Music genre and music
festival locations
The implementation of music genre in outdoor music festival policy
Author: Koen Theodoor Segers Number: 11415509 Supervisor: R.C. Kloosterman
Master Thesis Human Geography Track: Economic Geography Date: 11-6-2018
Word count: 22.856
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
ABSTRACT Literature shows that music festivals have become very popular amongst a wide range of people, causing festivals to be organized to a large extent. Besides bringing producers and consumers together and acting as an intermediary between different actors, festivals also affect the local environment in which the festival resides. Furthermore, the location of festivals is important to their economic impact. However, local planners and policy makers often ignore the use of festivals as a tool of development.
The aim of this research is to study the relationship between music genre and the locations of outdoor music festivals in Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, and Utrecht (the G4). Also, the extent to which outdoor music festivals are taken into account in local development is discussed. The results of this research show that policy regarding outdoor music festivals differs between the cities of the G4. These policies are location and context-specific. Furthermore, experts in the field of event policy say that it is difficult to take into account different music genres in event policy. However, there are similarities in outdoor music festival locations displaying certain music genres in the cities of the G4.
What can be concluded from this research is that there is an obvious pattern of dance festivals being organized away from the inner-city limits. The reason for the locations of dance non- dance festivals is subject to requirements and conditions that are constructed by policy- makers. In particular, loudness of sound and the geography of the city (e.g. parks) are important aspect which explains the location of dance and non-dance festivals. It is difficult to use festivals as a tool for local development. However, by granting subsidies to festivals organizers who support policy goals, local development is realized.
Key words: Policy, Festivals, Music genre, local development.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 1
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ...... 1 List of tables and figures ...... 5 1.Introduction ...... 6 2. Theoretical framework ...... 10 2.1 Background theory ...... 10 2.1.1 The importance of the cultural industry ...... 10 2.1.2 Policy perspectives in the cultural industry ...... 12 2.1.3 The cultural industry and agglomeration ...... 13 2.1.4 Social implications of agglomerations in the cultural industry...... 14 2.2 The music industry ...... 15 2.2.1 Developments in the music industry ...... 15 2.2.2 Agglomerations and the music industry ...... 16 2.2.3 Policy and the music industry ...... 17 2.3 Music festivals ...... 17 2.3.1 Defining music festivals ...... 17 2.3.2 Development and functions ...... 18 2.3.3 Organizational field ...... 23 2.3.4 Music genre ...... 24 3. Contextual policy framework ...... 26 3.1 Event policy of Amsterdam ...... 26 3.2 Event policy of Rotterdam ...... 29 3.3 Event policy of The Hague ...... 30 3.4 Event policy of Utrecht ...... 31 3.5 Comparison of policy goals in the G4 ...... 33 4. Methodology ...... 34 4.1 Research design ...... 34 4.1.1 Research Questions ...... 34 4.1.2 Conceptual Scheme ...... 35 4.2 Research Methods ...... 36 4.2.1 Units of Analysis ...... 36 4.2.2 Sampling ...... 37 4.2.3 Data Collection ...... 38 4.2.4 Data Analysis ...... 41
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 2
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
4.3 Critical reflection ...... 42 4.3.1 Ethics ...... 42 4.3.2 Limitations ...... 42 5. Results ...... 44 5.1 Quantitative analysis ...... 44 5.1.1 Descriptive analysis of cases...... 44 5.1.2 Music genre of festivals in the G4 ...... 47 5.2 Geographical Analysis ...... 51 5.2.1 Amsterdam ...... 51 5.2.2 Rotterdam ...... 54 5.2.3 The Hague ...... 57 5.2.4 Utrecht ...... 60 5.3 Qualitative analysis ...... 63 5.3.1 Expert 1: policy in Amsterdam ...... 63 5.3.2 Expert 2: policy in Rotterdam ...... 66 5.3.3 Expert 3: policy in The Hague ...... 67 5.3.4 Expert 4: policy public/private sector ...... 69 5.3.5 Expert 5: festival organizer ‘Dance’ ...... 70 5.3.6 Expert 6: festival organizer ‘Pop’ ...... 71 5.3.7 Expert 7: festival organizer ‘Classical’ ...... 72 6. Discussion ...... 74 6.1 Policies and music festivals ...... 74 6.1.1 Differences in policy ...... 74 6.1.2 Local development and music genre ...... 75 6.1.3 Policy implications of music genre on locations ...... 76 6.2 Recommendations for further research ...... 77 7. Conclusions ...... 78 7.1 Research questions ...... 78 7.1.1 Sub-question 1 ...... 78 7.1.2 Sub-question 2 ...... 79 7.1.3 Sub-question 3 ...... 80 7.1.3 Main research question ...... 80 7.2 Policy recommendations ...... 81 8. References ...... 83
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 3
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Appendices ...... 87 Appendix I E-mail to respondents ...... 87 Appendix II. List of outdoor music festivals ...... 88 Appendix III. Additional quantitative data ...... 89 Appendix IV. Interview guide ...... 92 Appendix V. Number of cases per municipality ...... 93
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 4
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Tables Page Table 1. Possible impacts of music festivals 20 on regional economic development. Table 2. Overview of units of analysis 37 comprising their function, expertise, sector, and method of data gathering. Table 3. Overview of variables. 38 Table 4. Overview of the number cases per 44 municipality of the G4. Table 5. Overview of the number of one day 46 and multiple day music festivals per province and city the G4 in 2016. Table 6. Overview of the number of paid and 47 free music festivals in the G4. Table 7. Overview of the total number of 48 music genres displayed in the G4. Table 8. Overview of the number of dance 50 and non-dance festivals in the G4.
Figures Page Figure 1. Definitional elements of festivals. 7 Figure 2. Conceptual scheme. 35 Figure 3. Diagrams of the numbers of music 49 genres displayed per municipality in the G4 Figure 4. Dance and non-dance festival 52 locations in Amsterdam. Figure 5. Free and paid festival locations in 53 Amsterdam. Figure 6. One day and multiple day festival 54 locations in Amsterdam. Figure 7. Dance and non-dance festival 55 locations in Rotterdam Figure 8. Free and paid festival locations in 56 Rotterdam Figure 9. One day and multiple day festival 57 locations in Rotterdam Figure 10. Dance and non-dance festival 58 locations in The Hague Figure 11. Free and paid festival locations in 59 The Hague. Figure 12. One day and multiple day festival 59 locations in The Hague Figure 13. Dance and non-dance festival 60 locations in Utrecht. Figure 14. Free and paid festival locations in 61 Utrecht Figure 15. One day and multiple day festival 62 locations in Utrecht
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 5
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
1.INTRODUCTION Music festivals have become very popular amongst a wide range of people, causing festivals to be organized to a large extent. The number of music festivals that are being organized in the Netherlands is substantial. A total of 1.070 music festivals have been organized in 2016. Taking into account that some festivals have multiple editions throughout the year, the number of music festivals that have been organized in 2016 is 1.138 (Vliet, 2017). According to Vliet (2017), the four largest cities in the Netherlands namely: Amsterdam, The Hague, Rotterdam and Utrecht count a total of 217 outdoor music festivals.
According to Cudny (2014a), festivals can be treated as a type of event and, hence, analysed as part of event studies. Seen from this perspective, planned events are defined as:
“Temporary occurrences with a predetermined beginning and end. Every such event is unique, stemming from the blend of management, program, setting and people” (Cudny, 2014a).
These events include business events, conferences and festivals. However, Cudny (2014a) believes that festivals should be analysed differently because they differ from other events. Firstly, because festivals constitute a very ancient form of events and have been documented at least since antiquity. Secondly, because they can be seen as social phenomena. According to Cudny (2014a), festivals are social phenomena because they are meeting places for particular groups (music, art, cinema or connoisseurs) and they enable people to develop interests and strengthen social ties and social capital. Festivals influence local communities and play a role in celebrating values (Cudny, 2014a). Thirdly, festivals are characterized by a cultural dimension according to Cudny (2014a).
There is, however, no single definition of a festival. Various definitions have been in sociology, anthropology, event studies and geography. In Figure 1, the different elements that define a festival are shown.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 6
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Figure 1. Definitional elements of festivals. Source: Cudny, W. (2014b).
Music festivals are an important factor in the music industry. The music industry has changed constantly due new developments. According to Jones (2000), the distribution and consumption of music via digital networks is of great concern to this industry. The way in which music is purchased has changed over time due to new technologies (Jones, 2000). This change of technologies has great impact on the supply chain of the music industry. According to Bockstedt et al. (2005), artists don’t depend on institutions like record labels and retailers anymore to distribute their music. According to the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) this digital revolution is the cause of declining sales of products like long- playing records and CDs and an increase in sales in the streaming and downloading market. This decline in sales, according to the RIAA, is up to 50%. This development forces artists to find other ways to distribute their music. Live performances for example. Music festivals are ideal for artists to distribute their music this way.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 7
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Florida and Jackson (2010) state that it is commonly thought that the rise of the internet means that musicians are not bound to geographical space. However, the nature of the music industry suggests geographical concentration (Florida & Jackson, 2010). Paleo and Wijnberg (2006) state that music festivals act as an intermediary actor in the distribution of music. Meaning that music festivals bring producers and consumers of music together at a certain geographical location.
Gursoy, Kim, and Uysal (2004) state that numerous communities have been actively hosting or developing festivals and events for their economic benefit as well as their contribution to community development. Even with limited profits, music festivals have significant cumulative impact on places and there is a definite link to economic development (Gibson & Connell, 2011). According to Saayman and Saayman (2005), the location matters to the economic impact of festivals. The impact of festivals, according to Saayman and Saayman (2005), is influenced by the size of the location in terms of infrastructure and other aspects that influence the economic impact, namely: the length of stay, the size of the festival, and ticket pricing. Therefore, the economic impact of festivals partly depends on location. However, local planners and economic development policy-makers often ignore the use of festivals as an economic development tool (Gibson & Connell, 2011).
Leenders, van Telgen, Gemser, and Van der Wurff (2005) in their research in what causes the success of Dutch music festivals, found that music genre does not matter to the success of Dutch music festivals. However, development impacts in respect to the genre of music festivals have not yet been discovered. As music festivals are intrinsically linked to music, it is helpful for policy-makers to know the different developmental effects of a certain music festival genre on its environment.
This research is about whether there exists a relationship between music genre and the location of outdoor music festivals. As music festivals are intrinsically linked to music genre and location, it is useful to find out if music genre can be implemented in contemporary and/or future policy to effectuate certain policy goals. According to Leenders, van Telgen, Gemser, and Van der Wurff (2005) music genre does not matter with regard to the success of Dutch music festivals. However, the implementations of music genre in music festival policy and music festivals locations have not yet been studied.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 8
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Therefore, the research question of this thesis is:
“How are music genres related to the location of outdoor music festivals within the municipalities of Amsterdam, The Hague, Utrecht and Rotterdam (G4) and how do local governments use outdoor music festival policy as a tool for local development?”
To answer this question the following sub-question are important to investigate:
1. Where are music festivals located in the G4 and what is their music genre?
2. Do governmental policies influence where outdoor music festivals are located in the G4?
3. To what extent do local governments take into account music genres in outdoor music festival policies regarding local development?
Music-festivals have many implications, socially and economically. It is necessary to define the concept of music festivals and to identify the function this phenomenon has in its contribution to the development of its environment. May it be their regional implications or their local influence, either way it’s helpful to define the impacts of music festivals to construct and/or adapt contemporary policies.
The structure of the research is as follows. First, a theoretical framework is presented to explain the importance of the industry in which music festivals reside. Also, theories concerning the identification of the different concepts are enlightened. Secondly, a contextual framework of the different policy goals of the municipalities in the G4 is presented. Subsequently, the methods used to conduct the research are identified as well as the limitations of this research. Next, the results are shown, as well as the analysis of the results. Fifthly, the discussion is presented which reflects the results to the theoretical frameworks. Finally, the conclusion of this research is given as well as policy recommendations.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 9
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK In this chapter, the theories behind the cultural industry, the music industry, local development and music festivals are presented. Firstly, background theories explaining the importance of the cultural industry are addressed. This part will also address the social implications herein. Next, the music industry and its geographical implications regarding development and policy-making are addressed. Thirdly, music as a tradable good and the function of music festivals with their developmental implications will be explained.
2.1 Background theory This section comprises background theories that are important in understanding the relevance of the cultural industry, Firstly, the importance of the cultural industry regarding local development is explained. Subsequently, policy perspectives for local development are addressed. Thirdly, the implications of agglomerations in the cultural industry are explained. Lastly, the social implications of agglomerations are addressed, explaining the importance of agglomerations regarding economic growth.
2.1.1 The importance of the cultural industry In the past, economic processes have revealed a shift in urban economies from a Fordist situation, where standardization of production processes are dominant, to a post-Fordist situation in which more flexible services took the lead (Musterd, 2004). This evolved towards the contemporary situation in which technology and services are combined with elements that are relevant for creativity and innovation (Musterd,2004). According to Musterd (2004), these transformations are strongly connected with changes that occur in cities. Cities are seen as engines of economic growth, centres of production and consumption, innovation and accumulation of wealth. Furthermore, creativity and a good climate for innovation are crucial factors for urban economic success (Musterd, 2004).
According to Scott (2004), the cultural economy is represented by sectors that produce goods and services. The subjective meaning of these goods is high in comparison with their utilitarian purpose (Scott, 2004). Industries that produce cultural products can be identified as service outputs that focus on entertainment (e.g. recorded music) (Scott, 2004). Products in this industry are often subject to competitive pressures that encourage individual firms to
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 10
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS agglomerate in dense specialized clusters (Scott, 2004). At the same time however, these kinds of products circulate with increasing ease on global markets (Scott, 2004).
In the early 1980s, the connection between the cultural environment and local economic development became more visible (Scott, 2004). Since then, cultural events festivals have been increasingly linked to local strategies. Their growth was increasing dramatically and their economic potential seemed considerable (Gibson & Connell, 2011). Hence, policymakers assumed that in the field of place marketing and exploitation of heritage for economic gains, progress could be made (Scott, 2004). According to Williams (1997) and Kong (2000), the main concern of these particular programs has been to upgrade and redevelop local cultural resources via arts funding schemes. The goal was to attract increasing numbers of visitors from areas other than their own (Scott, 2004). More importantly, the aim was to improve the image of particular places so they would lure in upscale investors and skilled high-wage workers that follow their footsteps (Scott, 2004). Scott (2004) identifies these policies as “first-generations practices”. These policies achieved some success but they are greatly constrained in their range of applications and their economic result. As an answer to these “first-generation practices” Scott (2004) respectively announces the importance of a complementary set of approaches. These “second-generation policies” are less directed to the selling of places, and more to the export of cultural products to markets all over the world (Scott, 2004). These methods of generating added income to the local environment revolve around the promotion of festivals, carnivals, and other mass spectacles (Gratton, Dobson, and Shibli 2001; Ingerson 2001).
According to Scott (2002), large firms in the cultural industry occasionally tend toward mass production but that they are increasingly often converging to organization structures that resemble that of “system houses”. This term is borrowed from the technology industry which describes an establishment whose products are small in number over a certain period of time but each individual unit has large inputs of capital and/or labour (Scott, 2002). This type of organization is important in the cultural industry because they act as hubs of wider production networks (Scott, 2004). Cultural events bring forth local economic development and stimulate the rise of social networks.
In the past, several efforts have been made to assess the quantitative importance of the cultural industry. The problem that arose from these efforts is that of definitional uncertainty
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 11
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS amongst countries. Even if countries agree upon a common definition, there is still the problem of diverging occupational nomenclature that countries use to describe the cultural industry (Scott, 2004). Nevertheless, there is enough evidence that suggests that the cultural industry is a growing phenomenon in the modern economic system (Scott, 2004). For example, Pratt (1997) defined the cultural industries of Britain by referring to different sectors within the cultural industry and found that 4.5% (1 million) of the total labour force was employed in this industry. Scott (2000) used a definition based on industrial categories indicates that in the United States, the cultural industry accounted for 2.4% (3 million) of the total labour force.
According to Scott (2004), employment in the cultural industry is mostly located in large cities. Research shows that the majority of employees active in the cultural industry live in urban areas. London accounts for 26.9% (Pratt, 1997), of employment in the British cultural industry. In the United States more than 50% of all workers in the cultural industry are concentrated in metropolitan areas (Scott, 2004). According to Scott (2004), these examples are, although modest, sizable contributions to the absolute employment and income.
2.1.2 Policy perspectives in the cultural industry The cultural economy accounts for substantial shares of income and employment in many countries. This offers opportunities for local economic development to policy-makers. The use of culture as a tool of economic development has gained prominence over the years and creative people have long been thought to be important in creating urban vitality (Currid, 2007). According to Musterd (2004), high human capital individuals are the key to success in economic growth. People and their ideas generate new divisions of labour, innovation, and regions must harness this human capital (Currid, 2007)
“Increasingly, culture has become a defining part of a city's identity. Cultivating the cultural economy can be an effective economic development strategy that lures not only more artists and designers but also people and industries that seek out culturally vibrant places to live.” (Currid, 2007)
Governments can stimulate cultural production by supporting the institutional and organizational context of creativity (Currid, 2007). According to Currid (2007), this approach is most effective when it focuses on the places in which social interaction occurs. Most
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 12
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS developments based on the cultural industry will most likely take place in the world’s most prosperous countries (Scott, 2004). However, a number of low- and middle-income countries are able to participate in many different ways in this cultural economy (Scott, 2004). According to Scott (2004), economically depressed industrial areas occasionally turned their deprivation around by well-planned cultural initiatives. However, the cultural economy as a source of economic development needs further reflection to fully understand its potential, whilst at the same time the challenge lies in illuminating the limitations of these practices (Scott, 2004). This being said, a convergence between the economic and the cultural is currently occurring in modern life and this brings forth new kinds of urban and regional outcomes. Thus, opening up new opportunities for policy-makers to influence level of income, employment and social well-being (Scott, 2004). The challenge lies in attracting talent. According to Musterd (2004), this can be achieved by investing in the urban environment as well as in services that this talent pool needs. Also creating conditions for the right mix of social, economic, cultural and physical characteristics is important (Musterd, 2004).
2.1.3 The cultural industry and agglomeration As is mentioned above, employment in the cultural industry is mostly located in large cities. It is necessary to understand the mechanism of why people in a certain sector find each other in a specific geographic location (e.g. cities). According to Currid (2007), urban and regional theory points out that industries benefit from locations with access to large labour pools and wide varieties of financial resources. Many firms seek to benefit from knowledge spillovers and human capital in agglomerations (Currid, 2007). According to Musterd (2004), firms increasingly often make location decisions based on where human capital is accessible. Phenomena like these are fundamental in the formation of clusters in a geographic space (Scott, 2012). According to Scott (2012), if groups of producers within a network are closely interlinked, some of them are likely to locate themselves in close proximity to one another. By doing this they reduce transfers-costs of products and face-to-face contact is more likely to happen (Scott, 2012). This generates agglomeration economies that reinforce convergence of more (cultural) industry workers around this cluster (Scott, 2012). According to Scott (2004), the developmental agendas focused on the cultural industry need to clarify the character of the sectors’ agglomerations because this is fundamental in understanding their geographic logic. Products that find their origin in the cultural industry are frequently subjective to competitive
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 13
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
pressure and this encourages firms to agglomerate in dense specialized clusters (Scott, 2004). Moreover, these products circulate easily on global markets.
According to Currid (2007), planning and economic development practitioners aim to cultivate agglomerations as important sites of innovation, job creation, and increased productivity and growth. These strategies have always been firm-centric thus focusing on attracting companies with tax incentives which eventually draws in job seekers. However, recent studies indicate a shift in the global economy where people become more important than firms (Currid, 2007).
“It is not enough that a city or region possesses a cultural agglomeration; cultural producers must want its brand affiliated with their own creativity and cultural goods. Planners and economic developers can play an active role in cultivating such a reputation for places, so they will attract talented people.” (Currid, 2007)
However, according to Currid (2007), government interventions are seen by some as corrupting actions that influence the creative process or as signs of a failing career that needs support. Policymakers should avoid direct subsidies and grants, but still provide cultural support indirectly by funding cultural institutions (e.g. music festivals) (Currid, 2007).
“Successful cultural policy must acknowledge the complicated nature of creative production, and the ambivalence that cultural producers have towards support and intervention.” (Currid, 2007).
2.1.4 Social implications of agglomerations in the cultural industry The characteristic of artistic and cultural economies is that density and cultural vitality support the social milieu that makes cultural production possible (Currid, 2007). According to Currid (2007), the social milieu of people working in the cultural industry appears to be the most important mechanism by which the cultural economy operates. Cultural producers (e.g. artists) are collaborating within the system to create goods, review each other’s products and establish new careers (Currid, 2007). Agglomeration is important for cultural producers like artists because of the infrastructural and labour pool advantages. Moreover, the geographic location also brands the products in a way that artists want to be associated with (Currid, 2007). In other words, the environment in which cultural producers operate can have positive effect on the value of the product. Thus, the economic advancement of actors is highly
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 14
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS dependent on the social environment that exists within specific agglomerations (Currid, 2007).
“People interact in part because they believe the social realm is economically and socially important, particularly to advancing one's career and getting jobs.” (Currid, 2007)
According to Currid (2007), the social life of cultural producers enables interaction between different sub-groups within the cultural economy. Research shows, (Currid, 2007), that entertainment venue owners acknowledge the latter and that they are sensitive to this phenomenon because they see the value this interaction possesses. The agglomeration puts cultural producers in contact with these ‘gatekeepers’ (Currid, 2007). According to Currid (2007), gatekeepers value the social aspects even more than cultural producers and they have tremendous power in assigning value to creative products. Many festivals emphasize the presence of distinguished international performers and an opportunity for regional musicians to interact with them, enabling career development (Gibson & Connell, 2011).
“Festivals are both social opportunities and commercial opportunities for new artists to reach new audiences, to sell CDs and to revitalize their music, and – but not always – for local youth to become more involved in music.” (Gibson & Connell, 2011).
2.2 The music industry First, the developments in the music industry are explained concerning the change market structure. Subsequently, the importance of agglomerations in the music industry is addressed. Lastly, the implications of the music industry for policy-makers are explained.
2.2.1 Developments in the music industry Over the last sixty till seventy years, the music industry experienced substantial technological changes in the ways in which music is produced, distributed and consumed (Thorsby, 2002). The development of new formats like long-playing record, audio-cassette, compact discs have led to structural changes throughout the value chain of the music industry (Thorsby, 2002). A little later the even more influential digital revolution in music emerged. The capacity to store music as computer files and respectively transmit and reproduce these files had major effects on the industry (Thorsby, 2002).
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 15
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
“The move from physical forms of recorded music to digitally-formatted music files, has been decreasing the necessity for traditional sales channels and distribution processes”. (Bockstedt et al. 2005).
According to Thorsby (2002), the production of popular music has emerged in many countries to become a significant economic industry through the spread of live music, local and national broadcasting and easier access to the international market through digitization. These developments imply that the use of music for economic gain is relatively accessible for beginning local artists (Thorsby, 2002). However, the emerging local music industries within countries are greatly affected by the international market (Thorsby, 2002). This happens because the production sector of the music industry becomes a target for large transnational record companies. In particular, the demand for international circulating music increases which eventually leads to a declining demand for locally produced music (Thorsby, 2002).
“It is commonly thought that the rise of the Internet, social media, and digital distribution means that musicians should be increasingly able to locate wherever they want. On the other hand, the need to access large (and sophisticated) markets and the nature of music and creative industries to cluster in scenes suggests geographic concentration”. (Florida & Jackson, 2010). 2.2.2 Agglomerations and the music industry
According to Scott (1999), spatial agglomerations in the music industry are important because they are spatial accumulations of physical capital and also evolving pools of human skills. These pools function as frameworks for cultural reproduction (Power & Hallencreutz, 2007). Therefore, spatial clustering and agglomeration are important to the development of different types of infrastructure that are crucial for commercial success (Power & Hallencreutz, 2007).
Florida and Jackson (2010) argue that the geography of the music industry is shaped by two opposing forces. Firstly, musicians appear to have very few physical constraints on their location because of digitization. Secondly, the need to access large sophisticated markets and the nature of the music industry, suggest geographic concentration. According to Florida and Jackson (2010), music scenes have overlapping economic, social and geographic components. These ‘scenes’ are geographic locations where producers and consumers and all sorts of intermediaries (gatekeepers) interact socially and economically in a defined geographic space (Florida & Jackson, 2010). In other words, according to Florida and Jackson (2010), the
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 16
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
music industry is shaped by the dynamics between geographic concentration and dispersion as mentioned above.
2.2.3 Policy and the music industry Within the cultural industry, music has become increasingly prominent and local authorities try to create or promote their local music industry (Brown, O'Connor and Cohen, 2000). As music is a cultural product, it has the tendency to circulate with ease on global markets (Scott, 2004). Thus, emphasizing the attractiveness for local policy makers to analyse the music industry from a global perspective (Brown et al. 2000). According to Brown et al. (2000), it is becoming clear that top down and bottom up approaches in policy-making are failing to fulfil the complex needs of the music industry at a local level. The existence of local networks and creative talent does not necessarily mean the music industry is secured (Brown et al. 2000). Thus, according to Brown et al. (2000), local strategies have to focus on developing infrastructure that helps local talent to compete at a global scale.
2.3 Music festivals This section explains music festivals. The first paragraph is about defining music festivals. Secondly, music festivals and their impact on local development is addressed as well as their functions. Subsequently, the organizational field of music festivals is explained. Lastly, the implications of music genre regarding music festivals are addressed.
2.3.1 Defining music festivals To help define music festivals, their functions need to be explained. Firstly, according to Gibson and Connell (2011), music is an important function of music festivals because many festivals promote a particular music genre in areas where this kind of music is not likely to be accessible. Secondly, music festivals are usually temporary events where lots of different actors play a key role. Gibson and Connell (2011) state:
“Festivals act like ‘glue’, temporarily sticking together various stakeholders, economic transactions and networks. This hybridity and temporality make a profound difference to whether festivals generate benefits for local communities and how they might be critically analysed in a regional development context”. (Gibson & Connell, 2011).
These actors may constitute of institutions like the music festival organization, the government and music labels. According to Florida and Jackson (2010), it is commonly
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 17
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS thought that the coming of the internet means that artists aren’t bound to geographical space. However, according to Paleo and Wijnberg (2006), music festivals are an intermediary actor of bringing producer and consumer together. Because festivals are bound to geography, music festivals bring producers and consumers of music together in a particular location.
Cudny (2014a) has made a list of elements that define festivals. These are cumulative definitions of different disciplines (anthropology, event studies, sociology and geography).
1. They are varied, uncommon events, unconnected with work. 2. They celebrate elements which are significant in a given community’s life and consolidate it. 3. They are often related to the culture and religion of local communities. 4. They often consist of many different social and cultural events. 5. They are often connected with art and culture. 6. They are regular events. 7. Sometimes they are combined with competitions.
Source: Cudny, W. (2014a). 2.3.2 Development and functions Besides bringing producers and consumers together and acting as an intermediary between different actors, festivals also affect the local environment in which the festival resides. According to Gursoy, Kim, and Uysal (2004), communities have been hosting festivals and events for their economic benefits as well as to give a boost to the development of their community. According to Gibson and Connell (2011), even with limited profits, music festivals have a significant cumulative impact on the economic development of places. In other words, the location of festivals is important to their economic impact. The size of the locations of festivals influence the economic impact due to infrastructural aspects. Also, the size of the festival, the length of stay and ticket pricing influence their economic impact (Saayman & Saayman, 2006). However, according to Gibson and Connell (2011), local planners and policy makers often ignore the use of festivals as a tool of economic development.
Many of the contemporary music festivals are commercial. This is notable from the point of view of promoters looking for lucrative markets, local planners and tourism officers looking
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 18
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS for ways to give a boost economies and artists wanting to earn incomes (Gibson & Connell, 2011). According to Gibson and Connell (2011), music festivals are rarely implemented in regional economic development planning. However, music festivals can have a significant cumulative impact, especially in small places with a large number of festivals, which links to substantially to economic development (Gibson & Connell, 2011).
According to Gibson and Connell (2011), this growing economic role has been accompanied by more comprehensive marketing focused on institutionalizing festivals and entering national and global markets. However, it must be said that:
“Although some festivals can be economically lucrative most are small-scale, centered around the potential for a group of people to express, celebrate and promote their love of a particular activity, place, past or event”. (Gibson & Connell, 2011)
The possible impacts on economic development that Gibson and Connell (2011) found in their research is shown in table 1 on the next page.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 19
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Table 1. Possible impacts of music festivals on regional economic development. Tangible meaning the physical assets. Intangible meaning nonphysical assets. Tangible benefits Tangible costs • Increased revenue to local economy • Essential services (police, security, • Job creation cleaning) • Positive media coverage and images • Costs of promotion • Sponsorship opportunities • Direct costs of staging the event • Networking opportunities • Eroded markets for other forms of • Improved viability for niche musical entertainment locally genres • ‘Burnout’ of paid and volunteer staff • Revenue generation from charges • Infrastructure costs for subsequent • Increased volunteerism tourism • Skills acquisition (musicianship) • Subsequent tourism • Encourages participation in activities Intangible benefits Intangible costs • Improved quality of life • Detriment to quality of life • Enhanced or maintained community • Perceived loss of traditions pride • Crowding and inconvenience to • Puts places ‘on the map’ residents • Tool for regeneration and renewal • Noise and visual pollution • Increased interest and investment • Poor reputation and image if badly • Place promotion and marketing organized • Development of human capital • Alienation of local residents through • Increases cultural awareness/ inappropriate or elitist place marketing appreciation • Environmental degradation • Enhanced sense of belonging and • Social exclusion and exacerbation of community existing socio-economic and cultural • Rising property values divides • Intercultural contact • Rising property values • Morale boost • Potential for intercultural misunderstanding Source: Gibson and Connell (2011); adapted from Woods and Thomas (2009) and Reid (2008). Tangible meaning the physical assets. Intangible meaning nonphysical assets.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 20
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Festivals are prone to develop local skills in organization, and musicianship by bringing people together, and doing so they improve local economies (Gibson & Connell, 2011). According to Gibson and Connell (2011), formal incorporation of festivals in regional development planning usually trails behind commercial festivals which are embedded in local social networks. Seemingly, festivals staged and managed by local organizations generate more regional income and goodwill than large commercial festivals where profit is often the motive for the festival (Gibson & Connell, 2011). Large profit-oriented festivals often attract people on a national or international scale. The number of visitors a commercial festival attracts causes a substantial amount of money being spent locally. However, their expensive tickets are bought somewhere else (Gibson & Connell, 2011). There are important distinctions between commercial festivals that advertise nationally with sold out tickets through national agencies, and local events who struggle to get information to an audience (Gibson & Connell, 2011).
According to Paleo and Wijnberg (2006), music festivals have two main economic functions within the music industry. The first is the production, distribution and retailing of aural goods (Burnett, 1996). The second is signalling, certifying and classifying which are sending signals to other actors about the artists, and the genres in which they can be classified (Paleo &Wijnberg 2006). This second function is likely to influence the commercial performance of artists because markets for cultural goods are characterized by a high degree of uncertainty concerning the quality of the goods (Paleo and Wijnberg, 2006; Caves, 2000; Hirsch, 2000). According to Paleo and Wijnberg (2006), festivals cannot easily be classified with these functions because they fulfil both. However, they do not necessarily fulfil these functions in the same way. Consumers of cultural goods tend to rely on evaluations of different types of experts like individual reviewers and institutions like festivals (Paleo &Wijnberg 2006). According to Paleo and Wijnberg (2006), the mediating and certifying behaviour of these actors reduce the uncertainty of the consumers. Moreover, they also have significant effects on the outcome of competition in the industry as well as other developments.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 21
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Many festivals deliberately promote a particular kind of music in areas where this is less likely to be accessible (Gibson & Connell, 2011). These events are often a temporary phenomenon in which many actors play a key role. Besides the organization itself, other institutions like governments and music labels may also play a role in realizing festivals. Music festivals are about music and this, from an economic point of view, can be seen as an aural good. To be more precise, aural goods are cultural goods of a musical nature (Paleo & Wijnberg, 2006). Within this definition of music, Paleo and Wijnberg (2006) identify two main variants namely: phonograms and live performances. Phonograms allow music consumption that is uniform and location-detached (Paleo & Wijnberg, 2006). This can be interpreted as media like compact discs, long-playing records and streaming of music. In contrast to phonograms, live performances are temporary and take place at a specific time and location (Paleo & Wijnberg, 2006). When music is defined as a tradeable good, the role of music festivals within the music industry can be further explored (Paleo & Wijnberg, 2006). This is important because the music industry has proven to be a growing sector within the cultural industry. In turn, the cultural industry has become more visible and explicitly linked to economic development (Brown et al. 2000).
The first economic function can be seen as distinct economic activities within the music industry (Paleo &Wijnberg, 2006). For example, the production of an aural good is done by artists, whilst distribution is done by (e.g.) radio programs. Large companies are competing with smaller firms by vertically integrating these different stages of the production system (Paleo & Wijnberg, 2006). Music festivals are vertically integrated when it comes to live performances. The artists produce music but the festival is the distributor (by arranging the line-up) and retailer of the product (Paleo &Wijnberg, 2006). According to Paleo and Wijnberg (2006), music festivals can be seen as intermediaries between producers and consumers. Hence, the term gatekeeper is preferred because music festivals act as hubs of wider production networks (Scott, 2004).
Wijnberg and Gemser (2000) have developed a framework of selection systems to better understand the economic functions of music festivals and value of cultural products. This selection system specifies the characteristics of the selected actors which are competing with each other (e.g. artists); and the selectors (e.g. festivals), whose decisions influence the outcome of the process (Wijnberg & Gemser, 2000). Wijnberg and Gemser (2000) identify
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 22
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
three types of selection systems: market selection, peer selections and expert selection. In the case of market selection, the producers are the selector and the consumer the selected. In the case of peer selection; the selectors and the selected are part of the same group. Expert selection is the case in which the selectors are neither producers nor consumers but the selectors have the power to shape selection through specialized knowledge (Wijnberg & Gemser, 2000). According to Paleo and Wijnberg (2006), when fulfilling the second economic function (signalling, certifying and classifying), music festivals act as selectors. By creating the line-up of festivals, they offer the artists a chance to present their product to the public (Paleo &Wijnberg, 2006). According to Paleo and Wijnberg (2006), the place in the line-up can serve as a signal; which stage the artist performs or the size of the artist’s name on posters can have a significant impact on the economic performance of the artist. From an economic point of view, music festivals can be defined as:
“An organization whose activity results in an event, consisting of two or more live music performances, presented in such a way that it can be identified and valued as a whole by audiences of aural goods”. (Paleo &Wijnberg, 2006).
2.3.3 Organizational field As mentioned earlier, two types of goods are included in the definition of aural goods. Phonograms; which allow the consumer to listen to the product infinitely, and live performances which are temporary. Live performances are a distinct and particular kind of good because the consumption is dependent on time and place (Paleo &Wijnberg. 2006). Paleo and Wijnberg (2006) also find that uniqueness, awareness of unpredictability, the thrill of physical proximity to the performer and the possibility of social interaction characterize live performances. Within the general context of the cultural industries, from an organizational point of view, music festivals may be regarded as playing a key role in linking suppliers to the consumers of live performances. A music festival is an organization embedded in an organizational field and can be described as:
“An institutional arrangement designed to make possible the conscious and deliberate coordination of activities within identifiable boundaries, in which members associate on a regular basis through a set of implicit and explicit arrangements, commit themselves to collective actions for the purpose of creating and allocating resources and capabilities by a combination of command and cooperation”. (Paleo &Wijnberg, 2006).
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 23
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Actors who belong to an organization and the interactions amongst them are part of an institutional arrangement. When applied to music festivals; individuals like organizers, promoters of artists, technical staff and other employees are bound to the organizational structure of the organization (Paleo & Wijnberg, 2006). Paleo and Wijnberg (2006) identify two aspects of organizational interaction. Firstly, the vertical dimension of the organization which places music festivals as an intermediary between the producers and consumers of aural goods. Secondly, the horizontal dimension in which festivals compete with other festivals and indirectly with organizations that comprise the same economic functions (e.g. radio, television station etc.) (Paleo & Wijnberg, 2006). According to Paleo and Wijnberg (2006), the organizational activity in a competitive process within the music industry involves producers, consumers and other intermediary institutions (gatekeepers).
2.3.4 Music genre Music genres are constructions that are used for the classification of music and a cognitive tool to check the quality of aural goods (Paleo & Wijnberg, 2006). According to Paleo and Wijnberg (2006), it is not likely to find conflicting definitions of music genre and music festivals do not have to function within the boundaries of one particular genre. However, Throsby (2002) states that it is quite difficult to categorize different market segments corresponding to musical genres because, even the lines between major genres like jazz, folk and country (e.g.) are blurred. Nevertheless, it is useful to analyse musical forms because it explores the symbolic meanings embedded in a genre of music as it engages the links among culture time and place (Kong, L. 1995). According to Gibson and Connell (2011), music festivals can focus on multiple music genres to be musically innovative. Music festivals contribute to the perception of music genre. The impact of music genre also affects the characteristics of music festivals (Gibson & Connell, 2011).
It is evident that there is a relationship between particular types of consumers and particular genres (Paleo & Wijnberg, 2006). According to Thorsby (2002), it is difficult to categorize different market segments corresponding to different genres of music because of the blurred lines between musical forms. However, genre of music is a helpful classification tool in defining the differences between organizational fields. According to Paleo and Wijnberg (2006), music genres are constructions intended to classify types of aural goods and thus constitute a cognitive tool to ascertain quality of these goods. However, it is not uncommon to
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 24
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS find different and conflicting genre definitions and generic classification systems for aural goods. Music genres can be considered a cause and an effect of the characteristics of the organizational field. However, music festivals do not necessarily function within the boundaries defined by one particular genre (Paleo & Wijnberg, 2006). Some festivals focus on more than one musical genre and they may directly be musically innovative (Gibson & Connell, 2011). It would thus be incorrect, according to Paleo and Wijnberg (2006), to correlate the boundaries of an organizational field with that of a genre. However, genres do contribute to the structure of an organizational field. Paleo and Wijnberg (2006) state that genres can be considered both a cause and effect of the characteristics of the organizational field within which aural goods assigned to one particular genre are produced, distributed and consumed. Knowing this helps understanding the impact of music genre on a music festival’s characteristics as these two are intertwined.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 25
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
3. CONTEXTUAL POLICY FRAMEWORK According to Vliet (2017), there are more outdoor music festivals than indoor music festivals in the provinces Noord-Holland (63%), Zuid-Holland (60%) and Utrecht (52%). These provinces are home to the largest cities in the Netherlands namely: Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague and Utrecht. The total number of outdoor festivals in theses provinces are 275 in 2016. The municipality of Amsterdam counts 144 outdoor music festivals. Rotterdam counts 25 outdoor music festivals. Den Haag counts 12 and Utrecht counts 36 outdoor music festivals. The municipalities of the biggest four cities have are home to a total number of 217 outdoor music festivals. Vliet (2017) makes some distinctions in outdoor music festivals. Important distinctions are whether the outdoor music festivals ask an entrance fee and whether the festivals are one-day events or multiple day events. These distinctions are important because they may have different policy implications.
This chapter explains the policy contexts of the different municipalities in the G4. These contexts comprise policy documents of each municipality. First, the policy context of Amsterdam is addressed as well as their policy goals. Secondly, the policies of Rotterdam are presented. Thirdly, policy measures and goals of the municipality of The Hague are addressed. Next, the policy goals of the municipality of Utrecht are addressed. Lastly, a comparison has been made of the different policies in the G4.
3.1 Event policy of Amsterdam Policy regarding events in Amsterdam is focused, on the one hand, on finding a balance between creating a city where it is possible to organize well planned events and, on the other, to limit nuisance for residents in the city. The aim of the policy goals is providing a framework for events that have positive impact on the city. This framework provides clearness for every organizer, visitor or resident of Amsterdam in what is, and what is not possible. The government of Amsterdam recognizes the fact that events are part of the city and that they attract visitors. However, nuisance is a potential negative effect of these events. According to Gemeente Amsterdam (2016), there has been a rise in number of complaints of residents and organizers put a lot of effort in reducing this nuisance. However, organizers are in need of unambiguous policy framework. In the future, only organizations with enough public support and quality can apply for the use of public space (Gemeente Amsterdam, 2016).
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 26
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
The city of Amsterdam has a history of event policy. In 2005, policy was mainly focused on the implication of safety, mobility, communication and milieu. In 2009, the stimulation of the economy was an important issue. By giving subsidies, the goal of the policy was to attract (inter)national visitors to implement economic growth. The ‘Amsterdamsbeleidskader dance events’ was launched in 2015. This policy regarding dance events was established with cooperation of festival organizers. The aim of this policy is specifically focused on drugs, health and safety measures at dance events.
According to Gemeente Amsterdam (2016), the subject of event policy is intertwined with a handful of themes that are important to the city: liveability, safety, economy, space and sustainability. The central goal of providing space for event organization in the city of Amsterdam is to: “Provide a sustainable connection between the city and her residents, organizations contribute to liveability and take into account the effect on the environment. Events foster attractiveness to the city and position the city as liveable, creative, innovative and dynamic”.
Points of departure for policies (Gemeente Amsterdam, 2016):
1. Events in Amsterdam are public and freely accessible. Only in the case of an exception it is possible to organize closed events in public space. 2. In the case of parks, squares and canals, location profiles will be drafted. These profiles provide organizational frameworks for specific locations. 3. In parks, a total number of three large, noise sensitive events are allowed to be organized yearly. 4. All events that use public sound systems have to have noise reduction measures to prevent noise pollution. 5. A short as possible (de)construction period. 6. Applications for events are being evaluated in coherence with other noise polluting activities. 7. Recreational events in parks may occupy no more than ¼ of parks. 8. Events can only take place if the organization has fulfilled all measures to protect the flora and fauna.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 27
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Event policy in Amsterdam is focused on two governmental levels. Firstly, location profiles have been made with criteria that have to be met before organizing an event. Secondly, the spreading of festivals in space and time to avoid overload in certain areas. The government of Amsterdam has divided the city into parts with their own governmental apparatus. In case of the location profiles this is problematic because the they are made without taking into account the borders of different city parts. This causes overload in some areas. The new policy recommends a revision of all location profiles on a city level. By using the same criteria for all locations from a single point of view, overload of certain areas can be avoided (Gemeente Amsterdam, 2016). According to Gemeente Amsterdam (2016), the stricter criteria of these location profiles will improve liveability in the city and reduce nuisance to the environment. Also, the events will be better organized and spread in time and space. This spread will only be possible if the region is involved in developing new locations (Gemeente Amsterdam, 2016).
When it comes to subsidies, policy is focused on events that are in line with the ambitions of the city. Besides the contemporary criteria like city marketing and reaching a broad spectrum of visitors, subsidies are available for events that connect the city with her residents and cooperate with local stakeholders. The diversity of Amsterdam and her residents should be reflected in the offer of events (Gemeente Amsterdam, 2016). According to Gemeente Amsterdam (2016), sustainability is not yet part of the criteria for giving subsidies. The implementation of sustainability criteria is still in progress.
Noise pollution of events is a problem in the city of Amsterdam. Because sound is such an influential phenomenon, it is so that with comparable sound production, pollution is highly dependent on factors like the weather. According to Gemeente Amsterdam (2016), noise pollution in general puts the liveability of the city under pressure. Stakeholders in event organization are aware of this fact and are experimenting with measures to reduce noise pollution (Gemeente Amsterdam, 2016).
To preserve a balance between commercial events, newcomers and cultural festivals, diverging tariffs will be used for the rent of locations. The goal of this policy is to invest the incomings in the particular locations. The amenities that will rise from this will provide efficient building of events (Gemeente Amsterdam, 2016). This in turn will reduce nuisance and empower sustainability.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 28
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
The government of Amsterdam is critical about the process of handing out permits. Because festivals contribute to the image of the city, and stakeholders are more and more professionalized, it is needed to centralize the event bureau (Gemeente Amsterdam, 2016). This will provide a clear framework and supervision in the process of handing out permits (Gemeente Amsterdam, 2016).
3.2 Event policy of Rotterdam Policy in Rotterdam is based on a few different strategies. The first is focus on ‘quality of life’ and liveability. Quality is more important than quantity (Gemeente Rotterdam, 2010). Secondly, internationalization is important to Rotterdam. The city finds it important to conquer the position of a relevant international player. Thirdly, the city of Rotterdam is rediscovering the potential that is already present. These ambitions are the precursor for policy goals.
The city wants to achieve higher efficiency of festivals. In the case of iconic and renowned events, Rotterdam invests more in surrounding activities with entrepreneurs, schools and neighbourhoods. Moreover, the focus lies on putting the city on the map internationally and the stage setting is important. Furthermore, the government of Rotterdam is focused on bringing back discipline in their event policy model. In particular, the experiences of the actual visitors need to be in line with their relationship with the city. The local government heightens their level of ambition to an international level. The focus lies on achieving sizable contributions of events to the strengthen the international profile of the city (Gemeente Rotterdam, 2010).
With these strategies the city hopes to achieve the following results. Firstly, the city sees itself as a leader in the area of events and tries to keep it this way. By controlling the process of event organization and public space, Rotterdam tries to minimise nuisance and improve support of stakeholders. Secondly, the efficiency of events is heightened. The number of collaborations with stakeholders increases (Gemeente Rotterdam, 2010). Thirdly, the international profile is strengthened. The local government is convinced that this policy will get Rotterdam international media attention.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 29
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
3.3 Event policy of The Hague The first vision regarding event policy was created in 2003. This resulted in growth in number of events in the city and the overall procedure was increasingly transparent. Nowadays, events are important to The Hague because the city tries to distinguish itself nationally and internationally. The government of The Hague wants events to be iconic for the city. Therefore, the city is focusing on having at least two international events. Economic spin-off is important to the city, and iconic events implement such growth (Gemeente Den Haag, 2004). To reach this goal, event organizers are approached by the city’s government to make them aware of the preference; Quality above quantity.
Points of departure for policies for the government of The Hague:
• Quality is preferred above quantity. • Renovation of known events and stimulate new events. • Organizers are asked to emphasize on the international character of the city. • Economic spin-off is important. Organizers should invest in the cooperation with stakeholders in the city. • Organizers are stimulated to choose locations in the city where the catering industry is present. • Invest in improving the marketing of events. • Events should draw in diverse target groups.
Events organized in The Hague can get subsidies when they have the tendency to be economically interesting even when they are not profitable. The government of The Hague beliefs that visitors of events cause local economic spin-off, contribute to the profile of the city and draw in new residents and stakeholders (Gemeente Den Haag, 2004). Policy regarding events is focusing on the latter. In short: accessibility of events, economic spin-off and city profiling are the key concepts.
According to the government of The Hague, a well-equipped event location is an important condition for an event. Therefore, the municipality focusses on the improvement of important event locations. In particular, sustainability improvements are part of the agenda. This is realized through investments in the construction of infrastructure regarding power and water sources, as well as improvements regarding the soil (Gemeente Den Haag, 2004). Visitors and
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 30
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS sponsors of events increasingly acknowledge the value of sustainability. According to the government of the Hague, investments in sustainability are yield-enhancing. Therefore, the municipality probes the sector to come up with ideas about improvements.
The government of the Hague has some economic criteria for event applications. This focuses on the level in which the event corresponds with the policy vision above. Hereby, the quality and utility of the event is taken into account when handing out subsidies. These criteria are (Gemeente Den Haag, 2004):
• Does the event implement economic spin-off, draw in visitors from outside the city, enhance the spending’s of visitors in the city. • Is the event topical, iconic, (inter)nationally distinct and sustainable. • Does the event yield positive (inter)national publicity. • Does the organization cooperate with stakeholders in the city.
3.4 Event policy of Utrecht The government of Utrecht states that events and festivals contribute to the liveability and social cohesion of the city. Also, job creation and economic activity are recognized as positive influences of these events. The aim of the government is to preserve the level of the festivals and events in the city. The policy goal is to strengthen the brand “Utrecht” by letting festivals and events focus on the positive developments in the city (Gemeente Utrecht, 2009).
The inner city of Utrecht is often used as stage for many different events. The quality of the city is seen as virtue that is used to promote the city. However, the pressure on certain inner- city locations is very high (Gemeente Utrecht, 2009). Therefore, the search for new locations is important. Utrecht does not have accommodations that have the capacity to house 30.000 visitors, so it’s important to find useful locations (Gemeente Utrecht, 2009).
The governmental organization in Utrecht concerning events is splintered. Different policy measures are being made in different places which causes inefficient use of funds. This is because of lack of transparency within the governmental organization and it is unclear what the ambitions of the organization are (Gemeente Utrecht, 2009). Because there is no frequent consultation between stakeholders concerning events, it is unclear what aim of the different actors is (Gemeente Utrecht, 2009). According to the government of Utrecht, organizers in the
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 31
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS branch indicate that the process of handing out permits could improve because the process is complex and lacks transparency.
In comparison with other cities that highly valuate event policy, Utrecht spends much less in this area than other cities in the G4 (Gemeente Utrecht, 2009). Especially in marketing and promotion, Utrecht is behind. Other G4 cities centralize their funds for events. According to the government of Utrecht, organizers of events have to cope with increasingly stricter rules and regulations and higher costs, it is important to manage funds the right way.
Governments increasingly value events because of social aspects, economic value and positive influence on the image of the city (Gemeente Utrecht, 2009). Therefore, competition between governmental organizations increases in wanting to be the host of successful and popular festivals. Governments become more aware of the fact that developing the creative economy is important to cities (Gemeente Utrecht, 2009). According to Gemeente Utrecht (2009), festivals can be seen as breeding ground for new developments.
The government of Utrecht is keen on putting the city on the international map. This by means of attracting festivals and events that are internationally oriented. Many of the festivals organized in Utrecht have the potential to grow on an international scale and can contribute to the city’s international ambitions (Gemeente Utrecht, 2009). According to the government of Utrecht, it is helpful to draw in popular events which creates interest from international stakeholders.
Public support is an important issue to the city of Utrecht. Because events can have some negative aspects like creating nuisance to the residents of Utrecht. Therefore, Utrecht is coming up with solutions. Better communications, better sound pollution measures and spread of events have to contribute to more public support for events.
Better spreading of events in time and space will reduce nuisance for residents in Utrecht (Gemeente Utrecht, 2009). However, according to the government of Utrecht, festivals and events are closely bound to their locations. The effect festivals and events have on their environment is related to these locations (Gemeente Utrecht, 2009). Utrecht acknowledges the fact that events search for locations and vice versa. Therefore, the government is investigating new locations that can host new and smaller events (public or private).
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 32
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
3.5 Comparison of policy goals in the G4 Differences between policy goals of the municipalities in the G4 depend on incentives and matters concerning development. Amsterdam is focused on reducing nuisance to the environment. Therefore, the local government has developed restrictions in space and loudness of sound. These policy goals differ from the other municipalities in the G4. Rotterdam focuses on the international character of the city and tries to enhance interaction between stakeholders. By achieving higher efficiency of festivals and iconic events, the local government of Rotterdam is keen on putting itself on the map. This is also the case for the local governments of Utrecht and The Hague. They also recognize the importance of international attention to put itself on the map and attracting media attention. Besides the latter, Rotterdam and Utrecht are focused on redeveloping the governmental apparatus concerning events to increase efficiency and transparency.
The local governments of Utrecht and Amsterdam both pay attention to problems concerning festival locations. Utrecht is searching for new locations to decrease the amount of festivals in the city. Amsterdam on the other hand, tries to decrease festivals by constructing restrictions and conditions. Utrecht and The Hague also mention economic development as an important policy goal. However, the local government of Utrecht mention that the budget for development concerning events is too low. The Hague is on the other hand focused on economic spin-off of events in their city.
Interaction between stakeholders is important to Rotterdam, The Hague and Utrecht. This is not explicitly mentioned in the event policy goals of Amsterdam. The policy goals of Amsterdam differ the most from the other municipalities.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 33
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
4. METHODOLOGY The following chapter explains how this research is executed. First, the research design is explained as well as the research questions and the conceptual model. Second, the methods used to collect the data to answer the questions are introduced. This section includes the methods to collect the quantitative, geographical and qualitative data. Subsequently, the critical reflections of this research are addressed. Finally, the limitations of this research are discussed. This is a mixed method research including quantitative, qualitative and geographical data.
4.1 Research design The research design is focused on three points of research. Quantitative research has been chosen because it gives insight in the number of outdoor music festivals and their music genre in each of the G4 cities. It also gives insight in the number of one day or multiple day events and whether or not an entrance fee has to be paid to enter the festival. The quantitative data is also usable in the second form of analysis. The second analysis is based on the actual geographical location of the outdoor music festivals. By analysing the locations of the festivals and by making a distinction between the different music genres and types, it gives insight in the contemporary trend of outdoor music festival locations in the G4. Qualitative research has been chosen because it has the capability of explaining this trend and aims to explain the quantitative and geographical data.
4.1.1 Research Questions The main research question of this thesis is: “How are music genres related to the location of outdoor music festivals within the municipalities of Amsterdam, The Hague, Utrecht and Rotterdam (G4) and how do local governments use outdoor music festival policy as a tool for local development?” This question is divided into two sections. The first is focused on the actual location of outdoor music festival within the G4. Therefore, the first sub-question is the following:
1. Where are music festivals located in the G4 and what is their music genre?
The second section of the main research question focuses on local governmental policies. In particular, the influence of certain policies on the location of outdoor music festivals. Therefore, the second sub-question is:
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 34
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
2. Do governmental policies influence where outdoor music festivals are located in the G4?
The last sub-question focuses on the utilization of outdoor music festivals as a tool for local development. Therefore, the question is:
3. To what extent do local governments take into account music genres in outdoor music festival policies regarding local development?
4.1.2 Conceptual Scheme The conceptual model of this research is shown below in Figure 2. This model shows the actors involved in realizing outdoor music festivals, as well as the variables which may influence the developmental impacts.
Figure 2. Conceptual scheme. Source: author’s compilation.
Actors organizing a music festival can be genre-specific or locations-specific. However, one does not exclude the other. When the variable music genre and the location is determined, the concept of an outdoor music festival is created. Outdoor music festivals can be either one day
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 35
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS or multiple day events. There’s also the distinction whether outdoor music festivals are free to enter or an entrance fee has to be paid. The last two variables have developmental effects which are monitored by the municipal governments in which the festivals are organized. The governments react on these developments with policies that determine location where festivals can or cannot be organized.
4.2 Research Methods This section further explains the different research methods chosen in this research. Firstly, the units of analysis for qualitative research are introduced. Subsequently, the method used to approach the respondents is addressed. Furthermore, the method used for quantitative data collection is explained as well as the methods to prepare this data for geographical analysis. Next, the methods used to analyse the data are explained.
4.2.1 Units of Analysis The units of analysis are people who are experts in the field of festival organization and event policy. Thus, both public- and private sector experts have been interviewed for this research. These actors have been selected, to get a holistic view on contemporary trends. The public experts are people working with event policy, whereas the private actors are festival organizers. A total of seven experts have been interviewed from which four respondents in the public sector. One of these experts has experience with public and private actors in event policy. The final three experts are festival organizers of different musical genres. An overview of the units of analysis is shown below in Table 2.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 36
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Table 2. Overview of units of analysis comprising their function, expertise, sector, and method of data gathering.
Respondents Function Expertise Sector Method Expert 1 Event manager Event policy Public Interview Amsterdam Expert 2 Location Coordinator Event policy Public Interview Rotterdam Expert 3 Department manager Event policy Public Interview event bureau the Hague Expert 4 Public representative Event policy Public/private Interview private sector Amsterdam Expert 5 Festival organizer Outdoor music Private Dance Interview festival organization Expert 6 Festival organizer Outdoor music Private Pop Interview festival organization Expert 7 Festival organizer Outdoor music Private Classical Interview festival organization Source: author’s compilation 4.2.2 Sampling The first method of approaching respondents is by e-mail. An example of the e-mail can be seen in appendix I. The e-mail that was sent to the respondents, notified that the interview would take approximately 30 - 45 minutes. The participants determined where the interview should take place. By carefully constructing a concise e-mail, the subject of this research has been explained. However, not all e-mails have been sent successfully. The ones that did get through have been answered with positive results. After the interviews had been conducted, snowball-sampling has been used to recruit new respondents. The respondents delivered useful contact information, that has led to more interviews.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 37
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
4.2.3 Data Collection This section explains how the data of this research is gathered. First, the quantitative dataset is explained. Subsequently, the methods behind the construction of the geographical dataset are addressed. Thirdly, the methods of collecting the qualitative data are discussed.
4.2.3.1 Quantitative data A database has been made consisting of (N=113) outdoor music festivals. The internet has been used to find as much outdoor music festivals as possible. Different internet sites have been consulted to define the characteristics of these festivals (https://festivaloverzichtamsterdam.nl/,https://www.yellowtipi.nl/,https://partyflock.nl/). A list of all used outdoor music festivals can be seen in appendix II. Different websites have been used in order to increase the variety of sources and increase the validity of the data. The database of the outdoor music festivals comprises: name, postal code, their music genre, number of visitors, number of stages, ticket price, in which municipality the festival is organized, whether an entrance fee has to be paid or not (in this research referred to as ‘paid’ or ‘free’) and whether the festival is a one day or multiple day event. An overview of the variables used for analysis is shown below in Table 3. Three types of variables are present in the database:
Table 3. Overview of variables.
Type of variable Variables Nominal • Paid • Free • One day • Multiple days Ratio • Number of visitors • Number of stages • Ticket price Categorical • Music genre • Municipality Source: author’s database.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 38
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
The data-processing program STATA 14 has been used to process the data. For each nominal variable, the value of ‘1’ is assigned if the festival is characterized accordingly. The value of ‘0’ is assigned when not. This creates the possibility to use STATA in processing the nominal variables.
The ratio variables are used to calculate mean values for the different municipalities and can be seen in appendix III. These values are calculated to provide context and give insight in the of number of visitors, stages and ticket price of outdoor music festivals per municipality. However, these values will not be presented as results because they are treated as additional data.
For the categorical variables; each different music genre is treated as a binary variable. If the festival displays a certain music genre, the value of ‘1’ has been given and ‘0’ when not. This is important because of the possibility that a music festival may display more than one particular music style. The categorical variable ‘municipality’ is divided into four categories: ‘1’ is assigned to music festivals located in the municipality of Amsterdam; ‘2’ is assigned to festivals in Rotterdam; ‘3’ to festivals in The Hague; and ‘4’ is assigned to festivals located in Utrecht. With all the variables in place, descriptive analysis has been conducted. This is important to make sense of the data gathered for this research.
4.2.3.2 Geographical data To prepare the quantitative the data for the geographical analysis of the outdoor music festival locations; the database in STATA has been exported into an Excel file. Hereafter, the file has been imported into ArcMap. Each festival has been merged with the municipality in which they are organized. This way, descriptive geographical statistics have been generated consisting of the total number of each different music genre per municipality. By assigning different colours to different music genres, it is easier to analyse the locations.
The postal codes in the database are important for the usage of the ‘address locater’ function in ArcMap. The address locater pinpoints the exact location of the outdoor music festivals on the (topographical) base map. When an outdoor music festival uses multiple (undefined) locations, no postal code has been assigned. However, festivals of this nature have been analysed accordingly.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 39
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
4.2.3.3 Qualitative data In this research, semi-structured interviews have been conducted. Semi-structured interviews are verbal interchanges in which the interviewer attempts to gather information from another person (Dunn, K. 2005). According to Dunn (2005), semi-structured interviews have some degree of predetermined order but still ensures flexibility in the way issues are addressed. Before conducting the interviews, an interview guide has been constructed (appendix IV). This guide provides more flexibility during the process. In particular, focus lies on the actual conversation instead of formulating a standardized questionnaire. According to Dunn (2005) it is not possible to formulate a strict guide to good practice for every interview context. Every interview requires its own preparation, thought and practice (Clifford et al. 2010). Valentine (2005) states that conducting an interview is social interaction and there are no hard and fast rules one can follow. However, there are certain procedures that researchers can hold on to (Clifford et al. 2010). According to Clifford et al. (2010), researchers need to brief themselves fully on the topic work out a list of themes or questions. It is important to keep in mind that it is also helpful to warm up the interviewees, by means of an introduction, to create a comfortable environment (Clifford et al. 2010).
During the process, the interviews have been recorded. Recording the interview allows researchers to fully focus on the interaction, instead of feeling pressure to get words noted (Clifford et al. 2010). During the interviews, notes have been taken. Noting key themes and anything surprising that emerges from the interview helps identifying the most important aspects of the conversation. Taking notes is already a form of data-analysis (Clifford et al. 2010).
To gather a wide spectrum of perspectives, stakeholders in the private and public sector have been interviewed. Stakeholders in the public sector of the music festival industry in the G4 have been selected because they provide a clear view of the contemporary debate in which music festival policy is situated. Stakeholders in the private sector have been selected because they have experience in organizing events in the current policy milieu. The goal of the interviews is to enlighten why different music festivals of a particular genre are located in certain areas, as well as to study the effects a festival has on its environment. Also, to explain to what extent music genre is taken into account in music festival policy, as well as key development issues.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 40
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
The interviews in this research have been conducted at places chosen by the respondents. According to Clifford et al. (2010), it is important to decide where to conduct the interviews and the setting should be relatively neutral. However, in most cases, when talking to business people or officials from institutions and organizations there is no choice but to interview them in their own offices (Valentine, G. 2005). The respondents of this research are government officials and festivals organizers. Nonetheless, most interviews have been conducted offices accordingly. The main consideration for semi-structured interviews is that interviewees feel comfortable in the particular space that their interviewed in (Clifford et al. 2010).
4.2.4 Data Analysis First, a descriptive analysis of all outdoor music festivals has been conducted. This analysis gives insight in the quantity of different aspects of the cases. The cases have been divided into the four different municipalities. Within these four groups, a distinction has been made according to music genre, paid or free festivals and one day or multiple day events. With all the cases categorized, proportion of the different aspects have been calculated. With these proportions, a comparison has been made between the four different municipalities. This is important because it provides context for geographical analysis. Per municipality, three different maps have been created. Firstly, a map comprising the locations of each outdoor music festival and their music genre. Secondly, a map showing the locations of festivals and whether or not an entrance fee has to be paid. Thirdly, a map showing the locations of festivals and whether they are one day or multiple day events. By assigning different colours to these distinctive properties, it is clearer where different types of festivals are located. Thus, the data is ready for geographical analysis.
After the descriptive and geographical analysis, the interviews have been analysed. The interviews have been coded with themes based on the research questions. According to Clifford et al. (2010), the process of developing coding structures is inevitably circular, sporadic and messy. However, coding is rewarding because it enables the researcher to get to know the data intimately and see the emerging themes and patterns (Clifford et al. 2010). The results of this research strongly rely on quotes of the respondents. The interviews were conducted in Dutch. Therefore, the quotes have to translated into English. During the translation process, extra care was put in the translation to make the quotes as representative as possible.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 41
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
4.3 Critical reflection This paragraph addresses the importance of taking into account ethics in research. Subsequently, the limitation of this research is explained and discussed.
4.3.1 Ethics Clifford et al. (2010) state that anonymity is an important ethical issue. Therefore, in this research, interviewees have been assured that all the data remains secure. When conducting the interview an introduction has been given which informs the interviewee of the anonymity of their answers. Because this research focuses on stakeholders in the music festival sector, there will be no personal data gathered. Nevertheless, to secure the privacy of the respondents, anonymity is of utter importance. Furthermore, permission has been asked from the respondents to record the interviews. It has been made clear that the recordings remain anonymous and will be used for this research only, without the use of their names.
Before conducting the interviews, the respondents have been informed about the aim of the research. They were also aware of the fact that this research is going to be read by others than the researcher alone. Furthermore, the respondents have also been made aware that their answers were going to be translated into English. They have been made assure that extra care is going to be put into the translation process.
4.3.2 Limitations The first limitation of this research lies in the number of outdoor music festivals which differs between the different municipalities. It is important to keep this in mind when conducting the analysis because it is more difficult to generalize findings. However, outdoor music festival policy is subject the quantity of outdoor music festivals. Therefore, the number of festivals influence the policy goals.
The second limitation is that policy regarding outdoor music festivals is in some municipalities more up to date than others. However, this can also be explained by context and the importance of certain policies as a whole in particular municipalities.
The third limitation in this research are the respondents for the interviews. In this mixed method research, the interviews have to make sense of the data and geographical analysis. However, the focus lies on four different municipalities with different policies regarding outdoor music festivals. To get a holistic view about the contemporary situation, policy
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 42
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS experts from all cities are needed. Unfortunately, a policy expert from the city of Utrecht is missing in this pool of respondents. Nevertheless, expertise in policy making does not have to be bound to city limits. This is also the case for festival organizers. The literature shows that there are contextual differences when it comes to finding a true definition of outdoor music festivals. This is important to keep in mind when analysing the interviews. Furthermore, the interviews are conducted in Dutch and translated afterwards. Extra care has been put in translating the interviews to preserve the information that has been gathered.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 43
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
5. RESULTS This chapter shows the results of this research. First, the quantitative analysis of outdoor music festival locations will be discussed. This is a descriptive analysis of the cases and their characteristics used in this research. Secondly, the geographical analysis of the outdoor music festivals will be discussed. This part comprises maps of the actual locations of outdoor music festivals and their music genre, as well as maps that show the locations based on whether the festivals are free or paid and whether they are one-day or multiple day events. Lastly, the results of the qualitative research are shown. The views of different experts in the field of outdoor music festivals and policy regarding locations and development are addressed here.
5.1 Quantitative analysis This section presents the results of the quantitative analysis. First, a descriptive analysis of the cases is presented. Subsequently, a quantitative analysis of the different music genres displayed at outdoor music festivals in the G4 is shown.
5.1.1 Descriptive analysis of cases In the Netherlands, a total number of 1.070 music festivals have been organized in 2016 (Vliet, 2017). In the provinces where the cities of the G4 are located, a total number of 275 outdoor music festivals have been organized in this year. This is 25.7% of all music festivals in the Netherlands. The cities of Amsterdam, Rotterdam, the Hague and Utrecht comprise 217 (20.3%) outdoor music festivals. Of the total number of outdoor music festivals, N=113 outdoor music festivals have been found using the internet. The number of cases in this research comprise 52.1% of the outdoor music festivals found in literature. An overview of the number of cases per municipality is shown in Table 4.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 44
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Table 4. Overview of the number cases per municipality of the G4.
Municipality N (Observations) • Amsterdam 48 • Rotterdam 25 • The Hague 12 • Utrecht 28 Total 113 Source: author’s database.
A distinction has been made in whether outdoor music festivals are one day or multiple day events (Vliet, 2017). The percentages of outdoor music festivals per province have been calculated according to the data of Vliet (2017) and can be seen in Table 5 on the next page. The same has been done for the number cases in the G4. This is important because it helps making sense of the data. As can be seen, the percentages that have been calculated based on literature are more or less the same as the percentages of cases in this research. What can be derived from these numbers is that: 1. The majority of outdoor music festivals in these provinces are organized in the municipalities of the G4; 2. In every city of the G4, more one day festivals have been organized than multiple day events; 3. These proportions of one day festivals and multiple day events are more or less the same in the municipalities of the G4.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 45
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Table 5. Overview of the number of one day and multiple day music festivals per province and city the G4 in 2016.
One day Percentages Multiple day Percentages festivals festivals Total province (N=275) Noord- 190 80 47 20 Holland Zuid- 128 77 38 23 Holland Utrecht 63 82 14 18 Total G4 (N=113) Amsterdam 40 83.33 8 16.66 Rotterdam 21 84 4 16 The Hague 8 66.66 4 33.33 Utrecht 25 89.28 3 10.72 Source: adapted from Vliet (2017).
The same has been done for the distinction in whether the festivals charge an entrance fee or not. The results are shown in Table 6 on the next page. The calculated percentages show minor differences between the number of cases in this research and those found in literature. Nonetheless, the proportions of the cases are close to reality. This means, the cases are representative for analysis.
Several conclusions can be derived from this. First, in every city but Utrecht, more paid festivals have been organized than free festivals. Second, the proportions of paid festivals and free festivals are more or less the same in the G4 cities.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 46
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Table 6. Overview of the number of paid and free music festivals in the G4.
Paid Percentages Free Percentages
Total province (N=275) Noord- 191 82 42 18 Holland Zuid- 120 72 46 28 Holland Utrecht 65 86 11 14 Total G4 (N=113) Amsterdam 46 95.83 2 4.16 Rotterdam 17 68 8 32 The Hague 6 50 6 50 Utrecht 21 75 7 25 Source: adapted from Vliet (2017).
5.1.2 Music genre of festivals in the G4 All cases have been categorized by music genre. These genres have been assigned to the particular outdoor music festival by different websites. The different genres that have been assigned (in alphabetical order) are: Classical, Deephouse, Disco, Drum & Bass, Dubstep, Electro, Folk, Hardstyle, House, Jazz & Blues, Pop, Rock, Techno, Trance, Urban and World music. Because of the variety of genres, an overarching genre has been assigned, aggregating all known ‘dance’ music genres. This is important because it helps making sense of the geographical data shown later in this chapter. We then get: Classical, Dance, Disco, Folk, Jazz & Blues, Pop, Rock, Urban and World music. The number of outdoor music festivals displaying a certain genre per municipality is shown below in Table 7. The table also shows the number of paid/free and one day/multiple day events. It is important to keep in mind that festivals may display more than one musical style.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 47
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
According to the data, dance is a popular music genre for outdoor music festival organizers. A total of 37 out of 66 outdoor music festivals displaying dance, are located in Amsterdam. Rotterdam and Utrecht share the number of 13 dance festivals organized in their municipality. The Hague is home to 3 dance festivals. Other musical styles are less popular in each of the city in the G4. Nevertheless, there are still 47 outdoor music festivals displaying other genres divided amongst the different municipalities. Urban seems to be second popular for music festival organizers, then Pop, Disco, Rock, Jazz & Blues, World Music, Folk and Classical.
Table 7. Overview of the total number of music genres displayed in the G4.
Genre Amster- Rotter- The Utrecht Total Free Paid One Multiple dam dam Hague day days Dance 37 13 3 13 66 2 64 60 6 Urban 19 8 2 6 35 5 30 27 8 Pop 12 7 8 11 38 11 27 31 7 Disco 10 2 - 4 16 2 14 13 3 Rock 3 4 5 9 21 10 11 18 3 Jazz/Blue 6 4 3 6 19 8 11 12 7 s World 7 5 4 8 24 9 15 13 11 Folk 5 - - 3 8 2 6 4 4 Classic 1 - 1 - 2 2 0 0 2 Source: author’s database.
Rotterdam and Utrecht show a fairly similar representation of dance festivals. However, Utrecht represents a more evenly divided spectrum of music genres. Organizers in Rotterdam are (as in Amsterdam) more dance oriented. The Hague shows the lowest number of outdoor music festivals. The most popular music genre in the Hague is pop. To further elucidate the differences between the different municipalities of the G4, a map has been made showing diagrams of the number of different music styles. This map is shown below in Figure 3.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 48
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Figure 3. Diagrams of the numbers of music genres displayed per municipality in the G4. Source: author’s database.
In total, 66 out of 113 festivals display dance music. This is more than half of all the cases in this research. Because of this large proportion, is it necessary to make a distinction between dance and non-dance festivals to conduct a meaningful analysis. Dividing the 47 remaining cases into 8 different musical genres is unreliable in trying to construct generalizing statements about music festival locations. Hence, the analysis will be focused on whether outdoor music festival are dance or non-dance festivals. An overview of the number a proportion of festivals according to the latter is shown below in Table 8.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 49
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Table 8. Overview of the number of dance and non-dance festivals in the G4.
City Total Dance Non-dance Amsterdam 48 37 (77,08%) 11 (22,91%) Rotterdam 25 13 (52%) 12 (48%) The Hague 12 3 (25%) 9 (75%) Utrecht 28 13 (46,43%) 15 (53,57%) Total 113 66 (58,4%) 47(41,6%) Source: author’s database.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 50
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
5.2 Geographical Analysis This section shows the results of the geographical analysis of this research. First, the locations of the outdoor music festivals in Amsterdam will be analysed. The locations of outdoor music festivals in the municipality of Rotterdam, The Hague and Utrecht will be analysed subsequently. An overview of the number of the cases according to their characteristics is given in appendix V.
5.2.1 Amsterdam In Amsterdam, 48 cases of outdoor music festival have been charted. The locations of these festivals can be seen in Figure 4 below. As is notable, the maps do not show 48 different pins. This is due to the fact that some outdoor music festivals are organized at similar locations. The total number of cases (N=48) is divided into 37 cases display dance music and 11 cases that display different music styles. All dance festivals charge an entrance fee and 32 of them are one day events. Of the non-dance festivals (N=11), 2 festivals are free to enter. These numbers are important because they help explain the similarities in festival characteristics and their location found in the maps below. In Figure 4 on the next page, the festival locations and whether they display dance or non-dance is shown.
What is notable in the first map is that most outdoor dance festivals are located away from the city centre. Non-dance festivals however, are localized closer to the city centre. Some of which are organized in the heart of the city. One festival at this location displays classical music and the other folk music. Some locations are known to be areas where festivals are organized more frequently. These areas are: the NDSM-werf, Gaasperplas and the Amsterdamse Bos. In case of the last two areas, the results show only the presence of dance festivals. However, this does not mean that no non-dance festivals have been organized here. Nonetheless, there is clearly a pattern in festival locations and their music genre in this research.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 51
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Figure 4. Dance and non-dance festival locations in Amsterdam. Source: author’s database.
The locations of outdoor music festivals show similarities with the locations of whether they are free or paid festivals. As can be seen in Figure 5 below, free festivals in this research are located near the city centre. The genres of these festivals are folk and classical. Each festival organized away from the city centre charge an entrance fee. This is due to the fact that all dance festivals in this research are paid festivals.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 52
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Figure 5. Free and paid festival locations in Amsterdam. Source: author’s database.
There are also similarities in whether the festivals are one day or multiple day events. This can be seen in Figure 6 below. Four multiple day festivals are closer to the city centre and three are located far from the city near the border of the municipality. These similarities can be explained by the fact that most of the dance festivals are one day festivals. An interesting phenomenon derived from these results is that free multiple day events of alternative music styles are organized closer to the city centre. Paid one day festivals displaying dance, are located near the borders of the city.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 53
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Figure 6. One day and multiple day festival locations in Amsterdam. Source: author’s database. 5.2.2 Rotterdam For the municipality of Rotterdam, 25 outdoor music festivals have been charted. Thirteen cases display the genre dance and twelve festivals display a different genre respectively. All dance festivals charge an entrance fee and are one day events. The non-dance festivals comprise a total number of N=8 free festivals and N=4 paid festivals. N=8 non-dance events are one day festivals and respectively N=4 of them are multiple day events. The locations of dance and non-dance festivals are shown in Figure 5 below.
As can be seen in Figure 7, non-dance festivals are widely spread throughout the municipality. However, a large proportion of non-dance festivals are in or close to the city centre. The ones below the river are located in areas that are known to be the host of festivals more frequently namely, Ahoy and Zuiderpark. Outdoor dance festivals are also widely spread throughout the municipality. However, none are near the city centre.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 54
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Figure 7. Dance and non-dance festival locations in Rotterdam. Source: author’s database.
In Figure 8 below, the free and paid festival locations are shown. There are similarities with the map shown in Figure 7. The non-dance festival locations are almost identical to the free festival locations. This can be explained by the fact that most non-dance festivals are free. All dance festivals charge an entrance fee which explains the similarities between Figure 5 and 6. These similarities are the same as the ones found in the municipality of Amsterdam. However, this says more about the characteristics of music festivals than about their location. In particular, the pattern shown in the municipality of Amsterdam is different than that of Rotterdam. An explanation for these differences is provided later on in this chapter.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 55
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Figure 8. Free and paid festival locations in Rotterdam. Source: author’s database.
In Figure 9 below, the map that shows the locations of one day or multiple day festivals is shown. Because only four festivals are multiple day events, no clear pattern arises from these results. Nevertheless, this is an interesting result compared to Amsterdam. Both municipalities show a low number of multiple day events. However, the pattern that arises from the locations of festivals in Amsterdam is clearer than that of Rotterdam.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 56
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Figure 9. One day and multiple day festival locations in Rotterdam. Source: author’s database.
5.2.3 The Hague For the municipality of The Hague, twelve cases have been charted. As has been explained earlier, the maps only show nine cases because of the fact that some festivals are organized at similar locations. The Hague shows 3 cases that display the genre and one of them is free to enter. Nine cases are non-dance festivals respectively. Five non-dance cases are free and six of them are one day festivals.
As can be seen in Figure 10 below, three non-dance festivals are organized in the city centre and the rest is organized at, or close to, the Zuiderpark area. The main difference with The Hague compared to the Amsterdam and Rotterdam is the low number of outdoor music festivals organized in this municipality. Therefore, it is difficult to find similarities in the way the music festivals are located in the municipality. Nevertheless, what is most notable is that outdoor music festivals are located in two particular areas. The style of music is not explanatory for this pattern because dance is not a frequent genre for outdoor music festivals
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 57
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS in The Hague. Nevertheless, it is interesting those outdoor music festivals locations are divided into these two areas.
Figure 10. Dance and non-dance festival locations in The Hague. Source: author’s database.
The locations of outdoor music festivals regarding whether they are fee of paid are shown in Figure 11 below. The free outdoor music festivals are located in the city centre. This is also the case for the municipalities of Amsterdam and Rotterdam. The Zuiderpark area comprises locations of both free and paid festivals. This can be explained by the fact that Zuiderpark is a location where festivals are more frequently organized.
The locations of outdoor music festivals regarding whether they are one day or multiple day festivals is shown in Figure 12 below. The multiple day festivals in The Hague are organized in the city centre. This is also the case for the municipality of Amsterdam. All one-day festivals are organized away from the city centre and most of them in the Zuiderpark area.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 58
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Figure 11. Free and paid festival locations in The Hague. Source: author’s database.
Figure 12. One day and multiple day festival locations in The Hague. Source: author’s database.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 59
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
5.2.4 Utrecht For the municipality of Utrecht, 28 festivals have been charted. Thirteen cases display the dance genre and fifteen of them non-dance respectively. Twelve of the thirteen dance festivals are paid festivals and all of them are one day events. In total there are 15non-dance cases. Six of them are free festivals and nine charge an entrance fee respectively. A total of twelve non- dance festivals are one day events and three of are multiple day festivals.
As can be seen in Figure 13 below, most of the non-dance festivals are located near the city centre. However, the venues are widely spread throughout the city. The dance events are located further away from the city centre near the boundaries of the city. This is also the case for the municipalities of Amsterdam and Rotterdam. Interestingly, the different types of music style in the municipality are more evenly divided in Utrecht. Nonetheless, the location patterns of the different genres in term of dance and non-dance are more or less the same.
Figure 13. Dance and non-dance festival locations in Utrecht. Source: author’s database.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 60
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
The locations of whether or not festivals charge an entrance fee are shown below in Figure 14. In contrast to Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, there seems to be no clear pattern. This can be explained by the fact that Utrecht is the host of many different genres of music festivals. Dance festivals are in 12 of 13 cases paid festivals. For non-dance festivals this is 9 out of 15. Because the musical styles in Utrecht are more evenly divided, this pattern is of paid and free festivals is explainable.
Figure 14. Free and paid festival locations in Utrecht. Source: author’s database.
In Figure 15 below, the map of the locations regarding whether they are one day or multiple day events is shown. Almost all cases are one day events. This explains the differences with the other municipalities.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 61
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Figure 15. One day and multiple day festival locations in Utrecht. Source: author’s database.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 62
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
5.3 Qualitative analysis In this section, the results of the qualitative analysis of the conducted interviews will be presented. First, the interviews with policy experts in the field of event policy have been analysed (experts 1-4). Subsequently, the same has been done for the results of the interviews with festival organizers (experts 5-7).
5.3.1 Expert 1: policy in Amsterdam Ten years ago, the economic impact of events was the leading theme in event policy in Amsterdam. According to expert 1, the focus lay on: “Big, bigger, biggest.” The goal was to make Amsterdam a creative and innovative city were people would spend a lot of money. In particular, to draw in people that would visit, live, work and study here. Events were seen as an important developmental tool to accomplish this. Expert 1 states: “The more events in the city, the better the overall situation.” Nowadays policies goals are focused on managing crowdedness’ in the city. Events are seen as the social DNA of the city. However, they have to be in proportion with the nuisance that they may cause. According to expert 1, the focus nowadays lies on the consideration between realizing festivals and which conditions are needed to make it manageable.
Expert 1 states: “We don’t make distinctions between types of festivals at the gate.” Every organizer can hand in a request for a festival location but they have to look at the requirements of the particular location; “The plans have to be realistic.” If these requirements are met then the organizer is licensed to organize an event at a particular location. However, if the location is already occupied by another festival, no matter how good the idea is, the event is rejected. Expert 1 states: “It is a first come first served policy.” Only event that take into account policy goals can get subsidies. Nevertheless, if parties are perfectly able to manage their own incomes and sponsors they have to manage the realization of their festival on their own. Every festival organizer in Amsterdam has the responsibility to manage their own event. Also, when it comes to matters as safety. However, the local government takes into account the content (number of visitors, target groups et.) and particular location of the events. The government Amsterdam customizes their policy after the requirements of the location are met. Expert 1 states: “Event policy in Amsterdam is generic; every organizer is treated the same way and there are no limitations in terms of festival types. However, each event is taken under the loop and requirements are customized.”
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 63
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Local governments categorize events into three classes. A – Events with low risk; safety is the responsibility of the organization as well as taking measures to adapt to the particular location. B – The particular location in the municipality requires more attention and/or the number of visitors is relatively high, which requires more involvement of the local government. C – High risk events. Measures that certain organizers have to take to ensure a safe festival can be the same as others. However, the reasons for these requirements can be different. In other words, the type of music festival does not determine policy measures. The risks of a certain event are taken under the loop and policy is customized.
Economic spin-off is according to expert 1 difficult to measure. According to expert 1, closed of events can make calculations based on how much people spend but where the money goes is untraceable. However, expert 1 states: “People visiting an area where they normally wouldn’t go, have to spend money on transport and probably spend money at the location itself; in shops for example. However, how much exactly is difficult to measure.” Expert 1 also mentioned social spin-off as an impact of festivals. Social spin-off is realized when local residents interact with the event.
Expert 1 states: “Our policy challenges organizers generically to stimulate development at certain locations.” On the one hand, there are a lot of restrictions for organizers (sound policy, location profiles, etc.), on the other hand, there are a lot of social components which challenge organizers (e.g. integration of sustainability) to take into account local development. The local government of Amsterdam is willing to invest in the location where events are being organized if organizers are willing to integrate policy goals. Nevertheless, it is possible to organize event in the municipality if the organizer is not willing to take into account these themes. Expert 1 states: “NDSM- werf is a good example of an area that has been developed through these kinds of initiatives. As well as Tuinen van West.”
“Every festival is treated the same way, not matter which style of music”. “The way in which the event is carried out and the way in which the event is given content, declares to what extent the local government is willing to help.” (Expert 1)
According to expert 1, the current event policy is being revised. The past year and a half, the policy was focused mainly on decreasing the number of events in the city. To accomplish this, the local government constructed location profiles. These profiles determine the frequency of
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 64
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS event taking place at the particular location. They also comprise sound policy that focuses on decreasing the loudness of events. These standards are determined in consultation with festival organizers.
In terms of festival locations related to music genre, expert 1 states that the city centre is sensitive to sound pollution. According to expert 1, the limitations of the city of Amsterdam are explanatory for the fact that certain actors look for a suitable location. Also, if the local government thinks that certain kinds of activities do not fit in the inner city, the event is rejected. Expert 1 states that in the past, organizers that thought it was possible to organize their event were rejected because the local government believed these activities should be organized near the city borders. Expert 1 states: “The geography of the city determines to a high extent what is possible. Nevertheless, if organizers want to try the inner-city limit locations, the local government is still able to reject them if they think it’s not suitable.” According to expert 1, this is explanatory for the fact that the inner-city limits is home to non- dance festivals. Expert 1 states: “This is often the reason that events displaying classical music for example are located within the inner-city limits instead of events displaying music that is amplified with a lot of sub.” According to expert 1, these kinds of events are often organized at green locations that are big enough to have a visitor count of 10 to 15 thousand people. When it comes to dynamics of musical styles expert 1 states that in terms of pop music for example, the intensity of the music fluctuates more than dance music what makes it more likely that these events are organized closer to the city centre. According to expert 1, “Local residents find this less obstructing in terms of sound pollution.”
According to expert 1, it is impossible to make a distinction between dance or non-dance festivals from a policy making perspective. City officials of different city parts in Amsterdam think this is a distinction that can be made. However, expert 1 states that this is difficult to put into practise. Nevertheless, it is possible categorize different musical styles by the degree of loudness. According to expert 1, the world of music shows distinctions between different styles. In the world of policy however, it is needed to describe these styles in a way that they can be put to practise. It is difficult to decide what is best or more fit to certain contexts. Expert 1 states: “How people experience reggae or dub for example can be more negative than electronic music.”
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 65
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
5.3.2 Expert 2: policy in Rotterdam According to expert 2, Rotterdam has always been a poor city in the past. However, nowadays there is still unbalance in terms of income. Because of low incomes, the majority of people stay in the city during summer period. Policy regarding events in Rotterdam focuses on making the city as lively as possible during this period. According to expert 2, events play an important role herein. Expert 2 states that this is in short, the core of event policy in Rotterdam. The local government of Rotterdam has outsourced their event policy to a different organ which focus lies on bringing event into the city and linking them to themes of which they are convinced are important to the municipality. These themes are, according to expert 2: The city is home to a lot of young people; the city is multicultural; the city has maritime competencies; modern architecture; international culture and is home to international sports. If festival organizers take into account these themes, subsidies may can be granted if requirements are met and transparency is given in marketing and communication strategies, public perception and finances of the event. Alongside the core themes of the city, Rotterdam focuses on particular target groups. If organizers want to organize an event in the municipality, the plans and ideas of their festival are taken under loop in terms of to what extent these plans fit in the particular themes and target groups.
According to expert 2, the local government of Rotterdam places events in categories based on their impact. These impacts comprise: loudness of sound, target group, soil etc. However, experts 2 states: “The most important requirement of events is that the residents of Rotterdam are the main target group.” Dispersion among time and place is also looked at when deciding which types of festivals are given a license. Expert 2 states: “This way, every event gets the attention that it deserves.” According to expert 2, a place on the calendar of Rotterdam has to be fought for and events have to be proud when they are part of it.
The institution that manages event policy in Rotterdam develops an event calendar for the coming year. Organizers have to present their ideas a choice of location before this year starts. To these particular locations, location profiles have been constructed. These profiles are customized based on the characteristics of the area. Expert 2 states: “The location profiles of Rotterdam are written in an attractive manner, not restrictive like the profiles in Amsterdam.” Also, when it comes to policy regarding the loudness of sound or number of days the event is held, Rotterdam is not restrictive. According the expert 2, the content of the festival is the
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 66
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS most important issue when deciding to approve an event. In contrast to Amsterdam, themes like economic spin-off and sustainability are not the most important themes in Rotterdam. Solely the themes that involve the city itself are important in event policy. Expert 2 states: “If two festivals apply for a location, one with a rating of 7 which is highly sustainable, the other with a rating of 7.5 which is less sustainable, then we pick the last one.” Nonetheless, expert 2 believes that within five years, sustainability is probably a core theme. Expert 2 states: “Themes like Economic spin-off and sustainability are important to the city of Rotterdam but it isn’t the main goal of event policy. The main goal is appreciation.”
According to expert 2, musical styles are taken into account mainly because of their sound characteristics. Sub sounds for example, which causes sound pollution. Nevertheless, expert 2 states that festivals with a dance genre are assigned to the category ‘young city’ within the event policy themes. Thus, policy focuses partly on attracting dance festival organizers to cover a target group the local government thinks is important.
According to expert 2, the suitability of music styles is important when looking at particular locations. Expert 2 mentions a location next to a hospital as an example. It is not suitable to let dance festivals be organized there. However, exceptions can be made according to expert 2. “Some locations are important to a neighbourhood. The local residents aren’t happy if this location is closed off. In a multicultural neighbourhood like this we prefer events with no entrance fee.” Location like parks are very popular with dance festival organizers. These locations are often located outside the inner-city limits.
5.3.3 Expert 3: policy in The Hague There is not yet an unambiguous event policy in The Hague. Currently, there are different policies regarding sports, economic or cultural goals. Expert 3 states: “When it comes to public events, which support economic goals, the economic spin-off of that event determines the subsidy it receives from the local government.” This economic spin-off is substantive for particular large events. Policy is carried out by different organs from within the local government responsible for events that fall within their category. According to expert 3, this can lead to an overlap between different events. Therefore, a new event bureau is established, to come up with unambiguous policies regarding events in The Hague. Expert 3 states: “It’s great that in developing new policies, Amsterdam and Rotterdam can be taken as an example.” The first goal of this bureau is to construct a strategic calendar which comprises
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 67
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS events that add value to the city of The Hague. The second goal is to come up with policies regarding specific locations. Expert 3 states: “Every location in the municipality will be analysed according their suitability for different types of events.” Besides the suitability of locations, loudness of sound will also be taken into account in the new event policy.
When it comes to the requirements and conditions of certain locations, expert 3 states: “I expect that the new event policy will not be restrictive like in Amsterdam. The focus lies on creating better possibilities for organizers, by spreading events more equally between even locations during the year.” Nonetheless, quality is more important than quantity. However, expert 3 states that flexibility is also important in providing opportunities for the organisations of smaller events. Expert 3 states: “It is important to have a wide variety of high quality events. The size in this matter is not as important.”
According to expert 3, it is important to have cultural amenities like festivals in the city because it attracts companies and people. Furthermore, a well thought of event policy is important for the liveability of cities. The number of events in The Hague has grown in last few years. Expert 3 states: “The increase in number of events is the bottleneck. This means you have to provide guidelines to regulate where events take place.” However, according to expert 3, there could be more control from the local government. Currently, festival organisations are given licenses when they are calamity free. This is, until now, the only requirement for handing out licences which causes event to be organised non-stop. The ‘Malieveld’ for example, is an important location for hosting big pop events. However, the increase in number of events causes the soil to be deteriorated. The new event policy focuses on planning in a way that the areas can withstand the frequency in which festivals are organised. Furthermore, if the number of dance festivals increases, in the ‘Zuiderpark’ area for example, it is noticeable for local residents. This causes uncertainty with local residents because they do not know how many of these events take place. According to expert 3, the event calendar should give insight in the number of festivals at a certain location beforehand. This helps the cancel out these uncertainties. Furthermore, guidelines for the maximum loudness of sound is also a measure for handling nuisance to the environment, as well as taking into account characteristics of particular locations. Expert 3 states: “A way to avoid noise pollution is to emphasize that certain inner-city locations aren’t suitable for big pop
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 68
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS concerts, for example.” According to expert 3, the residents of The Hague are a highly important factor in deciding what is possible.
The Hague sees itself as city of Pop. According to expert 3, this is why a great number of pop- festivals are being organised in the city. Expert 3 states: “History shows that pop has been popular in The Hague since the 60’s. It’s in the DNA of the city.” However, the local government of The Hague makes no distinctions between different music genres or type of events that apply for subsidies. Nevertheless, expert 3 states: “Dance music is growing in popularity and a lot of young people want to organise dance events. We embrace this and try to make this possible.” The respondent acknowledges that dance music festivals are susceptible to noise pollution because of low frequency sounds.
5.3.4 Expert 4: policy public/private sector Local residents are important to take into account in event policy. Expert 4 states: “Both festival organizers and the local government have to think about the impact of festivals on local residents. On the other hand, people know that festivals are being organized, it’s a matter of give and take.” Furthermore, according to expert 4, another important aspect of policy regarding outdoor music festivals is the loudness of sound. The surrounding environment is taken into account. Besides practical matters, cultural aspects are also an important issue in event policy. Expert 4 states: “It depends on the festival what the added value is to the city but they aren’t obligated to do so.” According to expert 4, if festival organizers want to get a license for hosting their event, it is important that they return the favour. This way, festivals get more public support. Expert 4 states: “Nowadays you can’t profit form the city without giving something back, organizers have to creative in how to do so.” According to expert 4, some festival organizations try to do so by being sustainable, add value to the neighbourhood, or by being internationally focused.
Expert 4 states that if festivals organizers choose a location within the inner-city limits, they have to substantiate their choice. Especially when it comes to large events, it is important to evenly distribute events like these throughout the city to avoid crowdedness, according to expert 4. Besides, from a logistical perspective, infrastructure and transport are issues which are often the cause of festivals being organized away from the inner-city limits. Expert 4 states: “Visitors of festivals increasingly care less about having to travel longer, this way it is
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 69
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS interesting for organizers to organize their festival further away from the city because these locations are less expensive to rent.”
According to expert 4, dance music lacks cultural meaning from a governmental perspective. In particular, because the industry is fairly young, it takes time for people to acknowledge dance as a cultural phenomenon. Furthermore, expert 4 states: “Like young people with a driver’s license, the industry has to exist for some years without causing damage before it is totally accepted.” According to expert 4, pop is less innovative and ground breaking than the dance industry. However, it is more accepted by society. According to expert 4 this could be a reason for music festivals to be located within the inner-city limits.
According to expert 4, non-dance events are often more accessible for a broader public. Expert 4 states: “They are more like happenings you accidently pass by and stick around”. Dance events on the other hand, are often too specific in genre and target group focused to be located within the inner-city limits, according to expert 4. According to expert 4, cities like Utrecht, Rotterdam, and the Hague are more focused on hauling in events for their economic value. Amsterdam on the other hand, wants to be more in control.
5.3.5 Expert 5: festival organizer ‘Dance’ Expert 5 states that the experience with policy variates between positive and negative. This is due to the presence of good and bad government representatives. Acquiring a permit is a complex process because of the paperwork that has to be done. This comprises construction regulations, medical services, safety, public transport and logistics of visitor transport. It is a complex story and this causes the involvement of many different representatives. Expert 5 states: “On the one hand, this means the involvement of fantastic professionals, on the other hand this also means the involvement of less skilled people.” The respondent also mentions that representatives often forget that, when organizing events close to the border of the city, the neighbouring municipality is getting involved. Expert 5 states: “A politician once said: “all festivals have to move to the border of the city”. This way the neighbouring municipality has to deal with the problem.”
According to expert 5, there was no policy regarding the organization of events in the past. However, with the professionalization of the festival industry, municipalities follow. At a certain point, there was no clear policy regarding event organization and organizations were
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 70
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS fighting for public space. It is fortunate that policy is being adjusted to the contemporary situation. However, written rules and regulations have to be operationalized and that is a time- consuming business. Expert 5 states: “In some policy levels collaboration with the government is easy, in others however, it couldn’t be more bureaucratic.”
According to expert 5, the government is trying to come up with policies that fulfil the needs of all residents. However, there are always people who complain about the presence of festivals. Festivals are important to the city of Amsterdam and the goal is to find solutions for complaint but it is impossible to prohibit music festivals as a whole. Expert 5 thinks that the current loudness policy of Amsterdam is a good measure to fulfil the needs of organizers and residents. However, it could be the case that organizers have to invest more time and money to make the noise pollution acceptable. Expert 5 states: “I think the creation of policies is a good thing however, it has to reach all sections of the governmental apparatus to work.”
In case of sustainability the organization of Expert 5 puts a lot of effort in decreasing building time and keeping the area as clean as possible. Expert 5 states: “We take into account the environment when building our festival. This is needed because you need the support of the neighbourhood.” Expert 5 is also knowingly trying to create local economic spin-off. This is important to create balance between negative and positive effects on the area. The organization of Expert 5 does what it can to spend as much money as possible at the location where the festival is organized. Expert 5 states: “Behind our festival locations is a farm that works with mentally disabled children, this year we offered them to work at our festival. This is fun for these children and we invest in the location economically, this is important.” According to Expert 5, the organization puts a lot of effort in being sustainable. Expert 5 states: “It starts with transporting people by public transport or by bike, that is by far the main pollutant.” Also, solar panels are used instead of power generators.
5.3.6 Expert 6: festival organizer ‘Pop’ Expert 6 has positive experience with local government policy. In particular the way in which the government handles license applications in Amsterdam. Expert 6 states: “Everyone can apply to organize a festival. However, there are very few spots because of unrealistic ideas or it doesn’t fit in their policy.” The local government of Amsterdam is interested in diverging music genres because nowadays it is mainly dance, according to the respondent. Usually the applicant has to present the plans of organizing a festival on paper but it was no problem to
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 71
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS approach the municipality without states the respondent. Expert 6 states, “The local government is very cooperative. They opened door for us and gave us multiple chances. If you know what they find important, you can build your festival around their restrictions.” The organizer emphasizes that the municipality is easy going when it comes to organizing events with the fact that, when in the past the plans eventually did not work out, the municipality reacted professionally. The respondent also mentions that it is important to know the rules regarding the policy and to adapt the festival plans accordingly. According to expert 6, it can be difficult to organize a festival because there is a limited number of locations. If the ideas of the organizer in organizing an event aren´t realistic, the authorities may decline the proposition. The interviewee states that this is interesting because this policy measure is the same for all events, no matter how they differ, that are planned in this municipality. In the case of the ‘Amsterdamse Bos’, there is overlapping policy. The municipality of Amsterdam provides the location but the permits are given by the neighbouring municipality. Expert 6 states: “It would be easier if the local government invests in sustainability and heighten the rent of the location.” Expert 6 states that complaints are mainly based on the loudness music. According to expert 6, the size of the festival matters when it comes to sound pollution. Because this festival is fairly small, expert 6did not experience lot of complaining. Expert 6 invests in sustainability by implementing smart plans in the use of power generators. Also, the use of solar power is a way to be more sustainable according to expert 6. According to expert 6, the main reason to do this is to cut down on fuel. Expert 6 states: “In terms of costs we didn’t save a lot of money but our ecological footprint was reduced substantially.”
5.3.7 Expert 7: festival organizer ‘Classical’ According to expert 7, policies regarding festival organization differ between different municipalities. Safety measures for example can be very strict in one municipality but less in others. Expert 7 states: “The government decides what is and what isn’t possible. This means that certain measures are taken which make it more difficult to do things in public space.” According to expert 7, their festival does not have the tendency to produce crowds, which makes safety policies unfit for their festival. When policies don’t take into account the nature of different festivals, festival organizers of a certain genre are pushed off. As expert 7states: “Our festival adds positive value to the Locations that is associated with us. Were about young talents and we receive no complaints. We don’t produce booming rhythms.”
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 72
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
According to expert 7, Contemporary policy in Amsterdam comprises a broad spectrum of aspects that are involved with organizing events in public space. Aspects like trees, soil, permits, police, fire department and more, have to be revised when organizing a festival at a different location. Expert 7 states: “If you dealt with all the restrictions in one park, then you have to do the same for the other. Why so difficult?” The respondent clearly critiques this form of policy practice. According to expert 7, the politics regarding these policies should be focused more on the differences between of events. Expert 7 states, “Politics should deepen itself in the distinctions between different festivals.” Expert 7does not invest in public space because the nature of the festival is non-profit and cultural. Commercially oriented festivals consume more power, according to Expert 7.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 73
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
6. DISCUSSION The previous chapters of this research show that there are differences in policy regarding outdoor music festivals in the G4. Each city has its own way of using and/or controlling impacts of events in their municipality. Nonetheless, there are also similarities between the different municipalities. Not only policy goals and perspectives show similarities, also when it comes to the location of outdoor music festivals. Because this research is both quantitative and qualitative, the locations of outdoor music festivals have been charted and discussed with experts in the field of policy-making and festival organization. This chapter discusses the results and links them to the theoretical framework. Subsequently, recommendations for further research are given.
6.1 Policies and music festivals
6.1.1 Differences in policy According to Saayman & Saayman (2005), the size of the festival influences their economic impact. This kind of economic spin-off is important to the city of The Hague, according to expert 3. Both expert 1 and 2 stated in their interview that economic spin-off is not a priority of event policy in Amsterdam and Rotterdam. This research has shown that event policy is more advanced in these two cities. Because event policy in The Hague is in its infancy, policy regarding events has room to focus on positive spin-off effects rather than decrease nuisance to the environment, as is the case for Amsterdam. Event policy in Amsterdam is focused on regulating the number of outdoor music festivals by means of strict requirement and conditions for particular locations. Policy in Rotterdam however, is focused on city-based themes that take into account the involvement of all target groups in the city. This research shows that event policy in Rotterdam is focused on the equal representation of these target groups. This is mainly because of the unbalance in terms of income throughout the city, which has higher priority than economic spin-off. Therefore, the theory about the cumulative impact of festivals for economic benefits by Gursoy, Kim, and Uysal (2004) and Gibson and Connell (2011), is not taken into account in policies regarding events in Amsterdam and Rotterdam. Nevertheless, this does relate to Gibson and Connell’ (2011) statement that local planners and policy makers often ignore the use of festivals as a tool of economic development. Event policy in The Hague and Utrecht on the other hand does focus on economic spin-off.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 74
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
According to Scott (2004) and Thorsby (2002), music has the tendency to circulate with ease on global markets. Emphasizing the international character of the city is taken into account in event policy of Rotterdam, The Hague and Utrecht. In earlier stages of event policy, this was also the case for Amsterdam. Currently, the need for international acknowledgement by means of events is not as important to Amsterdam. Nonetheless, this relates to the statement of Brown et al. (2002) about the attractiveness for local policy makers to analyse the music industry from a global perspective. The use of outdoor music festivals as a tool for local development differs between the municipalities of the G4. Local policies influence outdoor music festival locations and vice versa. This is partly subject to event policy goals. This can be explained by the fact that a larger quantity of festivals demands more attention from local governments. This research shows that, compared to the other cities, Amsterdam is home to most outdoor music festivals. Rotterdam and Utrecht show fairly similar results. The Hague is home to the lowest number of outdoor music festivals. This affects outdoor music festival policy. Amsterdam is focused on decrease and regulation. Rotterdam is focused on attracting events that are in line of thought with their policy themes. Utrecht is focused on new locations to reduce pressure on inner city locations. The Hague is focused on economic spin-off and interaction between stakeholders.
Policy goals are made with certain motivations. Whether the focus lies on the reduction of noise pollution to increase liveability or on creating an atmosphere which attracts festival organizers, it is important to keep in mind that motivations for policy-making can be similar for different cities, but how to realize these goals depends on context. For example, to increase liveability using event policy, a local government has to focus policy on attracting festival organizers if the total number of festival in the municipality is low. On the other hand, when there are too many festivals, policy has to focus on regulating and/or finding ways to decrease this number.
6.1.2 Local development and music genre Interviews with festival organizers of different outdoor music festivals provided insight in the influence of policy as a tool for local development. In case of policies that focus on the positive impact of events, subsidies are granted if requirements of particular locations (location profiles) are met. This stimulates festivals organizers to invest in matters as sustainability, economic spin-off and social return. This is not directly related with their music
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 75
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS genre. However, the interview with Expert 5 showed that there can be enough incentive for commercial dance festivals to invest in space. Expert 2 stated that dance festivals are perfectly able to exist without receiving subsidies and that organizers acknowledge this. However, according to expert 5, there can be negative impacts like noise pollution or feelings of intrusion. Thus, the organization of expert 5 is knowingly trying to create economic spin-off and social return even without subsidies. This is supported by Currid (2007) who states that gatekeepers value the social aspects of their product.
The use of outdoor music festivals as a development tool in regard to their music genre is interpreted differently between different experts. The view of expert 1 regarding categorization of music genre is similar to Thorsby (2002) who states that it is difficult to categorize different market segments corresponding to different genres of music because of the blurred lines between musical forms. On the other hand, expert 2 agrees with Paleo and Wijnberg (2006) as events like outdoor music festivals are linked to the classification of different target groups in Rotterdam. According to Brown, O'Connor and Cohen (2000) the music industry has become increasingly important for local authorities. However, expert 1 made clear that the impact of different music styles is difficult to identify. According to expert 1, dynamics and loudness of sound is a way to assess the impact on the environment.
This research shows that distinctions between music genres can be made according to the incentives of different music festival organizers. According to expert 4, music festival organization have to give something back to the city. Music genres that are susceptible for noise pollution create the incentive for organizers to give something back to their environment. The way in which the festival organization tries to do so, is their own responsibility. Therefore, the categorization of music genre in event policy is not useful for implementing specific impacts. However, this research shows that it can be useful to categorize music genres that create to incentive to implement local development in a broader sense.
6.1.3 Policy implications of music genre on locations Policies focus on requirements and restrictions of particular locations. These conditions are customized per location and generic for different festival organizers. However, according to expert 7, policy is often too generic because it does not take into account competencies of certain music genres. In terms of safety for example, expert 7 stated that local governments
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 76
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS are too strict in some cases. Classical music is according expert 7 a music genre that has a positive stigma and attracts less risky target groups than other genres. Thus, the need for high security measures is unnecessary according to expert 7. However, expert 1 states that the event policy is generic because every organizer has to be treated to same way. The policies become less generic after customization of requirements and conditions for the particular event on a particular location. Measures that have to be taken for these requirements and conditions can be the same for different events, but for different reasons. Expert 6 has little critique on the way these requirements and conditions influences the process. However, the popularity of music genres explains the different views. Less popular outdoor music festivals have the tendency to be smaller events, which requires less attention from local governments as they are low risk events.
6.2 Recommendations for further research This part focuses on further research. A logical next step would be to map out different impacts of music festivals on their environment. Further research should focus on particular impacts that outdoor music festivals have on their environment. In particular, mapping out experiences of local residents concerning different music genres. According to Scott (2004), economically depressed areas occasionally turned their deprivation around by well-planned cultural initiatives. Therefore, further research should focus on the implications of music genres on their environment to find out which types of festivals have the potential to effectuate local development.
Furthermore, finding ways to define music in a utilitarian manner should make impacts of music genres susceptible. Policies are often generic for different music festivals, and policy- makers find it difficult to categorize music genres. However, when focusing on the competencies of certain music genres, this can be a great tool to implement local development.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 77
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
7. CONCLUSIONS Event policy is increasingly used as a tool for development in Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, and Utrecht (the G4). Events are seen as part of the city, having implications to the identity of the city and its residents. The aim of this research was to study the relationship between music genre and the locations of the festivals displaying them in the G4. More importantly, how do local governments use these locations, taking into account developmental issues. The research question of this research was: “How are music genres related to the location of outdoor music festivals within the municipalities of Amsterdam, The Hague, Utrecht and Rotterdam (G4) and how do local governments use outdoor music festival policy as a tool for local development?” To answer this question, the sub-questions will be answered first. Furthermore, policy recommendations are presented about the extent of implementing music event policy.
7.1 Research questions
7.1.1 Sub-question 1 Where are music festivals located and what is their music genre? Locations of different types of music festival genres are very much dependent on the context in which contemporary policies are situated. It is difficult to find a relationship between a certain music genre and the location of the festivals displaying them. First, because there is a very broad spectrum of different musical styles. Second, because it is difficult to make distinctions in music genre because musical styles are subject to change and innovation. However, a distinction in musical style, in case of outdoor music festivals, can be made in terms of overarching themes of music. When aggregating music genres that can be defined as dance music, the distinction between different types of festivals is far clearer in terms of location. Dance festivals, in contrast to other types of outdoor music festivals, are consistently located away from the city centre. Outdoor festival organizers choose their location according to locations made available by the local government. For each location, a location profile has been constructed by the local government comprising criteria that must be followed by organizers. These criteria are location specific and are focused on the number of visitors, loudness of sound, frequency and so forth. However, these requirements and conditions for certain locations differ between the municipalities of the G4. This is closely related to the contemporary policy situation. Each city has its own ideas and policy themes when it comes
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 78
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS to events there are also differences in the way policy is structured. Amsterdam is the first city in the G4 where event policy is very strict. The strict requirements for each location make it difficult for organizers to host their event. The government of Amsterdam is focused on minimizing the number of festivals because of the negative effects they have on the environment. The other municipalities however, are focused on attracting more events. When the requirements and conditions of particular locations are met and the festival is in line of thought of the city, subsidies can be granted. This way, the local government is trying to level out the playing field of different types of festivals. The local governments do not exclude certain musical styles from any location. However, the requirements of loudness are an important factor to the location in terms of nuisance to the surrounding environment. Dance from this point of view is prone to produce nonstop bass and sub sounds which can be frustrating to the environment. This explains why outdoor dance music festivals are often located further away from the city centre. Furthermore, this is also explanatory for the location of one or multiple day festivals and free or paid events, because dance festivals are often paid one day events. On the other hand, non-dance festivals are more dynamic in loudness which can be a reason for the fact that they are located more frequently within the inner-city limits. This also depends on the number of visitors. However, dance festivals with a small number of visitors are also located away from the city centre.
7.1.2 Sub-question 2 Do governmental policies influence where outdoor music festivals are located in the G4? Whether or not governmental policies influence the location of outdoor music festivals in the G4 relies heavily on context. There is an obvious pattern between dance and non-dance festivals. However, governmental policies tend to be generic at the gate. Every organizer is treated the same way. If the ideas are realizable and they meet the requirements and conditions, organizers are given a license to organize their event at a particular location. The requirements and conditions differ between the municipalities in the G4 because policy goals are different. However, this does not explain the differences in location between different outdoor music festivals and their music genre. Nevertheless, the locations of different music genres depend on the geography of the city. Festival organizers are aware of their impact on the environment and choose their location accordingly. Both the local governments and festival organizers play a role in the development of policies. Some festivals are involved in the process, others aren’t. Governmental policies influence where outdoor music festivals are
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 79
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS located. However, as governmental policies are influenced by both local government and festival organizers, this is a dynamic process in which both actors play a key role.
7.1.3 Sub-question 3 To what extent do local governments take into account music genres in outdoor music festival policies regarding local development? It is hard to define music genres because the lines between definitions are blurred. However, not all local governments in the G4 totally wave aside musical styles in their policy. Nevertheless, it is difficult to find utilitarian definitions of music genre from a policy perspective. Characteristics of different musical styles are taken into account in governmental polices. In particular, loudness of sound in terms of noise pollution demands attention. Dance music genres tend to produce continuous sub sounds which reach the surrounding environment. However, not all local governments of the G4 implement restrictions of loudness. This depends on the different geography and policy context of the different municipalities. The use of music genre to realize impacts like economic spin-off and sustainability is ignored. Nonetheless, festival organizers are willing to invest in infrastructure and sustainability. This depends on size of the festival, as larger festivals are more prone to sustain continuity. Therefore, popular music festivals are more likely to invest in local development.
7.1.3 Main research question “How are music genres related to the location of outdoor music festivals within the municipalities of Amsterdam, The Hague, Utrecht and Rotterdam (G4) and how do local governments use outdoor music festival policy as a tool for local development?”
Residents are most important to cities, and policy is a way to provide quality and liveability to the environment. Therefore, the locations of music festivals are taken into account in event policy. Furthermore, each location has its own context. Therefore, requirements and conditions are customized per location. Positive impacts of music festivals on certain locations are fortunate but a good living environment is key. On the one hand, policies focus on preserving this liveability. On the other hand, there must be room for festivals for their value to the community. It is important to take into account characteristics of different music genres in locational policy. This explains why particular types of music festivals are located in certain places.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 80
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
The locations of different music genres becomes clear when dance genres are aggregated. There is an obvious pattern of dance festivals being organized away from the inner-city limits. Only The Hague does not show a clear pattern of dance versus non-dance festivals. However, this research shows that there are few dance events being organized in The Hague. The reason for the locations of dance and non-dance festivals is subject to requirements and conditions that are constructed by policy-makers. In particular, loudness of sound and the geography of the city (e.g. parks) are important aspect which explains the location of dance and non-dance festivals.
Festival organizers choose their location based on location profiles made available by the local governments of the G4. Therefore, it is difficult to use festivals as a tool for local development. However, by granting subsidies to festivals organizers who support policy goals, local development is realized. Furthermore, festivals that have the tendency to cause nuisance to the environment are prone to invest more in public support.
7.2 Policy recommendations When reading these policy recommendations, it is important to keep in mind that policy is context specific. In this research, policies regarding outdoor music festivals have been analysed for the cities of the G4. Music genre is utilized as a local development tool. Nevertheless, it is made clear that it is useful to categorize music genres. However, there are some obstructions when it comes to utilizing music genre. Firstly, implementing music genre in local development policies is difficult for policy-makers because of definitional uncertainty. Secondly, genericity is important to local governments because every organizer has to be treated the same way. Thirdly, is it difficult to assess the impact of a particular music genre.
Nonetheless, because festivals act as hubs of wider production networks, they bring together stakeholders of different scalar levels. On a local and regional scalar level, businesses and companies are involved. On international scalar levels, popular music festivals bring together artists and promoters from all over the world. If a certain music genre is popular, it is interesting to consider implementing this music genre in local development policy to get international attention.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 81
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Furthermore, this research shows that particular music genres are displayed more than others and vice versa in the cities of the G4. This implicates that certain music genres are valued more than others in different locations. Policy-makers have to focus on the positive and negative impacts of different music genres on their environment to efficiently use music festivals as a tool for local development.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 82
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
8. REFERENCES Bockstedt J.C., Kauffman R.J., Riggins F.J. (2005). The move to artist-led online music distribution: A theory based assessment and prospects for structural changes in the digital market. Carlson School of Management University of Minnesota.
Brown, A., O'Connor, J. and Cohen, S. (2000). Local music policies within a global music industry: cultural quarters in Manchester and Sheffield. Geoforum, 31(4), pp.437-451.
Burnett, R. (1996). The Global Jukebox: The International Music Industry. London: Routledge.
Caves, R. E. (2000). Creative industries: Contacts between art and commerce. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
Clifford, N., French, S. and Valentine, G., editors (2010). Key Methods in Geography. 2nd ed., SAGE
Cudny, W. (2014a). Festivals as a subject for geographical research. GeografiskTidsskrift- Danish Journal of Geography, 114(2), 132-142.
Cudny, W. (2014b). The Phenomenon of Festivals: Their Origins, Evolution, and Classifications. Anthropos, Bd. 109, H. 2. (2014), pp. 640-656
Currid, E. (2007). How Art and Culture Happen in New York - Implications for Urban Economic Development. Journal of the American Planning Association, Vol. 73, No. 4, Autumn 2007.
Dunn, K. (2005). ‘Interviewing’, in I. Hay (ed.). Qualitative Research Methods in Human Geography (2nd). Melbourne: Oxford University Press, pp. 79-105.
Florida, R., and S. Jackson. (2010). Sonic city: The evolving economic geography of the music industry. Journal of Planning Educationand Research 29(3): 310–321.
Gemeente Amsterdam. (2016). Uitgangspunten voor een nieuw evenementenbeleid. Amsterdam: Evenementenbureau/DS/AZ.
Gemeente Den Haag. (2004). Evenementenvisie Gemeente Den Haag 2004-2010. Dienst Stedelijke Ontwikkeling.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 83
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Gemeente Rotterdam. (2010). Dieper in de stad, verder in de wereld. Herijking Evenemtenbeleid. Rotterdam festivals.
Gemeente Utrecht. (2009).‘t Bruist an alle kant.Nota evenementen en festivals in Utrecht Beleid en actieplan 2009-2014. ProgrammabureauStadspromotie.
Gratton, C., N. Dobson, and S. Shibli. (2001). The role of major sports events in the economic regeneration of cities. In Sport in the city: The role of sport in economic and social regeneration, edited by C. Gratton and I. Henry, 35-45. London: Routledge.
Gibson, C. and Connell, J. (2011). Music Festivals and Regional Development in Australia. 1st ed. Ashgate Publishing Group.
Gursoy, D., Kim, K. and Uysal, M. (2004). Perceived impacts of festivals and special events by organizers: an extension and validation. Tourism Management, 25(2), pp.171-181.
Hirsch, P.M. (2000). “Cultural Industries Revisited.” Organization Science, Vol. 11, n3, p. 356-361.
Ingerson, L. (2001). A comparison of the economic contribution of hallmark sporting and performing arts events. IN Sport in the city: The role of sport in economic and social regeneration, edited by C. Gratton and I. Henry, 46-59. London: Routledge.
Jones, S. (2000). Music and the Internet. Popular Music (2000) Volume 19/2. Cambridge University Press.
Kong, Lily. (1995). Popular Music in Geographical Analyses. Progress in Human Geography, 19(2), 183-198.
Kong, L. (2000). Cultural policy in Singapore: Negotiating economic and socio-cultural agendas. Geoforum 31:409-24.
Leenders, M., van Telgen, J., Gemser, G. and Van der Wurff, R. (2005). Success in the Dutch Music Festival Market: The Role of Format and Content. The International Journal on Media Management, 7(3 & 4), pp.148-157.
Musterd, S. (2004). Amsterdam as a Creative Cultural Knowledge City: Some Conditions. Built Environment, 30(3), pp.225-234.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 84
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Paleo, I. and Wijnberg, M. (2006). Classification of Popular Music Festivals: A Typology of Festivals and an Inquiry into Their Role in the Construction of Music Genres. International Journal of Arts Management Vol. 8, No. 2 (WINTER 2006), pp. 50-61. Power, D. and Hallencreutz, D. (2007). Competitiveness, Local Production Systems and Global Commodity Chains in the Music Industry: Entering the US Market. Regional Studies, 41(3), pp.377-389.
Pratt, Andy C. (1997) The cultural industries production system: a case study of employment change in Britain, 1984-91. Environment and planning A, 29 (11). pp. 1953-1974.
Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). https://www.riaa.com/reports/.
Reid, S. 2008. Identifying social consequences of rural events. Event Management, 11, 89–98.
Saayman, M. and Saayman, A. (2006). Does the location of arts festivals matter for the economic impact? Papers in Regional Science, 85(4), pp.569-584.
Scott, A. (2000). The cultural economy of cities: Essays on the geography of image-producing industries. London: Sage.
Scott, A. (2002). A new map of Hollywood: The production and distribution of American motion pictures. Regional Studies 36:957-75.
Scott, A. (2004). Cultural-Products Industries and Urban Economic Development: Prospects for Growth and Market Contestation in Global Context. Urban Affairs Review, 39(4), pp.461- 490.
Scott, A. (2012). A world in emergence: cities and regions in the 21st century. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
Throsby, D. (2002). THE MUSIC INDUSTRY IN THE NEW MILLENNIUM: Global and Local Perspectives. UNESCO, Paris. Macquarie University, Sydney.
Valentine, G. (2005). Tell me about… using interviews as a research methodology, in R.
Vliet, H. (2017). Festival Atlas 2016: Een overzicht en analyse van het landschap van film-, food- en muziekfestivals in Nederland in 2016. MXStudio / Lectoraat Crossmedia Hogeschool van Amsterdam.Amsterdam, 2017.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 85
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Wijnberg, M., Gemser, G. (2000). Adding Value to Innovation: Impressionism and the Transformation of the Selection System in Visual Arts. Vol. 11, No. 3, Special Issue: Cultural Industries: Learning from Evolving Organizational Practices. pp. 323-329
Wood, E. and Thomas, R. 2009. Festivals and tourism in rural economies, in International Perspectives of Festivals and Events: Paradigms of Analysis, edited by J. Ali-Knight, M. Robertson, A. Fyall and A. Ladkin. Oxford: Elsevier, 149–58.
Williams, C. C. (1997). Consumer services and economic development. London: Routledge.
Wood, E. and Thomas, R. 2009. Festivals and tourism in rural economies, in International Perspectives of Festivals and Events: Paradigms of Analysis, edited by J. Ali-Knight, M.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 86
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
APPENDICES
Appendix I E-mail to respondents Geachte heer/mevrouw …, Mijn naam is Koen Segers en ik doe voor mijn masterscriptie aan de Universiteit van Amsterdam onderzoek naar de effecten van muziekfestivals op hun omgeving. Hiervoor voer ik analyses uit over het verband tussen festivalgenres en de festivallocaties. Deze ruimtelijke analyses vul ik graag aan met het perspectief van professionals in deze sector. Ik ben benieuwd naar de effecten van muziekfestivals op hun omgeving, en erg geïnteresseerd hoe deze effecten, en het genre van het festival, de locatie van deze (of toekomstige) evenementen bepalen. Naast het doorspitten van beleidsdocumenten omtrent dit onderwerp zou ik graag een interview met u willen afnemen om een helder beeld te krijgen van het perspectief van een beleidsdeskundige over dit onderwerp. Het interview duurt ongeveer 30 - 45 minuten op een plaats naar uw keuze. Ik hoop dat u mij hierbij kunt helpen, en zie uit naar een eventueel gesprek met u. Met vriendelijke groet, Koen Segers
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 87
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Appendix II. List of outdoor music festivals
1992 is 4 You! Into the Woods ADE SoccerRocker 22Fest Weekender Soenda 40UP Zomerfestival Jordaan Festival Stekker in de tunnel 909 Juicy Festival Stekker in het park A day at the park Kaderock Strafwerk Amsterdam Music Festival Kid Dynamite Jazz Strange sounds from beyond Amsterdam roots Komm Schon Alter, Das Studio Stekker Festival Appelsap Festival Summertime Festival Baroeg Kralingse Bos Festival Switch Festival Bevrijdingsfestival Den Haag Kroon Festival The Flying Dutch Bevrijdingsfestival Utrecht Kwaku Summer The Flying Dutch Rotterdam Bevrijdingsfestival Zuid Lief Festival The Hague Interntational Holland Loudfest Jazz Days Blijdorp Festival Loveland The crave festival Boothstock Metropolis Festival The life I Live Central Park Milkshake Toffler Festival Contrast Festival Modular Festival Triangle Festival Counter Culture Mumbai Color Festival Tweetakt Crazy Sexy Cool Music on Ultrasonic Culinesse Mute Sounds Festival Utrechtse Jazzfestival Dagdromen Mystic Garden Valtifest De Beschaving Night at the park Verknipt De Leuke Festival Nomads Verne Festival De Zon North Sea Jazz Vestival Dekmantel Open Air Voltt Divercity Oranjebitter Vondelfestival Edelwise Paradijs Festival Vrij op 't IJ Encore Parkpop Weiter Festival Expedition Pijnackerplein Bluegrass Wicked Jazz Sounds Festifest Pitch Woodlum Festival Magia Pleinvrees Zomerkriebels Festival Strand Pleinvrees am Strand Fluff Disco op t Strand Popronde Utrecht Fonteyn Festival Roots in the Park Gaasperpleasure Rotterdam Rave Festival Geheime Liefde Rotterdam Unlimited Grachtenfestival S'Oranje Festival Guilty Pleasure Secret Society Open Air Happy Feelings Sensation Hemeltjelief Shoeless Het Amsterdams Verbond Ruigoord Weekender Bevrijdingsfestival Smeerboel Het Ruigoord Manifestival Sneeuwbal Winter Festival IBB-Fest XL Sniester
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 88
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Appendix III. Additional quantitative data Mean values of number of visitor, stages and ticket price of dance and non-dance outdoor music festivals.
Mean n Dance • Visitors 9217.391 46 • Stages 3.557377 61 • Ticket price 38.27273 66 Non-dance • Visitors 17027.27 22 • Stages 2.684211 38 • Ticket price 19.66809 47 Source: author’s database.
Mean values of number of visitor, stages and ticket price of dance and non-dance outdoor music festivals in Amsterdam.
Amsterdam n Dance • Visitors 12445.83 24 • Stages 3.606061 33 • Ticket price 43.94189 37 Non-dance • Visitors 26950 6 • Stages 3.25 8 • Ticket price 21.86364 11 Source: author’s database.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 89
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Mean values of number of visitor, stages and ticket price of dance and non-dance outdoor music festivals in Rotterdam.
Rotterdam n Dance • Visitors 5111.111 9 • Stages 3.461538 13 • Ticket price 32.34231 13 Non-dance • Visitors 16083.33 6 • Stages 3.1 10 • Ticket price 25.375 12 Source: author’s database.
Mean values of number of visitor, stages and ticket price of dance and non-dance outdoor music festivals in The Hague.
The Hague n Dance • Visitors 2000 3 • Stages 3 3 • Ticket price 16.5 3 Non-dance • Visitors 18500 3 • Stages 2.142857 7 • Ticket price 10 9 Source: author’s database.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 90
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Mean values of number of visitor, stages and ticket price of dance and non-dance outdoor music festivals in Utrecht
Utrecht n Dance • Visitors 6981.818 11 • Stages 3.666667 12 • Ticket price 33.09231 13 Non-dance • Visitors 8700 7 • Stages 2.307692 13 • Ticket price 19.29333 15 Source: author’s database.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 91
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Appendix IV. Interview guide Mijn naam is Koen Segers en ik studeer economische geografie aan de Universiteit van Amsterdam. Voor mijn Master thesis doe ik onderzoek naar de locatie van outdoor muziek festivals in uw stad. Ik focus het onderzoek op de beleidsvoering omtrent deze festivals en welke onderwerpen hieraan ten grondslag liggen (sociaal, economisch, cultureel etc.). Ook ben ik benieuwd naar het type festivals die in uw stad georganiseerd worden en of hier onderscheid in wordt gemaakt in de beleidsvoering. Heel erg bedankt dat u mee wilt werken. Mag ik dit interview opnemen? De opnamen blijven confidentieel en anoniem. Heeft u nog vragen voordat we beginnen?
Naam Introductie Wat is uw functie: In welke hoedanigheid houdt u zich bezig met festivals? Welke activiteiten verricht u m.b.t. die festivals? Met welke partners/ andere actoren hebt u te maken in uw beleid t.a.v. festivals?
Evenementenbeleid Wat zijn de huidige doelstellingen van het evenementenbeleid in deze stad? Wat is de geschiedenis van beleidsvoering omtrent festivals in deze stad? Wat zijn de positieve aspecten van festivals in deze stad? Wat zijn de negatieve aspecten van festivals in deze stad? Wat doet de lokale overheid om deze aspecten te sturen?
Ontwikkeling Wat zijn de hoofdthema’s van ontwikkeling omtrent festivals in deze stad? Waarom deze thema’s? Waar komt dit door? In hoeverre wordt er rekening gehouden met locaties van festivals m.b.t. deze thema’s? Zijn er specifieke locaties waar ontwikkeling wordt gestimuleerd door de organisatie van festivals?
Beleid Wordt er onderscheid gemaakt in het type (genre) festival in het beleid? Is er een outdoor muziekfestival beleid? Wordt er rekening gehouden met muziekgenre in het beleid? Wordt er rekening gehouden met verschillende locaties en het type festival? Wordt er rekening gehouden met het aantal bezoekers? Wordt er rekening gehouden met het aantal stages?
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 92
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Appendix V. Number of cases per municipality Overview of free, paid, one day and multiple day dance and non-dance festivals in Amsterdam.
Amsterdam Free Paid One day Multiple days Dance 37 0 37 32 5
Non-dance 11 2 9 8 3
Source: author’s database.
Overview of free, paid, one day and multiple day dance and non-dance festivals in Rotterdam.
Rotterdam Free Paid One day Multiple days
Dance 13 0 13 13 0 Non-dance 12 8 4 8 4
Source: author’s database.
Overview of free, paid, one day and multiple day dance and non-dance festivals in The Hague.
The Hague Free Paid One day Multiple days Dance 3 1 2 2 1
Non-dance 9 5 4 6 3
Source: author’s database.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 93
MUSIC GENRE AND MUSIC FESTIVAL LOCATIONS
Overview of free, paid, one day and multiple day dance and non-dance festivals in Utrecht.
Utrecht Free Paid One day Multiple days Dance 13 1 12 13 0 Non-dance 15 6 9 12 3
Source: author’s database.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MUSIC GENRE IN OUTDOOR MUSIC FESTIVAL POLICY 94