning: How to integrate online & traditional learning. London, UK: Kogan Page.

Session 4: Learning / Teaching Methodologies and Teacher Education

Title: Metamemories: An Auto-Ethnographic Inquiry of Transformed Memories of Schooling Author: James A. Bernauer

Title: The Missing Pieces of Nurturing Students’ Needs in Doctoral STEM Mentoring Relationships Authors: Anna Sanczyk, Lisa Merriweather, Niesha Douglas, Cathy Howell

Title: Teacher Training in the Use and Educational Appropriation of Learning Objects Based on Critical Pedagogy in Education Author: Alfonso Claret Zambrano

Metamemories: An Auto-Ethnographic Inquiry of Transformed Memories of Schooling

James A. Bernauer Robert Morris University, USA

Abstract

An interview among three family members had of us thought or felt about them especially if they are been previously conducted among three family related to our deepest-held beliefs and emotions. This members in order to discuss perceptions of caring in study focused on memories of caring in schooling K-12 through college and the continuing impacts of builds on this understanding by positing that, as a these perceptions on motivation to learn (see consequence of both metacognition (thinking about Bernauer [2]. The question then arose as to whether our thinking, feelings, and experiences past, present, the memories and interpretations of the original and anticipated future) and metaemotion (feeling events as reported may have been recast and about our thinking, feelings, and experiences past, transformed as a result of subsequent experience and present, and anticipated future), we further transform reflection that were brought to mind as a result of both our perceptions and interpretations of our memories auto-ethnogrpahic writing and the interview itself. It beyond their initial perceptions and interpretations as was found that such a transformation seemed to have we reflect upon them cognitively and as we occurred both metacognitively and metaemotionally. experience them again emotionally. These We have termed these transformed memories as transformed memories are referred to as metamemories and are conceptualized as part of metamemories. individuals’ ongoing efforts to re-construct and The purpose of this study was to investigate integrate knowledge, experience, and insights and a whether the perceptions and interpretations of coherent world view. This study was conducted within memories of these family members related to caring the framework of Piagetan and Constructivist in schooling may have been transformed or recast as Learning Theory and Polanyi’s propositional and a result of subsequent experience and reflection. This tacit knowledge. It is hoped that readers will find study might be thought of as a sequel to a prior study value in this inquiry for understanding the relation where three participant family researchers discussed between caring and motivation to learn as well as how their memories of caring and non-caring shown by memories of caring and non-caring continue to be teachers [2]. However, this current study investigates transformed and re-interpreted as a function of both possible transformations of these memories as a time and later experiences. consequence of ongoing metacognitive and metaemotional processes. These metamemories are 1. Introduction conceptualized as part of our ongoing efforts to integrate and reconstruct our experiences in order to

maintain a coherent world view. Letters-to-Self were “Isn’t it amazing the way the future succeeds in used as the primary method of data collection where creating an appropriate past”. John Leonard each participant responded to prompts that were

designed to elicit reflections about their memories and “If you talk to my sister and me you would think we to discover to what extent these memories may have have different parents and grew up in different houses. been transformed into metamemories. In this sense, What is actually different is that we are very different this study is autoethnographic since Letters-to-Self people so everything we experienced we perceived allowed each participant to explore multiple layers of differently and therefore remember things consciousness and the vulnerability of self [10]. This differently.” (personal communication from “KC” a study might also be viewed as retrospective- doctoral student) longitudinal because it investigates a different aspect

of the prior study [2] that is, while this current study These quotes get at the heart of the matter is removed from the original one in time, it is also regarding memories since, while we may forget connected to it because it has a different purpose and details of past events, we never quite forget how each

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 93 seeks to further explore different phenomena. The caring by teachers of SR that took place during school research questions are: years 2005 -2015 that comprised elementary school, • To what extent have perceptions and high school, and college. I recognize that we are interpretations of memories of family members caught in somewhat of a paradox because while tacit been transformed or recast as a result of knowledge “cannot be easily formalized and put into subsequent experience and reflection? exact words” (p. x, foreward to The Tacit Dimension, Polanyi, [14]), that this is precisely what I am trying • Are memory transformations shaped by all past to do. As Berliner [1] observes “in fact, no unpoetic experiences or do we pick and choose those description of the human condition can ever be experiences that matter? complete” (p. 20). While I agree that other expressive formats such as novels, music, art, film, drama, and 2. Autoethnography and Theoretical poetry might more comfortably lend themselves to Framework expressing the difficult-to-express, I have tried in this article to facilitate understanding of how our

memories can be transformed as a result of ongoing Authoethnography using Letters-to-Self [10] was metacognitive and metaemotional processes that thought to be an appropriate methodology to use for occur over time. this study in order to further investigate the thoughts It will come as no surprise to those who have and emotions of participants. Tierney [15] wrote that published that what lay in front of you is not only the "autoethnography confronts dominant forms of result of deliberate planning but also of unplanned representation and power in an attempt to reclaim, doses of reflection, insights, collaboration, and through self-reflective response, representational serendipity. For example, while the article that you are spaces that have marginalized those of us at the now reading hopefully conforms to the accepted rules borders" (p. 66). Specifically, for this current study, of grammar and style, the behind-the-scenes activities this methodology was used to investigate the feelings that preceded its publication are actually quite that were evoked when instances of caring and non- astounding. In fact, while any article or book must of caring in schooling were discussed during an initial necessity be written in an organized way using interview conducted in 2016. These letters could be propositional language so readers can understand thought of as a type of journaling where the individual what lies in front of them, the processes that have led seeks to forge a closer connection between tacit and to this organized presentation are anything but linear propositional knowledge [13], [14]. These letters also and, if truth be told, a graphic representation of these serve as “rearview mirrors” where we can look processes along the dimension of time might be so retrospectively and reflectively at our experiences in iterative, reciprocal, overlapping, and complex as to a deeper and more personal manner since we are render these processes unintelligible! These writing to ourselves rather than to an imagined complexities include not only the visible interactions audience. The letters generated the data in this study among participant researchers but also the invisible for understanding more clearly the tacit learning that metacognitive and metaemotional processes that were may have occurred as thoughts and feelings were simultaneously occurring within and among resurrected regarding remembered instances of caring participant-researchers as this study was being and non-caring. Son-Researcher (SR) was the first conducted. The term metaemotional is emphasized researcher to write his letter based on his memories, here because, while readers are generally familiar thoughts, and feelings and then Mother-Researcher with metacognition, the term metaemotional (as far as (MR) and Father-Researcher (FR) read and reflected I know) has not previously been coined. As defined in on this letter and then wrote their own letters in the Definition of Terms, it is described here as feeling response to SR. about our thinking, feelings, and experiences past, Various perspectives were used in this study to present, and anticipated future. construct a framework to facilitate a fuller If we agree with Wolcott [18] that research is not understanding of findings. These perspectives are complete until it has been written-up, it is indeed a those offered by Piagetan Learning Theory [11] that formidable task we face when trying to transform includes the concepts of assimilation, these visible and invisible processes into an account accommodation, and equilibrium; Propositional using written language. When trying to make sense of versus Tacit Knowledge [13], [14], [4] Constructivist empirical data and observational experiences, we Learning Theory which is a type of cognitive learning need to “frame” findings in some way in order to theory that posits that all new learning must be “re- make sense of them. I have found that in trying to do constructed” in order to be understood by the learner so in relation to metamemories, I needed to draw on [5], [9], [17]. This study attempted to “populate” this Piagetan cognitive learning theory, constructivist framework with the thoughts, feelings, insights, and learning theory as developed by several prominent apprehensions that arose as a consequence of re- theorists, and the application of propositional exploring memories of instances of caring and non- knowledge that can be communicated in language

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 94 form that is associated more with an etic perspective. processes) as memories were transformed into However, this study would be incomplete if there was metamemories via both metacognition and also not a deep awareness of tacit knowledge as metaemotions. This conjecture is, of course, only a described by Polanyi [13], [14] which is knowledge hypothesis and would require replication and arising from intuition, insights, feelings, and other endorsement from others before this whole sequence ways that cannot easily be communicated in language of constructs could be considered credible. However, form but rather through art, drama, film, music, I use it here as one of the components of a framework poetry, and silent speech and that is associated more to help understand the concept of metamemories in with an emic perspective. It is hoped that perhaps relation to caring in education. through empathetic reading that readers themselves experience this latter type of knowledge. 2.2. Constructivist Learning Theory

2.1. Piagetan LearningTheory Constructivism recognizes that that our personal and social investment in learning is indispensable if Jean Piaget focused on how individuals develop we are to make such learning “our own” rather than cognitively from infancy to adulthood via stage theory learning that evaporates after a test is completed. In a [11], [12]. Although there have been criticisms of this sense, we all need to “reinvent the wheel” (contrary to theory because it underestimates the capacity of traditional wisdom) in order to make our insights and children at particular ages, his work is still considered new learning meaningful. Constructivist learning quite useful for understanding cognitive development. theory draws on the work of many scholars including Piaget’s theory is especially poignant in relation to Bruner, Dewey, Piaget, and Vygotsky [19] and can be individuals’ quest for stability or equilibrium as they thought of as being comprised of two strands – are confronted with the forces of continuous individual and social. While the individual strand environmental, social, and personal influences. Piaget refers to new knowledge acquired through active posited that we use both assimilation and thinking and reflecting by the individual, the social accommodation to seek achieve equilibrium where strand refers to the creation of new knowledge assimilation helps us to incorporate new learning and acquired through social interactions. Of course, the understanding into our existing cognitive structures boundary between these two types of learning is both while accommodation is used to help us modify our permeable and flexible – where one ends and the other existing cognitive structures in light of compelling begins is sometimes difficult to identify. However, the new experiences and understanding. essential point is that as we go about living, we also While Piaget viewed our search for equilibrium as go about learning in ways that are authentic to our primarily a cognitive process, these same components own way of constructing new knowledge. seem just as important in relation to metacognition, Kelly [5] developed his theory of constructivism metaemotion, and metamemories. When we “think within the context of personality development. His about our own thinking” (metacognition) are we not “theory of personality and psychology of personal trying to come to grips with our thinking in such a way constructs” offers us a potentially fruitful way to think as to achieve harmony and balance? Similarly, when about the connections between cognition and we find ourselves in some type of emotional turmoil emotion. He writes that individuals look at the world or disturbance, don’t we seek ways to sooth our “through transparent patterns or templates that he emotions through exercise, music, walks along the creates and then attempts to fit over the realities of beach, etc.? At the same time, lest we think of new which the world is composed” and he refers to these experiences and understandings as unwanted assaults patterns as “constructs”. He also makes the point that on our current thinking and feeling, we need to sometimes the fit between an individual’s patterns and recognize that without the intrusion of thoughts and reality is not always accurate which takes us back to feelings that disturb us in some way, we cannot grow Piaget’s concepts of assimilation, accommodation and in understanding and appreciation of people, places, equilibrium although Kelly’s focus is on the “whole and things – this is where Piaget’s concept of person” rather than man as thinker. This more accommodation comes into play. integrated role of constructivism is what we see As a consequence of inciting new understandings happening when we recall and re-construct our to arise from our group interview and Letters-to-Self, memories. we sought (perhaps unconsciously) to arrive at a new equilibrium in relation to our thoughts, feelings, and 2.3. Polanyi’s Tacit and Propositional perspectives as memories were resurrected and tossed Knowledge about both cognitively and emotionally. For this current study, it is conjectured that consistent with Finally, in addition to Piagetan ideas of cognitive Piaget’s theory, that all three participants have growth and constructivist learning theory, the experienced some degree of assimilation and theoretical framework surrounding metamemories accommodation (even if we were unaware of these can also be seen to include the difference between

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 95 propositional and tacit knowledge as identified by Therefore, it was thought that these data could be Michael Polanyi. While Piaget was concerned with better understood within the context of Piagetan the cognitive domain as formalized in terms of learning theory, constructivist learning theory, and “stages”, Polanyi [13]; [14] helps us recognize that reference to the roles of tacit and propositional what we know and understand exceeds what we can knowledge. communicate. Emotions including feelings, intuition, I began my own letter- to- self in May, 2017 and insights, and apprehensions (tacit knowledge) are concluded it in December, 2017. This letter was based important components of our knowledge and on the letter written by our son (SR) who reflected on understanding and are not easily expressed in how his memories of instances of caring and non- language form (propositional knowledge). These caring by teachers in high school were re-defined and ideas have also been treated by others such as Erikson interpreted. My wife (MR) also wrote a letter-to-self [3] whose “Eight Ages of Man” (later identified as in which she too thought about how the interpretation “Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development”) looked of her memories may have been transformed. I harken at the needs of individuals as they grow and develop back to our family interview conducted during the along an emotional dimension as well as the cognitive summer of 2016 when SR described his memories of dimension. caring and non-caring from elementary school It can be argued that we go about living our life through his current college years. Because SR lived at based more on tacit knowledge rather than on the home during elementary school and high school, I more formalized propositional knowledge that can be already knew about most (not all) of the instances that communicated via written and oral language. This is he described during these years. However, it was where the classic dichotomy of thinking versus during the group interview that I first heard SR feeling comes into play and where we might hear describe these instances from his own perspective as others or even ourselves say when we are being a college student. thinkers rather than feelers something like “you can’t Regarding elementary school, I vividly recall SR’s reason with (Dick or Jane) because they have let their memory of his fourth-grade teacher (Ms. Wiley) feelings get the better of them”. And it is indeed true because both MR and I had a meeting with the that we sometimes can become blinded by our own Principal and Ms. Wiley. As parents, we are all prone emotions when we allow feelings to rule the roost. For to defend our children from those that would hurt example, under conditions where we, or our loved them and so as co-researchers we had to remind ones are in danger, we automatically revert to fight or ourselves to be aware of this tendency whenever we flight. However, thinking about emotions and evaluated situations such as this so that credibility cognition in terms of either-or fails to recognize that would not be unduly damaged -- although I am pretty there is a continual interplay of thought and emotion sure that we cannot completely eradicate parental (in all its manifestations) as we go about discovering bias! I do remember that Ms. Wiley seemed to be new knowledge about ourselves and the world. “burned out” after many years of teaching and The attainment of formal operational thinking especially teaching 10 - 11 year old boys. During this (Piaget’s highest stage of cognitive development) that meeting, this teacher was not only less than cordial but enables an individual to consider multiple was still adamant regarding an incident where she perspectives and engage in hypothetico-deductive believed that SR intentionally tried to trip her in the reasoning, underlies metacognitive ability. However, classroom. SR had told us that he simply was sitting if we recognize that tacit knowledge is a real and there with his leg out in the aisle somewhat (since he important component of human growth and was tall even at that age) when she came from behind development, then this non-cognitive aspect of our and hit his foot. Knowing our son as we do, it would lives (i.e. feelings, emotions, premonitions, intuitions) have been very much out of character for him to try should be also integrated into our understanding of and hurt anybody especially a teacher. In any event, how memories can be transformed. That is, it is not the memory of sitting at this meeting with MR and me only metacognition but also metaemotion that is at on one side of a desk and the Principal and Ms. Wiley work when we revisit our past experiences including, on the other side will probably forever be one of my as in the present case, memories of caring and non- “flashbulb memories”. This situation was eventually caring as it relates to schooling. resolved, or more likely, just faded in importance due to the ongoing rapid pace of change that accompanies 3. Context and Findings these early years. However, Ms. Wiley did retire at the end of SR's fourth grade year -- I have always Letters-to-self were used as the data collection wondered if this incident contributed to her decision. method for this study which might be thought of as I also find it comforting that even though SR self-interviews and as such, data are not simply discussed the impact that this teacher had on him in transmitted as ready-made products but rather are our previous study [2] that he did not mention this modified during the process of writing as a teacher as part of this current study – it may be the consequence of reflection and ongoing learning. case that this memory has been transformed and

incorporated into the ongoing process of constructing doubtful, dark, and resentful. There was even a time I metamemories. SR also described “Mr. B.” nearly lost my passion for writing, and learning itself. (pseudonym) during the interview who was a teacher This experience also spilled over into other classes in eighth grade as “probably the most effective teacher and put a tremendous weight on my feelings toward he ever had” because of the way he interacted with learning even beyond English class. That was a big students and the respect that he showed them. factor.

Mr. A was my 8th grade homeroom and science Of course, there are usually two sides to a story and teacher. He was the first teacher to communicate with more than likely Mrs. Danforth would have a different upper-elementary students beyond the syllabus and perspective on this situation. However, there is no into our lives. Taking the jump from 7th to 8th grade, question that from SR’s perspective, he views this there was a notable advancement in the way we were memory as unpleasant yet reflects that he has spoken to. At the ripe old age of 13, two things transformed it in a way that he now uses it as improved in the classroom: personal disclosure and additional motivation to learn – an instance of a responsibility. Although we still were offered metamemory. guidance in situations when we asked for help from Mr. A, a lot of the responsibility to solve problems for Acting as a counter-weight to this previous ourselves and find the information on our own was negative memory, SR also recalled positive instances also emphasized. of caring in the person of his high school math teacher who took the time to explain concepts to him during As I read this quote, I am struck by the reflective lunch time and after school. I also recall these perspectives and interpretations that SR described instances of caring by this teacher although not as from the perspective of a 21 year old college student poignantly as SR. In addition, the impact of a high regarding a teacher and classroom when he was 14 school English teacher (Mr. Zaf) during his senior years old. I know Mr. B. very well and indeed he still year continues to this day even after SR’s recent talks about his former students with respect and graduation from college: encourages them when possible in their endeavors even after many years have elapsed. As a parent, Mr. Zaf was a legendary English teacher at my high former high school teacher, and current university school. His tenure was over 30 years, making his teacher, I can think of no better example of how caring teaching career span in some cases from former can and does positively impact students both during students all the way to the son or daughter of these schooling and just as importantly during the years that students! He had a reputation for empowerment and follow graduation. I am quite sure that SR’s current challenging learning. Mr. Zaf had a stellar way of memories of Mr. B. have become transformed and making students feel that their writing had value, and enriched in light of later reflection and experience as was worthy of praise. He made students feel capable. I write this in the year 2020. He didn’t just correct papers, he would workshop Regarding high school, it is unfortunate that SR’s sentences with you to develop the most meaning from memories first took him back to experiences of non- them. I’ll never forget what he signed on the back of caring in relation to his English teacher as he my Senior Retrospective… “you have the heart of a described in his letter: poet and the mind of a philosopher.” The most important thing that Mr. Zaf used in conjunction with I wouldn’t have the inspiration to practice writing his support and work-shopping was assigning with much diligence if not for my high school English material that “challenged a student’s superior teacher Mrs. Danforth (pseudonym). Not because of intellect,” as he’d say teasingly, but you knew he her guidance or support, but because she was wrong seriously considered all students capable of in her assessment of my writing. And, I chose to prove performing at such a level. We read a fair amount of her wrong. She told students what not to write more Shakespeare as well as Beowulf. He relentlessly often than she offered alternatives or solutions and challenged the class to read more complex works. He left students stuck using their own judgment with little also gave a vocabulary test every other day and or no guidance. In hindsight, this has ultimately graded on definition which grew in complexity over proven to be a valuable lesson. Now, I use her the course. The way in which he celebrated the most negative approach to build a strong foundation complex of his reading assignments made us want to around “okay, I am a good writer, and here’s why.” write at a higher caliber, and most of us successfully As time elapsed, I realized her teaching style gave me did. two choices: to become a product of my classroom environment and negatively reinforce myself, or It is difficult not to smile when I read this account decide for myself what to let shape me. The choice especially in light of SR’s earlier experiences with didn’t come easily. There was a time where I was sent Mrs. Danforth. While SR describes how he has into a deeply self-critical place – a place that was transformed his interpretation of his negative

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 97 memories of Mrs. Danforth, I believe that he has also that is the integration of these memories into a transformed his memories of Mr. Zaf by now continuing self-dialogue as a way to continue to contextualizing these memories in light of his construct our ongoing efforts to construct cohesive experiences and growing maturity. world views as well as our identities. Although Regarding college experiences, because SR Erikson [3] saw identity formation as the major attended a university that was distant from home, our challenge of adolescence, it may well be the case that family interview was also the first time we heard identity development is a lifelong adventure in much about his college experiences. SR spoke about relation to both our ongoing experiences and our his willingness to work hard in classes that were not metamemories. necessarily his favorite because he perceived his Since both my wife (MR) and I were privy to our professors as really caring both about him and subject son’s experiences and perceptions, as caring parents, matter. This, of course, struck a warm chord with me it was sometimes difficult to listen to his re-storying since I too am a college professor! It has been found of painful memories. In regard to Mrs. Danforth [high that students who have experienced a caring school English teacher], MR wrote: relationship with professors exhibit a higher level of engagement in learning and a better academic self- In a landmark meeting with Mrs. Danforth, I was concept [16], [6]. I was especially gratified to learn astounded to hear her tell us that his work was “sub that SR recognized that neither learning nor caring is par.” This is when he was in 11th grade and writing confined to the classroom by describing an experience had been to that point a strong suit for him. Could this with a Café owner near to his campus. Here is what he teacher have turned this conference into a learning wrote when he was a college senior: moment, describing what she was expecting and what was lacking in Patrick’s work? Did she offer examples I notice now that in most of my college classes, I’m of what was expected? I was so angry and hurt for my the most talkative student. I find something to son. Not only was he beaten-down from this teacher, contribute to almost every discussion. I believe that he subsequently had to forfeit a lead role in the spring 95% of students in any given classroom, including musical which was devastating to him, so deeply college, know the material well enough to participate. embarrassing for a student of 16 years old. However, in a class of 30 students, an average of 5 - 7 students consistently participate. Why? They may MR then went on to say that because of teachers like feel that transitioning from listening to speaking is Mr. B. and Mr. Zaf, SR was able to lift himself up and uncomfortable and sets them apart from the rest of the become a better writer because of this experience. MR students. Or, they may have been conditioned at a then concluded that “in retrospect, SR learned a great young age to be quiet during class. The amazing thing lesson from the Mrs. Danforth situation, and at the about Mr. B’s and Mr. Zaf classes [middle school and same time discovered what caring teaching is all about high school respectively] was that all material was an because SR had enough strong mentor roles to learn invitation for the class to actively engage in. This from that and I now believe he could be a wonderful definitely reshaped the way it feels to speak in class teacher in his own right!” Here we have an instance for me. Now, in the Fall semester of my senior year of where the memory of another person (MR) has now college, I actually have to hold myself back from been transformed because of a shared re-construction answering questions in a particular class to give other and re-interpretation of this memory with SR. students the chance to join the discussion! I think As loving parents, we realized that we had to be when it comes to developing strong students, it comes especially sensitive to allowing our own perceptions down to a healthy balance of challenging students and and interpretations of our memories to be transformed supporting them; presenting them with hard work and in a way that always casts SR in a positive light while letting them know they are up to the challenge. vilifying those whom he has described in a negative Importantly, within that challenge comes guidance light. – the old “bias” taboo! However, my own take and responsibility; making your standards clear, on bias is similar to Lichtman [8] who wrote: working with students for them to understand what is expected of them, and putting the rest in their hands Bias and qualitative research is a topic that to work on for themselves. Because teachers along the challenges both students and their professors. One way like Mr. B. and Mr. Zaf have shown me these view is that bias can be eliminated, or at least lessons in a way that has stuck with me long-term, I controlled, by careful work, triangulation, and am aware and mindful of how to perform up to my full multiple sources. I do not believe this is true. Bias is potential and am very motivated to do so! a concept that is related to foundationalist, traditional, or postpositivist thinking. SR’s connecting his self-reflections of his classroom college experience to his memories of Mr. Lichtman [8] goes on to point out that all B. in middle school and Mr. Zaf in high school researchers have particular views on a topic or why illustrate another dimension of metamemories and would they do them? For this current study, while we

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 98 recognize our “bias” that SR is a great kid with a great mine because of the way that he treated me (including future in front of him, we also recognize that the “halo surprise gifts), I have since learned that he was a effect” is still alive and well in all of us for those carouser and womanizer which I now know caused whom we care about. This is one of those wonderful my aunt a great deal of sorrow. While I will always “challenges” that we must embrace as researchers carry wonderful “flashbulb memories” of my uncle, since we tend to study those things that we are most these memories are now framed within a larger passionate about. understanding of the social context. I have termed this phenomenon of re-casting or re-framing memories 4. Conclusions metamemories because it involves not only thinking back to original memories but also transforming these When I asked one of my doctoral students (Jane) memories based on reflections and experiences that to review a draft of this article, she wrote in part “I occur following the original events into a revised found I was fascinated by each letter and looked perceptual framework. Pivotal events for my own forward to reading the next. It was amazing how much metamemory transformation for this study were the the participant grew with each encounter especially family interview and SR’s letter that enabled me to the caring ones.” In line with this observation, it is my “see” recalled events through both an historical as belief that interviews not only serve to communicate well as a dynamic temporal lens as experienced by “what was” but also “what is becoming” as SR. Because each of us are not only self-learners but participants and interviewer co-construct new insights also social-learners, I found my own memories being and meanings from past events. “Letters to self” also transformed as SR shared his own transformed seem to serve this dual role of both was and becoming memories during both the initial interview as well as since they not only serve as data collection through his letter-to-self. There seems to be an instruments but also due to the very act of writing inherent resilience, creativity, and drive in us that engender both reflections and new insights. enable us to reshape and transform memories in a way As I reflect now on both my original memories of that supports the ongoing re-construction of our own SR’s elementary school (2002- 2010) and high school worldviews. (2010-2014) and those regarding college (2014-2018) From a self-phenomenological perspective, I find I find myself putting these memories within a new myself actively trying to discern how I have perspective based on what we shared as a family experienced this foray into family research as it relates during the 2016 interview as well as in our follow-up to schooling. A close reading of the SR and MR letters letters and conversations. I seem to have constructed has led me to appreciate how research on families can a more integrated perspective of how both positive shed light on some intractable issues in the field of and negative instances of caring can be used by education. Although most families will not engage in individuals to re-cast their memories if they so choose formal research, if we recognize that interviews are in either positive or negative ways. For example, SR nothing more than focused conversations, perhaps we when describing Mrs. Danforth (the English teacher can learn as families to “interview” each other in a he had in high school) whom he characterized as quite caring way and on a regular basis to learn what is on uncaring and non-supportive seemed to transform his our hearts and minds and thereby be able to offer interpretation of his memories in a way that has loving support when it is most needed. Perhaps we resulted in a more positive mindset …. might even re-invigorate the lost art of letter writing to both self and others as a way to further promote Today, I feel a sense of accomplishment rehashing understanding. However, it might also be the case that and reflecting upon my time as a debased student. No it is only the medium of time and perspective that resentment has brewed in the years since. Think back enable us to transform our memories of positive and to times you may have been at arms with a teacher negative experiences and recast them into who you felt was against you. Do you feel any metamemories. I think that the family interview and resentment? Do you use resentment as a propeller or our letters provided such an opportunity for the three the accomplishment of producing quality work? Let of us to do just that. the desire of work well done be your driver, not the residual contempt from a negative experience drive Wolcott [18] speaking about the respective roles your goals. of description, analysis, and interpretation in qualitative data analysis writes that: Like SR, I have come to see negative memories as Thoughts related to data analysis and interpretation those that can ultimately be re-cast in a positive way. may linger for years, just as details of events long It is also sometimes the case (though not as often) that forgotten may pop into one’s head, or experiences in I have found myself re-casting positive memories into a new field setting may suddenly prompt a fresh more subdued hues as a consequence of placing these perspective for rethinking the meaning of events in an memories into a larger context based on time and earlier one (p. 48). experience. For example, while I idolized an uncle of

So, when we talk about the transformation of 5. References memories related to experiences of caring and non- caring in school or other important aspects of our [1] Berliner, D.C. (2002). Educational research: The hardest lives, it is important for us to have others listen and science of all. Educational Researcher, 31(8), 18-20. share in transforming memories within the context of a caring environment. [2] Bernauer, J.A., Bernauer, M.P., and Bernauer, P.J. It is also important to note that with qualitative (2017). A family affair: Caring in teaching and research, there is usually improvisation that implications for teacher and researcher preparation. Brock Education Journal, 26(2), 4 – 15. accompanies the development and conduct of a study

– and that was certainly the case here. For example, [3] Erikson, E.H. (1963). Childhood and Society (2nd ed.). when trying to clarify the complex nature of this study New York, NY: Norton. in contrast to the first study [2], my son and I had several conversations including a particularly [4] Guba, E.G. (1967). The expanding concept of research. memorable one when I was visiting him at his Theory into Practice, 6(2), 57-65. university, and we met on a Sunday morning in November at a café near the campus. From a [5] Kelly, G.A. (1963). A theory of personality: The descriptive standpoint, I wrote much of this article in psychology of personal constructs. New York, NY: W.W. Norton and Company. “real time” while we were seated next to a warm fireplace with flames licking about. It was a cold [6] Komarraju, M., S. Musulkin, and G. Bhattacharya morning and the fire lent not only physical warmth but (2010). Role of student–faculty interactions in developing also an environment that seemed to make college students’ academic self-concept, motivation, and conversation and understanding flow more easily. In achievement. Journal of College Student Development, addition, a mother with two young children, who 51(3), 332 – 342. seemed to be preparing for an upcoming dance lesson, were around the other side of the fireplace and were [7] Lemon, L. (2017). Applying a Mindfulness Practice to sharing in the warmth while also providing visual Qualitative Data Collection. The Qualitative Report, 22 (12), 3305 – 3313 expression to the transferability of caring in education http://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol22/iss12/14 (Access Date: across families and generations. I also have found that 15 November 2020). I have been “mindfulness” as I collected data. Lemon [7] where “the core of mindfulness is a heightened [8] Lichtman, M. (2013). Qualitative research in education: awareness that is the result from paying attention on A user’s guide (3rd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. purpose” (p. 3306). SR’s description of how the negative memories of Mrs. Danforth were [9] Lincoln, Y.S. and Guba, E.G. (2013). The constructivist transformed into positive ones continues to resonate credo. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press, Inc. with both my wife and me and have provided us with [10] Muncey, T. (2010). Creating autoethnographies. Los a lens to better understand our son – both who he is Angeles, CA: Sage. now as well as how the challenges he faces offer opportunities for further growth. This lens seems to [11] Piaget, J. (1954). The construction of reality in the embody Piaget’s notion of “assimilation” and child. (M. Cook, Trans.). New York, NY: Basic Books. “accommodation” in a concrete yet more inclusive way to reveal to SR how he can continue to grow [12] Piaget, J. (1963). Origins of intelligence in children. along not only cognitive but also emotional, social, New York, NY: Norton. and spiritual paths. It also helps us as parents to hopefully guide his growth with more grace and [13] Polanyi, M. (1962). Personal knowledge. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. wisdom.

Qualitative research can indeed be rife with non- [14] Polanyi, M. (1966). The tacit dimension. Chicago, IL: control and “contamination” of data but very rich with The University of Chicago Press. potential for helping to understand what really matters in teaching and learning and in other important areas [15] Tierney, W. G. (1998). Life history’s history: Subjects of our lives. I recognize that not every family will foretold. Qualitative Inquiry, 4, 49-70. decide to undertake a formal research study such as this one; however, the real key may be simply [16] Umbach, P., andM.Wawrzynski (2005). Faculty do cultivating an attitude of adventure, caring, and matter: The role of college faculty in student learning and engagement. Research in Higher Education 46(2), 153 – mindfulness as we revel in the “ordinary” of our daily 184. lives including the importance of our metamemories. [17] Vygotsky, L.S. (1987). The genetic roots of thinking and speech. In R.W. Rieber and A. Carton

(Eds.), Problems of general psychology, Vol. 1. Collected works (pp. 101-120). New York, NY: Plenum. (Work originally published 1934).

[18] Wolcott, H.F. (1994). Transforming qualitative data: Description, analysis, and interpretation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

[19] Woolfolk, A.H. (2014). Educational psychology. (12th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.

The Missing Pieces of Nurturing Students’ Needs in Doctoral STEM Mentoring Relationships

Anna Sanczyk, Lisa Merriweather, Niesha Douglas, Cathy Howell University of North Carolina at Charlotte1, University of North Carolina at Charlotte2, Fayetteville State University3, University of North Carolina at Charlotte4 The United States of America

Abstract

Mentoring is crucial for academic success in United States population is not reflected in STEM higher education, especially for women and minority faculty and student population.[9]. In the view of such students in Science, Technology, Engineering, and complex issues, this qualitative research study Math (STEM) doctoral programs; however, minority engaged twenty-five doctoral students in critical students are least likely to receive effective dialogue and reflection on their feelings about their mentorship. The purpose of this paper was to examine mentoring relationships. mentoring relationships involving doctoral students studying in the STEM programs at a university in the 2. Literature Review southeastern part of the United States. Data collection methods included focus groups with twenty-five Many scholars engaged in defining and exploring students and individual interviews with nine effective mentoring relationships. Mentoring has been underrepresented minority students studying in defined as “a relationship between two individuals various STEM programs. Data was analyzed using an whereby the more experienced person is committed to inductive process. The findings reveal that personal, providing developmental support to the other, less social, and cultural inclusion are missing pieces in experienced person” [2]. The benefits of mentoring STEM doctoral mentoring relationships. This study include better academic performance [3], [16], makes a significant contribution to the literature by persistence [23], social integration [12], [24], and highlighting STEM doctoral students mentoring increased career advancement [5], [15]. Mentoring is experiences that reveal what is missing in STEM seen as an essential part of graduate student success. doctoral mentorships. The findings of this study call Further, “there is growing evidence that mentoring for transformation of mentoring in graduate STEM programs may be an effective means to diversify the education through mentor training that includes science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) topics such as cultural responsivity. pipeline and workforce” [2]., Some scholars also discuss the dynamics of 1. Introduction culture affecting mentoring relationships, especially power and prejudice that may lead to dysfunctional Many universities across the United States have mentoring relationships between White male mentors witnessed disparities in diversity in the doctoral and minority and female mentees [4], [18]. Also, some student population in Science, Technology, scholars voiced their concerns about effectiveness of Engineering and Math (STEM) programs. The mentoring in doctoral STEM programs as faculty in National Science Foundation [17] reports that women this field do not receive training in how to be a mentor and minorities are underrepresented in achieving [10], [11]. doctoral STEM related degrees. Many scholars Additionally, studies have focused on defining emphasize the importance of supporting networks of what is a good mentor. For example, Hund et al. [11] mentors who can contribute to reducing the diversity found that effective mentors in STEM doctoral gap in graduate programs [1], [7], [11], [18]. A body programs are considered as patient, honest, of research illustrates that minority students face communicative, empathetic, respectful, and good racism, discrimination, and microaggressions at the listeners, while. others looked at successful and failed graduate level, especially in the STEM programs. mentor relationships, reporting that ineffective Women and minority students may face social, mentors are characterized as possessing limited cultural, and intellectual isolation and neglect in their communication skills, commitment, and experience departments [22]. Also, the increasing diversity of the [21]. This study makes a significant contribution to

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 102 the literature on mentoring relationships by revealing measures. The conversations in the focus groups and the missing pieces of effective mentoring in STEM individual interviews were audio recorded and graduate programs at a university in the southeastern transcribed. Memo writing occurred as well and was region of the United States. aimed to capture nonverbal reactions during the interview, offering more insights into the analysis 3. Theoretical Framework [18].

This study draws on critical theory. Critical theory 5. Analysis “examines the current structure of society, in which dominant socioeconomic groups exploit and oppress Data from the focus groups and interviews was subordinate groups” [6]. This research through critical analyzed using an inductive process, namely constant dialogue and reflection aimed to uncover “social comparative method [9]. The constant comparative structures, discourses, ideologies, and epistemologies method starts by looking for raw words and applying that prop up both the status quo and a variety of forms meaningful codes to them. Codes are then organized of privilege” [13]. Thus, drawing on Freire [8], into meaningful categories leading to the creation of researchers engaged participants in open what Ravitch and Carl [19] call thematic clusters. conversations about their mentoring relationships in Data investigation followed a cyclical process that order to elicit critical thinking, invite sharing of proceeded from more general to more specific experiences, and promote humility, hope, and mutual analysis and conclusions [19]. trust [8]. This study focused on understanding social, and contextual conditions of mentoring relationships 6. Findings in higher education. The findings from both the focus groups and individual interviews revealed the doctoral students’ 4. Methodology feelings and perceptions of mentoring in their doctoral STEM program. The data suggests that eight key A qualitative research method is used to uncover relational components required for nurturing their and understand “how people interpret their development were missing. These components experiences, how they construct their world views, connected with feelings of lack of emotional, social, and what meaning they attribute to their experiences” and cultural inclusion in their mentoring relationships. [13]. The findings presented in this study are drawn from a larger ongoing study, a multiple embedded 6.1. Undermined case study that includes various voices, such as faculty, students, and department leaders across three institutions. This article reports the findings of one of Many students shared feelings of being undermined. For example, they often said the mentors the embedded cases, the first cohort of doctoral used them for their research purposes and asked them students at Institution A. to deliver their work without engaging in a mutually “A case study is an in-depth exploration from benefiting research process. One of the male multiple perspectives of the complexity and uniqueness of a particular project, policy, institution, participants in the focused group explained that some program or system in a real-life context” [19]. mentors will help their mentee even though they personally do not benefit from it while others just act Accordingly, this research design allows for like bosses: investigating complexity and nuances of mentoring relationships. The research question that guided this So, I think that gets to what other people are saying study is as follows: What are the perceptions of STEM about some … getting the mentor's time for doctoral students regarding their mentoring something that doesn't necessarily benefit them (the relationships with their faculty mentor? mentor) directly, but instead benefits their mentee. The goal of the focus groups and individual Maybe that's where the difference is between an interviews in this study was to gain insights into advisor who could really be (a mentor) ... A lot of experiences and perspectives of STEM doctoral people I feel like have advisors who are just sort of students. Each focus group lasted about 60 to 90 bosses who are running a lab. And then the minutes and were conducted with the doctoral mentorship is subordinate to that, or separate. students from various STEM departments. Twenty- five students volunteered to be part of four focus 6.2. Neglected groups. Also, nine underrepresented minority students agreed to semi-structured interviews that lasted Many students mentioned that they were neglected between 45 to 90 minutes. The consent forms were by their mentors. For example, some mentors resorted collected before the data collection process and to advising more than mentoring, where they provided explained the purpose of the study and confidentiality academic guidance but did not engage in building

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 103 stronger socio-emotional mentoring relationships. For to as incompetent in their programs. Their mentors or example, one female student discussed in the focus faculty seem to be biased and hold deficit views on groups how her mentor failed to attend to her needs diverse students and perceive them as less qualified holistically. than their White peers. For example, one Black student mentioned that mentors might have But I would not say that she's mentored me on that stereotypical understandings of underrepresented holistic level as I've been thinking about. I am not minority students, and their language suggests sure if that is my fault in my ... I wouldn't say belittlement. He also highlighted that he faced necessarily reluctance, but the fact that I haven't challenges in voicing his concerns. been as maybe honest or vulnerable with where I

am going forward. But in terms of advising, she's He's made numerous comments to me about not been great helping me move forward in the being smart enough to be here, that was based on program. It's absolutely wonderful. When it comes stereotypes. And then there's the idea of, well if I down [to thinking about] the mentor and thinking voice my opinion when something like this happens about it this way, I would say that I don't have a to whoever says it to me, then instead of the person mentor at this point. who said it getting reprimanded or getting in

trouble, it's gonna be me for expressing how I felt. 6.3. Intentionality 6.6. Unresponsive Students reported experiencing tensions and challenges because their mentors showed little In addition to experiencing biased attitudes, some concern for them. They simply check on them but do underrepresented minority students expressed that not build genuine, intentional mentoring they attempted to talk to their mentors about their relationships, leaving the students confused about the experiences and challenges in the doctoral STEM mentoring process. One student explained in the focus programs and even reached out for help to resolve group that the mentor did not communicate with him some issues, but the faculty was unresponsive to their enough during their mentoring process, and he was requests. For example, one Black male described his unclear about what needed to be done. mentor as an unsupportive person who did not take action in helping him resolve an issue related to [Communication] really effects the quality of discrimination in the department. whatever kind of relationship that you're in. And so

you were just saying, if stuff is ambiguous in a Then he was like, "Well you know, you can't help meeting, after the meeting it's going to be a 100 ignorant people." And I was like, "Yes, I'm aware of times, and its not going to be good. And so you can't that. I've been told that my whole life." I said, "I have a run in your office, check in, have a 30 second wasn't telling that to you so you can kinda put a conversation, and leave, and call that a mentorship. band aid over it, I'm making you aware of the It has to be intentional. situation and that I felt uncomfortable. And I know you have ties with the people who run this, this 6.4. Unrelatable happened to me before, so maybe you could reach out to them and they could put out a whatever about In addition, underrepresented minority students making sure that you're respectful of all walks of voiced their concerns. Many of them admitted that life." Something to that nature, I mean ... He didn't their mentors cannot relate to their backgrounds and take it that far, it's more of like, "I'm sorry. These needs. They feel like their mentors do not understand things unfortunately happen." So that's when I needed you to like, be an ally. I needed you to use where they come from. For instance, one Black male your power. mentioned during the focus group that he feels that his mentor is oblivious to certain challenges he 6.7. Isolated experiences in the department. Data analysis also revealed that many I am black, and we can't necessarily relate on those underrepresented minorities who participated in this things. If I have certain issues, I can't necessarily go to him, and him understand... I can go to him and study experienced social and cultural isolation in the tell him like "Oh my gosh, this happened." And he doctoral departments. They mentioned that they had would listen, but that doesn't necessarily mean that faculty who did not look like them and studied with you can respond in a way of knowing because you students who were overwhelmingly White males. For went through the same things yourself. example, one Black female shared her concerns during the individual interview. She said she felt alone 6.5. Biased in the program because she is a Black female.

Some underrepresented minority students also I don't see a lot of people here that I identify with made comments about their feelings of being referred and understand where I'm coming from so I don't

feel super comfortable, making me feel excluded… their mentoring experiences, suggesting that STEM always being looked at as someone who doesn't doctoral students are not satisfied with the quality of belong… I feel like everyone looks at me differently the mentoring relationships with faculty. Better than everyone else. understanding the roots of this dissatisfaction can be used for improving professional development for 6.8. Prejudiced current and future mentors in STEM fields. This research study suggests that mentor quality and the Female students also voiced many concerns about learning environments of underrepresented minority experiencing prejudiced behavior. They were frank and female students in graduate STEM programs can about the hostile attitudes they experienced from be enhanced and improved through mentor training. some of their faculty and mentors. For example, one By design, qualitative research has inherent female student expressed her feelings of experiencing limitations such as small sample size, participant and sexism in the program. researcher bias, and study duration and location. The limited number of participants in this research study And, she's accusing this faculty member of just (25) may present a limitation in terms of blatant sexism. And, if you look at his lab, this generalizability. The research also recognizes that the committee member, it's all white males. I've heard participants and researchers may bring various it from them too, this person treats them like crap. perspectives, experiences, and possible biases into the study. To combat this, we documented our reflections 7. Discussion in researcher journals throughout the study and provided participants with a safe space for critical Many scholars have argued for improving dialogue and reflection. In addition, focus group and mentoring in STEM programs [7], [21], [22]. This interview data was collected from participants study adds to the body of research by emphasizing the studying in the southeastern United States. Therefore, criticality of listening to students’ voices in order to findings may not be generalizable to STEM education improve mentoring in higher education. The voiced in the whole country due to regional differences and concerns relate to lack of social, cultural, and state policies governing STEM programs. emotional caring in mentoring relationships. Students explained they felt undermined, neglected, and misunderstood. The findings also point to the 9. References importance of listening to the underrepresented minority and female students as they face additional [1] Brunsma, David L, David G Embrick, and Jean H Shin. challenges in finishing doctoral programs. They “Graduate Students of Color: Race, Racism, and Mentoring mentioned that their mentors did not relate to their in the White Waters of Academia.” Sociology of Race and Ethnicity 3, no. 1 (January 2017): 1–13. unique needs and did not understand their backgrounds. Even though their mentors tried to [2] Crisp, Gloria, Vicki L Baker, Kimberly A Griffin, Laura listen, they did not take action to change toxic Gail Lunsford, and Meghan J Pifer. “Mentoring environments in their graduate program. Female Undergraduate Students.” ASHE higher education students also talked about facing prejudice that report 43, no. 1 (2017): 7–103. contributed to feelings of frustration and alienation. [3] Dahlvig, Jolyn. “Mentoring of African American Similar to the extant literature, these findings support Students at a Predominantly White Institution the need for mentor training that specifically (PWI).” Christian Higher Education 9, no. 5 (October 5, addresses the needs of women and underrepresented 2010): 369–395. minority students [4], [7], [18]. This study confirmed [4] Davidson, Martin N, and Lynn Foster-Johnson. that underrepresented minority and female students “Mentoring in the Preparation of Graduate Researchers of experience discrimination and prejudice in doctoral Color.” Review of educational research 71, no. 4 (2016): mentoring [23]. These findings add to the existing 549–574. body of literature by highlighting the criticality of transforming mentoring relationships in STEM [5] Deborah Gross, Ellen Iverson, Gudrun Willett, and program in order to create a more inclusive learning Cathryn Manduca. “Broadening Access to Science With Support for the Whole Student in a Residential Liberal Arts environment. College Environment.” Journal of college science teaching 44, no. 4 (March 1, 2015): 99–107. 8. Conclusions [6] DeMarrais, Kathleen Bennett., and Margaret Diane. LeCompte. The Way Schools Work: a Sociological Analysis This study is significant because it provides a of Education 2nd ed. White Plains, N.Y: Longman, 1995. more nuanced understanding of how doctoral students feel about their mentoring relationships in the STEM [7] Feldman, Mitchell D, Patricia A Arean, Sally J Marshall, academic environment. Participants in this study Mark Lovett, and Patricia O’Sullivan. “Does Mentoring primarily used negative descriptors when discussing Matter: Results from a Survey of Faculty Mentees at a Large

Health Sciences University.” Medical education online 15, [21] Straus, Sharon E et al. “Characteristics of successful no. 1 (2010): 5063–8. and failed mentoring relationships: a qualitative study across two academic health centers.” Academic medicine: [8] Freire, Paulo. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: journal of the Association of American Medical Continuum, 1993. Collegesvol. 88,1 (2013): 82-9. doi:10.1097/ACM.0b013e [9] Glaser, Barney G., and Anselm L. Strauss. The 31827647a0. Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research Chicago: Aldine Pub. Co., 1967. [22] Tabbye Chavous, Seanna Leath, and Raúl Gámez . “Climate, Mentoring, and Persistence Among [10] Hughes, Cayce C, Kristen Schilt, Bridget K Gorman, Underrepresented STEM Doctoral Students” Higher and Jenifer L Bratter. “Framing the Faculty Gender Gap: A Education Today (June 25, 2018). View from STEM Doctoral Students: Framing the Faculty Gender Gap.” Gender, work, and organization 24, no. 4 [23] Tenenbaum, Harriet R, Faye J Crosby, and Melissa D (July 2017): 398–416. Gliner. “Mentoring Relationships in Graduate School.” Journal of vocational behavior 59, no. 3 [11] Hund, Amanda K, Amber C Churchill, Akasha M Faist, (December 2001): 326–341. Caroline A Havrilla, Sierra M Love Stowell, Helen F McCreery, Julienne Ng, Cheryl A Pinzone, and Elizabeth S. [24] Zaniewski, Anna M, and Daniel Reinholz. “Increasing C Scordato. “Transforming Mentorship in STEM by STEM Success: a Near-Peer Mentoring Program in the Training Scientists to Be Better Leaders.” Ecology and Physical Sciences.” International journal of STEM evolution 8, no. 20 (2018): 9962–9974. education 3, no. 1 (2016): 1–12. [12] Lechuga, Vicente M. “Faculty-Graduate Student Mentoring Relationships: Mentors’ Perceived Roles and Responsibilities.” Higher education 62, no. 6 (2011): 757– 771 [13] McLaren, Peter, and Joe L. Kincheloe. Critical Pedagogy: Where Are We Now? New York: Peter Lang, 2007. [14] Merriam, Sharan B., and Elizabeth J. Tisdell. Qualitative Research: a Guide to Design and Implementation Fourth edition. San Francisco, CA: Jossey- Bass, 2017. [15] Montgomery, Beronda L., Jualynne E. Dodson, and Sonya M. Johnson. “Guiding the Way: Mentoring Graduate Students and Junior Faculty for Sustainable Academic Careers.” SAGE Open, (October 2014).

[16] Mullen, Carol A, Valorie L Fish, and Janice L Hutinger. “Mentoring Doctoral Students through Scholastic Engagement: Adult Learning Principles in Action.” Journal of further and higher education 34, no. 2 (2010): 179–197. [17] National Science Foundation, National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics. (2016). Doctorates awarded to U.S. citizens and permanent residents, by sex, field, ethnicity, and race: 2016. (NSF 9-3040 [Table 7-8]. Arlington, VA: Available at https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsf19304/data. Access date: 1 October 2020. [18] Nilsson, Johanna E, and Changming Duan. “Experiences of Prejudice, Role Difficulties, and Counseling Self-Efficacy Among U.S. Racial and Ethnic Minority Supervisees Working With White Supervisors.” Journal of multicultural counseling and development 35, no. 4 (2007): 219–229. [19] Ravitch, S., & Carl, N. (2016). Qualitative research: Bridging the conceptual, theoretical, and methodological. Sage. [20] Simons, Helen. Case Study Research in Practice. Los Angeles: SAGE, 2009

Teacher Training in the Use and Educational Appropriation of Learning Objects Based on Critical Pedagogy in Education

Alfonso Claret Zambrano Instituto de Educación y Pedagogía, Universidad del Valle Cali-Colombia, SA

Abstract

The research conducted evaluate teacher training according to its elaboration, until taken them to the based on the curricular planning of a proposal for repository, and next using them in teaching and teaching, learning and evaluation of Learning Object learning in classroom, is based critical pedagogy. (LO from now) of chemistry, developed under Critical Pedagogy assumes teacher training conceptual framework of critical pedagogy and the theoretically from a philosophy, based on Critical same Learning Objective worked under conceptual Theory and its corresponding practice in educational framework of TPACK. This paper shows a difference institutions that have that missionary purpose of that understanding teaching from the critical training teachers with the knowledge produced from pedagogy assumes the teacher training in knowledge them according to its analytical philosophical of: philosophy, educational theory, curriculum, meaning of its social application This philosophical pedagogy, content, sociology and psychology but thought is proposing as everything that concerns from TPACK is referred to pedagogy, content and clarification of concepts and propositions through of technology only. From that it is conclude that the which our experience and activities are intelligible Critical Pedagogy is socially more relevant than [6]. Hence the importance of knowing how we TPACK. propose the educational concepts that are central to the process of elaboration (design) and use of 1. Introduction Learning Objects in the classroom. The conception of analytic philosophy appears The educational training of teachers in the field of more explicit in its practice in the classroom where it education in this period of time (2019 to 2021) has is expressed continuously. Based on Moore's building been affected for several social facts: the progress in analogy [7], it is similar to a building model where learning in education, the fourth industrial revolution different activities occur on each floor. Then it and specially, the appearance of corona virus (Covid- becomes necessary to reflect that education includes a 19). This fact affected higher education because the set of activities that go on different levels, something educational training of the students in their like a building occupied in the different floors that interrelation of knowledge with their teachers due to make it up. Therefore, according to the previous one the untimely transition from face-to-face education to on the base floor, we have educational activities, such a virtual education, without being prepared to do it. In as. teaching, learning, evaluation, proper to the this context, training of Educative technology could educational act of the teacher and student. In relation be a alternative and specially the trained in education to the above, the teaching, learning and evaluation of Learning objects. For this research purpose the activities are the central axis of a teacher training following sections are given theoretical and proposal according to the knowledge of the teacher epistemological foundation, the problem, the research and in this case, according to the teacher's knowledge question, the conceptual framework of reference, in the use and educational appropriation of ICT in the methodology, procedure, development, empirical construction of an educational thought in teacher study, contrast and conclusion are established. training entities. That is why the knowledge of the teacher (educational, pedagogical, didactic, disciplinary, curricular, technological) that is 2. Literature Review proposed for such training, all converge in such activities of the teacher and student into classroom. The theoretical-epistemological foundation from On the second floor, at the highest level, we have which reflect, act and advance in this research work educational theory, which can be conceived about training teachers for use of learning objects theoretically and practically from positivism, constructivism and critical theory and in terms of

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 107 educational intentionality. This is like a body of ent and knowledge (knowledge) of the teacher to connected principles, advice, warnings, and integrate the OL to pedagogical knowledge, contents, recommendations, whose purpose is to affect what and technologic in the context of teaching, learning, happens on the first floor. In this sense the theories assessment in the classroom? have educational intentionality according to the According to the above it is necessary to recognize critical reflection that we make of the ends and object that the research according to the aforementioned of education, through a method historically question coincides with the educational act in the determined by a conception of society, man, child, and classroom and the purpose of this educational act: educational knowledge, strictly speaking that is teacher training in a meaningful way for the world of sought reach. At the next level, we have the life, consequently, this is the basis to solve the philosophy of education, which has as its main research question. purpose the clarification of the activities used at the The research question to know the proper base level, such as teaching, learning and evaluation. knowledge of ICT teacher training means to train the Another task is to examine the theories that operate at teacher in this knowledge for its use and educational that level, checking them for their consistency and appropriation, and the answer given by P. Mishra validity. There is a logical relationship between the Matthew and j. koehler1[3], is that this knowledge is differences between them at each level. This means achieved: training the teacher in the use of the that each higher level depends on the theories and reference conceptual framework of technological activities of the levels at the next lower level. For education TPACK. They propose a conceptual example, educational theory presupposes educational framework for educational technology by building on activities and depends on them for their approach. Shulman's formulation of '' pedagogical content Philosophy of education includes both, theories and knowledge '' [9] and extend it to the phenomenon of educational activities, but preferably activities of teachers integrating technology into their pedagogy. criticism and clarification [15]. This conceptual This conceptual framework has a theoretical root entity, the building, requires its materialization in an problem leaves aside other knowledge of the teacher institution whose fundamental mission is to train in the role of integrating ICT to the process of teachers, an educational knowledge expressed in the teaching, learning and evaluation in the classroom, knowledge of the teacher and a teacher who is built as such as education, educational theory, curriculum and a subject, all of which converge in teaching, learning other knowledge already present in the classroom and evaluation of the teacher in the classroom, in the and that sustain from the point of view of analytical research, in the community, wherever there is a philosophy approaches of Hirst [5], Moore's subject that teaches, a subject that learns, changes or educational theory [8], Stenhouse's [12] curriculum, proposes a thought of that educational purpose of and others, hence the need to investigate teaching and a verification of said process in a conceptual place any, is a consequence of the 2.2. The final research question based on philosophical thought that we have expressed. critical pedagogy

2. The problem, the research question and What is the own knowledge of ICT teacher training the conceptual framework of reference based on knowledge (knowledge) of the student and knowledge (knowledge) of the teacher to integrate the In relation to the above, the teaching, learning and OL to philosophical knowledge, educational theory, evaluation activities are the central axis of a proposal curricular, pedagogical, content, psychological and of teacher training in the use and educational technological in the context of teaching, learning, appropriation of ICT in an educational thought in the assessment in the classroom? teacher training entities and the final purpose of this The above stated research questions must be research project is to build that relatively new considered into what some authors are accepted: that knowledge that has entered the classroom and whose the research and development of the curriculum must nature is still in process. In other words, the problem correspond to the teacher and that are prospects to put is that the nature of this knowledge is still under this into practice. In this case, we are assuming the construction even though some answers already exist teaching, learning and evaluation as a process of [14]. Hence, it becomes important to consider this researching. This means that the teacher in class is testing their hypothesis about what is his curricular 2.1. Initial research question based on proposal for teaching, learning and evaluation TPAC knowledge, values and culture for a new generation of pupils. This idea changes his image and his What is the own knowledge of ICT teacher profession. training based on knowledge (knowledge) of the stud-

3.Methodology technology and teaching, learning and evaluation activities in the science classroom. This hypothesis To solve this final question from the initial one, a goes beyond what posing, P. Mishra Matthew and j. case study research was carried out [11] with 30 koehler1 [13], which only include the PCK version of students of grade 10 using the Object of learning: Shulman [10] and technological knowledge. (Because we use different units of concentration in Chemistry) in the repository of Colombia-Aprende [2] 5. Development: empirical study of the This case study was developed by carrying out the project: using the Learning object in curricular process proposed by Stenhouse [12] taking class the theory of teacher as researcher, in this sense is necessary: 1, planning a curricular research project. 2, The first action that Andrés did was to apply a pre- Empirical study of said project and 3 justified the test in order to determine the initial state with which analysis of its difference between what was initially the students arrive at the development of the Learning planned and what was finally offered for its Object entitled, why do we use different concentration educational appropriation. units? The different items that make up this evaluation tool come from the knowledge tests that have been 4. The procedure released by the Ministry of Education (MEN), since it is very important for the learning environments they 4.1. Planning the curriculum as a research implement to be aligned with the evaluation Project standards. In addition, this diagnostic strategy together with the post-test acts as one of the criteria to In this case the curriculum is assumed as a research determine the effectiveness of the Learning Object project in order to solve the research question of and the act of teaching the topic in question. The Learning Objet about: Why do use different units of previous assumption can be verified in the following concentration in chemistry? bullet: In the Colombian educational context, the state Professor Andrés gives each of the students a curricular theory establishes the conceptual path of personal computer that is part of the digital resources how disciplinary, pedagogical and technological of the chemistry classroom, in order for them to open knowledge enters the classroom of science classes, the interface of the Learning Object, why do we use according to its philosophical meaning in the different units of concentration? which supports the Institutional Educational Project, formative in the teaching-learning process of this topic. Additionally, Study Plan, epistemological in the Area plan, and as remember the way to work with this educational an educational act in the classroom plan. innovation online or offline, for this, broken by the Design the classroom plan with the sense of classroom with the purpose of monitoring the request practicing the previous curricular theory in terms of made by him. education, educational theory, pedagogy, content to Professor Andrés asks students to enter the OA, be developed, technology (virtual resources of ICT), why do we use different units of concentration? and state curricular guidelines: standards, reference start working activity 1 that addresses the introduction matrix, rights basic learning, knowledge tests, and the of OA. In addition, he affirms that this is an interactive corresponding teaching, learning and evaluation book whose body of knowledge represents a kind of activities. news about the pollution of the seven rivers of the city The Classroom Plan is proposed as a research of Cali. It should be emphasized that the text under proposal (teacher-researcher according to consideration is closely linked to the daily life of the Stenhouse[12], whose research question in this case students, a situation that perhaps increases their study is: Why use different units of concentration in interest in carrying out a comprehensive reading of Chemistry? and it is resolved according to the teacher this. The body of the text was read slowly by the class, use a context Learning Object in activities focused on that is, the idea represented in each of the paragraphs the rationalization and practice of using units of together with its microstructure was the center of concentration in chemistry, with a formative purpose, discussion of the students. This situation has increased skills to be developed, didactic means of relating their interest in developing language skills along with knowledge and evaluation of processes educational the understanding of chemical phenomena during 20 hours of class (see Boris Candela [4] (fundamental and derivative literacy) Classroom plan) On the other hand, the tasks related to the The solution to this research question is posed as a problematizing context of the news of Cali, the city of corresponding hypothesis: the knowledge of teacher the seven rivers, base the beginning of the training in the use of ICT is based on the global construction of the topics of dissolutions and units of integration of educational theory, the curriculum, the concentration. Also, this kind of tasks help students disciplinary knowledge, pedagogy, psychology continue to extend the development of the formal

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 109 scheme of direct proportional relationships between order to be resolved need more from education and two variables (eg, number of solute and solvent pedagogy before that to solve it only with use of particles). This last aspect plays a key role in the technology. In this sense form what was developed it construction of the understanding of many of the is conclude that the Critical pedagogy: philosophy, chemical phenomena that are translated into educational theory, curriculum, pedagogy, content, mathematical models. Hence, Professor Andrés technology, sociology, and psychology, is socially throughout this lesson gives a leading role to this kind more relevant than only pedagogy, content and of quantitative relationship. Although, most students technology (TPACK). managed to use the direct proportionality scheme to solve the problem tasks, some of them continue to 7. References have difficulty applying it. [1] Carr, W., and Kemmis, S., (1986). Becoming critical: 6. Contrast between the planned Education, Knowledge and Action- Research. The Falmer research project and the empirical Press.

study [2] Colombia-Aprende, Recuperado http://aprende.colomb iaaprende.edu.co/sites/default/files/naspublic/ContenidosA The comparison of the two previous processes prender/G_10/S/menu_S_G10_U03_L04/index.html. (project and empirical study), the implementation of the three learning activities that make up the phase of [3] Mishra, P., and Koehler, M. J., (2006). Technological introduction of the Learning Object is evident. pedagogical content knowledge:A framework for teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record, However, several of the pedagogical acts carried out by the teacher during this phase were not conjectured [4] Candela, B., (2019). Plan de aula, Institución Educativa by the practical theories that theoretically and Eustaquio Palacios. methodologically based the Learning Object in the class. For example, in the characteristics of the design, [5] Hirst, P. H. (2012). E ducational Theory and its it is not explicitly represented the three key elements Foundations Disciplines. London: Routledge. that the teacher and the students see during the implementation of the aforementioned activities, [6] Hirst, P., (1974). Knowledege and the curriculum A namely: the way in which the classroom has to be collection of Philosophical Papers. London: Routledge. theorized trough the Educational Act of teacher and [7] Moore, T., (1982). Philosophy of Education An student in the classroom. That is to say, the Introduction. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. educational philosophy, the educational theory, the curriculum does not appear in the process of teaching [8] Moore, T., (1982). Educational Theory: An Introduction and learning and evaluating with the Learning Object. : Routledge; New edition (10 Marzo 1977). The process remains only in the high specificity of the Learning Object in the context of chemistry and [9] Shulman, L.S., (1987). Conocimiento y enseñanza language, but does not take into account the other Estudios Públicos, 83 (invierno 2001). inhabitants of the classroom: the curriculum, the [10] Shulman, L. S., (1986). Those Who Undestand: social sciences, philosophy and educational theory, it Knowledge Growth in Teaching. Educational Researcher, is limited to the object, as didactic instrumental Vol 15, No 2. pp 4-14 487-498. rationality, the total educational context is lost. With the Learning Objects the teacher gains in conceptual [11] Stake, R.E., (1999). The art of case study research , specificity but loses globability to understand sage publicatios, London. education and the world [16] Learning Object allows the student to learn to solve problems of concentration [12] Stenhouse, L., (1991). An introduction to Curriculum in chemistry, but does not take into account the world, and Development. London: Heineman Education. politics, environment, even technology itself, society, [13] Mishra and Matthew J. Koehler, (2006), Technological and these are the reasons for being educator [1]. The Pedagogical Content Knowledge: A Framework for Teacher Learning Object allows the student to learn to solve Knowledge. Teachers College Record Volume 108, problems of concentration in chemistry, but does not Number 6, June 2006, pp. 1017–1054. take into account the world, politics, environment, even technology itself, society, and these are the [14] Koehler, M. J., and Mishra, P., (2009). What is reasons for being educator. technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge? Contemporary Issues in Technology and teacher education, 7. Conclusions 9(1), 60-70

[15] O´Connor, D., (1965). An Introduction to the In short, the final conclusion is the problems of Phylosophy of Education. London: Routledge and Kegasn teaching, learning and evaluation in the classroom in Paul.

[16] Zambrano A. C., (2017). Epistemology, History, Curriculum and Worldview in Science Teaching The relationship between social science knowledge and knowledge of natural science, University College London Institute of Education 2017 (in process).

Session 5: Global Issues in Education and Research

Title: Healthcare Informatics Technology: A Tool to Improve Rural Healthcare Literacy Authors: Alexis Bain, Emily Reeves, Alistair Fyfe

Title: Contradicting Learning Environments between Rural and Urban: The case of Malawi: Author: Albert K. M. Y. Kayange

Title: Latent Class Analysis Author: Diana Mindrila

Healthcare Informatics Technology: A Tool to Improve Rural Healthcare Literacy

Alexis Bain, Emily Reeves, Alistair Fyfe Midwestern State University The United States

Abstract

Low health literacy rates that span across the correcting the issues that the rural population may United States account for $106-$236 billion dollars in face, Health Informatics Technology (HIT) would be healthcare costs. Many factors contribute to health a great tool to improve their health literacy rates. literacy levels such as belief systems, sex, age, social status, culture, language barriers, and most importantly comprehension. Previous studies have 1. Introduction demonstrated that taking explicit measures to increase the health literacy rate of health care Approximately 12% of adults in the United States consumers, would ultimately work for the good of the are proficient in health literacy [13]. The remaining medical industry and the American society at large. 88% are operating at an intermediate or basic literary The focus of this research is improving health literacy comprehension (at or below) capacity. Health literacy in rural areas using technology. The creation of a has become a considerable effector in the increase in healthy population is not solely reliant on technology, healthcare costs. This has affected how the but it can be dependent on the active pursuit of government budgets for and spends annually. knowledge and understanding of the people. The Healthcare costs account for approximately 17.7% of United States would gain a wealthy economy by the GDP spending [24]. By changing the status of improving the health of the United States Population. health literacy in the United States, it can curb the This may be possible with the use of technological spending trend for healthcare [24]. As of 2018 the tools to provide pertinent health information to their amount of money spent on healthcare has grown by rural population. Providing accurate and simplistic approximately 5%, which now yields approximately information to the rural population would result in a 3.6 trillion dollars in healthcare spending [8]. The significant improvement in the health rates of the increase in spending in healthcare has restricted the nation. This paper suggests that one of the tools that hand of the government to invest in other pertinent the United States should use to improve health is sectors that can ultimately expand the American Health Informatics Technology (HIT). HIT should be economy [20]. used to improve the health literacy rates for adults Low health literacy rates that span across the that are at or below basic health literacy levels. This United States account for $106-$236 billion in system should be used to introduce the importance of healthcare costs [8]. Many factors contribute to health patient empowerment and to adjust their quality of literacy levels such as belief systems, sex, age, social life. By utilizing the mechanics of healthcare status, culture, language barriers, and most informatics and focusing on the ways to enhance importantly comprehension. Brown, Pasupathy, and health literacy, HIT can change the direction of Patrick [5], indicate that the perception of an healthcare spending. This paper looks closely at how individual has a significant impact on their response Health Informatics: can Improve Healthcare Access, and approach to varying scenarios, whether medical Produce Positive Outcomes, along with the or generally. Hence, if an individual is facing Challenges of using HIT. It also Explores avenues of challenges in their everyday comprehension abilities, Health Informatics and Improved Patient Education, their ability to understand medical information is along with Patient Education Delivery using HIT. In already compromised. Health literacy is defined as an the rural population healthcare has been individual’s ability to make sound healthcare compromised when dealing with their access and decisions based on their capacity to gather, interpret, comprehension of medical information. By communicate, and understand basic healthcare implementing HIT, it can alter the healthcare system information, which would result in making decisions by positively changing their perception of health. By about appropriate basic healthcare services [5]. In the

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 113 healthcare arena, this can mean a patient’s ability to health literacy rates among the rural population; make an informed decision based on the information adults in this population are people that have low given by their physician or a medical professional. socioeconomic status (SES). Brown, et al, [5] The healthcare industry plays a pivotal role in describes that the function of health care informatics diagnosing, educating, and creating treatment plans is a data-based system that is been designed to for their patients. Specifically, providers are produce desirable systemic outcomes while utilizing responsible for educating the patient on the prognosis the structure of each function. Healthcare Informatics of their condition and the expected results of their was integrated into healthcare systems to produce treatment. Taking explicit measures to increase the optimal functions for medical professionals, their health literacy rate of health care consumers, would organizations, public policies, etc. ultimately work for the good of the medical industry Healthcare technology was initially introduced in and the American society at large. The healthcare the 1960s for conducting monetary transactions [25]. sector seeks to increase their presence and their However, there was a need to incorporate this patient’s knowledge of health because 36% of adults technology into the treatment aspect of medicine [10]. have low health literacy rates. Among the individuals The focus of this system is not only the clinical who have low health literacy, a substantial amount is decision process but on the delivery of medicine. The found in low socioeconomic areas. Rikard, infrastructure of healthcare informatics is based on the Thompson, McKinney, and Beauchamp [19] suggests integration of accumulated data to implement that the demographics that are most affected by low guidelines in healthcare organizations that would health literacy are elderly, men, racial/ethnic satisfy the patient’s expectations of quality and good minorities, and low socioeconomic status (SES) care. HIT uses components such as the science of groups. Therefore, Rickard et al, [19] identified that information technology, clinical science, engineering, these are the groups of individuals that need to be and social sciences to provide quality, choices, and addressed to reverse the devastating effects that low competency for all those that use it [5]. health literacy has had on the healthcare industry. The For people that live in rural areas, HIT is a tool that focus of this research will be on improving health can benefit their medical needs. It can create avenues literacy in rural areas. and medical opportunities to change healthcare The United States is a country that excels in its delivery in the rural population. This system should healthcare technologies, yet the life expectancy rate in be used to introduce the importance of patient the United States is low in comparison to countries empowerment and to adjust their quality of life. By that do not have the same medical advances. It is utilizing the mechanics of healthcare informatics and logical to expect that with increased technology that focusing on the ways to enhance health literacy, HIT the health of the nation should increase. can change the direction of healthcare spending. Technological advances have increased life expectancy rates, but, not at the anticipated rate that is 2. Literature Review associated with high technology costs. The creation of a healthy population is not solely reliant on In 2018, it was reported that over 59 million technology, but it can be dependent on the active Americans live in rural areas [18]. One of the major pursuit of knowledge and understanding of the people. challenges that they are faced with is reduced access Krisberg [15] acknowledges that the wealth of a to healthcare facilities and treatment [18]. Limited nation is reliant on the health of that nation. Hence, healthcare access is also a key factor in the increase in the United States would gain a wealthy economy with low health literacy rates seen within this community the use of its technological tools to provide pertinent [3]. The lack of access to healthcare facilities and health information to their rural population. Providing medical professionals has been a prominent issue in accurate and simplistic information to the rural the American population as a whole and in the rural population would increase the health of the nation [9]. population where this issue is more prevalent than in One of the tools that the United States should use to others [3]. The rural population has been facing this improve health is health informatics technology. issue because of their limitation in funding. This has Healthcare informatics technology (HIT) should left medical facilities in this area with an insufficient be used to improve the health literacy rates for adults number of medical professionals, and deficient that are at or below basic health literacy levels. facilities. The current measures that are in place, the Introducing the technological mechanics of HIT to medical establishments are faced with the challenge improve healthcare accessibility and create social of having to serve many people with limited outlets would change patient education programs. equipment and help. Therefore, impeding the access HIT is a data-filled systematic approach that is to healthcare for the rural population, which reduces utilized to encourage innovation in health systems that their ability to use healthcare services personally to are geared towards improving the standard of receive the best health results possible and in a timely healthcare to yield efficient treatment and reduce fashion [3]. health care costs [5]. It can be used to improve the

3.Health Informatics and Improving health. Using Electronic health (e-health) or Mobile Healthcare Access Health (m-health) initiatives reduce the number of access barriers that patients come across. Individuals 3. 1 Positive Outcomes that live in rural areas are faced with the fact that their deficiency in health facilities has affected their ability

to identify appropriate healthcare facilities to receive In a study conducted by Levy and Janke [16], the care. E-health medical portals change the delivery association between health literacy and the barriers tactics of healthcare, it carries health consultations to that are affecting the population’s access to care. They the patients. The e-health portals allow the patient to found that among the group they studied, there were be fully informed giving them enough confidence to either adequate or low in health literacy. In the areas ask questions to acquire an in-depth understanding. that Levy and Janke [16] analyzed, they found that Individuals that are proficient in health literacy have approximately 18% of the people with low health found that it has proven to be an efficient navigational literacy had to wait an excessive amount of time, tool to steer through the healthcare system [4]. Being which acted as a limitation for receiving treatment proficient in health literacy has also increased access promptly. This study also found that approximately to healthcare [4]. The increase in healthcare access 17% of the people with low health literacy were not through HIT systems would develop a level of health able to find a provider to accommodate their medical competency among the rural population which would needs [16]. Meanwhile, approximately 27% of these determine how they use healthcare facilities. individuals were not able to find a provider to Increased healthcare access can also allow the patients consistently tend to their needs [16]. Unfortunately, a to have one on one time without feeling the pressure significant complaint that the people with low and of being rushed or judged. Lastly, healthcare adequate health literacy faced, was the fact that they informatics technologies allow providers and the were unable to schedule an appointment to see a health sector to retrieve significant data information provider [16]. These are all major concerns when to assist with future healthcare initiatives. dealing with individuals that are already at a On behalf of the provider, using the HIT tools like disadvantage. e-health and m-health can introduce new education Health Informatics Technology (HIT) is the measures to improve the understanding of the patient. management of healthcare data information which It encourages the provider to prepare strategies to allows medical personnel to gain an understanding of teach their patient about their diagnosis, prognosis, their demographics and insight to present and future and treatment [17]. The e-health systems that were medical occurrences. created by HIT can provide both providers and Along with gaining an understanding HIT, the patients with updated information about what is going data gathered would allow for an understanding of the on locally and nationally with medical procedures. impact of HIT on the rural population’s access to Healthcare informatics technology could be used healthcare [1]. Benjamin [2] established that limited to introduce information on new advancements and access to preventative services and resources is a important medical notices to patients and their determinant in low health literacy rates. Therefore, by providers. This type of information would increase the improving access to healthcare, it would contribute to health literacy rate for patients once it is given in its decreasing the low health literacy rate percentages. In simplest or most understandable form. Having a the rural population access to healthcare is finite due wealth of information means no good if the context of to several reasons, but this limitation is creating a it cannot be decoded appropriately. If the e-health and problem with the health literacy rates in the rural m-health technologies are used in the rural population, population [2]. Limited healthcare access has added to they would assist with providing comprehensible the low rates of health literacy, HIT can be used to services and initiate beneficial discussions. Kreps increase access to healthcare and improve health [14]m adds to the previous point by indicating how m- literacy rates in the rural population. By increasing health or e-health systems can encourage providers to access to healthcare and its delivery it increases an integrate educational tools in their consultations to individual’s ability to gain an understanding of the inspire patients to want to discover more information medical information that they are given [2]. By using on their conditions. the technology systems associated with HIT, healthcare entities can experience an increase in access by using medical portals. These portals provide 3.2 Challenges detailed information to patients and their supporting members about medical conditions and probable On the contrary, Mackert, Mabry-Flynn, outcomes. HIT provides an increase in medical Champlin, Donovan, and Pounders, [17] found that access. Health informatics technology creates the application of Health Informatics technology did opportunities for patients to receive medical not yield positive outcomes. With increased consultations via telemedicine, telehealth, and mobile healthcare access, it was identified that patients still did not trust this new technology [17]. Among these

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 115 individuals, their lack of trust spewed from the fact implementing patient autonomy has shown how that they were unable to use to internet to find simple patients are unable to fully understand their information. Mackert, et al., [17] specified that the procedures and medical outcomes to take part in patients that toiled strongly with using the internet and making medical decisions. Thus, this is seen in the HIT were mainly senior citizens. institution of the Affordable Care Act. With the lack Additionally, articles indicated that approximately of health literacy that patients have, the ACA has 25% of the rural population consists of elderly implemented a guideline that enforced the need to individuals. Regrettably, 25% of the rural population provide health literacy education measures with other made up of senior citizens, promoting e-health and m- initiatives to improve care efficiency [4]. health initiatives would affect access to healthcare and Patient education simply stated is providing the cause health literacy rates to remain stagnant or patients with enough information to gain an decrease. This hinders the plausible use of tools to understanding. Eyüboğlu and Schulz [11] reported fully educate the senior population and address their that individuals who are health literate exercise low health literacy rates. Mackert et al., [17] urged the patient empowerment which results in better health fact that the use of HIT initiatives occurred more by outcomes. Patient education has proven to be a individuals who are health literate. In congruence, significant contributor to patient empowerment. This Mackert, et al, [17] indicated that those who were concludes that providing patient education can more health literate were also more trusting with improve health literacy which would increase patient technology. On the other hand, because of the reality empowerment. These patient education of low health literacy rates and how it affects health improvements can be made through health and the population, making changes to Healthcare informatics technologies. Health informatics informatics technologies, it can make e-health and m- technologies can deliver sufficient education of health tools more appealing and easier to operate. healthcare information to patients about their These HIT changes would help people who are not condition, the prognosis, possible results, and health literate along with the elderly [17]. Ultimately, treatments to encourage them to become more literate this can change the way healthcare is accessed in the in their health. Health informatics could strengthen rural population where access has been and continues the reach of health information to residents in the rural to become scarcer for those in need. population. The use of healthcare informatics can be used to improve health literacy rates among this 4. Health Informatics and Improved population by extending its education initiatives. By Patient Education giving patients access to health portals, the portals can include definitions that can provide a breakdown of People who lack health literacy run the risk of information. underutilization of healthcare facilities due to their By using Electronic Health Records (EHR), the misconceived perception of health and inability to portals and approved medical websites would assist in make lucid decisions about their treatment. Health giving legitimate and suitable information to the literacy is seriously impacted by patient education and patients. By instituting these portals, patients are how it is provided. It has been found that when a given the research information needed about protocols patient has low literacy their priority for health lacks needed to back their treatment. These portals use the urgency until their pain or medical condition is data gathered through health informatics technologies unsustainable [12]. Outside of television and other to assist providers with deciding on the appropriate commercial resources, the lack of physical healthcare teaching methods for everyone. establishments in rural areas can create a void between patient health care relief and healthcare 5. Patient Education Delivery knowledge. Therefore, health literacy assists extensively with a patient’s recovery because healing The data information gathered by Health is associated with comprehension [4]. Informatics Technology (HIT) allows providers a Medicine has always had a paternalistic approach, more in-depth understanding of their patients. It where the doctor’s decisions are not questioned, but encourages one-on-one teaching techniques such as followed. Thompson and Whiffen, [23], specified that open-ended questions, the teach-back method, and the as time has progressed, the education process of health reading of body language. These teaching methods and wellness was the patient’s responsibility. As create transparency with patients which allows them medicine continued to evolve; the patient’s ability to to be more open and receptive. HIT forces providers grow with medical advancements lagged further to be more imaginative and unique in their service behind. This has forced the healthcare sector to initiate delivery to get more information across. One of the patient education programs while instituting patient ways providers can help their patients understand autonomy. Therefore, creating the transition from their diagnosis and treatment by using videos and paternalism in medicine to a partnership between anatomical graphics. These methods would be used to patients and their providers. Unfortunately,

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 116 demonstrate the sequence of the disease and how population, it would contribute to the low health treatment slows down the progress of that disease. literacy rates. Also, it can cause higher readmission Shah, Mathur, Kathuria, and Gupta, [22], found rates if treatment is not followed appropriately and that majority of the people they studied had with a thorough understanding. In the rural effectively absorbed information with the use of oral population, this poses a serious problem because and visual aids. Their study was in dental hygiene approximately 17.5% of this population consists of where they incorporated the use of oral and visual aids individuals that are 65 or older. Thus, by neglecting to teach patients. In the study, they administered a pre- this demographic, it can continue to weigh on the and post-questionnaire that showed a significant healthcare system and the economy. Mackert et al., difference between their pre-and post-analysis results [17] agreed with Savage et al., in the fact that the [22]. The success of the post questionnaire results was discrepancies faced by the older population in their attributed to the use of visual aids and oral teaching. study resulted in trust issues with HIT. In the hopes of These methods helped patients gain a better all that has been discussed, HIT would be an effective understanding of using certain dental hygiene tool to pave the way for improving health literacy techniques [22]. Thus, Shah, et al, [22] emphasized rates in the rural population [17]. that using videos as their visual aid component, helped their patients to understand what they should do as 6. Discussion preventative precautions. They are also trained to know what to do when they are affected by possible Low health literacy rates have become a major mishaps. Shah, et al, [22] saw approximately a two- hindrance in the delivery of care in the healthcare fold increase in some areas of their study. This type of sector. With technological improvements, quality instrumental gain could be sufficient to institute these healthcare has become a staple, however, the need for teaching mechanisms into e-health and m-health health literacy has become a major contributor to its programs which could produce the same effects in the quality. Low health literacy affects all demographics, rural population. but the rural population has seen the effects of low Subsequently, the study by Shah et al., [22], health literacy along with the limitations that they are Savage, Arif, Smoke, and Farrell, [21] experienced facing in addition to it. The rural demographic similar findings in their study. However, in their accounts for approximately 20% percent of the study, they found that their patients preferred having American population. Therefore, by increasing the one on one training in contrast to group sessions. literacy of the rural population, there is an opportunity Succeeding Shah et al.’s, study, Savage et al., [21] to drastically improve the healthcare sector and the found that when one on one instructions were done in economy. Over the years, healthcare spending has a private setting it made the patients more increased. As of 2018, the government has seen a 5% comfortable. It also made them more eager to seek increase in their healthcare spending, and a significant more information about their condition. Savage, et al, percentage of their spending can be attributed to the [21], also concluded that using visual aids and lack of health literacy [8]. kinaesthetic (physical application) learning Statistically speaking, 12% of the American techniques were preferred among their patients. The population are deemed proficient in healthcare use of these techniques was preferable in male literacy. Conversely, 88% of these adults are not participants. Savage, et al [21] identified that learning proficient in health literacy, with 36 % of these margins were greater with these initiatives. individuals having low health literacy levels. Clouston, Manganello, and Richards, [7], also Therefore, low health literacy one of the reasons for found that women had higher health literacy rates than increased spending in healthcare costs. men. Especially, the women who were older in age. In With low health literacy being a problem for the retrospect, Savage, et al., [21] identified ways to healthcare sector, using healthcare informatics increase learning in men by utilizing their teaching technology can help improve health literacy rates aids. This can result in changing health education [17]. By using HIT, it can be used to assist the rural teaching methods for men and women in the rural population with improving their healthcare literacy population with HIT tools. In the Savage, et al., [21] and quality of care. This a population that faces many study, the use of visual aids and kinaesthetic learning limitations with their use of the healthcare system. By received great approval from all their patients. using HIT it can increase healthcare access, as well as Consequently, in Clouston, et al.’s, [7] study, their enforce patient education programs which would patients that were 60 years old and over were not as tailor to the needs of the rural population. open to using new technology teaching methods. Due Patient education and increased access to medical to their inability to receive information in a new way, care would be necessary to improve health literacy it led to a few discrepancies in Clouston, et al., [7] [3]. To increase healthcare access to the rural study. Therefore, this has encouraged the need to find population with HIT it can occur with the use of m- other means of educating the older population. health and e-health technologies. These systems Without finding new measures to educate the older would allow rural residents to have consistent

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 117 meetings with providers along with private one on one (Washington, D.C.: 1974), 125(6), 784–785. time. E-health and M-health tools provide patients the https://doi.org/10.1177/003335491012500602. opportunity to learn about their conditions and ask questions to gain a better understanding. HIT [3] Bhatt, J., & Bathija, P. (2018). Ensuring Access to increases engagement in patient education. This offers Quality Health Care in Vulnerable Communities. providers the opportunity to teach their patients with Academic Medicine, 93(9), 1271–1275. creative and authentic methods that appeal to the doi:10.1097/acm.0000000000002254. learning abilities of their patients. HIT inspires the use of visual aids such as anatomical graphics and videos [4] Brach C. (2017). The Journey to Become a Health [22][21]. The different teaching methods associated Literate Organization: A Snapshot of Health System with Health Informatics Technology would allow Improvement. Studies in health technology and patients to gain an in-depth look at what their informatics, 240, 203–237. condition and treatment may entail [14]. [5] Brown, G. D., Pasupathy, K. S., & Patrick, T. B. 7. Conclusion (2019). Health informatics: a systems perspective. Chicago, IL: Health Administration Press. In conclusion, the proposed methodologies that https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2016.303212. have been associated with using HIT has provided healthcare providers the opportunity to determine how [6] Chen, J., Druhl, E., Polepalli Ramesh, B., to distribute pertinent information to their patients. Houston, T. K., Brandt, C. A., Zulman, D. M., They have been allowed to use several methods such Vimalananda, V. G., Malkani, S., & Yu, H. (2018). A as the teach-back method, open-ended questions, and Natural Language Processing System That Links reading body language to truly determine their Medical Terms in Electronic Health Record Notes to patient’s ability to comprehend what they have been Lay Definitions: System Development Using told. The use of Healthcare Informatics Technology Physician Reviews. Journal of medical Internet (HIT) would increase healthcare access and should research, 20(1), e26. https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.866 improve patient education. Ultimately, by improving 9. patient education the rate of low health literacy rates in the rural population would improve drastically. [7] Clouston, S., Manganello, J. A., & Richards, M. The success of HIT implementations remains (2017). A life course approach to health literacy: the contingent upon the patient [5]. The patient’s response role of gender, educational attainment, and lifetime to various healthcare informatics technology cognitive capability. Age and ageing, 46(3), 493– equipment would dictate how and if that individual 499. https://doi.org/10.1093/ageing/afw229. would use it [17]. In the rural population, healthcare has been compromised because of the population’s [8] CMS.gov. (2019). Historical. https://www.cms. limited ability to gain access to necessary medical gov/Research-Statistics-Data-and-Systems/Statistics- treatment. Limited access to healthcare has created a Trends-and-Reports/NationalHealthExpendData/ major gap in the healthcare literacy capacity of these NationalHealthAccountsHistorical, (Access Date: 25 individuals. Therefore, by implementing HIT, it April, 2020). would alter the healthcare system by positively changing the life expectancy rates through appropriate [9] Darling-Hammond, L., Flook, L., Cook-Harvey, and effective education measures. By correcting the C., Barron, B., & Osher, D. (2019). Implications for issues that the rural population face, Health educational practice of the science of learning and Informatics Technology would be a great tool to development. Applied Developmental Science, 24(2), improve their health literacy rates. 97–140. doi: 10.1080/10888691.2018.1537791.

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Contradicting Learning Environments between Rural and Urban: The case of Malawi

Albert K. M. Y. Kayange Unicaf University, Malawi

Abstract

Education is the strongest tool which enables difficult for Africa to be bailed-out from its un- people to live and progress to their supreme potential industrialization status. [29]. It is for this reason that education should be In most cases, there has been inequality in accessible to all and be of the highest quality if educational facilities and quality of infrastructures countries are to yield meaningful educational and teachers between rural and urban educational outcomes. Literature has indicated that rural learning institutions because of the many countries’ syndrome environment in Malawi is contrary to urban ones of prioritizing developmental agendas in urban and despite of learners being treated equally when it rural being after thought. The human development comes to examinations and selection to higher option should therefore be dynamic in education if learning institutions [24]. This paper was therefore countries developmental achievement is to be compelled to look at contradicting educational accomplished [20]. learning environment between rural and urban Mulkeen [22] has reiterated that poor school learning institutions of both primary and secondary environment is the paramount obstacle to economical institutions. The critical emphasis was based on two social and political transformation in most African areas: (a) Quality and quantity of teaching staff and states. An average of eighteen percent of primary (b) Learner’s environment. Based on the desk study, pupils in African public institutions repeat once in a the findings disclosed that most rural scholars and while a year due to poor teaching and scarcity of teachers are denied of quality education environment. teaching and learning materials in particular, rural The lack of government and other educational players areas. Such repeaters normally between fourth to sixth commitment to educational sector in terms of: classes cannot read nor write well [1]. Training teachers, teacher’s welfare, learning Malawi’s education is categorized into three infrastructures, teaching and learning materials and namely: Basic education which is normally called under or no funding contributes to poor rural primary; secondary education and tertiary education. educational misery. The paper finally makes Tertiary institutions are generally allocated in semi or recommendations on how best rural and urban urban areas while primary and secondary institutions education can have equal quality teaching and are both of rural and urban. Taylor and Mulhall [28] learning environment in order to yield progressive established in their research findings that there are lives and potential developmental for the country and more dynamics which contributes to educational world at large. dwindling participation in rural areas as compared to urban schools. There are therefore less country 1. Introduction children interested in schooling than those in urban areas on the following grounds: The Education for All (EFA) and Millennium Development Goals (MDG) [8] reiterates that Africa • The majority of Malawians (Over 80%) live in is certainly the least industrialized continent rural areas where poverty is rampart resulting into worldwide. Despite most African countries have educational process more expensive. made some developmental stride, the popular countries are still faced with developmental • Most household depends on their children during challenges, Malawi inclusive. UNDP [33] states that pick times of agriculture in their gardens and human capital is the basis for any developing nation school attendance become more victimized to realize its developmental goals and as such, must leading to poor or no attendance at all [28]. This invest in people for its industrialization and study was therefore focused on differences in developmental vision. As the human development educational environments between rural and urban resources are threatened by poverty, it is more institutions in Malawi focusing on both primary and secondary education.

3. Research Question 2. Statement of the problem Polit and Hungler [25] have defined research Kadzamira and Rose [14], Banda [2] and question as an edict of a specific request for UNESCO [31] states that there are gaps in Malawi information the researcher want to respond in order to which requires to be unveiled and bridged in order to settle the challenge under investigations. The question fulfil its educational National strategy for education bridges the existing gap in the intended investigation for all by 2020. However, the Malawi Educational area. This research therefore longed to answer the Monitoring Information System (EMIS, 2013) following question: “To what extent does variation in contends that there are some undiscovered reasons teaching and learning environments affect quality of which contributes to low or poor attendance and education attained”. Research question therefore performance for the youth in Malawi educational guide the investigator in concentrating on the system. Based on reports by Hodal and Holder [13], envisioned theme and develops the whole enquiry Malawi Education Policy [10] and NESP (2008- procedure [7]. 2017), Malawi government was unsuccessful to achieve its educational goal of education for all by 3.1. Sub research questions 2015. It is therefore evidenced that there is need for further investigation in order to fulfill the For a statement of the problem to make sense government’s goal despite of time difference in its during the investigation process, there was need to achievement. It is therefore imperative for the Malawi develop sub research questions as opined by Choga government to find means of improving its and Njaya [6]. The role of research questions asks educational performance amongst the youth who are what is associated amongst variables of divergences in the majority of its population. The findings will be during the process of investigation. This is in contrast used as a basis for government policy formation in to a hypothesis which foretells the associations among order to improve developmental issues which are variables. Research questions therefore describes the driven by competent and well-developed human stated research problem or challenge and specifies capital. variables of the research. Therefore, this research pursued to give response the subsequent questions: 2.1. General objective • What differentiates among rural and urban The foremost objective of this study was to create teachers? conducive learning environment for both rural and urban primary and secondary learning institutions and • Whose responsibility is it in erecting school learners. This was achieved by further investigation of infrastructures in both rural and urban settings. the known and concealed issues contributing to poor or none attendance of both primary and secondary • What challenges do scholars face in rural and scholars. urban schools?

2.2. Specific objectives • How are primary and secondary scholars motivated to attend school? The general objective was achieved by diversifying the following specific objectives: 3.2. Justification of the study

• To analyses the quality of teachers in both rural The researcher’s investigation seeks to bridge the and urban institutions. gap which exists among the urban and rural educational institutions, scholars and teachers. Such • To analyses the quality of infrastructures for both differences have resulted into the government failure rural and urban institutions. to fulfil its educational policy of equal education for all. Kadzamira and Rose [14] suggests that there are • To investigate challenges faced by both rural and some undiscovered elements which contributes to low urban scholars. school attendance and performance. Malawi National Educational Policy (MNEP, 2016) have evidenced the • To establish mechanisms in promoting universal failure of Malawi government in fulfilling its policy quality education in both rural and urban primary and wonder if it could fulfill its goal of providing and secondary settings. education for all by 2010 for the second time. The findings of this investigation and its recommendations will act as a basis in achieving the 2030 intended educational goal and will fuel Malawi economic

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 121 boom. Low educational enrolment is threatening the seven with an average classroom of five. The school strategy of empowering Malawians in socio economic have three staff houses and no office block. development participation. Mulkeen [22] opines that Head teachers from urban institutions had a failure to attain school encourages unemployment and different scenario where all teachers averaging to urbanizations, a tendency which collapses country’s thirty were qualified ones with an average of five status. thousand pupils. There was an average of twenty classrooms with only one house for he head teacher. 4. Research approach Question 2 - What is the nature of school The research that was conducted is designed to infrastructures? The rural infrastructures were built of seek views from the rural and urban primary and clay and burnt bricks, smeared walls and floors with secondary population on the scholastic variances of the same clay. Some were roofed with iron sheets the two locations (rural and urban). According to while others were of grass thatched. Parents were Thorne [32], Mason [19], Long and Godfrey [18] responsible for the erecting and maintenance of all research seeking people’s views, opinions, cultural school infrastructures. understanding are qualitative by nature. The Urban head teachers responded differently from phenomilogical nature of the problem therefore those of rural. Infrastructures are erected by the local determines the nature of its approach as recommended authority (city council or town council) but by Yin [34]. The research is an interpretive by nature maintenance becomes the institutional roll. All as categorized by Mason [19], Camilli and Elmore [4], infrastructures are made up of either cement blocks, and Mertler and Charles [21]. Open ended and burned bricks and iron sheets roofed. Walls are unstructured questionnaires were used to collect data cement plastered. Lavatories are provided with piped though telephone interviews. Saunders et al. [26] and water. Most infrastructures have electricity facilities. Sida [27] regards the interpretive research as an in- depth data collection because of its provision of Question 3 - What are the scholar’s barriers to probing where more information is attracted. The their education? Several factors were mentioned in system provides first hand information and can hardly response to this question are as follows: be distorted by the third party or end user. Lester [17] recommends qualitative research approaches because • Rural institutions the collected information is based on the personal experience and perceptional phenomenon. i. Long distance to and from school for an average of The researcher sampled five primary schools head six kilometer in total with empty stomach. teachers from each region of three (three from rural and two from urban settings) and two secondary ii. Involvement of farming activities in support of their schools from the same (one from rural and one from parents. urban) totaling to twenty-one institutions. Names of primary schools sampled are: Itulo, Chinongo, iii. Poverty which deprives scholars needs such as Mughona, Kawale and Nachiwe (from the northern notebooks, pencils, and exercise books. region); Lifuwu, Mtangombe, Chiputu, Chilinde and Mphungu (from the central region) and Chiwembe, iv. Schools activities such as collection of teaching Mbayani, Kachele, Livilivi and Nsehe (from southern and learning materials from educational centers of ten region). Secondary schools included the following: kilometers away. Namutegha and Chitpa from the northern region; Bwaila and Mvera (from the central region); H.H.I v. Involvement in school fundraising activities like and Balaka (from the southern region). Random piece of works which enables institutions to buy sampling was used to identify schools while purpose sporting equipment’s and uniform. sampling was used to identify head teachers. Head teachers are more knowledgeable about institutions vi. Floods which inhibits young scholars in crossing and scholars’ challenges, hence the choice made for big and tough rivers as well as streams. them to be participants. • Urban institutions 4.1. Responses from Primary Head Teachers i. Involvements with indoor social media like Question 1 - Tell me about your school television. composition? Most rural head teachers had the following responses. There are an average of three ii. Outdoor Entertainments such as weddings, discos thousand pupils per year against four qualified and football games. teachers and three un-qualified teachers, totaling to iii. Pocket money for break time usages.

Question 4 - How do you rate the performance, some pupils to be fully engaged in groups or class dropouts and failures of pupils? Rural institutions discussions creating a gap amongst them in registered more dropouts and failures than those in the knowledge sharing and gaining [16]. According to the urban institutions. findings, only three teachers have their houses within the school compass. This means that other teachers are Question 5 - How comfortable are rural teachers renting outside their institution where means of in terms of rural environments? The reliable, transport is limited to walking with a lot of fatigue professionally qualified and experienced teachers ask created to limit them from preparing before next class for transfers to teach in urban areas or they resign session. In a rural setting, quality housing for renting based on the negative response they get from the is questionable. It is without doubt that such teachers authorities. face challenges with vulnerable houses they rent such as: Leakages, security and at times noise within and 4.2. Questions for Secondary School Head around their rented homes. Through probing Teachers questions, the researcher learned that all infrastructures in rural educational institutions are Question 1 - What is the status of your institution? initiated by local community who have very limited - Most institutions have no borders except few which resources hence producing substandard housing and has boarding facilities. All institutions were of both classroom blocks which are vulnerable to heavy rains, male and female student but all subjected to variation wind. Untrained teachers are engaged by the local of tuition fee amounts. Those in cities had higher community who are also responsible for paying them tuition than rural ones: a wage below minimum wage prescribed by the government. The un-trained teachers and expected • Students who come from far away organize quality education is quite retroactive. According to themselves in paying slums turning them into self- Balaban [3] teachers must have a heart of children’s boarding. care with quality materials, academic being the uttermost. Balaban, reiterates that a good teacher • Some institutions have provision of requires to be equipped first before engaging him or accommodation for female students only who her into sharing knowledge gained to children for fear operates in an organized manner by their of “liking pupils” which may have a permanent institutions. damage on them. Urban head teacher’s response was different from Question 2 - What are some challenges for your those of rural. All teachers were qualified civil scholars? servants who were engaged by the government. All infrastructures are initiated by the local authority • Accommodation for those from far distances. (city, town councils or municipality). School infrastructures are sound and pauses less threats to • School requirements such as stationery and both learners and teachers. Only the head teacher is uniform. provided a house within the school premises while the • Dropouts due to family’s poverty challenges. rest can easily find renting houses of their choice. An • Lack of parental care while away from parents average teacher pupil ration is 1:166. Though the ratio compels some students in indulging themselves in is still high but lower than that of the rural. Urban immoral and drug abuse. institutions have more manageable number of pupils per class than those of the rural. The urban have more 5. Discussion number of classrooms as compared to the rural. Urban classroom may be conducted in parallel because they 5.1 Primary education have enough space and more number of teachers. There are no un-trained teacher taking part in Question 1 - School composition - Rural primary teaching. The quality of teachers can greatly affect the schools have qualified teacher pupil ration of 1: 750 quality of outcomes at the same time impacting the but is alleviated by un-qualified teachers of three, degree of countries economic growth [11]. reducing the ratio of teacher pupil to 1: 430. This is ungovernable class situation by any eligible teacher Question 2 - What is the nature of school because of the following: The number of pupils infrastructures? The rural area infrastructures were cannot fit into one classroom at a time. Such situations built of clay burnt bricks, floor and wall smeared with forces the responsible teacher to group pupils into clay but iron sheet roofed at times with some leakages. manageable class of more than one. By so doing, the Few of them were grass roofed and cleated a lot of responsible teacher will have to teach for the whole threat to learners in a form of wet surfaces due to roof day and have no time to plan for the following or next leakages or dusty floor both being health hazard lesson or class. Large group of pupils in a class limit agents to several diseases. Glass roofed structures are

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 123 also vulnerable to fire which may cause permanent parents or guardians and are able to support their damage to property as well as to lives. Urban children in school requirements. Above all, most infrastructures are of high standard, built of cement urban parents and guardians have some education and locks, burned bricks, cement mortar, well plastered values children’s education much better than those in and floored. The challenge learned is maintenance the rural. Therefore, children engages in indoor social responsibility which remains in the hands of the media such as television, football, games and so on institution with limited or no resources. Urban during their free time. From the observations, urban infrastructures have services such as water and pupils have more free time than those from the rural electricity which promotes health and hygiene and this may be a contributing factor in school activity elements contrary to rural ones [5]. concentrations and achievements. Since most urban guardians and parents are either working or business Question 3 - What are the scholar’s barriers to oriented, do have day to day food for their children their education? Rural institutions - Most rural and possibly misses no meal and as such concentrates primary schools are at a wide distance apart (between on education without hunger disruption [12]. two to six kilometers). The distance from homes to such school’s limit pupils start their education after Question 4 - How do you rate the performance, attaining at least seven to eight years. This is so dropouts and failures of pupils? The researcher because there are no means of transport to and from observed more dropout children in rural settings than school, a situation which compels all to walk such in urban schools. The research suggests that the long distances. Pupils therefore have to be strong variation in educational environments is the major enough to be able to cross some rivers which have no contributing factors. Starting school at the age of eight bridges at all and pauses great threat to all ages during is a bit too late and worse enough, those children are rainy seasons. Most of the rural pupils are from not exposed nor privileged to any nursery or kinder parents living below poverty line and have no garden to first learn to familiar with others as a opportunity to have three meals a day but one. community before primary schools. Urban children Therefore, most pupils walk long distances to and are subjected to nursery school not that all parents from schools with empty stomachs. support it (for is more expensive) but finds in easier Many rural parents/guardians are illiterate and for their children to be taken care of while they are at does not value education much as a result they work or business. (parents/guardians) forces their wards to join them in their gardens during farming pick times. By doing so, Question 5. How comfortable are rural teachers in children absents themselves from attending lessons terms of rural environments? - The researcher learned for a period of three months on average. Poverty that competent and well experienced teachers opt to deprives most pupils from accessing schools work in urban areas rather than rural. After a probing requirements such as school uniforms, exercise books, question on reasons for longing in urban schools, the note books, pencils, and ballpoints and finds learning following were the responses: Rural schools have difficult and embarrassing. challenges in accessing teaching and learning Most rural areas have no road networks to link requirement, Rural areas has great transportation primary schools. Even if there are some networks, are challenge because of poor or no road network to allow only useful during dry season where roads become them access life necessities, There are no or equipped passable. Most rural roads are not tar marked ones but health services to serve human live and that rural graveled. Therefore, teaching and learning materials teachers have no hardship allowance as a consolation. from educational centers are transported by pupils Most of the rural institutions are limited to access covering distances of ten kilometers on average. some services like electricity which is a source of Should there be need for one teacher to be transferred network for internet. Being barred from internet is less to another school, children of that particular school like being denied of human right to information. where the teacher is transferred to be mandated to Handworkers in both rural and urban are not carry the belongings of the teacher on transfer on their recognized in terms of motivational factors such as heads due to scarcity of transport means. The act as promotion, material incentives and scholarships. Both transporters by using their physical heads and legs by poor and best performers are treated equally, a literally walking while head loaded but for free. situation which is demoralizing the able ones. Sporting requirements such as footballs, net balls, Therefore, rural schools have less experienced and uniforms for sports are organized and purchased qualified teachers than those in the urban setting. This though joined local pieces of works by pupils (joint variation in quality of teaching staff greatly affects fundraising which is in most cases worked in people’s scholar’s attitude and performance. Teaching is an gardens). By so doing, classes are suspended until academic instructional process to learners from their such a goal or goals are accomplished. source/s. Dynamic schooling arouses scholar’s The researcher had contrary views from urban interests and accomplish their desired goals. Poor institutions. Most pupils are from working class academic instructional process demoralizes scholars

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 124 and greatly contributes to their diminishing interest in municipalities. The researcher assumes that health education as a whole [15]. facilities must be one of the contributing factors of dropouts since sick student cannot travel long distance 5.2. Discussions from Secondary School Head to attain education and could opt to nature his or her Teacher’s Responses life rather than worsening the situation with long school travels. Question 1. What is the status of your institution? The researcher concludes that students who travel Malawi secondary schools are both of urban and rural. long distances to attain education each and every day Most urban and rural secondary schools are day and those who organize their own self boarding are schools whereby students operate from their homes more subjective to immoral behaviors, Drug abuse, and attend lessons during day time only. Few are and poor class performance and unhealthier due to boarding which accommodate students in school for poor or inconsistent diet for they lack parental care, the set period of time. However, there are also semi love and guidance. boarding secondary schools where boarding facilities are provided to students but minus food and beds. The 6. Recommendations research finding were that most secondary schools were none boarders. The researcher perceives that Government should put in place policies in order boarding schools are much more suitable in rural areas to create conducive teaching and learning where students travel long distances and cannot daily environments through the following implementations: commute from homes. They require boarding facilities in full through expensive to manage. Urban • Train enough teachers and eliminate or upgrade all students operate within their homes vicinity and may untrained teachers. not require boarding as compared to those in rural • All educational government infrastructures should settings. This is a challenge as per observations above be uniform in terms of quality and safety to users. that most rural parents/guardians live below poverty • Build primary schools to a proximity of not more level and faces challenge to manage boarding than two kilometers from one another to ease requirements for their wards while those of the urban scholar’s movements. are more financially able than those of the rural and • Provide road network to all learning institutions in yet exposed to cheaper educational opportunities than order to relief scholars from being used as a those of the rural. Therefore, balancing the two is a transport means of school requirements challenge. • Government should introduce funds to support all Students who come from far to a selected primary schools with their sporting requirement in secondary school where boarding requirements are order to safeguard pupils from being used as expensive or are not there, students organize income generators through exploiting piece work. themselves by identifying a paying slum where they • Create provisions for educational partners to have a self-boarding as they attend to school lessons. support learning institutions. Such circumstances require well-disciplined students • Provide reliable and well stocked health centers to withstand school obstacles which takes advantage for ease of access by scholars, teachers and of their poor status especially to lady student who are parents. more vulnerable as compared to men because they • Provide equal teacher support services for their have none to control them but themselves. This is effective teaching for both rural and urban. different from full boarding environment where school management takes all students responsibilities to include: safety, health, social, and academics 7. Conclusion issues. The paper has highlighted issues concerning Question 2. What are some challenges for your variances in learning environments between rural and scholars? Most respondents highlighted urban institutions. The said variations contribute accommodation as the major challenge to students. greatly to the underperformance of scholars and They belief boarding contributes to education quality of education in general. There are no adequate concentration by both teachers and students. Some teaching and learning equipment and tools in most indicated that boarding students are more disciplined rural institutions as compared to the urban ones .Poor because they are bound by management regulations road network contributes to hardship scholar’s face in and law breakers are suspended or expelled from rural educational institutions. Unqualified teachers school. They compared with day schooling as free only help to distort the system rather than building it range, un-controllable and poorer performance as for the good of the nation. Widely spaced rural compared to those in boarding schools. Most dropout institutions compels some scholars to stop schooling were experienced in more remote areas as compared due to physical challenges such us floods and to those within the vicinity of towns, cities and biological ones such as poverty. By leaving the

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 125 responsibility of educational infrastructures in the [13] Hodal, K. and Holder, J. (2016). Poorest countries hit hands of local and financially challenged community hardest as world lags behind on global education goals. The is less like promoting poor quality of educational Guardian, 6th September. p.1. www.theguardian.com/glob environment rather than promoting it through great aldevelopment/2016/sept/06 (Access Date: 15 August 2020). support.

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Latent Class Analysis

Diana Mindrila University of West Georgia USA

Abstract

A variety of phenomena examined in education can Nevertheless, the absence of a reliable and general be described using categorical latent models, which method for calculating parameter estimates posed help identify groups of individuals who have a series difficulties in the implementation of this method. The of characteristics in common. Usually, data are too use of LCA became more widespread after 1974, complex to identify and describe groups through when Goodman [7, 8] developed a more general inspection alone; therefore, multivariate procedure for computing maximum likelihood classification procedures such as latent class analysis parameter estimates. This procedure was similar to the (LCA) should be employed. LCA refers to a group of “expectation-maximization algorithm” that was later multivariate classification procedures used to identify developed by Dempster, Laird, and Rubin [9]. LCA subgroups of individuals who have several was then placed in the log-linear model framework, characteristics in common [1]. The following article which increased its generalizability [10, 11]. This provides a general description of LCA. It describes allowed researchers to assess model fit [12] and to the latent class model and explains the steps involved estimate more complex models such as LCA with in latent class modeling. Finally, the article includes covariates [13] and longitudinal “individual growth an empirical application of LCA with binary trajectories” [14, 15]. From this point on, researchers indicators using the Mplus statistical software. developed several procedures for estimating changes Keywords: latent class analysis, finite mixture in latent class membership over time [16, 17]. modeling, latent variable modeling, Mplus 3. A General Description of LCA 1. Introduction The LCA method is a multivariate classification A variety of phenomena examined in education procedure which allows researchers to categorize can be described using categorical latent variables, individuals into homogeneous groups [3, 18, 19]. It is which help identify groups of individuals who share a sometimes referred to as “mixture modeling based set of characteristics. Usually, the array of observed clustering” [20], “mixture-likelihood approach to data is too complex to identify and describe groups clustering” [19], or “finite mixture modeling” [20]. In through inspection alone; therefore, researchers use fact, “finite mixture modeling” is a more general term person-oriented classification procedures such latent for latent variable modeling where latent variables are class analysis to accomplish this goal. Although LCA categorical. The latent categories represent a set of has been discussed in the methodological literature, sub-populations of individuals, and individuals’ most authors focused either on computational memberships to these sub-populations are inferred procedures [2, 3], on conceptual explanations [1, 4], based on patterns of variation in the data [20]. or on describing empirical applications [5]. This As implied by its name, LCA postulates the article provides an overview of all aspects of LCA, by existence of a categorical variable free of discussing both the theoretical foundations and the measurement error [1]. This construct that underlies practical applications of this method. For the applied the data is not measured directly, it is estimated based researchers, the article includes a step-by-step on the variance shared by a set of observed variables. description of LCA with a clear example of how to This is similar to factor analysis, which also infers apply this procedure using the Mplus statistical underlying latent variables based on the relationships software and how to interpret the results. among observed variables. Nevertheless, factor analysis groups variables, and is, therefore, a variable- 2. Milestones in the Development of LCA oriented multivariate classification procedure. In contrast, LCA groups individuals and is considered a Lazarfeld and Henry [6] brought the first major person-oriented multivariate classification procedure contribution to the development of LCA. Although [21, 22]. Further, in latent class models the latent they were not the first suggesting the possibility of variable is categorical rather than continuous [3], estimating categorical latent variables, they were the which means that groups do not necessarily differ first authors to provide a detailed, comprehensive, quantitatively but have distinct combinations of mathematical and conceptual description of LCA. characteristics and represent a phenomenon that is inherently categorical rather than continuous [1].

Another person-oriented multivariate Assuming that the assumption of local classification procedure is cluster analysis (CA). An independence is met, the joint probability for all important distinction between CA and LCA is that observed variables can be expressed as: cluster analysis does not estimate the error of measurement and is, therefore, conducted “at the 푃(푖 1 , 푖 2 , … . . , 푖 푟 ) = ∑_(푘 = 1)^퐾 푃(퐶 = 푘)푃(퐶 observed level” [4]. In contrast, LCA assumes that a = 푘)푃(퐶 = 푘) … 푃(푖 푟 │퐶 = 푘) latent categorical variable underlies the data; it estimates the error of measurement of the latent When the observed indicators are continuous, categorical variable, which is taken into account in the parameters are represented by the means and calculation of parameter estimates and the estimation variances of the observed variables and the LCA of class membership probabilities. Additionally, LCA model can be expressed as: allows the computation of fit indices, which show how 퐾 well the latent class model fits the data [4]. 푓(푦 푝 ) = ∑ 푃(퐶 = 푘)푓(푦 푝 |퐶 = 푘) LCA relies on the assumption that homogeneous 푘=1 sub-populations exist within the data. These subgroups have distinct probability distributions and where yp represents the set of responses provided by a are mutually exclusive [23, 24]; therefore, the person p on all the observed indicators [5]. percentages of individuals assigned to each latent There are several types of LCA, which rely on the class add up to 100%. LCA also relies on the same statistical model: exploratory LCA, assumption of local independence. Specifically, LCA confirmatory LCA, latent profile analysis (LPA), assumes that the variance shared by the observed latent transition analysis (LTA), multilevel LCA, etc. indicators is accounted for only by the latent [4]. Although most often used as an exploratory categorical variable [25, 26]. Further, LCA assumes procedure, LCA can also be used as a confirmatory that the number of latent classes specified by the latent procedure by constraining model parameters based on model is correct [4]. the researchers’ hypotheses [27]. LPA is a special case of LCA where observed indicators are continuous 4. The LCA Model rather than ordered categorical or binary [4]. LPA is based on the assumption of multivariate normality, A mixture model includes a measurement model meaning that the multivariate distribution of the and a structural model. LCA is the measurement continuous observed variables is normal within each model, which consists of a set of observed variables, group [4]. The LTA approach is a variation of LCA also referred to as observed indicators, regressed on a for longitudinal data, which allows researchers to latent categorical variable [3]. As illustrated in Figure examine changes in latent class memberships across 1, LCA explains the relationships between a set of r time [1]. Multilevel LCA is employed with data from observed indicators i and an underlying categorical complex sampling designs or multilevel data. As the variable C [2,3]. assumption of local independence is often violated, multilevel LCA allows the estimation of random- coefficients or a multilevel latent class model to account for the nested structure of the data [18]. Mplus allows the estimation of exploratory and confirmatory LCA models, LTA models, as well as multilevel LCA models. Further, Mplus allows researchers to estimate relationships between latent categorical variables and second order factors, covariates, or observed dependent variables also known as distal outcomes [3]. This article will further describe the exploratory LCA model.

Figure 1. Diagram of a general latent class model 4.1. Model estimation

Observed variables can be continuous, counts, The computation procedures used for estimating ordered categorical, binary, or unordered categorical model parameters are based on the type of variables variables [3]. When estimating a latent variable C with used as observed indicators (Table 1). The default k latent classes (C=k; k=1, 2,…K), the “marginal item estimation method for mixture modeling in Mplus is probability” for item ij=1 can be expressed as: robust maximum likelihood (MLR). This method uses 퐾 “log-likelihood functions derived from the probability 푃(푖 푗 = 1) = ∑ 푃(퐶 = 푘)푃(푖 푗 = 1|퐶 = 푘) density function underlying the latent class model” 푘=1 [28]. Other estimation procedures such as maximum likelihood (ML), or Bayesian estimation (BAYES)

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 129 can be specified in Mplus using the ESTIMATOR [30, 4]. Item means and variances along with the size option of the ANALYSIS command. Although MLR and demographic composition of latent classes are corrects standard errors and test statistics, other examined to make sure that each latent class describes estimators such as BAYES may provide more a distinct and meaningful pattern and makes sense accurate results with small sample sizes, ordinal data, based on existing information on the topic. Each latent and non-normal continuous variables [28, 3]. class is labeled based on its distinct set of characteristics while making sure that the definitions Table 1. Computation procedures by variable type of these subgroups have substantive meaning in [3] relation to theory and prior research [3]. Variable Type Computation Procedure Another criterion for selecting the optimal latent Continuous Linear regression equations class model is represented by measures of Censored Censored-inflated normal classification precision. For each individual, LCA regression calculates the probability of membership to each one Count Poisson or zero-inflated of the classes specified in the LCA model. These Poison regression equations probabilities are also referred to as “posterior Ordered Logistic regression probabilities” [26]. Individuals are then assigned to categorical the latent class for which the probability of Binary Logistic regression membership is the highest. When probabilities of Nominal Multinomial logistic membership are close to one for one class and close to regression zero for all other latent classes, the model has a high level of classification precision. Individual cases are assigned to latent classes Membership probabilities for the entire sample are through an iterative procedure. Researchers have the summarized in a K x K table, where K is the number option of specifying starting values or to use of latent classes specified in the LCA model. The automatic, random starts. This process is very similar Mplus LCA output includes a K x K table of to specifying seed values for the k-means clustering “classification probabilities for the most likely latent algorithm. Estimation is repeated until the same class membership (column) by latent class (row)”, and solution is obtained from multiple sets of starting a K x K table of “average latent class probabilities for values, at which point parameters are considered most most likely latent class membership (row) by latent likely to be representative of a latent class [1]. If the class (column)” [3]. The diagonal elements of these model does not converge even with many sets of tables represent the average probabilities of starting values, the latent variable that underlies the membership to the assigned class, or the proportions data may not have the number of classes specified by of correctly classified cases. They are considered the latent class model [3]. indices of classification certainty and should be close Estimated model parameters include item means to one [4]. In contrast, the off-diagonal elements of the and variances by latent class. Results also include, for K x K table represent the average probabilities of each case, the probability of membership to each membership to the other latent classes specified in the class. These probabilities add up to one across latent model. These probabilities represent the proportions classes. Latent class membership is determined of misclassified cases and should be close to zero [4]. through modal assignment, by placing each person in Another indicator of classification certainty is the latent class for which the probability of entropy, an omnibus index of classification certainty, membership is the highest [4]. which is based on the class posterior probabilities reported in the K x K table. This index shows the 4.2. Model selection degree to which the entire LCA model accurately predicts individual class memberships [31], or the With exploratory LCA the researcher does not extent to which latent classes are distinct from each know a priori the number of classes of the latent other [32]. Entropy values can range from zero to one, categorical variable; therefore, several models with where values closer to one indicate superior different numbers of classes are estimated and classification precision [32]. compared. The process of determining the number of The examination of goodness of fit indices, which latent classes is often referred to as “class show the degree to which a hypothesized model fits enumeration” [29]. The optimal number of latent the data, is another step in selecting the optimal LCA classes is determined by examining several criteria, model. The goodness of fit indices estimated with the such as the interpretability of model parameters in Mplus software are: a) the Bayesian Information relation to theory and prior research, classification Criteria (BIC), b) the sample-size adjusted BIC, and accuracy, and the extent to which LCA models fit the c) the Akaike Information Criteria (AIC). These data. coefficients do not have specific cut-offs. When Like factor analysis, LCA requires researchers to comparing models with a different number of latent examine the interpretability of latent class solutions classes or different specifications, lower AIC and BIC

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 130 values indicate better model fit to the data [4]. When the number of parameters to be estimated is increasing, AIC and BIC values tend to also increase. The goal is to obtain a parsimonious model that identifies all the distinct latent classes that underlie the data while maintaining an acceptable model fit [26, 4]. The Mplus LCA output also includes the results of the Lo-Mendell-Rubin (LMR) likelihood ratio test. The LMR test helps determine whether the inclusion Figure 2. Latent class measurement model of an additional latent class while maintaining the The estimation procedure was MLR with same model specifications significantly improves the automatic random starts. Models were compared model fit. For a model with K latent classes, LMR based on the interpretability of latent classes, tests the hypothesis that K-1 classes are in fact measures of classification precision, and goodness of underlying the data. A significant test statistics indicates that the model with K classes is superior to fit indices. the model with K-1 latent classes. Additional classes are specified in the LCA model until the LMR test 5.3. Results yields a non-significant test statistic [33]. Although only the two-class model had a 5. LCA Application Using Mplus significant test statistic on the LMR test, the four-class model had the highest entropy (0.92) and the lowest

BIC value (see Table 2). Further, the classes included The following example illustrates the estimation of in the four-class model were more clearly defined. a latent class model with binary observed indicators The four groups differed in the extent to which using the Mplus 7.4 software. The goal of this individuals were victims of traditional bullying and/or research project was to differentiate latent classes of cyberbullying (see Figure 3). The largest of the four bullying and cyberbullying victimization based on the latent classes (N=4,274, 86.5%) was labeled “Non- prevalence of different forms face-to-face victims” (NV), because individuals in this group (traditional) bullying victimization and cyberbullying experienced little or no bullying victimization. The victimization in U.S. adolescents. second largest latent class (N=486, 9.8%) was labeled

“Traditional victims” (TV); the majority of 5.1. Data Sources individuals in this group experienced mostly traditional forms of bullying such as “being made fun Participants in the study (N=4,939) were of, called names, or insulted” (75%) or “being the adolescents (ages 12-18) who responded to the 2013 subject of rumors” (65%) [35]. The third latent class School Crime Supplement of the National Crime included 107 (2.2%) individuals and was labeled Victimization Survey. This survey is administered “Cyber-victims” (CV); a large proportion of this every two years by the National Center for Education latent class was the subject of rumors (67%) and also Statistics and the Bureau of Justice Statistics using a experienced high levels of other forms of stratified, multistage cluster sampling design. In 2013, cyberbullying such as being insulted “through text the SCS response rate on all items exceed 85%; messaging” (49%), “through instant messaging or therefore, imputation of missing values was not chat” (44%), or “through hurtful Internet posts” (44%) necessary. The SCS sample weights, which are a [35]. The fourth latent class was the smallest in size combination of household weights and person-level (N=72, 1.5%) but experienced increased levels of weights [34], were used to account for the nested both traditional bullying and cyberbullying and was, structure of the data. therefore, labeled “Traditional Victims and Cyber- victims” (TVCV). Most individuals in this group were 5.2. Model Specification and Estimation the subject of rumors (100%), have been “made fun of, called names, or insulted” (96%), were “excluded Fourteen binary survey items measuring bullying from activities on purpose” (67%), were “pushed, (7 items) and cyberbullying (7 items) were specified shoved, tripped, or spit on” (57%), and “threatened as observed indicators of a categorical latent variable with harm” (57%) [35]. Individuals in this latent class C (see Figure 2). Seven of these variables (bul1-bul7) also experienced high levels of cyberbullying by measured traditional bullying victimization, while the being “threatened or insulted through text messaging” other seven variables measured cyberbullying (75%), “through hurtful posts” on the Internet (53%), victimization (cyb1-cyb7). or “through instant messaging” (48%) [35]. The optimal number of latent classes was Classification probabilities and average latent class determined by estimating and comparing results from probabilities for this model ranged between 70.1% models with two, three, four, and five latent classes. and 99.6% (see Table 3 and Table 4).

Table 2. Goodness of fit indices

Index Two-class Three-class Four-class Five-class model Model model model AIC 16698.567 16335.625 16193.244 16128.342 BIC 16887.210 16621.842 16577.034 16609.706 Sample-Size Adjusted 16795.058 16482.025 16389.553 16374.560 BIC Lo-Mendell-Rubin adjusted LRT test Statistic 4515.458 389.886 171.041 94.164 p-value 0.0000 0.3822 0.4337 0.9134 Entropy 0.916 0.909 0.920 0.836

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% cyb bul1 bul2 bul3 bul4 bul5 bul6 bul7 cyb3 cyb4 cyb5 cyb6 cyb7 cybl2 TVCV (N=72, 1.5%) CV (N=107, 2.2%) TV (N=486, 9.8%) NV (N=4,274, 86.5%)

Figure 3. Latent class results in probability scale

Table 3. Classification probabilities significantly more likely than the adolescents TVCV CV TV NV assigned to the CV latent class to be victimized TVCV 0.818 0.042 0.140 0.000 through “hurtful posts” on the Internet [35]. Similarly, CV 0.043 0.701 0.157 0.099 the TVCV latent class recorded significantly higher TV 0.006 0.016 0.810 0.168 probabilities of traditional victimization and NV 0.000 0.000 0.004 0.996 victimization via hurtful Interned posts than individuals in the TV and NV latent classes. Table 4. Average latent class probabilities Compared to NV, adolescents included in the TV TVCV CV TV NV latent class were significantly more likely to be the TVCV 0.878 0.079 0.043 0.000 victims of traditional forms of victimization as well as CV 0.031 0.872 0.080 0.017 hurtful Internet posts. Individuals in the CV latent TV 0.022 0.043 0.904 0.031 class were significantly more likely to be the victims NV 0.000 0.003 0.021 0.976 of hurtful Internet posts and rumors, but significantly less likely to be “made fun of, called names, or For each latent class, the probability estimates of insulted” than individuals in the TV latent class [35]. the observed indicators along with the corresponding The CV latent class was significantly more likely than t statistics (estimate/SE) and two-tailed p values were the NV latent class to be the target of hurtful Internet provided in the Mplus output. For each observed posts and rumors, or to be “made fun of, called names, indicator, Mplus also calculated odds ratios to or insulted” [35]. compare item probabilities across latent classes. Statistically significant odds ratio values showed that adolescents assigned to the TVCV latent class were

6. Conclusion [11] J. A. Hagenaars, (1998). “Categorical causal modeling: Latent class analysis and directed log-linear models with latent variables”, Sociological Methods & Research, 26, Latent class modeling aims to identify 436-486. unobservable subgroups of individuals who have a set of characteristics in common [1]. Although similar in [12] D. Rindskopf (1984). “Linear equality restrictions in purpose to cluster analytic algorithms such as k regression and loglinear models”, Psychological means, LCA is conducted at the latent level rather Bulletin, 96, 597. than the observed level. Unlike factor analysis, LCA allows the estimation of categorical latent variables [13] McReady, G. B. (1988). “Concomitant-Variable Latent and groups individuals rather than variables. Class Models”, Journal of the american statistical The Mplus software allows researchers to specify association, 83, 173-178. complex mixture models using several types of [14] B. Muthén, and K. Shedden, (1999). “Finite mixture observed variables and several estimation methods. modeling with mixture outcomes using the EM Mplus also calculates measures of classification algorithm”, Biometrics, 55, 463-469. precision and a series of goodness of fit indices, which permit comparisons across latent class models with [15] D. S. Nagin, and D. Nagin, (2005). Group-based different specifications. With a relatively simple code, modeling of development. Harvard University Press. researchers can run this complex latent modeling procedure and obtain a wide range of results. [16] B. V. Bye, and E. S. Schechter, (1986). “A latent Markov model approach to the estimation of response errors in multiwave panel data”, Journal of the American 7. References Statistical Association, 81, 375-380.

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[2] C. Geiser (2013). Data analysis with Mplus [18] J. K. Vermunt, (2003). “Multilevel Latent Class (Methodology in the social sciences). New York: Guilford Models”, Sociological methodology, 33, 213-239. Press. [19] B.S. Everitt, (1993). Cluster analysis. London: Edward [3] L. K. Muthén, and B. O. Muthén, (2010). Mplus User's Arnold. Guide: Statistical Analysis with Latent Variables: User's Guide. Muthén & Muthén. [20] J. D. Banfield, and A. E. Raftery, (1993). “Model-based Gaussian and non-Gaussian clustering”, Biometrics, 803- [4] DiStefano, C. (2012). “Cluster analysis and latent class 821. clustering techniques”, Handbook of developmental research methods, 645-666. [21] G. McLachlan, and D. Peel, (2000). Finite mixture models. New York: John Wiley & Sons. [5] K. L. Nylund, T. Asparouhov, and Muthén, B. O. (2007). “Deciding on the number of classes in latent class analysis [22] L. R. Bergman, D. Magnusson, and B. M. El Khouri, and growth mixture modeling: A Monte Carlo simulation (2003). “Studying individual development in an study”, Structural equation modeling, 14, 535-569. interindividual context: A person-oriented approach”. Psychology Press. [6] P. F. Lazarsfeld, and N. W. Henry (1968). “Latent structure”, Psychology, a study of science, 3. [23] L. R. Bergman, and D. Magnusson, (1997). “A person- oriented approach in research on developmental [7] L. A. Goodman, (1974a). “Exploratory latent structure psychopathology”, Development and psychopathology, 9, analysis using both identifiable and unidentifiable 291-319. models”, Biometrika, 61, 215-231. [24] T. Heinen, (1996). Latent class and discrete latent trait [8] L. A. Goodman, (1974b). “The analysis of systems of models: Similarities and differences. Sage Publications, Inc. qualitative variables when some of the variables are unobservable. Part IA modified latent structure [25] C. C. Clogg, (1995). “Latent class models”, approach”, American Journal of Sociology, 79, 1179-1259. In Handbook of statistical modeling for the social and behavioral sciences (pp. 311-359). Springer, Boston, MA. [9] A. P. Dempster, N. M. Laird, and D. B. Rubin, (1977). “Maximum likelihood from incomplete data via the EM [26] J.K. Vermunt, and J.Magidson, (2002). “Latent class algorithm”, Journal of the royal statistical society. Series B cluster analysis”, In: J.A. Hagenaars and A.L. McCutcheon (methodological), 1-38. (Eds.), Applied latent class analysis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 89–106. [10] S. J. Haberman (1979). Analysis of qualitative data. vol. 2, new developments. Academic P.

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Session 6: Cross-disciplinary Areas in Education

Title: Dialogue and Saudi Tradition: an empirical case study of religious education at a Saudi university Author: Adel Abubaker Bawazeer

Title: Critical Theory, Fascism and the 2016 Trump Campaign Author: James Curiel

Title: Promoting health and well-being of immigrants in Europe. The Perspective of Human Development and the Capabilities Approach Authors: Gallelli Rosa, Renna Pasquale

Dialogue and Saudi Tradition: An Empirical Case Study of Religious Education at a Saudi University

Adel Abubaker Bawazeer Religious Education at University of Jeddah, Saudi Arabi

Abstract

General speaking, dialogue is a method that can improve communication and integration among individuals. It is a cultural and human concept which the Saudi government has focused on in the last decade. In promoting the development of people's capacity for dialogue, and how to converse with others internally and externally, the aim is to improve the practices of communication between citizens who may hold different social or religious views or different opinions on any subject. Religious education has been situated within a more general account of assumptions about education in Saudi i.e., it is a textual knowledge that is privileged. In other words, with such an understanding of the purpose of religious education – as being primarily the transmission of knowledge – there is little space for students to engage in dialogue or the practices that are necessary for the exchange of different points of view. So, the move towards more open forms of teaching and learning that involve interaction between students, therefore, has far- reaching consequences for the education system generally as its purpose is changed or reformed. Because of that, this paper looks at how dialogue and its practices and motives can be understood within the religious traditions of Islam and within the social and cultural context of the Saudi society, as well as looks at dialogue in the context of university education in Saudi Arabia. One of the most important topics central to the position of dialogue within the Saudi community, the response of participants gave when asked how important dialogue is within Saudi society, whether there are any boundaries and limits to dialogue within Saudi Arabia, the analysis of the Saudi policy for higher education, the way in which university systems understand their desired goals compared to their actual performance in practice, and, finally, the reflection of that on religious education at Saudi University. Therefore, the principal aim of this project is to explain the contextualising Saudi Arabia, socially and characterising the cultural situation within education. Understanding the present conditions of the Saudi context will afford insight into the Saudi culture, the government system, educational policy and the educational system. Consequently, this will enable a more precise understanding of the distinctive cultural dimensions to be faced in the promotion of practices of dialogue within the classroom of religious education as well as between academic teachers and students at the University. Also, this project aims to the case study of the educational environment with regard to dialogical practices at the university in general, such as investigating respondents' awareness of the higher education policy aims as well as the university's facilities and capacities in relation to these, particularly, in religious education courses.

Critical Theory, Fascism and the 2016 Trump Campaign

James Curiel Norfolk State University, United States of America

Abstract

What happens when your graduate class realizes Debate rages over whether Trump’s presidential what Peter Marcuse writing from 2012 were taking campaign and presidency is fascism incarnate. Some, place in the 2016 Trump Presidential campaign? like Cobbler, hedged their bets calling Trump a Marcuse theorized during an economic crisis the “proto-fascist,” while others, such as Christina, dispossessed will either swing towards egalitarianism unequivocally stated Trump was a full-blown fascist,” and rights for all, or they will swing towards fascism and still others, such as Gilmore, who argued Trump and the elimination of rights for scapegoat groups. was not a fascist because Hitler had a “coherent Marcuse postulated the dispossessed can be worldview” while Trump is philosophically manipulated to support fascism through rhetoric inconsistent [1], [5], [6], [10], [16]. touting: anti-abortion, gun rights, homophobia, The 2016 Trump campaign served as a learning racism, anti-immigrant sentiment, religious opportunity to test Marcuse’s theory. Robert Paxton, fundamentalism, war mongering and false patriotism. widely considered to be the “father” of fascist studies, The class realized the 2016 Trump campaign was was used to define fascism as, “popular feelings about mirroring Marcuse’s list of manipulation, so, two master races, …and their rightful predominance over independent variables from Marcuse’s list, racism inferior people… [based] upon the leader’s mystical and guns rights, were tested to see if they had a union with the history of his people [15]. Thus, correlation to states having a higher Trump voting domination of others and adoration for the leader are percentage in the 2016 Presidential election. This the only factors that need to be consistent, and in fact, research contributes to the social sciences by a tell-tale sign of fascism is a group’s political demonstrating the applicability of critical theory to program is a capricious ideological quilt dependent real world phenomenon, and by contributing support upon the whim of the leader’s political expedience. to the accuracy of defining the Trump campaign as a Marcuse’s theory on fascism was tested by using fascism. Presidential voting totals to see if there were correlations to two items on the list of manipulation, 1. Introduction racism and gun rights. Our method for testing is described in further detail in the next section. What happens when your graduate class is reading critical theory, and everyone realizes Peter Marcuse’s 2. Methods theory 2012 is taking place in the 2016 Trump Presidential campaign? Marcuse theorized during an To test Marcuse’s theory of fascism and its economic crisis the dispossessed and alienated will applicability to the 2016 Trump campaign, two either swing towards egalitarianism and push for variables, racism and gun rights, were selected for rights for all people, or they will swing towards brevity’s sake from Marcuse’s list of manipulation. fascism and advocate the elimination of rights for Two hypotheses were tested, one for each scapegoats [14]. Marcuse hypothesized the wealthy independent variable, to study the effect on the manipulate the dispossessed to embrace fascism by dependent variable, Trump’s voting percentage. using emotion based rhetoric supporting a platform of Hypothesis 1 was Trump’s vote percentage would be anti-abortion, gun rights, anti-tax, homophobia, highest in states with the largest number of white racism, anti-immigrant sentiment, religious supremacy groups per capita, or the inverse lowest fundamentalism, family values, war mongering, false ratio of capita per white supremacy headquarters. patriotism, sports fanaticism, and home ownership Hypothesis 2 was Trump’s voting percentage would [14]. As the class read Marcuse’s list of manipulation be highest in states with the highest percentages of it read like a blue print for the Trump presidential households owning a gun. Racism and gun rights were campaign. chosen because the two are interrelated with histories of states requiring white males to carry firearms while

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 137 prohibiting minorities from carrying weapons [7], [8], December 2017 with the February 2018 amended [20], [23]. Racism is the most developed rhetorical Arkansas results [9]. device Trump uses to gain support as evidenced by his Both SPSS and it’s open source clone PSPP were mantra of “build the wall”, “stop the Muslims”, and used to load data and run calculations for regressions bash the protesting minorities. It is central to his and concomitant statistics to test hypotheses 1 and 2. campaign, and it is this centrality of racism that led SPSS was used to run multiple linear regression to see many GOP leaders to delay or refuse to if together the independent variables, percentage of support/endorsement of the party nominee [4], [17]. households owning a gun and capita per white Measuring levels of racism and gun rights in a supremacy headquarters, had a significant impact on state can be problematic because groups, such as the the dependent variable, Trump voting percentages. Klux Klan and the National Rifle Association, do not release membership numbers. However, the Southern 3. Results Poverty Law Center, SPLC, does have state by state data on headquarters for racial supremacy groups, but Results for both independent variables run by the focus here is on white supremacy [18]. themselves yielded significant numbers impacting the Consequently, SPLC data was compiled on a state by dependent variable, and the power of the impact state basis for white supremacy headquarters that increased when both independent variables were run included Ku Klux Klan, Neo Nazis, White together. Run by itself the independent percentage of nationalists, racist skinheads, Christian identity, and household owning guns was found to have a direct neo Confederates. Headquarters of organizations are relationship with Trump voting percentages where a step removed from membership, but are generally a Trump voting percentages increased when percentage good representation because locations for of households owning guns increased. The Pearson R headquarters are chosen for convenience of proximity for percentage of households owning guns was found to membership in facilitating meetings and to be .562 when a level of .2875 was needed at .05 communication. levels of significance and .3721 was needed for a The population of each state, from 2015 U.S. significance level of .01. Adjusted R square was .301 Census data, was then divided by number of when the P value was .000. Thus, the R value of .562 headquarters of white supremacy organizations in a was nearly double the .2875 level needed to establish state to get a number for persons per white supremacy significance of a relationship correlation. groups headquarters in each state [22]. Thus, a rural, Run by itself the independent variable of capita per less densely populated state with a high number of white supremacy headquarters was found to have an headquarters for White supremacy groups would have inverse relationship with Trump voting percentages a higher capita per headquarter ratio than a more where Trump voting percentages increased when densely populated urban state with a low number of capita per white supremacy headquarters ratio headquarters for white supremacy groups. decreased. Thus, the increased number of Hypothesis 2 looks for a direct relationship where headquarters per person lowered capita per states with higher percentages of households owning headquarter ratio. The Pearson R for capita per a gun will have higher Trump voting percentages. headquarters was found to be -.502 when a level of - Percentages of households owning guns were .2875 was needed for .05 levels of significance and - obtained from a 2013 study covering 4,000 .3721 was needed for a significance level of .01. households in the U.S. by four doctors for Injury Adjusted R square was .236 when the P value was Prevention published in 2015 [11]. The percentage of .000. Thus, R value of -.502 was much greater than households having gun ownership was correlated with the -.2875 level needed to establish significance. Trump voting percentages using regression. Alaska Run by themselves, the independent variables had and Hawaii were problematic outliers both significant correlations, but they showed an even geographically, in relation to the contiguous United stronger correlation with Trump voting percentages States, and also numerically, for the datasets. Thus, when they were run together. Run in isolation, the Hawaii and Alaska were eliminated from the higher Pearson R was .562 for guns per household regression, and the dataset used to for Hypothesis 2 percentages, but running the two independent only had an n=48. variables together the Pearson R jumped to .659 where Statistics for state populations and state the adjusted R square was .409 for a significance P of presidential election results were gathered from .000. Thus, the addition of white supremacy hate United States Federal sources. For example, state group headquarters to percentage of households populations were sourced from the U.S. Census owning guns increased the Pearson R by a factor of Bureau estimates for 2016 that were released in 17%. December 2015 [22]. State voting totals were sourced from the Federal Election Commission official results for the 2016 Presidential General Election released in

4. Discussion intimidation, and law breaking being openly called for by Trump in 2020. As evidenced by the two variables, racism and The potential to use Marcuse’s list of guns rights, used to represent Marcuse’s list of manipulation as a continuing classroom exercise manipulation used by the wealthy to manipulate the could also be tested to see if it increases curriculum masses to embrace fascism, there is a statistically retention. In the fall of 2016 the collective light bulb significant correlation between Trump’s voting turned on illuminated the rest of the semester because percentages and number of households owning a gun suddenly the material was more alive and the and capita per white supremacy headquarters. The possibility that other theories actually had utility strongest correlation was when the two variables were became more of a possibility. As an instructor I run concomitantly in comparison to the two run in surveyed the classroom, and all suspected the list of isolation. A 17 percent increase in Pearson’s R took manipulation would have a correlation, but seeing place when the two were run concomitantly when R SPSS run the correlations using election results was equaled .659, more than double the .2875 value chilling. For the purposes of this article the hypotheses needed to establish a significant correlation. Author tested were in reference to voting totals. However, names and affiliations are to be centered beneath the running this as a classroom exercise for other title and printed in Times 12-point, non-boldface type. candidates has the potential to improve students’ Multiple authors may be shown in a two- or three- understanding theoretical relevance application of column format, with their affiliations italicized and statistical methods. centered below their respective names. Author information should be followed by two 12-point blank 6. References lines. [1] Baker, P. (2016, May 29). Rise of Trump tracks 5. Conclusion debate over fascism. New York Times, pp. 1-15.

These correlations are further evidence the 2016 [2] BBC News. US election: Trump tells North Trump campaign was a fascist endeavor. Critics and Carolina voters to vote twice retrieved from commentators can debate whether Trump choosing https://www.bbc.com/news/election-us-2020- ‘alternative right’ people, such as Steve Bannon, to be 54011022 (Access date: 1 November 2020). in his campaign and administration is embracing white supremacy, and whether Trump is channeling [3] CBS News. How heavily armed is your state? violence against the news media, people of color and http://www.cbsnews.com/pictures/most-heavily- women. However, it is a different game when you armed-states-in-america/. (Access date: 21 August measure the effect on the electorate, millions who 2020). make up popular culture, and the effect is racism and fascism form a significant correlation with Trump’s [4] Chan, M. (2016, February 28). Donald Trump state voting percentages. Marcuse’s list of refuses to condemn KKK, disavow David Duke. manipulation does have power in predicting and Time. http://time.com/4240268/donald-trump-kkk- explaining real world phenomena. Future research david-duke/. (Access date: 21 August 2020). could include test Marcuse’s entire list of manipulation. [5] Christina, G. (2017, February/March). This is not In 2020, the Trump campaign’s fascist pandering a drill. Free Inquiry, 37(2), 6-7. has become more extreme and desperate as the COVID pandemic sinks it chances of winning and [6] Cobble, Steve. (2016, August 1/8). A step function raises the specter of a Biden Presidency. The President year. The Nation, 20-22. openly encourages his supporters to break the law by voting twice, rise up in violence if he loses, and the [7] Curiel, J. (2014-2015). The birth of a cinematic majority of voters believe this year’s election results storyline normalizing violence against Black lives. will lead to a rise in violence, with many saying it will Ethnic Studies Review, 37 and 38, 107-133. lead to civil war [2], [13]. His refusal to disavow the white supremacist Proud Boys and calling for [8] Curiel, J. and M. McMullen. (2014). Classically paramilitary armed militia’s to intimidate voters illogical and currently illegal: social sciences and replays the fascist maneuvers of voter intimidation by Humanities Courses under HB-228. Journal of the Red Shirts in 1898 that led to the Wilmington Behavioural and Social Sciences, 1, 49-59. Massacre and coup in North Carolina, the same state in which President Trump told voters to vote twice for [9] Federal Elections Commission. (2017, him [2], [7]. The correlations from the 2016 election December). Federal elections 2016: election results results pointing to the Trump’s campaign’s fascism for the U.S. President, the U.S. Senate and the U.S. are merely being confirmed by the violence, House of Representatives. Federal Election

Commission Public Disclosure and Media Relations pick for strategist, as Voice of Racism. New York Division. https://transition.fec.gov/pubrec/fe2016/ Times. Retrieved from www.nytimes.com (Access federalelections2016.xlsx. (Access date: 21 August date 21 August 2020). 2020). [18] Southern Poverty Law Center. (2016, Spring). [10] Gilmore, S. Trump. (2015, December 21). Hitler Active hate groups in the United States in 2015. and the arc of history. Maclean’s, 128(50), 26. Intelligence Report. https://www.splcenter.org/ fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2016/active-hate- [11] Kalesan, B. et al. (2015). Gun ownership and groups-united-states-2015. (Access date: 21 August social gun culture. Injury Prevention, 0, 1-5. 2020). Retrieved from https://injuryprevention.bmj.com/content/22/3/216. [19] Stein, J. (2017). President Trump beat Clinton. (Access date: 21 August 2020). Now he's running against the media. Retrieved from http://www.vox.com/2017/2/18/14651272/trump- [12] Kiersz, A. and B. LoGiurato. (2015). Here’s never-ending-. (Access date: 21 August 2020). where you’re most likely to own a gun. Retrieved from https://www.businessinsider.com/gun-ownership-by- [20] Takaki, R. (1993). A different mirror: a history state-2015-7. (Access date: 21 August 2020). of multicultural America. Boston, Massachusetts: Little, Brown. [13] King, L. 'The country’s lost its mind': Polls warning of civil war, violence shows deep partisan [21] Tumulty, K. (2017, February 16). When chasm over election, https://www.usatoday.com/sto- governing beckons, Trump keeps campaigning Trump ry/news/politics/elections/2020/10/07/both-sides-wo faces renewed questions on Russia. rry-doubts-election-integrity-could-spark-violence https://www.washingtonpost.com. (Access date: 21 /5880965002/. (Access date: 1 November 2020). August 2020).

[14] Marcuse, P. (2012). Whose right(s) to what city?” [22] U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division. In Brenner, N., Marcuse, P., and Mayer, M. (Eds.) (2017). Table 1. Annual estimates of the resident Cities for people, not for profit. New York, NY: population for the United States, regions, states, and Routledge. Puerto Rico: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2015 (NST- EST2015-01). https://www.census.gov/data/tables/ [15] Paxton, R. (2004). The anatomy of fascism. New 2017/demo/popest/state-total.html. (Access date: 21 York: Alfred A. Knopf. August 2020).

[16] Phippen, J. (2017, February 18). Trump returns [23] Zinn, H. (1980). A people's history of the United to the campaign trail.https://www.theatlantic.com/ States. San Francisco, California: Harper & Row, politics/archive/2017/02/trump-florida-rally/517245/. Publishers. (Access date: 21 August 2020).

[17] Shear, M., Haberman, M. and M. Schmidt. (2016, November 14). Critics see Stephen Bannon, Trump’s

Promoting Health and Well-being of Immigrants in Europe. The Perspective of Human Development and the Capabilities Approach

Gallelli Rosa, Renna Pasquale Department FORPSICOM (Sciences of Formation, Psychology, Commuication) Università degli Studi di Bari Aldo Moro Italy

Abstract

During the history of Mediterranean migrations, especially from the Second World War until today, many people coming from Countries tormented by wars, hunger and misery, sought and still continue nowadays to seek better living conditions for themselves and their loved ones. Their dramatic stories are characterized by oppression, violence, abuse, and show the difficulty, at a global and local economic policies level, as well as at a social and cultural promotion interventions level, to give substance to the concept of sustainability. As a matter of fact, in order to speak effectively about sustainability, it is necessary to promote those economies and policies respecting the environment and all living beings that inhabit ecosystems, including human beings. This is all the more urgent as we live in a time in which the wonders of technology would give hope that humanity may have the effective possibility of relieving itself from the burdens of oppression and injustice. A possibility that, today, needs to be implemented with focused policies. The European Union, acknowledging the vital need for sustainability the lives of migrants cry out with their stories, recognizing the right of migrants to a dignified life, acknowledging the need to implement adequate measures and tools to allow them to exercise the fundamental right to education and work in the Countries they land, proposes today, through legislative, political and social focused measures, to make the presence of immigrants more and more qualified. For this reason, among the measures aimed at rebuilding professional biographies so often shattered and difficult to rebuild, the European Union promotes the portfolio of skills as a tool for pedagogical recognition of educational and professional qualifications. Several community documents [1], [2] explain step by step how to move from recognition to accreditation and certification of immigrants' previous cultural and professional skills, even if the original documents are untraceable. The University of Bari, in the fulfillment of the European documents on the subject, has implemented pioneering and significant pilot experiences. The present contribution aims to highlight, from a pedagogical and didactic point of view focused on the theoretical perspective of human development and skills, the pedagogical value of the skills portfolio as a tool for promoting dignity and social and individual well-being of migrants in Europe and especially in Italy. Furthermore, the aim is to analyze the “portfolio of skills” not only as a tool for recording previous learning, but also as a transformative autobiographical device for promoting the empowerment of immigrants, to be carried out in specific enabling environments. Thus, we intend to offer a contribution of reflection and pedagogical research, in order to answer important questions: how do the processes of lifelong education change at the time of Mediterranean migrations? How does school and professional training change for immigrants arriving in Italy without any opportunity to prove their previous education and work, especially in the current, dramatic historical circumstance featured by the pandemic still underway? How does citizenship education change in a logic of proximity to migrants, with their fundamental rights to education and health? How to shape intercultural dialogue and planetary citizenship in the Europe of migration? In this context, the

content of an inter-university collaboration at European level will be exposed in the context of the Erasmus + programming, still in progress, in which the University of Bari is involved together with the University of Akureyri (Iceland), Copenhagen (Denmark) and Patras (Greece), entitled “APELE - Accreditation of Experiential Learning Experiences”.

References

[1] CEDEFOP, (2010). Inventario europeo per la convalida degli apprendimenti non formali e informali. Lussemburgo: Ufficio delle pubblicazioni.

[2] CEDEFOP, (2016). Linee guida europee per la convalida dell’apprendimento non formale e informale. Lussemburgo: Ufficio delle pubblicazioni.

Bibliography

[1] Bruner, J., (2005). La mente a più dimensioni. Bari: Laterza.

[2] Demetrio, D., (1996). Raccontarsi. L’autobiografia come cura di sé. Milano: Raffaello Cortina.

[3] Demetrio, D., (2003). Manuale di Educazione degli Adulti. Bari: Laterza.

[4] Gallelli, R., (2018). Culture del corpotra Oriente e Occidente. Itinerari formativi. Bari: Progedit.

[5] Mezirow, J., (1991) Apprendimento e trasformazione. Il significato dell’esperienza e il valore della riflessione nell’apprendimento degli adulti. Milano: Raffaello Cortina.

[6] Perla, L., (2012). Scrittura e tirocinio universitario. Una ricerca sulla documentazione. Milano: Franco Angeli.

[7] Pinto Minerva F., (2002). L’intercultura. Roma-Bari: Laterza.

[18] Scardigno F., Manuti A., Pastore S., (2019). Migranti, rifugiati e università. Prove tecniche di certificazione. Milano: Franco Angeli.

Session 7: Cross-disciplinary Areas in Education

Title: Critical Reflection and Professional Development: Insights from an Educators’ Community of Practice Authors: Devi Akella, Anna Gibbs, Belinda Gilbert, Brandon Henry, Valerie Lee, Daphine Mathis, Victor Williams

Title: Higher Education Academic Resilience: The HDR Process – Hurdles, Successes and Opportunities Author: Marie B. Fisher

Title: Equity Conjectures in a Computer-Science Problem-Solving Focused Collaboration Authors: Kimberley Gomez, Ung-Sang Lee, Amy Berkhoudt Woodman

Title: How to Achieve a Constructive Alignment in a Curriculum Underpinned by Conflicting Education Aims Author: Elaine Aaltonen

Critical Reflection and Professional Development: Insights from an Educators’ Community of Practice

Devi Akella, Anna Gibbs, Belinda Gilbert, Brandon Henry, Valerie Lee, Daphine Mathis, Victor Williams Albany State University, GA USA

Abstract

This paper contributes towards the areas of modalities [6], [[19], [25], [36], [42]. In other words, critical reflection, communities of practice, collaboration, dialogue, and reflection can become the professional development, and best teaching passwords to a teacher’s success in the classroom. practices. Critical reflection is a mechanism whereby However, despite agreeing on the relevance of educators can self-assess themselves, their teaching these three components (i.e., collaboration, dialogue, practices, and pedagogies to develop into better and reflection) in the context of educators’ educators in the future. This paper provides empirical professional development, there is a lack of evidence from an educators’ community of practice to understanding regarding how this process of demonstrate how reflection can be embedded within a reflection can be embedded within the teaching teaching profession. Self-reflexive autoethnographic profession. How can educators embark on the process accounts of six professors working in a higher of reflection and how can this process be integrated education institution are considered to understand the into the daily lives of educators in higher education process of reflection, and how constant reflection, institutions (HEIs)? are some questions which have self-examination and questioning can make an been left unexplored. There is a large gap pertaining educator more aware of his/her strengths and to how critical reflection can practically be put into weaknesses and provide avenues for self- practice [35]. The question “how does the process of improvement to develop professionally. reflection look like in the actuality of teachers’ professional lives” remains unanswered [35]. This 1. Introduction paper provides empirical evidence on how the above three components can be effectively integrated into Reflection, or rather reexamination and re- the daily working lives of educators at a HEI by evaluation, can turn out to be powerful transformation considering the model of communities of practice to tools for the teaching profession. Reflection is a convene groups of educators, to dialogue, share and process, whereby educators can learn about reflect about themselves as teachers and their teaching themselves, their students, the course content, the practices. classroom environment and redevelop themselves as educators [40]. Reflection provides the educators a 2. Critical Reflection and Teaching chance to revisit the past, critically review their Profession methods, fix, or repair their teaching pedagogies and emerge as better educators in the future. By assessing According to Freire [16], educators are one’s inner strengths and weaknesses, considering “unfinished” resources who are in a continuous state both what went right and wrong in the past i.e., of evolvement. Educators are always engaged in a pinpointing what should be repeated and avoided in process of constantly learning, reflecting, unlearning the future, with a focus on answering questions such and then relearning again, a never-ending process of as “why”, “what”, “how come”, with regards to trying to understand their students and adopting instructional techniques, it returns power back to the suitable teaching pedagogies to reach out to them, and individual so that he/she can now effectively disseminate knowledge to them –“recreating and control his/her future actions thereby changing remaking knowledge” [ 16, p. 31]. Students’ needs everyday classroom life [2], [19], [25], [36]. and wants are constantly changing, one student Reflection entails a quiet and systematic process of generation might be different from the other in terms stepping back into the past, which can be undertaken of personality characteristics, perceptions about the as an individual or as a group-based exercise. These world and learning styles. Reflection enables personalized, collaborative reflective conversations educators to confront their attitudes pertaining to also have the potential of generating a toolbox of best human nature, human potential, and human learning teaching practices, class activities and problem-based [15], [23], through a brutal process of “describing, solutions for both online and face to face teaching informing, confronting and reconstructing” events

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 144 and experiences [38, p. 295-300]. They develop better their teaching and the learning of their students. The practices in the future by thinking critically about their participants were interested in learning about current practices and through in-depth introspection themselves, learning from each other, learning about [16]. Schon’s [36] seminal work on critical reflection their students, and critically reflecting on these argues that all professional educators possess prior insights to become educators who understood their tacit knowledge and skill, which they use to teach students better. MU is located in southern part of USA their respective classes and impart knowledge to their and offers associate, bachelors, and master’s degrees. students. During reflection episodes, educators reflect The HEI has over 6000 students, predominantly of on this prior knowledge, their classroom strategies African American origin, with a small number of and beliefs about teaching and learning, to make sense Caucasian and Asian students. All six participants of of what works in their classes and what does not. The the SOTL COP met on fortnight basis either face to critical insights gained from these postmortem face or virtually to discuss classroom experiences, reflections influence one’s future actions, or if what modalities worked for them, what did not, and undertaken as a collaborative group, are shared, and what technological tools were preferred by the discussed to initiate forward action planning [36]. The students and so on. At the end of the semester, they entire reflective activity involves a temporary decided to pen their reflective experiences using a unsettlement, confrontation with one’s mistakes and five-dimensional paradigm: cognitive (intellectual), failures, resolving ethical dilemmas, learning from the affective (emotional), motivational (goals and past and acceptance of a changed practice [5], [13], objectives), personal (social origin and personality), [21]. Even though the entire process can be described and bodily dimensions (professional values) to as unsettling and disturbing, it is also a process which understand how individuals reflect and how this liberates educators from their preconceived notions process transforms them as professionals [6], [19], and myths concerning themselves and their students [34], [40]. The six participants wrote their reflections [14], [40]. Critical reflection is therefore a crucial in the form of narrative autoethnographies using the aspect of professional development for all educators five-dimensional parameter, which traced their [36]. It is a proactive cognitive activity which reflection journeys: who am I (personal dimension)? examines current situations, practices, and techniques what works for me in the classroom and what does not to move towards higher levels of quality work for me in the classroom (cognitive dimension)? performances in the future [8], [9], [23], [40]. Why do I feel this works for me or does not (affective Educators should therefore be trained to continuously dimension)? How can I improve myself as an educator engage in critical reflection, to emerge as subject (bodily and motivation dimensions)? These five matter experts, autonomous, responsible, and ethical dimensions show similarities to the onion model instructors [19], [26], [28], [31]. developed by Korthagen [21], a multi-level learning approach where an educator’s mission (what inspires 3. Communities of Practice: Sharing, me?), identity (who am I?), beliefs (what do I Dialogue and Reflecting believe?), competencies (what am I competent at?), behavior (what do I do?) and finally environment This paper considers the effectiveness of the (what do I encounter?) are the connecting points for communities of practice model in engaging educators the entire reflection exercise. However, the as a collaborative group to share their insights in a dimensions suggested in this paper are more dialogic format, to critically reflect and professionally encompassing because they cover aspects such as develop as educators. Communities of Practice (COP) need for self-improvement and motivation as well. are a group of professional people who share similar The empirical analysis consisted of reviewing the interests and convene together to improve their six self-reflexive autoethnographic narratives. All six skills and learn from each other’s experiences [24]. autoethnographies were read, and then reread a couple Six educators, four females and two males, in the of times for the emergence of common themes to gain age groups between 25-45 years, of African critical insights about the individual as an educator American, and Caucasian race, belonging to different and human being, their thinking processes and academic disciplines, working at MU, a pseudo name teaching practices and subsequently their for a historically black university (HBCU), came transformation. To further exemplify all six reflective together for a semester to form a collaborative group, autoethnographies were compared with each other, to a community of practice on scholarship of teaching notice similarities if any in terms of types and and learning (SOTL). The objective of SOTL effectiveness of each instructor’s teaching pedagogies community of practice (COP) was to engage in a their perceptions of their students, their approaches series of dialogue on what teaching pedagogies and towards their students (how they created rapport, practices worked in their classrooms, what bonds and relationships), and their capacity to be technological modalities were successful in engaging completely honest about their mistakes and failures. this new student population, millennials and The role of collaboration and dialogue in this entire Generation Z and how they could further improve process of reflection was also considered.

where education was considered as a medium to move 4. Action, Reflection and Learning: The up in life. Her reflection stressed upon the values of Transformation Process hard work, compassion, and dreams. For her, becoming a nurse educator was a dream and a The six autoethnographic narratives were highlight of her career. Further identity formation is examined to understand how a person transformed not only an attribute of one’s economic, social, and after critical reflection. racial background it is also a continuous process in development. Usually in the initial career stages, there 4.1. The Beginning - The Identity of the is a conflict between the personal and professional ideologies, which creates a confused multifaceted Educator identity till one reconciles and accepts certain views about teaching and one’s students [3], [4], [33], [41, The identity of the educator can be the first stage p. 58]. As Valerie, another educator around the same of the entire reflection exercise, because it is the age as Anna reflected: “organizing element in teachers’ professional lives… a resource that [educators] can use to explain, justify “In my first year of instructing, I’ve found a few and make sense of themselves in relation to others and strategies to work and a number of approaches not to to the world at large” [27], [32]. The identity of the work with regards to my instruction… When I treat educator, or rather grappling with a series of questions students as friends, I have found they are more such as “who am I? and Who do I want to become?” comfortable in class, during instruction. I am [1] allows an individual to assess himself/herself and relatable, so students let guards down, and classroom what they do in the classrooms and how the reflection discussions are more so conversations. Students are process transforms him/her in the long run. Identities more open and willing to be receptive to criticisms can be considered as the beginning points from where with some of the relationships that have developed the educator’s teaching philosophy, instructional because they feel valued…”. (Valerie) pedagogies and classroom management strategies evolve. Identities influence the educators thinking In the above reflection, Valerie is still learning processes and their approaches towards their students what works for her in the classroom, and what sort of [10], [19]. For instance, Anna reveals in her narrative: teacher she would like to be. She realizes being in her “I am a 25-year-old Caucasian female…I come students’ age group she can be more effective by from a middle-class family and experienced a reaching out to them as a friend and building rapport wonderful childhood. My passions include disease with them. This creates a comfort zone for her prevention through exercise intervention, as well as students, to let their guards down and engage with her utilizing exercise to improve athletic performance. on a more equal footing. And as the educator gains Throughout college I personally trained and led experience, all these learning experiences group fitness. Upon graduation, I additionally interconnect and submerge into a teaching ideology. obtained a certification as a strength and The educators gradually define teaching through conditioning specialist…I began my first career as the experimentation with different teaching mechanisms, senior center’s programs and activities interactions with students and their views about the manager…managing the fourteen county senior curriculum and the educational system [10], [18]. centers, I expanded my knowledge on geriatric wellness… I am currently an instructor of health and The following reflection supports the above Human Performance …”. (Anna) theoretical assertions.

Anna is a Caucasian, fresh from college, new to the “Twenty years later and after several years of serving community, to the university and to teaching. She is in the role as a faculty member, I have realized that I passionate about exercise, health, and fitness. Anna’s cannot utilize the same approach that my professors passion, theoretical grounding, practical experience, used with me and my classmates. We currently teach and age would definitely prove to be her plus points a generation of students who feel more entitled and within a classroom. She is also a millennial, and expect everything to be given to them instead of them therefore might show a preference for technology and working diligently and truly seeking knowledge and action-oriented teaching strategies. However, being a earning their grades. To that end, as a professor, I Caucasian from a higher economic background consistently remind my students of upcoming working in a HBCU, she might confront cultural deadlines in different ways: verbal announcements in issues unless she adopts culturally relevant teaching class, through emails, announcements in Georgia pedagogies. Daphine, another participant in her View (our online learning platform) and messages reflection provides in-depth insights about her through Remind Me (an app that allows for background and upbringing. Unlike Anna, she is an Communication beyond the classroom)”. (Brandon) African American, from a different economic set-up

Brandon realized that the teaching techniques of the educators, Anna and Valerie happened to used by his teachers when he was in college had now belong to the same generation as their students, and become obsolete. Because he was teaching a different therefore were in alignment with the students’ generation of students, he had to change himself, his preferences and choices. “As a millennial, I had a teaching philosophy and teaching modalities – unique understanding of how my students engage in teaching pedagogies had to be adapted to the learning technology outside of the classroom” (Anna). The styles of students. So unlike Anna and Valerie he had educators therefore used virtual games, social media, to make the effort to adapt himself to his students’ textbooks in electronic format and cell phones to needs and demands. Brandon’s revelations are similar engage their students in the classrooms. For instance, to Victor’s who had been teaching for over twenty Daphine mentioned: years and had realized the need to constantly evolve himself and his teaching style to suit the students and “These strategies include PowerPoint, recorded their learning styles. Teaching as a practice is thus not lectures, real-life scenarios, low and high-fidelity only influenced by the educators, their personalities, simulation, … to reinforce topic learning. I also upbringing, educational backgrounds, age, and incorporate role-play, games such as Kahoot and ideologies. But the identity of the educators also keeps Jeopardy, and pass the chicken to bring the changing, resulting in simultaneous changes to their information all together”. (Daphine) teaching philosophies. All educators need to make a conscious effort to take up the roles of change agents, Different forms of student activities using generate evidence-based research by sharing and technology were popular with students, such as compiling their successes and failures and integrate Kahoot, Jeopardy, ticket out of class and simulations others best teaching practices to guide their teaching utilizing high-tech mannequins which recreated the efforts. The next section considers the reflections of hospital and patient environments for the nursing the six participants on what worked and did not work students. In fact, all participants were using a virtual for them in the classroom, in terms of interpersonal based learning platform known as Kahoot where styles, teaching pedagogies, classroom management material was presented in the form of an interactive skills and communication strategies (affective game, which assessed students’ knowledge levels. dimension) and how this triggered self-improvements Belinda, Daphine, Brandon, Valerie and Anna all and professional development (bodily and motivation mentioned that Kahoot was highly popular with their dimensions). students. Other methods mentioned included using power points, recorded lectures, social media 4.2. Teachers’ Revelations and channels such as Facebooks and making mobile Transformations phones a part of the overall teaching process. Victor was using social media in his classrooms to establish The six reflections considered different rapport with his students. He had Facebook pages for techniques which had proved effective and ineffective all his classes. Brandon had realized he could not win for them in their classrooms. The educators mentioned against students’ mobile devices and had instead that using technology and social media, giving integrated them to increase student engagement and continuous feedback, discussing the syllabus, achievement. Belinda also mentioned the students’ providing extensive out of class support, proved preference for open educational resources which effective for them. For instance, Belinda split her allowed the students to access their textbooks on their classes into time-division slots of 10 to 15 minutes laptop computers, iPads and even on their each, encompassing a mixture of information and smartphones. She therefore tried to identify electronic activity sessions keeping in mind the short attention textbooks for her students. The participants’ span of her students [7]. She was aware that the new reflections revealed that it was not just technology, but generation of students, the Generation Z, needed technology used in an interactive manner. For instant information otherwise they tended to get instance, pedagogical techniques which increased restless [12]. So, during the first day of class she students’ engagement and maximized their learning reviewed the course syllabus in detail and then [29], [37]. Other teaching strategies mentioned were navigated her students through the entire course techniques personally discovered and honed over the learning management system emphasizing due dates years. Small things such as being personal, learning and course expectations. All six educators the names of the students, calling out their names and acknowledged the importance of technology in the asking questions, providing personalized tutoring, and classrooms. Their reflections mentioned different developing study guides for the exams. Each of the mechanisms via which technology was being below excerpts denote a certain quotient of integrated into their teaching processes. All students personalized touch and care: had Facebook accounts, contacted their lecturers through social media, preferred WhatsApp to receive and share information with their classmates [12]. Two

“During the first class meeting I try to learn each was proving to be a detrimental factor in the student’s name as well as their home-town and where classroom. Valerie found it difficult to maintain they are living at the time of my class”. (Victor) decorum during class discussions and debates.

“With the student who was struggling, he met with me “I find myself at times, instructing in a bit of an for one on one tutoring every week. Additionally, I “outside voice”, because I’m having to talk-over supplied the student with supplemental work and had chatter.” (Valerie) him redo assignments until he made over a 90%”. (Anna) The other participants were able to advice Anna and Valerie on how to deal with this age issue, by The educators learned from each other that being firm but caring and personal with one’s despite the emphasis on technology, the most popular students. The ability of an educator to demonstrate teaching strategies involved being personal, that they cared about their students determined their interested, and empathetic to the needs of the students, level of success in the classrooms [30]. The students understanding their comfort zones, providing one-to- in the higher education valued and appreciated one teaching sessions, and incorporating group-based educators who were transparent, receptive, interested learning activities. However, they all agreed that the and encouraging. importance of technology, social media in engaging students in the classrooms was undeniable. By sharing “Students desire to know they are valued and have a their success stories, all six participants not only voice. Students prefer their professor’s authentic learned from each other but were also able to compile presence, constructive feedback, and encourage a list of effective teaching practices for their ment”. (Belinda) Generation Z students. The educators also shared their negative experiences which allowed them to learn In other words, it is possible to learn by reflecting from their mistakes and from the failure of their on one’s experiences and then sharing it with a larger colleagues, thereby gaining insights which would group. As evident from the above reflections the transform them into better educators. For instance, educators revisited their previous episodes and Daphine discovered: situations, reassessed, and reexamined themselves critically and resolved their problems collaboratively “I provided the students with traditional lectures and reflexively to maximize student learning and utilizing only a teacher-centered approach for one engagement. The next section considers the role of module. Their grades provided me the results that I dialogue and collaboration in this entire reflection expected; the traditional teacher-centered model of process resulting in transformations and subsequently an active teacher and a passive student was not the professional development. best approach”. (Daphine) 4.3. Dialogue and Collaboration Belinda had similar experiences using teacher centered approaches and lectures in her classrooms. Communities of practice effectively allow Anna realized her mistake of failing to consider the employees to interact, share and learn from each culture of her students. She laments in her reflection: other. The participants learn through engagement and collaboration, reflection, and common understandings “MU is classified as a Historically Black College and [39]. All the six educators reflected about themselves, University. As a Caucasian, relating to my students and their teaching experiences leading to professional culturally was a challenge at first. I was unaware of development, but this solitary process of reflection music, celebrities, and some historical figures that my was turned into a social exercise through dialogue and students frequently discuss”. (Anna) collaboration. This is evident from Anna’s statement:

It is important for educators to be aware of the “The COP allowed me to come out of my comfort zone race and origin of their student learners and use and to explore … I feel working as a group made it so culturally relevant teaching examples and content much easier and enjoyable. The group was awesome, [22]. Educators need to use “the cultural knowledge, and I got to know them.” (Anna) prior experiences, frames of reference and performance styles of ethnically diverse students to The COP model allowed the participants to make learning encounters more relevant to and connect with new faculty members, emerge from their effective for them” [17, p. 31]. However, while comfort zones, establish connections, talk, and share conversing with other COP members she became their classroom episodes. Daphine further elaborates: aware of culturally relevant pedagogy and incorporated it into her classrooms. Again, for Valerie “The group incorporated several faculty members and Anna who happened to be in their twenties, age from different areas... As a group, I feel we work very

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 148 well together, having the ability to brainstorm and in gaining respect of the students by being in the same reach common solutions. … working with the COP age group as their students. The educators aid in building confidence in many of my own brainstormed as a group, they reflected solitarily and personal skills and abilities.” (Daphine) then shared these reflections with their peers, to provide constructive advice and suggestions to Other participants also supported the statements improve themselves as teachers. This paper thus of Anna and Daphine. They found the COP model provides valuable insights about COP and its useful in creating a neutral organizational space while effectiveness in creating a collaborative group of at work, to connect with their peers, establish bonds educators who can share, dialogue, and reflect on and learn from each other thereby resulting in their successes and failures to improve themselves as professional development. COP model thus enables educators. the educators to take up the roles of change agents who through introspection, collaboration, and 6. References dialogue, improve themselves and generate evidence- based best teaching practices. [1] Akkerman, S. F., and Meijer, P.C. (2011). A dialogical approach to conceptualizing teacher identity. Teaching and 5. Conclusion Teacher Education, 27, 308-319.

[2] Bartlett, L. (1990). Teacher development through To conclude critical reflection can be a powerful reflective teaching. In J. C. Richards and D. Nunan (Eds). transformative tool for all educators if it is practiced Second language teacher education. Cambridge: Cambridge at regular intervals. As a collaborative exercise, it is University Press p.202-214. more constructive, because not only does the educator learn from his/her self-reflection but also from the [3] Beauchamp, C., and Thomas, L. (2011). New teachers’ reflections of his/her peers [8], [19]. While the COP identity shifts at the boundary of teacher education and model proves to be an innovative and collaborative initial practice. International Journal of Educational method which allows educators to convene, dialogue, Research, 50, 6-13. reflect and learn from each other in an informal [4] Beijaard, D., Meijer, P. C., and Verloo, N. (2004). manner while at work [39]. This qualitative study Reconsidering research on teachers’ professional identity. demonstrates the effectiveness of the COP model in Teaching and Teacher Education, 20, 107-128. creating an organizational workspace during working hours, which would allow educators to dialogue, [5] Benade L. (2016). Teaching and critically reflective reflect, and learn collaboratively from each other. An practice in Freire. In M. Peters (eds) Encyclopedia of effort is made to understand the role of dialogue, educational philosophy and theory. Springer, Singapore. collaboration, and reflection in professionally developing educators by incorporating the COP [6] Boud, D. (2010). Relocating reflection in the context of model in a HEI. The autoethnographic accounts of the practice. In H. Bradbury, N. Frost, S. Kilminster, S., and M. Zukas (Eds.). Beyond reflective practice: New approaches six educators are considered to understand whether to professional lifelong learning (pp. 25-36). Abingdon: the educators engaged in dialogue, reflection and Routledge. improved themselves. The empirical analysis revealed that the educators learned from each other’s classroom [7] Bradbury, N. A. (2016). Attention span during lectures: experiences, both positive and negative while 8 seconds, 10 minutes or more. Advanced Physiological reflecting and engaging in a dialogue as a group. They Education, 40 (4), 509-513. were able to generate a list of effective teaching pedagogies such as the usefulness of interactive [8] Brookfield. S. D. (2017). Becoming a critically technology games, visual aids, group-based activities reflective teacher (2nd edition). San Francisco, CA: Wiley. which matched the learning styles of the students, [9] Bryan, L. A., and Recesso, A. (2006). Promoting significance of personalized actions such as learning reflection among science student teachers using a web- the names of the students, providing them with study based video analysis tool. Journal of Computing in Teacher guides, reviewing the syllabus on the first day of the Education, 23, 31–39. class and providing one-on-one tutoring sessions to the students who were lagging, behind in the class. [10] Byrne, D. and Callaghan, G. (2014). Complexity theory This not only created a list of evidence based best of the social sciences: The state of art. Routledge: London. teaching practices but also allowed the COP participants to undertake a comparative analysis and [11] Byrne, D. (2014). Thoughts on a pedagogy of complexity. Complicity: An International Journal of learn from their peers about different types of teaching Complexity and Education,11(2), 40-50. pedagogies. They were also able to tackle problematic issues faced in their classrooms such as complaints [12] Cilliers, E. J. (2017). The challenge of teaching pertaining to lecture based teaching strategies, not generation Z people. International Journal of Social considering the culture of the students and difficulty Sciences, 3(1).

[13] Duncan-Andrade, J.M.R., and Morrell, E. (2008). The [29] Mascolo, M. F. (2009). Beyond student-centered and art of critical pedagogy: Possibilities for moving from teacher-centered pedagogy: Teaching and learning as theory to practice in urban schools. New York, NY: Peter guided participation. Pedagogy and the Human Sciences, 1 Lang. (1), 3-27.

[14] Freire, P. (1976). Education, The practice of freedom. [30] Miller, A., and Mills, B. (2019). If they don’t care, I London, England: Writers and Readers Collective. don’t care’: Millennial and generation Z students and the impact of faculty caring. Journal of the Scholarship of [15] Freire, P. (1985). The politics of education: Culture, Teaching and Learning, 19(4), 78-89. power, and liberation. Bergin and Garvey Publishers. [31] Moore, R. (2003). Re-examining the field experiences [16] Freire, P. (1998). Pedagogy of freedom: Ethics, of pre-service teachers. Journal of Teacher Education, 54 democracy, and civic courage. Lanham, MD: Rowman and (1), 31-41. Little. [32] Neumayer Depiper, J. (2013). Teacher identity work in [17] Gay, G. (2010). Culturally responsive teaching: mathematics. Teacher Education for the Learning Theory, research, and practice. New York: Teachers Mathematics, 33 (1), 9-15. College Press. [33] Pillen, M. T., Beijaard, D., and den Brok, P. J. (2013). [18] Henry, A. (2016). Conceptualizing teacher identity as Professional identity tensions of beginning teachers. a complex dynamic system: The inner dynamics of Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 19(6), 660- transformations during a practicum. Journal of Teacher 678, Education, 67(4), 291–305. [34] Rodgers, C. R. (2002). Defining reflection: Another [19] Korthagen, F. A. J., and Vasalos, A. (2009). Levels in look at John Dewey and reflective thinking. Teachers reflection: Core reflection as a means to professional College Record, 104 (4), 842-866. growth. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 11 (1), 47-71. [35] Saric, M., and Steh, B. (2017). Critical reflection in the professional development of teachers: Challenges and [20] Korthagen, F.A.J. (2004). In search of the essence of a possibilities. CEPS Journal, 7 (3), 67-85. good teacher: Towards a more holistic approach in teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 20(1), 77-97. [36] Schön, D. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York, NY: Basic Books. [21] Korthagen, F. (2001). Linking practice and theory: The pedagogy of realistic teacher education. New Jersey: [37] Singhal, D. (2017). Understanding student-centered Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. learning and philosophies of teaching practices. International Journal of Scientific Research and [22] Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). Toward a theory of Management Studies, 5(2), 5123-5129. culturally relevant pedagogy. American Educational Research Journal, 32 (3), 465-491. [38] Smyth, J. (1992). Teachers’ work and the politics of reflection. American Educational Research Journal, 29, [23] Larrivee, B. (2000). Transforming teacher practice: 267–300. Becoming the critically reflective teacher. Reflective Practice, 1, 293–307. [39] Wenger, E (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University [24] Lave, J, and Wenger, E (1991). Situated learning: Press. Legitimate peripheral participation. New York, Cambridge University Press. [40] Williams, J., and Power, K. (2009). Using core reflection in teacher education. Refereed paper presented at [25] Liu, K. (2015). Critical reflection as a framework for “Teacher education crossing borders: Cultures, contexts, transformative learning in teacher education. Educational communities and curriculum” the annual conference of the Review, 67 (2), 135-157. Australian Teacher Education Association (ATEA), Albury, 28 June – 1 July. [26] Loughran, J. (2006). Developing a pedagogy of teacher education: Understanding teaching and learning about [41] Trent, J. (2014). Innovation as identity construction in teaching. London: Routledge. language teaching and learning: Case studies from Hong Kong. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 8(1), [27] Maclure, M. (1993). Arguing for yourself: Identity as 56-78. an organizing principle in teachers’ jobs and lives. British Educational Research Journal, 19 (4), 311-322. [42] Trumbull, D. (2006). Sharing my teaching journal with my students. In P. Aubusson and S. Schuck (Eds.), Teacher [28] Marentic Pozarnik, B. (2000). Professionalizacija learning and development: The mirror maze. The izobraevanja uciteljev—Nujna prepostavka uspesne Netherlands: Springer. prenove (Professionalizaiton of teacher education— Necessary precondition of successful school reform). Vzgoja in izobrazevanje, 31 (4), 4-11.

Higher Education Academic Resilience: The HDR Process – Hurdles, Successes and Opportunities

Marie B. Fisher The Australian Catholic University Australia

Abstract

What were the motivational factors and influences research thesis that are helpful to the candidate and throughout the higher degree study process that important to know. However, when one reflects on the enabled a full time academic to overcome experience prior to commencing a thesis it is evident professional and personal obstacles and complete that diverse candidates require different levels and their research degree? The aim of this paper is to types of support, encouragement, intrinsic motivation, reflect upon the first of a three-stage process of and endurance. An important question to ask yourself Higher degree research transformational learning is ‘Why do I want to study and complete a thesis?’ to and teaching that emerged during the learning determine motivation to navigate the twisted, perilous journey of an academic who was also a student. This journey. Finishing a thesis is rite of passage to paper provides a reflective overview, supported, working in academia for many aspiring academics. informed, and guided by literature and educational What makes my situation different is that I had to theories, of how the process emerged and was navigate and overcome hurdles that I could not have adjusted to turn challenges into successes. It will predicted to occur in rapid succession to enable me to address the impact of first impressions from the alter my perceptions and expectations and complete author about the HDR journey, perception of the thesis. supervisors’ views, external influences and advice that were used to jump over hurdles, scaffold learning 3. Context and achieve milestones which ultimately led to completion of a research degree while the student was While contemplating studying for my higher working full time. This reflective practice research is degree I managed to secure a long-term contract with a work in progress. my University which led to a tenured permanent position. This type of opportunity does not always 1. Introduction eventuate when working on contract, so I knew that this was a chance to build and establish an academic The purpose of this article is to provide a snapshot career. I had worked as an academic previously at the of a first impression, reflective introduction to events Australian National University and the University of that influenced my decision to embark on a journey as Canberra but was limited to academic teaching an HDR student, my perceptions of the HDR process responsibilities. Therefore, I had experience working and some key issues that impacted upon my success as an academic as well as studying part-time. and how I managed the situation. Previously I managed that effectively, so I thought I would be successful. I was encouraged by my Head of School to enrol in a Higher Degree by research. She 2. Background explained that I needed to gain my PhD to obtain ongoing employment in a competitive sector of the Completing a thesis was always a key goal in my workforce. However, I soon realised that Academic academic studies. Despite reading all the books, workloads are substantial, involving teaching, journal articles and blogs about completing an MPhil cultivating collaborations, research, meetings as well and PhD thesis I was unsure whether I would be able as substantial academic administration leaving little to produce a thesis. I misunderstood the requirements. time for study, let alone production of publications, The Higher Degree by Research (HDR) journey was and maintaining regular contact with your HDR a mystery. There are many rules and regulations that supervisors [1]. guide and support the process and completion of one’s

4. Impressions of the HDR Journey 5. Reflection Framework

The thesis in question entitled ‘Imperial Women As I progressed through the long process of and Power in Sixth Century Byzantium’ was a long researching and producing a thesis I engaged in and arduous journey that took approximately 9 years considerable reflection. At the time I felt that perhaps to complete. There were many stops and starts along I had wasted valuable reading time. In hindsight I the way due mostly to unexpected challenges realise that reflecting on my challenges, including issues arising during the Covid 19 pandemic achievements, relationships with HDR supervisors at the very end of the process. Upon reflection I realise and support from my family and friends were now that I had the motivation and academic ability to extremely helpful. Gibbs 1988 model of reflection complete the degree, but I misjudged the process of was an important framework used to support key studying for a higher degree by research. learning that I am communicating to students and At the beginning of my candidature my scholars in this article [2]. It was important to understanding of the process was that the thesis integrate a scholarly dimension into my recollection journey was very straightforward, linear and of the thesis experience. milestones could be easily time bound. I believed it While working on my thesis I used the Gibbs’ Six would be easier to continue studying after my MA had Stage model namely: Description of experience; been completed to keep practicing good study habits. Feelings and thoughts about experiences; Evaluation I was mistaken. It became obvious in the first few both positive and negative; Analysis of the experience months that I needed a break from study. As my such as what I learned; Action plan for what I would candidature progressed it was clear that he processes do differently to understand the impact arising from could be divided up into categories such as: student vs the process [2]. For the benefit of those unfamiliar supervisor relationships, undertaking reading, review with Gibbs model this is how it was useful to of literature, developing clear research questions, understand and explain the impact and achievements. writing your sections for chapters, and finally By describing the experience of navigating the completing your thesis plus editing. Then you would thesis process, my thoughts and feelings were submit for examination, presumably once the HDR revealed. To the most part I felt happy and productive. supervisors had signed it off. It would take However, at times I felt lost and felt unsure of my new considerable work, but it was achievable. HDR student role. My ‘imposter syndrome self’ Expectations and understandings of the HDR reared its head and the experience of studying became supervision was that a person was assigned or chose a a battle or hurdle marred by bouts of perfectionism supervisor or supervision team. This HDR [3], [1]. supervision team would read all your drafts and In addition, I was always conscious that I was provide comprehensive feedback via email within a using French and Raven’s power types to understand few days or a week; supervisors were always right as how the relationships between myself and my two they had the vast experience and had obtained their supervisors was progressing or not progressing [4]. PhD and academic standing and this process would be The supervisors were mostly perceived as predictable so that one could see progress. It was not engaging in an expert power capacity due to their roles linear and the type of feedback I thought I needed I and experience. The primary supervisor had did not get. In addition, I learned that there are supported students to completion and had won disadvantages as well as advantages to picking a teaching awards. However, one of the supervisors world-renowned supervisor, as they were often too often engaged in a coercive power approach by busy to meet regularly with students. My expectations writing feedback in a condescending or brusque tone were unrealistic. to assert their authority [4], [9]. This caused me to feel I am interested in Byzantine and Medieval history a bit intimidated [9]. in addition to Higher Education Teaching and In hindsight, the tone I was hearing at the time Information technology. I performed well in my seemed to be authoritarian and not collaborative. Master of Arts (Byzantine History coursework) and However, it appears that this was the way he provided was highly motivated to progress to a thesis. As I had feedback due to experiencing pressure due to his not completed an honours year in any previous heavy teaching load. Therefore, his response was not studies, I was encouraged to enrol in the MA Hons personal. This had the effect of causing a stress and, once I had completed a few chapters this would reaction and stall my cognitive ability to move the key be upgraded to a PhD. It did not happen for various ideas in the thesis forward [4]. reasons. My original supervisor is an authority on When I commenced my degree by research my Byzantine Empresses and Power, and she encouraged expectations were focused on the traditional me to develop a topic. I was satisfied with the topic university style of learning, namely didactic teaching and found that interest and a desire to answer the with limited or no opportunities to discuss issues, pose power questions helped spur me on. questions and acquire knowledge through cooperative learning [10]. As a distance student who

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 152 studied fully online for several years, my experience hardworking, helpful, and effective, I found that the of online learning had been mixed. In one expert vs apprentice model stifled my ability to raise postgraduate coursework unit I studied, all lectures key issues, move my thesis forward or argue in a were pre-recorded, there were no tutorials online, scholarly way about my work earlier in my optional study questions were provided in a handbook candidature for fear of offending my supervisors or and students sat a final exam. In the postgraduate units breaking protocol. I studied in the latter part of my MA I had a much In fact, it was only when I was completing the final more meaningful experience with the university thesis and then working on the edits from the lecturer who became my original supervisor for my examiners that I found my voice and felt confident MA Hons. reasoning a position. This model is at odds with the Her classes engaged me in co-operative learning by way we are expected to teach our undergraduate and her questioning techniques after splitting the class into postgraduate coursework students e.g., student study groups and case study analysis fostering social centred learning as opposed to didactic teaching. The interdependence through cooperative work practices learning point here is that when working in traditional [10]. This was achieved by the provision of learning structures it is important for students to take opportunities to engage with other students in online responsibility for their own learning early in the forums, wikis, and weekly tutorials [10]. In addition, candidature. the lecturer was approachable, guided learning and Positive communication is the key. Keep would engage one on one with students who booked communications civil. Be polite, listen or review any appointments. written feedback. It is okay to disagree but ask It became clear that I needed to construct my questions first to maintain positive communication. learning opportunities once I had navigated Be clear about what you need. Ask questions of Mezirow’s disorientating dilemma (my thesis). It was clarification sooner rather than ‘stewing’ on a piece of necessary to work through this dilemma to transform feedback that you do not fully understand. Adopting my thinking, writing and skills related to articulating strategies that improve your writing is also important, a sequenced argument supported by a diverse body of so you have something concrete to present to evidence [11]. supervisors. Write regularly. I only ‘got this’ toward the end game part of the thesis. 6. Issues Impacting upon the Thesis Process 6.2. Employment Issues

The process of completing your thesis cannot be Considering the impact that employment has on covered in one paper. Some of the elements of the the ability to develop and complete a thesis is an process and the impact of variables are covered in this important consideration. As described earlier in the article which serves as a first impressions overview. paper I commenced my thesis shortly after securing In subsequent papers the elements of the process and an academic lecturing position at my university. impact of variables will be included and explained in Initially, despite a high teaching load, I found that I more detail with additional examples. could balance my teaching responsibilities with time spent on my thesis. Once I obtained tenure, I was 6.1. Academic Supervision offered a promotion to another organisational area working as a more senior lecturer in academic The process of completing the thesis is divided into development. This role had less teaching several different parts that need to be navigated and responsibilities so I thought that I would have more managed to successfully complete the research energy for study in the evenings. However, the role degree. A significant part is that of supervisor-student involved considerable domestic travel across relationship which students need to work on from Australia for weeks on end. This became a challenge commencement to completion. The supervision to completing regular, substantial work on the thesis. model for HDR students is flawed. The dynamics of Work demands can be unpredictable so keep the key teaching are supervisor and apprentice, something I goal in mind – completion of the thesis and persevere have not experienced since I first started working even when the going gets tough or people try to put decades ago. you off your game. My original supervisor retired at a critical point in the thesis process. She was incredibly supportive and 6.3. Family and Health Issues worked with me to transition to a new supervision team. However, I found it difficult as I had to build a On reflection I realise that I am fortunate to have a new relationship with both supervisors. This was time husband who supported my study from beginning to I had to make but due to working full-time became a end. In addition, there were several friends and challenge. While my supervisors were pleasant, academic colleagues at my university and at other institutions who helped spur me on or discuss key

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 153 issues with production of the thesis. One needs a small academic supervisors ensured that I took note of but supportive network to help you keep the focus. small, regular changes. Family and Health issues dogged the thesis. Early in To improve my study time management during my my candidature I had a few health emergencies from candidature, I approached the academic skills unit for which I fully recovered. I felt like quitting the degree assistance. Numerous strategies to improve focus and but sought advice from academic supervisors and the time management were suggested. However, the one university suggesting I suspend the degree until I that was the most useful was using the Pomodoro recovered. While reluctant to do so I suspended technique [8]. The idea is that you allocate a 25- candidature. It was the best thing I did to keep going minute timeslot to complete a task. The principle with the degree. I ended up having to suspend a few behind it encourages one to use time more effectively more times due to family issues. by either using a timer on your mobile telephone, a During the latter part of my candidature three ‘tomato or pomodoro’ app on your desktop or an egg family members died in three years, my father had a timer. medical episode and then the Covid 19 impacted on I found an online pomodoro app and adopted this my ability to support relatives. The learning point here technique to focus my time on a specific task such as is that do not be afraid to request a suspension of reading through supervisor feedback on a piece of candidature for solid reasons such as family issues or writing or a chapter and highlighting key edits. health. Unless you experience a crisis during your Sometimes that might take seven times 25-minute candidature, it is difficult to appreciate the impact it pomodoro sessions. It took some getting used to, but may have on your work, such as no energy or time to I found it helpful and continue to use this in other study. However, most students will find that aspects of my life and for focus at my university when somewhere along the line there will be issues. completing my academic work. It is useful for Persevere, do not give up. Just keep the goal in mind. marking, developing course materials and writing academic papers as regular breaks mean one has more 7. Motivation energy and focus. There were numerous dimensions to the One of the key aspects of successful thesis transformative learning that I experienced during my completion is motivation. Fortunately, I have high academic candidature the first being psychological intrinsic as well as extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic wellness. Practicing wellness techniques, mindfulness motivation manifested through my enjoyment of and engaging in fitness pursuits were strategies I study, academic challenges to achieve a higher adopted to manage the stress and impact that the thesis standard of education and I was interested in the topic journey had on my life. Focusing my mind at specific [5]. times of the day in the morning, lunchtime and in the Whereas extrinsic motivation was maintained by evening helped me manage my time at work and study needing to complete the degree for my support more effectively. This was not an easy feat. I used a network not just for myself. Navigating the medical variety of methods such as using the My Life barriers left me with a stronger will to succeed as did (formerly the Stop, Breathe Think) App to engage in the issues around work and employment. Colleagues short, guided meditation [6]. at my university encouraged me to connect with Sometimes I just sat in a comfortable position at domestic as well as international academics through home in the evening and focused on the flame of a conferences and other face to face workshops. My candle, clearing my mind of clutter. In addition, I goal was achieving the academic award of PhD. engaged in regular FIIT 30 targeted gym training Motivation can be achieved by perseverance and sessions and worked with a personal trainer twice a engagement in activities that you enjoy (intrinsic) or week to keep physically and mentally fit. Physical positive feedback that help you scaffold your journey fitness has always been a feature in my life, and it to achieve the award [5]. The learning point is that one improved my mood, attitude towards study and should seek advice, read widely and do not be afraid resilience [6]. to try to publish. Feedback from successful and unsuccessful submissions to journals will provide you 9. Conclusion with valuable professional development to improve your success. The truth is that I did not fully understand the overt and covert practical, sociological, and psychological 8. Transformative Learning processes involved in researching, preparing, constructing, and editing a thesis to completion. Transforming your learning occurs whether you Therefore, to help other students and HDR notice it or not. As an HDR candidate I felt I did not supervisors navigate a positive learning and teaching notice the changes in the strategies I adopted to experience which builds resilience, I was compelled engage in research. However, colleagues, family and to provide an overview reflection, supported by scholarship about my experiences, in this introductory

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 154 paper. The key things that I learned was how to [11] S. Eschenbacher & T. Fleming, “Transformative manage obstacles. I used my high intrinsic motivation dimensions of lifelong learning: Mezirow, Rorty and to spur me along and take note of transformations in COVID-19”, International Review of Education, Springer, my learning which manifested when I achieved online, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-020-09859-6. milestones, obtained unsolicited feedback from peers, and received invitations from colleagues to participate in research. In subsequent papers I intend to provide more detail about the processes at the beginning, middle and end of the thesis journey which will inform a framework to assist both HDR students and supervisors.

10. References

[1] C. Wilkinson, “Imposter syndrome and the accidental academic: an autoethnographic account”, International Journal for Academic Development, Vol. 25, (4), Routledge Taylor & Francis, Online, 2020, pp. 363-374.

[2] A. Wain, British Journal of Midwifery, Vol 25, (10), Mark Allen Publishing Ltd, United Kingdom, October 2017, pp. 662-666.

[3] A. Sverdilk, C. Nathan. & L. McAlpine, “PhD Imposter Syndrome: Exploring Antecedents, Consequences and Implications for Doctoral Well-Being”, International Journal of Doctoral Studies,

[4] H. Aguinis, Nesler, M.S, Quigley, B.M., S. Lee, S & J. Tedeschi, “Power Bases of Faculty Supervisors and Educational Outcomes for Graduate Students”, The Journal of Higher Education, Vol. 67, (3),

[5] R.M. Ryan & E.L. Deci, “Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices and future directions”, Contemporary Educational Psychology, Vol. 61, Elsevier, Online, 8 April 2020, pp. 1-11.

[6] S.M. Neace, A.M. Hicks, M.S. De Caro & P.G. Salmon, “Trait mindfulness and intrinsic exercise motivation uniquely contribute to exercise self-efficacy”, Journal of American College Health, Taylor and Francis Online, 2020, DOI: 10.1080/07448481.2020.1748041.

[7] J.C. Coulson, “Exercising at work and self-reported work performance” International Journal of Workplace Health Management, Vol. 1, (3), Emerald Group Publishing, 2008, pp. 176-197.

[8] Cirillo, F, The Pomodoro Technique: The Life-Changing Time-Management System, Ebury Publishing, Google Books online, 2018.

[9] M. Kovach, “Leader Influence: A Research Review of French & Raven’s (1959 Power Dynamics”, The Journal of Values-Based Leadership, Vo. 13, Issue 2, Article 15. http://dx.doi.org/10.22543/0733.132.1312

[10] L. Baloche & C.M. Brody, “Co-operative learning: exploring challenges, crafting innovations, Journal of Education for Teaching, Vol. 43, (3), Routledge Taylor and Francis, 2017, pp. 274-283.

Equity Conjectures in a Computer-Science Problem-Solving Focused Collaboration

Kimberley Gomez1, Ung-Sang Lee1, Amy Berkhoudt Woodman2 1University of California, 2Code.org USA

Abstract

Value-laden concepts like equity, engender examined and discussed within partnerships. Using surface level mutual agreements around their import concepts of boundary-crossing and expansive in design, and classroom practice, but are often learning in cultural historical activity theory [1], we poorly examined within a single individual, and even examine how explicit attention to equity, in the co- less frequently examined and discussed, within design effort, made visible our varied conjectures [4] partnerships. Engaging in what Schon called, the on how CS education intersects with issues of equity reflective turn [5], that is examining motivation and in the co-design process. We focus on how we values, from the perspective of the other, offers formed a common understanding of the nature of CS partnerships a means to uncover and examine their problem solving and how we might best co-design notions of equity, and expose points of agreement lessons that support students’ opportunities to engage and divergence. The qualitative findings, drawn in discourse about their problem-solving efforts. We from interviews and design meeting notes describe also examine our collaborative use of an integrated the variation in participants’ understanding of model of these varied conjectures to frame the design design equity goals, educational outcomes that and implementation of the lessons with, and from, would contribute to these broader equity goals, and each other with a focus on equity. the kind of curricular design features that would facilitate such educational outcomes. Making these 4. Methodology varied conjectures visible in strategically facilitated co-design meetings led to design team members We draw on qualitative interview and co-design drawing from an expanded reservoir of conceptual meeting data. We sought to identify our individual possibilities for delivering equity outcomes through and group thinking about the intersection of CS the designed lessons. education issues of equity in the codesign process as evidenced in meeting conversations that 1. Introduction accompanied the co-design of CS lessons. To do so, we interviewed each other, individually, using a co- This paper considers how teacher researcher designed protocol, and analyzed meeting notes to collaborations can serve as contexts for expanding examine how we each made visible our varied the framing and practice of equity-focused computer conjectures [4]. We argue that the subsequent design science (CS) education. As part of an effort to and implementation of CS lessons that embodied develop elementary school CS curriculum that better expanded framings of equity in CS education point meets the needs of elementary school teachers and to the affordances of such collaborations addresses issues of equity in CS education, we collaboration for examining, refining and expanding formed a partnership between university researchers, the understandings and practice of equity in CS non-profit staff and elementary teachers, aimed at the education and education more broadly [1]. co-design of elementary CS problem-solving focused lessons. As the group initiated the co-design work, 4. Expected Outcomes subtle divergences emerged in how group members contextualized the role of CS education and the co- The findings will show the variation in designed lessons within the broader goals of building participants’ understanding of the design equity educational equity. goals, the kinds of educational outcomes that would contribute to these broader equity goals, and the kind 2. Research Objective of curricular design features that would facilitate such educational outcomes. Making these varied Value-laden concepts like equity are broad in use conjectures visible in strategically facilitated co- in design and classroom practice [2], yet often poorly design meetings led to design team members drawing from an expanded reservoir of conceptual

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 156 possibilities for delivering equity outcomes through the designed lessons. We claim that engaging in what Schon [5] called the reflective turn to examine the motivation and values associated with broad agreements to address issues of equity in education offers partnerships a means to uncover and examine their notions of equity, and to expose points of agreement and divergence, allowing partnerships to work towards common understandings and practice in design.

5. References

[1] Engeström, Y., & Sannino, A. (2010). Studies of expansive learning: Foundations, findings and future challenges. Educational research review, 5(1), 1-24.

[2] North, C. E. (2006). More than words? Delving into the substantive meaning (s) of “social justice” in education. Review of educational research, 76(4), 507-5353

[4] Sandoval, W. (2014). Conjecture mapping: An approach to systematic educational design research. Journal of the learning sciences, 23(1), 18-36.

[5] Schön, D. A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner.

How to Achieve a Constructive Alignment in a Curriculum Underpinned by Conflicting Education Aims

Elaine Aaltonen University of London, UK

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to outline a study that stem from the fact that these aims present flaws, undertaken within a nine-month period, ranging from despite of being valuable. Additionally, I realised that the end of 2019 and first semester of 2020, related to an they might also become incompatible with one another improvement change I led in my workplace that when applied in combination, without proper planning, consisted in designing and implementing, along with thus undermining the effectiveness of educational other teachers and school leaders, assisted by an institutions. external consultant, a new curriculum for the English as When I started working officially as elementary an Additional Language (EAL) classes offered in school teacher and coordinator in the beginning of 2020, elementary school. While structuring the improvement I identified ethical and logistical barriers within my new initiative, it was collectively decided that our curriculum context. Therefore, I became unsure whether the should be simultaneously 'knowledge-and-skills-centred' curriculum would be long-term sustainable, especially in and 'student-centred' while fostering 'socialisation'. its taught version. Later on, when a pilot version of the curriculum started Both conclusion of the curriculum design and its being implemented, at the same time that I was attending implementation were postponed to 2021 due to the an elective module named Values, Vision and Moral unexpected covid-19 pandemic. Therefore, I decided to Purpose (VVMP) from the Master´s Programme in improve my study by considering more carefully Applied Educational Leadership at the University of whether it would make sense to maintain all these aims London (UoL), I realised that the three education aims underpinning it at the same time. contemplated in it presented flaws, despite of being The purpose of this paper is to describe my study, valuable. Driven by an intense learning and professional which aimed at enhancing my understanding on how the development trajectory resulting from much reflection theories learned would help me to interpret and integrate upon the countless experiences as an educational middle aspects of the three education aims in order to put them leader and teacher for the past twenty years, and mainly into a constructive alignment, both ethically and supported by the content studied in the VVMP module, I logistically, focused on leading for learning effectively. carried out the study which will be described in this A hybrid set of references supported my analysis, paper. The main objective was to learn how to interpret including Egan´s [1] article about the tensions in the and integrate aspects of the three conflicting aims of three distinct and conflicting aims of education; the education, in order to put them into a constructive studies of Coates [2], and Murphy and Torre [3] about alignment, both ethically and logistically. At last, the school 'Vision, Values and Culture'; and two approaches findings obtained through this study enabled us to to ethics studied: 'Deontology' and 'Consequentialism'. contribute more effectively to the success of the Findings obtained through this kind of study are improvement initiative in my educational context. important not only to maximise our learning achievements while leading improvement initiatives, 1. Introduction such as curriculum design and its implementation, but they are likely to help us develop our thinking and enhance our practices in other areas pertaining to I recently led an improvement initiative within my educational leadership. educational context that consisted in designing and implementing, along with other colleagues, a new curriculum to support the EAL classes offered in the 2. Literature Review lower elementary school segment of a private mainstream school in Brazil. Egan´s [1] article about the tensions in theory, policy When we began the process of creating its written and practice around the education aims is insightful. It version in 2019, our discussions led us to a generalised was opportune for me to begin drawing my study from belief that it should be simultaneously 'knowledge-skills- it, since our EAL curriculum has been initially conceived centred' and 'student-centred' while fostering to feature the education aims analysed by the author, at 'socialisation'. the same time, in its written and taught versions. Later on, while attending the VVMP module offered In a clear and thought-provoking way, Egan [1] by the UoL, my attention was drawn towards problems explains that thinking on education throughout the 20th century has almost entirely involved only three distinct Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 158 and conflicting ideas: 'the idea of socialising the young', rigidly or persuade their students to accept passively 'Plato's idea of shaping the mind by a disciplined thoughts, ideas, beliefs, values, and patterns of behaviour academic curriculum', and 'Rousseau's idea of presented in the stories, rather than teaching them to facilitating the development of the individual´s minds'. think critically upon each aspect. The antithesis of He labels education as difficult and contentious because education, this practice is common, as “the story orients each of these aims is flawed, besides being incompatible the emotions of the hearers and so more powerfully with the other two, leading to many problems faced in shapes their commitments to the values and norms coded educational contexts nowadays. within it” [7]. As Egan points out, 'socialisation' was the first The 'Deontological Ethics', first ethical theory I education idea, inherited from the hunter-gatherer studied, places special emphasis on the relationship societies, in which it started being used a long time between duty and the morality of human actions; and its before the invention of writing. Socialising agents main exponent is Emmanuel Kant (1724–1804), German (parents, relatives and friends) used to tell the young philosopher who proposed a sophisticated theory named hearers stories especially created to transmit a 'Categorical Imperative', created to tackle indoctrination. homogeneous image of their society, their individual Kant´s doctrine is defined as “an objective, roles within it, and the larger world around them. rationally necessary and unconditional principle that we In Native American societies, for instance, stories must always follow despite any natural desires or ranged from origin myths through trickster and hero tales inclinations we may have to the contrary” [8]. Yet, to prophecy, and automatically demanded physical indoctrination is not the main threat within my context, presence, since they were passed along orally; thus, the where other ideologies seem more pervasive. verbal tradition deeply rooted in close cultural The 'deficit ideology', which is “the belief that interaction was quite effective to keep a culture´s myths inequalities result from intellectual, moral, cultural, and and legends alive within the individual and the behavioural deficiencies assumed, rather than from community [4]. unjust social conditions such as systemic racism, and Broadly defined as “the process by which the economic injustice [among other manifestations of individual acquires modes of behaviour and is integrated discrimination]” [9] is quite threatening. Exemplifying, into society and its social systems through the less than 50% of the school´s inclusion students have internalization of norms, values, symbols, customs and what van der Kooij et al. [10] would call their minimal patterns of interpretation” [5], the concept of deontological needs attended, such as a qualified intern socialisation has remained essentially the same for accompanying them at all times, a customised centuries. curriculum, and effective inclusive approaches fostering Both story and storytelling are excellent teaching and their integration within their groups. learning resources, through which we can easily gain the Regarding the students who follow the regular voluntary attention of students to teach them thematic programme autonomously, their personal and collective vocabulary and linguistic structures, and expound them development is promoted at a minimal deontological to scientific, historical, geographic, and cultural level, since there are rules in place, both established and backgrounds, in order to expand their understanding of being applied, towards considering and respecting their the world, while fostering situations for them to practice thoughts, main needs, feelings, and how certain actions and develop a range of skills. can impact them [10]. Plato (428 – 348 B.C.), Greek philosopher, Indeed, most people tend to consider teacher´s beliefs prescribed that teaching of culture should begin at home, and attitudes as neutral, thus interpreting them as through the stories parents told their children, stressing reflecting traits of their personality or individual values the great importance of the content of those stories as and predispositions. Although many scholars argue that first impressions shaping the still malleable minds of the teacher´s ideological orientation is often reflected in children and determining their character [6]. his or her beliefs and attitudes, in the way he or she Storytelling with proper content selection should be interacts with colleagues at work, treats and teaches a crucial part of early childhood education and beyond, students in the classroom [11]. since what children learn from the stories, they are first The danger of assuming a deficit ideology in told becomes fixed easily and turns into a template for education consists in approaching students and future learning [1], and it fosters children’s cognitive and colleagues based upon our perception of their literacy development while forming and informing, weaknesses instead of their strengths. When a teacher entertaining, providing joy and fun. Also, "storytelling adopts such a perspective, his or her expectations in helps to internalize the rich fabric of the society and relation to students will be undermined and his or her images of the land" [4]. ability to recognise both learning possibilities and talents A flaw in socialisation is that it often leads to will be reduced [12]. “The most devastating level of such 'indoctrination', when socialising agents either impose

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 159 a discriminatory ideology is mistaking difference, conduct in the ethical sense is not inspiring. particularly difference from ourselves, for deficit” [9]. Additionally, an essential role in framing and sharing the The deficit ideology is reflected in talks between institution´s vision, values and culture through a clear teachers, and in their interactions with students with and effective communication across school is not played. special needs or even some other ones who do not have Brown et al. [16] define ethical leadership as “the a psychological or psychiatric disorder but do need an demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct adapted curriculum too. Sleeter [13] states that “the through personal actions and interpersonal long-standing deficit ideology still runs rampant in many relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to schools, despite the abstraction that all children can followers through two-way communication, learn”. reinforcement and decision-making”, and argue that Alfaro [11] highlights the importance of encouraging ethical leaders are believed to possess high levels of the teaching staff to enhance their understanding about character and integrity, which dispose them to do the their own ideologies, and the links between their “right” thing or otherwise act in accordance with moral ideological stances and their instructional practices. rules. In sum, this knowledge is relevant to educational Another flaw inherited from the hunter-gatherer theory and practice as it is to philosophy, because societies is 'the oppositional thinking', which sets people extreme or discriminatory ideologies must be avoided by against each other in greater or lesser degree. Egan [1] teachers who aim at guarding their own classrooms reminds that, “for hunter-gatherers, the difference against practices that may undermine their students’ between we and they consisted in treating 'the cognitive, affective, and behavioural development [14]. recognized faces' as friends, and 'the unknown' as The deontological approach proposes a reflection potential enemies who should be killed”. about rule-based institutions and their leadership models The ethical dilemma of "they" caused by a culture of aiming at investigating whether there is a link between “we/they” can impact thinking and action to the extent them and the leadership style in place. In my context, that these people´s minds will not enable their most stakeholders explicitly desire an ethical behaviour engagement in common goals when confronted with new permeating all relationships and underlying the actions or innovative propositions coming from an outsider´s of staff members towards executing their duties both perspective. effectively and ethically. However, there is not a clear Oppositional thinking is another ethical barrier, ethical perspective in place. potentialized by the context´s high Power Distance Letwin et al. [15] pose the question “What is the culture according to Hofstede´s [17] Cross-Cultural ethical way to behave?” while examining ethical Theory. Insights learned from his studies on how values leadership through the lenses of two approaches to in the workplace are influenced by culture have been ethics: 'Deontology' and 'Consequentialism'. As the helpful. authors point out, the deontological approach classifies Through his research, he demonstrated that values behaviours into the categories right (ethical) or wrong which distinguish cultures could be statistically (unethical) whereas the consequentialist ethics has in its categorized into groups which include 'Power Distance'. premise that no action can be declared ethical or Known as 'Hofstede´s Cultural Dimensions', these unethical without considering the results. They also groups help to identify cultural characteristics that are remind that the Utilitarian version of Consequentialism not perceived rationally at work. 'Power Distance' deals calls for examining the results of various behaviours to with the fact that all individuals in societies are not equal, determine which one(s) will lead to “the greatest good expressing the attitude of the culture towards these to the greatest number of people”. inequalities amongst individuals. In my educational setting, staff members with With a score of 69, Brazilian society reveals a belief different ideologies, personal goals, and approaches to that hierarchy should be respected, and inequalities ethics are in constant dispute to defend their points of amongst people accepted. In corporate environments, view. The school senior leadership is in the middle of there is commonly one leader who is expected to protect this tension doing predominantly what is “good” rather his or her followers in exchange of loyalty and is than what is “right”. Stakeholders including middle responsible for everything. Aware of these cultural leaders like me and a large number of teachers and characteristics, I have become more assertive in helping parents perceive leadership´s effectiveness as the EAL teachers perceive the importance of being co- deontological in the ethical sense, namely reflecting responsible for their actions, for example. principled behaviour such as being fair to others, honest Known as the idea of a disciplined academic with and dedicated to followers [16]. curriculum, the second education aim was inherited from The strength of the lower elementary school main Plato, whose thought on education was developed in his leader lies in her charisma, excellent interpersonal two largest works: The Republic and The Laws. relationship skills, and efficacy in delegation. Yet, her Havelock [18] argues that “Plato’s greatest achievement

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 160 was to work out how to think once alphabetic literacy experience, culture, and other intellectual tools”, became common”. Other scholars like Hummel [19] making hard to identify whether they result from human have acknowledged Plato´s innovative ideas, including nature, social, cultural, or intellectual tools”. equal rights for both men and women to attend school; He argues that the difficulty to measure these compulsory schooling for all, far beyond of an regularities, which differ enormously from individual to elementary education; as well as his initiative of individual, and determine whether they result from our designing a complete education system, covering every nature or an autonomous developmental process was aspect from its administration to a detailed curriculum. also identified by Vygotsky as a flaw in Piaget’s [1] 'Literacy' was the invention that boosted human 'Theory of Cognitive Development'. intellectual progress after the development of language, In his theory, Piaget aimed at understanding the allowing generations of people to record their knowledge nature of intelligence, and how children acquire and experience. “The vast array of knowledge and knowledge, concluding that children pass through four human experience stored has enabled our minds to different stages of mental development as a biological transcend in our time, place, and circumstances” [1]. process that occurs due to maturation and contact with The invention of writing allowed thoughts to start the environment [21]. being captured and to live on. Ong [21] claims that Unlike Piaget's notion that the development of writing has transformed human consciousness more than children should necessarily precede their learning, any other invention, and claims that “without writing, Vygotsky believed that social learning tended to precede the literate mind would not think as it does, not only development: “Learning is a necessary and universal when engaged in writing, but when composing its aspect of the process of developing culturally organized, thoughts in oral form”. specifically human psychological function” [22]. Thus, Nevertheless, due to the large amount of accumulated Vygotsky's 'Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive knowledge, many educators find difficult to determine Development' stresses the fundamental role of social “the best knowledge for children to learn”, which Egan interaction in the development of cognition as he considers a flaw related to this education aim. In my believed that community plays a central role in the context, the difficulty in selecting good content for the process of making meaning. EAL curriculum is a logistical barrier rather than a flaw. Our institution is highly influenced by Rousseau´s One of the main challenges to overcome consists in thought on education, as well as by insights from managing our time and resources effectively, as well as Piaget´s and Vygotsky´s theories. improving our work conditions, and implementing a successful professional development programme in 3. Final Considerations order to be able to meet all the demands, both as teachers and educational leaders, who have a heavy workload and At this point it is important to make some are part of a reduced workforce. considerations. First, Egan´s critiques of the education The third education aim is attributed to Jean-Jacques aims do not simply reflect his refutation to the Rousseau (1712-1778), a Genevan philosopher whose educational system, but nonconformity with the ideas about education were mainly developed in his problems that we have faced for using these aims as novel Emile. His main idea was that “education should analytical tools, and with our negligence in dealing with be carried out, so far as possible, in harmony with the these issues. Biesta [23] also criticises these aims for development of the child’s natural capacities” through a the same reasons, arguing, for instance, that academic process of apparently autonomous discovery, in contrast knowledge kept apart from socialisation and to a model of education in which the teacher is a figure individuation is useless. who conveys knowledge and skills according to a pre- Second, a critique about Egan´s article is that he established curriculum [8]. fails in recognising that the cultural aspect can impact Rousseau argued that human beings had a nature and both processes of thinking on and making education. a natural process of development that should be He does show that the idea of socialisation works disclosed through careful observation aided by reason, against cultural diversity, stating why this aim fits and his progressist educational ideal have made a better small societies, but his interpretation about the profound impact in modern educationalists, thus in development of human brains tends to promote educational theory and practice, while leading us to homogeneity in thinking about possible responses, and polemical battles between supporters of 'child- he unfortunately does not consider that 'intercultural centredness' against 'subject-and-skills-centredness', i.e. dialogue' can powerfully foster thinking and learning. between progressists and traditionalists. Third, one of the most relevant insights gained The flaw worthwhile highlighting was pointed out by through this three-fold analysis of aims was the Egan [1] as “the large number of regularities in human confirmation that the best way to place the three mental development, intrinsically attached with social education aims into a constructive alignment within my

Copyright © LICE- 2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-22-8 161 context would be through exploring the existing links within real-world settings, carefully planned for each between these aims [24]. student, thus meaningful for him or her, which will As a matter of fact, the most relevant link consists likely lead to valuable and effective learning in enabling the teaching and learning processes of experiences for all; ensure that the vision, values and formal knowledge to take place within meaningful real- culture of the institution be reflected in both written and world contexts, planned to foster the development of taught versions of the EAL curriculum; and promote each student, through providing him or her with the professional development of teachers and leaders. valuable learning experiences as key for the successful Ultimately, the success of the improvement implementation of the EAL curriculum. initiative will rely immensely on the efficacy of its Additionally, 'vision' is a crucial element for the middle leadership in orchestrating everything, and success of our improvement initiative. Murphy and on the support by the senior leadership and other Torre [3] unpack vision into three distinct but related stakeholders involved. domains: mission, which addresses overarching values and purposes; goals, which provide direction; 5. References expectations, which establish specific targets; whilst Coates [2] sees 'vision' as a process involving staff, [1] Egan, K. (2001). Why Education is So Difficult and parents and governors that should remain under regular Contentious. Teachers College Record, Vol. 103, pp.923- shared review to continuously impact organisation 941, Copyright by Teacher College, Columbia University. change and improvement. The fact is that vision is essential for the [2] Coates, M. (2017). Setting Direction: Vision, Values improvement of educational institutions [3], so vision- and Culture. School Leadership and Education System building is a central aspect of leading for success, Reform, Chapter 8, London, Bloomsbury. defined in terms of providing students with meaningful [3] Murphy, J. and Torre, D. (2015). Vision: Essential learning experiences. Through reviewing and Scaffolding. Educational Management Administration and expanding our knowledge about these concepts, and Leadership, Vol. 43, Issue 2, pp.177-197 (Article first affording them a centrality, they will likely become a published online: November 4, 2014; Issue reference point for strategic intent, decision-making, published: March 1, 2015. evaluation and organisational dialogue [2]. At last, the efficacy of the leadership – at both [4] Celi, A. and Boiero, M. (2002). The Heritage of middle and senior levels – is of most relevance too, in Stories: A Tradition of Wisdom. Published by Mid- playing roles which include articulating the whole America American Studies International, Vol. 40, No.2, initiative, mobilising people and resources, leading by pp. 57-72. example in order to inspire colleagues, and foster [5] Dijkstra A.& Motte, P. (2014). Social Outcomes of effective communication across the entire school Education. The assessment of Social Outcomes and community. School Improvement through School Inspections. Amsterdam University Press. 4. Conclusion [6] Hummel, C. (1994) Plato. Prospects: The Quarterly Review of Education, Vol. 24, No. 1-2, 1994, p. 329–342, This study helped me to enhance my understanding UNESCO, Paris, URL: http://www.ibe.unesco.org/en/ on how to achieve a constructive alignment between the resources/prospects-quarterly-review-comparative- three education aims, as a means to contribute with education. more efficacy to the design and implementation of the EAL curriculum. [7] Egan, K. (1988). Primary Understanding: Education I consider pertinent to maintain the three aims in Early Childhood. New York: Routledge. underpinning the EAL curriculum at the same time, as initially planned, since they are valuable despite the [8] The Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy. (2020). The Metaphysics Research Lab, Center for the Study of flaws they may present. Language and Information (CSLI), Stanford University, Towards fostering a constructive alignment, both Library of Congress Catalog, Data: ISSN 1095-5054, ethically and logistically, important actions to be taken U.S.A., URL: https://stanford.edu/. will include: giving a centrality to the student-centred aim, whilst the other ones (knowledge-skills- [9] Gorski, P. (2010). Unlearning Deficit Ideology and the centredness and socialisation) will be approached in Scornful Gaze: Thoughts on Authenticating the Class parallel, with an emphasis on the individual Discourse in Education, Vol. 402, pp. 152-173, Peter development, enabling the teaching and learning Lang, URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/42981081. processes of selected knowledge and skills to occur

[10] Kooij, J. Van der, Ruyter, J. & Miedema, S. (2015). The [24] Higham, R. (2020). Critiques of Egan's article: Tutor's Influence of Moral Education on the Personal Worldview of response, MA in Educational Leadership: VVMP module, Students. Journal of Moral Education, pp. 346-363. Forum 1, 20 January 2020.

[11] Alfaro, C. (2008). Developing Ideological Clarity: Unmasking the Trap of Teacher Neutrality, New York: P. Lang.

[12] Ford, D., & Grantham, T. (2003). Providing access for culturally diverse gifted students: From deficit to dynamic thinking. Theory into Practice, Vol. 42, No. 3, 217-225.

[13] Sleeter, C. (2004). Context-Conscious Portraits and Context-Blind Policy. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, Vol. 35, No. 1, pp. 132-136, Washington DC: AERA.

[14] Phillips, D. (2014). Encyclopedia of Educational Theory and Philosophy. Foundations of Education. Sage Publications.

[15] Letwin, C., Wo, D., Folger, R., Rice, D., Taylor, R., Richard, B. and Taylor, S. (2015). The Right and the Good in Ethical Leadership. Journal of Business Ethics Vol. 137, No. 4, September/2016, pp. 743-755.

[16] Brown, M., Treviño, L., & Harrison, D. (2005). Ethical leadership: A Social Learning Perspective for Construct Development and Testing. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Vol. 97, pp. 117−134.

[17] Hofstede, G. (1986). Cultural Differences in Teaching and Learning. International Journal of Intercultural Relations; Vol. 10; pp. 301-320, Copyright Pergamon Journals Ltd.

[18] Havelock, E. (1986). The Muse Learns to Write. Reflections on Orality and Literacy from Antiquity to Present. Vail Ballou Press, Binghamton, NY.

[19] Hummel, C. (1999). Collected Dialogues of Plato, edited by E. Hamilton and H. Cairns, Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 1973.

[20] Ong, W. (1982). Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. London; New York: Methuen.

[21] Piaget, Jean. (1972) Os Estágios do Desenvolvimento Intelectual da Criança e do Adolescente. In.: Piaget. Rio de Janeiro: Forense, pp. 4-16.

[22] Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Thought and language, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. (Original work published in 1934).

[23] Biesta, J. J. (2006). Beyond Learning: Democratic Education for a Human Future. Paradigm Publishers, Boulder, CO.

Virtual Conference November 23-25 | 2020 London | UK

The Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4 show all the submissions received and accepted per conference:

Table 1. Abstracts

Conferences Countries Abstracts First Peer Accepted Submissions Review Review Abstracts LICE 61 109 31 24 14 WCSNE 27 68 32 11 5

Table 2. Extended Abstracts

Conferences Countries Extended First Peer Accepted Abstracts Review Review Extended Submissions Abstracts LICE 18 36 31 25 19 WCSNE 15 27 19 13 10

Table 3. Full Papers

Conferences Countries Initial Paper First Peer Accepted Submissions Review Review Papers LICE 29 36 32 16 15 WCSNE 16 37 14 11 6

Table 4. Speakers Proposal

Conferences Countries Speakers First Peer Accepted Proposal Review Review Speakers Submissions Proposal LICE 36 46 36 22 17 WCSNE 21 34 17 5 2

Copyright © WCSNE-2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-23-5 3 Canadian Teacher Magazine. The long-term goal of the LICE and WCSNE is to build a reputation and respectable collocated conferences for the international community.

Professor Charles A. Shoniregun LICE and WCSNE Steering Committee Chair

Message from the Steering Committee Chair 3

Table of Contents 5

WCSNE-2020 Programme Committees 6

Workshop 8

Title: Learn to Publish with the Greatest of Ease 9 Organiser: Barba A. Patton DOI: 10.2053/WCSNE.2020.0001

Speaker’s Session 10

Title: Towards Increasing General Educators’ Understanding of Their Responsibilities under Special 11 Education: Initial Results Author: Denise R. Foley DOI: 10.2053/WCSNE.2020.0002

Poster 12

Title: Using Backwards Design to Create a Socially Inclusive School Environment 13 Authors: Sacha Cartagena, Lindsey Pike DOI: 10.2053/WCSNE.2020.0003

Steering Committee Chair Charles A. Shoniregun, Infonomics Society, UK and Ireland

Steering Committees Emmanuel Hooper, Harvard University, USA Mona O’Moore, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland Patricia Mannix McNamara, University of Limerick, Ireland Tintswalo V. Manyike, University of South Africa, South Africa Cynthia Northington-Purdie, William Paterson University, USA Stephen Enwefa, Southern University and A & M College, USA

Publication and Publicity Chair Galyna Akmayeva, Infonomics Society, Ireland

Conference Coordinators Audrey Wang, Infonomics Society, UK Christina Pawlowska, Infonomics Society, UK

Research Student Forum Chair Robert Foster, University of Wolverhampton, UK

Programme Committee Chair Cynthia Northington-Purdie, William Paterson University, USA

Program Committees Barba Aldis Patton, University of Houston-Victoria, USA Arend E. Carl, Stellenbosch University, South Africa Florence Nkechi Okeke, Imo State University, Nigeria Zhanna Dedovets, The University of The West Indies, Trinidad and Tobago Kamla Suleiman Salim Al Aamri, Sultan Qaboos University, Sultanate of Oman Abiodun Popoola, University of Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria Julie A. Holmes, Louisiana Tech University, USA Luyanda Dube, University of South Africa, South Africa Maria Dorota Stec, University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland Veli Jiyane, University of South Africa, South Africa Faten Saad Mahmoud Abdel-Hameed, University of Bahrain, Bahrain Ben John Siyakwazi, Great Zimbabwe University, Zimbabwe Paul Walsh, Cork Institutie of Technology, Ireland Barbara Hong, Penn State University, USA

Copyright © WCSNE-2020 Published by Infonomics Society ISBN: 978-1-913572-23-5 6 Margarita Elkina, HWR, Germany Emre Erturk, Eastern Institute of Technology, New Zealand Natalia Frolova, Samara State Academy of Social Sciences and Humanities, Russia Ria Hanewald, Deakin University, Australia Zeynep Kızıltepe, Boğaziçi University, Turkey Shradha Kanwar, NIIT University, India Pedro José Canto, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mexico Christian Kahl, Taylor’s University, Malaysia Bernard Mulo Farenkia, Cape Breton University, Canada Regis Chireshe, College of Education, University of South Africa, South Africa Norma Nel, University of South Africa, South Africa Ibrahim Amin Alqaryouti, Sultan Qaboos University, College of Education, Sultanate of Oman Glenda Black, Schulich School of Education, Nipissing University, Canada Isao Miyaji, Okayama University of Science, Japan Omer Agail Hussain, Special Education Department, King Khalid University, Saudi Arabia Eziaku K. Ukoha, Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC), Nigeria Olaniyi Alaba Sofowora, Obafemi Awolowo University, Nigeria Marta Cabral, Teachers College, Columbia University, USA Lorayne Robertson, University of Ontario Institute of Technology (UOIT), Canada Christopher Kong, Hua Chin University of Tasmania, Australia David M. Chapinski, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, USA Elizabeth Magaret, St. Ann’s College for Women, India Mikhail A. Rodionov, Penza Pedagogical State University, Russia Ahmed Ibrahim Usman, Federal College of Education, Kano, Nigeria

Workshop: Learn to Publish with the Greatest of Ease

Organiser: Barba A. Patton, University of Houston-Victoria, USA

Denise R. Foley Worcester State University, United States

Abstract

Over fifty million students are enrolled in publically funded schools across the United States. Nationally, fourteen percent of students receive special education services under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)[1], a federal law which ensures that students with disabilities receive a free, appropriate public education designed to meet their individual needs. Over 60% of all students with disabilities receive half to all of their instruction in general education settings. Students with high incidence disabilities comprise 70% of all students with special needs and spent 80% or more of their day in general education settings: specific learning disabilities (72%), communication disorder (88%) and other health impairments including Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (67%). Though inclusion is now the “norm” in the U.S., research has consistently shown that educators, especially early career and middle/secondary teachers, feel unprepared to teach students with special needs. Similarly, the research highlights how university training programs generally do not adequately prepare teachers to meet the range of special needs that their students present. This limited preparation extends beyond the U.S. Relatedly, general education teachers lack essential knowledge regarding special education law. Given that teachers are often the first to raise concerns that a child may have a disability and refer them for an evaluation, it is critical that they not only understand special education law, but also what their professional, ethical and legally-mandated roles and responsibilities are. In terms of focus and methodology, this paper is unique in the literature. It describes the initial results of a key field-based assignment in a new, required course specifically designed to better prepare general educators to teach with students with special needs and other learning vulnerabilities and differences, and to understand special education law. Eighty-three pre-service teachers were required to practice with and then reflect upon a tool that: 1) they will be expected to accurately employ from their first day on the job; and 2) is critical component in most special education eligibility decisions: a rating scale, specifically the Behavioral Assessment for Children-3rd Edition (BASC-3) teacher rating scale. The BASC-3 rating scales have high psychometric properties and are the most frequently used rating scales across the U.S. Given the reality that a completed rating scale may be a teacher’s ONLY input into special education Team processes, especially at the middle/secondary level, it is important that teachers understand: how to correctly complete it, its strengths and limitations, and how the results may be used in eligibility determinations. The pre-service teachers identified as follows: 66% female; 95% white, non-Hispanic; 96% mono-lingual in English. The percentages of use of the three age-range forms were: 20% ages 2-5 years; 22% ages 6-11 years; and 58% focused on individuals aged 12-21. Preservice teachers generated 944 unique responses and reflections. The items they most frequently posed questions and comments about align with the following BASC-3 Composite Scales (in order): Atypicality (range across scales: 11.6%-23.3%), Functional Communications (8.7%- 11.3%), Hyperactivity (7.6%-9.0%), and Attention Problems (6.9%-7.1%). The relationship of these items and scales to the criteria for specific disabilities (e.g., Other Health Impairment) as outlined in state and federal laws and to diagnostic criteria for specific disorders (e.g., Autism Spectrum Disorder, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) will be discussed. In addition, we will share how pre-service teachers examined the cultural lenses through which they view a child/adolescent and discussed these items. Finally, we will discuss how these results are guiding our next steps to: narrow the teacher preparation versus reality gap; increase educator multicultural competence; and address disproportionality and its potent negative effects, especially on racially, ethnically and linguistically diverse students and students from low-income, economically marginalized backgrounds.

Sacha Cartagena, Lindsey Pike University of Central Florida, USA

Abstract

In 1994, the world took a significant step towards the realization of inclusive education. The Salamanca Statement was signed by 92 nations who reaffirmed the right to education for all and agreed that inclusive education is the “most effective means of combating discriminatory attitudes… and improve the efficiency and ultimately the cost-effectiveness of the entire education system” (United Nations, 1994, p. 10). In the United States, as many as 81% of students with disabilities spend at least 40% of their school day integrated with general education peers (National Council on Disability, 2018). However, there remains limited extant research on the social inclusion of students with disabilities. The purpose of this poster presentation is to share the theoretical framework for research in progress that is aimed at designing a semi-structured school environment in which students with and without disabilities may create authentic social interactions and develop their social-awareness and relationship skills at the elementary or primary school level. The constructs of social-awareness and relationship skills were selected because there is limited research on these constructs as related to students with disabilities and they are two of the five social-emotional learning core competencies (CASEL, 2019). Backwards design is the framework selected to design this environment. This framework includes three fundamental steps: 1) Identify desired results, 2) determine acceptable evidence, and 3) plan learning experiences an instruction (Bowen, 2017). The desired results are the demonstration of students establishing and maintaining positive relationships amongst peers with or without disabilities. Acceptable evidence includes students communicating, cooperating, and initiating social engagement between students with and without disabilities. The learning experience is currently in development, and takes into consideration cultural, socio-economic, and other constructs of personal and systemic diversity.

References

[1] Bowen, R. S., (2017). Understanding by design. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/understanding-by-design/. (Access date: 12 Mar, 2020)

[2] CASEL. (2019). What is SEL? Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning. https://casel.org/what-is-sel/. (Access date: 1 Feb, 2020).

[3] National Council on Disability. (2018). The Segregation of Students with Disabilities. IDEA Series, 61.

[4] United Nations. (1994). The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education (p. 50). http://www.unesco.org/education/pdf/ SALAMA_ E.PDF. (Access date: 15 Jan, 2020).