DOI: 10.4467/25438700SM.19.041.11672

TIJANA TUFEK-MEMISEVIC*, EWA STACHURA** combating causes that deteriorate living for inhabitants. sier unloading of goods. A significant feature of A few of the features presented in these concepts alrea- the plan was designs for hydraulic plants to create dy exist in certain urban areas, and some contemporary the artificial canals which were regulated by locks answers to urban conditions consist of similar appro- and basins making it easier for boats to navigate in Linear megastructures. aches. It points to the question: In the era of big data, them. Although there is an unfortunate social se- accelerated urban growth, unprecedented engineering gregation within the designated spaces, whether achievements, realistic plans of “Hyperloop” transpor- due to plague prevention or simply a characteristic An eccentric pursuit in tackling tation and colonialization of another planet, whether of the times, the concept aims to provide cleaner a concept of linear megastructure is still a completely and organized urban spaces altogether. unrealistic one?! However, the scope of execution of Da Vinci’s un- conventional vision of the ideal was too broad, urban sustainability challenges Precedent concepts of multilevel transit-oriented since it would have required entirely rebuilding The 15th century black plague outbreak in Milan, Italy existing cities or forming completely new ones

which took tens of thousands of lives, motivated Leo- along rivers. This is the main reason the vision re- Abstract nardo Da Vinci- one of the greatest Homo Universalis mained unrealized. Linear megastructures, apart from megastructures in general, are one of several types of concepts in context of linear urban of the Renaissance, to seek an answer in city planning One of the most prominent names in French town development. The term refers to various compact architectural, infrastructural and transportation plans in linear form. With in dealing with the epidemic. Da Vinci understood that planning of the last century Eugène Hénard pre- their daunting massive scale these concepts are often attributed to utopian attempts of pursuing an ideal city and therefore the narrow, crowded and dirty medieval streets of Mi- sented a vision of future cities based on the streets doomed to remain unrealized. This paper examines several models created throughout the course of history in terms of their lan with their hard to navigate layout contributed to the of Paris at the Royal Institute of British Architects, emergence motivation, socio-economic circumstances and relation to urban sustainability. Through the analysis, it is argued spread of the disease, so he proposed a plan for the Town Planning Conference in London in 1910. that linear megastructures are often unjustly rejected without acknowledgement of their underlying beneficial features in terms of mitigating challenges to sustainable urban development. reconstruction of the city consistent with Renaissance Hénard’s critique of the existing city streets was ideas yet innovative and extravagant at the time. The se- largely focused on infrastructural problems that

Key words: linear, megastructure, utopia, transit-oriented ries of drawings, notes and ingenious thoughts around became hardly sustainable within their existing fra- this city plan can be found in the largest assembled col- mework and longed for a revisionist solution to the lection of Da Vinci’s papers called “The Paris Manuscript challenges. Problems that arose as technological B” and “Code Atlanticus.” advancements are made, such as distribution of The reconstruction plan Da Vinci proposed was desig- electrical and telephone lines that were intertwi- 1. Definition of linear megastructure -economically driven forms of planned, multimo- ned around Ticino River and consisted of a multi-level ned with sewers initially constructed only for wa- Linear megastructures in terms of is a term dal, compact linear development concepts with vertical division of the city in terms of functionality or stewater removal, became harder to maintain and coined as part of a broader research on linear urban a directly proportional ratio of size to transportation “” and a network of canals for commerce and sa- continuous interventions on them disturbed street planning titled “Contemporary linear city development. mode. nitation (Ill. 1). By placing vertical communication on the circulation, pedestrian movement and supply of A case of spatial interventions in Sarajevo, BiH” aiming Linear megastructures are therefore defined as outside of building walls an undisturbed circulation of goods. Waste, smoke and ash disposal from the to highlight the diversity of approaches to the idea of “a compact form of linear urban development in pedestrians was made possible between the upper level buildings contributed to city pollution and lower linearity in , indicate their similarities, es- a continuous built structure. Zoning of functions elegant streets and palaces. This area was reserved for quality of living for inhabitants. tablish a distinction of linear concepts on different scale is usually vertically distributed below or above the gentiluomini, while the lower levels were dedica- Most of Hénard’s proposed vision is based on dea- levels, historical context, design approach, spatial cha- a transportation spine, different from other linear ted to the poveraglia, service, transportation and trade. ling with the issue of infrastructure through imple- racteristics and feasibility in tackling urban sustainability development concepts where form and structure (Kostof, 1992, 237). The underground level consisted mentation of new technologies for the purpose of challenges on a given case study. are arranged in planar configuration.” (Tufek-Me- of canals linked directly to building basements for ea- sustainable and healthier living conditions. Nevert- In general scope, the research provides a categoriza- misevic, 2018, 62) tion of several types of linear urban development within This research, nonetheless, provides a more deta- Ill. 1. Leonardo Da Vinci Sheme for a multilevel circulation system for Milan ca 1490 (Source: Kostof, 1992) theory of urban planning in accordance with the follo- iled historical overview of such precedents empha- Ill. 2. Eugène Hénard, Scheme of a multilevel heavy traffic street in “Streets of the Future” 1910 (Source: http://urbanplanning.library.cornell. wing characteristics: sizing their disadvantages and advantages in po- edu/DOCS/henard.htm) 1. Concept – whether existing or only theoretical tentially providing an answer to future sustainable 2. Control of development – planned or unplanned growth of urban spaces. Ideas of compact linear 3. Form inducing factors – urban growth, topography, urban structures are often disregarded in literature socio-economic drive and attributed to utopian planning ideology or vie- 4. Organization – a single compact urban setting or part wed as a product of utilitarian uniformity of moder- of another one nist thinking. The daunting massive scale of such 5. Transportation – ratio of transportation mode to size concepts makes them unappealing and living in of development, transportation system (single or them seemingly unrealistic, inhumane even -” me- multi-modal) gastructures... would be landmarks to the mental The recognized types of linear developments specified fossilization of humankind.” (Cathacart, 1996) by these characteristics are: In other instances they are regarded as “heroic am- 1. Coincidental linear urban forms, bition” of creating environments that serve as mo- 2. Linear villages, del cities (Lin, 2007, 74) However, the idea of mul- 3. Linear cities, tilevel cities following a certain transportation route 4. Linear megastructures, is one suggested by some of the greatest minds in 5. Transit-oriented developments (TOD) and history and dates long before Modernism. Further- 6. Infrastructure corridors. more, most of the linear megastructure concepts In accordance to the aforementioned characteristics mainly arose from the motivation of mitigating linear megastructures in general are theoretical, socio- challenges to sustainable urban development and

* Tijana Tufek-Memisevic, Ph.D. Eng. Arch. Candarc LLC, Chicago , [email protected], ORCID: 0000-0001-9916-8257 54 ** Ewa Stachura, Ph.D. DSc. Eng. Arch., State University of Applied Sciences in Raciborz. Institute of Architectur, [email protected], 55 ORCID: 0000-0002-0870-5887 heless, the peculiarity of this multi-level design for hea- ry and triggered by various ideologies and socio- vy-traffic streets lays out a precedent for significant fea- -economic circumstances. tures of the linear megastructure concepts yet to come. First to introduce the idea of an infinite inhabited li- The expansion of his plan shows a four-level subter- near structure connected to transportation systems ranean division. The first underground level would be was visionary Edgar Chambless with his proposal dedicated to pedestrians and carriages, second for for Roadtown in 1910. tramways, third for various pipes and infrastructure and While contemplating on the issue of land value and fourth for transportation of different goods. The plans its dependency on transportation vicinity, Cham- futuristic ambition is also reflected in the proposition of bless, who also worked as a patent investigator using roof terraces as landing platforms for airplanes. dealing with new inventions, came up with a new Hénard himself acknowledges that the concept would concept of urban living. be hard to realize in existing urban settings and would “The idea occurred to me to lay the modern sky- rather require planning of a completely new , scraper on its side and run the elevators and the but strongly suggests his approach as a viable solution pipes and wires horizontally instead of vertically.’ Ill. 4. Le Corbusier’s Obus structure 1964 (Source: Steyn, 2012) to sustainable clean urban living. E. Chambless, 1910 Chambless envisioned Roadtown as joined sy- Various concepts of linear megastructure stem of organized production, consumption and The term “megastructure” has been used to describe transportation. He criticized the wasteful manner in similar structures of grand scale first time in the 1960s which goods are prepared from production to con- being especially popular in Japan among architects of sumption and the high rates of unnecessary cost of the Metabolism movement. Apart from being an archi- various machineries, transportation and mediators tectural concept, the term is applied to exceptional lar- that could be avoided by implementing a better co- ge-scale objects in civil engineering, space technology, ordinated system on a single transportation line. nuclear research etc. Nonetheless, we find it necessary Roadtown was envisioned as a line of city through to distinguish the specific type of transit oriented com- the country not more than two stories high with pact city development structure apart from other vario- subterranean train transportation. The train plan- us forms of megastructural projects by formulating the ned for this project was the Boyes Monorail with term “linear megastructure” as defined previously in this rails made of wood and an estimated speed of 20 paper. Interestingly, there have been ample number of miles per hour - an invention that was never deve- concepts introducing the idea of linear megastructure. loped. Every household unit would have access Ill. 5. Le Corbusier’s proposal for linear structure in Rio de Janeiro (Source: Steyn, 2012) Some emerged influenced by others and some appe- to the lower monorail platform as well as an upper ared without acknowledgement of precedent examples. street on the roof. The street was planned as a spa- The ones presented in this research are a selection of ce for leisure, cycling and recreation with a central -dependent and rudimental (Steyn 2012). The plan for of Tokyo. The plan was further laid out over water several plans introduced throughout the course of histo- covered promenade, enclosed in glass with regula- Algiers however was additionally viewed as an audacio- expanding one main axis that connects two shores ted heat in wintertime. In addition, Chambless went us attempt in colonial urbanism separating and ignoring of the bay approx. 18 km. The project was inten- into great detail organizing all socio-economic Ill. 3. Edgar Chambless’ Roadtown, 1910 (Source: Chambless, 2012) the local Algerian inhabitants by connecting two Euro- ded to reduce the stress of population growth on aspects of his plan. No part of Roadtown design pean colonialized parts of the city. Furthermore, the de- the city offering satellite tent-like residential units has ever been executed in reality. signed 180 000 inhabitants’ compartmentalized lifestyle spread above the water that would connect to the Le Corbusier, one of the most prominent names of and economic status would differ greatly compared to central axis. 20th century architecture and Modernism, was also the Algerians’. Needless to say, his plans for Algiers and “It is the arterial system which preserves the life among the ones to produce a proposal for a linear Rio de Janeiro never got realized. and human drive of the city, the nervous system megastructure. We know for certain that in his city Le Corbusier’s concept although linear and although which moves its brain. Mobility determines the planning ideas Le Corbusier was inspired by line- megastructural, differ in many ways from other con- structure of the city.”(Lin 2007) ar city plans of Soria y Mata, Milyutin and Garnier. cepts presented in this research. Their motivation is not Tange’s plan was never carried out due to technical Whether he was a proponent of Chambless’ con- in mitigating sustainability challenges as much as follo- and socio-political challenges. However, it enco- cept is not clear though. His multiple plans for Al- wing an ideological path established by the author. uraged future plans to expand onto the Bay area giers called Plan Obus (French for “cannon shell”) Megastructural architecture and planning was highly contributing to the credibility of such megastruc- and plans for Rio de Janeiro in 1930s display simi- popular in 1960s Japan. The movement was influenced tural concepts. lar basic features of Chambless’ vision. by the Metabolism theory which contrary to the Moder- Finally, a more contemporary example of linear Plan Obus was envisioned as a building-aqueduct- nist vision of a city as a machine, viewed it as an orga- megastructures is Paolo Soleri’s Lean Linear City -highway typology, the concepts comprised of nic process. The movement came as a response to the concept in 2010. Soleri’s plan in theoretical sen- a multi kilometer continuous megastructure of 14 postindustrial economic reorganization and rapid urban se is incomplete because it fails to acknowledge story housing beneath elevated highway linking growth. The most prominent Ill. of Metabolism theory, previous precedent concepts of linear megastruc- a new business district of Algiers on one side to Kenzo Tange, introduced his project for the Tokyo Bay tures. The critique in Lean Linear City is oriented a new residential quarter on another. Based on area titled “A plan for Tokyo, 1960 – Towards a Structural towards materialism, consumerism and the pur- Roman aqueducts, his concept for Rio consisted Reorganization”. The plan came as an answer to a cities suit of individual spatial ownership of land stimu- of a continuous high-rise structure on piers with challenge of rapid urban growth within an old physical lating urban sprawl. The project is a response to a wide motorway on top linking all the hilltops. framework. The transportation system was of significant mitigating predicted high rate of urban growth, Although a dominant Ill. in architecture of the Mo- importance in his plan with a clear hierarchical arrange- especially in places like China and India. The plan dernist era, Le Corbusier’s town planning ideas ment of circulation. The plan consists of a system of traf- is envisioned as an energy efficient system with were often criticized as being monotonous, car- fic loops, having the first one frame the existing center a low ecological footprint spreading in a “lean”

56 57 accompanying the idea of integrating housing, infrastru- traffic and servicing buildings along the street with cture and transport in linear planning. dedicated unloading spaces. Not an unrealistic fea- In analyzing the various concepts of linear megastructu- ture of precedent “radical” design after all. re several common aspects can be noted: Kenzo Tange’s Tokyo Bay project as controversial – the presented plans were influenced by different socio- as it seemed at the time, encouraged later proje- -economic circumstances over the course of history cts oriented towards land reclamation in the Bay – all the concepts were regarded by their creators as area and provided a model for more integrated in- ideal cities serving as models for future urban deve- frastructural and architectural planning opposed to lopment disperse zoning methods. – the emphasis on importance of transport communica- Finally, the ever growing contemporary trend in tion was consistent in all plans and they were based transit oriented development is essentially a com- on the pursuit of best utilization of land and transport bination of the aspirations for sustainable urban de- relationship velopment; such as efficient energy consumption, – with the exception of Le Corbusier’s plans all were walkable communities, car-independent transpor- initially motivated by combating obstacles to urban tation, eco-friendly living environment, coupled sustainability with the emphasized importance of transportation – all the plans were considered radical at the time of systems - the basis of proposals in linear mega- their introduction structure concepts. – they all required a completely new urban setting and were hard to realize in existing ones BIBLIOGRAPHY – none of the plans was ever realized in its full form and [1] Banham, Reyner, and Cedric Price. 1999. Critic Writes - Selected scale Essays by Reyner Banham. University Of California Press. [2] Cathcart, Richard B. 1996. Gauthier’s ‘Linear City.’ Envi- The daunting grandeur of linear megastructure con- ronmental Conservation 23, Nr. 4: 286–286. doi:10.1017/ cepts’ is most certainly a reason for the failure of their S0376892900039114. Ill. 6. KenzoTange’s Tokyo Bay Project (Source: Lin, 2007) [3] Chambless, Edgar. 2012. Roadtown. Place of publication not implementation in reality. The main issue here is the identified: Nabu Press. strive to formulate a general model of “ideal” living [4] Corbusier, Le. 2013. The City of To-Morrow and Its Planning. which in our world of versatile culture, various impor- New York: Dover Publications Inc. 2019. HENARD, CITIES OF THE FUTURE. Accessed November 22. http://urbanplanning.library.cor- and linear way from one cultural interest or economic is with all previous linear megastructure concepts, tance of places, genius loci, different attraction forces nell.edu/DOCS/henard.htm. need to another. The plan consists of three major modes Soleri’s Lean Linear City was never realized either. driving the form of urban environment- in its essence is [5] Kostof, Spiro. 1992. The City Assembled the Elements of Urban of transportation; pedestrian walkways, cycling paths Form through History. New York, NY: Thames & Hudson. not a concept of reality. [6] Lin, Zhong-Jie. 2007. “From Megastructure to : For- and mass transit systems. A wide internal city park with Conclusion Additionally, the exaggerated scale provokes the labeling mation and Transformation of Mega-Projects in Tokyo Bay.” Journal water stream is envisioned separating two continuous It is important to note that the concept of linear of Utopia which is mostly a cause for the unjust imme- of 12 (1): 73–92. doi:10.1080/13574800601072442. [7] Savvides, Andreas. 2004. “Regenerating Urban Space: Putting housing structures carrying wind generators on the ro- megastructures cannot be fully separated from the diate rejection of otherwise not so unrealistic beneficial Highway Airspace to Work.” Journal of Urban Design 9 (1): 47–71. oftops. A so-called terra level dedicated to cycling paths context of linear urban development and its histori- features that could be extracted from the concepts. Fast doi:10.1080/1357480042000187703. and pedestrian walkways spans across both structures cal precedents pioneered by Arturo Soria y Mata’s [8] Sky, Alison, Michelle Stone, and George R. Collins. 1983. Un- forward centuries after Leonardo’s scheme with canals built America: Forgotten Architecture in the United States from connected by bridges. Additionally, the plan consists of Ciudad de Lineal in in 1890s (Tufek-Memise- connected to basements for undisturbed unloading of Thomas Jefferson to the Space Age. New York: Abbeville Press. photovoltaic ribbons for solar energy, greenhouses and vic, 2018). This research however is focused more goods (similar to Hénard’s subterranean concepts) to [9] Soleri, Paolo. 2012. Lean Linear City: Arterial Arcology. Mayer, AZ: Cosanti Press. light wells for natural light to reach interior areas. As it on the peculiarity of fascination with a grand scale Chicago’s Wacker Drive double-deck street project initia- [10] Steyn, Gerald, 2012, SAJAH, volume 27, number 1, pp. 83-106 ted in the 1920s. Wacker Drivem a 2.2 mile long two-le- [11] Tufek-Memišević, Tijana. 2018. “Contemporary Linear City De- velopment: A Case of Spatial Interventions in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Ill. 7. Section rendering of Lean Linear City (Source: Soleri, 2012) vel street following the river along Chicago’s Herzegovina: Doctoral Dissertation.” Dissertation. Cracow Univer- Loop in its upper level is intended for local traffic and sity of Technology. pedestrian circulation, while the lower level for through

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