Final Report (Volume I) Comprehensive Strategic Investment Plan and Road Map for the Water Supply and Sanitation Sector in Sri Lanka
Component MCPWS/WASSIP/C/QCBS/04
Water Supply and Sanitation Improvement Project Ministry of Urban Development, Water Supply & Housing Facilities
Ratmalana, June 15, 2020
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Photo credit cover page: (left) Parape School, Kegalle (right) Reservoir RSC Uva
This report has been prepared by the CSIP team, notably Han Heijnen, Team Leader Eng. Lal Premanath, Deputy Team leader
With extensive support from
Eng. Sunidha Senaratne, Institutional Development Expert, Dr. Praween Madusanka, Senior WASH Engineer Eng. Nipuna Weerasekara, WASH engineer and important inputs from Badra Kamaladasa, Senior Water Resources Expert Sarath Sydney de Silva, Senior Geo-hydrologist Pushpa Gamage, GIS Expert P.T.Sirisena, Economist Harry Piirainen, Financial Analyst
Disclaimer This report contains the findings and recommendations of the consultancy assignment on Comprehensive Strategic Investment Plan for the Water Supply and Sanitation Sector in Sri Lanka. While the assignment has collected information and viewpoints through discussion with and extensive information on the NWSDB, DNCWS, Irrigation Department, Mahaweli Authority, PHDT, Local Authorities, CBOs, NGOs, World Bank, WaSSIP team and a range of other agencies active in the Sector, the conclusions and recommendations are the findings and opinions of the CSIP team. Any omissions or imperfect interpretation is the responsibility of the authors. Version Originator Checked by Date Observations 1.0 Han Heijnen Lal Premanath April 12 Initial draft 2.0 Han Heijnen Lal Premanath June 3 Full draft to edit 2.3 Han Heijnen Ilmari Saarilehto June 15
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Acknowledgement The Team likes to thank the PD WASSIP and the Addl.GM (P&P) NWSDB for their initial guidance and instructions. And subsequently for the encouragement of their colleagues at the NWSDB Regional Support Centers. By reaching out to the RSCs, the process of data collection, GIS referencing, and analysis has become more inclusive and has enabled good communication with the RSCs during the consultancy period. The work done by the RSCs to provide data has been very worthwhile. In finalizing the investment plan, the Secretary to the Ministry of Urban Development, Water Supply and Housing Facilities; the Deputy Secretary to the treasury, the Chairman and the General Manager of NWSDB have given critical inputs aligning with the policies of the new Government. The February 15, 2002 consultative meeting was very useful in adjusting the investment plan to the current context. Discussions with the World Bank Missions during the period of consultancy, sculpted the output of assignment to a greater standard. It was also useful having exchange of views with other ongoing consultancies of WASSIP and the PIEC Project, funded by AFD. The CSIP team has been able to meet with a fair number of direct and indirect stakeholders including the National Planning Department, Public Utilities Commission of Sri Lanka, Department of National Community Water Supply, Plantation Human Development Trust, and the Urban Development Authority/National Physical Planning Department. A special word of thanks to DG Irrigation Department and the Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka for their inputs and collaborative spirit. CSIP appreciates the discussions with the Secretary to the Ministry of Public Administration, Home Affairs, Provincial Councils & Local Government and for arranging a special data collection survey from all the Local Authorities on our request. We also gratefully acknowledge the cooperation we received from several Local Authorities, NGOs and CBOs during our field visits and discussions. A special word of thanks must go to AGM (P&S) Eng. Vajira Thiranagama who has untiringly and without complaints communicated with RSCs and HO staff regarding the CSIP request information and data validations. We also like to thank the DGMs and their staff at the Regional Support Centers, and the NWSDB Head Office Divisions for Sewerage, Small Town & Rural Water Supply, Groundwater, Corporate Planning, Commercial and Finance for information sharing, feedback and suggestions. We would like to appreciate all the officers and colleagues who shared their information and insights with the Team, and we hope to do justice to their valuable inputs.
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List of Abbreviations and Acronyms
ADB Asian Development Bank BOI Board of Investments CBO Community Based Organization CBSL Central Bank of Sri Lanka CEA Central Environment Authority CIDA Construction Industry Development Authority) (Earlier Institute for Construction Training and Development – ICTAD) CKDu Chronic Kidney Disease of Unknown Etiology CRIP Climate Resilience Improvement Project CRIWMP Climate Resilient Integrated Water Management Project CSO Civil Society Organization CSIP WASS [Consultancy on the preparation of a] Comprehensive Strategic Investment Programme for the Water Supply and Sanitation Sector DAD Department of Agrarian Development DNCWS Department of National Community Water Supply DSU District Support Unit DIU Pradeshiya Sabha Rural Unit EA Environmental Assessment EIA/ESIA Environmental/and Social Impact Assessment EPL Environmental Protection License ERD External Resources Department ERR Economic Rate of Return EAMF Environmental Assessment and Management Framework EWHCS Estate Workers Housing Cooperative Society GoSL Government of Sri Lanka HH Household HIES Household Income and Expenditure Survey ID Irrigation Department ICT Information, Communication, Technology IDA International Development Association JMP Joint Monitoring Program (WHO/UNICEF) LKR Sri Lanka Rupees LA Local Authority LGA Local Government Area MASL Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka MAR Managed Aquifer Recharge MDG Millennium Development Goal MIS Management Information System M&E Monitoring and Evaluation MUDWS&HF Ministry of Urban Development, Water Supply & Housing Facilities (earlier Ministry of City Planning, Water Supply and Higher Education: MCPWS&HE) MMWD Ministry of Megapolis and Western Development (now under MUDWS&HF) MoFE&PD Ministry of Finance, Economic and Policy Development MoHIMS Ministry of Healthcare and Indigenous Medical Services
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MPAHAPC&LG Ministry of Public Administration, Home Affairs, Provincial Councils & Local Government MCEEID Ministry of Community Empowerment and Estate Infrastructure Development NBRO National Building Research Organization NCWT National Community Water Trust NGO Non-Government Organization NPC National Planning Commission NPD National Planning Department NPP2050 National Physical Plan 2050 NRW Non-Revenue Water NVDAPR New Villages Development Authority for Plantation Region NWSDB National Water Supply and Drainage Board O&M Operation and Maintenance PHDT Plantation Human Development Trust PIEC Policy and Institutional Enhancement Consultancy PS Pradeshiya Sabha (Local Government) PUCSL Public Utility Commission of Sri Lanka RSC NWDSB Regional Support Centre RPCs Regional Plantation Companies RWSS Rural Water Supply and Sanitation SAC Social Audit Committee SHIFT Sanitation and Hygiene Initiative for Towns SLSI Sri Lanka Standards Institute SMF Social Management Framework TA Technical Assistance UDA Urban Development Authority VMW Village Maintenance Worker WASH Water, Sanitation and Hygiene WASSIP Water Supply and Sanitation Improvement Project WHO World Health Organization WSS Water Supply and Sanitation WUA Water User Association
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Table of Contents List of Abbreviations and Acronyms ...... iv Table of Contents ...... vi List of Figures ...... xii List of Tables ...... xiv Executive Summary ...... xvi 1 Introduction ...... 1 1.1 CSIP Assignment ...... 1 1.2 CSIP Task VI report ...... 2 1.3 National Development Perspective ...... 2 2 Socio-economic Situation of Sri Lanka ...... 5 2.1 Regional Economic Disparities and Poverty Levels in Sri Lanka ...... 7 2.2 Disaster Management and Climate Change in Sri Lanka ...... 8 2.3 The Strategic Tourism Sector in Sri Lanka ...... 8 2.4 State Owned Enterprises (SOEs) in Sri Lanka ...... 8 2.5 Recent Economic Developments and Challenges ...... 9 2.6 Infrastructure Investment in Sri Lanka ...... 10 2.7 Economic Policy of the New Government ...... 10 2.8 Consequences of COVID ...... 14 3 Comprehensive Strategic Investment Plan for Water Supply and Sanitation ...... 15 3.1 National Development ...... 15 3.2 Sector Vision ...... 17 3.3 Key Policy Themes ...... 18 3.4 Institutional set-up of the WASH sector ...... 19 3.5 Sector Coverage ...... 21 Demography and population data ...... 21 Definition of urban and semi-urban areas ...... 21 3.6 Assessing service availability ...... 23 2019 status of sector coverage ...... 23 Sustainable Development Goals ...... 24 SDG 6 ...... 27 3.7 Strategies for achieving the SDG 6 targets ...... 29 3.8 Public Health and WASH ...... 36 3.9 Aspects of Institutional WASH ...... 39 WASH in schools ...... 39
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WASH in Health Institutions ...... 40 WASH in Public Places ...... 41 3.10 Observations and Recommendations ...... 42 4 Water Supply ...... 43 4.1 Introduction ...... 43 4.2 National Water Supply and Drainage Board ...... 43 4.3 Demand calculations for NWSDB service areas ...... 44 Non-Revenue Water ...... 44 4.4 Demand Management and Water Education ...... 46 4.5 NWSDB water supply coverage, current and prospective ...... 47 NWSDB service hours ...... 48 4.6 Water Supply services by CBOs and Local Authorities ...... 49 Local Authorities ...... 49 Community Based Organizations ...... 49 Plantation Human Development Trust ...... 50 4.7 Water Requirements as Special Demands for EPZs and other Economic Developments 51 4.8 Total water demand by district ...... 52 Water supply demand by NWSD scheme ...... 54 Proposed urban, small town or rural water supplies ...... 55 4.9 Observations and recommendations ...... 56 5 Sanitation Coverage in Sri Lanka ...... 59 5.1 Introduction ...... 59 5.2 Urban Sanitation and Sewerage ...... 59 5.3 Rural Sanitation and Hygiene ...... 61 5.4 Estate Sanitation ...... 62 5.5 Institutional Sanitation and Sewerage ...... 62 Wastewater management in Industrial zones ...... 62 Status of wastewater management in commercial establishments ...... 63 Status of wastewater management in hotel sector...... 63 Unauthorized solid and liquid releases ...... 64 5.6 Wastewater Treatment and Septage Management ...... 65 Fecal Sludge Management ...... 66 Desludging service providers ...... 67 Fecal Sludge Management Framework ...... 68 5.7 The future of sanitation and fecal sludge treatment ...... 70 FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) vii
5.8 Observations and Recommendations ...... 71 6 Water Resources of Sri Lanka ...... 73 6.1 Introduction ...... 73 6.2 Surface water resources ...... 73 6.2 Ground Water Resources ...... 75 6.3 Key organisations responsible for water resources development and management ... 77 6.4 Water Resources Planning and Development in Sri Lanka...... 77 River Basin Planning ...... 78 Water security, climate change effects and SDG 6 ...... 80 Existing Water Resources Schemes ...... 82 Water usage in Sri Lanka ...... 84 6.5 Challenges in Water Resources ...... 84 Impacts due to Surface Water Extraction ...... 84 Impacts due to Ground Water Extraction ...... 85 Observed Climate Changes ...... 86 Non-revenue water and demand management ...... 86 Salinity barriers and impact due to excessive sand mining ...... 88 6.6 Overview of Current Extraction for Potable Water ...... 88 Existing Surface and Ground Water Sources ...... 89 Surface Water ...... 90 Ground Water ...... 91 Springs ...... 93 Rainwater Harvesting ...... 93 Desalinization ...... 94 6.7 District-wise Comprehensive Information...... 94 Matching water supply demand with available water resources ...... 94 GIS map on water supply coverage...... 95 Forecasted water demand for each NWS&DB scheme ...... 97 Analysis of water resources for NWSDB water supply ...... 97 General Observations ...... 99 River Basin Wise Comprehensive Information ...... 99 6.8 Observations and Recommendations ...... 101 7 Institutional and Policy Aspects in WASH ...... 103 7.1 Introduction ...... 103 7.2 Policy Environment ...... 103
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7.3 Institutional Environment ...... 104 Planning for Water Supply & Sanitation Facilities ...... 106 Regulatory context ...... 110 Performance management through bench marking ...... 114 7.4 Process of Implementation of Institutional and Policy Reforms ...... 116 7.5 Sector Monitoring ...... 120 7.6 Budget estimate for Institutional and Policy Development ...... 121 7.7 Recommendations ...... 123 8 Water Quality ...... 127 8.1 Introduction ...... 127 Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 ...... 127 8.2 Quality of water of a source ...... 128 8.3 Water quality standards ...... 128 8.4 Water Safety Plans ...... 129 8.5 Monitoring Water Quality ...... 130 NWSDB ...... 130 Regulation and monitoring by other agencies ...... 131 Monitoring of water quality by CBOs, LAs and other service providers ...... 131 8.6 Special water quality concerns in Sri Lanka ...... 133 CKDu ...... 135 Cyanotoxins produced by cyanobacteria ...... 136 Fluoride ...... 138 Salinity intrusion ...... 138 Jaffna situation ...... 138 8.7 Other water supply solutions ...... 139 Rainwater ...... 139 Household Wells/ Water Treatment ...... 139 Communal Wells ...... 140 8.8 Water quality data inventory for strategic planning of water resources...... 140 8.9 Observations and Recommendations ...... 140 9 Climate Change mitigation measures for the WASH sector ...... 141 9.1 Introduction ...... 141 9.2 Strategies for water conservation and source protection ...... 142 Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies to counter Climate Change Effects ...... 142 Local conservation of watersheds ...... 144
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Eco-efficient water infrastructure...... 145 9.3 Other effects on climate change important for water treatment ...... 146 9.4 Observations and Recommendations ...... 146 10 Financing the WASH Sector ...... 149 10.1 Sector Overview ...... 149 10.2 Investment plan and road map ...... 150 10.3 National Water Supply and Drainage Board ...... 150 Statement of Corporate Intent ...... 153 Bonds as an Option for Financing WSS Sector in Sri Lanka ...... 154 10.4 Rural Water Supply ...... 155 Financing the rural water supply sector ...... 155 Vikasha CBO, Magammana Town ...... 156 10.5 Observations and Recommendations ...... 158 11 Conclusion and Recommendations ...... 159 11.1 Policy ...... 159 11.2 Financing sector improvements ...... 160 11.3 Institutional Aspects ...... 161 11.4 Services ...... 162 11.5 Water Resources ...... 163 11.6 Strengthening and Capacity Building Measures ...... 164 11.7 Monitoring ...... 165 11.8 Public Relations, Demand Management and Water Education ...... 165 11.9 NWSDB-specific operational recommendations ...... 166 12 Water Supply and Sanitation Investment Plan and Roadmap ...... 167 12.1 Introduction ...... 167 12.2 Priority setting for water supply and sewerage (for NWSDB schemes) ...... 168 Water Supply Schemes ...... 168 Specific Projects/ Strategies in Medium Term (2021-2025) ...... 170 (i) Raising Quality and Quantity ...... 170 (ii) In-filling and expansion of distribution networks ...... 172 (iii) Reducing Non-Revenue Water and generating Energy Savings ...... 174 (iv) Revenue generating consumer segments ...... 176 Specific Projects/ Strategies in Long Term (2026-2030) ...... 177 Phasing-out Projects to be implemented after 2030...... 179 Sewerage Schemes...... 179
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12.3 Investment Plan: NWSDB component ...... 181 Investments in Water Supply ...... 181 Sewerage Schemes by NWSDB ...... 182 Support to Rural and Plantation Sector by NWSDB ...... 182 Total Investment Requirement of NWSDB...... 184 Total Service Coverage that could be achieved by NWSDB by 2025 and 2030 .... 184 12.4 Asset management and ensuring service functionality of NWSDB systems ...... 187 12.5 Investment Plan: CBOs, LA, Estate Areas and Ministry ...... 189 Additional financing for WaSSIP ...... 189 District-based WASH investment programs ...... 189 Closing the service gap ...... 192 Revolving fund...... 192 Policy Development and Sector Coordination ...... 193 Total Investment requirement for CBO, LA and estate sector and Ministry ...... 194 Investment requirements and resulting expected service coverage ...... 194 12.6 Procurement and Implementation Plans ...... 196 Quality/Quantity Improvements of NWSDB WSS ...... 196 Distribution Extensions of NWSDB WSS ...... 196 NRW Reduction Programs of NWSDB WSS ...... 197 Water Supply Projects for Batch I and Batch II ...... 198 Water Resources Projects for Batch I and Batch II ...... 199 Small/Emerging town Projects under WASHIP Projects...... 200 Sewerage Projects under Batch I ...... 200 NWSDB support to Rural Water Supply and Sanitation...... 201 Rural Water Supply Projects under WASHIP Projects...... 202 12.7 Road map for implementation from 2020-2030, and prospective to 2050 ...... 203 13 References ...... 208 List of Annexes in Volume II ...... 213
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List of Figures Figure 2-1 Countries ranked by financial strength...... 14 Figure 3-1 Proposed economic and tourism clusters, and focused developments (NPP2050) .... 16 Figure 3-2 PIP 2017-2020 ...... 17 Figure 3-3 Simplified institutional set up of the WASH sector ...... 20 Figure 3-4 Left: Urban area classification based on DCS 2012; Right: CSIP definition of urban and semi-urban areas 2019 ...... 22 Figure 3-5 2019 coverage in safely managed and basic water supply and sanitation in Sri Lanka23 Figure 3-6 Supportive links between WASH and other SDGs ...... 26 Figure 3-7 SDG6 Service Ladder ...... 27 Figure 3-8 Handwashing station with posters as placed by ADRA’s ACCEND project supported by EU ...... 39 Figure 3-9 Hand washing promotion by MoH Health Promotion Bureau & ...... 40 Figure 3-10 Private Sector Participation in Public Toilets Management ...... 41 Figure 4-1 Components of total demand calculations for water supply 2020-2050 ...... 44 Figure 4-2 NWSDB: Progress in NRW reduction ...... 45 Figure 4-3 Around the world there are many programmes that link water with education ...... 46 Figure 4-4 GIS mapping of NWSDB water supply (existing and proposed) ...... 47 Figure 4-5 Daily service hours by NWSDB in Galle district ...... 48 Figure 4-6 Types of supply provided by Local Authorities ...... 49 Figure 4-7 Adequacy of source, in CBO schemes ...... 50 Figure 4-8 Discussing water supply management at Mattekelle Estate, Hatton ...... 51 Figure 4-9 Districts with substantial water demand increase until 2030 ...... 52 Figure 4-10 Matara District: locations of identified Urban & semi Urban GNDs outside the NWSDB service areas...... 55 Figure 5-1 Rural toilet with off-set pit ...... 61 Figure 5-2 Promotional poster for good toilet use (WaSSIP)...... 61 Figure 5-3: Status of water supply and sanitation in the estates (World Bank, 2017) ...... 62 Figure 5-4 Some EPZs and the capacity of their treatment plants ...... 62 Figure 5-5 Brandix factory in Batticaloa ...... 63 Figure 5-6 Water use in Brandix factories ...... 63 Figure 5-7 the fecal sludge management cycle (After EAWAG 2008/SNV Bangladesh) ...... 65 Figure 5-8 Hikkaduwa Waste Stabilization Ponds (Kumararathna) ...... 65 Figure 5-9 Fecal sludge management practices ...... 67 Figure 5-10 Inauguration of the Kilinochchi Septage Treatment Plant, March 2020 ...... 68 Figure 5-11 Types of fecal sludge treatment plants currently in use ...... 68 Figure 5-12 Sanitation standards explained: International Standards Organization ...... 70 Figure 5-13 Announcement IWA Conference on Non-Sewered Sanitation ...... 71 Figure 5-14 The potential of using black soldier flies to convert fecal waste into value (Rao, 2016) ...... 71 Figure 6-1 Major Agro-Ecological Regions, with the boundaries of the zones marked in red...... 73 Figure 6-2 River basins and NWSDB abstractions ...... 74 Figure 6-3 Hydrogeological configuration of Sri Lanka, predicting availability of groundwater ... 75 Figure 6-4 NWSDB Abstraction points in the Mahaweli basin ...... 79 Figure 6-5 Water Security for all stakeholders: ADB Asian Water Development Report 2013 ..... 80 Figure 6-6 Example of existing tank renovated under DSWRPP ...... 83 Figure 6-7 Reservoir storage capacity in March 2020 as compared to a year earlier ...... 87 Figure 6-8 Types of supply provided by Local Authorities ...... 89
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Figure 6-9 Adequacy of source, in CBO schemes (DNCWS, 2020) ...... 90 Figure 6-10 Monthly river discharge 2009-2018 ...... 92 Figure 6-11 Handpump pump distribution in Sri Lanka ...... 93 Figure 6-12 Rainwater harvesting systems in Sri Lanka by agro-ecological zone ...... 94 Figure 6-13 GIS mapping of NWSDB water supply (existing and proposed) ...... 95 Figure 6-14 Sample of a water deficit district map ...... 96 Figure 6-15 Sample of schematic diagrams of WSS in district wise ...... 98 Figure 6-16 Sample map of river basin map ...... 100 Figure 7-1 Proposed Coordination and Monitoring Committee Unit ...... 104 Figure 7-2 Proposed Institutional Structure of WASH Sector with Coordination and Monitoring Arrangement ...... 105 Figure 7-3 Planning and selection process for annual WSS planning ...... 110 Figure 7-4 Fecal Sludge management sequence (Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation) ...... 114 Figure 7-5 Conceptual Arrangement of Project Implementation and Institutional & Policy Reforms ...... 117 Figure 7-6 Institutional & Policy Reform Activities in the RURAL WASH sector ...... 118 Figure 7-7 Institutional & Policy Reform Activities for NWSDB ...... 119 Figure 8-1 WSP: protecting from catchment to consumer (WHO, 2012) ...... 129 Figure 8-2 WaSSIP sponsored cluster laboratory ...... 132 Figure 8-3 A common spring water collection system consisting of a protective wall (WHO) ... 133 Figure 8-4 Map showing the complexity of water quality issues in the Northern Province (RSC-N ...... 134 Figure 8-5 Indicative distribution of CKDu patients in Sri Lanka ...... 135 Figure 9-1 Kotmale reservoir water level receding rapidly (Daily Mirror, 25-2-2019) ...... 141 Figure 9-2 River basins under stud by CRIP ...... 144 Figure 9-3 Infiltration trenches and stone bunds to slow down the water ...... 145 Figure 10-1 NWSDB Key Financial Indicators 2018 – 2032, Gradual Tariff Adjustment ...... 151 Figure 10-2 Vikasha CBO Key Financial Indicators 2018 - 2030 ...... 157 Figure 12-1 Investment requirements for NWSDB for water supply and sewerage up to 2030 185 Figure 12-2 Water supply coverage by category of supply ...... 195 Figure 12-3 Implementation Plan for Quality and Quantity Improvements ...... 196 Figure 12-4 Implementation plan-Distribution expansions of NWSDB WSS ...... 197 Figure 12-5 Implementation plan- NRW reduction programs ...... 197 Figure 12-6 Implementation plan- Water supply projects for Batch I ...... 198 Figure 12-7 Implementation Plan - Water Supply Projects for Batch II ...... 198 Figure 12-8 Implementation Plan - Water Resources Projects for Batch I ...... 199 Figure 12-9 Implementation Plan - Water Resources Projects for Batch II ...... 199 Figure 12-10 Implementation Plan - Small/Emerging town Projects under WASHIP Group A and B Project; ...... 200 Figure 12-11 Implementation Plan - Sewerage Projects under Batch I ...... 201 Figure 12-12 Implementation Plan for sector support to Rural Water Supply and Sanitation ... 201
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List of Tables Table 3-1 Key institutions in the Water & Sanitation Sector in Sri Lanka ...... 19 Table 3-2 Estimates for population nationally and by district, for 2020-2050 ...... 21 Table 3-3 Descriptions and indicators for SDG 6 ...... 25 Table 3-4 SDG 1.4 links WASH SDG6 with universal access to basic services ...... 26 Table 3-5 Expected progress in safely managed 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3 ...... 27 Table 3-6 CSIP recommended national targets for the WASH sector for 2020-2050 ...... 28 Table 3-7 Definitions of safely managed water supply, sanitation, hygiene, waste management and cleanliness for different categories ...... 35 Table 3-8 Water shortages and sanitation issues by district ...... 38 Table 3-9 Coverage in percentage of schools by drinking water source ...... 40 Table 4-1 Targets for reduction of NRW by category of NRW ...... 45 Table 4-2 Assumed consumption figures in 2030 following a demand management programme ...... 46 Table 4-3 Expected Increase in population ...... 52 Table 4-4 Total water supply demand by district for 2020/2030/2050 ...... 53 Table 4-5 Forecasted coverage and demand by 2020, 2025, 2030 and 2050 ...... 54 Table 4-6 Proposed small-town schemes (for HHs>500) ...... 56 Table 4-7 Proposed rural schemes (for HHs<500) ...... 56 Table 5-1 Sewerage schemes in operation and on-going ...... 60 Table 5-2 John Keells Hotels PLC reporting on waste and effluents ...... 64 Table 5-3 Estimation of number of STPs needed for each district up to 2030 ...... 69 Table 6-1 The Dublin Statement on Water and Sustainable Development ...... 82 Table 6-2 Water Consumption pattern by various sectors (2013) ...... 84 Table 6-3 Water sources used by NWSDB ...... 89 Table 6-4 Analysis of type of aquifers for water supply of NWSDB ...... 91 Table 6-5 Identifying deficits by 2030 and 2050, by NWSD scheme ...... 96 Table 6-6 Sample of a forecasted water demand for each NWSDB water supply scheme ...... 97 Table 6-7 Sample of table of drinking water deficits in existing and future schemes ...... 98 Table 6-8 Basins and districts covered by each river basin ...... 100 Table 7-1 Assessed levels of subsidy and household contribution...... 108 Table 7-2 Sample of Water Quality Surveillance returns from MoH areas as reported in the Weekly Epidemiological Report (Vol 46, No 38), Epidemiology Unit, MoH, ...... 111 Table 7-3 Regulatory aspects in rural WASH sector and institutional roles ...... 112 Table 7-4 Total budget requirement estimated for the period 2021-2030 ...... 122 Table 8-1 Species composition of toxin producing, filter clogging and odor forming algae ...... 137 Table 8-2 drinking water sources by households (DHS16) ...... 140 Table 9-1 examples of climate change impacting water supply management ...... 146 Table 10-1 NWSDB Key Performance Indicators and financial ratios 2020-2030 ...... 152 Table 10-2 Production and sales factors in 2018-2030 ...... 157 Table 12-1 Criteria considered for prioritization of water supply schemes ...... 168 Table 12-2 Schemes identified for Quality and Quantity improvements ...... 170 Table 12-3 Potential for distribution expansion for existing schemes ...... 173 Table 12-4 Potential distribution expansion for existing schemes by ongoing projects ...... 174 Table 12-5 NRW improvements as identified by CSIP ...... 175 Table 12-6 NRW improvements as proposed by RSCs...... 175 Table 12-7 Water supply projects to be implemented during 2022-2026 (Batch I) ...... 176
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Table 12-8 Water resources development projects to be implemented during 2022-2026 (Batch I) ...... 177 Table 12-9 Water supply projects to be implemented during 2026-2030 (Batch II) ...... 178 Table 12-10 Water resources development projects to be implemented during 2026-2030 .... 179 Table 12-11 Phase out projects of Batch I & Batch II to be implemented after 2030 ...... 179 Table 12-12 Phase out projects of Batch I & Batch II to be implemented after 2030 ...... 180 Table 12-13 Expected national share of coverage for NWSDB by year ...... 181 Table 12-14 Summary of the proposed investment plan for NWSDB (in LKR 2020 prices) ...... 181 Table 12-15 Total investment requirements project wise for NWSDB for Water Supply & Sewerage ...... 184 Table 12-16 Total connection generated for NWSDB for Water Supply and Sewerage ...... 185 Table 12-17 Progressive increase in connections and coverage for NWSDB from 2019 to 2025 to 2030, by district ...... 186 Table 12-18 Costs of operation and maintenance, and management ...... 187 Table 12-19 Costs of replacement investments 2020-2030 ...... 188 Table 12-20 WaSSIP additional project funding, as proposed, by district in LKR Million ...... 189 Table 12-21 WASSIP Project Group A ...... 190 Table 12-22 WASHIP Project Group B ...... 191 Table 12-23 WASHIP Project Group C ...... 191 Table 12-24 WASHIP Projects Group D ...... 192 Table 12-25 Total Investment requirement for Rural & Estate sector ...... 194 Table 12-26 Proposed investments in WASH from 2020-2030 ...... 194 Table 12-27 Water supply and sanitation sector coverage progression ...... 195 Table 12-28 Roadmap for NWSDB investment activities 2021-2030, excluding current portfolio of on-going projects ...... 204 Table 12-29 Overall Road Map (Rural & Estate) WASHIP Group A & B ...... 205 Table 12-30 Overall Road Map (Rural & Estate) WASHIP Group C & D ...... 206 Table 12-31 Overall Road Map (Sector Support Activities ...... 207
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Executive Summary This document is the deliverable for Task VI of the Comprehensive Strategic Investment Programme for the Water Supply and Sanitation Sector (CSIP). It presents the findings and considerations that have led to the development of a national investment programme for water supply and sanitation for the period 2020-2030, with a perspective to the situation in 2050. The socio-economic situation in Sri Lanka is presently all right. Unfortunately, the Covid-19 crisis has caused serious distress to the ordinary people in the country as well as to the national income. This report therefore highlights opportunities to keep improving the water supply and sanitation status with the means that are still available, giving due attention to CBO managed schemes and self-supply. The government vision for the sector can be described as “ Universal Access to safely managed drinking water supply and safe sanitation and hygiene. Protection and effective use of water resources. Environmentally sound management of wastewater and sewage to protect water quality and ecosystems”. The Report on Water Demand Projections has assessed the present coverages (estimated at the end of 2019) of the country in water and sanitation. In water supply, the NWSDB covers 41.3% of the population with piped water supply services. CBOs and Local Authorities provide water to a further 12%. An estimated 38.7% of the population is covered with basic water supply through self-supply served by protected dug wells and rainwater harvesting systems, and nearby public point sources including hand pumps and dug wells. In the estate sector, some 70% of the population is covered with water supply, with a growing percentage having access to safely managed, treated water supply. The coverage in sanitation is over 92% around the country except in estate areas where coverage is just 67%, and a good number of households share toilets. Most households in Sri Lanka have a proper toilet. Some 5 % use shared or public toilets or have a direct-drop pit latrine. A further 2 % do not have a fixed place for defecation. Safely managed sanitation is achieved only for sewerage – which currently stands at 2.1%, mainly in Colombo, or when a household uses a two- pit pour-flush latrine with some 3 years storage capacity for one pit. To establish the planning parameters for water supply and sanitation services, demand calculations for water supply (in m 3, by NWSDB scheme or rural area) and sanitation (by household, by GND) were completed. Extensive mapping and consultation with stakeholders (in NWSDB the RSCs) eventually produced demand assessments that were used for investment calculations. The analysis accompanying these calculations described the methodology, the constraints and the current status of services, for the household, in school, the health facility or economic zone. Sewerage remains a small component of the total sanitation portfolio. Some 2.1% of households are connected to sewerage, mainly in the Colombo Municipal Council (CMC) area. It will grow to 6.3% in 2030. On-site sanitation will remain a much larger concern. To manage the fecal sludge produced in on-site toilets with septic tanks, gully suckers will need to collect and transport the waste hygienically to septage treatment plants. The requirement for septage treatment plants has been assessed and included in the investment plan. However, rather than the infrastructure which will also require substantial social interaction and environmental impact assessments to agree on locations for the plants, it is important to establish a regulated system for fecal sludge management in the municipal areas.
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A critical concern for this investment plan are the water resources. Many of the NWSDB schemes will face deficits in 2030 or 2050. To resolve this issue, data have been collected from the Irrigation Department, Mahaweli Authority, NWSDB, various climate resilience projects and other sources. By scheme and by district water resources have been identified and their potential in volume and timely availability recorded. Clearly water supply projects that count on using water from reservoirs controlled by the Irrigation Department or Mahaweli Authority, will need written and signed allocation agreements, but even then delays in reservoir development can easily mean that the water is not available by the time the water supply project is completed. The WASH sector is guided by government documents providing policy directions to the sector, including the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals 2015; National Policy Framework - Vistas of Prosperity and Splendour – The national policy of the present Government, (published by the Treasury in December 2019); Public Investment Programme 2017 – 2020 (prepared by the Department of National Planning, Ministry of National Policies and Economic Affairs) and National Physical Policy & Plan 2050 (prepared by National Physical Planning Department). Specific sector policies applicable to the WASH sector are the National Drinking Water Policy; National Policy for Rural Water and Sanitation; National Policy on Sanitation and National Rainwater Policy and Strategies. It is a serious concern that there is still no agreed water policy in Sri Lanka. The Ministry of Irrigation has updated the draft water policy again recently and made it available in August 2019 for comments. The National Policy, Strategies and Institutional Framework for Water Resources Development, Conservation and Management states as its vision “A Society that values the sustainable use of water resources and recognizes the goal of a balanced environment conducive to social and economic development”. It is an essential guiding document in the context of water supply and climate change resilience, and just and effective use of available water resources. It needs to be concluded urgently.
The WASH sector has a good number of actors covering urban and semi-urban areas (mostly NWDSB) and rural and estate areas (DNCWS and PHDT). Water often comes as surface water from ID or Mahaweli Authority, and the rest is rain! Surface water in Sri Lanka is these days contaminated not just bacteriologically, but depending on the source, also with chemicals due to industrial and agricultural discharges. At times of the year dying algal blooms may contaminate reservoir water with cyanobacterial toxins. Near the sea, due to low discharges in some rivers (Kalu, Gin ganga) saltwater in creeping towards river intakes
FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) xvii causing extracted water to be salty. Groundwater has only domestic application in Sri Lanka as aquifer capacity is usually quite limited due to the geohydrological situation. In the dry zone the shallow wells are suspected to be linked to the occurrence of Chronic Kidney Disease of unknown origin (CKDu). Fluoride is also in excess in several parts of the dry zone, leading to dental fluorosis (e.g. Kekirawa area). The observed effects of the climatic variability will increase intensity of rainfall, create more frequent flood events and prolonged droughts. These effects will obviously impact the availability of water. Water security enhancing measure will be necessary with additional reservoirs and smart management. Also at home, rainwater collection and use, in both urban and rural areas will make a difference with respect to the availability of water for domestic use. Watershed protection at local level is critical to smaller CBO schemes that take their water from springs. Not only should proper water safety plans be in place to manage the present and future sustainability of the scheme, but these should also include climate change resilience measures to enhance the water security in the project. At a higher level the same measures taken at local level also need to be applied water shed and river basin level in order to ensure future availability of water and sufficient storage capacity to bridge extended drought periods. Funding of the investments required is not going to be so easy. The NWSDB is fully dependent on the Treasury guaranteeing its loans, while for rural WASH- event to the amounts required are just some 10% of NWSDB investments- government budget allocation will usually be necessary. At least NWSDB can manage its operational affairs if it streamlines its operations, reduces Non- Revenue Water (NRW and accelerates connections when schemes are completed. Quite some CBOs are financially solvent and would be able to take on loans for service improvements. However, they need legal registration to take on a loan. It is suggested to initiate a revolving fund to leverage CBO investment. The full investment proposed for 2020-2030 is shown in the table below.
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1 Introduction 1.1 CSIP Assignment This document is the deliverable for Task VI of the Comprehensive Strategic Investment Programme for the Water Supply and Sanitation Sector (CSIP). It presents the findings and considerations that have led to the development of a national investment programme for water supply and sanitation for the period 2020-2030, with a perspective to the situation in 2050.
The CSIP assignment is contracted under the Water Supply and Sanitation Improvement Project (WaSSIP) of the Ministry of City Planning, Water Supply and Housing Facilities, funded by the World Bank. On behalf of WaSSIP, the National Water Supply and Drainage Board (NWSDB) leads this programme in collaboration and consultation with the Department of National Community Water Supply (DNCWS), the National Planning Department and other sector stakeholders
This is the final report of the CSIP assignment. It provides a background to the water supply and sanitation sector status in Sri Lanka and describes the investment plan and road map to achieve universal access by 2030. The terms of reference of the assignment are included as annex 1. It provides an overview of the intended outputs in 6 tasks. The inception report (Task I) has described the scope and methodology of the assignment. It also provided an overview of the Sector provided and initial assessment.(Heijnen (Ed.), 2019b) Task II focused on calculating the demand projections for 2025 and 2030, and for 2050. The demand data calculated have been used to calculate the requirements by period in water resources and treatment capacity for water supply, for connections in water supply and sewage, for sanitation and septage for relevant sectors and subsectors. (FCG International Ltd. RDC IDC, 2020c) Task III deals in greater details with aspects of water resources, their current and future availability and the need to work towards greater water security through development, source protection and water conservation. The main focus of the report was on matching the need for water in particular localities and for certain economic purposes (special demands) with the water resources that can be made available or be developed. (FCG International Ltd. RDC IDC, 2020b) In the Task IV report the Institutional and Policy Framework that manages and governs the sector is described. Several policies are dated and need to be revised. The institutional set-up of the sector is reviewed and extensive comments are made to enhance effectiveness and fit-for- purpose improvements. Efficiency can be gained by adopting benchmarking techniques. Water safety plans will better safeguard water quality. Capacity building and training through NWSDB and DNCWS will remain an important component of service delivery and asset management. (FCG International Ltd. RDC IDC, 2020a) Financing modalities and the draft Strategic Investment Plan are provided in the Task V report. The financial status and prospects of the NWSDB are reviewed and a scenario is developed to make this State-owned Enterprise more financially independent. The Corporate Statement of Intent between the Ministry of Finance and the NWSDB are updated for the period 2020-2022, with suitable benchmarks included. An investment plan for the National WASH sector is provided for 2020-2030 and 2050. (FCG International Ltd. RDC IDC, 2020d)
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1.2 CSIP Task VI report The Task VI report presents a Comprehensive Strategic Investment Plan for the Water Supply and Sanitation Sector that will cover the whole country and present a plan for investments up to 2025 and 2030, and a water resources needs assessment horizon for 2050. The plan will function as a master plan for the NWSDB for 2025 and 2030 for investments in the urban and semi-urban areas. Requirements for investments in rural and estate water supply and sanitation, and capacity building are identified for financing. It will also include guidance on water supply and sanitation measures to be taken by the Department of National Community Water Supply – for CBO managed schemes, by the Plantation Human Development Trust – for estate WASH systems, and to the Ministry of Provincial Councils and Local Governments – for systems managed by Local Authorities. This report leans heavily on the work done in the previous five reports. It highlights the key aspects developed in these reports presenting these in a concise manner. For further detail, reference is made to the earlier documents. Within reason the annexes to this report (in Volume 2) present the information and listings that are relevant here. To facilitate further study and discussion, for each district a separate digital folder has been prepared that is available upon request from NWSDB (AGM Policy and Strategy). For NWSDB schemes this includes the results of the demand calculations and the water resources available and proposed for development. Relevant maps support the calculations. Immediate projects in Non-Revenue Water reduction, quality and quantity improvements and distribution network extension are listed. Efficiency enhancement Priority schemes for water supply, sanitation and sewerage are presented and the required investments estimated. In a separate digital folder, national level information is provided and the information on water supply schemes currently managed by CBOs and Local Authorities or installed in Plantation Areas. An assessment is made on the number of households with self-supply and the costs for upgrading to a safely managed supply. Household sanitation is assessed in a similar manner and the investment required by DS division to bring sanitation up to the level of safely managed, is estimated. As sewerage will remain a minor component of the sanitation sector, the fecal sludge management value chain will need to be developed with an adequate number of septage treatment plants by district. The district level information so collated will be accessible for further planning and project development to government institutions, NGOs and other parties interested in development of the water and sanitation sector. A full digital copy will also be available at the office of the DNCWS. To guide the adoption of the CSIP a road map has been developed that will indicate milestones and performance criteria committing relevant stakeholders to collaborate in a cohesive manner to realize this ambitious investment program. 1.3 National Development Perspective In the last 10 years, Sri Lanka has developed rapidly. The end of the civil war in 2009 brought opportunities for economic development and a restoration to normal life. Resettlement of internally displaced persons from the North and East to their old village areas and towns has been taken in hand. Several Development Banks and Donor Agencies have assisted the Government of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka in the process of rebuilding. From 2009, Sri Lanka’s gross domestic product (GDP) grew quickly and peaked at 9.1% in 2012. In recent years GDP has shown a declining trend and in 2018 was 3.3%.
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Sri Lanka is now an upper-middle-income country with a growing economy and declining poverty. It has supported its development through ambitious and visionary investment plans and propositions, e.g. Mahinda Chintana which set out a Vision for the Future aimed at achieving medium-term economic prosperity. Similarly, the National Physical Planning process has guided development and has recently resulted in the gazetting of the National Physical Plan 2050 (12 June 2019). Since 2009, upon ending the civil war, the Government has been investing in resettlement of the internally displaced and providing housing and economic opportunities. In the last decade Government has been investing in improved communication links between the various parts of the country with more highways and improved rail links as a result. During the last Government, the Ministry of Megapolis and Western Development has been the main promotor and implementer of substantial infrastructure development projects in the Western Province and in Hambantota. The Port City, a newly developed area at the North Western end of Galle Face Green, reclaimed from the sea, is scheduled to be a high-end business and finance, and residential area. Nearby, the Colombo harbor will have further facilities for shipping including cruise ships, while the Urban Development Authority and private developers are building apartment blocks for different income groups. Tech City, Logistics City and similarly named developments are testimony to the Government’s ambition and intent to transform the country into a high-tech economy by 2035.(The National Physical Planning Department, 2018) With the election of a new president in November 2019, the election manifesto ‘Vistas of Prosperity and Splendour’ has been reworked as the National Policy Framework (NPF).The NPF projects a Vision for a Prosperous Nation with a productive citizen, a happy family, a disciplined society and a prosperous nation. Its key policies include a focus on People Centric Economic Development, Technology Based Society, Development of Physical Resources and Sustainable Environmental Management. It envisages to transition villages into fully integrated economy centers with all facilities. To this end it aims to establish a people-centric board at every Grama Sewa division under the purview of each village’s religious leaders, educated and knowledgeable seniors, youth leaders and women representatives to take care of functionality of electricity, clean drinking water, road network, irrigation network, pre-school, maternal and child clinics, community centre, playground and waste management. Under the policy of Development of Physical Resources (New Approach in National Spatial System), it identifies the vision to “Bridging the urban and rural gap by providing services and infrastructure facilities equally across the sectors of living”, with the objective of ensuring that the entire population in the country is provided with clean and safe drinking water while increasing the access to pipe borne water. Under the sub sector of “water”, it states as its strategy to ensure 24 hour reliable water service by expanding and improving the efficiency of current projects implemented by National Water Supply & Drainage Board and the Department of National Community Water Supply, and also by introducing new legislation to establish appropriate water recycling processes for all industrial and commercial establishments. It highlights the need to ensure that water resources are free from pollution and are managed efficiently. In this respect, the NPF stipulates to conduct a campaign to educate people of the importance of keeping rivers, lakes and reservoir/tanks free from pollution and contamination. Participation of university students, school children and youngsters, is envisaged to conduct this campaign and the continuation of the activity is planned to be by the local police and communities.
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The NPF plans to ensure that all water resources are managed and utilized in an efficient manner for agriculture by adopting drip irrigation and other modern techniques. The NPF plans to increase water storage capacity by expanding the existing capacities of tanks and reservoirs and to introduce water storage for all new houses located in water-scarce areas, to recharge ground water and reduce ground water misuse. It aims to ensure that the entire population in the country is provided with clean and safe drinking water while increasing the access to pipe borne water (Ministry of Finance, 2019). In recent years Sri Lanka has invested heavily in infrastructure to open up the country to business and development. Port facilities, services sector and IT, tourism and the garment industry are providing pillars for further economic and social development. For now the COVID-19 crisis will be delaying the attainment of the development plans, but hopefully the situation will improve in 2021.
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2 Socio-economic Situation of Sri Lanka Sri Lanka recently was reclassified as an “upper middle-income country”, with a GDP per capita of USD 4,102 (2018). This level of per capita income fares well in comparison with many other South and South-East Asian countries, except for Singapore, Malaysia, Brunei, and Thailand. It is important to note that this estimate is in actual USD, and not adjusted for Purchasing Power Parity (PPP). In PPP terms, the Sri Lankan GDP per capita is much higher, at an estimated USD 13,450 per capita. Another salient feature of the Sri Lankan economy is the substantial size of its informal sector workforce, and the extent to which there is informal production of goods and services (which are not included in the “official” GDP estimates). Recent World Bank studies have indicated that the informal sector in 2018 for the whole country is estimated to be around 60 per cent of the formal economy. It is evident therefore that the relatively high estimates for the PPP-adjusted income ratio to nominal GDP per capita income, and the relatively high level of participation in the informal sector, complicates the estimation of income distribution and income inequality in Sri Lanka. While declining, the continuing extent of poverty, and the persistent levels of inequality of income, remain serious concerns in the country. There are important regional disparities in economic development. In 2017, the country's Western Province contributed 40 per cent of the GDP while the share of the Northern Province was 4 per cent. Of special concern is the concentration of poverty in the estates sector. Under- employment is a traditional phenomenon in Sri Lanka. This exists also within the formal sector of the economy, with over-staffed government agencies and services and limited ability by management to make better use of existing staff through orientation and training of lower-level employees. It is evident there is much overlap in the functions of these various organizations, which can lead to inefficiency, lack of effectiveness, and excessive bureaucracy. Also, female economic employment has historically been quite low in Sri Lanka. The percentage of women in the formal labor force was 36.6 in 2017. The main economic sectors of the country are tourism, tea export, textiles and garments, rice production, and other agricultural products. Foreign exchange receipts from workers’ remittances, tourism, and international development cooperation all add to the external sector of the economy. The Sri Lankan economy has undergone a structural change during the past fifty years. Since 1960, the less productive agricultural sector has declined steadily, from about 30 per cent of GDP to about 7 per cent in 2018. However, this sector's contribution to employment was more than three times its contribution to GDP. Meanwhile, the share of industry has expanded from 20 per cent in 1960 to over 27 per cent. The share of the services industry too has continued to increase. A similar transformation has taken place in the labor market, with the services sector employing over 45 per cent. By regional standards, the share of GDP contributed by the services sector in the Sri Lankan economy is high, at 60 per cent (except for Singapore where the figure is 75 per cent). The revival of the tourism industry following the ending of civil war in 2009 has contributed significantly to boost the services sector performance. With the ongoing liberalization of the economy, including free trade zones, the garment industry continues to play a key role, particularly by providing employment opportunities for female labor. In addition, more recent attention has been given by Government to export promotion of both goods and services; growing industries based on logistics and Sri Lanka’s strategic position in the region (such as ship repair); and promoting the concept of Sri Lankan Entrepreneurship. In addition, there is the real prospect in the medium term of offshore oil and gas production.
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The population of Sri Lanka is estimated to reach 22.1 million in 2020 and has demographic characteristics similar to other South East Asian countries. The population growth rate in the last decade has been a little under 1.0 % per year and it is expected to decline further. Sri Lanka still suffers from a “brain drain”, though there is anecdotal evidence that there might be a turning around of this phenomenon now taking place, albeit slowly. There is limited immigration to Sri Lanka from countries in its immediate region, such as from the Maldives, but the net balance of immigration and emigration for Sri Lanka remains negative. Demographic changes in the country with migration to urbanizing areas with economic opportunity and continuing effective urbanization in areas connected to the cities, mean that overall some 57 per cent of the population lives in urban or semi-urban areas. Households are rapidly adopting urban characteristics aspiring to better housing, means of transport, and reliable utility services such as water supply and sanitation. The country has experienced a prolonged period of low fertility contributing to narrowing the gap between elderly and younger people in the population profile. On the other hand, the lower mortality rates and rising life expectancy have resulted in the general population of Sri Lanka reaching life expectancy rates at par with wealthier countries. This demographic transition is expected to have a lasting implication on economic growth, as well as on the need for institutional support to the elderly population. Sri Lanka holds a unique position in South East Asia as it is one of the few developing countries providing universal health care and free education. Successive Governments have implemented welfare-oriented policies which have enabled Sri Lanka to achieve a relatively high standard of social and health development in comparison with countries having similar levels of development. As a result of this, the country has made a significant improvement in social welfare. Sri Lanka has achieved a high Human Development Index (HDI) value of 0.770 (rated 76 out of 189 countries in 2017), with a life expectancy at birth of 76.9 years, and a literacy rate of 92 per cent, which compares favorably in relation to countries with similar development levels. Rail transportation and water supply are the other key areas where services are provided at subsidized rates. Sri Lanka Railways continued to record a weak financial performance in 2018, with an operating loss of Rs 6.9 billion. Similarly, the National Water Supply and Drainage Board (NWSDB) provides water at rates that are inadequate to cover the full cost of production and distribution. During the more recent period of 2017 to 2018, there has been a mixed performance in key areas of macroeconomic management, which can be summarized as follows:
The overall growth rate of GDP declined in 2018 to 3.1 per cent, from 3.4 per cent recorded in 2017, and over 7% a few years earlier; The overall poverty level of Sri Lanka has declined, as reflected by the Poverty Head Count Ratio (PHCR) from 6.7 per cent to 4.1 per cent in 2017. The decline was seen in urban, rural, and estate sectors. The information furnished by the Department of Census and Statistics reveals that the disparities at provincial and district level continue to remain challenging to equitable income growth in the country. At district level, Kilinochchi has recorded the highest PHCR of 18.2 per cent while the highest number of poor persons was reported in the Kandy district; Sri Lanka's government debt level continues to be high, at 83 per cent of GDP at the end of 2018. Of this, 51.3 per cent is the central government’s foreign currency denominated external debt;
The economic consequences of the terrorist attack on Easter Sunday 2019, and the events that followed, clearly weakened the tourist industry in the short term. This industry employs about FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 6
400,000 persons and contributes about 5 per cent of GDP. It is also the third largest source of foreign exchange. The foreign currency loss of income resulting from the 30 per cent drop in tourist arrivals is expected to be in the region of USD 1.5 billion. Sri Lanka has a reasonably diversified economy which adds to its development resilience and has potential to promote new industries based on its strategic location in the region. Provided sound macro-economic management can be maintained, political instability contained, and barring any major new security concerns, Sri Lanka can remain cautiously optimistic as to the longer-term economic growth potential of the country. 2.1 Regional Economic Disparities and Poverty Levels in Sri Lanka One of the critical problems which needs to be addressed by the policy makers is the regional disparities in economic development. The country's Western Province contributes about 40 per cent of the GDP. It has the highest per capita income and a lower rate of poverty. Its industry and service sectors dominate the structure of the national economy, and account for most of the manufacturing industry and employment. On the other hand, the GDP share of the Northern Province is only 4 per cent. However, the review of data for the past five years reveals that four provinces, namely Northern, North Western, Uva and Sabaragamuwa have each recorded an increasing trend in their contribution to the GDP of the country. Although Poverty has been decreasing steadily during last three decades there are various issues that are yet to be addressed by the policy makers. Clearly, there are two broad steps to be taken in the alleviation process. Firstly, there are short term measures that have to be taken to provide relief to those who are below the poverty line. For this purpose, the number of persons below the poverty line has to be ascertained. According to the HIES, there were 844,000 such persons in 2016. With the welfare measures targeted for poor families during the subsequent period, the actual number is bound to have fallen. Direct subsidy payment through annual budgetary allocation will enable them to effectively uplift themselves for the current year with the hope for the renewal of the allocation for the next year. However, in the medium term, more concrete steps have to be taken by addressing the structural issues that have contributed to poverty so that the relevant SDGs can be achieved. Critically, among those poor and near poor, a large population is engaged in agriculture - a field with typically fewer opportunities to add value to products by processing and because of lower wages than in the services or industrial jobs. In view of this the appropriate policy would be to impart skills that are required to engage in more rewarding employment opportunities. This is the vision of the ‘Grama Shakthi' programme of the Government launched in 2017. The goal of this programme is poverty eradication by 2030 through the empowerment of villages. This programme seems to combine learning from all successful poverty reduction programmes of the country in order to reaching the sustainable development goals ending hunger and halving all forms of poverty by the target year. Microfinance is a powerful instrument for the poor in the form of financial services directed specifically towards poverty reduction enabling the poor to increase income and reduce their vulnerability to economic stress. However, unregulated microfinance activity may lead to illegal deposit mobilisation and exploitation of customers through exorbitant interest rates and unethical loan recovery methods. This is particularly true when the financial literacy among the customers is low.
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2.2 Disaster Management and Climate Change in Sri Lanka Sri Lanka is rated second in terms of the countries most affected by extreme weather conditions in the past 20 years, according to the Climate Risk Index published by German Watch in 2019.(Eckstein et al., 2019). Sri Lanka being a tropical island located in a disaster-prone region is highly vulnerable to climate change in terms of physical and socioeconomic impacts. The country needs to develop a strong national agenda to confront the challenges facing the economic development of the country. Floods are the most frequent type of disaster. According to historical data, there has been a clear increasing trend in flood events, as well as impacts of flood disasters, in most recent years in Sri Lanka Historical trends of climate data and future climate projections confirm that Sri Lanka is undergoing significant climate changes. It has been reported that observations from many weather stations around the country have revealed that the ambient air temperature is rising throughout the country. Also, there has been growing evidence to suggest that the intensity and frequency of the extreme weather events such as heavy rainfall and droughts are also increasing leading to floods, landslides, and periods of extreme water shortages. Needless to say that these changes result in widespread land degradation, rising scarcity of water, degradation of biodiversity, and pollution. In order to address the issue of climate change, various studies have considered policy choices available to Sri Lanka. These include enhancing education, improving market access, and increasing non-agricultural employment. One study of the World Bank has shown that increasing non- agricultural employment by 30 per cent relative to the current levels could entirely eliminate the burden of changes in average weather on living standards. In view of the serious consequences of climate change, particularly on the less privileged segments of the society, it would be most appropriate to develop a comprehensive strategy with the participation of all stakeholders (Mani et al., 2018). 2.3 The Strategic Tourism Sector in Sri Lanka Tourism is one of the key potential areas of economic development in Sri Lanka. This industry employs about 400,000 persons and contributes about 5 per cent of GDP. It is the third largest source of foreign exchange (after remittances to the country from Sri Lankans working abroad, and garment exports). The Government Tourism Strategy (2017-2020) envisages a foreign exchange income target of US$7 billion in 2020. Further, tourism and its supporting industries are expected to employ 600,000 Sri Lankans with women accounting for 10 per cent. The Government's Tourism Strategy aims to establish Sri Lanka as a high value destination. The tourism sector suffered a major set-back due to the terrorist attack on Easter Sunday 2019 and the events that followed. Coordinated terror attacks of this nature have been seen in other tourism destinations around the world, as well as in Asia including India, Indonesia, and Thailand. The available evidence after six months from the attack suggests that the industry is well on the recovery path. However, a further shock to the industry has been delivered by the Corona virus. Initially tourism from China, but subsequently also from several other countries dried up in February 2020. A severe reduction of tourism is likely for the greater part of 2020 until the Corona virus threat has passed. This will have an effect on the foreign exchange situation, reduce employment in the tourism sector and affect foreign direct investment in tourism. 2.4 State Owned Enterprises (SOEs) in Sri Lanka State owned enterprises (SOEs) play a pivotal role in Sri Lanka's economy, and as such it would be necessary to ensure that they deliver effectively. There is no precise count of SOEs in the country, FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 8 but it is estimated that there are more than 400, with approximately 250 of them categorized as commercial enterprises and over 100 entities coming under the purview of the Ministry of Public Enterprise which was established to spearhead the SOE reform process. Annual Government Budgets allocate substantial transfers to finance the losses of SOEs, and such transfers for the year 2018 amounted to Rs27 billion. The measures suggested by the Government to deal with the loss-making SOEs are clearly stated in the Government's economic policy statement. "We will restructure SOEs to enable them to operate as commercially viable enterprises with accountability. Pricing of goods and services provided by SOEs will be at market clearing rates and any form of subsidization will be provided to the targeted population in a transparent manner. The statement of corporate intent of the selected major SOEs provides a framework to pursue these objectives" (Government of Sri Lanka, 2017). These measures are critically important in the present context where SOEs are incurring huge losses even under monopolistic conditions and have to be financed by the government budget. A statement of corporate intent may not be the best instrument to address the problem of lack of accountability of SOEs. However, this can be viewed as a step towards reaching a contract with the board of directors of SOEs at a later stage. Inefficiencies in the SOE sector are also associated with networks of political patronage that pervade the country's socio-political institutions. Historically, the government has used SOEs to disburse welfare in the form of employment opportunities or subsidized goods and services. Welfare disbursement in and of itself is not inappropriate. However, using such an objective for narrow political gain is inimical to the public interest. 2.5 Recent Economic Developments and Challenges It has been widely reported that the overall positioning of the Sri Lanka economy in 2019 was weak. This is despite significant gains from macro-economic reform measures particularly relating to fiscal, monetary and exchange rate policy management. The most notable success is arriving at a primary account surplus after decades of being in the deficit. Before the onset of the COVID crisis, the World Bank has forecast Sri Lanka's Economic growth for 2020 at 3.3 percent. Meanwhile, the Central Bank of Sri Lanka projects the real GDP growth to be around 6.5 percent in the medium term while per capita GDP is expected to grow to US$ 6,000, from current 4,000 levels. The Central Bank also expects the budget deficit to remain around 5.7 percent of GDP in 2020 but from the next year onwards it would be 4 percent on average. (World Bank, 2019) With regard to the economic policy framework, the development of tourism, export of diversified goods and services, fisheries, agricultural development via advanced technology, and construction are among the areas where the new government has committed to lay emphasis. During the first eight months of last year the apparel industry recorded a growth of 8.3 percent, supported by benefits arising from the restoration of Generalised System of Preferences Plus facility offered by the European Union. The increased production of printing of fabric mainly contributed to the positive developments in the textile industry supported by higher demand from Germany, Netherlands and the UK. Now, with the COVID crisis affecting global demand, the apparel industry which accounts for about half a million jobs has announced significant job cuts. Construction activities are expected to expand at a higher pace with the acceleration of government-initiated development projects such as the continuation of the Central Expressway and the first phase of the proposed Light Rail Transport system. In addition to the construction
FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 9 associated with the Colombo Port City, infrastructure developments within the Colombo city such as the elevated road from the New Kelani Bridge and the underground road connecting Port City to the rest of commercial centres are expected to substantially expand the construction sector in the medium term. The COVID crisis may lead to some reprioritization of investments to contain rising debt levels. 2.6 Infrastructure Investment in Sri Lanka One of the critical areas where Sri Lanka has to focus attention is infrastructure investment in roads, electricity, water and irrigation, and petroleum. Since private sector investment through the medium of the capital market is not forthcoming, the government is compelled to make adequate investments in these projects in order to facilitate the overall economic development process. In 2018, government investment in infrastructure development as a percentage of GDP was 4.2 per cent, which has to be doubled to fall in line with other growing economies in the region such as Thailand, Indonesia, and Viet Nam. Given the current fiscal deficits, it is unlikely that the government will be able to maintain investment to match its peers. The government is also committed to reduce the fiscal deficit to 3.5 per cent of GDP by 2020. Therefore, there has to be a methodical approach to prioritizing the allocation of scarce public resources for infrastructure development. Reflecting on the country's policy makers' concern regarding the emerging economic and financial issues relating to infrastructure development, the Ministry of National Policies, Economic Affairs, Resettlement and Rehabilitation, Northern Province Development, Vocational Development, and Youth Affairs has issued a circular to all government sector institutions specifying a detailed procedure of submitting proposals for public investment. These are guidelines of a general nature applicable to any Government Department or institution without exception. The guidelines stress that the primary focus in project formulation should be given to long felt needs in the respective sector in line with government’s strategic priorities. This implies that there is no room for proposals of an ad hoc nature. These guidelines explain that the proposal should be an integral part of a bigger sector program or master plan prepared to address broader national or sector priorities. 2.7 Economic Policy of the New Government The newly elected government announced sweeping tax cuts soon after taking office. These included a revision the value added tax (VAT) rate to 8 per cent from 15 per cent, an increase in the tax liable limit for VAT registration to LKR 300 million from 12 million, scrapping the nation building tax, lowering the income tax for the highest income bracket to 18 per cent from 24 per cent and changing the withholding tax regime. However, the VAT rate applicable to financial services has been kept unchanged at 15 per cent. The debt repayment levy on banking and financial institutions as a way to get their support to pay debt has been abolished. There have been production related tax cuts as well. Accordingly, income from agriculture, fishing and livestock has been exempted from income tax. Similarly, income from information technology or IT enabling services has also been exempted from income tax. Professional income received by Sri Lankans in foreign exchange and interest income on foreign currency deposits have also been exempted from income tax. These wide-ranging measures aim to stimulate the economy towards a steady recovery from the prevailing economic slowdown while enabling a conducive environment to regain business confidence. Based on the estimated revenue of the government in 2019 from the taxes which have been abolished or reduced, the immediate loss of revenue to the government is reported to be as high FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 10 as LKR 500 billion. However, the authorities are of the view that offsetting revenue and expenditure measures will make these tax cuts revenue neutral. As the tax cut announcement has been made during the early period of the new administration, there is likely to be further policy measures which could mitigate some adverse impact of tax cuts. Although the payee tax has been removed it has been replaced by income tax at a higher threshold. Authorities also have identified offsetting expenditure adjustments which are to come mainly from cutback in public investments. Meanwhile, as presentation of government budget for 2020 is likely to be made well after the rescheduled elections on 20 June 2020, it would allow hardly adequate time to expend on large projects during the year due to procedural requirements. This too, will result in a significant expenditure rationalization. With these developments, in spite of tax cuts, the government is likely to maintain the budget deficit at a manageable level (5% of GDP). The Ministry of Finance of the newly elected Government has issued a summary of its National Policy Framework - 'Vistas of Prosperity and Splendour’ stating the policies to be implemented during its tenure. The Chapter 5 of this statement titled 'People-Centric Economy' deals with its overall economic policies. Some of the salient features concerning its macro-economic policies are reproduced below (Ministry of Finance, 2019): Macroeconomic Targets 2020-2025
Achieve an economic growth at 6.5 percent or higher Per capita income exceeding USD 6500. The rate of unemployment maintain at less than 4 percent The rate of annual inflation not exceeding 5 percent Budget deficit at less than 4 percent of GDP A single digit rate of interest. To maintain the exchange value of the rupee at a stable level
Overall Objective To develop a national economic policy for the benefit of the present and future generations whereby; People's ownership of country's economic resources is ensured Local enterprises are strengthened Vital national assets will be secured
Macroeconomic Policy Framework Get rid of the debt- trap; promoting domestic investments, reducing import expenditure and raising export incomes. Reducing budget deficit; eliminate unnecessary government expenditures while financing for essential expenditures and prioritising state investments. Reducing the trade deficit; promoting domestic resources based exports, import substitution and expanding the export economy via increasing value-added industries. Reducing import taxes on raw materials and intermediate goods to promote domestic production
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Making free of import tariff on machinery and technical equipment to develop internationally competitive industries Stabilizing the high risk financial institutions using the liquidity fund with the Central Bank Ensuring food security Introducing a tax payer friendly simple tax system to promote domestic production and to encourage foreign investments Speedy implementation of economic policies vis-a-vis tax reduction which will help to reduce the cost of living, expand livelihood activities in rural and urban areas and improve children's nutrition Establishment of 'National Development Bank' which will encourage economic fields; import-export trade, construction industry, SME and agriculture through long-term loans at concessionary interest rate, Rejuvenate the Colombo stock market to regenerate investor confidence.
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2.8 Consequences of COVID Through February uncertainty on the spread of COVID-19 was growing resulting in March in worldwide travel disruptions and precautionary public health measures. Sri Lanka has also implemented several weeks of curfew in March, April and May 2020 to control the spread of the COVID-19. The border has been closed and tourists are not able to enter Sri Lanka (probably until June 11 – immigration department Public Notice IV, May 12). The COVID-19 outbreak will weaken the economy as the curfew will close many businesses. In Sri Lanka some 70% of workers operate in the informal sector. The local curfews, absence of tourism and export orders, will affect the income of this group. Overall, less income and concerns about the future will affect private consumption and investment. Government income will decline as well, reducing the space for fresh investments. Sri Lanka already has a substantial debt burden, and according to The Economist may find it hard to keep the cost of borrowing under control. (The Economist, 2020). Sri Lanka is vulnerable to uncertain global financial conditions as the repayment profile requires the country to access financial markets frequently. Already Fitch Ratings downgraded Sri Lanka’s long-term credit rating to B- from B with a negative outlook, due to debt sustainability challenges amid the pandemic. Fitch expects Sri Lanka's economy to contract by 1.0 per cent in 2020, from 2.3 per cent growth in 2019, due to the impact of the coronavirus pandemic. Figure 2-1 Countries ranked by financial strength With tourism down and not likely to recover during 2020 due to a worldwide economic slowdown and contraction, an important source of income for government and for employees in the tourism industry is falling away. Similarly, the World Bank states that — Global remittances are projected to decline sharply by about 20 percent in 2020 due to the economic crisis induced by the COVID- 19 pandemic and shutdown. The projected fall, which would be the sharpest decline in recent history, is largely due to a fall in the wages and employment of migrant workers, who tend to be more vulnerable to loss of employment and wages during an economic crisis in a host country. Remittances to South Asia are projected to decline by 22 percent … following the growth of 6.1 percent in 2019… representing a loss of a crucial financing lifeline for many vulnerable households. (WASHINGTON, April 22, 2020; https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/ press-release/ 2020/04/22/world-bank-predicts-sharpest-decline-of-remittances-in-recent- history
In the COVID crisis water supply, sanitation and hygiene are of crucial importance as highlighted in the press release of the Asian Development Bank of May 14, 2020. The ADB and its donor partners urge all government and philanthropists to continue providing financing for WASH as washing hands with water and soap will be one of the best measures to contain the spread of the COVID-19 virus. (see Call for Action on the previous page)
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3 Comprehensive Strategic Investment Plan for Water Supply and Sanitation Sri Lanka has performed well in assuring water supply and sanitation to all its citizens. Increasingly, however, pressures are building due to growing urbanization; the need to restore and upgrade water supply and sanitation services to the North and the East following the end of the civil war, and mitigate the effects of climate change on rainfall patterns and water resources; the need to provide safe water for drinking and cooking in CKDu areas and ensure water supply and waste water management for economic development; the need to raise service levels and potable water quality, and develop the capacity at district level for fecal sludge management and waste water treatment. As the above summary shows, the water supply and sanitation challenges in Sri Lanka have become ever more multi-faceted. Water is needed for many purposes by many different stakeholders. Procedures are needed to abstract water, to protect its quantity and quality, and to ensure equitable use. As Sri Lanka is rapidly urbanizing public health and environmental care requires that human waste is safely removed and treated to ecologically safe standards before further use or discharge. With a pronounced wet and a dry zone, Sri Lankans know the modalities of the water resources. But they have also seen in the last decades that increasingly local and temporal scarcities occur, demonstrating that more care is needed to ensure water security and effective use of the resource water for the benefit of all. The CSIP assignment offers an opportunity to assess the needs and study the options available to ensure that all citizens of Sri Lanka will enjoy adequate water supply and sanitation at home, at work, at school and hospital, and in public places. CSIP has started in January 2019 and will be completed in May 2020. It is guided by NWSDB and supported by a large number of direct and indirect stakeholders. The National Planning Department (NPD) together with NWSDB, the Department of National Community Water Supply (DNCWS), the Plantation Human Development Trust (PHDT) and the Ministry of Provincial Councils and Local Government (MoPC&LG) are the main partners for implementing water and sanitation projects. Close communication with Irrigation Department (ID) and the Mahaweli Authority (MASL) is maintained to plan ahead for adequate water resources for potable use. 3.1 National Development In the last decade government has based its development policies on creating job opportunities and enhancing income levels, development of rural economies and creating a strong middle class. The National Physical Plan 2050 (gazetted June 12, 2019) supports the Government of Sri Lanka in this endeavor by providing a guide to develop a physical environment that will facilitate Sri Lanka to become a smart nation and a competitive economy. The map of Sri Lanka in figure 3-1 gives a visual overview of economic zones, tourism areas, transport connections, etc. proposed. The policies of the new government, as listed in section 2.7, re-emphasize the importance of economic development, in combination with physical infrastructure development and a from a perspective of 'People-Centric Economy' and empowering the community, with an objective to ensure food security and expand livelihood activities in rural and urban settings. Water supply and sanitation are essential to attaining many of these intentions.
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Developments as proposed by the National Physical Plan 2050
Figure 3-1 Proposed economic and tourism clusters, and focused developments (NPP2050)
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3.2 Sector Vision The sector vision extracted from various earlier documents and reflecting Sustainable Development Goal 6 “Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all” can be presented as: Universal Access to safely managed drinking water supply and safe sanitation and hygiene. Protection and effective use of water resources. Environmentally sound management of waste water and sewage to protect water quality and ecosystems. The current Public Investment Programme (PIP) covers the period from 2017 to 2020 and has been prepared by the Ministry of National Policies and Economic Affairs. PIP has a medium-term perspective and works with broad magnitudes and trends rather than detailed estimates.(Department of National Planning, 2016) Although the PIP is meant for the period of 2017 to 2020, it is presumed that the stated strategies will continue beyond that period, complementary to the NPF. The PIP recognizes some key challenges which the country’s water and sanitation sector are facing: Figure 3-2 PIP 2017-2020
Regional disparities exist in access to safe water & sanitation; Urgent solutions to provide CKDu affected areas with safe drinking water facilities; Maintaining the quality of water sources, water intakes and CBO managed schemes; High rate of Non-Revenue Water (NRW) affecting NWSDB operational costs; More demand for reliable pipe borne water service than existing institutional capacity; Delivering higher levels of service sustainably at affordable costs; Create conducive environment to attract private sector investment in the sector; Ensure improved sanitation facilities island-wide while establishing piped sewerage networks in high density (and high-value) areas.
The PIP mentions policy directions and strategies to address these challenges:
provide equitable access to safe drinking water & sanitation for the entire population in next 5 years while accommodating increasing demand of water supply of the commercial and industrial sector focus sectoral investment during the medium term mainly on bridging the gaps of regional disparities in water services while high priority will be given in providing good quality water to the areas where there is high prevalence of CKDu. rural community-based water supply will also be promoted to provide pipe borne water to scattered villages. The Department of Community Water Supply will be further strengthened to ensure the sustainability of the community water supply schemes in terms of management and operation.
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3.3 Key Policy Themes In the last two decades a range of policy statements have been made that need to be reflected in national policies and plans. These are listed below: a) Fresh water is a finite and vulnerable resource essential to sustain life and ecosystems. b) Water has an economic value and should therefore be recognized as an economic good in addition to its social relevance. c) Safe water and sanitation are a basic human need which warrants equitable allocation among all users. This would enable social and economic enhancement of the individual as well as of the society. d) Provision of water supply and sanitation services should be "people centered" and "demand driven" based on participatory approaches. It should enlist the involvement of users, planners and policy makers at all levels. e) The responsibility of regulation, formulation, promotion and monitoring of water supply and sanitation services should be vested with the Central Government, Provincial Councils (PCs)and Local Authorities (LAs). f) Investment in drinking water supply development will be based entirely on priority needs. For instance, to relieve the patients of the CKDu affected areas. g) Abstraction of water from all sources and in particular rivers and streams, will be carried out in recognition of (and without prejudice to) downstream needs. h) The State is the custodian of the water resources and will manage such resources on behalf of the people in an effective, efficient and equitable manner, consistent with the social, economic and environmental needs of present and future generations. i) The safety of water resources, the conservation, and prevention of pollution and depletion of both ground water and surface water will be ensured through the adoption of instruments such as water safety plans and the intervention of the competent government authorities in time and form. j) The operational responsibilities will be decentralized to the lowest appropriate level with due consideration to management capacity. k) Water for drinking purposes will receive priority over other uses, without prejudice to any previous agreements with other uses. l) Safety of drinking water supplied to the people to be ensured at all times by all water service agencies. m) Hygiene education and sanitation contributes to the protection and conservation of water sources and therefore it should be considered as an integral component of water supply services n) All schools should be provided with adequate water supply and sanitation facilities with proper operation and maintenance. Effective health education is to complement this facility. o) Women and children should be involved in the decision-making process of implementation of water supply and sanitation facilities in villages and schools. p) Where people are deprived of water during conflicts and emergency situations the Government should facilitate the provision of this facility. All the above policy statements need to be incorporated when updating sector policies and pursued in a sector wide national plan for water supply, sanitation and hygiene.
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3.4 Institutional set-up of the WASH sector The water and sanitation sector could be broadly categorized based on the main social sectors in the country, namely, urban/semi urban, rural and plantation sectors. Different types of water supply and sanitation facilities exist within them. The type of facilities ranges from pipe borne water supply with full treatment for cities and towns to deep well with hand pumps for group of houses and self-supplies with dug wells or rainwater harvesting for individual houses in case of water supply. In sanitation, the type of facilities ranges from piped sewerage systems for cities and some institutions, to individual latrines with septic tanks or pit latrines for individual households. These require different institutional arrangements for planning, execution and operation & maintenance. The main institutions which currently play a role in water and sanitation sector are as indicated in the table below. The institutions are presented in the table, categorized into sub-sectors.
Table 3-1 Key institutions in the Water & Sanitation Sector in Sri Lanka Sub Sector Main Institutions
Urban/ Semi Urban - National Water Supply and Drainage Board (NWSDB) Water Municipal Councils (MC) Urban Councils (UC) Rural - Water Community Based Organizations (CBO) Department of National Community Water Supply (DNCWS) Pradeshiya Sabhas (PS) Provincial Councils (PCs) National Water Supply and Drainage Board (NWSDB) NGOs/INGOs Plantation - Water Plantation Human Resources Development Trust (PHDT) New Villages Development Authority for Plantation Region (NVDAPR) Regional Plantation Companies (RPCs) Department of National Community Water Supply (DNCWS) National Water Supply and Drainage Board (NWSDB) Estate Worker Housing Cooperative Societies (EWHCS) Urban/Semi Urban - National Water Supply and Drainage Board (NWSDB) Sanitation & Sewerage Municipal Councils (MC) Urban Councils (UC) Rural - Sanitation Department of Health (at Divisional Level) Pradeshiya Sabha (PS) Community Based Organizations (CBO) NGOs/INGOs Plantation - Sanitation Plantation Human Resources Development Trust (PHDT) New Villages Development Authority for Plantation Region (NVDAPR) Regional Plantation Companies (RPCs) Department of Health Estate Worker Housing Cooperative Societies (EWHCS) NGOs/INGOs Wastewater Treatment National Water Supply and Drainage Board (NWSDB) from sewerage Department of Buildings Private Sector
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Sub Sector Main Institutions
Fecal Sludge Local Authorities/Local Government Management National Water Supply and Drainage Board (NWSDB) Private Sector Septage Treatment Local Authorities/Local Government National Water Supply and Drainage Board (NWSDB)
The roles played and responsibilities held by the above institutions differ for different types of facilities provided, and under specific situations. The legal mandates, current issues encountered by the sector institutions mentioned above and the recommendations for remedial measures are presented in the “Report on Institutional and Policy Framework” prepared by CSIP consultancy. A simplified representation of the current institutional arrangement is presented below:
Figure 3-3 Simplified institutional set up of the WASH sector
The institutional arrangement of the sector is further described under Chapter 7.0 of this report. A well-functioning sector needs strong institutions. In the water and sanitation sector, NWSDB is the main provider (currently around 40% of piped services), followed by Community Based Organizations (4400 CBOs provide some 11% of the population with mainly piped water supply), Local Authorities (providing services to an estimated 5% of the population), and estates where about half of the households are gradually served by safe piped water supply systems (2% of the population). Some 35% of the population takes care of its own water supplies (self-supply) through protected dug wells and rainwater harvesting systems (over 48’000 systems or just under 1 % of the population). Sewerage services are provided in Colombo by Colombo Municipal Council, while some more sewerage systems are on-going or planned in larger municipal councils and in greater Colombo. Sanitation is further mainly a household task which every householder will have to arrange themselves according to urban or rural criteria.
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3.5 Sector Coverage Demography and population data The most recent data on population coverage are available as the Census of Population and Housing 2012, published by the Department of Census and Statistics (DCS). This dataset has been used as the start for the population projections. It has been complemented by World Population Prospects: The 2017 Revision, as published by the Population Division of the United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. In addition, the National Physical Plan 2050 and several UDA development plans have been consulted to arrive at population growth figures for particular districts. Following the sector consultation held on September 3, 2019, a slight upward revision has taken place to retain the growth rate for 2012-2020 at 1.0 %. The results of these calcul- Table 3-2 Estimates for population nationally and by district, for 2020- 2050 ations are given in table 3-3. District Estimated population in 1000s For details on the calculations, 2012 pop DCS 2018 2020 2025 2030 2050 consult CSIP task II report on Sri Lanka 20,359 21,670 22,124 22,857 23,489 25,027 Demand Calculations or annex 3-1. Colombo 2324 2439 2472 2553 2624 2808 Gampaha 2305 2409 2440 2577 2735 3404 Definition of urban Kalutara 1222 1281 1298 1337 1377 1552 and semi-urban areas Kandy 1375 1468 1492 1492 1492 1377 Sri Lanka has been urbanizing Matale 485 519 528 546 561 606 Nuwara-eliya 712 763 776 803 826 826 rapidly, but this has not Galle 1063 1124 1141 1177 1208 1301 expressed itself in the Census Matara 814 858 870 897 921 991 data. The Department of Hambantota 600 655 668 694 715 775 Census and Statistics Jaffna 584 613 621 640 657 706 considers the urban Mannar 100 109 165 171 177 192 population as those that live Vavuniya 172 187 191 198 204 220 in municipal and urban Mullaitivu 92 96 136 140 143 154 councils, or some of 18.2 % of Kilinochchi 114 126 145 151 156 170 Batticaloa 527 570 581 602 620 646 the national population. This Ampara 649 719 735 766 790 824 does not reflect today’s Trincomalee 380 421 431 449 467 559 reality. Many more people Kurunegala 1618 1711 1736 1791 1839 1918 live already in urban areas Puttalam 762 825 840 871 897 935 and in semi-urban areas that Anuradhapura 861 930 947 982 1010 1053 are gradually reflecting their Polonnaruwa 406 436 444 459 472 492 aspirations of having urban Badulla 815 873 888 918 944 944 facilities and allowing an Monaragala 451 491 501 520 535 535 urban lifestyle. Ratnapura 1088 1163 1182 1223 1257 1160 Kegalle 841 884 896 924 948 875 The rural-urban fringe is the boundary zone outside the urban area proper where rural and urban land uses intermix. It is an area of transition from agricultural and other rural land uses to urban use. Located well within the urban sphere of influence the fringe is characterized by a wide variety of land uses including settlements housing middle-income commuters who work in the central urban area. This existence of the rural-urban fringe is very clear in Sri Lanka. Urbanization is rapidly happening along roads and market centers. Implementation of
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Urban Area: density of more than 1000 inhabitants per square km or as such declared by UDA for planning purposes Semi-urban area: between 750 to 1000 inhabitants per square km AND contiguous development linked to an urban area with national/regional commercial establishments present (Keells, Abans, SoftLogic, Damro) All other areas are classified as rural. Estate areas can be separated out if the plantation area is more than 20 acres with a cluster of households on the estate.
Figure 3-4 Left: Urban area classification based on DCS 2012; Right: CSIP definition of urban and semi-urban areas 2019 In the philosophy of the National Physical Plan Department (NPPD) a settlement is urban when it has (1) urban infrastructure such as access to pipe-born water and electricity from the national grid, and (2) its inhabitants are maintaining an urban lifestyle as expressed by the type of home and the use of gas for cooking. When in addition (3) they are displaying an urban inspiration fostered by non-agricultural income and level of education, then these people are certainly on the way to becoming urbanites (pers. Communication DG NPPD).
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A UNHabitat supported publication on the State of Sri Lankan Cities 2018 presents an integrated policy analysis resulting in a Roadmap for Sri Lankan Cities that promotes cross- sectoral and holistic interventions that recognize Sri Lanka’s Cities as interrelated urban systems. On the issue of urban population, it argues that there is considerable evidence that official urban population data masks the true extent of the country’s urbanization. According to the agglomeration index, an alternative measure that uses multiple indicators, Sri Lanka’s urban populations is between 35 and 45 percent of total. Recent GoSL policy documents estimate a 50% urban population. There is also evidence of significant urban growth from night-time light analysis. (UNHabitat, 2018) Refreshing the distinction between urban and semi-urban areas, and emerging and small towns and rural areas is necessary for NWSDB. Preferably NWSDB should focus on providing services to these areas and leave the rural and estate areas to DNCWS. Households in these areas can pay the tariffs and are keen to obtain a reliable, easy service through a piped water supply with house connections. 3.6 Assessing service availability 2019 status of sector coverage The Report on Water Demand Projections has assessed the present coverages (estimated at the end of 2019) of the country in water and sanitation. In water supply, the NWSDB covers 41.3% of the population with piped water supply services. CBOs and Local Authorities provide water to a further 12%. An estimated 38.7% of the population is covered with basic water supply through self-supply served by protected dug wells and rainwater harvesting systems, and nearby public point sources including hand pumps and dug wells. In the estate sector, some 70% of the population is covered with water supply, with a growing percentage having access to safely managed, treated water supply.
Figure 3-5 2019 coverage in safely managed and basic water supply and sanitation in Sri Lanka
Modified after JMP 2017
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Coverage for water supply and sanitation is generally high, except for those living in the estates. In the last decade water supply and sanitation has improved in the estate with the help of NGOs and occasional donor support, but there is still a gap to close. Since 2015 WaSSIP has also started to provide support, importantly in water treatment plants, and so this gap should soon reduce further. In water supply safely managed status is only achieved by NWSDB managed schemes because its water is tested monthly and data are available. CBO managed schemes and those run by Local Authorities may also be providing safe water, but it is unsure as water quality is only tested occasionally. Therefore, the WHO-UNICEF Joint Monitoring programme that monitors country progress recognizes these systems only as basic services, until such time that treatment is in place and has proven to produce safe drinking water. The coverage in sanitation is over 92% around the country except in estate areas where coverage is just 67%, and a good number of households share toilets. Most households in Sri Lanka have a proper toilet. Some 5 % use shared or public toilets, or have a direct-drop pit latrine. A further 2 % do not have a fixed place for defecation. Safely managed sanitation is achieved only for sewerage – which currently stands at 2.3%, mainly in Colombo, or when a household uses a two- pit pour-flush latrine with some 3 years storage capacity for one pit. Wastewater management and septage treatment is an area that needs urgent attention to reduce contamination of soil and water to minimize uncontrolled discharges, and to be able to recover the useful resources for mainly for agriculture and plantations. Fecal sludge is collected in most municipalities, but the service is not regulated very well, and it is doubtful that all fecal sludge is disposed in septage treatment plants as there are only few in operation in Sri Lanka. Sewerage is currently only available in Colombo Municipal Council, Kurunegala MC and a few institutional arrangements. Sewerage systems are expensive but convenient. The investment is very high and their construction causes substantial disruption in built-up areas. Sustainable Development Goals Transforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development" including its 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 targets was adopted on 25 September 2015 by Heads of State and Government at a special UN summit. The Agenda is a commitment to eradicate poverty and achieve sustainable development by 2030 world-wide, ensuring that no one is left behind. The adoption of the 2030 Agenda was a landmark achievement, providing for a shared global vision towards sustainable development for all. Clause 55 of the Agenda states that the Sustainable Development Goals and targets are integrated and indivisible, global in nature and universally applicable, considering different national realities, capacities and levels of development and respecting national policies and priorities. Targets are defined as aspirational and global, with each Government setting its own national targets guided by the global level of ambition but taking into account national circumstances. Each Government will also decide how these aspirational and global targets should be incorporated into national planning processes, policies and strategies. It is important to recognize the link between sustainable development and other relevant ongoing processes in the economic, social and environmental fields.
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The Sustainable Development Goals for SDG 6 aim to “to ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all”. The objectives are:
Table 3-3 Descriptions and indicators for SDG 6 SDG Description Indicator
6.1 By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access 6.1.1 Proportion of the population using safely to safe and affordable drinking water for all managed drinking water services 6.2 By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable 6.2.1 Proportion of population us ing safely sanitation and hygiene for all and end open managed sanitation services, including a defecation, paying special attention to the needs hand-washing facility with soap and water of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations 6.3 By 2030, improve water quality by reducing 6.3.1 Proportion of wastewater safely treated pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally 6.3.2 Proportion of bodies of water with good ambient water quality
6.4 By 2030, substantially increase water-use 6.4.1 Change in water efficiency over time efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity 6.4.2 Level of water stress: freshwater withdrawal as a proportion of available freshwater resources 6.5 By 2030, implement integrated water resources 6.5.1 Degree of integrated water resources management at all levels, including through management implementation (0-100) transboundary cooperation as appropriate 6.5.2 Proportion of transboundary basin area with an operational area for water cooperation
6.6 By 2020, protect and restore water-related 6.6.1 Change in the extent of water-related eco- ecosystems, including mountains, forests, systems over time wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes
6.a By 2030, expand international cooperation and 6.a.1 Amount of water- and sanitation related capacity-building support to develop-ing official development assistance that is part of countries in water- and sanitation-related a government-coordinated spending plan activities and programmes, including rainwater harvesting, desal-ination, water efficiency, wastewater treatment, recycling and re-use technologies
6.b Support and strengthen the participation of local 6.b.1 Proportion of local administrative units with communities in improving water and sanitation established and operational policies and management procedures for participation of local communities in water and sanitation management
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The areas highlighted in the table above are of particular relevance to the future development of water supply and sanitation in Sri Lanka. (UN Water, 2017) The SDG 6 objectives are supposed to go hand in hand with additional universal access targets: SDG 6.1 and 6.2 are often critical to the achievement of other sustainable development goals. Figure provides a visual representation of the support that needs to be provided by SDG 6 for a wide range of other SDGs in order to facilitate their Figure 3-6 Supportive links between WASH and other SDGs achievement. SDG 6.1 and 6.2 also extend to WAter supply, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in schools, as part of SDG4, and to WASH in health care settings as part of SDG 3. Lastly without water and sanitation facilities cities and communities cannot prosper. SDG 11, sustainable cities and communities is thus also dependent on achievement of SDG6. In turn, land use (SDG15) and Climate Change effects (SDG 13) have a great influence on the availability of water.
Table 3-4 SDG 1.4 links WASH SDG6 with universal access to basic services 1.4 By 2030, ensure all men and women, in 6.b.1 Proportion of population living in particular the poor and vulnerable, have households with access to basic equal rights to economic resources, as well services (including basic drinking as access to basic services water, sanitation and hygiene )
Sri Lanka has adopted the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. Goal 6, aiming to achieve universal access to water supply and sanitation, and reduce by half the amount of wastewater that is not treated, is the primary subject of the CSIP investment plan. The concept of safely managed services has been introduced with more stringent ‘technical’ indicators. The earlier Millennium Development Goals criteria are now relegated to provide only a ‘basic’ service. The other SDG6 targets raise the importance of water efficiency, integrated water resources management and ecosystems. The changes that may be caused by climate change affect all of SDG6 and will need well-thought-out action to raise resilience of services during drought and flood periods.
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SDG 6 The CSIP study is led by the guidance provided by the SDGs and the socio-economic ambitions of Sri Lanka to achieve all or nearly all of the SDGs by 2030. The targets suggested by CSIP have during the various interactions with stakeholders consolidated to the set of targets in table 3-5. It is noteworthy that the investments described in Chapter 12 will achieve universal water supply in 2025 as per the instruction of the current government. To achieve safely managed services will still be a process for SDG6.1 to 6.3 that will take further investment and capacity building. It is clear however that achieving the SDGs will require an enormous effort by all government agencies, citizen’s organizations and the private sector in terms of human Figure 3-7 SDG6 Service Ladder resources, financing, policy adjustment and planning, infrastructure and management. Consultation, coordination and compromise are needed to achieve the goals together. For water supply and sanitation, achieving SDG6 will in the first place mean that safely managed services are provided for new facilities, and that existing facilities are gradually upgraded to meet the SDG6 criteria. At least however, the country should be able to ensure universal access to all, and “leave no one behind”. Table 3-6 shows the progression in safely managed services expected. Table 3-5 Expected progress in safely managed 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3
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These will be realized if the investments outlined in Chapter 12 will be achieved. Table 3-6 CSIP recommended national targets for the WASH sector for 2020-2050
Financing of the infrastructure required will be expensive. Cost-effective solutions are needed that protect public health and personal hygiene and are convenient in use. The ADB report on Sri Lanka ’ s Water Supply and Sanitation Sector “Achievements and a Way Forward”, presents a discussion on alternative service models, providing a mix of piped supplies serviced by NWSDB and CBOs, and various forms of self-supply through the use of protected dugs wells and rainwater harvesting systems.(Fan, 2015) A household with a protected dug well that pumps water with a small electric pump into an overhead tank and distributes the water through internal plumbing to 3-4 in-house connections, has a safely managed water supply with a service level that is equal to that of city dwellers. A rainwater harvesting system can provide a similar service level. While
FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 28 the investment may be higher than a connection from a piped supply, water security may be better. Of course, a central system and a private supply can both be affected by drought or flood. In a good number of circumstances, people would likely be satisfied with their own supply and may not necessarily take a connection from NWSDB. This is also borne out by the fact that NWSDB schemes often do not reach 100% connected households in a distribution network. It shows that households value their existing systems. This sentiment needs to be kept in mind when planning new schemes. It may lead to different investment decisions on the part of Government as well as the household. As long as a safely managed supply is established that is affordable and equitable, the objective of ‘service’ is achieved. The same holds true for sanitation. A present, the majority of households in the country utilize some form of on-site sanitation system using water-sealed latrines with septic tanks and soakage pits or water-sealed latrines with disposal pits. Ventilated improved pit latrines are also in use, but not much evidence is available of ecological sanitation (dry compost latrines). Off-site sanitation may be an option where housing and building densities are high. At present, major sewerage facilities are only in place in Colombo, Ekala, Jaela, Moratuwa, and Ratmalana. In addition, there are a number of housing schemes having sewers and a wastewater treatment system. Sewerage systems need treatment systems that receive the waste and treat it to an adequate standard before disposal. Large system will have extensive pumping stations and treatment plants. Sometimes the housing density is too low to justify the investment in sewerage, or part of the town may be sewered and wastewater collected for treatment in a central plant, while smaller units, e.g. a housing estate collect its wastewater for treatment in a decentralized treatment plant, such as an Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) treatment plant. Both can be environmentally sound and cost effective. For retrofitting existing treatment systems or for new treatment plants, technology such as Nereda© - an innovative and advanced biological wastewater treatment technology – can be applied. It features an ‘aerobic granular biomass’ that concentrates the purifying bacteria in compact granules improving settling properties together with excellent effluent quality. Nereda© offers compact, energy saving and easy to operate installations for both industrial and municipal wastewater treatment. Fecal Sludge Management (FSM) receives a lot of attention nowadays. In most of South Asia, countries are achieving around 90% sanitation coverage. While this is excellent, it now is the time to do something about the treatment of wastewater and septage in treatment plants. In Chilaw, Mannar, Puttalam, Kilinochchi and Vavuniya septage treatment systems are being introduced. Unlike in the past, when sewage was collected by vacuum truck from septic tanks and simply dumped at some remote location, the waste will now be treated. 3.7 Strategies for achieving the SDG 6 targets The investments and projects needed to achieve the SDG 6.1 to 6.3 can be found in Chapter 12. Not all SDG6 aspects are dealt with in this Strategic Investment plan. For completeness sake, the following pages give an overview of the suggested strategies for all SDG 6 targets including those for which no financing and activities are indicated in this plan.
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SDG Goal 6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all SDG Target Specific Strategies and Observations Suggested Policy Target for Sri Lanka 6.1 By 2030, achieve universal and equitable Investment proposals for urban and rural water supply (see table 12-25) access to safe and affordable drinking water for all NWSDB to focus on investment of large scale projects to develop and sustain adequate services for urban areas and economic zones by 2025 provide basic service to all; by 2030 DNCWS (with NWSDB assistance) implement 4 regional investment packages to provide rural provide 80% of population with safely managed and estate water supply (piped through CBOs/WUCs, upgraded self-supply through Divisional water supply Level based subsidy procedure, for local artisan installation), and Local Authority support for upgrading and small town schemes see 6.2 By 2030, achieve access to adequate and Investment proposals for urban and rural sewerage and sanitation through 4 packages and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end included in NWSDB budgeting (see table 12-21 to 25) open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable DNCWS will implement 4 regional investment packages to provide rural and estate sanitation situations support through a DSD based process as described in section 7.3.1. For rural sanitation support will be provided upon application for new toilets and upgrading of toilets in a poor state. By 2025 it is targeted that 96% is having access to basic sanitation (not shared). In 2030 that should be 100% of which half will be safely managed. 6.2 Handwashing and hygiene This target has come into focus due to the attention that handwashing has received during the COVID-19 virus. Handwashing is emphasized in all media as a critical measure to avoid 2020 status assumed 55% handwashing with soap transmission of COVID-19. It is therefore likely that in 2020 many more people will have and water, slowly going up to 69% in 2030 ensured that they have improved handwashing and hygiene facilities in the home. As before, MoH field staff and schools will need to emphasize the practice of handwashing.
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Handwashing practice and frequency will remain an issue though. And the practice may again wear off when the COVID-19 threat recedes. Continues cooperation with the private sector (lifebuoy) and national celebration of handwashing day is important. To reduce recontamination and as mostly paper towels will not be available, air drying of hands by waving these will be the most practical. School WASH (by 2025) The proportion of schools with adequate sanitation coverage and improved drinking water sources were reported to have reached 98% and 88% respectively (School Nutrition and Health Drinking water from an improved source is branch survey, 2017). However, there are vast disparities in access. (Ministry of Education, available at the school 2018). Handwashing stations should be available in all schools. To reduce recontamination and Sanitation: Improved facilities, which are single- as mostly paper towels will not be available, air drying of hands by waving these will be the sex and usable at the school most practical. Menstrual Hygiene Management (MHM) Responsibility for investment and construction lies with the Ministry of Education. facilities to be in place in at least one toilet (senior In 2025 both water supply and adequate sanitation, with a reasonable toilet to schoolgirl ratio, schools) should have reached 100%. Handwashing facilities at school, which have Access to sanitation should also be assured for children with disabilities. water and soap available In 2017 national-level guidelines were revised and MHM facilities recommendations made through a general circular for all schools. WASH in Health Care Facilities (by 2025) Improved water supply are available in almost all health facilities (99%), and the sanitation facilities are available in approximately 91% of public health facilities and all Private Hospitals Drinking water from an improved source is (100%). available at the health care facility Handwashing facilities and running water with soap is a more dubious article, with 74% Improved sanitation facilities are usable with (weighted average) of health care facilities having this facility. at least one toilet dedicated for staff, Public primary health care facilities at divisional level report a lower availability of water and at least one sex-separated toilet with soap, or running water. (Department of Census and Statistics (DCS) and Ministry of Health menstrual hygiene facilities, and Nutrition and Indigenous Medicine, 2018) at least one toilet accessible for people with limited mobility
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Functional hand hygiene facilities (with water and By 2025 it should be possible to achieve 100% coverage in each health care facility, with soap and/or alcohol-based hand rub) are available respect to water supply, sanitation for staff and patients (incl. disabled and menstruating at points of care, and within 5 metres of toilets. women). An adequate number of water points should be available for washing and cleaning to staff and patients. Drinking water should be available as bottled water for sale (to patients and visitors) and through dispensers to staff Health care waste management is an issue that needs further data collection and assessment. Very limited information is available on Health Current information is very limited. MoH has issued guidance, but according to WHO only Care Waste Management, in particular waste some 40% of facilities are complying. Wastewater management is a critical concern. water management and safely managed discharge. Steps to be taken include 1. Survey of all hospitals with specific questions on relevant aspects of health care waste management, including waste water management 2. Draw up an investment plan to ensure that by 2025 40% of all health facilities have safely managed waste water management system and procedures, and in 2030 80% meet the relevant CEA standards. 6.3 By 2030, improve water quality by reducing In each river basin studies need to be implemented such as those undertaken in the Kelani river pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing basin. The studies will identify the risks associated with pollution and dumping and the actions release of hazardous chemicals and materials, that Local Government and CEA can take. (Mallawatantri et al., 2018)(Wijesinghe, 2019)(FCG International Ltd. RDC IDC, 2020). CEA should be empowered effectively to take action with respect to river basin and watershed protection. halving the proportion of untreated wastewater The Investment proposal for rural water supply (see table 12-25) includes financing of septage and substantially increasing recycling and safe treatment plants and a licensing process and monitoring for fecal sludge collection and reuse. management. If that is executed, by 2025 around 32% of fecal sludge can be treated and disposed of, while in 2030 this percentage will go up to 50% as per the SDG guidance. For recycling and safe reuse, some suggestions can be given, but each situation is specific and so the increase in recycling and reuse is at this stage only an intent which will require piloting also using experiences from nearby tropical countries (e.g. Indonesia)
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6.4 By 2030, substantially increase water-use 1. Practical measures need to be taken to reduce excess water use by the irrigation sector. The efficiency across all sectors and ensure first step is to adopt the National Policy on Water Resources Development, Conservation and sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater Management (published as draft for comments in July 2019) and apply the National Policy on to address water scarcity and substantially reduce the Protection and Conservation of Water Sources, their Catchments and Reservations in Sri the number of people suffering from water Lanka scarcity 2. Promote water saving and water efficiency measures and appliances in irrigation and water supply. 3. CSIP has advocated that NWSDB initiate a 10-year long water demand reduction advocacy programme focusing on Water Demand Management and Water Education 4. It is suggested to reduce drinking water supply consumption per head by 2025 by 5%, by 2030 by 10% and by 2050 by 20%. To do this the advocacy programme needs to work in combination with technical innovations, ‘smart’ solutions to distribute water supply, reduction of NWSDB NRW target rate to around 18% by 2030 and 15% by 2050, and affordable water saving devices in domestic plumbing. 6.5 By 2030, implement integrated water See 6.4 above. Practical measures need to be taken to reduce excess water use by the irrigation resources management at all levels, including sector. The first step is to adopt the National Policy on Water Resources Development, through transboundary cooperation as appropriate Conservation and Management (published as draft for comments in July 2019); and apply the National Policy on the Protection and Conservation of Water Sources, their Catchments and Reservations in Sri Lanka The tri-partite coordination committee between Irrigation Department, MASL and NWSDB needs to be reactivated urgently and a similar working document should be prepared as in 2017 (Water Abstraction & Requirement for Water Sector; Water Resources Joint Report, September 2018). Data from CRIP and similar projects that have since studied various basins can be incorporated. Data management on water resources and their release/use should be further harmonized and managed at the highest level, using IT, telemetry and remote transmissions, etc. and drone technology.
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6.6 By 2020, protect and restore water-related The main strategy requires ensuring high-level political commitment to enforce existing ecosystems, including mountains, forests, legislation, apply the NPP50 plan with respect to conservation, and link conservation and wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes protection with nearby communities. Application of the rules in hand and advocating their application among citizens and decision-makers will make a lot of difference to conservation and protection. 6 a. By 2030, expand international cooperation The December 1-5, 2019 IWA Conference was a fine example of international cooperation on and capacity-building support to developing water supply and sanitation. The IESL and similar entities can ensure that more of these countries in water- and sanitation-related exchanges are happening. Twinning, staff exchanges and post-graduate training provide good activities and programmes, including water opportunities to import good WASH practices into the Sri Lanka sector. Regular participation harvesting, desalination, water efficiency, in international sector conferences and mandatory feedback upon return to the WASH sector wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse would be another means of ensuring currency of practice. A good way of accessing innovative technologies approaches and techniques is through the Sri Lanka diaspora, many of whom are working in academia in developed countries.
6 b. Support and strengthen the participation of CSIP strongly promotes the use of CBOs and self-supply, which provides good services in local communities in improving water and water supply and sanitation at far lower cost than NWSD. CBO or WUC managed schemes sanitation management will also be able to monitor and manage water supply and sanitation in their communities well. The practice of CBOs is well accepted in Sri Lanka. DNCWS and (I)NGOs can assist in strengthening the capacity of CBOs and ensure good management and governance.
Further details on water supply and sanitation are also provided in Chapter 4 and 5, and with respect to the sector investment plan in Chapter 12.
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Table 3-7 Definitions of safely managed water supply, sanitation, hygiene, waste management and cleanliness for different categories
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3.8 Public Health and WASH Water is vital to health and well-being. Water for drinking and the preparation of meals has to be safe to and meet national bacteriological and chemical drinking standards. In Sri Lanka 41.3% of supplies are provided by the National Water Supply and Drainage Board. Its water quality laboratories test a random sample of water monthly and report on the results as part of its key performance indicators. Water quality is usually good with 99.3% of samples without bacteriological contamination. The NWSDB laboratories also test a number of CBO or LA schemes on a regular basis. Only some 30% of these schemes do not contain E-coli as they often do not have treatment or chlorination. The Epidemiology unit of the Ministry of Health undertakes water quality surveillance and expects 6 samples to be collected from each MOH area, or a monthly total of 2046 samples. In 2017 returns were reasonable but of late, compliance has fallen. Results on the MoH water quality surveillance are not known.
The ministry also maintains a monthly record of a number of reportable diseases. When reviewing the annual records since 2015 for water and hygiene related diseases, the 2015 incidence of the combined load of dysentery, enteritic fever and food poisoning, declined from 32.8 to 17.4 in 2019. Jaffna and Kilinochchi have high rates of these diseases, followed by Mullaitivu, Vavuniya and Batticaloa. Mannar, Trincomalee, Nuwara Eliya, Ratnapura, Badulla and Monaragala also carry elevated caseloads. On the whole however, the situation is not worrisome. One can conclude that inadequate clean water and poor hygiene and sanitation are the most likely causes of the elevated incidence. These absolute numbers reported do not indicate large outbreaks. Neither are any outbreaks recorded in recent years of typhoid or cholera. Presenting the incidence by district, gives a clearer picture and shows that in some districts water availability, sanitation and hygiene may require attention to reduce incidence of water related diseases.
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It is reported that some three percent of children under age 5 years had diarrhea in the two weeks preceding the Demography and Health Survey 2016.(Department of Census and Statistics (DCS) and Ministry of Health Nutrition and Indigenous Medicine, 2017). A good part of this diarrhea can be ascribed to rotavirus infection. A study undertaken at Lady Ridgeway Hospital among children under five years of age hospitalized for acute watery diarrhea during the period of 2009-2016, showed that in years with at least 11 months of data (2010 and 2013) rotavirus was detected in 36.5% of specimens. Rotavirus is a common cause of pediatric diarrhea hospitalizations in Sri Lanka.(Palihawadana et al., 2018). Rotavirus infection is fecal-oral in nature and would indicate poor hygiene and sanitation, and possibly a lack of sufficient water for handwashing and bathing. Whereas the incidence of water and hygiene related diseases appear to have reduced in recent years, it does not mean that the risk of diarrhea or any other hygiene related disease has gone away. Table 3-8 shows that in 2016 [during certain times of the year] water supply was insufficient in general or not sufficient for taking a bath. While shortages occur in all districts except Colombo, 11 districts claim water shortages for bathing beyond the national average of 11%. During such times personal hygiene and cleanliness associated with food hygiene will be compromised. Furthermore, 18.4% has to collect water outside the premise and 5.2% has to travel further than 200 m. Sanitation is below the national average of 90% in 8 districts, while in 15 districts over 7.5% of the population still share toilets, a known risk for increased disease transmission. Clearly these figures show that a good number of Sri Lankans are at times during the year, and in certain locations, exposed to conditions that could compromise their health. (Department of Census and Statistics, 2018) Surely the situation will have improved since 2016 as large NWSDB projects have come on stream and WaSSIP schemes have been completed in poorly served districts. Still more work is to be done to provide health protection and economic opportunities through functional WASH services.
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Table 3-8 Water shortages and sanitation issues by district Household Income and Expenditure Survey 2016 (Census Department) HIES 2016 Water Supply Sanitation 2016 Shortage Own Shared population Sufficient for bath/ toilet Toilet District in 1000 for drinking hygiene Sri Lanka 21203 93.3% 11.2% 91.7% 7.5% Highlighted if condition is < 90% > 11% < 90% > 7.5% Colombo 2395 99.4% 0.1% 93.0% 4.8% Gampaha 2372 97.1% 1.3% 92.6% 7.0% Kalutara 1261 96.4% 6.0% 93.6% 6.2% Kandy 1434 91.9% 15.8% 94.1% 5.7% Matale 508 92.0% 7.9% 91.8% 8.1% Nuwara Eliya 748 89.9% 45.8% 86.1% 12.5% Galle 1102 95.7% 7.3% 93.6% 6.4% Matara 845 93.4% 11.5% 93.8% 5.9% Hambantota 637 93.6% 1.8% 90.5% 9.5% Jaffna 602 95.0% 0.4% 88.8% 9.5% Mannar 106 93.5% 0.9% 92.3% 6.6% Vavuniya 182 98.6% 24.9% 87.4% 10.4% Mullaitivu 95 91.1% 13.2% 91.4% 7.8% Killinochchi 122 96.7% 17.9% 89.4% 9.3% Batticaloa 550 95.8% 1.1% 89.7% 7.8% Ampara 691 95.9% 2.6% 93.4% 5.5% Trincomalee 404 87.9% 3.3% 87.2% 9.6% Kurunegala 1676 89.6% 6.2% 90.7% 8.5% Puttalam 801 87.8% 9.6% 89.7% 8.6% Anuradhapura 905 88.1% 35.7% 89.3% 9.8% Pollonaruwa 425 90.3% 14.2% 87.5% 12.4% Badulla 854 95.0% 27.1% 92.6% 6.8% Monaragala 479 84.4% 9.3% 91.9% 7.9% Ratnapura 1140 89.3% 22.9% 91.5% 8.2% Kegalle 869 90.1% 25.6% 92.2% 6.9%
Since the spread of the corona virus pandemic efforts have been going on from March 2020 onwards to curtail the spread of the disease through handwashing, wearing of masks, social distancing and periods of lock-down. Sri Lanka has been very vigilant and has been very strict in reducing the potential transmission of the COVID-19 virus. For some time to come the presence of the virus in our society will require everybody to maintain higher degree of personal and domestic hygiene and in particular handwashing. No reliable data on handwashing are available in Sri Lanka.
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Figure 3-8 Handwashing station with posters as placed by ADRA’s ACCEND project supported by EU Public health in Sri Lanka is also affected by chemical constituents in water. Fluoride in groundwater is widespread in the dry zone and dental fluorosis has been a visible feature in affected areas. Since early 1990 the same areas have seen a large number of patients with chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology (CKDu). It is suspected to be associated with consumption of water from groundwater wells. The real relationship between the groundwater and the disease in unclear, but changing to surface or rainwater avoids the condition. Excessive use of fertilizer and pesticides is a further risk to groundwater quality as not all nitrates are absorbed by the plants and salinity increases over the years. The excessive use and therefore run-off of fertilizers to surface water bodies is also seen due to the proliferation in the last decades of cyanobacteria whose die-off releases toxins hazardous to small animals and causing stomach problems to humans. Chronic exposure may lead to liver and kidney failure. These aspects of public health will be discussed in some detail in section 8.5.
3.9 Aspects of Institutional WASH WASH in schools Perception on school sanitation has progressively changed in Sri Lanka. It is no more seen as a randomly built set of toilets but a strategic intervention of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH). The political will and policy initiatives are adequately in place to position school WASH beyond infrastructure and with strong attitudinal, qualitative and behavioral components. This conceptual foundation has shifted the resource allocation and utilization towards quantitative targets in compliance with the norms based on number of students. The proportion of schools with adequate sanitation coverage and improved drinking water sources were reported to have reached 98% and 88% respectively (School Nutrition and Health branch survey, 2017).
There are some discrepancies as the self-reported EMIS comes to 84% coverage and concludes rather a vast disparity in quality.(Ministry of Education, 2018)
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Table 3-9 Coverage in percentage of schools by drinking water source The responsibility for investment and construction lies with the Ministry of Education.
The Ministry provides only the minimum guidelines for the number of sanitary facilities to be made available and lacks details for setting up facilities and inclusive considerations. The key areas neglected in most of the standards and guidelines relate to age/gender appropriateness and considerations for people with special needs. No standards and guidelines covering the needs of girls/females (menstrual hygiene, etc.) could be found. The latter is of particular importance, as SDG 6.2 specifically mentions the need to provide adequate services for women and girls. Especially in school environments adequate facilities should be available to dispose of menstrual waste. Moreover, the majority of the existing standard documents lack the technical specifications (dimensions, etc.) for facility creation, leaving the same to the implementer to interpret. This has led to building of non-standard sanitation facilities minimizing the benefits that can be achieved. (Karunaratne, 2019) Hygiene is even more important during the COVID-19 time, and so the Ministry has to arrange that handwashing stations are available in all schools. To reduce recontamination and as mostly paper towels will not be available, air drying of hands by waving these will be the most practical. In 2025 both water supply and adequate sanitation, with a reasonable toilet to schoolgirl ratio, should have reached 100%. Access to sanitation should also be assured for children with disabilities. WASH in Health Institutions The 2017 Service Availability and Readiness Assessment report that 99% of health facilities have improved water supply and 91% have sanitation facilities. At Divisional Level and for primary Figure 3-9 Hand washing promotion by medical care units, water supply is at times not available. In MoH Health Promotion Bureau & Epidemiology Unit primary medical care facilities toilets are only available in 89% of clinics. Handwashing stations were only functionally available in 74% of health institutions. MoH clinics also do not always have access to water supply. (Department of Census and Statistics (DCS) and Ministry of Health Nutrition and Indigenous Medicine, 2018)
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The WHO-UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme also monitors the quality of WASH facilities and health care waste management in hospitals and clinics. It reports on water supply, sanitation and hygiene for visitors, patients and staff. Whereas water supply was often available, sanitation facilities were less frequently available or functional. Hygiene, for hand washing or menstruating women was often insufficient. (World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), 2019) It appears that in the rural and estate areas these gaps remain important in Sri Lanka as well.
Health Care Waste Management is a concern in most hospitals and clinics. Procedures for managing health care waste are not applied or the equipment is not operational. The National Audit Office in 2019 reported serious transgressions of regulations, potentially leading to environmental contamination with hazardous substances. (Wijedasa, 2019) Such situations put people at the health facility at risk and may also compromise nearby water resources. Corrective action needs to be undertaken urgently. WASH in Public Places Water supply and sanitation is of critical importance for people visiting government offices, markets or shopping centers. Water supply may be a lesser concern, as one can always buy a
FCGFigure International 3-10 Private Ltd (FCG, Sector Finland) Participation in Joint Venture in Publicwith Toilets Management Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 41 bottle of water nowadays. For sanitation that is quite different. Railway station and bus stands should also have adequate facilities to accommodate customers. There is limited information available, but anecdotal evidence indicates that in the cities and along the highways public services are available. (National Water Supply and Drainage Board, 2016) Most tea houses and small restaurants nowadays have decent toilet facilities and if not, it will shortly have few customers. With the proliferation of tourist facilities around the country, restroom facilities have also improved. (Farook, 2017) Toilet facilities at the workplace, properly segregated and with adequate facilities for menstruating women or to change the nappy of your baby are also important concerns of the day. Managers will have to ensure that housekeeping keeps facilities clean and in working order. Of course, management responsibility does not stop there. Regular checks on ancillary facilities such as septic tanks and drainage also belong to proper asset management. 3.10 Observations and Recommendations The SDG goal 6: Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all has been presented in this chapter. In water supply and sanitation coverage, Sri Lanka stands well ahead of many countries in the region. However, the quality and universality of the services still needs attention. New investments in underserved areas are needed, quality improvements in water quality and quantity, and the number of service hours, in sanitation sewerage and on-site sanitation need continuing attention, especially with respect to fecal sludge management and wastewater treatment. The relationship between WASH and Health is good, with ever less outbreaks that are potentially caused by poor water supply and sanitation. Sufficient water supply is also necessary for personal hygiene. As many people work in agriculture, cleaning of wounds and abrasions are common. Safe water is critical to their cleaning and healing, certainly in the climate of Sri Lanka. At times of the year, 11% of the population indicates that they face shortage of water for hygiene. Section 3.7 lists the strategies to be undertaken in the coming decade to achieve the targets set under the sustainable development goals. Under normal circumstances and with local communication and sharing of responsibilities, most of these measures will be effective in achieving the SDGs for water supply by 2025, and for sanitation and wastewater treatment by 2030. From then on, the task will be to sustain the services through responsible behavior of consumers and well-managed plans and regulation by the authorities. Continued communication on aspects of the SDGs and how good water supply and sanitation not only protects health, but also protects ecosystems and general living conditions, will continue to be critical. WASH in public areas: schools, health facilities and public institution and facilities such as railway stations and bus stands will require regular attention from the responsible authorities so as not to compromise the convenience of the commuter or the visitor.
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4 Water Supply 4.1 Introduction By the end of 2019, water supply coverage is estimated to have reached 92% of households. Just over 53% of homes will have piped water into the yard, provided by the National Water Supply and Drainage Board or by a Community Based Organization. A further 39% will have a well or rainwater harvesting system, or a handpump or protected dug well nearby. Around 8 % of the population has not proper water service. By 2025 Government intends to provide safe water to all citizens of Sri Lanka. The investment plan outlined in Chapter 12 aims to fulfill this intent. The plan identifies immediate efficiency gains by NWSDB in existing and on-going schemes, accelerated reduction of non-revenue water and savings through energy-smart investments. It further has formulated two investment programmes for water supply and water resources. To ensure more responsible use of treated water supply, a demand management campaign programme is part of the NWSDB activities for the next decade. By 2030 NWSDB expects to serve 68% of the population with piped water supply. Similarly, 4 packages have been formulated that are geared to provide community based, Divisional Secretariat-led investment opportunities in water supply and sanitation. This chapter briefly describes the method used by the consultant to assess future requirements in water supply for the NWSDB schemes and for systems managed by CBOs and Local Authorities, as well as for self-supply. More detailed information is available in the Task IV Report on Water Supply Demand Projections and Sanitation and Septage Treatment Requirements (May 2020 update). 4.2 National Water Supply and Drainage Board National Water Supply and Drainage Board (NWSDB) is the national authority for providing drinking water to the urban and semi urban areas, and pipe borne sewerage facilities. At present, NWSDB operates over 350 water supply schemes throughout the country, servicing a total of 2.2 million domestic connections, as at the end of August 2019. The number of public stand posts is gradually declining and has now reached 1,513. A further 191,000 connections are commercial, industrial and institutional (NWSDB MIS August 2019). NWSDB also provides water to CBOs on bulk supply basis and provides water to the water bowsers (operated by local authorities or private parties), to serve water-stressed areas. The NWSDB is established under a Parliamentary Act (National Water Supply and Drainage Board Law, No. 2 of 1974, with amendment No. 13 of 1992) as a public authority. As per the Act, the objects of the NWSDB is to exercise, discharge and perform within its area or areas of authority, all the powers, functions and duties conferred or imposed on it under the Act; and to do other acts or things necessary for above object. As per the Act, the Minister in charge of water supply may, with the concurrence of the Minister in charge of Local Government, declare through a Gazette notification, any area in Sri Lanka as an area of authority of NWSDB. NWSDB and any Local Authority may agree and transfer any water supply or sewerage scheme carried on by the Local Authority to NWSDB, under a “voluntary transfer scheme”. Further, when directed by the Minister, NWSDB can make a transfer of a water supply or sewerage scheme under a “compulsory transfer scheme”. The NWSDB has Regional Support Centers (RSCs) covering each of the administrative provinces in the country headed by DGMs. The NWSDB staff consists of highly competent and skilled
FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 43 professionals in the sector in required professions, including Engineers, Sociologists, Hydrogeologists, Chemists, Accountants and sub professionals including technical officers, surveyors, technicians, lab assistants, to address the conventional aspects in water supply technology and management. The NWSDB is responsible for securing funds for investment of new facilities or rehabilitation/expansion of existing facilities, planning, and designs, implementation of these investments and operation and maintenance of the existing schemes within the declared areas of authority in the country. As the NWSDB is the national organization operating throughout Sri Lanka, the authority and operations of the NWSDB is not affected or challenged by the Provincial Council administration set up, presumably due to the specialized nature of the tasks involved. Further details on the role and effectiveness of NWSDB is provide in Chapter 7 and in Task IV Report on Institutional and Policy Framework (FCG International Ltd. RDC IDC, 2020a) 4.3 Demand calculations for NWSDB service areas At the beginning of the CSIP assignment all NWSDB RSCs to collect information about their operations and future plans, and to facilitate future interactions. Over time the data have been used to build a dataset and models that helped to assess the current services provided by NWSDB. The subsequent calculations have used some further assumptions common to the profession. These may differ somewhat from the NWSDB P1 manual but are basically following the same pattern. Annex 4.1 provides the methods and assumptions used for the demand calculations (Heijnen (Ed.), 2019a). It covers domestic and non-domestic consumption, Non-Revenue Water and other factors as shown in figure 4-1.
Figure 4-1 Components of total demand calculations for water supply 2020-2050
Non-Revenue Water Non-revenue water (NRW) is water that has been produced and is "lost" before it reaches the customer. Losses can be real losses (through leaks, sometimes also referred to as physical losses)
FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 44 or apparent losses (for example through theft or metering inaccuracies). For NWSDB losses also include illegal connections and the volumes distributed to needy citizens by water bowser in times of drought, as it appears that these volumes are not always measured. High levels of NRW are detrimental to the financial viability of water utilities, as well to the quality of water itself. NRW is typically measured as the volume of water "lost" as a share of net water produced. Lost water is a problem for large and small schemes. However, it is obviously more substantial in large schemes where leakages become anonymous unless one has a system in place for checking and reporting. In smaller communities leakages may show up a little faster as the link between the consumer and the CBO managing the scheme is much closer. NWSDB has a NRW reduction programme in place as a priority. NRW is one of its Key Performance Indicators. The diagram in figure 4-2 shows the progress that has gradually been made. The municipal area of Colombo is supplied through an aging pipe network, and that in combination with high building intensity and heavy road traffic means that leakages and pipe bursts are happening every day. Even then NWSDB has made good progress in the Colombo area by reducing the CMC NRW by 1% a year, assisted by a dedicated NRW project that also helps replacing old pipes. At the end of 2018 NRW in the Colombo service area stood at 42%, with an island-wide ratio of 24.3%.
Note: the colored dots at right are the targets set for end 2018. For CMC the target set was not achieved, and more trouble- some, the target for island outside CMC area was not achieved either!
Figure 4-2 NWSDB: Progress in NRW reduction
As NWSDB continues to construct new schemes with Table 4-1 Targets for reduction of NRW by newly laid pipe networks, the average NRW will category of NRW automatically improve. The immediate measures to reduce NRW proposed to raise efficiency of operations include financing for NRW improvements. The long-term objective is to reduce NRW to 15% of production, as shown in table 4-1.
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4.4 Demand Management and Water Education As water becomes scarce because of Climate Change induced erratic rainfall and (over) use due to competing requirements, a demand management programme needs to be put in place to complement efforts to secure more water for the future. The consumer has to do its share. A reduction in water consumption can be achieved through changing water use habits, using water saving Figure 4-3 Around the world there are many programmes that link water with appliances, collecting education rainwater when possible for gardening and cleaning, and use of water from the well in the yard. A sustained advocacy campaign has been proposed in the investment plan to gradually change the mindset of the consumer with respect to responsible water use. Companies and businesses should do their share by developing similar water saving and reuse practices in their operations. Water education projects and programmes should be introduced into the curriculum to encourage youth to understand the importance of responsible water use and protection of ecosystems. Demand management is anticipated to result in a reduction of domestic demand over a period of several years. For illustration, the assumed consumption pattern for 2030 is given in table 4-2. These gradually reduced consumption figures have been used in the calculations presented in annex 4.1. In 2018 sales for NWSDB schemes amounted to 534 million cubic meters. Of this, 74% was domestic. Assuming an average of 3.9 inhabitants per urban dwelling this means an average consumption of 121 lpd. CSIP has assumed that the current design assumption is 120-140 lpd for 2020, declining to a Table 4-2 Assumed consumption figures in 2030 following a demand management 2030 design programme assumption of 110-130 lpd for the majority of consumers. Only those living in high urbanized areas may still consume more water at 150 lpd, as for instance in the planned aspirational living area of the Port City. Ultimately using smart water fittings and water conserving domestic appliances, and because
FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 46 people will be more careful with water, it is assumed that by 2050, the daily demand in the urban setting will fall further. 4.5 NWSDB water supply coverage, current and prospective The GIS map on water supply coverage contains information of existing water supply services and projects under various stages such as on-going, awarded, PAC approved, procurement stage or planned, based on the information received from RSCs. The existing water supply coverage area is also shown as depicted in the following sample map for Kurunegala district. It should be noted that in the absence of information on the extent of distribution lines, water supply schemes are marked in GND using a color theme. In some maps this will give a distorted view over the area coverage as it appears to indicate that the full GND is served, while this may actually not be so. There may be areas that the distribution system does not reach as these are forest or upland areas or otherwise are areas without habitation. Recently constructed projects may also not yet have completed the distribution system according to the original design due to lack of water or funding. Figure 4-4 GIS mapping of NWSDB water supply (existing and proposed) In time to come NWSDB GIS will have to update the maps showing the actual water supply coverage area by showing the actual network. WaSSIP supported projects already show this level of detail. The full series of maps is included in section 5.7 Total water Demand by district in the CSIP Task II report (May 2020)
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NWSDB service hours NWSDB is not yet able to provide 24 hours of supply in all its service areas. Sometimes reduce service hours may be seasonal, while in other cases it may be because water needs to be shared with other service areas. Continuous improvement and upgrading will remain a feature of the work of the NWSDB for years to come. There is no harm in that in most cases, as most households are already well served, and can wait a bit for a better service, when capacity and funds permit. An example of NWSDB service hours is given in the figure below on Galle district. Other districts face similar constraints.
Figure 4-5 Daily service hours by NWSDB in Galle district
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4.6 Water Supply services by CBOs and Local Authorities CBOs, Local Authorities and Estate water supplies are estimated to account for 12% of piped supplies. Local Authorities Local Authorities may contribute some 2.8% of piped supply to the coverage. In addition, they operate protected public dug wells and boreholes. LGAs play an important role in the provision of water supply to small town and Pradeshiya Sabha areas. No recent information was available and so it was decided to request the Ministry of Provincial Councils and Figure 4-6 Types of supply provided by Local Authorities Local Government to conduct a suitable survey. The survey yielded partial data on 208 of 341 LAs. The survey showed that LAs may serve 2-4 % of the population with protected wells and boreholes. Unfortunately, no data were reliably available on functionality of the systems operated by the Local Authorities. Assuming that their schemes could be rehabilitated and upgraded for 80% of their current service, it would mean that LAs would be able to serve 4-5% of the population. LGAs play an important role in the provision of water supply to small town and Pradeshiya Sabha areas. No recent information is available and so it was decided to request the Ministry of Provincial Councils and Local Government to conduct a suitable survey. LGA operates and maintains between 1 – 7 water supply schemes, which an average of 3 systems per LGA. As there are 341 LGAs (296 Pradeshiya Sabhas, 41 Urban Councils & 24 Municipal Councils) island-wide, it is estimated that there are roughly 1,000 – 1,200 water supply schemes being managed by the LGAs. Community Based Organizations CBOs similarly perform an important role in water supply service. Currently there are 4349 CBOs identified and some 2600 have to date been visited by the monitoring staff of the Department of National Community Water Supply and their data entered in the national database maintained by DNCWS. Many of the CBOs will provide a piped supply service, while some provide may operate only a well. Of CBOs 41% operate gravity schemes with springs as their source, while 47% use ground water. No data are available on the remainder of CBOs. It is estimated that around 30% of CBOs apply chlorination or other treatment to make their water safe to drink. In the coming decade, upgrading CBO managed schemes to safely managed with treatment, a functional water safety plan and regular water quality testing will be an important challenge that is included in the 4 investment packages for LAs, CBOs and estate water supplies.
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The quantities abstracted are unlikely to be substantial as most CBOs cover a few hundred households. The DNCWS data base predicts that CBOs would cover 570.000 households. If each household consumes 400 l per day, then the overall abstraction of the CBOs combined comes to 83MCM per year. Local Authorities, except Kurunegala, Kandy and Nuwara Eliya would add a further 60MCM per year. In total around 143MCM in dispersed smaller extractions for which no large water resources investments appear necessary most of the time. NWSDB serves larger urban communities and requires nearly 4 times as much in water resources to satisfy urban and business demand. That is not to say that CBOs would not like to have a better service. They probably will as a third of CBOs complain of dry season shortages and 13% has water resource problems year-round. Many of the issues can probably be resolved with limited funding when technical, financial and capacity building support is given to restore the systems. From a planner’s perspective, it is important to note that the CBOs and Local Authorities can be served with smaller, decentralized systems, that do not require heavy investment in water Figure 4-7 Adequacy of source, in CBO schemes resources development and can be served by boreholes, local tanks and springs. It may be that additional watershed development, percolation ponds or rehabilitation of the cascade tanks is needed, but these matters can relatively easily be taken up through local efforts and support from Local Government or WaSSIP-like projects. Obviously in view of climate change, more efforts have to go into regular upkeep of the facilities and making these flood-proof etc. Note that the CBO data are retrieved from the DNCWS database. Plantation Human Development Trust Since the 1980’s donor supported programmes focused on health and infrastructure development in the plantation areas. For a long time, the living conditions in the estate areas were poor, with families living in line-rooms, with poor water supply and common toilets. In the last decade the situation has improved somewhat when land was set aside for housing schemes. This has also improved the water supply and sanitation situation in the estates. The projects that provided this support have morphed over time into the Plantation Human Development Trust (PHDT) in 2002. PHDT provides services to the plantations in collaboration with government organizations, NGOs and INGOs, to implement several infrastructure and social development programmes, including the core activities of housing & infrastructure, water & sanitation, health & nutrition, childcare & development, Estate Worker Housing Cooperative Societies, Training & Development and Sports & Welfare. Thus, PHDT is an active player in water and sanitation aspects in the plantation sector. However, lately is has not been much endowed with funding for WASH.
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Figure 4-8 Discussing water supply management at Mattekelle Estate, Hatton (Berendina Foundation/ Palm Foundation) PHDT looks after the interests of some 259’000 households. Approximately 600 water supply schemes are in existence. These provide mostly untreated water, although in Nuwara Eliya district WaSSIP, Palm Foundation and World Vision have gradually upgraded systems with treatment. The system in figure 4-8 has filtration and chlorination, and is managed by a dedicated estate employee, together with the water user committee. Water quality is checked on a regular basis This is a requirement for the estate retaining the Rain Forest Alliance certificate. The 2017 multisectoral nutrition assessment in Sri Lanka’s estate sector, supported by the World Bank, found that some 90% of households had access to water sources. At the same time, 92 % of water supplies were contaminated with E.coli. Households reported that water was boiled before drinking or treated by filter or chlorination. (World Bank, 2017) PHDT reported that many systems were under pressure due to inadequate water source, poor water quality and damage to pipelines and other infrastructure. (L.R.Perera, 2019)
The number of households to be served by Divisional Secretariat by 2020, 2025 and 2030 in rural areas with safe water by CBOs, LAs and domestic wells and rainwater systems, is given in annex 12.11. 4.7 Water Requirements as Special Demands for EPZs and other Economic Developments For several provinces development programmes have been formulated. In as far as these have been accessible, these have been reviewed for water supply and sanitations related plans, and relevant special considerations have been included in the demand calculations. Important master plans are those associated with the Megapolis Western Region Master Plan, and the Southern Coastal Belt including Hambantota. The Southern coastal belt will become a tourism area, and will also function as good residential areas, well connected by rail and highway to Colombo. In addition to the normal population growth further population increases were assumed in the Megapolis Western Region Master Plan . Table 4-3 gives some data on extra populations
FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 51 expected to start residing in these cities in time to Table 4-3 Expected Increase in population come. This capacity means that additional water Increase in population due to Megapolis supply, sanitation and sewerage capacity needs to 2025 2030 be planned to accommodate the new arrivals. Colombo District 52,000 329,000 The Eastern Provincial Council Medium Term Port City/Finance City 22,500 61,000 Development Plan is another such plans that aims to Admin City 10,000 87,000 transform Eastern Province through rational Tech City 9,500 47,000 resource management and good governance to Plantation City 46,000 eradicate poverty. The Plan describes the water Maritime City 10,000 88,000 supply situation in the province and on the basis of 2013 data notes that several improvements are Gampaha District 10,000 238,000 necessary. In the meantime, NWSDB has Aero City 5,000 97,000 constructed new schemes and with the assistance of Logistic Corridor 5,000 57,000 NGOs such as Palm Foundation, the water supply Muthurajawela Tourism Zone 54,000 situation has substantially improved. Mirigama Industrial Zone 30,000 From an economic perspective development of Kalutara District 10,000 132,000 tourism opportunities is viewed as an opportunity to Horana Industrial City 10,000 48,000 raise employment and income levels. Small and Forest City 29,000 medium enterprise development and related Southern Tourism Corridor 55,000 flagship projects are mentioned, but these fall within the estimates already considered by CSIP. Some specific demands have been listed for Trincomalee to take account of extending tourism facilities. In addition to the provincial plans, export processing zones and other economic developments require water supply for their operations. The requirements have been assessed and incorporated in the demand calculations of the NWSDB schemes. Lastly consideration has been given to demands generated by commuting or floating populations. These data have usually been obtained from UDA studies. In the CSIP calculations the additional requirements for water supply have been converted in m 3 as special demands. 4.8 Total water demand by district Colombo, Gampaha, Kalutara and Kurunegala districts will require substantial additional water supply provisions up to 2030 and somewhat less, when migration and development in these districts will stabilize and demand management will show impact. Hambantota district has been shown as a high-demand district, due to the various economic activities that may come about when the Hambantota Port and Mattala Airport develop their full potential. Substantial water resources development projects such as the Gin ganga/Nilwala ganga diversion are required to Figure 4-9 Districts with substantial water demand increase until 2030 FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 52
Table 4-4 Total water supply demand by district for 2020/2030/2050 enable the provision of the additional water requirements. Desalination may be an intermediate solution for the Hambantota Port until adequate water resources can be channeled to the district. Jaffna may not see a large growth in water supply requirement in the coming decades, but for the fact that water supply is hardly available at the moment due to lack of water. Several solutions to the water resource deficit for Jaffna have been proposed, from the River to Jaffna to desalination. Delays and disagreements have hindered decision-making, and even today it is not clear whether the cost-efficient solutions can be agreed upon. There are several other districts where growth in water supply appears manageable. However, the current water resources and water supply development status of districts determines whether sufficient water supply is available in the future. Also, as table 4-4 shows, the absolute volume of water represented by the 15% increase of demand up to 2030 for Colombo district is of course nearly 2.5 times more than the 21% growth in Kalutara district represents.
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Water supply demand by NWSD scheme District level data and local knowledge is required to undertake the process of matching water supply with water resources now, in 2020, and the degree to which the overall system will be adequate in 2030 and beyond. CSIP has made these assessments by NWSDB scheme and presented the results in the Task III report on Water Resources Identification and Development, Chapter 5, by district. To support the investment plan that is presented in chapter 12, for each district relevant information on water supply demand for 2020/2025/2030 and 2050 is provided as a result of the assessments and calculations made by CSIP. The digital versions of the spreadsheets and GIS shapefiles are available from the NWSDB AGM Policy and Strategy ( [email protected] ). The following information is given in these tables for each district, by NWSDB scheme: Population in covered GNDs 2020,2030,2050 Population with safe water supply in rural GNDs Potential coverage in 2020 and coverage by 2020, 2025, 2030 and 2050 Normal demand for water by 2020, 2025,2030 and 2050 Special demand
The tables are included as annex 4.4. A sample of such a sheet is given Matale District as table 4-5. Note that no special demand was required in Matale District, so these columns were not included here. In other districts a further 4 columns are added to include the special demand in m 3/day for the 2020-2050 period. Table 4-5 Forecasted coverage and demand by 2020, 2025, 2030 and 2050
The overview provided in these scheme-level calculations also lead to the assessment of shortfalls in supply. Such shortfalls may be caused by lack of available water sources or due to gaps in treatment capacity. These issues have been elaborated in the CSIP Task II report section 9.3 on NWSDB scheme-wise deficits, and are explained further in section 6.7.1
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Proposed urban, small town or rural water supplies On the basis of the population density assessments, a number of urban, small town or rural water supply schemes have been identified by CSIP for each district. These schemes have been categorized as urban (for HHs > 2500), small-town schemes (for HHs > 500) or rural schemes (for HHs <500).
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A sample of the data included in Task II Report, Section 5.7, part 3 is given in the next two pages for Matara district. GNDs that are actually urban or semi-urban by 2030 have been identified and extracted in case there is no or no planned NWSDB scheme. Figure 4-8 gives the geographical locations, while table 4-6 and 4-7 list the population, the expected water demand and other relevant information.
Table 4-6 Proposed small-town schemes (for HHs>500)
Proposed Total HHs CBO Demand (m³/day) DSD GND's covered Remarks Schemes in 2030 connections 2020 2025 2030 2050 Existing CBOs Usamalagoda, Scheme 1 Kotapola 898 834 440 453 427 460 to be Lindagawahena strengthened Can be connected to Scheme 2 Athuraliya Divithura, Welihena 671 189 305 315 307 330 the ongoing project. Existing CBOs Scheme 3 Mulatiyana Deiyandara, Maduwala 913 691 447 461 434 467 to be strengthened
Table 4-7 Proposed rural schemes (for HHs<500) Total Proposed CBO Demand (m³/day) DSD GND's covered HHs in Remarks Schemes connections 2030 2020 2025 2030 2050
Center 1 Pasgoda Wijayagama 373 19 167 173 161 173
Existing CBO s Center 2 Akuressa Henegama 393 351 161 166 170 183 to be strengthened Center 3 Mulatiyana Rathkekulawa 462 25 226 233 220 237
Center 4 Hakmana Meeella 344 86 140 145 148 160
4.9 Observations and recommendations The National Water Supply and Drainage Board is the company that provides water supply services island-wide. It serves an estimated 41.3% of the population and has the ambition to increase its coverage by 2030 to 68%. CBOs and Local Authorities have been assessed to provide some 12% of the people with localized water supply services, usually to 100 to 500 households. The development of new water supply systems is constrained due to lack of sufficient water resources. Water resources identification and planning is a necessity for the large schemes operated by NWSDB, but increasingly also for CBOs as local water sources are becoming increasingly affected by climate change and human encroachment. Government and local authorities should continue to promote responsible use of water, and in particular protect existing sources through zoning and licensing of abstractions. In the large cities where a larger number of people will live and work, water consumption should be tempered through a long-term demand management and water education programme undertaken by the NWSDB with other partners such as CEA and municipalities. A next World Water Day celebration could use water education and responsible use as themes.
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Sri Lanka has already a good coverage in water supply through a mix of NWSDB supply, local initiative through CBOs and because traditionally a lot of households invested themselves in better and more convenient water supply in the home. Still there are a good number of households that have not yet been able to reap the benefits of a reliable water supply. These people live in drought affected areas, in CKDu areas, in the estates, and in resettlement areas. The WASHIP investment plans presented in Chapter 12 aim to provide relief in the next few years. CSIP has also noted that there some areas currently not served by NWSDB, where small townships are evolving which would benefit from a modern water supply. Similarly, CBOs could take up piped scheme development in growth areas where clusters of homes are in existing and growing in response to economic development and services opportunities. CSIP has identified such cases and provided the information by district for NWSDB and WASHIP schemes to take on. NWSDB extracts water from both surface and ground water sources to fulfill the drinking water demand. However, those sources are not often adequate to cater the water demand throughout the year specially during dry periods. To safeguard future supplies, urgent action is needed to identify potential sources and source improvements. The Task II and Task III of the CSIP assignment provide extensive information, by district, about the sustainability of supply and suggestions for water security enhancing measures. Chapter 6 describes the issues in more detail and contains an important section on matching water supply demand with available water resources.
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5 Sanitation Coverage in Sri Lanka 5.1 Introduction Sanitation coverage has always been good in Sri Lanka. Since independence successive governments have laid strong emphasis on sanitation aspects. The Ministry of Health through the Public Health Inspector has promoted the construction sanitary latrines. The PHI and Public Health Midwife help create awareness on proper usage of sanitary latrines and health impacts of improper disposal of human excreta. The fact that most of the population of Sri Lanka is literate has also helped the adoption of good sanitation. Still poverty, and resettlement after the war or following the Tsunami, will have inconvenienced households and they may still be trying to get their own toilets. In the urban areas, space will have made it difficult to build a latrine. In 2019 92% of the population has private latrines for use by the household. Some 2.1% of households are connected to sewerage, mainly in the Colombo Municipal Council (CMC) area. In Colombo, Kandy and estate areas people make use of shared or public toilets. Such facilities are by necessity frequented by around 6% of the population. The last 2% of the population does not have a decent latrine or only a temporary one. In remote rural areas and in estates occasional open defecation will happen. Sri Lanka has been an enthusiastic member of the South Asia Conference on Sanitation (SACOSAN) since the first conference in Dhaka in 2003. Sri Lanka organized SACOSAN IV in 2011 and since August 2017 hosts its regional centre. The SACOSAN process has helped to keep the policy development process on sanitation going over the years. The National Policy on Sanitation has been approved in 2017. The Sri Lankan government has declared water and sanitation to be an “inalienable right”. The Policy document recognizes the dimensions of sanitation, namely: domestic hygiene, personal hygiene, food hygiene, water hygiene, vector control, safe disposal of human excreta, septage management, environmentally safe wastewater and storm water management, and solid waste management. The policy document states that it includes all the above, and consists of both the structures which include (a) provision of toilets connected to septic tanks/pit latrines or sewers and (b) processes which promote regulation and hygiene to prevent faecal-oral disease transmission. 5.2 Urban Sanitation and Sewerage The initial sewerage system of Colombo dates from 1910. It has since been extended and upgraded on a regular basis, trying to cope with the growth of the Greater Colombo area. CMC manages the sewerage system. Wastewater is discharged without treatment in two outfalls from Mutwal and Wellawatte, some 1.5 km into the sea. The system has aged and needed urgent upgrading of pipelines, pumps and outfalls. The Greater Colombo Wastewater Management Project was signed for USD 100 million in 2009. It is expected to be completed by the end of 2020. NWSDB has provided substantial technical and management support to the project. The NWSDB is also in charge of the sewerage systems in Greater Colombo excluding the CMC area, Kurunegala, Kandy Sewerage Treatment Plant, Hikkaduwa, Kataragama. Sewerage with wastewater treatment are increasingly incorporated in housing schemes. From the 1980’s onwards, housing schemes in Mattegoda, Digana Village, Soysapura, Raddolugama, Hantana, etc. have been sewered.
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In Colombo, with Kandy and Kurunegala shortly having operational sewerage systems, and several schemes in the process of implementation or design, more urban and institutional areas will get access to sewerage in the coming decades. In 2019 national sewerage coverage stood at 2.1%. Though effective coverage by NWSDB operated appears small at some 0.3% of the population, it needs to be noted that design and implementation of sewerage systems is undertaken by NWSDB on behalf of municipalities. Subsequent to completion, these schemes are operated by the municipality. Overall, by 2030 it is expected that sewerage coverage will be around 6.3%. Growth in condominiums in central Colombo and the development of several high-end neighborhoods (such as the Colombo International financial City) and hotels will demand greater capacity for CMC sewerage scheme. Further development of sewerage systems has been under discussion with the NWSDB Sewerage Division. Task II, Chapter 7 describes the process of selecting urban areas where sewerage systems would be feasible. The density of population in Sri Lankan towns is often quite low and so it makes sewerage schemes quite expensive. This may be justifiable for high economic areas in tourism or industry, but beyond that sewerage is mostly too expensive, bot to construct as well as for the household to connect. Therefore, in section 12.2.9 and annex 5.1 only 30 schemes are proposed for investment between 2020 and 2050. In the coming decade 10 larger schemes will be constructed, while 2 smaller schemes will be used to test small sewer systems with decentralized wastewater treatment. The rational for sewerage will be to protect public health and provide convenience. In a number of cases environmental concerns relating to the impact of human waste discharges on groundwater aquifers requires construction of sewerage systems. This is for instance the case in Jaffna and Batticaloa where poor sanitation causes contamination of water wells. In these areas wells are used for domestic purposes and should provide water that is safe enough for flushing the toilet and taking a bath.
Table 5-1 Sewerage schemes in operation and on-going Total pop in covered GNDs Covered pop by Scheme water supply by with Sewers sewers Existing Schemes Colombo MC 537227 422632 NWSDB Dehiwala - Mount Lavinia (Only sea belt) 133629 17035 NWSDB Moratuwa MC (including Ratmalana) PHASE I 94033 15445 NWSDB Ja -ela PS (Stage I) 39595 6600 NWSDB Kolonnawa UC (Stage I) 63853 10255 NWSDB Kurunegala MC (Stage I) 26639 8030 LA Kataragama PS 18084 5045 NWSDB Hikkaduwa UC (Stage I) 11782 3490 NWSDB Ongoing Projects Kandy 57473 5747 LA Moratuwa Ratmalana phase II 176665 15445 NWSDB
Table 5-1 gives an overview of the sewerage systems. It is clear from the table that only a limited proportion of households is so far connected to a sewer. For most households a septic tank with soakage pit is the first choice. Sri Lanka Standards 745 is the current code of practice established for designing of septic tank systems. Since the construction of piped sewerage systems needs huge investment and time, on-site sanitation systems improvement will continue to play an important role in sanitation. The majority of the population continues to depend on site sanitation systems and therefore proper monitoring of the construction of individual septic tanks is required.
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5.3 Rural Sanitation and Hygiene The type of sanitation facilities in rural areas are predominantly pit latrines (with direct pit or offset pit). The funding for construction of latrines usually rests with the property owner/ developer. As part of its Primary Health Care mandate, the Ministry of Health stipulates that the Public Health Inspector must carry out certain strategic interventions. With respect to sanitation the PHI should promote and assist householders to construct sanitary latrines and create awareness on proper usage of sanitary latrines and health impacts of improper disposal of human excreta. Figure 5-1 Rural toilet with off-set pit
Households that can not manage to construct a latrine, can at times get support from the Pradeshiya Sabha, from NGO projects in the area or philanthropists. In Chapter 12, the investment for the 4 WASHIP packages also includes subsidy arrangements for toilet construction, through the Divisional Secretariat. Handwashing at critical times during the day is an important behavioral aspect and a handwashing facility should be available near the toilet. Proper use of the toilet, regular handwashing, cleanliness around the house and water for food hygiene are all important to maintain a healthy household.
Figure 5-2 Promotional poster for good toilet use (WaSSIP) FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 61
5.4 Estate Sanitation The situation in many estates has improved in recent years. More households now have their own toilet. Still the use of shared toilets is common and open Figure 5-3: Status of water supply and sanitation in the estates (World Bank, 2017) defecation occurs as well. It is noted that in the estate sector pit latrines are located close to streams which allow leaching of toilet waste into the stream The 2017 Multisectoral Nutrition Assessment in Sri Lanka's Estate Sector reports in figure 5-3 that 67% of households have their own toilet. The development of housing schemes in the estates will certainly have contributed to this positive change. (World Bank, 2017). Many estates are remote and it may be difficult for to arrange collection, conveyance and treatment of septage by LA or private sector operators. The Pradeshiya Sabha in consultation with estate management need to consider this concern and eliminate the risk of untreated discharge in watersheds that are the sources of water for the people downstream. Local treatment may have its limitations as lower temperatures in estate areas may affect biodegradation. 5.5 Institutional Sanitation and Sewerage In institutional situations, the management is in better control of the assets. However, it then also has to put in place arrangements for good management and cleaning of sanitary facilities. Section 3.9 has discussed the WASH situations in schools and health facilities. Generally, the sanitation situation is satisfactory. In rural health centers attention needs to be given to availability and functionality of proper toilets, including those for the disabled and elderly. In section 5.2 it has been indicated that condominium style sewerage systems have been put in place in several housing schemes. The central management makes this a viable option and one that Government can mandate. Wastewater management in Industrial zones In EPZs and other BoI facilitated areas, sewerage and wastewater treatment is usually part of the housekeeping arrangement. NWSDB or a private operator manages the scheme. Properly treated effluent is discharged. However regular monitoring of discharges by CEA is required. More extensive information is provided in the CSIP Task IV report on Institutional Development and Policy, in Chapter 4, Mega Development Zones – Strategy for Provision of Services. Figure 5-4 Some EPZs and the capacity of their treatment plants
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Figure 5-6 Water use in Brandix factories Figure 5-5 Brandix factory in Batticaloa Brandix, a leading Sri Lankan apparel manufacturer, operates a facility in Batticaloa which has recently been recognized as the world’s first manufacturing facility to achieve ‘Net Zero Carbon’ status. Brandix works strategically towards reducing its water footprint. Its Water Management Handbook advocates a concentrated effort to improve factory-wide efficiencies to reduce water requirements in the manufacturing process. It considers Blue Water: the volume of surface and ground water consumed during production; Green Water: the volume of rainwater consumed during production and Grey Water. Wastewater recycling is an important part of the water management strategy. (Brandix Lanka Limited, 2017). Status of wastewater management in commercial establishments Vehicle service facilities such as repair shops, body shops, gas stations, car and truck rental companies, car dealerships, and car washes have a high potential to impact storm water and sewer wastewater with contaminants. They generally contribute to Oil and Grease (O&G), Suspended Solids, Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) in the wastewater, of which O&G is the most difficult to treat. Large amounts of oil and grease in the wastewater cause trouble in the collection system pipes. Oil and grease also hamper effective treatment at the wastewater treatment plant (Dissanayake et al., 2008). Status of wastewater management in hotel sector With new hotels rapidly increasing, regulatory authorities in Sri Lanka have decided to enforce stringent environmental regulations on the hotel industry. As a result, under the Sri Lanka National Environment Act, tolerance limits for industrial and domestic effluents discharged into the sea were defined in 1990. To comply, most coastal hotels were compelled to set up effluent treatment plants to treat effluents to correct standards before discharging into the sea or the coastal environment. The costs of installing and running these effluent treatment plants are high (PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2013). The main by-products of the effluent treatment plant or sewage treatment plant are: • Water: used for watering the garden • Biogas: used for cooking • Sun-dried sludge: used in the garden
The tourism industry leads on waste management approaches. Several Sri Lanka hotel chains report on their increasing capacity to reduce their water footprint and wastewater discharge. Most adhere to the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI).
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(https://www.globalreporting.org/standards/gri-standards-download-center/ )
Table 5-2 John Keells Hotels PLC reporting on waste and effluents Source: (John Keells Hotels PLC, 2019) The example given here shows there is a lot of potential in Sri Lanka for upgrading sewage management and reduction of effluent, and reuse and recycling. It will of course require strong commitment of management and creative solutions that fit the institution and the conditionalities of the location. To encourage the exchange of experiences on water footprint and waste management already taking place in the hospitality industry and other industrial complexes, The Sri Lanka Institute of Engineers could facilitate exchange visits and seminars between municipal officers and the industry. Unauthorized solid and liquid releases Open dumping of solid waste is the most prevailing method in Sri Lanka. Mostly, the dumping sites of Sri Lanka are located close to sensitive water bodies such as riverbanks, wetlands and thus it becomes one of the main sources of surface and ground water pollution because of leachate emissions. Several studies have shown that the drinking water from boreholes near the landfill are heavily contaminated as concentration of physio-chemical parameters is above the SLS standards required for drinking water. Collected solid waste should be disposed of in well- designed sanitary landfill sites to prevent water sources and soil being polluted. (Dharmarathne & Gunatilake, 2013) (Sewwandi, B. G. N.; Takahiro, K.; Kawamoto, K.; Hamamoto, S.; Asamoto, S.; Sato, 2013).
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Figure 5-7 the fecal sludge management cycle (After EAWAG 2008/SNV Bangladesh) 5.6 Wastewater Treatment and Septage Management For sanitation to be safely managed, attention is not only to be given to the state of sanitation in the home or the premises, but also to the flow of the wastewater through the environment. Sewerage systems need treatment systems that receive the waste and treat it to an adequate standard before disposal. Large system will have extensive pumping stations and treatment plants. Sometimes the housing density is too low to justify the investment in sewerage, or part of the town may be sewered and wastewater collected for treatment in a central plant, while smaller units, e.g. a housing estate collect its wastewater for treatment in a decentralized treatment plant, such as an Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) treatment plant. Both can be environmentally sound and cost effective.
Figure 5-8 Hikkaduwa Waste Stabilization Ponds (Kumararathna)
There are still only few municipal wastewater treatment plants. As could be seen in the previous section, the EPZs and hospitality industry maintain such plants in their premises.
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Depending on requirement and availability of land, wastewater treatment plants can use natural processes requiring more land area as in the case of Hikkaduwa above, or be more compact using an UASB treatment plant, Nereda© treatment. Nereda features an ‘aerobic granular biomass’ that concentrates the purifying bacteria in compact granules improving settling properties together with excellent effluent quality. It offers compact, energy saving and easy to operate installations for both industrial and municipal wastewater treatment, and the potential for reuse of the granule material in agriculture or industry. The National Policy on Sanitation does not elaborate on the aspects of the use of treated sewage effluent for non-potable purposes (such as agriculture, groundwater recharging) or the use of treated sewage sludge in productive manner (such as a soil conditioner or to mix with other constituents to produce compost). This omission will need to be corrected in the proposed harmonization of WASH policies In Sri Lanka Fecal Sludge Management (FSM) will be more important as for quite some time the large majority of households will have on-site sanitation where the cess-pit or septic tank needs to be emptied every few years as shown in figure 5-5. In Chilaw, Mannar, Puttalam and Vavuniya septage treatment systems have been introduced. Except for the Vavuniya plant these are working. WaSSIP has plans to build septage treatment plants in all the districts it current serves. A plant in Kilinochchi was recently inaugurated. Unlike in the past, when sewage was collected by vacuum truck from septic tanks and simply dumped at some remote location, the waste will now be treated. Fecal Sludge Management In suburban areas, people mostly have septic tanks in which the human waste is collected and to a reasonable extent will decomposes. Every few years, a sludge emptying service (gully bowsers) is needed from the Local Authorities to empty the septic tank. Until recently, this work was solely under the control of LAs. However, growing demand for de-sludging has made space for the private sector to be involved (Fernando et al., 2014). Around Colombo area, the service providers discharge the collected sludge into the sewer line via manholes. This negatively affects the flow rates of sewers because the fecal sludge from septic tanks is much more compacted and denser, stagnating the flow in the sewer line. In other areas, the companies that collect the sludge dispose it into the next forest, landfill or farm fields. (Mysan & Ranasinghe, 2014) The effect of discharging the content of a gulley sucker into the environment without any treatment is assessed to be equal to the impact of 5000 people practicing open defecation. (Shrestha, 2014). To prevent water being polluted under this scenario, strict regulation of waste collection service providers has to be enforced and an adequate number of septage treatment plants have to be constructed in each district. The outskirts of city areas still mostly have toilets with on-site wastewater disposal. The common practice includes individual septic tanks or open-bottom soakage pits for black water and open bottom wastewater pits for grey water. This practice can lead to ground water pollution if groundwater level is high. During the rainy season, in areas with a risk of temporary flooding, the septic tank or soakage pit will overflow. At such a time, wastewater may also contaminate the shallow groundwater wells that rural and sub-urban residents use for domestic water supply. When approving house building plans the existing technical standards for construction and location of septic tanks and wastewater pits are to be applied according to SLS 245 design for septic tanks. For effectiveness of such measures, monitoring of standards and level of compliance is necessary.
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In 2019 IWMI, at the request of the World Bank, undertook an assessment of the FSM value chain in Sri Lanka. It showed that 85-90% of fecal sludge is disposed of on-site. Only 5% is collected by desludging services performed either by Local Authorities or Private entrepreneurs. (Ulrich et al., 2020) Those households not using desludging services usually dig another pit and dump the sludge into it whenever the current pit gets filled. Treatment for collected fecal sludge by desludging services are very much limited. Most services discharge the collected waste into water bodies, barren lands, open dumping yards use for solid waste disposal etc., and into cultivations to use as nutrient supply. Service providers can dispose the collected septage into Municipal sewerage treatment plants operated by NWSDB or discharge the septage using facultative lagoon systems, when nearby available.
MSTPs - Municipal Sewerage Treatment Plant DEWATS- Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Systems FSTPs - Fecal Sludge Treatment Plants
Figure 5-9 Fecal sludge management practices
Lastly, then can discharge the collected sludge into interconnected open sedimentation tank systems. These systems are located at “Pilisaru” sites which are constructed for LAs as solid waste recycling centers. Desludging service providers This service is already existing all over of Sri Lanka. Increased demand for this type of service is mostly coming from areas with higher groundwater tables or areas with lower soil infiltration rates where soak ways function poorly. Generally, people seek the service of desludging during rainy seasons when septic tanks tend to overflow. In townships within and around Colombo metropolitan area, desludging services by private sector (consisted of 1-10 fleet of gully suckers) is mostly dominant while the services managed by LAs (available number of gully suckers varied from 1-3) are leading in other areas of Sri Lanka. The fee for desludging ranges from 20-60 USD per collection and the fee varies according to the location and volume needs to be emptied.
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There is one exception as the septage collection fees for low-income households are subsidized within the area under the GPOBA (Global Partnership for Output Based Aid) project as reported by IWMI. During the rainy season, the capacity of the service providers for desludging services is not enough to meet the demand from public.
Fecal Sludge Management Framework As not all areas in the country have facilities as described in figures 5.7 and 5.8, septage treatment plants need to be constructed. These will be the final component of the Figure 5-10 Inauguration of the Kilinochchi Septage Treatment Plant, March 2020 fecal sludge management (FSM) systems that need to be set up. These will consist of the full chain of safe collection and conveyance to a septage treatment plant, and its treatment by LA or private sector operators as shown in figure 5-5. It is suggested that Ministry of in charge of Local Government will facilitate realization of the fecal sludge treatment plants as an additional component to the National Solid Waste Management Support Center programme.
WaSSIP plans to construct one septage treatment plant in each of the districts where it is working. So far, the plants in Killinochchi and Mullaitivu have been completed.
Proper treatment and disposal are important aspects to maintain public health and avoid environmental pollution. The full FSM chain disposal of septage by LA and private gully bowser operators needs to be regulated, and it is recommended that LAs adopt necessary By Laws to license operators and regulate their operations, with the assistance of the Central Environmental Authority (CEA).
Figure 5-11 Types of fecal sludge treatment plants currently in use
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Under the Asian Development Bank assisted Dry Zone Urban Water & Sanitation Project Chilaw town has been provided with a septage treatment facility. The facility was constructed at the cost of USD 1 million in 2014. The treatment system consists of a flow through pond system with an anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds. The capacity of the facility is 30 m 3 per day. The facility is 10 km away from the UC limits and is designed to run with a minimum input of 6 trucks per day. The council is able to maintain the septage treatment facility with the income received from the charges. In the year 2014 the total number of truck loads discharged was 120 or less than 1.2% of assessed households. A 2019 inspection shows effluent quality to be fair. The plant is overdesigned (or under-used). Sludge drying beds are not functional due to flooding during rainfall events. Sludge is not reused for agricultural purposes. (National Water Supply and Drainage Board, 2016) (Ulrich et al., 2020). Septage treatment plants constructed around the same time in Puttalam, Mannar and Vavuniya all appear to be overdesigned, understaffed with staff trained on the job, poor sludge drying capacity. Reuse of the sludge is not done. The FSTP plant in Vavuniya has degenerated into a sludge dumpsite rather than a treatment plant. For planning purposes CSIP has assumed standardized 25m 3 plants. It would be wise to arrive at a standardized approach, as it will make training of staff and monitoring of performance easier. Some benchmarking elements can further be introduced that will inform management and the municipality about the cost-effectiveness of the operation. Re-use of treated sludge in nearby plantations should be pursued. A set of Regulations for Domestic and Institutional Septage Collection, Conveyance and Delivery needs to be prepared as well. An outline for such a regulation and license is given in Annex 7 of the CSIP Task IV Report on Institutional and Policy Framework. It aims to regulate fecal sludge collection, transport and transfer to approved septage treatment plants by gully suckers operated by NWSDB, LAs and private operators. Table 5-3 Estimation of number of STPs needed for each district CSIP has estimated the number of up to 2030 septage treatment plants that will be necessary by district to take care of the septage that needs to be treated. The estimate is based on 25m 3/day facilities located near substantial urban populations and considering the distances that need to be travelled by the gully suckers. At present the number of STPs can only be an estimate as a more comprehensive survey needs to be made of the expected demand for the service. As there already a good number of FS companies operating, and with a profit, means that there is a market and a likelihood that emptying services of septic tanks are needed. The final number of septage treatment plants depends on a range
FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 69 of variables such as availability of alternative treatment options (see figure 5-8), expected average daily desludging volumes, road connections, opportunities for re-use in agriculture or production of other valuable end-products such as compost. 5.7 The future of sanitation and fecal sludge treatment ISO 24521, Activities relating to drinking water and wastewater services – Guidelines for the management of basic on-site domestic wastewater services, offers practical guidance on the management and maintenance of basic on-site domestic wastewater services. The result is cleaner sanitation facilities and improved health for people and the environment. Complementing ISO 24521 is a new technology that can not only treat human waste in a clean and environmentally friendly way but turn it into useful resources such as clean drinking water. ISO 31800, Faecal sludge treatment units – Energy-independent, prefabricated, community-scale, resource recovery units – Safety and performance requirements, specifies requirements and test methods to ensure the performance and safety of units that can serve up to a hundred thousand people. Developed by an ISO expert committee in partnership with the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, it is due to be published in 2020 (https://youtu.be/DhNaJqEZvoM unsewered sanitation ANSI).
Figure 5-12 Sanitation standards explained: International Standards Organization FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 70
Currently most households have an on-site sanitation facility. The waste has to be treated and safely disposed of elsewhere. A reason to go slow on sewerage would be that currently research is going on to develop self-contained systems that reduce water use and have innocuous discharges that can be removed in general trash. Such systems would reduce the need to construct sewerage systems and thus save enormous current and future costs. The systems would also use less (treated) water, thus avoiding a major source of daily water use: for flushing! (Canales, 2019) Since some ten years, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation have been sponsoring the development of these self-contained toilets. In the CSIP Task V report on Sector Investment and Financing, p66, the Nano Membrane Toilet is shown as an example of new sanitation prospects, reducing energy, water use and environmental burden.
Figure 5-13 Announcement IWA Conference on Non-Sewered Sanitation It would be a good opportunity for a Sri Lanka delegation to participate with the IWA Non- Sewered Sanitation Conference in July 2021. It would facilitate a meaningful exchange of knowledge and experience on non-sewered sanitation and offer opportunities for further development of solution and approaches that are relevant to the Sri Lanka context. (Rao et al., 2016)
Figure 5-14 The potential of using black soldier flies to convert fecal waste into value (Rao, 2016) 5.8 Observations and Recommendations In 2019 92% of the population has private latrines for use by the household. Some 2.1% of households are connected to sewerage, mainly in the Colombo Municipal Council (CMC) area. In Colombo, Kandy and estate areas people make use of shared or public toilets. Such facilities are by necessity frequented by around 6% of the population.
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Water related disease outbreaks have been rare in the last decade (section 3.8). So, in general it can be assumed that the sanitation and hygiene situation is in fairly good shape in Sri Lanka, even though comprehensive recent data are not available. The 2021 census will be helpful in determining which households are missing out on proper sanitation. At Divisional Secretariat level, this information will be needed to provide a focus on sanitation and ensure that ‘no-one is left behind’. The WASHIP investment proposals put forward in Chapter 12 provide for support to sanitation for those in need. Sewerage systems are only constructed in a few larger towns or places where economic or ecological considerations so demand. Sewerage coverage is expected to be 6.3% in 2030 and 10.8% in 2050. A reason to go slow on sewerage would be that currently research is going on to develop self-contained systems that reduce water use and have innocuous discharges that can be removed in general trash. Such systems would reduce the need to construct sewerage systems and thus save enormous current and future costs. The systems would also use less (treated) water, thus avoiding a major source of daily water use: for flushing! (Canales, 2019) It would be great if Sri Lanka can make use of this transition in the next decade or so, in a similar way it has avoided extension of landlines when mobile phones were able to perform the same task at lesser investment and administrative costs. The upcoming IWA Non-Sewered Sanitation conference to be held from 4-8 July 2021 in Pretoria, South Africa, could offer an opportunity to gain further insights in ways in which non-sewered sanitation can be further developed in the Sri Lanka context. As sewerage will remain a minor component of the sanitation sector, the fecal sludge management value chain will need to be developed with an adequate number of septage treatment plants by district. A full FSM chain for disposal of septage by LA and private gully bowser operators needs to be established and regulated, and it is recommended that LAs adopt necessary by-laws to license operators and regulate their operations, with the assistance of CEA. Provision of septage treatment facilities (to serve several LAs by one plant) should be the responsibility of the Ministry in charge of Local Government, as an additional component to the National Solid Waste Management Support Center programme. A standardized approach for septage treatment plant design and operation will make training of staff and monitoring of performance easier. Some benchmarking elements can further be introduced that will inform management and the municipality about the cost-effectiveness of the operation. Re-use of treated sludge in nearby plantations should be pursued. A set of Regulations for Domestic and Institutional Septage Collection, Conveyance and Delivery needs to be prepared as well. To ensure good quality of sanitary on-site facilities enforcement of SLS 245 design for septic tanks as suggested in the Sri Lankan National Guidelines on septic tanks needs to be ensured by the LA. The National Policy on Sanitation does not elaborate on the aspects of the use of treated sewage effluent for non-potable purposes (such as agriculture, groundwater recharging) or the use of treated sewage sludge in productive manner (such as a soil conditioner or to mix with other constituents to produce compost). This omission will need to be corrected in the proposed harmonization of WASH policies.
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6 Water Resources of Sri Lanka 6.1 Introduction In Sri Lanka 1, rainfall is the primary source of soil moisture, streamflow and groundwater. Rainfall has multiple origins, such as monsoons, convections and depressions (Somasekaram & Ltd, 1997). Depending on the wind directions, two monsoon periods: Southwest or Northeast, bring rains to different parts of the island. Southwest monsoonal rain falls mainly in the Southwest quadrant of the country which is known as the wet zone while the Northeast monsoon covers the whole country. The average annual rainfall has considerable spatial and temporal variations – from under 900 mm in the driest parts (Southeastern and Northwestern) to over 5 000 mm in the wettest parts (Western slopes of the central highlands). The respective rainfall periods are identified as: First inter-monsoon period IM1 (March–April) Southwest monsoon period SWM (May–September) Second inter-monsoon period IM2 (October–November) Northeast monsoon NEM (December–February)
Monsoon rain is responsible for nearly 55 percent of the annual precipitation. Convectional rain occurs during the inter-monsoon periods, mainly in the afternoon or evening, and is likely to be experienced anywhere on the island. Depressional rain also occurs during the inter-monsoonal periods, particularly during the second inter-monsoon. Based on rainfall, vegetation, soils and land use, Sri Lanka is divided into three major agro-ecological regions, namely Wet, Intermediate and Dry Zone. The dry zone receives a mean annual rainfall less than 1750 mm, while the intermediate zone receives 1750-2500 mm and the wet zone from 2500-5000 mm. Figure 6-1 shows the agro- ecological zones. 6.2 Surface water resources Rivers are the main constituents of inland water. The Department of Agrarian Development distinguishes 103 distinct river basins covering 90% of the land area of the country, while the remaining area is covered by 90 small coastal basins. (Department of Agrarian Development, 2012) Apart from two exceptionally large drainage basins Jaffna and Kalpitiya, other drainage basins are small in Figure 6-1 Major Agro-Ecological extent. Regions, with the boundari es of the zones marked in red. Most of the small rivers in the dry zone are seasonal and cease flowing during the dry months. Apart from the inflow from its own catchment, most of the non-perennial rivers get augmented through trans-basin canals from other river basins.
1 This chapter provides a summary of key concerns regarding the availability of water resources for drinking water, as these have been described in the CSIP report on Task III: Water Resources Identification and Development. For detailed discussion and data, the reader is referred to this report. FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 73
Figure 6-2 River basins and NWSDB abstractions
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Storage reservoirs with varying capacities and diversion schemes that are located all over the country add to the water resources network. Man-made reservoirs as well as a few natural lakes form internal water bodies that cover about 2 905 km 2. (Imbulana et al., 2006). Storage reservoirs have traditionally been built mainly for irrigation and more recently for hydropower generation. Increasingly drinking water allocations are included in the design of reservoirs. The ability to store water for use during drought periods or to reduce flooding has facilitated the social and economic development of Sri Lanka. Gradually the opportunities for further reservoirs are declining because of environmental and land-use considerations. As Sri Lanka is nowadays self-sufficient in rice production, the need for additional irrigated agriculture declines. A recent report commissioned by the Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources Management observes that “The proposed 67 projects will provide resilience to climate change driven weather extremes such as prolonged droughts and floods… [and] provide a suite of significant benefits. [However] the water sector has been developing water resources for agriculture sector at a considerable environmental cost and the required policy changes in the agriculture sector in order to accrue maximal benefits from this investment has not taken place. “ The report concludes that there is a pressing need to re-evaluate the portfolio of planned projects against criteria that reflect today’s requirements. (Mahaweli Consultancy Bureau, 2018) In addition to surface water resources around 3540 springs spread all over the island contribute to irrigation and potable water supply. (Ministry of Land and Land Development, 2014b) Average total annual rainfall intercepted by the land area is estimated as 120 BCM while the amount available to use is estimated as 43 BCM (36%). Some 64% is not available for use as the water is intercepted by the tree canopy or lost through evaporation, evapotranspiration and infiltration into the ground. Nearly 28 BCM of water flows into the sea, which amounts to 65% of usable water. (Survey Department, 2007). 6.2 Ground Water Resources Groundwater is extensively used in Sri Lanka today, for agriculture, domestic use, in industry and to supply tourist resorts in remote locations. Groundwater resources in Sri Lanka are rather limited and need to be managed with care. Locally groundwater can be an important source for water supply of a CBO scheme or an institution such as a health facility or hotel.
Groundwater access, availability and Figure 6-3 Hydrogeological con figuration of Sri Lanka, vulnerability are governed by six major predicting availability of groundwater FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 75 types of aquifer systems of which the most prevalent are the regolith 2 aquifers in the central hard rock areas of the island. The six major types are listed below and shown in Figure 6-3. Shallow Karstic Aquifers Coastal Sand Aquifers Deep Confined Aquifers Lateritic (Cabook) Aquifers Alluvial Aquifers Shallow Regolith Aquifers in the hard rock Region Groundwater is often a major source of water in rural areas, and it is estimated that about 72% of the rural population relies on groundwater for domestic use
Despite a large government investment to divert some of the rivers to dry areas (e.g. the Mahaweli system), there are many areas which cannot be reached by such diversions. Hence a large number of people continue to depend on groundwater for their basic water requirements.
Generally, there is limited scope for groundwater abstraction. The regolith aquifer has some local potential especially during and after rainy spells. Groundwater is available in the laterite aquifer mostly for shallow dug wells. The alluvium aquifer can be used profitably but in coastal areas over- abstraction may lead to salinity intrusion. Sandy coastal aquifers depend on good water management to ensure that the freshwater lens is well maintained and the well does not penetrate the underlying saline aquifer. Groundwater use by NWSDB water supply schemes is estimated at 44,353 m3/d while the amount used by Local Authority and CBO schemes may amount to 240,000 m3/d. In addition, industries and tourist facilities at times also extract substantial quantities. Groundwater in several areas in the dry zone is known to have elevated levels of Fluoride. Increasingly a link is also made between groundwater use in rural households and dry zone areas affected by Chronic Kidney Disease of Unknown Etiology (CKDu). Proper testing is needed before groundwater can be declared chemically safe for consumption. Uncontrolled use of groundwater and chemical contamination of groundwater, either natural or due to excess use of fertilizer and pesticides, will limit the use of groundwater. These concerns have been growing over the decades, but no proper regulatory system has so far been introduced. Therefore, a new mechanism should be developed to address this issue. For each location the safe yield by borehole, and the overall extraction from the aquifer needs to be monitored carefully. The Water Resources Board requires full registration of abstractions and is, in principle, able to control deterioration of qualitative and quantitative aspects of aquifers and upconing of salinity. Hotels and industry may abstract substantial amounts of groundwater. Some of the boreholes are not registered by the Water Resources Board. Unregulated abstractions will cause gradual lowering of the water table over the years, which cannot always be compensated by infiltration by rainfall.
The effects of climate change are evident in all parts of the world and include significant changes in the weather and rainfall pattern. Groundwater recharge, which results mostly from rainfall in many areas of the dry zone, will therefore change. Results of a study conducted in three locations
2 Regolith is a layer of loose, heterogeneous superficial deposits covering solid rock. Its saturated thickness is variable and the aquifer can be dry in areas of low rainfall. FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 76 i.e. Angunakolapellessa, Mahaillupallama and Kalpitiya indicate that the current estimates of recharge are likely to be reduced by 20 – 40% in those three study locations, due to an expected reduction in rainfall between 9 to 17% and an increase by 3.5% of evapotranspiration. (Silva, 2015).
The application of the managed aquifer recharge (MAR) technique is currently being explored through a study financed by the Australia Water Partnership in Vavuniya and Puttalam in conjunction with the Water Resource Board. Efforts are underway to introduce MAR to the Mulankavil water supply scheme in Kilinochchi to improve the groundwater quality of the wellfield. 6.3 Key organisations responsible for water resources development and management The main government organizations managing irrigation water are the Irrigation Department, Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka, Agrarian Development Department and the nine Provincial Councils. Development of drinking water supply schemes is done by NWSDB, DNCWS, various Municipal Councils, Pradeshiya Sabhas and some Non-Governmental Organizations. Water supply services are provided by NWSDB, various local authorities and Community-Based Organizations (CBOs). Hydropower systems are managed by either by Ceylon Electricity Board or jointly by CEB and MASL, when these are located in the Mahaweli system. Water resources planning is being handled by a number of organizations functioning under several ministries. Ministries in charge of the subjects of Irrigation and Mahaweli Development used to plan trans-basin diversion and / or multipurpose projects. Ministries in charge of agrarian development, energy and water supply still concentrate on single purpose projects of irrigation, hydropower and water supply respectively. According to the Reserved List introduced by the 13 th amendment of the Constitution, authority of regulation and development of inter province rivers is vested with national government, while the provincial council was vested with powers of provincial rivers. Hence national organisations plan their projects to achieve the national targets while Provincial Councils plan the water resources projects mainly for irrigation and water supply requirements in the respective Province. As all these organizations function under purview of several ministries the Public Investment Programs (PIP), strategies and work plans for development and management of water resources have been identified sub-sectoral wise, as acknowledged by their respective ministries. Once minor irrigation schemes are restored, these schemes are handed over to farmer organizations for operation, maintenance and management. However, government interventions in conflict resolution among landowners, for emergency operations, rehabilitation and repairing of flood damage do continue, in addition to the subsidies given to farmers. An exception to this government-controlled water resources infrastructure is the mini hydro power industry, which is dominated by private sector organizations. Approval for mini-hydro power plants across tributaries is given by the Sustainable Energy Authority with the recommendation of various relevant government organizations. However, there is no mechanism to monitor impacts after the project commissioning or to rectify post project implications.
6.4 Water Resources Planning and Development in Sri Lanka Sri Lanka has an acknowledged capacity in developing and managing water resources, dating back to more than 3 millenniums. The focus was on meeting crop water requirements. Then from 1940’s multi-purpose reservoirs were planned considering all the different water requirements FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 77 for regional development. Gal Oya, Walawa and Mahaweli river basin developments projects were launched maximizing the water productivity by accommodating irrigation, domestic water and hydropower requirements. Many large in-basin and trans-basin projects were launched as a result of this policy. More than 520 large storage schemes are in operation which come under purview of several organizations. (Irrigation Department, 2018, internal documents). Storage reservoirs exclusively for hydropower generation have also been constructed in Kelani, Kalu and Walawa basins. Under the Mahaweli Accelerated Development Project five major multi- purpose reservoirs were built in which hydropower was given prominence along with irrigation water supply. A few other schemes in Kelani and Mahaweli basins, mainly for hydro power, are currently under construction. Labugama and Kalatuwawa water supply reservoirs were commissioned in the late 19 th century and early 20 th century to supply water to Colombo. Since then, no new reservoirs have been constructed, for exclusive purpose of potable water, until recently. The Pali Aru reservoir in Vavuniya District is the latest one that was added to this set of reservoirs. However reservoirs initially built for irrigation purposes were later shared for domestic water supply as well with the consent of the current users and scheme operators (Arumugam, 1969). Village tanks are an important segment in the existing WR infrastructure and are found in abundance. Restoration, new construction and rehabilitation of these systems were taken up under various projects by many organizations for more than 170 years. The recent approach is identifying the cluster of cascades and restoration or rehabilitation of those simultaneously. In parallel to restoration, common good practices in managing these water resources need to be shared with the user committee and the community. Mega water resources development projects launched recently such as Deduru Oya Reservoir project, NCP and NWP canal projects are aimed mainly to supplement the minor irrigation tanks to address frequent water shortages. River Basin Planning National and regional level water resources development plans were prepared by Irrigation Department after its formation in 1900. The Gal Oya Basin Development Plan initiated in the 1940- 1950 period is the first basin development plan implemented incorporating a multi-purpose reservoir in the main river course and many other reservoirs in the tributaries. The Mahaweli Authority was later set up to develop water resources of the largest river basin of the Mahaweli river. The Mahaweli Ganga development Project is one of the largest investments on river basin development undertaken by the Sri Lankan government in the 20 th century. It has made a tremendous social, environmental and economic change and impact in the country. The implementation of the master plan within 30 years in staggered manner was initiated in 1970. In 1977, the government decided to accelerate the implementation program, reducing the implementation period to 6 years. Major components of the master plan were completed within the scheduled period. (Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka, 2015) From 2005 onward, water resources development and management were given prominence in the vision of the government and hence the ministry was renamed as Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources Management. The Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources Management has since launched many river basin level water resources development projects, considering the water requirements of all the water users, such as NWP canal, UE canal, NCP canal, and Minipe rehabilitation. Most of the water supply projects in the dry zone depend on water diverted FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 78 through this gigantic and complex system. Additional water transfers to water short reservoirs or rivers are implemented in crisis situations depending on the water availability and topography.
Figure 6-4 NWSDB Abstraction points in the Mahaweli basin FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 79
The system developed according to the Mahaweli master plan interconnected 6 major river basins as shown in the schematic diagram in Figure 6-4. Once the ongoing Mahaweli Water Security Program is completed this system will get even more complicated as many more river basins and cascade systems will be connected. Water security, climate change effects and SDG 6 ADB in its 2013 Asia Water Development Outlook crafted a vision of water security that saw “Societies [can] enjoy water security when they successfully manage their water resources and services to:
satisfy household water and sanitation needs in all communities; support productive economies in agriculture, industry, and energy; develop vibrant, liveable cities and towns; restore healthy rivers and ecosystems; and build resilient communities that can adapt to change. Measuring water security in five dimensions offers new ways to look at countries’ strengths and weaknesses in water resource management and service delivery. Of course, these 5 dimensions need to be interpreted against the background of climate change effects permeating all aspects of life and demanding appropriate mitigation measures to be taken to secure adequate functionality in these 5 domains. Figure 6-5 shows the 5 dimensions of water security with its main subcomponents. Well balanced policies and effective strategies are needed, in combination with the human, social and financial capital, to raise water security. Water security starts at the local level but needs to be guided and fostered at higher administrative and political levels to fit
Figure 6-5 Water Security for all stakeholders: ADB Asian Water Development Report 2013 FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 80 into provincial and national frameworks. Without inclusive consideration and comprehensive planning, the design of water security enhancement plans cannot be completed. Nowadays the fast-growing disruption due to climate change forces society to conjure up solutions to counter the climate change effects as these impinge on water security. Consultation, education and public promotion is needed to develop new good practices that can weather the threats and changes brought about by climate change. Application of MAR, were suitable, will help enhancing the capacities of aquifers and store water for prolonged dry periods. Being an Island having a tropical climate and depending on monsoonal rainfall, Sri Lanka is highly vulnerable to climate change impacts. It is already experiencing extreme weather events resulting in water scarcity, which is now becoming a common annual occurrence and making an impact on supply side. Flows in rivers will change as catchments receive either more or less precipitation; increased evaporation will occur in reservoirs due to rise in temperatures; intensive rainfall may increase run-off and decrease groundwater recharge. Under this scenario, climate change will complicate the water management issues, especially during dry spells. Urbanization and industrialization will require larger concentrated volumes of water delivered in one area, raising stresses on the demand side. The country will have to adopt climate change resilience measures in order to adapt and mitigate the effects of climate change. An increase in storage capacity to stock water during wet weather is urgently needed, in combination with demand management, especially during dry weather. Developing additional large storage will cause stress due to forced changes in land use and population displacements. Rehabilitating the cascading village tank systems and providing support for domestic harvested rainwater storage may well provide an alternative solution, in combination with adaptation measures in agricultural practices and efficiency of water use. Sri Lanka has made a start addressing climate change through several projects focusing on climate resilience. These projects have so far been helpful in clarifying water resources management potential and disaster risk reduction (Climate Resilient Investment Programme: CRIP) but still have a way to go before climate change mitigation efforts are going to be mainstream (Climate Resilient Integrated Water Management Programme: CRIWMP). CRIWMP aims to restore the traditional cascade system to provide farmers with water. A longer retention of water in the landscape will enhance the ecosystem and protect the forests, raise food security and see restoration of groundwater sources and probably better water quality in the village wells around the tank. In addition, Climate Resilient Water Safety and Security Plans and Emergency Response Plans for these decentralized drinking water systems will generate a greater degree of water security for these communities during droughts. (http://criwmp.mmde.gov.lk/) SDG 6 also underwrites the right to water in its statement on universal access. The right to water differs from water rights. The right to water relates to the basic water requirement for life (i.e. water for drinking, cooking, washing and personal hygiene, and the essential water needs of livestock), whereas 'water rights' is a term that is generally used in the context of water for irrigation, industrial or commercial use, etc; that is, economic uses of water. The state has a responsibility to ensure that this right is not denied to any citizen or group of citizens. Everyone must be able to afford water and sanitation services in a way that does not limit one’s capacity to acquire other basic goods and services (such as food, health and education) that are essential for the realization of other human rights. “While human rights laws do not require services to be provided free of charge, States have an obligation to provide free services or put
FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 81 adequate subsidy mechanisms in place to ensure that services always remain affordable for the poor” (De Albuquerque & Roaf, 2014). In Sri Lanka these considerations are covered under the Samurdhi programme and the fact that the NWSDB lifeline slab is highly subsidized. The Dublin Statement on Water and Sustainable Development which was agreed at the International Conference on Water and the Environment in January 1992, included four principles on water. These were accepted by the international community at “The Earth Summit” held in Rio de Janeiro, in June 1992, which were known as Dublin-Rio principles. (World Meteorological Organization, 1992) Table 6-1 The Dublin Statement on Water and Sustainable Development
1. Fresh water is a finite and vulnerable resource, essential to sustain life, development and the environment 2. Water development and management should be based on a participatory approach, involving users, planners and policy-makers at all levels 3. Women play a central part in the provision, management and safeguarding of water 4. Water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should be recognized as an economic good
The third principle is widely acknowledged as women play a key role in the collection and safeguarding of water for domestic and, in many cases, agricultural use, but at the same time have much less influence than men in management, problem analysis, and decision making related to water resources. In Sri Lanka too women’s contribution in the water sector is significant at various levels from water user to the manager. It is widely accepted that development cannot be maximized and sustained without recognition that every policy, program and project affect women and men differently. Addressing gender as a cross-cutting goal requires that women's views, interests and needs shape the development agenda as much as men’s, and that the development agenda support progress toward more equal relations between women and men. Gender needs should be part of the overall policy framework which can ensure that policies, programs, and projects address the differences in experiences and situations between and among women and men. Equal participation in social and political issues involves women’s equal right to articulate their needs and interests, as well as their vision of society, and to shape the decisions that affect their lives. Their ability to do this can be strengthened through community organizations and institutions, and building participatory capacity. (Bouman-Dentener, 2016) Hence policies and strategies of NWSDB, DNCWS and other water service providers need to address the nexus of the fifth and sixth SDG, - on gender dimensions in managing and using water. The role of women is critical for water security and for better water sharing among different users. In Sri Lanka the gender–water–development nexus needs to be strengthened with the participation of water service providers along with the relevant organizations such as “Rural Women Societies”. This will have a strong impact on achieving the SDGs. (Kamaladasa, 2016) Existing Water Resources Schemes As a result of development and management initiatives that has taken place during last two centuries, the country has a lot of water resources infrastructure for which government has to
FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 82 continuously provide resources for operation and management. This existing infrastructure consists of diverse headwork components with a variety of extraction and management solutions. In the irrigation sector, schemes are categorized as gravity, lift, flood protection, drainage and salt- water exclusion schemes. In gravity schemes water will be delivered to the field through gravity flow, while in lift irrigation schemes water will be pumped from a source at lower level to a field at higher level. In flood protection and drainage schemes, excess water must be prevented in entering agriculture land drowning the crops or drained out to avoid water logging. Saltwater exclusion schemes located along the coastline aim to prevent saline water entering the agricultural fields. In the hydropower sector, either storage reservoirs or river diversions are used. Inland fisheries use the existing reservoirs all over the country for freshwater fish culture. Storage reservoirs and anicuts (small barrages across streams) that serve less that 80ha are categorized as minor schemes or village schemes. A great majority of these tanks are in the dry zone districts. Most of these schemes, in the dry zone, are ancient schemes that had been restored after mid-19 th century. Those are village level multi- purpose water sources fulfilling human and ecosystem needs in the locality. The most recent account by the Agrarian Services Department estimates there are about 15,000 small tanks in working condition either serving as isolated schemes or Figure 6-6 Example of existing tank renovated under DSWRPP as a part of cascade system. (Department of Agrarian Development, 2012) As the surface water infrastructure has been developed and managed by the government, government organizations play the role of custodian of existing schemes. The only exception is mini hydropower schemes that have been developed and are operated by private sector organizations. Good planning of these mini-hydropower plants is necessary. In Kegalle these
FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 83 schemes are accused of depleting the CBO water sources due to diversion of river water from sub- watersheds. (FCG International Ltd. RDC IDC, 2020b) Bulk consumptive water users in Sri Lanka are in the irrigation, potable water and environment sectors while non-consumptive users are in the hydropower and inland fisheries sectors. The latter groups also reserve their rights to access of water through various legislative or administrative provisions. Water usage in Sri Lanka As per the available statistics (2011), total estimated annual production of water is 50,617 MCM. With the population of 20.9 million, the per head water availability is 3,450 m3. These resources were fairly evenly divided between most of the provinces (10% to 17% of the national total), except Northern Province which has got only 6% and North Western Province which has got 8%. (Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources Management, 2013). The same source provides the following information on water consumption by various sectors:
Table 6-2 Water Consumption pattern by various sectors (2013)
6.5 Challenges in Water Resources When water is extracted from surface and ground water sources, negative impacts on the environment are possible. Studies show that extraction needs to be done with utmost care to avoid permanent damage to the ecosystem. Often it is necessary to undertake an initial environmental assessment or an environmental impact assessment to investigate the necessity of implementing mitigatory action. Furthermore, water extraction may become limited due to certain direct man-made interventions such as sand mining or natural phenomena such as climate change. Impacts due to Surface Water Extraction One of the major impacts of construction of a reservoir is the possible reduction of the base flow below the dam. It will have considerable harmful effects on fish and other aquatic and semi- aquatic fauna and on downstream activities such as fisheries, irrigation, water supply or water dependent livelihoods. Barrages have a less harmful effect than of a dam as the infrastructure provides for uninterrupted release to the original river course.
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Waterways should maintain an adequate environmental flow or e-flow. If flow is not properly regulated through sufficient release of water from the barrage or reservoir, particularly during the dry season, there will be serious implications such as the drying up of a section of the river, loss of vegetation along the river valley and economic losses for downstream communities. Frequently, the lack of adherence to prescribed environmental flows is a problem due to the absence of a proper monitoring mechanism. Maximum possible e-flow should be allowed, preferably exceeding the base flow prevalent in the dry season.
This will require a careful monitoring of the monthly flow regimes of the river at least over the past 10 years. CEA has issued guidelines for calculation of environmental flow to be released along with a comprehensive description in its publication on “Guidelines for Determination of Environmental Flows (e-flows) for Development Projects that Result in Impounding of Water in Streams/ Rivers”. The guideline elaborates how the flow regime of a river, comprising of five key variables, magnitude, frequency, duration, timing and rate of change are considered the key factors responsible for sustaining biodiversity and maintaining the integrity of the river ecosystems.
Rivers that are discharging into the sea, and that are also used as water supply sources, can suffer increasing salinity during periods of low flow. In dry periods, the Kalu Ganga, Gin Ganga and Nilwala Ganga are some rivers that suffer from intrusion of saline water. This is further exacerbated by sand mining, lowering the riverbed and allowing saltwater to penetrated further upstream and reaching water supply intake locations. Impacts due to Ground Water Extraction Pumping groundwater at a faster rate than it can be recharged will have many negative effects on other water users and the environment. Lowering of the water table, reduction of water in streams and reservoirs, land subsidence, deterioration of water quality are some of the potential impacts. The most severe consequence of excessive groundwater pumping is lowering the water table and a decline of the yield of the ground water source. If groundwater levels decline too far, then the well has to be deepened or water needs to be sourced from a new location. Groundwater contributes to streams in most physiographic and climatic settings. Groundwater pumping can alter how water moves between an aquifer and a stream, reservoir, or wetland by either intercepting groundwater flow that discharges into the surface-water body under natural conditions, or by increasing the rate of water movement from the surface-water body into an aquifer. A related effect of groundwater pumping is the lowering of groundwater levels below the depth that vegetation needs to survive. The overall effect is a loss of riparian vegetation and wildlife habitats. In coastal areas, the water quality of fresh groundwater will be affected by contamination with saltwater intrusion when the borehole is over pumped. Under natural conditions the boundary between the freshwater and saltwater tends to be relatively stable, but pumping can cause saltwater to migrate inland and coning upward, resulting in saltwater contamination in the sources and making the water unpalatable for drinking As these factors contribute in increasing the cost of pumping and treatment of ground water, for NWSDB, DNCWS or the Local Authority, detailed study of water quality and determination of the
FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 85 safe yield of the borehole is necessary for proper design of the well, while continuous monitoring of salinity (Electrical Conductivity - EC) against water level and extraction quantity is good practice. Observed Climate Changes Monsoonal rainfall pattern has been modified with respect to onset time, duration, extreme rainfall events, rainfall intensity and distribution of rainfall, with a corresponding decreased predictability of rainfall. A gradual change and steady rise in temperature in most parts of the country has been observed, which would directly affect water retention capacity of inland water bodies and soil. (Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources and Disaster Management, 2018). The climate change effects will affect the availability of water and the need for storage and demand management. See chapter 9 for further details. The observed effects of the above climatic variability will increase intensity of rainfall, create more frequent flood events and prolonged droughts. These effects have been observed by the researchers who studied impacts experienced during 1974-2008 (34 years) period. Last year Sri Lanka faced a long spell of dry weather following below-average rains in the first half of 2019. The country was hit by dry and moderate drought conditions in pockets of the North, North Western, North Central, Uva and Eastern Provinces. As of September 25, 2019, more than 780,000 people were affected by drought according to the Disaster Management Centre. The Northern and Eastern Provinces saw the highest number of affected people. At that time, the country was just recovering from a severe drought in 2016 – 2017, that affected over a million people and was said to be the worst in 40 years. (Mudalige, 2020) Rainfall has been better in 2020, and most districts have 5-20% more reservoir storage than in March 2019, as is illustrated in figure 6-7. Non-revenue water and demand management As discussed in 4.4.2 non-revenue water is a problem for large and small water supply schemes. However, it is obviously more substantial in large schemes where leakages become anonymous unless one has a system in place for checking and reporting. In smaller communities leakages may show up a little faster as the link between the consumer and the CBO managing the scheme is much closer. For large schemes taking larger quantities of water from large storage reservoirs means that during prolonged drought water supply is compromised. Managers may have to reduce the release of water for drinking water supply, causing hygiene and health problems, and a lot of inconveniences to people, probably during a period that temperatures are high as well. As water becomes scarce because of climate change induced erratic rainfall and (over)use due to competing requirements, a demand management programme is needed to complement efforts to secure more water for the future. The consumer also must do its share. A reduction in water consumption can be achieved through changing water use habits, using smart water saving appliances, collecting rainwater when possible for gardening and cleaning, and use of water from the well in the yard. A well-thought-out sustained advocacy campaign will be needed to gradually influence the mindset of the consumer with respect to responsible water use. Your over-use may deprive other consumers . Companies should do their share by developing similar water saving and reuse practices in their operations.
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Figure 6-7 Reservoir storage capacity in March 2020 as compared to a year earlier
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At national level, NWSDB is to prepare a long-term public relations campaign focusing on the role of water in society, water saving, reducing causes of pollution of water sources (domestic and industrial) and explaining the evolving role of NWSDB in urban WASH and the supportive role it has in small town, rural and estate water supply development. It may be noted here that in Sri Lanka water supply is only one-quarter of the water used by irrigated agriculture. The agriculture sector should also review its water use and consider what profitable and water efficient crops can be grown with more efficient application of irrigated water. The campaign should gradually change stakeholders and consumers’ perception on water use, its importance to healthy living of all beings, and so help improve sharing and management. Salinity barriers and impact due to excessive sand mining Sea level rise has implications on domestic water intakes. Several river extraction points are located close to sea outlets as the heavily populated areas lie along the Western and South- Western coastal belt. In some of the rivers saltwater exclusion structures are in place to protect agricultural land. But in major rivers, salinity barriers were not allowed as it was perceived that the damage during floods, triggered because of the salinity barriers, was estimated to be more than that due to losing potable water. However as innovative new designs are available now for salinity barriers that will allow the floods to pass through without blocking the pathway, salinity barriers have either been already commissioned in major rivers or are being considered. In many of the rivers sand mining is happening. The river sand is of good quality and in high demand by the construction industry. The safe amount of sand to be mined from different locations of a river is determined by estimating the sand budget using topographic, hydrologic, and hydraulic information. The quantity and frequency of sand mining is recommended by the Geological Survey & Mines Bureau and the licenses are given accordingly. Illegal sand mining is taking place in almost all the rivers and has changed the river morphology. The water quality, and the aquatic and riparian ecosystems of many rivers have been subjected to irreversible damage. The negative physical impacts include lowering of the riverbed, sea water intrusion, decline in water table, collapse of banks, and a change in velocity of the river water. An increase of turbidity and suspended solids impact the quality and quantity of water extracted from rivers. It will increase the cost of water treatment and affect downstream users, who depend on river water and shallow wells. Lowering the riverbed due to sand mining facilitates sea water intrusion along the riverbed forcing the water extraction locations to shift further upstream or to have expensive salinity barriers. The situation is exacerbated during periods of low discharge. Salinity problems are reported regularly and consumers complain about the salty taste of their drinking water. 6.6 Overview of Current Extraction for Potable Water According to the information collected by the study team, the main water supply agencies NWSDB, DNCSW and Local Authorities use mainly surface water from rivers, reservoirs, irrigation canals , barrages across perennial streams as their water sources. Springs, dug wells and deep wells are locally used as well. Some of the extraction locations have been developed by the water supply organizations themselves. This has mainly been the case for water supply schemes managed by Community Based Organizations. These schemes tend to be smaller, with mostly between 100-300 connections, and can be served by gravity by springs or through pumping from boreholes. FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 88
The bulk of the extractions by NWSDB is taken from infrastructure developed by other water sector organizations, especially those developed by the irrigation agencies. Figure 6-2 gives an impression of the abstractions of NWSDB from rivers and reservoirs. At the end of 2019 coverage in piped water supply is NWSDB: 41.3%; CBO/LA/Estates 12.0%; or an overall total of 53.3% piped water supply in 2019. The remainder of the population gets water through self-supply: up to 38.7% of the population in 2019 use protected dug wells or rainwater harvesting (48’788 systems constructed, LRWHF 2020). Some 8% of the population does not have access to a basic water supply service. These households are mainly in the dry zone areas and in the plantations. Existing Surface and Ground Water Sources At the end of 2018 NWSDB operated about Table 6-3 Water sources used by NWSDB 343 major, medium and small-scale water supply schemes with a total abstraction of 707 MCM from different water sources. With sales being 534 MCM, that means that NWSDB has to abstract 32% more than it sells. (NWSDB MIS December 2018) The difference is NRW and operational losses in water treatment plants, etc. Table 6-3 shows the use of groundwater and surface water for water supply. CBOs, Local Authorities and Estate water supplies are estimated to account for 12% of piped supplies. It is not clear what this means in terms of volumetric consumption. Many CBOs use wells (<200 HH) or springs. Local Authorities may use a nearby stream or receive a bulk supply from NWSDB. Consumption will often be less than assumed NWSDB with households using 70-80 lcd, or less when water is controlled and only supplied twice a day. In general it can be assumed that CBOs and most local authorities will not put a large claim on the available local water resources, although at times they may use different sources through the year and also limit the use Figure 6-8 Types of supply provided by Local Authorities of water during drought periods. The DNCWS data base predicts that CBOs would cover 570.000 households. If each household consumes 400 l per day, then the overall abstraction of the CBOs combined comes to 83MCM per year. Local Authorities, except Kurunegala, Kandy and Nuwara Eliya would add a further 60MCM per year. In total around 143MCM in dispersed smaller extractions for which no large water resources investments appear necessary most of the time. NWSDB serves larger urban communities and requires nearly 4 times as much in water resources to satisfy urban and business demand.
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That is not to say that CBOs would not like to have a better service. They probably will as a third of CBOs complain of dry season shortages and 13% has water resource problems year-round. Many of the issues can probably be resolved with limited funding when technical, financial and capacity building support is given to restore the systems. From a planner’s perspective, it is important to note that the CBOs and Local Authorities can be served with smaller, decentralized systems, that do not require heavy investment in water Figure 6-9 Adequacy of source, in CBO schemes (DNCWS, 2020) resources development and can be served by boreholes, local tanks and springs. It may be that additional watershed development, percolation ponds or rehabilitation of the cascade tanks is needed, but these matters can relatively easily be taken up through local efforts and support from Local Government or WaSSIP-like projects. Obviously in view of the earlier references to climate change, more efforts have to go into regular upkeep of the facilities and making these flood-proof etc. The guidance provided in section 9.2 under the heading ‘Local Conservation’ may be helpful. The CBO data on this page are retrieved from the DNCWS database. In the dry zone, the need of sharing of water resources has become urgent in recent years. Untapped surface water resources are rare, as almost all potential sites have been already developed and harnessed for irrigation purposes. In the wet zone, where the irrigation sector has not developed the water sources to the same extent, NWSDB has been able to plan and construct their own intake structures, with more freedom but subject to the approval of Irrigation Department, MASL and Provincial Councils. In many rivers where direct water extractions are planned, planners must confront periods of low flow, which generally occurs during February, March, June and July. In sharing the already developed water sources built for other purposes such as irrigation, the NWSDB faces increasing challenges in obtaining consent of the current water users. This situation caused several projects to be delayed, or after completion to face shortage or a complete denial of water for production. It shows that broad consultations need to take place and water sharing agreed before NWSDB should commit funds. Only then can it be sure that the water supply scheme will operate according to design and provide a return on investments. Government policy states that the drinking water supply should get priority, but NWSDB cannot assume an automatic right to water as prevailing laws uphold riparian rights. Consultation and agreement with the farmers are thus essential before starting construction. Surface Water NWSDB owns and operates three reservoirs dedicated for water supply only, namely Labugama, Kalatuwawa in Kelani basin and Per Aru in Parangi Aru basin. Most of the other reservoirs and irrigation canals used to extract water are coming under purview of Irrigation Department and
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Mahaweli Authority. Some Provincial irrigation schemes are being used as water sources by local authorities. Village tanks are scarcely used as extraction sources as it is not a reliable water source for continuous supply. ((NWSDB, 2018) NWSDB should update the Report on water abstraction and requirements for water sector) using the data generated in CSIP Task III report NWSDB is continuing the development of dedicated reservoirs for drinking water and has initiated pre-feasibility or feasibility studies. Wee Oya in Kelani river and Yatimahana reservoir in Ma Oya, Wandurapeenuwala Ella in Deduru Oya and Pali Aru in Vavuniya are some of the prominent studies currently underway. Where groundwater is inadequate, it is possible to augment water supply schemes by adding surface water sources. Eluwankulama and Achchaimolai tanks in Puttalam District were improved in order to support the existing ground water source. This is a way of Managed Aquifer Recharge, of which the effects should be followed using geohydrological monitoring. The results can enrich ongoing MAR studies. Ground Water Groundwater extraction or usage for water supply by NWSDB is limited due to the following reasons: Quantity Groundwater is not available in productive quantities and can therefore not meet the high production required to serve urban or semi urban areas. Large scale well fields are not feasible in Sri Lanka. To some degree wellfields can be developed in alluvial fans associated with the flood plains of major rivers. Well field protection zones should be introduced as in the Murunkan well field that produces about 10,000 m3/d. Quality High hardness and presence of Iron, excessive Nitrates and Fluorides Saline intrusion in the coastal aquifers Contamination due to excessive use of agrochemicals and pesticides Inconsistent quality and spatial and timewise variation
The number of schemes fed by Table 6-4 Analysis of type of aquifers for water supply of NWSDB groundwater has thus been gradually Aquifer type Number of % of wells decreasing over the years. The CKDu Schemes penetrated in problem 3 has further created doubts of different aquifers the prudence of using groundwater in Fractured hard rock 37 49 the areas where a high number of Regolith 4 5 patients have been identified. limestone 6 8 Table 6-4 gives an overview of the Coastal sand 13 17 groundwater sources -bore wells and Regolith and 4 5 dug wells- by type of aquifer. The Fractured bed rock majority are sunk in the hard rock. Alluvial 11 15 Total 75 100
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The application of the managed aquifer recharge (MAR) technique is currently being explored through a study financed by the Australia Water Partnership in Vavuniya and Puttalam in conjunction with the Water Resource Board. Efforts are underway to introduce MAR to the Mulankavil water supply scheme in Kilinochchi to improve the groundwater quality of the wellfield. The existing 10 wells have been abandoned due to poor water quality. WRB has drilled 4 test wells of 30m and 19m depths respectively. MAR has the potential to relieve local dry season water shortages and quality issues when excess water can be injected into the aquifer during rainy period. Of course, not all geohydrological complexes are suitable to get their storage enhanced artificially. The understanding of the aquifer properties is vital in this regard. Ground water in some areas can be badly affected during prolonged drought periods. One example is shown given below where the water supply scheme for Potuvil which is fed from wells drilled in the Heda Oya alluvium suffers from water stress during the time of drought. During certain months the river flow drops down to very low levels affecting the water supply (Figure 6- 11).
Figure 6-10 Monthly river discharge 2009-2018
Similarly, some aquifers are very strong and provide a good quantity of water right round the year. These can sustain even during the prolonged drought periods. The Murunkan aquifer penetrated to Miocene Limestone yields a huge quantity of water with a minimal drawdown of water level. This can meet the future demand as per the present status, provided the large number of (unregistered?) groundwater abstraction sites in the area can be controlled.
A proper monitoring program should be introduced to protect these strong aquifers and be backed up by regulatory advice by the Water Resources Board and regulation by the Provincial Council. In addition to the schemes operated by NWSDB, a large number of hand pumps are scattered across the country amounting to around 25,000 in numbers (Figure 6-12) of which only about 60% are usable. People’s interest in using boreholes with hand pumps is diminishing as reported by the Groundwater Section of NWSDB, primarily because of quality issues such as hardness, Fluoride, Iron and of the fear of becoming susceptible to CKDu.
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Springs Ten springs contribute to the water supply systems operated by NWSDB of which three springs are used in conjunction with surface water (streams). The capacities of each spring vary in the range of 90 m 3/d to 5400 m 3/d. The contribution of springs in meeting the estimated future demand up to 2030 and 2050 is a question at this stage unless a proper evaluation is done to assess the capacity variation of the spring over the last ten years. The information needs to be considered to assess the fluctuation of the spring flow resources in the evaluation stage. A fair number of CBOs in the wet zone get their water from springs. Spring volumes can be affected by human encroachment and changes in upstream land use. Increasingly springs are also affected by changes in rainfall pattern and the increased intensity of rainfall leading to a greater percentage of run-off, rather than infiltration. In catchment areas efforts Figure 6-11 Handpump pump distribution in Sri Lanka should be made to enhance infiltration through pits, stone bunds and small trenches. Figure 9-3 shows the way. Springs are also an important source in estate areas. Proper capture and protection of the spring area is essential to ensure a safe service. Rainwater Harvesting Rainwater harvesting is another source of water supply promoted by government, initially at household level and is expected to be expanded to cater for higher demands. RWH tanks are constructed in three ways: underground, partially underground and above ground. Large scale household rural Rain Water Harvesting (RWH) was introduced to Sri Lanka in 1995. During the past twenty-five years, more than 48,788 household rainwater harvesting systems (RWHS) were built by the government, INGO’s, NGO’s and other organizations. Forty-nine per cent (47%) of these household RWHS are reported in the dry zone areas (See Figure 30). In the last seven years, systems with larger capacity (10 m3, 16 m 3 and 30 m 3) storage tanks were built for schools (100) and hospitals (20). Since rainwater storage tanks enhances climate change resilience at the household level and raises water security, more community level water users prefer their own system to store water to be used in prolonged dry period. The CRIWMP project also intends to build 4000 domestic RWH systems as part of the climate resilience effort.
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Figure 6-12 Rainwater harvesting systems in Sri Lanka by agro-ecological zone
Desalinization Desalinization of sea water is the most recent methodology adopted in enhancing supply side and the first ever mass desalinization plant capacity of 240,000 cum/day has been launched in Jaffna peninsula. An EIA was undertaken in 2017 that broadly concluded that the project could be undertaken without undue environmental and social consequences. However, to date the project has not really commenced. Obviously, costs, especially operating costs, and still some ecological effects due to brine being returned into the sea, are bothering decision makers. It is reported that for Hambantota and Kalpitiya the desalinization option is under consideration now. In the CKDu areas private investors have already started fulfilling water requirements through RO plants where water service connections are not available. However only drinking water supply can be provided by these plants, as bulk water supply for all purposes is not economically feasible through RO plants. The application of desalination plants should be considered very carefully. If at all possible, the solution should be avoided or viewed as a temporary measure, until better solutions are available. For instance, in the case of Jaffna, use of surface water through solutions such as the River for Jaffna project - even if it takes a little more time - would be a financially and ecologically better solution. 6.7 District-wise Comprehensive Information Matching water supply demand with available water resources In section 4.7.1 demand projections were given for the year 2020 and beyond up till 2050. Using feedback from the RSCs the information was updated and information on existing schemes were combined with projects under various stages, such as on-going, awarded, procurement and PAC approved. Full details are found in the CSIP Task II Report on Demand Calculations, Chapter 5. In the CSIP task III report on Water Resources Identification and Development (May 2020 update) all the information received from RSCs has been presented district-wise. The existing water supply projects were reviewed from water source through treatment plant up to the end user to assess
FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 94 the current capacities and capability of these schemes for catering to future demands. Thus, a holistic view is generated for each scheme by identifying all the components of the project from source to consumer. Sustainable and effective water management decisions can be taken only when such a data base is available with the manager and the RSC planning unit. The information on demand and water resources available would subsequently be matched by scheme to determine the current status by 2030. In that way deficits could be identified and appropriate action suggested. District wise and river basin wise information products are presented in the CSIP task III report. In the following the method has been described. GIS map on water supply coverage The GIS map on water supply coverage contains information of projects under various stages such as on-going, awarded, PAC approved, procurement stage or planned, based on the information received from RSCs. The existing water supply coverage area is also shown as depicted in the following sample map for Kurunegala district. It should be noted that in the absence of information on the extent of distribution lines, water supply schemes are marked in GND using a color theme. In some maps this will give a distorted view over the area coverage as it appears to indicate that the full GND is served, while this may actually not be so. There may be areas that the distribution system does not reach as these are forest or upland areas or otherwise are areas without habitation. Recently constructed projects may also not yet have completed the distribution system according to the original design due to lack of water or funding. In time to come NWSDB GIS will have to update the maps showing the actual water supply coverage area by showing the actual network. WaSSIP supported projects already show this level of detail. Figure 6-13 GIS mapping of NWSDB water supply (existing and proposed)
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Table 6-5 Identifying deficits by 2030 and 2050, by NWSD scheme
The map below, shows the water deficit in 2030 as given in the Task II report, chapter 9. These maps are not repeated in this report but will all the same be useful for visualizing future requirements when discussing matters with decisionmakers.
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Forecasted water demand for each NWS&DB scheme The following information is given in these tables (sample table is shown below) Current population in the service area, Predicted population by 2030 & 2050, Population with safe water supply, Potential coverage by 2020, 2025,2030 and 2050 Normal demand for water by 2020, 2025,2030 and 2050 Special demand
Table 6-6 Sample of a forecasted water demand for each NWSDB water supply scheme
Analysis of water resources for NWSDB water supply Matching the future requirements by NWSDB scheme with water resources available or to be identified/developed is assessed in Task II report section 9 and Task III section 9.2 and 9.3. The section on drinking water deficits in existing & future NWSDB schemes provides the following information (see table 6-5 and table 6-7) Name of WSS Water source Water treatment capacity Deficit in 2030 & 2050 Observations/ remarks
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Table 6-7 Sample of table of drinking water deficits in existing and future schemes
m3/day Water Kegalle District Source Deficit in Deficit in treatment Remarks Name of WSS 2030 2050 capacity Mawanella WSS Ma Oya 16,500 No deficit No deficit Guru goda Kegalle WSS 11,250 5,638 4,648 Ongoing Galigamuwa can supply deficit Oya Rambukkana WSS Ma Oya 8,500 No deficit No deficit Planned Warakopola WSS needs to be Warakapola WSS Kuda Oya 1,200 3,504 2,763 completed by 2025 Awarded Ruwanwella Project needs to be Ruwanwella WSS Kelani River 2,100 3,236 2,436 completed as soon as possible Planned Dehiowita Augmentation (up to Dehiowita WSS Maha Oya 1,500 815 602 3,000) should be completed by 2025 Yatiyanthota WSS Wee Oya 1,600 No deficit No deficit Ritigaha Ongoing Bulathkohupitiya project can Bulathkhoupitiya WSS 180 978 789 Oya supply the deficit Awarded Hemmathagama Project needs to Aranayaka Ma Oya 1,900 4,650 4,009 be completed as soon as possible be Warakapola (Planned) Ma oya 16,000 No deficit No deficit Gali gamuwa (Ongoing) Ma Oya 9,000 No deficit No deficit Rambukkana ( Planned ) Ma Oya 4,500 No deficit No deficit To fulfill the water demand of newly covered area plus existing area, the capacity of WTP is not enough. Hence Study of the Bulathkohupitiya (Ongoing) Ritigaha oya 1,000 950 650 available surface water or ground water needs to be carried out to increase the extraction by 1,000 m3/day. Then the WTP has to be augmented accordingly by 2030. Hemmathagama (Ongoing) Ma Oya 21,000 No deficit No defici t To fulfill the water demand of newly covered area plus existing area, the capacity of WTPs (existing & ongoing) is not enough. Ruwanwella (Ongoing) Kelani river 4,500 3,000 2,000 Hence to cover the deficit, the planned augmentation for existing Ruwanwella WTP to 6,500 to be done by 2025 Ruwanwella existing Kelani river augmentation up to 6,500 Dehiowita existing Maha Oya augmentation Up to 3,000
The mapping of the deficits and their resolution is given in figure 6-15 (full district-wise information in the Task III report on Water Resources Identification and Development)
a. Schematic diagrams of WSS from source to end user The following information is given in these diagrams (sample diagram given below) Water source and location with relevant to river basin Treatment plants (with current capacity and proposed future expansion) WSS schemes (existing, ongoing, awarded, Procurement, PAC approved, planned) Current water demand Water deficits forecasted in 2030 Water flow diagrams from source to treatment plant and to the service area
Figure 6-15 Sample of schematic diagrams of WSS in district wise FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 98
For ground water extraction and proposed investments for ground water improvements for 2020, 2030 and 2050, the following information is given: Summary of extraction of WSSs that are fed by groundwater sources and water demand forecasted up to 2050; Introduction of a methodology for estimating the theoretical life span of groundwater sources; Identification of the number of new groundwater sources required to meet the demand up to 2050; General Observations General observations regarding water resources currently being used in the district and possible future extraction locations are given in this section. For areas or schemes for which sources cannot be identified with certainty, a generic ToR to conduct a hydrological study is provided as Chapter 9 in the Task III report. Full details on sections 6.7.2 to 6.7.4 can be found in CSIP task III report on Water Resources Identification and Development: Annex I Population Density and Coverage: Details by District. River Basin Wise Comprehensive Information River basin maps are presented marking water extraction locations and WSS (existing, ongoing, awarded, Procurement, PAC approved, planned). A sample map is given as figure 6-17. In these maps proposed water supply projects (on going, awarded, PAC approved, procurement stage and planned stage projects are marked. District boundaries and main roads are also shown.
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Water extraction locations from reservoirs, rivers and ground water sources are shown to capturing basin-wise overview of water resources. In these maps too, in the absence of information on the extent of distribution lines, water supply schemes are marked in GND using several color themes. It should be noted that even the full GN divisions are colored, there may be areas that the distribution system does not reach due to various reasons such as lack of water or funding. It is necessary to update the maps showing the actual water supply coverage area by showing the actual network.
Figure 6-16 Sample map of river basin map
Twenty-one river basin maps are developed and presented in this section. In some maps several river basins are covered as a cluster. The basins and districts covered by each river basin are given in table 6-8. Again, the details can be gleaned from the Task III report.
Table 6-8 Basins and districts covered by each river basin River Basin Basin Districts Covered Page Number 1 Attanagalu Oya Gampaha 2 Deduru Oya, Karamba Oya Kurunegala, Puttlam 3 Gal Oya Moneragala, Ampara 4 Gin Ganga Galle, Matara 5 Heda Oya, Wila Oya Moneragala, Ampara 6 Kalu Ganga Ratnapura, Kalutara 7 Kala Oya, Mee oya Anuradhapura, Puttlam, Kurunegala, Kandy 8 Kanagarayan Aru Wanni, Killinochchi
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River Basin Basin Districts Covered Page Number 9 Kelani Nuwaraeliya, Kegalle, Gampaha, Colombo 10 Kirindi Oya, Menik Ganga, Moneragala, Hambantota Kumbukkan Oya 11 Maha Oya Kandy, Kegalle, Kurunegala, Gampaha, Puttlam 12 Mahaweli Nuwaraeliya, Badulla, Kandy, Matale, Ampara, Polonnaruwa, Trincomalee 13 Malwatu Oya Anuradhapura, Vavuniya, Mannar 14 Ma Oya, Per aru Anuradhapura, Vavunia, Trincomalee, Mulativu 15 Mundeni, Magalavatavan Moneragala, Ampara, Batticaloa 16 Nilwala Matara, Hambantota 17 Pali Aru Vavuniya, Mulaitivu, Mannar 18 Parangi-Aru Vavuniya, Mullaitivu, Mannar 19 Per Aru Vavuniya, Mullaitivu 20 Urubokka Oya, Kirama Oya Matara, Hambantota 21 Udawalawe Ratnapura, Badulla, Monaragala, Hambantota
6.8 Observations and Recommendations Sri Lanka is well-endowed with water. Even then, it may not be present at the right time or at the right place, or in the right volume for production or consumption. Rainfall and run-off determine how much water is available for use. To overcome shortages, Sri Lanka became a hydraulic society making best use of water through storage and diversion. The competence so developed is today present in the Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources Management (now Ministry of Mahaweli, Agriculture, Irrigation & Rural Development) and the Mahaweli Authority. NWSDB is a growing user of water for domestic and industrial consumption. Though NWSDB manages some dedicated drinking water reservoirs, it has mainly been depending on the Irrigation Department for allowance to extract water for water supply. These reservoirs were mostly designed for irrigation and there is often a reluctance on the part of the farmers to share the water. Up-to-date information will help. NWSDB should update the 2017 Report on water abstraction and requirements for water sector, which it prepared together with the Irrigation Department and Mahaweli Authority, using the data it helped generate in the CSIP Task III report. Over the years, the Ministry in charge of irrigation and water has launched many river basin level water resources development projects, considering the water requirements of all the water users, such as NWP canal, UE canal, NCP canal, and Minipe rehabilitation. At local level, village tanks are an important segment in the existing cascade water resources infrastructure. Restoration, new construction and rehabilitation of these systems has been in the last few decades. The recent approach is identifying the cluster of cascades and restoration or rehabilitation of those simultaneously. In parallel to restoration, common good practices in managing these water resources need to be shared with the user committee and the community
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Nowadays the fast-growing disruption due to climate change forces society to conjure up solutions to counter the climate change effects as these impinge on water security. Consultation, education and public promotion is needed to develop new good practices that can weather the threats and changes brought about by climate change. SDG 6 also underwrites the right to water in its statement on universal access. The right to water differs from water rights. The right to water relates to the basic water requirement for life (i.e. water for drinking, cooking, washing and personal hygiene, and the essential water needs of livestock), whereas 'water rights' is a term that is generally used in the context of water for irrigation, industrial or commercial use, etc; that is, economic uses of water. The state has a responsibility to ensure that this right to basic water requirements is not denied to any citizen or group of citizens.
In sharing the already developed water sources built for other purposes such as irrigation, the NWSDB faces increasing challenges in obtaining consent of the current water users. This situation caused several projects to be delayed, or after completion to face shortage or a complete denial of water for production.
It shows that broad consultations need to take place and water sharing agreed before NWSDB should commit funds. Only then can it be sure that the water supply scheme will operate according to design and provide a return on investments. Government policy states that the drinking water supply should get priority, but NWSDB cannot assume an automatic right to water as prevailing laws uphold riparian rights. Consultation and agreement with the farmers are thus essential.
Generally, there is limited scope for groundwater abstraction. The regolith aquifer has some local potential especially during and after rainy spells. Groundwater is available in the laterite aquifer mostly for shallow dug wells. Uncontrolled use of groundwater and chemical contaminants in groundwater, either natural or due to excess use of fertilizer and pesticides, will further limit the use of groundwater. Application of managed aquifer recharge (MAR), were suitable, will help enhancing the capacities of aquifers and store water for prolonged dry periods.
A proper monitoring program should be introduced to protect local productive aquifers and be backed up by regulatory advice by the Water Resources Board and regulation by the Provincial Council. essential before starting construction.
A well-thought-out sustained advocacy campaign will be needed to gradually influence the mindset of the consumer with respect to responsible water use. Your over-use may deprive other consumers. Companies should do their share by developing similar water saving and reuse practices in their operations.
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7 Institutional and Policy Aspects in WASH 7.1 Introduction The successful implementation of the Sector Investment Programme will require several institutional and policy reforms. These reforms have been discussed and presented in the CSIP Report on Institutional and Policy Framework. Key aspects and some updates follow in this section. The reform process needs to be initiated in the early stage of the WASH investment programme in order to benefit from greater effectiveness and collaboration between sector stakeholders in the course of the implementation of the investment plan. With leadership of the Ministries in charge of WASH and of Local Government the institutional and policy reforms required should be identified and agreed. Resulting guidance should be effectively disseminated and adopted by all relevant stakeholders. 7.2 Policy Environment The WASH sector is guided by government documents providing policy directions to the sector, including the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals 2015; National Policy Framework - Vistas of Prosperity and Splendour – The national policy of the present Government, (published by the Treasury in December 2019); Public Investment Programme 2017 – 2020 (prepared by the Department of National Planning, Ministry of National Policies and Economic Affairs) and National Physical Policy & Plan 2050 (prepared by National Physical Planning Department). Specific sector policies applicable to the WASH sector are the National Drinking Water Policy; National Policy for Rural Water and Sanitation; National Policy on Sanitation and National Rainwater Policy and Strategies. In addition, there are many other policies in existence, which are having some relevance to the WASH sector. These are the National Policy on Water Resources Development, Conservation and Management (prepared in July 2019, still pending approval); National Policy on the Protection and Conservation of Water Sources, their Catchments and Reservations in Sri Lanka (approved in May 2014); Regulations for ground water extraction under the Water Resources Board Act (Gazetted in 2017 March); National Environmental Act (Act No 47 of 1980) and regulations published under it; National Health Strategic Master Plan 2016 – 2025; National Climate Change Policy of Sri Lanka; National Adaptation Plan for Climate Change in Sri Lanka (2016 – 2025); National Policy of Disaster Management (2010); and National Disaster Management Plan (2013 – 2017). When implementing WASH sector programmes, the provisions of these documents need to be considered. The main WASH sector policies mentioned above have been prepared and approved some time ago, some of them as far back as 2001 (National RWS Policy) while some policies have recently been revised and updated (e.g. National Sanitation Policy). There are many overlaps among them and some contradictions & gaps. Observations and suggestions on improving the policies can be found in the CSIP Report on Institutional and Policy Framework. Using these findings, it is recommended that the sector policies should be comprehensively updated. It is further recommended to present one unified policy document for the overall water supply, sanitation and hygiene sector, covering urban, semi-urban, rural, estate and institutional aspects and in line with SDG6.
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7.3 Institutional Environment In Sri Lanka the WASH sector is generally described in terms of urban areas, semi-urban areas, rural areas and estate areas. A brief definition of these categories of settlement is given in section 3.3.1. There are many sector organizations presently engaged in the sector activities, a simplified illustration of which is presented in Figure 3-4 in Section 3.2 of this report. In the future sector institutional arrangement, several subsectors can be identified, based on the nature of technological options, geographical distinctions and specializations required for operations. These are classified as shown in the table presented in Section 3.2. The table shows that there are many stakeholder institutions which are playing various roles and holding different responsibilities at present (or should be in the future) in each of these sub sectors. The proposed institutional structure of the WASH Sector with Coordination and Monitoring arrangement is shown in figure 7-2 on the next page. To plan the sector inputs, and to coordinate activities and monitor outputs and outcomes, suitable committees and management structures should be established at different levels. At national level, a committee to coordinate and monitor the overall sector investment and related institutional activities is recommended. This Coordination & Monitoring Committee (C&M Committee) should be established under the Ministry in charge of Water Supply. The relevant main stakeholder organizations are to be represented in the committee, by officials with sufficient authority to take decisions. A small permanent Coordination & Monitoring unit (C&M Unit) in the Ministry will need to be established to ensure implementation of the decisions taken by the Committee. The unit should be supported by some competent experts available on call.
Figure 7-1 Proposed Coordination and Monitoring Committee Unit The composition of the proposed C&M Committee and Unit is presented in the Figure 7-1. At Provincial level a similar committee will be set up with a similar mandate as the national C&M committee.
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Figure 7-2 Proposed Institutional Structure of WASH Sector with Coordination and Monitoring Arrangement FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 105
Planning for Water Supply & Sanitation Facilities In order to achieve 100% coverage in water and sanitation by 2030, it is essential to identify areas which are not adequately covered yet and prepare plans to provide services to these areas. With the present level of coverage of the areas with safe and basic coverage (91% in water supply and 92% in sanitation), this identification process needs to be done carefully, so that there will not be gaps or enthusiastic planning will not lead to overlaps. The planning exercise needs to commence as close as possible to the ground level, with accurate data. Thus, the exercise should essentially be started at Divisional Level/Pradeshiya Sabha Level, and gradually be escalated to higher administrative levels. This will enable the process of fund allocations in annual budgets and for execution. The information discussed at these forums at all levels would be beneficial for planning and decision-making on individual facilities, CBO managed schemes as well as large pipe schemes. At Divisional level, consultation should be conducted with any specific sector project operating in the area, or any other government project or NGO that is including water supply and sanitation in a poverty alleviation, agricultural development or area development activity. For additional financing, locally established factories and other businesses interested in Corporate Social Responsibility Projects could be informed and included in the local planning process. If there is a sector project, coverage data and information on WASH development needs could be furnished to the project, for implementation. The basic planning process should be carried out jointly by the Divisional Secretary Office (which is the administrative authority) and the Pradeshiya Sabha (Local Authority - which is responsible for provision of water under the PS Act). Geographically, the Divisional Secretary Division area is generally smaller than the Pradeshiya Sabha area, and hence the planning unit should be the Divisional Secretary Division area. (If, in rare cases, the Pradeshiya Sabha area is smaller than the Divisional Secretary Division area, then the planning unit should be the Pradeshiya Sabha area.) The Assistant Director of Planning of the DSD Office and the Chairman of the PS should jointly lead the Divisional Level WASH Planning Committee in this exercise. The Committee should also include the Divisional Medical Officer of Health and the relevant officers of the DNCWS and NWSDB. The basic data of coverage /non-coverage should be obtained from the grass root level officers, such as the Economic Development Officers assigned for each Grama Niladhari Area, the Grama Niladhari, Samurdhi Officer and the Public Health Inspector, Estate authorities (if applicable) and if relevant, the Chairman of the existing CBO and also representative of an active NGO. This will enable the unserved pockets to be identified, with an initial assessment of the possible method of supply. In case of water supply, depending on circumstances, it could be one or more of the following: Extensions from existing pipe borne water supply schemes (NWSDB, LA or CBO managed); New pipe borne water supply schemes (NWSDB, LA or CBO)
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Rainwater harvesting tanks (new or improvements with plumbing) New or improvement of individual wells (deepening, protection, installation of pump and plumbing, domestic treatment units, etc.).
Tube wells are in use in many Local Authority areas. These are serviced by the LA. Current policy is to provide a water point for each home. However, in some circumstances, an existing handpump serving a cluster of houses can be rehabilitated and continue to provide a service.
An assessment of the need for coverage of households, institutions and commercial places needs to be made such that in the period 2020-2025 all homes and institutions will avail of at least a basic water supply service. It will require staging the projects in an appropriate manner to achieve the target and have the capacity and funds available at the Divisional Secretariat to respond to the demand for support. Sometimes, the target of supplying all with a basic water service by 2025 would mean that the same beneficiary would be covered with a pipe borne water scheme by NWSDB some years later. However, it is not a wasteful investment, as the beneficiaries will use the basic water service as an alternative source, as evidenced in many homes at present and so reduce their consumption of the treated NWSDB supply. In case of sanitation, support may be required for construction of individual latrines for households or for individual septic tanks. In 2021 a full planning exercise is recommended to be conducted at the beginning of the annual government planning cycle (around April or May). It is assumed that this needs assessment includes self-supply in water supply and sanitation, and leads to an 4-6 year programme with annual allocations to subsidize the water supply and sanitation improvements at home. On an annual basis the targets are revised and included in the budget (compiled in November to be approved in December) and implemented in the investment programmes of the following year. The provision of individual household facilities (wells or rainwater harvesting – either new or improvements, and a toilet if there is no adequate sanitation facility before ) should be planned and implemented through the beneficiaries themselves as self-supplies, through the Divisional Secretary. Homeowners should initiate the process by applying for the subsidy. Selected applicants will receive an initial 30% installment, 30% upon submission of the invoice paid at a local hardware store and a final installment upon completion of the work. Payments should be made with the certification after inspection by the PHI or PS Technical Officer or DS Economic Development Officer. This process will also promote and develop local artisans and businessmen. As government would provide a subsidy to cover a part of the cost, the criteria for selection of recipients, and detailed modalities of execution and monitoring of progress need to be spelled out clearly.
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Suitable measures need to be taken to prevent subsidy payments to those who have received subsidies for similar facilities previously through other programmes, especially for toilet construction. The details collected at Divisional Levels should be aggregated to District Level. A District Level Committee comprising of the District Secretary/Director (Development), District Engineer of NWSDB, District Community Development Officer (OIC) of DNCWS, Regional Director of Health Services and reasonable representation of local political authority, and if relevant, representative of PHDT. If there is an on-going sector project, the District Manager of the project also should participate. For self-supplies, suggested amounts of subsidy (by Government, a Sector Project or a donor) and the contribution by beneficiary household are presented in table 7-1.
Table 7-1 Assessed levels of subsidy and household contribution Household contribution Description of system 2020 subsidy in cash or kind (estimated)
Rainwater Harvesting 8m3 + LKR 80,000 LKR 15,000 complete gutters
Protected Dug Well (new) LKR 50,000 LKR 25,000
Upgrading Dug Well system with plumbing + plastic No subsidy LKR 40,000 tank+ electric water pump
Upgrading/rehabilitation of LKR 30,000 LKR 10,000-15,000 RWH or Dug Well
Upgrading/rehabilitation of existing CBO scheme LKR 30,000 LKR 10,000-15,000 (age over 15 years) (per connection)
Construction of toilet LKR 56,000 LKR 17’000 (two pit or with septic tank) No subsidy, but Upgrading toilet to hygienic LKR 17’000 toilet with plastered inside, etc. promotion by PHI/PHN
Tentative total cost estimates need to be developed for these required coverages. At this district level planning meeting, priority lists should be developed based on pre-agreed set of criteria. These lists prepared at district level could be submitted to an on-going or planned sector project about to commence. Otherwise, these lists should be submitted to Provincial level. At this meeting the Provincial Secretary/Additional Secretary (Development), DGM RSC of the NWSDB, Regional Director of DNCWS, Regional Director (Health Services) should participate. Depending on the need, the Provincial Director (Education), Regional Director (PHDT),
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representatives of political authority, NGO/INGOs active in the sector could be invited. At Provincial Level, these suggested coverages should be prioritized using the agreed criteria. If there are no sector projects covering a district to finance these identified coverages, then other avenues for financing should be considered by the committee. These could include: Assistance from INGOs/NGOs to use their own funds or mobilized funds from international development partners Allocations from the decentralized budget (allocated by the Government to the members of Parliament) Funds from the “Criteria Based Allocations” by Provincial Councils (allocated to Provincial Council members) Allocations from line Ministries for relevant Departments/organizations/Pradeshiya Sabhas Corporate Social Responsibility projects from local/national businesses and philanthropists Depending on the selected avenues out of the above, the information and request for fund allocations of financial support, need to be channeled to the relevant authority. The above-mentioned committees may be either specially formed for planning purposes, or the committees established for the purpose of monitoring and coordination, as mentioned earlier could be mandated. The lists prepared at Divisional Level should be the basis for updating and commencing the assessment in the following year. The areas selected for the financing will go into the process of detailed planning, investigations, designs and implementation, as necessary.
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An illustrative process is presented in Figure 7-3.
Figure 7-3 Planning and selection process for annual WSS planning
Depending on the source of fund, the organization accountable for each activity (PS, DS, DNCWS, NWSDB, MoH, PHDT) should be identified, which will take appropriate action for implementation. However, it is recommended that the channeling of funds and implementation responsibility for individual facilities should be with the Divisional Secretary. The progress of the implementation of the water and sanitation investments should be regularly monitored by the DS, through the Development Officers. The results of monitoring should be reviewed periodically by the Coordinating & Monitoring Committees, and appropriate actions to expedite or for any remedial measures should be taken. The Divisional Secretary will oversee the implementation of the WASH list of projects for the year and ensure their satisfactory completion. If less than 80% of project scheduled for the year is completed, it is recommended that the next year programme will also be reduced to 80% of the initially approved budget. Regulatory context The regulation of water sector is important for the purpose of the provision of good quality services to the beneficiaries, and to ensure efficient and cost-effective operations by the service provider. The Public Utilities Commission of Sri Lanka (PUCSL) is the entity identified for this aspect. Note that its regulatory authority over the water industry is still to be confirmed by Parliament when it passes the Water Services Industry Act.
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7.3.2.1 NWSDB The regulatory aspects regarding the urban water supply, in which NWSDB is the main service provider, has been under consideration for some time now. Previous studies such as the ADB funded study on “Institutional Development of National Water Supply and Drainage Board” have comprehensively addressed this aspect (SAFEGE & RDC, 2018). The Corporate Statement of Intent (CSI) is a component in this regulatory environment. The CSI is agreed between the Government of Sri Lanka through its Ministry of Urban Development, Water Supply and Housing Facilities, and the Ministry of Finance on the one part, and the Board of Directors of the National Water Supply and Drainage Board , a State Owned Business Enterprise established under Law Number 2 of 1974 of the National State Assembly. It NWSDB is an essential service provider and at the same time costs the Treasury a good bit of funds for direct investments and to guarantee loans NWSDB may take, it is understandable that the Government would like to ensure good performance by NWSDB in terms of water supply and sewerage services, and see to it that fiscal performance is as good as possible. In the CSI, NWSDB declares its intent with respect to operational and financial performance, and underlines this with a set of Key Performance Indicators for which targets are set for a period of 3 years. The previous CSI has been revised by CSIP and was submitted in final format in March 2020 to facilitate its use in the planning cycle of NWSDB. A copy of the final version is attached as Annex 7.1
7.3.2.2 Rural and Estate WASH services Table 7-2 Sample of Water Quality Surveillance returns from MoH areas as reporte d in the Weekly In the rural WASH sector the Public Health Epidemiological Report (Vol 46, No 38), Epidemiology Inspector (PHI) of the Ministry of Health is charged to carry out water quality testing in the water supply schemes on a regular basis. Apart from this, regulatory aspects in the RWS Sector do not effectively exist at present. It is recommended that the role of the Ministry of Health through PHI should be strengthened and widened to cover services such as the supply of treated water through vendors through privately owned reverse osmosis plants. Table 10 shows the typical returns on surveillance to the Epidemiology Unit of the Ministry of Health. There are clearly some performance concerns, which need to be resolved when reviewing capacities and mandates in the sector. PUCSL would normally rely on data obtained through MoH or recognized laboratories that
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can act as independent water quality monitors for water supply service providers. The NWSDB and MoH have agreed to arrange the testing of water samples collected by PHIs to be carried out at NWSDB regional laboratories, except where MoH laboratories are available. Regulation aspects associated with rural water supply schemes managed by CBOs are currently being studied by the PUCSL. For proper functioning of the CBO, adherence to good management practices, provision of acceptable quality of water, fair and equitable treatment of the membership/consumers by the CBO Management, and provision of good services to the consumers a certain level of guidance and regulation of the CBOs is necessary. Such regulation needs to be exercised without harming the autonomy of the CBOs, while at the same time improving the performance and the capacity of CBOs to provide a water supply and sanitation service that meets public health guidelines and water quality standards Especially, it is a well-recognized and accepted principle that the CBOs should be allowed autonomy and independence as much as possible to make their own decisions regarding the management of their water supply, including the formulation and establishment of their own scheme-specific tariff. Hence, when considering the regulatory aspects of rural WASH sector, these aspects should be given due consideration. In the case of CBOs, the “regulatory” mechanism should not be too rigid such as issuing operating licenses by PUCSL, but rather focus more on monitoring, consultation and advice for the purpose of improvement of the quality of services to the beneficiaries and quality of the management by CBOs. It is recommended that PUCSL exercises its regulatory role in collaboration with DNCWS which is mandated to provide management and technical support and guidance to CBOs, and with the PHI of the MoH area within which the CBO operates. 7.3.2.3 Regulatory responsibilities by organization The regulatory responsibilities should apply equally to services provided by the local authorities, and those provided in the estate sector. A summary of recommended areas for regulation, main authorities and support organizations are presented in table 7-3.
Table 7-3 Regulatory aspects in rural WASH sector and institutional roles Main Responsibility for Monitoring/Supporting Aspect Regulation Roles Water Quality Ministry of Health NWSDB, DNCWS and PUCSL Certification of Water Quality District Water Quality DNCWS Surveillance Committee Acceptable legal basis of CBOs – Registrar of Companies DNCWS Villages Acceptable legal basis of CBOs – Provincial Commissioner, PHDT Plantation Sector Cooperatives
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Main Responsibility for Monitoring/Supporting Aspect Regulation Roles Good Governance & Management Registrar of Companies DNCWS Practices Quality of Services DNCWS PUCSL
Guidance for Tariff Determination DNCWS PUCSL
Water Source Utilization DNCWS (in coordination DNCWS, PS with relevant authority) Effluent disposal/ waste material – CEA DNCWS General Effluent disposal/ waste material – CEA DNCWS, NWSDB, PUCSL RO Plants It is envisaged that when the regulatory system for the water sector is in place after meeting all the legislative requirements, the PUCSL will also establish avenues to obtain specialized technical expertise in water sector, in order to exercise its regulatory and monitoring functions effectively. With respect to public sewerage systems, the CEA has the regulatory powers through its Act, and the authority to issue licenses for operations and for monitoring the quality of effluents. The powers also cover the industrial effluents. However, regulatory authority over septage collection and disposal is not yet adequately covered. The aspect of conservancy and removal of night soil, transport and disposal of them safely are stated as the responsibilities of the local authorities as per their Acts. This service is carried out by LAs using their staff and transport. In addition to LA services, there are private parties who collect, transport and dispose the septage. Guidance and regulation need to be put in place to ensure safe desludging of septic tanks and toilet pits, sanitary collection and conveyance, before discharge in dedicated septage treatment plants. The occupational health of sanitation workers and environmental health considerations need to be safeguarded in fecal
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Figure 7-4 Fecal Sludge management sequence (Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation) sludge removal service contracts when licensing private sector operators or when NWSDB or Local Authorities provide the services under their own management. The CEA Act empowers the CEA to regulate the related activities of local authorities, but not of private sector. Even then, adequate regulatory mechanisms are not in place at present to ensure the services provided by LA. It is recommended that proper regulatory measures should be established by the CEA to regulate these services. Further, a procedure for licensing of private operators with the LAs should be formulated along with required regulations by the Ministry in charge of Local Government. A draft outline of such a regulatory instrument is provided as annex 7 in the CSIP Task IV Report. Performance management through bench marking 7.3.3.1 NWSDB In the urban water sector, the NWSDB use nine Key Performance Indicators to measure the performance of the organization based on annual averages. A study conducted with the assistance of ADB to assess the decentralization of operations of NWSDB in 2010 (ADB TA 7078-SRI: Institutional Strengthening for Decentralized Service Delivery in the Water Sector) has recommended introducing a system of benchmarking for each scheme, averaged at regional level and then at national level. The study has considered and recommended 23 indicators in four groups, namely; (a) service standards performance, (b) financial performance, (c) operational performance, and (d) customer service performance. The recommendations made in this study have not been pursued and implemented. The current practice defeats the purpose of the KPI led performance management. Districts and Regional Support Centers should actively be taking up the achievement of key performance indicators. Then, comparison between districts and regional support centers will show up which will create an incentive for district and RSC management to encourage improvements in these important KPIs and get ahead of other district units or RSCs. Suitable incentives for best performing units or for
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units that show greatest annual improvement can be considered. This type of use of KPIs will also require further recognition of a degree of autonomy of the RSCs and districts. As NWSDB will be in transition in the coming decade from extensively building new water supply systems to increasingly managing the services and the assets, the emphasis on the KPIs at districts and RSC level is essential to prepare the organization for cost-effective and efficient service delivery after 2030. Within districts KPIs can also be applied at scheme level, together with Water Safety Plans, to further enhance the quality of service. It is expected that these recommendations should be positively considered by NWSDB for implementation. In addition to the above, the Statement of Corporate Intent (SCI) which the NWSDB is expected to prepare, agree with and sign between NWSDB, Ministry in charge of water supply and the Ministry of Finance for every period of 3 years will provide a sound management tool to monitor the performance of NWSDB, both by the NWSDB and the Ministry in charge of water supply. The SCI is expected to address the key expectations of the government in achieving the set objectives of the organization as a State-owned Enterprise, and encourage and facilitate the organization to improve the operational and financial efficiency through improved corporate practices, innovative financing, strong and prudent financial management, exposure to competitiveness and adopting international best-practices, including greater application of ‘smart’ technologies, and effective human resource management while enhancing public accountability. The SCI is expected to contain key performance indicators linked to the Corporate Plan, Business Plan and Annual Budgets of the organization. The first SCI of the NWSDB was signed for the period from 2017 to 2019. A draft of the second SCI for the next period of 3 years (2020-2022) has been prepared by the CSIP Consultants and has been transmitted to NWSDB, as part of the Sector Investment and Financing Report (Task V). 7.3.3.2 Rural Water Supply and Sanitation In the rural water supply sector, some performance assessment of CBOs takes place on ad-hoc basis, only for the identified known good-performers in a district, based on personal knowledge, for the purpose of selecting the best in the country, for annual rewards. This system tends to neglect the poor performers and prevents them provision of the required assistance to perform better. INGOs and NGOs such as World Vision, ADRA and Palm Foundation implement specific WASH programmes or area-based programmes that include WASH. The (I)NGO programmes spend more time with communities and have a better opportunity to generate sustainable programmes. Often, the interaction between the CBO and the (I)NGO is of longer duration, sometimes 5 years or more, which allows for better nurturing of the CBO. In general, however, CBO schemes are left alone after completion of the project, as there has so far been no ‘home’ for the CBOs in the institutional set-up in the country. Now that the DNCWS is active this deficiency can gradually be corrected. In 2018 a more systematic performance assessment has been initiated by DNCWS with WaSSIP support. Based on the size of the scheme (no. of connections) CBOs were graded in four categories. During 2019 and the beginning of 2020, some 3000 CBOs were visited and assessed. The assessment
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is made in consideration of five dimensions, namely, Governance and management, Financial management, Asset management, Service level and Water source sharing and protection. Under each of these, several critical aspects are considered, some of which can be formed in KPIs. These critical aspects are supposed to be assessed through web-based data base using interactive voice response (IVR) system. This system has been established in WaSSIP districts and should be extended to other districts. It has been suggested that this process should lead to three 3 grades, namely, A – Super Performer, B – Moderate Performer and C – Poor Performer in each district. On that basis capacity development and training programmes can be offered on an annual basis through DNCWS to improve performance of the CBOs. The performance improvement process will address all aspects of the CBO performance. Suitable indicators will be benchmarked. This includes for instance the availability of water safety plans, trained operator, cost-reflective tariff, etc. The development and monitoring of a suitable bench marking system for rural water supply, would be the responsibility of DNCWS, in consultation with other stakeholders in rural water supply, and PUCSL as the regulator. Similar benchmarking and performance management systems should be established for other sub sectors or sector organizations. Estate water supply can follow the rural KPI design, while NWSDB can take the lead to develop the system for Local Authority managed water supply, industrial wastewater disposal or septage treatment. Preferably sector partners and regulators (e.g. CEA, PUCSL) should work together to achieve this set of operational tools. 7.4 Process of Implementation of Institutional and Policy Reforms For effective implementation of the Sector Investment Programme aiming at achieving desired outcomes, the institutional and policy reforms are vital. These need to be initiated and completed at an early stage of the implementation of the sector investment programme. The required institutional and policy reforms are presented in detail in the report “Report on Institutional and Policy Framework” prepared by CSIP consultancy. The main recommendations are presented in the Section 7.7 below. Following the reforms, effective dissemination and adaptation of these by all stakeholders are critical to successful implementation. In parallel with the capital investment for construction of facilities, actions for institutional development, capacity building, training, regulations and research activities are essential components. Most important for ensuring the success and effective implementation of the above are broadly to:
provide appropriate guidance and policy directions to relevant sector stakeholders; capacity development of sector stakeholders; effective coordination among sector stakeholders including international development partners; and close monitoring of the activities by a high level, dedicated body.
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A conceptual diagram is presented in Figure 7-4, illustrating the institutional & policy reform interventions required prior to and during project completion, and during the subsequent operational and asset management phase. This figure is valid for all sector agencies.
Figure 7-5 Conceptual Arrangement of Project Implementation and Institutional & Policy Reforms
Figure 7-6 shows the recommended timing of the implementation of the institutional and policy reforms in relation to the WaSHIP projects planned for the rural sector, while figure 7-7 presents the same for the NWSDB for the period 2021 -2029.
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Figure 7-6 Institutional & Policy Reform Activities in the RURAL WASH sector Note that financing for these activities is included in the packages formulated as WASHIP group A to D.
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Figure 7-7 Institutional & Policy Reform Activities for NWSDB Note that financing for these activities is to be arranged by NWSDB through its own funds and the various investment projects it undertakes. Financing can also be arranged from WASHIP projects, where it concerns sector-side activities in water safety plans or activities that specifically benefit the rural, LA and estate subsectors.
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Note that figure 7-7 recommends that NWSDB establish a Water Resource Planning & Management Unit. The proposed Unit could be an extension of the mandate of the currently existing Water Supply Development Unit and will basically cover two distinct aspects:
Water resource planning for future schemes - Provide inputs for future planning of water supply schemes involving surface water sources; - Coordinate with (proposed) Water Resource Management Secretariat and make necessary inputs in decision making regarding water sharing issues, preparation of MOUs etc. on behalf of NWSDB.
Operations and to ensure the safety of large dams and reservoirs that NWSDB will manage in the future. - Define and develop the operational and maintenance guidelines for the reservoirs; - Develop dam safety procedures and protocols, and ensure proper knowledge and applications of these protocols by operational staff; - Monitor the reservoir levels in real time, and take decisions for operational and emergency actions accordingly; - Coordinate with Dam Safety Units of MASL, Dept. of Irrigation to obtain expert inputs as and when are needed - Develop some in-house expertise on above aspects in coordination with MASL, Dept. of Irrigation.
The NWSDB has a recently repositioned its support for the rural water supply sector and broadened it to include small towns. It is now called Small Town & Rural Water Supply (ST&RWS) Division, headed by a DGM in the head office, and with ST&RWS Sections in all the districts. The ST&RWS Division and Sections will focus on identification and development of small-town and emerging town water supply systems and provide technical support to the rural water supply sub- sector according to MoU signed between NWSDB and DNCWS. The Division has in recent years been less active and needs to be revitalized to enable it to give effective technical support to the sector and the Department of National Community Water Supply. Some further definition of the role of ST&RWS Division in relation to its support to the CBOs and LAs is necessary to ensure a good fit and an effective collaborative framework for the rural sub- sector. Strengthening the NWSDB Small Town and Rural Water Supply Unit at National and RSC level will be needed to make its support to rural water supply sector 7.5 Sector Monitoring So far, annual monitoring of the state of water supply and sanitation, as is necessary under the reporting criteria of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, is non-existent. The NWSDB is able to report on water supply services, but only partly in the sense that there are often an unknown number of households that are not connected. The state of sanitation can only be gleaned from the decadal census, the last one published in 2012. Sri Lanka urgently needs to establish a system by which it can keep track of progress on WASH.
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The Ministry in charge of water supply is best placed to perform the WASH Sector monitoring task. As both NWSDB and DNCWS are part of the Ministry, it is not too difficult to arrange the broader monitoring. This could be a task which could be carried out by the proposed Coordination and Monitoring (C&M) Unit under the guidance of the proposed C&M Committee. In collaboration with the Ministry in charge of Local Authorities (which also is represented in the C&M Committee) it will be possible to obtain data from services provided directly through MC, UC and PSs. Similarly, the data regarding the WASH status in the estate sector (until the estate sector is gradually mainstreamed and merged into rural sector) could be obtained from the PHDT, which is also a member in the C&M Committee. It is recommended that reporting on WASH is lodged at the Divisional Secretariat level, with annual reporting done in mid-year in order not to overburden the local administration and to provide timely data for the next year planning cycle. This could be an activity which could be carried out in parallel with the preparation/updating of “Resource Profile” of each DS Division. The data can subsequently be aggregated by the Ministry responsible for water and sanitation. In addition to domestic water supply and sanitation, progress in fecal sludge management and septage treatment should be monitored. The proposed WASHIP projects include allocations for septage treatment plants to be constructed at Local Authority level. In collaboration with the Ministry in charge of Local Government, information on progress and functionality can be collected on an annual basis. To confirm field data, the decadal census (most recent 2011), the Household Income and Expenditure Survey (HIES - most recent 2016), and the Demography and Health Survey (DHS – most recent 2016) can be used in combination with specific surveys on for instance the conditions in the estates (World Bank, 2017). Sector monitoring should also take into account specific quality criteria as indicated in the definition of SDG6. UNICEF and WHO can be requested for technical assistance to ensure a reasonable and comprehensive monitoring framework for water supply and sanitation according to SDG6. 7.6 Budget estimate for Institutional and Policy Development When implementing sector investment projects and programmes as outlined in this report, the required institutional and policy reforms should be carried out in parallel. These need allocation of financial resources, for software activities and procurement of some capital items. The requirement of financial resources has been assessed for implementation of the main recommendations which were made in the Institutional and Policy Reform report. These concern costs of institutional reforms, capacity development and training within specific sector organizations (e.g. in NWSDB) or specific projects (e.g. WASHIP Projects). Other activities address broader aspects of the Sector which are required for policy development and updating, and for institutional requirements such as follow-up and monitoring of progress. The institutional improvements and changes required with respect to the major projects are expected to be carried out through the fund allocations made for implementation of such major projects. The management of the funds for such institutional improvements should also be the responsibility of the respective implementing agencies. The funds required for the implementation of broader institutional and policy reform activities addressing the whole sector (such as training of sector personnel, research and development to
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address the sector issues, policy reviews and formulation, specific studies and consultancies for policy and institutional development, evaluations, Joint Sector Reviews, establishment of RWS regulatory system, establishment of CBO Development Fund, etc.) should be managed by a central authority. It is suggested that the Ministry in charge of water supply, being the organization that governs the sector, should be the authority to manage such funds. The proposed Coordinating and Monitoring (C&M) Unit under the Ministry, properly mandated for the purpose could be the entity which should carry out this fund management. This C&M Unit, in collaboration with the proposed C&M Committee (which represent all major sector organizations) will be coordinating among all sector organizations. Hence, the funds could be effectively and efficiently channeled by this Unit for identified policy reform and institutional development activities required for the sector.
Table 7-4 Total budget requirement estimated for the period 2021-2030 Approx. No. Activity Cost Period (Rs Mil) 1 Identification of roles and responsibilities of sector 50 2020 – 2022 organizations and formulation of MOUs as required 2 Coordination and monitoring of sector activities and progress 100 2020 – 2030 against set targets 3 Support arrangements of sector partners 50 2020 -2030 4 Strengthening sector organizations 190 2020- 2030 5 Capacity building activities 775 2021 – 2030 6 Research and development activities 300 2021 - 2030 7 Review of existing policies and preparation of a unified Water & Sanitation Sector 35 2021-2022 Policy by awarding a consultancy 8 Dissemination of contents of policy 45 2021 - 2025 9 Establish legal authority of DNCWS, promotion of registration 70 2021-2022 of CBOs, WUS
10 Establish regulatory mechanisms 80 2020 -2021
11 Establish Monitoring Systems 385 2021 - 2030
12 Establish loan funds for sector activities (any seed funds not 75 2021 - 2030 included) 13 Joint coordination cell for common activities at Ministry for 320 2021 - 2030 Water under DNCWS
Total budgeted costs 2,355
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The key activities listed in table 7-4 are expected to be undertaken for Institutional and Policy Development activities in the period 2021 – 2030. For all planned activities to take place, an amount of LKR 3,550 million is earmarked to be furnished through the WASHIP Group A-D projects. In addition, some LKR 235 million is expected through support from WaSSIP Additional Financing. Separately LKR 1,200 million will be provided directly to the Ministry in charge of (drinking) Water Supply to manage and monitor the various sector development activities. Additional information on activities and expected results, and the proposed financing by projects for institutional and policy reforms in the sector is presented in Annex 7.2. 7.7 Recommendations The full set of recommendations on institutional and policy reforms are presented in detail in the report, on Institutional and Policy Framework prepared by CSIP consultancy. The most relevant prominent findings and recommendations on institutional and policy reforms are presented below: a) Several different sector policies that are in existence at present: National Drinking Water Policy; National Policy for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation; National Policy on Sanitation; National Rainwater Harvesting Policy and Strategies; and NWSDB Corporate Policy for Integration of Climate Change Adaptation Policies, Strategies and Programs. The formulation of a harmonized national sector policy is recommended covering all aspects of the WASH sector from water supply and sanitation to septage management and ecosystem protection and including measures to counter the effects of climate change on service provision and sustainability. This will avoid contradictions, overlaps and gaps, and will be an easy reference to any stakeholder. b) NWSDB, being the premier organization in the drinking water sector requiring substantial and regular quantities of water from available resources and also possessing some dedicated reservoirs, should be adequately represented in the Water Resources Management Secretariat (NWRMS), which is proposed in the draft National Policy, Strategies and Institutional Framework for Water Resources Development, Conservation and Management. As it is proposed in the draft policy at present, NWSDB is not a member in the NWRMS. c) NWSDB currently owns and operates some large reservoirs. It will have to develop some reservoirs to ensure future water security for its production. A dedicated section should operate within NWSDB (proposed is a Water Resources Planning & Management Unit), with expertise in hydrology, dam safety, operation of spill gates, maintenance of dams and monitoring, equipped with real time monitoring equipment. This will be a critical need in the future, especially with pronounced occurrence of droughts and floods due to climatic changes. d) NWSDB should take action to infuse and strengthen NRW measures in general O&M of the water supply schemes and hold the RSCs responsible for reduction of NRW within their command area. Creating competition among RSCs to reduce NRW along with a reward system will effectively promote the activity and generate commitments. e) Regional Support Centers (RSC) should vigorously implement Key Performance Improvement (KPI) programmes, by scheme and by district. Results by RSC should be published on an annual basis. Benchmarking will promote greater efficiency and
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effectiveness of operations. NWSDB should see to it that all larger schemes report internally on the benchmarks at least on a quarterly basis. f) Many water supply schemes are gradually formulating a Water Safety Plan (WSP). The WSP should be further promoted for all water supply schemes operated by NWSDB, LAs, CBOs or in estates to ensure consistent drinking water quality management. Note should be taken of WHO advisories with respect to WSP+, which includes aspects of climate change resilience. Capacity building efforts, especially on technical areas, should be a continual activity in the sector. Sharing of knowledge and supporting each other should be an important aspect in this respect. Hence, it is recommended that MOUs should be made between NWSDB and LAs, between NWSDB and PHDT and that the existing MOU between NWSDB and DNCWS is actively pursued. While advisory support can be provided by NWSDB as a service, NWSDB should be able to charge professional fees for specific design and estimate services. g) The preparation of the Act for the DNCWS to establish the legal basis and authority of the Department should be expedited. h) The process of registering CBOs as Societies to provide them legal recognition and authority should be actively pursued with the support of the DNCWS. This will also be an effective mechanism to ensure good governance and financial discipline. i) A considerable number of existing water schemes managed by LAs need rehabilitation, improvement and expansion. This will require a considerable investment. It is recommended that the NWSDB establishes a dedicated engineering unit as part of the Small Town & Rural Water Supply Division to undertake feasibility studies and advise the LAs on further steps to improve their systems and bring these to service levels required under SDG6. NWSDB services should be paid for by the LAs. Financing can come from the Local Loans and Development Fund (LL&DF) under the Ministry of Local Government or from donor assisted projects. j) The existing LL&DF for obtaining the loans for LAs, should be promoted among LAs, as an instrument to attend to necessary improvements and rehabilitation of their water schemes. k) Actions should be taken to establish a Fund for the benefit of existing CBOs to obtain loans on concessionary terms (“Revolving Fund for CBO Development”), in line with the concept in development by the local World Bank Office WASH team. It is noteworthy that the World Bank plans to conduct a detailed study in this respect and to provide financial assistance to establish such a fund. l) As sewerage will only be financially viable in densely populated urbanized settings, an adequate number of safely managed fecal sludge management (FSM) systems need to be set up. These will consist of the full chain of safe collection and conveyance to a septage treatment plant, and its treatment by LA or private sector operators. It is suggested that Ministry in charge of Local Government will facilitate realization of the fecal sludge treatment plants as an additional component to the National Solid Waste Management Support Center programme. Proper treatment and disposal are important aspects to maintain public health and avoid environmental pollution. The full FSM chain disposal of septage by LA and private gully bowser operators needs to be regulated, and it is
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recommended that LAs adopt necessary By Laws to license operators and regulate their operations, with the assistance of the Central Environmental Authority. m) So far, annual monitoring of the state of water supply and sanitation, as is necessary under the reporting criteria of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, is non-existent. The NWSDB is able to report on water supply services, but only partly in the sense that there are often an unknown number of households that are not connected. The state of sanitation can only be gleaned from the decadal census, the last one published in 2012. Sri Lanka urgently needs to establish a system by which it can keep track of progress on WASH. It is recommended that reporting on WASH is lodged at the Divisional Secretariat level, with annual reporting done in mid-year in order not to overburden the local administration and to provide timely data for the next year planning cycle. The data can subsequently be aggregated by the Ministry responsible for water and sanitation. n) The Public Utility Commission of Sri Lanka (PUCSL) is responsible for the regulatory context within which the WASH sector will operate. This is most appropriate to systems operated by NWSDB and in managed settings such as the EPZ industrial zones and similar. It is recommended that PUCSL should also design a regulatory system to cover the rural water supply subsector, served by LAs, CBOs and WUCs. This should however be more a supportive and guiding mechanism to improve the performance and quality of service, while ensuring their autonomy to determine scheme specific tariffs and taking decisions. In this respect PUCSL should formulate the regulatory system, while DNCWS and Local Government can provide capacity building and support field level monitoring and advice. o) There is an emerging trend, especially in CKDu affected areas, where the private sector operates small RO plants and sells water to the consumers in boutiques, by bowsers and truck mounted tanks. Whilst the involvement of private sector should be encouraged in the effort to mitigate CKDu problem, the need is identified to enforce a regulatory system to ensure that this service provides a proper quality of water to the consumer. Water that is sold in this manner should be considered as a food that needs to comply with Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) and Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) standards. The Director General of Health Services is the chief food authority and the chairman of the Food Advisory Committee (FAC) established in terms of the Food Act No. 26 of 1980. The PHIs of the Ministry of Health could be involved at Divisional level, and the NWSDB could provide necessary training to the PHIs. p) The monitoring of ground water resources should be strengthened and regularized, with close collaboration between GW Section of NWSDB and WRB. Proper well head protection measures should be established, and procedures for decommissioning of wells should be formulated, in order to prevent the contamination of ground water aquifers. Methods of ground water recharging should be established and practiced. q) It has been observed that recommendations made by many studies and consultancies conducted in the Sector in the past, which have been accepted by the relevant authorities, have not been effectively pursued. It is found that this is due to the absence of effective and close monitoring. Hence, in order to ensure effective implementation of the recommendations made in this Sector Investment Programme (and any other previous studies), a high level Coordinating and Monitoring Committee should be established under the chairmanship of the Ministry in charge of water supply, which
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should be represented by high level officers of relevant organizations, able to make decisions. (Representation of NWSDB, DNCWS, PHDT, MPC & LG, MoH, MoE and PUCSL is proposed). It is also recommended that this committee should be assisted by a small, permanent, dedicated Unit, which should be headed by a high-level officer in the Ministry in charge of water supply. This Unit should be supported by a group of competent experts. This Committee and Unit should guide the implementation and monitor the recommendations made in this Comprehensive Strategic Investment Plan, and facilitate sector planning and investments, donor coordination, capacity building, research and inter-organizational support and coordination within the sector. This unit should remain in place at least up to 2030.
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8 Water Quality 8.1 Introduction The challenge of finding water for use in water supply will increase in the coming years. Not only does the country need more water for water supply all around the country, but often water supply providers are forced to use water that needs serious treatment to make it palatable and acceptable from a public health perspective. At times this is not possible, thus forcing a search for alternative supplies. When designing a scheme, the first challenge is always to find sufficient water of good (enough) quality, available year-round and with some security against prolonged drought. These days these four factors can hardly be met. Competition with other water users has increased and water that can be got, needs to be used, even if the water quality is not as desired. Of course programmes are increasingly in place to improve the ecosystem quality of a watershed or river basin, but this will require continuing attention also during operation of such water resources abstraction schemes to ensure that water stays at least as good as expected during design and preferably a little better.(Wijesinghe, 2019).
The available volumes of water resources that can be extracted depends on the quality of water and the mode of operation of the water supply system. Water quality parameters relevant to the source used should be regularly measured. This may include EC, turbidity, E-coli, F -, microcystin load, nitrates, etc. For operational reasons and for a quality water product, water service providers should have concerns not only about their product but also about the source. They are required to verify that the treatment systems they administer can deliver safe water and that they routinely achieve this.
During the pre-feasibility phase, a drinking water supply provider should identify sources available and make a thorough risk assessment of source protection and water treatment needs so as to assure that water quality can consistently be achieved that meets national drinking water quality standards and is cost-efficient. Once constructed and in operation, a drinking water supply system operator should adopt a safe-water management plan comprising of the following measures:
Prevention of contamination of source waters; Treatment of source water to reduce or remove contamination to the extent necessary to meet water quality targets; Prevention of re-contamination during storage, distribution and handling and Continuous monitoring. Intense short duration rainfall due to climate change and flooding will occur more frequently. The drinking water supply provider should ensure its assets are flood-proof and able to provide a service even during natural emergencies.
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 The Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 is a wide-ranging goal that deals with quality of services in water and sanitation, and protection and management of water resources. SDG 6.3 aims “ by 2030, to improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally ”. Important indicators that will be used to monitor progress towards the target of SDG 6, include target 6.3 on reducing
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pollution with as indicator 6.3.1: proportion of wastewater safely treated and as 6.3.2: proportion of bodies of water with good ambient water quality. Target 6.6 focuses attention on the necessity to improve and sustain functional and bio-diverse eco-systems. Target 6.5 recommends integrated water resources management at all levels, while 6.4 emphasizes water-use efficiency. Concerted action to gradually achieve all these targets will lead to a better functioning water sector with greater resilience for shocks and enhanced sustainability. As water is critical to the achievement of many other SDGs improvement of the water quality and quantity in source waters will enhance water security and so contribute to achieving the SDGs. 8.2 Quality of water of a source Pollution that occurs in any water source is categorized as being a point source or a non- source point of pollution. Point source pollution occurs when the polluting substance is emitted directly into the waterway or aquifer from a single identifiable source. A non-point source occurs when there is dispersed runoff of pollutants into waterway or groundwater. Deterioration of water quality against its original condition in both surface and ground water resources can happen due to natural or manmade causes. Only manmade causes can be regulated and monitored to prevent such occurrences, while natural conditions can be monitored.
1. Manmade (anthropogenic) impairment effects Excessive fertilizer application Disposal of waste to water bodies Solid waste land filling Effluent from aquaculture farms Effluent discharge from industries Deforestation in watershed or other erosion events Sea water intrusion due to excessive sand mining in rivers Sea water intrusion due to over abstraction in ground water
Further down this chapter has provided an overview of management and regulatory actions has provided needed to reduce or mitigate the consequences of these impairments.
2. Natural conditions Geological conditions; Geogenic Fluoride, heavy metals, iron, high hardness etc. Sea water intrusion due to sea level rise The natural status of a water must be accepted as it can usually not be influenced. In the case of groundwater, it can be attempted to select another aquifer with a different water quality signature in case confined aquifer are available at different depths. 8.3 Water quality standards Water quality is defined in relation to its potential use for which the limits of concentrations of various parameters need to be identified. For drinking water and bottled water, standards for water quality have been published by Sri Lanka Standards Institute (SLSI).
For ambient water quality, regulations have been gazetted by the CEA (Ref; No. 2148/20 - Tuesday, November 05, 2019), to be cited as the National Environmental (Ambient Water Quality) Regulations, No. 01 of 2019. Accordingly, Central Environmental Authority (CEA) shall be
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responsible for the monitoring and maintenance of the quality of inland surface waters in order to ensure compliance with the specified Standards. The Authority shall issue directives to any local authority to take appropriate measures to comply with the specified Standards. The standards are categorized under 6 categories: A. water that requires simple treatment, for drinking; B. bathing and contact recreational water; C. water suitable for aquatic life; D. water sources that require to undergo general treatment process, for drinking; E. water suitable for irrigation and agricultural activities; F. water with minimum quality but does not fall into categories A to E. The regulations state that no person shall discharge, deposit or emit any pollutant into the inland surface waters to exceed the Ambient Water Quality Standards in relation to the categories specified above.
The Sri Lanka Standards Institute (SLSI) has set standards for drinking water in 2013 as per SLS614.(Sri Lanka Standards Institute, 2013) These are given in Annex 8-1. Further, SLS 614 defines test methods and sampling procedure of water. Internationally, the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for drinking water provide water quality management information on a regular basis. The current version is the 4 th edition with addenda. (World Health Organization, 2017). 8.4 Water Safety Plans Where regular water quality testing is not feasible, the adoption and use of the water safety plan (WSP) approach will help to maintain a good water quality. In most rural water supply schemes in Sri Lanka, water quality surveillance through water quality testing will be irregular, and mostly deal with bacteriological contamination. The NWSDB and Ministry of Health (MoH) have taken the initiative to establish Water Quality Surveillance (WQS) programme, through a Cabinet Memorandum (dated 30th June 2009). Under this programme, both NWSDB and MoH have issued circulars to their respective officers to implement the programme, including water safety plans in each water supply system.
Figure 8-1 WSP: protecting from catchment to consumer (WHO, 2012) Many water supply schemes are gradually formulating a Water Safety Plan (WSP). The WSP should be further promoted for all water supply schemes operated by NWSDB, LAs, CBOs or in estates to
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ensure consistent drinking water quality management. Note should be taken of WHO advisories with respect to WSP+, which includes aspects of climate change resilience. Water quality testing should preferably be executed in the context of confirming the effectiveness of water safety plans (WSP). NWSDB coordinates the development and monitoring of WSPs and can arrange to complement water quality testing for chemical compounds through its laboratories. The Water Safety Plan Advisory Unit (WSPAU) established within the NWSDB provides advisory services to carry out water safety plans in RWS schemes in addition to its own urban water schemes. It also provides training to the officials in the water sector organizations, including DNCWS. Implementation of Water Safety Plans (WSPs) in all existing and future pipe-borne water schemes should be ensured, irrespective of the type and size of the scheme or ownership/management of the schemes.(World Health Organization, 2012)(Kanyesigye et al., 2019). NWSDB planners and scheme managers should follow the Water Safety Plan concepts in their entirety, from source to consumer, and including risks caused by climate change, changes in settlements, encroachment on protection zones, proactive implementation of non-revenue water reduction measures and other water saving efficiency options, etc. Annual or bi-annual review of the water safety plans are also essential to be able to identify and control new risks to water quality. Beyond the immediate service area of the scheme, commendable studies are gradually being undertaken by NWSDB staff with relevant university to assess the water quality of riverbasins and the risks that these are exposed to. (Wijesinghe, 2019). Extensive work has been done on the development of catchment safety plan for Gin river and a risk assessment of the same river as part of the catchment protection as part of Water Safety Plan in Greater Galle Water Supply Scheme (Balasooriya et al., 2015) (Wijesiri et al., 2015). As the importance of maintaining good environmental health in riverbasins is felt, various types of environmental impact studies contribute to the risk assessment of ambient water quality that is used as a water source. (Climate Resilience Improvement Programme ( CRIP ), 2019) (Mallawatantri et al., 2018) 8.5 Monitoring Water Quality NWSDB NWSDB has a well-structured water quality set-up with a Central Laboratory in Ratmalana, three Regional Support Centre Laboratories (in Kurunegala, Anuradhapura & Matara) and some 30-odd Regional Laboratories. Treatment plants may also have a small laboratory for operational monitoring. The laboratory network assures operational monitoring and verification to ensure consistent water quality. The 2018 NWSDB annual report states that for NWSDB schemes 99.4% of samples meet SLS bacteriological standards and 87.4% do not exceed the maximum permissible levels for physical & chemical parameters. The Central Laboratory has developed capacity for analysis of Cyanobacteria (blue green algae) & their toxins, biomass quantification, detection of volatile organic compounds and water treatment chemicals. Regional laboratories are moving towards accreditation on water quality parameters.
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It appears that NWSDB is moving ahead well with laboratory development capacity for future challenges in water quality testing. In addition, river basin water quality monitoring programmes are in place. Regulation and monitoring by other agencies The Sri Lanka Standards Institute is responsible in setting the standards for quality of water for various uses. It is not a regulatory body but promotes quality assurance in all sectors, disseminates related information and provides laboratory facilities.
Regulation and Monitoring of ambient water quality is a primary mandate of the CEA which is being carried out by the laboratory service unit. Several water quality monitoring programs were completed in Kelani, Ma Oya, and Dadugam Oya under the CEA. Boralasgamuwa wewa is another surface water body where a similar program implemented to monitor the physical, chemical and microbiological parameters of the surface water. The monitoring parameters include pH, Electrical conductivity (EC), Turbidity, Temperature, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), dissolved heavy metals such as Lead and Chromium, nutrient and microbiological contaminants etc. which were evaluated using the Canadian Water Quality Index method (CWQI). The Irrigation Department recently initiated a program of monitoring the water quality in selected rivers for the purpose of riverine management. The Mahaweli Authority conducts water quality testing in their main reservoirs as a surveillance measure. The Water Resources Board looks after the regulation and registration of groundwater use, and the monitoring of ground water quality. The Agrarian Development Department has launched a water quality monitoring program recently with the participation of farmer organizations. The National Aquatic Resources Agency (NARA), funding agencies and universities have conducted various research studies in water quality of surface water bodies and ground water in order to ascertain changes in water quality, identify water quality problems or gather information for pollution assessment and prevention. The Board of Investment (BOI) oversees the wastewater management in industrial zones registered under BOI and must ensure compliance of the wastewater discharged from the common treatment plant with the effluent standards. The agencies active in monitoring ambient water and drinking water quality collect a vast number of data. These data are not so easily accessible for further research or to design an action plan for improvement. It would be helpful if a national database can be agreed and managed that consolidates the data and can provide access to the raw data. Monitoring of water quality by CBOs, LAs and other service providers At present the normal routine for getting a water sample tested is to make an arrangement with the NWSDB regional laboratory to test a sample. Samples are being brought by the PHIs or by the officials of CBOs. More prevalent practice at present is that samples are brought by the PHIs, in compliance with the Water Quality Surveillance programme. The Ministry of Health has also allocated a set number of samples to be brought to their laboratories per month, which is around 500. In order to promote water quality testing in CBO managed schemes, NWSDB allows two water samples per month per district to be done free of charge. (Senaratne, 2017) FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 131
INGOs that are implementing projects in rural areas at time have capacity to do the bacteriological testing and occasionally have field test kits that can be used. The Water Supply and Sanitation Project (WaSSIP) has started to implement a pilot with a cluster CBO laboratory. As the distance to the laboratories from the CBO water supply schemes is a great hindrance for regular testing, establishing testing facilities in close proximity to CBOs would facilitate more frequent water quality testing. The WaSSIP Project has selected some CBOs for the cluster laboratory on the basis of criteria such as institutional capability, financial strength, commitment and willingness of the CBO management committee, geographical location of the CBO and availability of infrastructure (building) for a laboratory. Figure 8-2 WaSSIP sponsored cluster laboratory Guidance is given on the type of testing, frequency of testing and levels of monitoring. The testing should be combined with operation of Water Safety Plans in each of the CBO managed schemes. (Senaratne, 2017) A suggestion may be in order here. Already Sri Lanka has many government and private laboratories. One has to be careful not create too much of expensive duplication in laboratory capacity. With advances in ICT and smartphones, field based kits are becoming more sophisticated and reliable. (Crocker & Bartram, 2014) Already there are smart-phone based spectrophotometric test kits for turbidity and fluoride. (Levin et al., 2016). It is likely that these developments continue making it possible in a few years’ time to check some operational parameters such as turbidity or residual chlorine using a smart phone. It may be a little more complex to do the same for bacteriological testing, but also here clever and cost-effective products will be produced. Of course a good laboratory like the accredited laboratories of NWSDB will be required to sample the full suite of parameters every now and then, but for normal operations with a safety plan in place, sufficient confidence can be secured in a well-functioning system. As part of the revision of the small water supplies guideline (Volume 3) of the WHO Guidelines on Drinking-water Quality, WHO is currently revising the 1997 sanitary inspection forms. Sanitary inspection packages are being developed to ensure: greater alignment with the water safety plan (WSP) approach relevant and scientifically valid risk factors are included appropriate technology options are available, alongside best practice technical and management advice. Updated sanitary inspection formats available are available from WHO since May 2020 and would be useful to augment water safety plan documentation and application. https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/water-quality/safety-planning/sanitary- inspection-packages-for-drinking-water/en/ FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 132
Figure 8-3 A common spring water collection system consisting of a protective wall (WHO)
8.6 Special water quality concerns in Sri Lanka There are a good number of water quality concerns around the island. Poorly functioning septic tanks or channeling the overflow into a drain, or sometimes without any treatment into a stream, are still common problems. Surface inland waters in urban areas are polluted heavily with black and grey water, and effluents from small scale and informal industries and workshops. In rural areas agricultural runoff is the main cause of surface water pollution. Ground water is contaminated when black water leaches from improperly constructed on-site septic tanks. In addition, improper disposal practice for solid waste cause pollution in both surface water and ground water. In the coastal belt extensive sand mining from rivers causes sea water intrusion into the rivers, raising salinity at river intakes from which water for potable water supply is abstracted. To reduce environmental pollution, it will be necessary to manage the wastewater and fecal sludge more effectively. This also requires consideration of alternative solutions to sewerage for instance through small-bore sewer systems that collect water in a decentralized wastewater treatment plans (DEWATS) such as an Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) treatment plant. See also Section 5.6. River water becomes polluted due to discharge of industrial effluent directly into rivers. This is mainly caused by the rapid growth of industries located in close vicinity of rivers and lakes. In principle, industrial waste from Export Processing Zones and industrial estates should be treated within the estate before discharge. The discharged water should meet Sri Lanka standards for ambient water. However, untreated effluents are regularly discharged directly into rivers or dumped in the vicinity of rivers. For a more elaborate description of these issues refer to the CSIP
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Inception Report section 3.7. or in studies such as the IUCN sponsored study on Watershed health of the Kelani River. (Mallawatantri et al., 2018) Agricultural related water pollution is a one of the serious issues in major agricultural areas in the country. Farmers often apply more fertilizer and agrochemicals than recommended, and as a consequence environmental pollution and contamination of surface and groundwater sources is rapidly increasing. The excessive use of fertilizer is not even good for crops, making it difficult for the plants to absorb certain nutrients. With rainfall, streams are exposed directly to the fertilizer and pesticide-rich agricultural runoffs. (Daily Finance Times, 2018) (Henegama et al., 2015). Figure 8-1 illustrates the distribution and complexity of some chemical water quality parameters in the Northern Province.
Figure 8-4 Map showing the complexity of water quality issues in the Northern Province (RSC-N
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Eutrophication is the ultimate scenario of the entry of large quantities of phosphates into the surface water bodies. The water flowing from the waterbodies of Nuwara Eliya and Badulla districts carrying high levels of phosphates could travel all the way to the irrigation reservoirs in the Mannar, Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa districts. Cyanobacteria blooms (commonly referred to as blue-algae) have been reported occasionally in reservoirs at Kotmale, Kandalama, Nachchaduwa, Nuwarawewa, Tissawewa, and at Parakrama Samudraya during the last few years. It would be a matter of time for some of country's waterbodies to report cyanobacteria blooms that release toxins causing death to small animals and sickness to humans using these waters for drinking water and bathing. (Chorus & Bartram, 1999)(Amarasiri, S.; Yapa, 2013). Studies have shown that the concentration of N has greatly increased particularly in ground water, the key reason being the application of heavy doses of nitrogenous fertilizers. As groundwater is the main or probably the only source of potable water in several areas where intensive agriculture is practiced, health implications associated with high intake of nitrate should be considered seriously. CKDu In the last 25 years Chronic Kidney Disease of unknown etiology (CKDu) has come to the fore as a serious disease in most dry zone areas. Figure 8-4 gives an indication of the distribution of CKDu patients across dry zone districts. (Kafle et al., 2019) The cause of the CKDu disease is not clear. However, there must be a relation with the water used as people who drink rainwater or water produced by reverse osmosis plants seem to be protected against the disease. Reverse Osmosis plants are in use as a temporary measure to provide safe water to CKDu patients. At the same the Government of Sri Lanka is planning several large schemes that will deliver treated surface water through distributed water supply. These schemes are very expensive and will still take a number of years to come into operation. As most of the affected areas are in the dry zone, construction of rainwater harvesting systems with storage tanks would resolve most of the problems. The 5m3 pumpkin tanks commonly Figure 8-5 Indicative distribution of CKDu patients in Sri Lanka constructed as per the Rain Water Harvesting Forum design, would provide some 150 days of drinking water storage for a family of 4. That means one can manage a dry season period of a little over 4 months. Even when the dry period last longer, as it might occasionally do when climate change makes rainfall more erratic, water can be brought by bowser. Such a solution would protect against CKDu risk and create greater climate change resilience.
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In CKDu affected areas, several organizations have provided reverse osmosis (RO) plants to obtain treated water for drinking to the people. The main organizations who have provided RO plants in CKDu prevalent areas are the NWSDB, Sri Lanka Navy (funds provided by Presidential Task Force) and DNCWS. Some other plants are provided by voluntary organizations with funds collected from local philanthropists and international donors. The RO plants by NWSDB are provided by a specially established Project Unit, namely, CKDu Project Unit, located in Anuradhapura. The RO plants provided by NWSDB and DNCWS are generally managed by the CBOs. Those provided by the Navy are operated and maintained by Navy personnel. There are also commercially operated, privately owned RO plants, who sell the water to the customers. The CKDu Project Unit presently conducts water quality testing in the RO plants provided by NWSDB and DNCWS through the NWSDB regional laboratory in Anuradhapura. These are conducted normally once in every 3 months. Tests include both bacteriological and chemical testing of raw water and treated water. The Navy conducts the water quality testing regularly, at their laboratory located in Rambewa, Anuradhapura. In the recent past, many vendors have emerged in rural areas and in town areas, who sell water purified with Reverse Osmosis (“RO Water”) to the users. These vendors either sell water at a boutique or bring water in bowsers or tanks mounted on hand tractors and trucks close to the consumers. Although the involvement of the private sector in providing water supply services to the communities should be encouraged, the quality of water needs to be ensured. At present, there is no process of testing this water, or regulating these vendors. Since this practice will continue and grow in the future, especially in the areas where CKDu problem exists, it is necessary that proper regulatory measures are implemented. A system of licensing of these vendors should be established, together with the testing of the quality of this water supplies. Water that is sold in this manner should be considered as a food meeting Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) and Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) approach. The Director General of Health Services is the chief food authority and the chairman of the Food Advisory Committee (FAC) established in terms of the Food Act no. 26 of 1980, and hence could take action for monitoring of the quality and enforce regulatory measures. Thus, at field level, it is possible that quality testing can be brought under the purview of the PHI. Note that the HACCP approach has also been the foundation for the development of the water safety plans approach. Cyanotoxins produced by cyanobacteria High amounts of Nitrates and Phosphates released from fertilizer applications in the catchments in the agricultural zones or from wastes released from the urbanized areas lead to nutrient enrichments in stagnant waters. Eutrophication leads to occasional blue-green algae blooms, which may release toxins into the water that are hazardous to man and animals. Toxigenic cyanobacteria are widespread in freshwater bodies of Sri Lanka. (Kulasooriya, 2017).
Some published information exists on waters threatened by eutrophication and blooming; Kotmale (1991), Victoria (2003), Maussakele, Castlereigh, Rajangana, Kandalama, Nachchaduwa, Nuwarawewa , Tisawewa, Venderasan, Parakrama Samudraya, Kantale, (1997), Girithale (1997) and Maduruoya (1997) reservoirs have all experienced blue-green algae blooms. Most of these reservoirs are also in use as water sources for water supply of NWSDB. The NWSDB has introduced a condition to obtain survey reports on algal blooms (including cyanobacteria) in new water
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sources scheduled to be used for water supply projects as a pre-requisite for approval of the scheme. (Kulasooriya, 2017). The occurrence of various species of algae in shown for several well- known reservoirs in table 8-1. (Sethunge & Manage, 2010) When favorable physico-chemical conditions exist and nutrients, especially phosphorous, are available, certain species of algae may grow to nuisance levels which can produce toxins, clogging filters and forming foul odors and tastes in these water sources. Catchment and runoff monitoring and corrective measures are needed to reduce nutrient input to the reservoirs and avoid these public health and operational problems. Operational staff should be alerted to the risk associated with algal blooms.
Table 8-1 Species composition of toxin producing, filter clogging and odor forming algae
Cyanobacterial toxins are classified by how they affect the human body. Hepatotoxins (which affect the liver) are produced by some strains of the cyanobacteria Microcystis, Anabaena, and Cylindrospermopsis. Cyanobacteria from the species Cylindrospermopsis raciborski may also produce toxic alkaloids, causing gastrointestinal symptoms or kidney disease in humans. Not all cyanobacteria of these species form toxins and it is likely that there are as yet unrecognized toxins. [www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/diseases-risks/diseases/cyanobacteria/en/, prepared for World Water Day 2001]
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The NWSDB laboratory has nowadays capacity to test for microcystis sp. and some other cyanobacteria. Continued vigilance is required to avoid taking in affected water when blooms occur. Continued discussions with agriculturalists are necessary to reduce fertilizer use to manageable level. Government should also reduce fertilizer subsidies in combination with guidance by agricultural extension officers. Fluoride In several parts of the dry zone, the concentration of Fluoride exceeds the WHO guideline value of 1.5 mg/l. Fluoride concentrations in 20% of the wells was more than the current standard of 1.0 mg/l. (H. M. A. S. Herath et al., 2017). High fluoride levels in well water may also have a link to CKDu. When considering dental fluorosis, fluoride concentration for drinking water in different climatic zones of Sri Lanka are recommended to less than 0.8 mg/l to prevent dental fluorosis. Fluoride is difficult to remove from groundwater, and therefore the usual practice is to select another source of water. Rainwater for drinking or treated surface water would be suitable options. Salinity intrusion Seawater intrusion into rivers is a natural phenomenon. Knowing that the location of a water supply intake determines its quality, these intakes have to be located beyond the effects the saline intrusion. However, excessive sand mining causes the saltwater tongue from the sea to penetrate further into the river. Sand mining has increased in recent years as demand for sand has grown rapidly, particularly due to the infrastructure developments in the Northern Province and real estate business in the Western part of the country. Many rivers are suffering from both illegal and excessive sand mining including Kalu Ganga, Nilwala Ganga, Gin Ganga, Kelani river, Mahaweli etc. (Pereira, K.; Ratnayake, 2013). Increasing sand mining at rivers resulted in heavy localized turbidity, lowering of water tables, river bank erosion, land degradation and the salinity intrusion (Piyadasa, 2009). These effects are causing serious concerns for drinking water from schemes based on river water. To minimize this effect, regulation on sand mining and corrective actions such as construction of (inflatable) barriers across rivers may have to be considered. Jaffna situation As water is scarce and many parts of the Jaffna peninsula do not have adequate water supply, many households will also use shallow wells. Water in these wells is adversely affected by poor quality of sanitation infrastructure. As the geology under Jaffna is karstic, pollution will easily spread far and wide. Water supply to the Jaffna peninsula is urgent. Several projects have been attempted in the past decades, but it seems that a real solution has not yet been found. The River to Jaffna project has been proposed but is not making headway. Similarly, there have been lengthy debates about the Vadamarachchi Lagoon Fresh water Project. As it is currently a saline lagoon, it will take some years to become fresh, once it has been separated from the sea. Still a more reliable method than going for costly desalination, as is planned at present. CSIP has reserved its judgment on the Jaffna water supply situation as already too many actors have been stirring the pot and unless local forces agree, a technical solution will not work. So, no advice. A sewerage scheme is proposed for the more densely built-up areas. When in use, groundwater pollution due to leaky septic tanks and worse, can be avoided. This will gradually clean up the groundwater so that that will be available for use.
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8.7 Other water supply solutions Potable water supply is provided by several means. It may be that the household or business has a connection from the NWSDB or a Local Authority. In villages or small towns, CBOs may have been set up to provide a water supply service. In many parts of the island, individual households get their water from a well in their yard, or through a public well or handpump nearby. Increasingly households also build a rainwater system to collect and store rainwater. The services mentioned are basic or -when providing treated water – safely managed water supply services. Households that take their water from rivers or village tanks do not have an acceptable service and should receive assistance to acquire an SDG-proof water supply solution.
Rainwater Sri Lanka has used rainwater for both domestic and agricultural purposes for many centuries. However, institutionalized rain water harvesting became a practice in Sri Lanka in 1995, under the World Bank-funded Community Water Supply and Sanitation Project (CWSSP). (Ariyabandu et al., 2000) Household level rainwater harvesting been promoted through Lanka Rain Water Harvesting Forum, introducing latest technology in the trade. A government directive has been given for strategies for collection and usage of rainwater through “National Rainwater Policy and Strategies” and through the Amendment to the Urban Development Authority Law, in 2007. Regulations of Planning and Building Regulations of Urban Development Authority too was amended accommodating guidelines on design, operation and management of rainwater harvesting facilities. (Government of Sri Lanka, 2009) (Ariyananda, 2009)
Rainwater is one of the purest sources of water available, as it does not come into contact with many of the pollutants often discharged into local surface waters. If collected properly, it can be used for all domestic purposes including drinking. Rainwater from well-managed roof catchment sources is generally safe to drink without treatment. Except in heavily urbanized and industrialized areas or regions adjacent to volcanoes, atmospheric rainwater is pure. When rainwater is properly stored it will further improve in bacteriological and chemical quality. In terms of utility rainwater can be limited in scope when the household does not have adequate storage. However, since 1997 nearly 50’000 ferrocement rainwater tanks have been constructed of 5m 3 and above. In that way many support programmes have been able to assist water stressed households. Increasingly urban households are also collecting rainwater for domestic purposes such as watering the garden, car washing or flushing of toilets.
Household Wells/ Water Treatment Household wells are very common. Many households have traditionally used their well for domestic water. Often wells are also shared by several families. Whereas in the past water was collected by a bucket on a pulley, now that every household has electricity, an electric pump and overhead storage can provide the household with indoor water supply. In that way this form of self-supply provides the convenience if water in the tap in the same way as most homes connected to a NWSDB water supply system. According to the Sri Lanka Demographic and Health Survey 2016, 32.7 % of the population used a borehole or protected well in 2016, while a further 11.2 % used a semi-protected well.
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Table 8-2 drinking water sources by households (DHS16)
Communal Wells In rural areas, communal wells provide water for drinking and other purposes such as laundry, personal hygiene and bathing, etc. While there is often no clear owner for the source CBOs have taken over and equipped some of these sources with hand pumps converting them to CBO schemes.
8.8 Water quality data inventory for strategic planning of water resources. There is a vast number of chemical data scattered over several organizations dealing the water sector that include: NWSDB, WRB, CEA, MASL, ID, DAD, Universities and IWMI. Many project specific studies have been carried out on water resources, which have not been followed up with subsequent observations and monitoring. At present there is no national level master data base or repository on ambient water quality of surface and ground water. Rather information is scattered among the organizations mentioned.
8.9 Observations and Recommendations Contamination of water resources requires subsequent treatment of water to make it safe for consumption. This is often possible, but at an increasing cost. The cost is high because of complexity of treatment and because some chemicals are difficult to remove with traditional treatment. Thus, water quality protection of water sources through reduction of contamination at source is recommended, i.e. reduction of fertilizer use through farmer education, more efficient agricultural practices and improved targeting of government subsidy for fertilizers; and improved management of wastewater and septage to ensure discharge of effluent that meets CEA standards for ambient water.
Catchment and runoff monitoring and corrective measures are needed to reduce nutrient input to the reservoirs and avoid these public health and operational problems. Operational staff should be To minimize this effect, regulation on sand mining and corrective actions such as construction of (inflatable) barriers across rivers may have to be considered.
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9 Climate Change mitigation measures for the WASH sector 9.1 Introduction The observed effects of the climatic variability will increase intensity of rainfall, create more frequent flood events and prolonged droughts. These effects have been observed by the researchers who studied impacts experienced during 1974-2008 (34 years) period. Last year Sri Lanka faced a long spell of dry weather following below-average rains in the first half of 2019. The country was hit by dry and moderate drought conditions in pockets of the North, North Western, North Central, Uva and Eastern Provinces. As of September 25, 2019, more than 780,000 people were affected by drought according to the Disaster Management Centre.
Figure 9-1 Kotmale reservoir water level receding rapidly (Daily Mirror, 25-2-2019) The Northern and Eastern Provinces saw the highest number of affected people. At that time, the country was just recovering from a severe drought in 2016 – 2017, that affected over a million people and was said to be the worst in 40 years. (Mudalige, 2020) The past decades’ data of the number of rainy days draw a negative trend line bolstering the above observation. Compared to 2010, the number of rainy days in Nuwara Eliya and Ratnapura had decreased by 77 days last year. Comparatively Ratnapura, Ratmalana, Galle and Colombo have a higher number of wet days, while Mannar, Jaffna, Trincomalee, Vavuniya, Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa have more dry days. The country’s annual average rainfall varies from about 1,000mm in the driest zones in the northwest and southeast of the island to over 5,000mm in some areas on the western slopes of the central highlands. Due to climate change effects, water managers in Sri Lanka are likely to be confronted with;
Unpredictable weather pattern High-intensity rainfall events leading to reduced ground water recharge Soil erosion FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 141
Frequent floods Prolonged dry periods Sea-level rise leading to increased salt water intrusion High temperature leading to high (evapo-)transpiration losses Of the above impacts drought and sea level rise will have a bearing on the availability of water for potable water supply. Out of all the disasters, drought is the most frequent disaster Sri Lanka faces. (Punyawardena et al., 2013). Rainfall zones in the Western part of the country are strengthening over time while those in the East/South East are weakening. The research has provided evidence of two general trends in Sri Lankan climate, i.e., increasing ambient temperatures resulting in more heat stress, and more frequent and severe occurrence of extreme rainfall anomalies such as droughts and floods. (Marambe et al., 2014). 9.2 Strategies for water conservation and source protection There is still no agreed water policy in Sri Lanka. The Ministry of Irrigation has updated the draft water policy again recently and made it available in August 2019 for comments. The National Policy, Strategies and Institutional Framework for Water Resources Development, Conservation and Management states as its vision “A Society that values the sustainable use of water resources and recognizes the goal of a balanced environment conducive to social and economic development”. It is an essential guiding document in the context of water supply and climate change resilience, and just and effective use of available water resources. It needs to be concluded urgently. In 2014 the National Policy on Protection and Conservation of Water Sources, their Catchments and Reservations in Sri Lanka was adopted. It lists several strategic areas relating to its purpose some of which have been taken up. It emphasizes data management and strengthening of institutions dealing with this critical subject. It recommends specifically that the first steps to conservation are to determine and demarcate the limits / boundaries of water sources and their catchments and legally declaration of such areas, conserve the lands in the areas demarcated and avoid inappropriate use of land in the areas related to water sources. It proposes to make compulsory the adoption of conservation based land use patterns suitable for environmentally sensitive areas and the lands over 5000 feet above the sea level for the protection and conservation of the areas related to water sources and follow a holistic approach for the management of areas related to water sources.(Ministry of Land and Land Development, 2014a) Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies to counter Climate Change Effects The National Climate Change Adaptation strategy 2011-2016 has recommended the following adaptation strategies for all the water users, especially for the consumptive users such as irrigation and potable water. (Climate Change Secretariat, 2010)
Promote water-efficient farming methods and crops to improve water productivity Improve maintenance of existing tanks and reservoirs including their watersheds and catchments Adopt and promote principles of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) Construct new reservoirs and trans-basin diversions to meet the demand Improve weather forecasting and information dissemination The National Adaptation Plan for Climate Change in Sri Lanka (2016 – 2025) identifies nine (9) sectors in which water resources is one. Under water resources, the NAP recognizes the water for human consumption as one priority area to address. FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 142
The NAP recommends the need of identifying and mapping the areas vulnerable to droughts and flood hazards and prepare disaster risk management plans accordingly. It further identifies the need to develop disaster risk management plans for vulnerable areas; establish necessary facilities for improvement of drainage in susceptible areas and develop dam safety plans and promote use of safety measures and equipment; monitor salinity levels regularly and improve saltwater intrusion protection measures in coastal areas and wetlands. It also recommends establishment of an efficient climate information and communication system among the relevant sector organizations.(Climate Change Secretariat, 2016) The NWSDB Corporate Policy for Integration of Climate Change Adaptation was approved in 2014 for integration of climate change adaptation policies, strategies and programs in the preparation of Corporate Plans. The policy specifies the need to institutionalize vulnerability and adaptation assessment in planning, creation, operation and maintenance of assets. It states that proactive actions are needed in preparing WSPs, emergency response plans, introduction of new technologies, stakeholder coordination in water sharing, and adaptation of good land use practices. If proper follow-up is given to these strategies, the potable water sector will not face serious consequences of climate change impacts. However, most of the actions need national or provincial level coordination and joint efforts with other relevant water and environment sector organizations. NWSDB is noted to undertake riverbasin studies and other measures that would increase climate change resilience and decrease operational risks.
As most of the possible major water resources developments have been attended or under implementation by now, especially in dry zone, only few additions are possible. This requires a paradigm shift from increasing supply to reducing demand.
There are many organizations developing and managing water resources. This creates complexities as there is often limited coordination. Thus, certain developments will benefit new users at the expense of the existing users due to this lapse.
As demand is likely to increase without an associated increase in the supply and because of the extreme weather, there will be a need for disciplined water management. All stakeholders need to understand the system stresses and be ready to respond in advance. This in turn requires organizations to clearly communicate the issues and seek support of the stakeholders. Lack of communication among organizations and lack of communication between organizations and stakeholders, in this context, will have serious effects, creating conflicts and crises. Hence institutional mechanisms must be put in place and clear policy directions need to be laid down and followed through.
Several climate change resilience projects have in recent times started to undertake studies and implement measures that reduce the effects of climate change. The Climate Resilient Improvement Project has studied riverbasins and identified potential opportunities for (small) reservoirs, while also implementing erosion control and landslide protection measures.
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Figure 9-2 River basins under stud by CRIP
The Climate Resilient Integrated Water Management Programme (CRIWMP) aims to restore the traditional cascade system to provide farmers with water. At the same time longer availability of water in the landscape will enhance the ecosystem and protect the forests, raise food security and see restoration of groundwater sources and probably better water quality in the village wells around the tank. In addition, Climate Resilient Water Safety and Security Plans and Emergency Response Plans for these decentralized drinking water systems will be developed which will generate a greater degree of water security for these communities during droughts. (http://criwmp.mmde.gov.lk/ ). Some 4000 rainwater harvesting systems are planned as part of the resilience measures. When initiating strategies for catchment and watershed developments, for improvements and conservation the study of land use history, erosion patterns and rates of siltation in the reservoirs, are important factors to prevent negative impacts further down the process. The CSIP task III report on Water Resources Identification and Development provides further information of aspects of conservation that relate to climate change resilience. Local conservation of watersheds Watershed protection at local level is critical to smaller CBO schemes that take their water from springs. Not only should proper water safety plans be in place to manage the present and future sustainability of the scheme, but these should also include climate change resilience measures to enhance the water security in the project. The Water Supply and Sanitation Improvement Project (WaSSIP) has published training manuals to improve the capacity of CBOs. These manuals deal with a variety of management aspects related to good governance, grievance redressal, legal
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strengthening, operation and maintenance of different components of water schemes, tariff revisions, water quality surveillance, water safety planning & implementation, hygiene & sanitation and environmental conservation. The manual om promotion of Environmental Conservation for Water Supply Committees lists
Structural measures including trenches, stone bunds, terraces, [gabions], lock and spill drains Bio-engineering measures including contour bunds e.g. with vetiver grass and live hedges using various indigenous trees and shrubs such as: gliciridia sepium, tithonia diversifolia, adathoda vasica, calliandra calothyrsus and flemingia macrophylla Agronomic measures using cover crops: centrosema pubescens, peraria phaseoloids, demodium introtum and applying minimum tillage
Vetiver grass can be used profitably as it can be rapidly established in arid conditions and poor soils with little nutrients. Once established vetiver hedges are maintenance free and withstand arid and dry season conditions. They encourage sheet flow and reduced water run- off velocities resulting in natural vegetation re- growth and prevention of erosion.
Figure 9-3 Infiltration trenches and stone bunds to slow down the water (Hingulwala Dissanayake/WaSSIP)
A good range of water retention promoting techniques are available that can be employed.
Eco-efficient water infrastructure Eco-efficient water infrastructure is defined as the combination of physical and non-physical infrastructure in the water sector for achieving an optimal level of water utilization and a lesser burden to limited water resources. Eco-efficient water infrastructure embraces physical infrastructure in water and sanitation services, flood control and drought management, and ecosystem restoration. (Lee, 2013) The conceptualization of eco-efficient water infrastructure implies the significance of balanced policies for tackling physical and non-physical dimensions. In many developing countries, various projects related to physical infrastructure have been over-emphasized thanks to socio-economic and political reasons. These projects are often decided by the elite at the central government
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without consideration of local environmental circumstances, which brings about inefficient water supply and wastewater treatment services, flood prevention and drought management systems, and ecosystem rehabilitation projects. In addition, centrally planned and controlled water and wastewater systems are energy-intensive, environmentally unfriendly, over-invested, and ill- designed against local needs. There is growing need for introduction of ecologically and economically efficient policies for water infrastructure with accommodation of decentralization and community-centered approaches.(Lee, 2013) 9.3 Other effects on climate change important for water treatment In section 8.6.2 the combined effect of eutrophication and heat was highlighted in the context of the risk of cyanobacteria blooms. The extremes of the climate as in intense rainfall, temperature and solar irradiation have an impact on source water as indicated in table 9-1.
Table 9-1 examples of climate change impacting water supply management
WHO has published useful guiding material on the integration of climate change aspects into the WSP process. Good control measures can manage the risks posed by climate variability and change. Any water quality hazards that may be introduced by new water management arrangements or the infrastructure used to provide the services, need to be identified, assessed and controlled. 9.4 Observations and Recommendations Climate change effects are becoming clearer by the day. However, man’s interaction with its environment is probably still a greater cause of the growing risk of floods and reduced retention of rainfall. Appreciation of the role man plays in exacerbating the effects of climate change and the options we have to change our behaviour and infrastructure development activities to be in line with the carrying capacity of the land we live on, will make already a good bit of difference on raising resilience and disaster preparedness. Government has developed policies on water and conservation, and on raising climate change resilience. The adoption and effective implementation of these policies is critical for society to be able to react in a concerted and just manner to the challenges posed by climate change. As demand is likely to increase without an associated increase in the supply and because of the extreme weather, there will be a need for disciplined water management. All stakeholders need to understand the system stresses and be ready to respond in advance.
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At local level watershed protection level is critical to smaller CBO schemes that take their water from springs. Not only should proper water safety plans be in place to manage the present and future sustainability of the scheme, but these should also include climate change resilience measures to enhance the water security in the project. The WSP approaches by WHO can provide good guidance. Given the multiple demands for water across many sectors, water needs to be managed in an integrated manner, with transparent approaches for its allocation and necessary trade-offs between different uses. Systems to share the benefits that come from water – food, energy, ecosystem services – are crucial to maximize the overall contribution of water.
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10 Financing the WASH Sector 10.1 Sector Overview The WASH sector in Sri Lanka is nearly evenly divided between the NWSDB on the one hand and CBOs/LAs and self-supply on the other hand. The financing requirements of NWSDB for its large, quasi regional projects are very substantial. The cost of a connection in a NWSDB schemes is a little more than twice as expensive as a rural water supply scheme connection. Undoubtedly a lot of the extra costs are related to the length of pipeline for transmission. During operation the longish main lines translate in extra recurrent costs for pumping. In rural water supply costs are less as schemes are simpler and will usually benefit from local contributions in land, material and labor. In the 1980’s the financing of rural and estate schemes was initiated by INGOs such as Helvetas (hosted by the Sarvodaya Shramadana Society) and Save the Children USA. Nowadays World Vision, Oxfam and ADRA use foreign and some local funds to support area-based projects that include water supply, sanitation and hygiene components. National NGO such as Palm Foundation and Corporate Social Responsibility activities provide further support in rural and estate projects. The approach and experiences of the early WASH entrepreneurs has been used to conceive the first Community Water Supply and Sanitation Project (CWSSP). CWSSP was able to scale the investment up very substantially and as a result of this series of World Bank supported projects, now reaching the WaSSIP stage, and the adjusted approach used by the ADB in the ADB III project, a lot of water supply schemes were built that assumed Community Based management. For years the CBO schemes were without a home, as the projects, though large, were not institutionalized. Since a few years the Department for National Community Water Supply has been established within the Ministry in charge of water supply and sanitation. DNCWS has the mandate to provide an institutional home for the CBO managed projects. It has now registered over 4500 such CBOs. In the last three decades no regular financing for piped water supply has come from government. Of course, it supported through the WB and ADB rural investment projects but during the periods in between limited attention was paid to structural support for rural water supply at national level. In recent times, the tide seems to be turning with the establishment of DNCWS, the recent initiation of the Praja Jala Abhimani project and the capacity building support for monitoring and registration of CBOs The estate sector has benefitted from external support since the 1980s through bilateral support programmes concluded with the Governments of Norway and the Netherlands. Over time, their efforts were consolidated into the Plantation Human Development Trust, an institution that looks after a variety of social interests in the estate sector, including water supply and sanitation. For long the complex management structure in the plantations has only allowed piecemeal improvements, and left operation and maintenance concerns often bungling. The situation appears to be improving and may further improve when the estate population is effectively in the care of the Divisional Secretary and the Pradeshiya Sabha with respect to access to government services. Local Authorities have the responsibility to look after water supply and sanitation, but usually have limited funds available. Annual budgets list some investment and O&M, but generally these activities are minor, for a school or a social reason. Some 38% of the population have their own water supply and sanitation facilities. The wells may have been constructed by their grandfathers but are still serving the household or a cluster of nearby homes. Most of the wells are protected and would provide water of reasonable quality. In
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the dry zone, in some areas drinking the water from the wells may cause CKDu and alternative water supply services need to be developed. Of course, for the CBO and LA managed schemes, and for the self-supplied households, 2020 may be the start of a period to bring their service up to a standard that is acceptable in the development of Sri Lanka. Thus, some financial support and institutional back-up will be needed for the rural and estate water supply sector. In the rural areas, people may have gradually congregated around road junctions in larger settlements that deserve a piped water supply scheme. These small and emerging towns somehow fall between the urban and rural sector. Attention will need to be given to provide services here as well. 10.2 Investment plan and road map The objective of the CSIP assignment is develop an investment plan and roadmap to ensure that universal water supply and sanitation services are enjoyed by all citizens by 2030 and beyond. For NWSDB, as the lead water supply and sewerage agency in the sector, current and future investments in urban and semi-urban water supply and sanitation, and in essential water resources development, are laid out in detail. For rural and estate areas packages of investments are prepared for clusters of districts. When the proposed investments are implemented, all will have water and sanitation. At least 82% of the Sri Lankan population will have safely managed water supply at the doorstep and a little over 50% will have safely managed sanitation with wastewater treated before discharge or reuse. SDG criteria will thus be largely met. Further service improvement will then take place from 2030 onwards, mostly being able to use locally available financial resources through blended financing. Note that this chapter only summarizes the financial aspects and funding needs of the WASH sector in Sri Lanka. The detailed elaborations can be found in the CSIP Task V report on Sector Investment and Financing. 10.3 National Water Supply and Drainage Board The financing strategy analysis is focusing primarily on NWSDB. The analysis looks initially at the existing financial tools which have been used in the sector, after which it moves on to a review of possible new financing instruments for the WSS sector in Sri Lanka. The financial position of NWSDB is tenuous. As tariffs have not been revised since 2012, NWSDB is not able to repay interest and loans. Further cost-efficiency measures need to be put in place to reduce personnel cost (50.4% of the total expenses), non-revenue water and energy costs. At the same time additional effort needs to go into extending the service and urgently get more revenue by adding connections. NWSDB sells water below operational expenditures - amounting to LKR 51.8/m³ in financial year 2018 - to a number of customer groups. For example, bulk supply to CBOs generate only LKR 17/m³ revenue against a production and delivery cost of LKR 51.8/m³. The current national tariff and the services expected from NWSDB do not allow it to charge a cost-reflective tariff. In due course, when the Public Utility Commission of Sri Lanka is legally empowered to monitor cost and service delivery on behalf of the government and the consumers, it should be possible to institute a schedule that allows NWSDB to charge a cost-reflective tariff that is revised every two years or so. Personnel cost accounts for the largest single cost item amounting to 50.4 % of the total expenses. In comparison to selected water utilities worldwide, NWSDB personnel cost of operational costs excluding depreciation, are the highest standing at 58.0 % FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 150
In financial year 2018 most of the NWSDB investments and related debt service costs were financed by foreign and government grants whereas revenue collection accounted for 26% of the cash flow only. 54.9 % of NWSDB equity originates from the foreign donors and 45.1 % from the Government. In 2018 a further loan was taken by NWSDB to be able to settle principal and interest of earlier loans. CSIP prepared a number of financial scenarios for NWSDB with a forecast period up to 2050 and for reasons of comparison selected three main scenarios for tariff adjustments; a) tariff Increase of 0 %, b) tariff increase to achieve full cost recovery in 2021 and c) gradual tariff increase. In the preferred scenario 3 it is proposed that from 2021 the tariffs will be increased gradually by 27.8% on average for domestic customers using more than 15 m3/month adopting one-unit rate for 0- 15 m3 of domestic consumption. Samurdhi recipients and domestic customers consuming water less than 15 m3/month will have no tariff increase while all other tariffs are increased by 25% in 2021. From year 2022 to 2028 all tariffs are increased by 9 % annually and thereafter tariff adjustments are based on inflation.
Figure 10-1 NWSDB Key Financial Indicators 2018 – 2032, Gradual Tariff Adjustment Based on the ‘gradual tariff increase’ scenario NWSDB will achieve full cost recovery in 2027 as cash flow turns positive. It will be able to pay all outstanding loans by 2032 when cumulative cash flow is positive. The Government has to cover the negative cumulative cash flow until 2031. It is assumed that Government will also pay the interest costs of the old loans. Positive cash flow can be used to finance future investments and save in interest costs. Especially the foreign loans represent a high risk due to an average 7% annual depreciation of the Sri Lankan rupee. This effect can multiply the debt servicing costs. Figure 10-1 shows that NWSDB will achieve full cost recovery in 2027 as cash flow turns out positive and will be able to pay all outstanding loans by 2032 when cumulative cash flow is positive. The Government must cover the negative cumulative cash flow until 2031. It is assumed that Government will also pay the interest costs of the old loans.
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Table 10-1 shows the key performance indicators used by NWSDB and selected financial ratios in 2020 – 2030. Total operating expenses/billing indicator will improve from 0.9 in 2020 to 0.5 in 2026 due to tariff increases. From 2029 onward tariffs are adjusted in line with inflation. Collection efficiency is assumed to be 1.0 based on the billing collection efficiency in the past. The
Table 10-1 NWSDB Key Performance Indicators and financial ratios 2020-2030 Key Performance Indicators 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030
Total Operating Expenses( O&M, admin)/billing 0,9 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,4 Collection efficiency 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0 Total Operating Expenses/unit produced (Operating Expenses/production) 32,6 34,8 37,1 36,9 39,5 42,8 Unit revenue (billing/consumption) 44,1 59,9 71,7 86,1 103,6 116,2 Total Operating Expenses/quantity sold 42,7 44,9 47,2 46,3 49,0 52,4 Total cost/units sold 79,0 85,3 92,2 95,2 102,1 105,6 Energy cost/production (Rs./m3) 6,6 7,2 8,0 8,8 9,6 10,6 Total no of Employees/1000 Connections 3,8 3,5 3,1 2,8 2,6 2,4 No of O&M employees/1000 w ater connections 3,3 3,0 2,7 2,4 2,2 2,1 NRW -% 23,7 % 22,5 % 21,4 % 20,4 % 19,4 % 18,4 %
Financial Ratios 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030 Quick Ratio 1,4 0,5 0,2 0,3 0,9 2,5 Cash Ratio -1,6 -2,1 -2,4 -2,4 -2,0 -1,6 Debt Ratio 0,2 0,2 0,2 0,2 0,1 0,1 number of employees per 1000 connections will gradually decrease as additional employees will not be hired after 2025. NRW will decrease to 18.4% in 2030. NWSDB will not be able to meet its short-term financial obligations without Treasury subsidies as shown on negative quick and cash ratios. Debt ratio 0.2 is a low figure but NWSDB is not able to repay the annual loans due fully until 2027.
The biggest savings can be achieved through efficiency gains in reducing NRW and ‘smart’ operations. Led by continuing training and staff improvements, a reduction in the number of O&M and admin personnel can be achieved by natural means through retirement. Simultaneously Human Resources planning should ensure that the current batch of junior NWSDB professionals will progress to more responsible and meaningful tasks in the organization able to respond to greater efficiency and operational performance requirements. In comparison to operational expenditures, interest costs are a significant cost factor for NWSDB, amounting to 43.7 % of OPEX in 2020 (interest is not included in OPEX). If NWSDB would have to finance all the investment loans and their interest, the interest cost would exceed the operational expenditures. New water and sewerage connections and increased water & sewerage sales will be a major source for new income for NWSDB. Assuming 0 % tariff increase, NWSDB will be able to almost double total revenue collection from LKR 25.0 billion in 2018 to LKR 48.8 billion in 2030 without any tariff adjustment. To speed up return of investment, CSIP recommends that NWSDB changes the distribution network implementation system to ensure that contracts include a house connection (without meter, and with endcap) for all homes (with boundary walls within 50 m) along the pipeline. It
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will reduce the administrative and technical connection burden and allow the connection ratio to rise faster after completion of the scheme. This measure must be combined with a payment structure for the connection fee for households in which an advance payment of -say- Rs. 3000 is needed, but the remaining 12'000 can be discounted by NWSDB at current interest rate over a period of 24 months. If this is possible at Singer, Abans or Softlogic, then NWSDB should be able to do this. It will lead to faster uptake of connections and increase in revenue. As NWSDB has undertaken many projects in the last decade, it will have retained stocks of pipes and fittings. Now that it has been decided to focus on cost-saving and connection-raising measures, it would be worthwhile to start using the dead stock and rejects that can still be used in projects and so reduce the surplus inventory. RSC management should discuss the approach with O&M staff and encourage re-use of such stocks as a cost-saving measure. Proper inventory control is necessary to ensure that stocks are used as intended. The consultancy has developed financial and tariff models for NWSDB with a forecasting period up to 2030 and 2050 (refer to CSIP Task V report for details). Statement of Corporate Intent The NWSDB has signed a Statement of Corporate Intent (SCI) in March 2015, with the Ministry of City Planning and Water Supply and Ministry of Finance (MOF). This has been based on a concept introduced by the Department of Public Enterprises (PED). The concept was approved by the Cabinet of Ministers in February 2017. Accordingly, five SCIs for key state-owned enterprises (SOE) including NWSDB were signed in March 2017. The purpose of an SCI is to enhance the performance of SOE with the mission of creating a platform for SOE to operate in a commercially viable manner in order to achieve macroeconomic objectives of the country (Lanka Business on Line, 11th June 2019). A SCI possesses the following objectives;
to operate SOEs in a budgetary independent and commercially viable manner to improve Corporate Governance Practices to strengthen the Financial Management to strengthen the Human Resource Management to change the operational culture and re-engineering the business process to improve the transparency and accountability in operations to ensure efficient and effective business operations and to generate reasonable Return on Investment.
Further, the SCI should contain key performance indicators linked to Corporate Plan, Action Plan and Annual Budget of the SOEs spread over three years’ time horizon. In addition, the impact of all non-commercial operations of the SOEs is also considered and included in the SCI. The key expectations of the government in achieving the set objectives of an SOE is to encourage and to facilitate the SOE to improve the operational and financial efficiency through improved corporate practices, innovative financing, strong and prudent financial management, exposure to
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competitiveness and international best-practices and effective human resource management while enhancing public accountability. For the SCI to be effective, the SCI needs to be used by the SOE and the Line Ministry as their own management tool. An updated draft of the SCI to be considered by the NWSDB, Ministry in charge of water supply and the Ministry of Finance for the next period of 3 years (2020-2022) has been prepared by the CSIP Consultants by January 6, 2020. An updated draft was forwarded to Add’l GM (P&P) on March 18, 2020. It is attached as annex 7.1. Bonds as an Option for Financing WSS Sector in Sri Lanka In Sri Lanka, funds supplied by foreign donor agencies as well as funds allocated from the Government Budget have played a significant role in financing infrastructure projects, including those in the WSS sector. However, foreign donor sources can be expected to play a lesser role in the future as Sri Lanka rises in the ranks of the developing economies of the world. Even where such international funding is available, terms and conditions will likely become less concessional. Also, the additional costs to the borrower arising from the depreciation of the domestic currency can be a serious burden. In future, the concessional borrowing facilities enjoyed up to 2019 will be further affected due to Sri Lanka graduating to upper middle-income country status consequent to the country passing the per capita threshold of US$4,000. Another factor that needs consideration is that government funding for large infrastructure projects is likely to be a less feasible option in future because of the other pressing needs of the government in the areas of health, education, poverty alleviation, and the servicing of a high volume of government debt (which is currently estimated at 83 per cent of GDP). Sri Lanka has various SOEs which have issued debt instruments with a government guarantee on a number of occasions. In particular, USD bonds have been issued by several SOEs including Sri Lankan Airline, Bank of Ceylon, and National Savings Bank, and debentures have been issued by a number of SOEs including Peoples Bank, HDFC, and State Mortgage and Investment Bank. Given the limited options available to the NWSDB to mobilize funds for development projects, the NWSDB has to take proactive measures so that at least in the near future, the issue of a debt instrument in the capital market by NWSDB can be a serious option for raising funds. This is the time to initiate action, as the firms which provide investment banking services for the issuer also take nearly two years to process capital market issues. In the meantime, NWSDB can then use that time to enhance its credibility to the market by upgrading its financial systems and monitoring the KPIs as set out in the SCI 2020-2022 to be signed with the Ministry of Finance.
CSIP does not see that the PPP financing modality can be expected to perform a significant role in financing the investments of NWSDB in the short to medium term. For NWSDB, instead of using complicated PPP financing modalities, CSIP recommends outsourcing of selected services as a tool to decrease costs and improve efficiency. To benefit most of outsourcing, NWSDB should first establish an internal cost accounting system where cost of payroll, accounting, administration, meter reading, transport and other services used internally are allocated to units and departments using these services. Secondly, costs of the internal services should be benchmarked with cost of services of the private sector.
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10.4 Rural Water Supply The policy for rural water supply (RWS) facilities is to manage them at the closest possible level to the community, with the involvement of the beneficiaries. Accordingly, most of the RWS schemes are managed by the Community Based Organizations (CBOs), representing the beneficiary community. Once rural water supply and sanitation facilities are in place, investment funding for upgrading, replacement and emergency repairs are difficult to access by CBOs. Hence, establishing and maintaining a fund which could be utilized by CBOs to ensure the sustainability and functionality is essential if Government wants to achieve its objectives in rural water supply and sanitation sector. A Revolving Fund concept for CBOs is moved forward by the World Bank Group under the Component on Institutional Capacity Strengthening of WASSIP. The fund would provide concessional loans and leverage CBO financial reserves for WASH improvements. The revolving fund is expected to grow into a development bank for rural WASH investments. Community-based organizations have become an important component of the Sri Lanka WASH sector since the 1980’s. Local authorities traditionally provide public water supply services. Presently some 4400 CBOs and many local authorities serve 12% of the population, often with piped supplies. Self-supply is an important component of the Sri Lanka WASH sector. An estimated 38.7% of the population is covered with basic water supply through self-supply served by protected dug wells and rainwater harvesting systems. It is the government’s intent to support the smaller systems by providing capacity building and advice through the Department of National Community Water Supply. It is expected that the CBO and LA services will continue to contribute to the sector services for the next few decades. Financial performance of the CBOs varies greatly but according to the DNCWS database about half the CBOs can manage water billing and revenue collection well. Of CBOs with over 300 connections, 79% has a positive operating ratio, with a revenue collection ratio of over 70%. The data includes some 65 % of the CBOs currently identified by DNCWS (March 2020). In addition to CBOs, some Municipal Councils operate water supply and sewerage in their service area, the biggest towns include Colombo (sewerage), Kandy, Kurunegala and Nuwara Eliya and several Municipal Councils in smaller towns. Financing the rural water supply sector The policy of management of rural water supply (RWS) facilities is to manage them at the closest possible level to the community, with the involvement of the beneficiaries. Accordingly, most of the RWS schemes are managed by the Community Based Organizations (CBOs), which constitute the beneficiary community. The cost of operation, maintenance and replacement is supposed to be covered with the revenue collected from the beneficiaries by way of scheme specific tariff as decided by the particular CBO. The tariff should ideally be determined to cover the cost of regular operation and maintenance, and long-term replacements and rehabilitations. However, in most instances, it is not possible to cover all the expenditure that might be required (e.g. for further improvements, major repairs, extensions, in the event of disasters, etc.) from the funds collected by the CBO through the tariff. This situation is one of the major threats to the sustainability of the facilities managed by CBOs. Hence, establishing and maintaining a fund which could be utilized by CBOs in such events is essential to ensure the sustainability and achieving the overall objectives of the investment programs in rural water supply sector. The objectives of a revolving fund would be to create a financial instrument and buffer to ensure the sustainability of the RWS schemes and ensure a social return in terms of services. That would
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also require that CBOs and regional CBO Forums would remain effective and involved in managing the schemes. The fund should be available to the CBOs in the event of: Rehabilitation, augmentation or extension of a scheme essential for sustainability or which are of high cost; Upgrading the systems in order to increase the reliability (e.g. standby pumps, improving quality of vital parts, source protection, etc.); Improving the quality of water by providing treatment facilities or upgrade these; Provide emergency funds in case the CBO is unable to raise funds immediately (thus acting as a kind of insurance) for - Attending to major unforeseen breakdowns of the scheme; - Replacement of expensive components; - Rehabilitation after a disaster; - Major unforeseen maintenance requirements such as flushing of a bore hole. Meeting other unforeseen situations to ensure safe and reliable supply of water; Promoting investment for new income generating ventures by CBOs and CBO Forums aiming at keeping the membership interested in CBO activities, and sustaining the organization.
A seed fund would be required to start of the revolving fund. The initial fund allocation would mark the launching of the Fund. Some pool funding would be further requested from other donors and organizations. The capital of the fund would then be sustained by the settlement of the loans in combination with: Vikasha CBO, Magammana Town The total population in Magammana town is estimated to increase from 6,500 in 2018 to 7,042 in 2030 and Vikasha CBO water service coverage ratio will increase from 20.8 % in 2018 to 23.3 % in 2030. Vikasha CBO purchased all water from NWSDB until 2020 but will take its own water production in use in April 2020 with the capacity of 2000 m³/month. Vikasha CBO will increase its water storage capacity further in 2024 and will be able thereafter to produce and distribute all the water needed from own water sources. Water consumption per person is 57 l/c/d only as people have other water sources in use. Vikasha CBO receives revenue from water sales, new connections fees, new water meter fees and reconnection fees as shown in table 10-2. In 2018 water purchases from NWSDB was the biggest cost item, 19.8 % of the operational expenditures excluding depreciation, followed by personnel costs, 18.6 % (NWSDB personnel cost of OPEX excluding depreciation are 58.0 %).
Vikasha CBO started to calculate depreciation for the first time in 2020.CSIP prepared a financial model and a forecast for Vikasha CBO, Magammana, for the period of 2020 – 2030. Vikasha CBO operational expenditures/m³ is LKR 66.6 (NWSDB LKR 55.0 excluding depreciation) in 2018. Because of own water production Vikasha operational expenditures will decrease to LKR 47.5/m³, the lowest figure in 2026 using constant prices. NWSDB sells water to Vikasha at LKR 15.0/m³, that is below the official fee of LKR 17.0/m³. Tariffs are increased by 3 % in 2028, 2029 and 2030 to keep cash flow positive.
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Table 10-2 Production and sales factors in 2018-2030
Vikasha has a very strong balance sheet enabling it to handle its liabilities. This is due to profit arising from lending activities to community members, which is partly used to subsidize water supply expenditures. It is assumed that Vikasha shall take a concessional loan LKR 1.2 million to finance new storage capacity for water in 2024. The interest rate of the concessional loan is 5 %, grace period 2 years and repayment period 12 years. Despite the investment, Vikasha cash flow will stay positive and cumulative cash flow will reach LKR 5.7 million in 2030. In addition to investment in water storage capacity, the financial forecast includes investments in new water connections and in new water meters. Figure 10.2 illustrates the key financial indicators of Vikasha CBO water supply.
Figure 10-2 Vikasha CBO Key Financial Indicators 2018 - 2030 Vikasha CBO is a medium sized CBO with 346 connections. There are 159 of such CBOs now included in the DNCWS database. A further 58 CBOs have more than 500 connections. It is obviously doing well as a business. It has diversified its services and receives additional returns on the funds it has through interest and because it is able to serve as a bank in the community.
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Not all CBOs will have the entrepreneurial capacity to take on additional services, but in remote areas their presence can be very important for some support. The DNCWS data collectors have also been able to get information about cash kept in bank accounts and other financial instruments. On average, CBOs have LKR 496,000 in in the bank, with a median value of LKR 110,000. Quite some CBOs have 3-5 million rupees in the bank. The proposed revolving fund could try to leverage these funds for upgrading and improvement of CBO water supply and sanitation services. 10.5 Observations and Recommendations Clearly, CBOs provide an important contribution to the WASH sector in Sri Lanka at a reasonable cost to the Government as duty bearer with respect to the universal provision of water supply and sanitation. Government is thus well advised to support the CBO structure for a few more decades until other solutions prove more suitable. For consumers CBOs provide an affordable service in tune with their requirements and managed through their own elected body. A good number of CBOs have substantial deposits in their bank accounts. Funds are possibly not enough to finance upgrading as part of the implementation of a water safety plan or to construct additional storage capacity or a treatment plant. The proposed revolving fund could leverage this dormant capital and facilitate modernizing CBO schemes. For transparency, to boost operational performance operational and to underpin future requests for funding support for upgrading, CBOs and Local Authorities should maintain separate accounts for water supply. It is the opinion of CSIP that NWSDB should concentrate its capacity of providing and developing services to the urban and semi-urban areas. Services to small and emerging towns could also be an area for NWSDB intervention unless there are already functional CBOs or Local Authorities that provide a reasonable service. In the latter case it would normally be better to work with these agencies and arrange to upgrade the facilities rather than abandon the system and replace it with a fully new system. In addition, NWSDB will support the development of services for substantive economic development zones that require volumes of water that can not be provided by local projects. NWSDB accounting and management systems and procedures should be more transparent. Accounting procedures of external funds received from government and foreign donors are difficult to follow. NWSDB should give an accurate depiction of its finances and financial performance based on International Financial Reporting Standards to enable all stakeholders to analyze the performance of NWSDB and make predictions about its future direction. Given the limited options available to the NWSDB to mobilize funds for development projects, the NWSDB has to take proactive measures so that at least in the near future, the issue of a debt instrument such as bonds in the capital market by NWSDB can be a serious option for raising funds.
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11 Conclusion and Recommendations The first ten chapters of this document describe the context in which the WASH sector functions in Sri Lanka. It tries to highlight the challenges and opportunities to make water supply and sanitation safe, functional, affordable and sustainable. In water supply and sanitation coverage, Sri Lanka stands well ahead of many countries in the region. However, the quality and universality of the services still needs attention. New investments in underserved areas are needed, quality improvements in water quality and quantity, and the number of service hours, in sanitation sewerage and on-site sanitation need continuing attention, especially with respect to fecal sludge management and wastewater treatment. The relationship between WASH and Health is good, with ever less outbreaks that are potentially caused by poor water supply and sanitation. The investment plan will be effective in achieving the SDGs for water supply by 2025, and for sanitation and wastewater treatment by 2030. From then on the task will be to sustain the services through responsible behavior of consumers and well-managed plans and regulation by the authorities. Continued communication on aspects of the SDGs and how good water supply and sanitation not only protects health, but also protects ecosystems and general living conditions, will continue to be critical. To mobilize the project activities in rural areas, the Divisional Secretariat will take the lead and facilitate annual planning for water supply and sanitation to ensure that ‘no-one is left behind’.
The remaining tasks to achieve safely managed services in water supply, sanitation and waste management is described in chapter 12: the Water Supply and Sanitation Investment Plan and Roadmap. The investment plan describes sensible activities that can be taken on as projects by donor agencies with the support of the Government of Sri Lanka. To facilitate the investment plan and to improve the current state of WASH services in the country, the CSIP team has selected the most important recommendations from the documentation developed during the assignments. 11.1 Policy A. There is still no agreed water policy in Sri Lanka. The Ministry of Irrigation has updated the draft water policy again recently and made it available in August 2019 for comments. The National Policy, Strategies and Institutional Framework for Water Resources Development, Conservation and Management states as its vision “A Society that values the sustainable use of water resources and recognizes the goal of a balanced environment conducive to social and economic development”. It is an essential guiding document in the context of water supply and climate change resilience, and just and effective use of available water resources. It needs to be concluded urgently.
B. Government has developed policies on water and conservation, and on raising climate change resilience. The adoption and effective implementation of these policies is critical for society to be able to react in a concerted and just manner to the challenges posed by climate change. As demand is likely to increase without an associated increase in the supply and because of the extreme weather, there will be a need for disciplined water management. All stakeholders need to understand the system stresses and be ready to respond in advance.
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C. NWSDB, being the premier organization in the drinking water sector requiring substantial and regular quantities of water from available resources and also possessing some dedicated reservoirs, should be adequately represented in the Water Resources Management Secretariat (NWRMS), which is proposed in the draft National Policy, Strategies and Institutional Framework for Water Resources Development, Conservation and Management. As it is proposed in the draft policy at present, NWSDB is not a member in the NWRMS D. Several different sector policies that are in existence at present: National Drinking Water Policy; National Policy for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation; National Policy on Sanitation; National Rainwater Harvesting Policy and Strategies; and NWSDB Corporate Policy for Integration of Climate Change Adaptation Policies, Strategies and Programs. The formulation of a harmonized national sector policy is recommended covering all aspects of the WASH sector from water supply and sanitation to septage management and ecosystem protection and including measures to counter the effects of climate change on service provision and sustainability. This will avoid contradictions, overlaps and gaps, and will be an easy reference to any stakeholder. E. The National Policy on Sanitation does not elaborate on the aspects of the use of treated sewage effluent for non-potable purposes (such as agriculture, groundwater recharging) or the use of treated sewage sludge in productive manner (such as a soil conditioner or to mix with other constituents to produce compost). This omission will need to be corrected in the proposed harmonization of WASH policies. F. The right to water needs to be distinguished from water rights. The right to water relates to the basic water requirement for life (i.e. water for drinking, cooking, washing and personal hygiene, and the essential water needs of livestock), whereas 'water rights' is a term that is generally used in the context of water for irrigation, industrial or commercial use, etc.; that is, economic uses of water. The right to water as defined above is a fundamental right by judicial interpretation. The state has a responsibility to ensure that this right is not denied to any citizen or group of citizens. Between fundamental right (life-right) and a non -fundamental use-right, the former must always take precedence over the latter; and the exercise of economic rights by some must not be allowed to jeopardize the fundamental rights of others. The right to water and water rights should be clearly elaborated in the proposed water policy and argue that water for drinking water and hygiene gets precedence. G. Water supply and sanitation are inter-connected. If there is a right to water, there must also be a right to decent sanitation. H. Many water supply schemes are gradually formulating a Water Safety Plan (WSP). The WSP should be further promoted for all water supply schemes operated by NWSDB, LAs, CBOs or in estates to ensure consistent drinking water quality management. Note should be taken of WHO advisories with respect to WSP+, which includes aspects of climate change resilience. Capacity building efforts, especially on technical areas, should be a continual activity in the sector. Sharing of knowledge and supporting each other should be an important aspect in this respect. Hence, it is recommended that MOUs should be made between NWSDB and LAs, between NWSDB and PHDT and that the existing MOU between NWSDB and DNCWS is actively pursued. While advisory support can be provided by NWSDB as a service, NWSDB should be able to charge professional fees for specific design and estimate services. 11.2 Financing sector improvements A. A considerable number of existing water schemes managed by LAs need rehabilitation, improvement and expansion. This will require a considerable investment. It is recommended FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 160
that the NWSDB establishes a dedicated engineering unit as part of the Small Town & Rural Water Supply Division to undertake feasibility studies and advise the LAs on further steps to improve their systems and bring these to service levels required under SDG6. NWSDB services should be paid for by the LAs. Financing can come from the Local Loans and Development Fund (LL&DF) under the Ministry of Local Government or from donor assisted projects. The existing LL&DF for obtaining the loans for LAs, should be promoted among LAs, as an instrument to attend to necessary improvements and rehabilitation of their water schemes.
B. Actions should be taken to establish a Fund for the benefit of existing CBOs to obtain loans on concessionary terms (“Revolving Fund for CBO Development”), in line with the concept in development by the local World Bank Office WASH team. It is noteworthy that the World Bank plans to conduct a detailed study in this respect and to provide financial assistance to establish such a fund.
C. A good number of CBOs have substantial deposits in their bank accounts. Funds are possibly not enough to finance upgrading as part of the implementation of a water safety plan or to construct additional storage capacity or a treatment plant. The proposed revolving fund could leverage this dormant capital and facilitate modernizing CBO schemes.
D. To speed up return of investment, CSIP recommends that NWSDB changes the distribution network implementation system to ensure that contracts include a house connection (without meter, and with endcap) for all homes (with boundary walls within 50 m) along the pipeline. It will reduce the administrative and technical connection burden and allow the connection ratio to rise faster after completion of the scheme.
E. This measure must be combined with a payment structure for the connection fee for households in which an advance payment of -say- Rs. 3000 is needed, but the remaining 12'000 can be discounted by NWSDB at current interest rate over a period of 24 months. If this is possible at Singer, Abans or Softlogic, then NWSDB should be able to do this. It will lead to faster uptake of connections and increase in revenue. 11.3 Institutional Aspects A) The CSIP Consultants recommend establishing a powerful Coordinating and Monitoring Committee (C&M Committee) to alleviate this situation. This Committee should be assisted by a Unit established within the Ministry in charge of water supply, headed by a senior official, with small dedicated staff, which should ensure to carry out the decisions of the C&M Committee. The Unit is proposed to be supported by a competent, small group of consultants. Other sector organizations should nominate responsible officers to form Coordinating & Monitoring Committee, for participating in regular coordinating meetings and to take decisions. The Committee should consist of high level members who can take decisions on behalf of the respective organizations, namely from NWSDB, DNCWS, PHDT, MPC&LG, MoH, MoE and PUCSL, with the chair of the Committee held by the Ministry in charge of water supply. When a need arises, representatives of other related organizations should be invited.
B. Many consultancies have been completed in recent years, especially to support NWSDB. Recommendations made in such studies should be reviewed by the Chairman of NWSDB and a decision should be taken on relevance and priority. If relevant, necessary management action should be taken to implement the recommendation. This relates among others to benchmarking, decentralization of task, etc.
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C. Although action was initiated in 2016, establishment of proper and adequate legal authority to DNCWS is very much delayed. The preparation of the Act for the DNCWS to establish the legal basis and authority of the Department should be expedited.
D. The process of registering CBOs as Societies to provide them legal recognition and authority should be actively pursued with the support of the DNCWS. This will also be an effective mechanism to ensure good governance and financial discipline.
E. The Public Utility Commission of Sri Lanka (PUCSL) is responsible for the regulatory context within which the WASH sector will operate. This is most appropriate to systems operated by NWSDB and in managed settings such as the EPZ industrial zones and similar. It is recommended that PUCSL should also design a regulatory system to cover the rural water supply subsector, served by LAs, CBOs and WUCs. This should however be more a supportive and guiding mechanism to improve the performance and quality of service, while ensuring their autonomy to determine scheme specific tariffs and taking decisions. In this respect PUCSL should formulate the regulatory system, while DNCWS and Local Government can provide capacity building and support field level monitoring and advice. 11.4 Services A. Coverage of whole population by 2030 needs not only the implementation of large projects, but also the inclusion and coverage of unserved pockets and individually owned facilities. This will require identification of such needs, and planning for the coverage, in a bottom up process. CSIP Consultants have suggested local, divisional, district and provincial level planning semi-annually, with possible identification of funding arrangements.
B. Clearly, CBOs provide an important contribution to the WASH sector in Sri Lanka at a reasonable cost to the Government as duty bearer with respect to the universal provision of water supply and sanitation. Government is thus well advised to support the CBO structure for a few more decades until other solutions prove more suitable. For consumers CBOs provide an affordable service in tune with their requirements and managed through their own elected body.
C. There is an emerging trend, especially in CKDu affected areas, where the private sector operates small RO plants and sells water to the consumers in boutiques, by bowsers and truck mounted tanks. Whilst the involvement of private sector should be encouraged in the effort to mitigate CKDu problem, the need is identified to enforce a regulatory system to ensure that this service provides a proper quality of water to the consumer. Water that is sold in this manner should be considered as a food that needs to comply with Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) and Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) standards. The Director General of Health Services is the chief food authority and the chairman of the Food Advisory Committee (FAC) established in terms of the Food Act No. 26 of 1980. The PHIs of the Ministry of Health could be involved at Divisional level, and the NWSDB could provide necessary training to the PHIs.
D. As sewerage will only be financially viable in densely populated urbanized settings, an adequate number of safely managed fecal sludge management (FSM) systems need to be set up. These will consist of the full chain of safe collection and conveyance to a septage treatment plant, and its treatment by LA or private sector operators. It is suggested that
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Ministry in charge of Local Government will facilitate realization of the fecal sludge treatment plants as an additional component to the National Solid Waste Management Support Center programme. Proper treatment and disposal are important aspects to maintain public health and avoid environmental pollution. The full FSM chain disposal of septage by LA and private gully bowser operators needs to be regulated, and it is recommended that LAs adopt necessary By Laws to license operators and regulate their operations, with the assistance of the Central Environmental Authority. 11.5 Water Resources A. NWSDB, being the premier organization in the drinking water sector requiring substantial and regular quantities of water from available resources and also possessing some dedicated reservoirs, should be adequately represented in the Water Resources Management Secretariat (NWRMS), which is proposed in the draft National Policy, Strategies and Institutional Framework for Water Resources Development, Conservation and Management. As it is proposed in the draft policy at present, NWSDB is not a member in the NWRMS.
B. NWSDB currently owns and operates some large reservoirs. It will have to develop some reservoirs to ensure future water security for its production. A dedicated section should operate within NWSDB (proposed is a Water Resources Planning & Management Unit), with expertise in hydrology, dam safety, operation of spill gates, maintenance of dams and monitoring, equipped with real time monitoring equipment. This will be a critical need in the future, especially with pronounced occurrence of droughts and floods due to climatic changes.
C. The challenges that exist in assuring adequate water for drinking are explained in the context of water security. NWSDB will require to take a pro-active role in developing its own water storage in reservoirs as the Irrigation Department and Mahaweli Authority are not everywhere present or able to provide source water. In addition, research on augmenting supplies is necessary by using managed aquifer recharge (MAR), where feasible, to raise sustainability of existing ground water resources. These resources are important for local supplies and as a reserve in case of emergencies. Similarly, exploring the utility of local springs in the service area may be helpful in reducing demand and energy costs associated with management of large schemes.
D. NWSDB has mainly been depending on the Irrigation Department for allowance to extract water for water supply. These reservoirs were mostly designed for irrigation and there is often a reluctance on the part of the farmers to share the water. Up-to-date information will help.
E. Water supply projects that count on using water from reservoirs controlled by the Irrigation Department or Mahaweli Authority, will need written and signed allocation agreements, but even then delays in reservoir development can easily mean that the water is not available by the time the water supply project is completed.
F. NWSDB should update the 2017 Report on water abstraction and requirements for water sector, which it prepared together with the Irrigation Department and Mahaweli Authority, using the data it helped generate in the CSIP Task III report.
G. Analyzing water supply and demand at river-basin level is an important step forward and is even more topical in the context of today’s increasing focus on integrated water resources
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management (IWRM) in river basins. River-basin study allows assessment of water balance and the scenarios that occur with withdrawal and use or water. These results will foster fair and economic decision-making. It will help decide to ban extraction from water basins where water allocation is equal to or more than the available water.
H. At local level watershed protection level is critical to smaller CBO schemes that take their water from springs. Not only should proper water safety plans be in place to manage the present and future sustainability of the scheme, but these should also include climate change resilience measures to enhance the water security in the project. The WSP approaches by WHO can provide good guidance. Given the multiple demands for water across many sectors, water needs to be managed in an integrated manner, with transparent approaches for its allocation and necessary trade-offs between different uses. Systems to share the benefits that come from water – food, energy, ecosystem services – are crucial to maximize the overall contribution of water.
I. The national per capita water resource availability has declined considerably over the years. The disparity in water footprints of the urban rich and the poor is worrisome. There is evidence to suggest that water budget estimates may be seriously overestimating the availability of water in the country. Water stress locations identified in the field may show up as water-available areas in theoretical evaluations. This may be due to climate change impacts or due to inaccuracies of the hydrological data. Hence hydrological re-analysis of river basin/sub basins needs to be done to establish the cause of the discrepancy and suggest corrective measures.
J. A paradigm shift in the way water is perceived as a resource needs to be fostered. Greater efficiency needs to be achieved all round. Conjunctive use of surface and groundwater is to be considered while methods to unlock neglected water resources, e.g. through domestic and community wide rainwater harvesting, and managed aquifer recharge. Revival of traditional systems of water conservation and enforcement of catchment protection programmes for surface water should be part of any water safety plan made for a water supply project.
K. The challenge of finding water for use in water supply, and especially water of reasonable quality, will increase in the coming years. Many rivers are polluted by industrial discharges, solid waste and agricultural run-off. It becomes ever more complex and costly to treat the water to the standards required. In addition to efforts to restore the quality of rivers and river basins, there is also a need to collate raw surface and groundwater quality data in a single, accessible data base. Water quality data are currently scattered among various agencies.
L. The monitoring of ground water resources should be strengthened and regularized, with close collaboration between GW Section of NWSDB and WRB. Proper well head protection measures should be established, and procedures for decommissioning of wells should be formulated, in order to prevent the contamination of ground water aquifers. Methods of ground water recharging should be established and practiced. It is proposed that a national database and repository is developed managed by the Irrigation Department for surface water and by the Water Resources Board for groundwater. 11.6 Strengthening and Capacity Building Measures A. It is obvious that capacity building of sector organizations and individuals involved in the sector should be carried out as a continual exercise. NWSDB is a technically strong partner,
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who could make effective inputs to this exercise, while there are private sector consultants and universities also who could be utilized. CSIP WASS Consultants have recommended formulation and signing of MOUs/Agreements among the partners in this respect. B. With respect to the CBOs in villages and WUCs in estates, the capacity building including training and re-training should be a continual activity. Due to the regular turnover of office bearers (elected annually from among the membership), re-training is essential. There are many guidelines prepared for the purpose, including those recently prepared by WaSSIP under the Institutional Development and Capacity Building Consultancy.
C. Capacity building should include formulation of regular subjects/courses pertaining to water supply in collaboration with technical colleges and universities to train young persons to attract into the sector, and specific training programmes for persons already working in the sector, including NGO staff. Attending seminars, exposure visits, etc. also should be arranged 11.7 Monitoring A. The Coordinating and Monitoring Committee (C&M Committee) and unit plays an important role in respectively overseeing and managing data collection and monitoring for reporting to the Ministry and NPD. In order to achieve the sector targets proposed in the Sector Programme, concerted efforts in implementation and actions by all partners, close coordination among partners and monitoring of implementation and in case of any delays, taking steps to remove any obstacles, would be very important. B. So far, annual monitoring of the state of water supply and sanitation, as is necessary under the reporting criteria of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, is non-existent. The NWSDB can report on water supply services, but only partly in the sense that there are often an unknown number of households that are not connected. The state of sanitation can only be gleaned from the decadal census, the last one published in 2012. Sri Lanka urgently needs to establish a system by which it can keep track of progress on WASH. It is recommended that reporting on WASH is lodged at the Divisional Secretariat level, with annual reporting done in mid-year in order not to overburden the local administration and to provide timely data for the next year planning cycle. The data can subsequently be aggregated by the Ministry responsible for water and sanitation. 11.8 Public Relations, Demand Management and Water Education A. At national level, NWSDB is to prepare a long-term public relations campaign focusing on the role of water in society, water saving, reducing causes of pollution of water sources (domestic and industrial) and explaining the evolving role of NWSDB in urban WASH and the supportive role it has in small town, rural and estate water supply development.
B. In large urban areas, household water consumption has to remain stable and possibly be reduced somewhat to manage an affordable and reliable water supply service for all. This will require a sustained national water campaign educating and informing the public at large on water, its use and conservation for various human, productive and ecosystem purposes. The purpose is to influence consumer behavior to become more responsible with respect to water and waste so that the quality and quantity of services remain possible even though urbanization, economic development and climate change are putting stress on the resource water.
C. Water resources stresses due to climate change are happening. The water sector has to assess how it can deal with these changes. The irrigated agriculture sector needs to become more
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efficient in its water use. The water supply sector should urge people to use water responsibly, reuse water for gardening and collect rainwater as part of their domestic water management. Reduction of domestic demand will reduce the stress on water resources and free up more for other households and businesses in the service area. The business-as-usual approach has given rise to unsustainable management and extractive water use regimes particularly with respect to groundwater. Demand should be commensurate to reasonable use. Wastage of water and excessive use should be discouraged. Increasingly water use shall be efficient and aimed at reducing unnecessary losses.
D. To promote better management of water resources, a more holistic understanding of water and its importance in society is necessary by all stakeholders: Scientific community- focus on hydrology, technical aspects and social interactions with respect to water resources, buffering in reservoirs, water quality, eutrophication and catchment management; balance the needs of other users, consider biodiversity and environmental flow, physical and environmental damage caused by industrial discharges, floods, sand mining, saltwater intrusion, etc. NWSDB planners and scheme managers to follow the Water Safety Plan concepts in their entirety, from source to consumer, and including risks caused by climate change, changes in settlements, encroachment on protection zones, proactive implementation of non- revenue water reduction measures and other water saving efficiency options, etc. Consumers – respect the value of water/treated water, adopt water saving measures and rainwater collection and use, at least for domestic chores and gardening; Political leadership- understand water and sanitation as a basic requirement of all living beings (not only in their electorate); inform their decision making through good local data, communicate and decide based on scientific evidence.
11.9 NWSDB-specific operational recommendations A. For NWSDB to justify taking its share of the national water store, it needs to show increased efforts in reducing non-revenue water. The water supply service areas served by NWSDB accounted for an average non-revenue water loss of 25% at the end of 2018. For Colombo NRW was substantially higher at 42%. By 2030 NRW is targeted at 18%. That means that water resource savings can be made of 7% in the coming decade offsetting the growth in consumption in the same period. NRW is an operational concern for NWSDB in terms of the unpaid cost of production. Reducing NRW rates will improve the operational cost of the NWSDB. B. NWSDB should take action to infuse and strengthen NRW measures in general O&M of the water supply schemes and hold the RSCs responsible for reduction of NRW within their command area. Creating competition among RSCs to reduce NRW along with a reward system will effectively promote the activity and generate commitments. C. Regional Support Centers (RSC) should vigorously implement Key Performance Improvement (KPI) programmes, by scheme and by district. Results by RSC should be published on an annual basis. Benchmarking will promote greater efficiency and effectiveness of operations. NWSDB should see to it that all larger schemes report internally on the benchmarks at least on a quarterly basis.
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12 Water Supply and Sanitation Investment Plan and Roadmap 12.1 Introduction The Comprehensive Strategic Investment Plan for the Water Supply and Sanitation Sector in Sri Lanka comprises of several important components. The Government of Sri Lanka has adopted the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals in 2015 and has since been incorporating the SDGs into its national policy framework. For the WASH component of the SDGs this means ensuring universal and equitable access to safe and sufficient water supply, and suitable sanitation and hygiene facilities. Furthermore, treatment of fecal sludge, water resource development and source protection, and ecosystem protection all form part of the measures needed to arrive at sustainable and ‘green’ service delivery. Investment conjures up a vision of new infrastructure development. Wikipedia states that to invest is to allocate money in the expectation of some benefit in the future. If the future benefit is marginal when compared with current service levels, then it may not be worth investing. It is noteworthy that service coverage in Sri Lanka in water supply and sanitation is quite high, with 91% of the population having access to basic water supply and 92% having proper sanitation. (FCG International Ltd. RDC IDC, 2020a). The investment plan aims to close the gap and ensure 100% coverage in basic water supply by the end of 2025. This will be around 71% through piped water supply and 27% self-supply with protected dug wells and rainwater harvesting systems. The remaining 2% will be served through public wells and handpumps. Investment planning is tailored to reach universal sanitation by 2030, through a mix of subsidy and household level investment. Many households are served by their own water supply. Wells provide water for drinking and bathing, while rainwater harvesting systems store water for drinking complemented with wells of which the water is used for other domestic needs. Self-supply is a good and reliable service for many. Water quality may be uncertain, but in many instances, it is quite good. Household treatment can secure safe water. Traditionally, boiling of water was practiced in Sri Lankan households, but other methods such as solar distillation (SODIS) or a filter offers good options as well. When a household has a well in the yard or a rainwater harvesting system and treats its water at home, then a safely managed service exists, equal to a piped water supply system provided by NWSDB, LA or CBO. In the investment plan, self-supply will be protected and subsidy provided to upgrade the system. This decentralized service approach will reduce investment costs per connection quite substantially when compared with a piped scheme, while speeding up safely managed service coverage. The overall investment requirement for the WASH sector for the period 2020-2030 is assessed at LKR Billion 1309, while the balance investment for the period 2030-2050 is estimated at LKR Billion 529. Urban water supply and sewerage as managed by NWSDB is expected to require 1179 billion rupees and the rural WASH sector 130 billion rupees during the period. O&M and depreciation will need to be derived from the operational revenue and is not included in these costings. This holds true for NWSDB as well as for CBOs, although the reservation for the replenishment of the Revolving Fund assumes that some upgrading by CBOs may not be possible on the basis of their reserves for depreciation alone. CSIP’s calculations and assumptions indicate that when these funds will be made available and judiciously used by NWSDB and rural WASH projects, universal basic service coverage can be achieved by 2025. By 2030, through continuing improvements in water supply quality and quantity, 80% of the population will have safely managed water supply. In the coming sections, the urban and rural investment proposals are presented. FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 167
12.2 Priority setting for water supply and sewerage (for NWSDB schemes)
To determine which projects should be taken with priority, criteria were prepared in consultation with NWSDB. The final criteria after incorporating the comments by NWSDB are shown in Table 12-1 for water supply. The marks given for each criterion are listed in Annex 12.1(a),
Table 12-1 Criteria considered for prioritization of water supply schemes
A similar approach was used for ranking of sewerage projects, (please refer Chapter VI of Task II report), Water Supply Schemes The CSIP Task II report, in Chapter 5 and 6, has provided the demand calculations by district for all existing and on-going schemes. Projects that were awarded, in the procurement stage, PAC approved and planned were included in the dataset scheduled for priority setting.
For each scheme and project, the following information was provided:
1. Scheme name and DSDs, and GNDs covered; 2. Forecasted population in GNDs served in 2020, 2030 and 2050; 3. Population already served by a NWSDB water supply scheme in 2020; 4. Forecasted NWSDB Coverage – potential, 2020, 2025, 2030 and 2050; 5. Normal Demand (M3/Day) in 2020, 2025, 2030 and 2050; 6. Special Demand (M3/Day) in 2020, 2025, 2030 and 2050; 7. Separately an assessment is made of population already having safe water in rural GNDs.
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For each project area, total and new coverage percentage and demand has been calculated.
The information required to give marks for prioritization for each project was provided by the RSCs. An example of information so collected is given in Annex 12.1(b). Based on the marks given for each project, a national priority list was prepared (see Annex 12.1(c). At the request of NWSDB, RSC-wise lists were prepared and submitted to NWSDB. This list was divided in two categories depending on an assessment of the certainty of availing water resources.
RSCs of NWSDB presented this information at the NWSDB Corporate and Business Plan Workshop on 14th Feb 2020. The meeting was addressed by a Deputy Secretary of the Ministry of Finance as well as by the Secretary of the Ministry of City Planning, Water Supply and Housing Facilities. Both emphasized the need for greater cost efficiency and revenue generation to sustain NWSDB operations. The CSIP presentation followed-on with a similar analysis and presented suggestions for improving the water supply investment approach. NWSDB has taken out a substantial number of loans for a portfolio of large projects, leading to a high degree of indebtedness on the part of NWSDB and by proxy, as its guarantor, causing a burden to the Treasury. It was advised to re- evaluate the newly proposed projects and see whether larger projects could be phased or re- designed into smaller ones to enhance the cost-benefit ratio and reduce the cost per connection.
At the workshop it was decided to go for immediate needs, to connect more houses and develop smaller schemes, as per circular of 18 th February 2020, issued by the NWSDB GM (Annex 12.2). On the above Government Direction, NWSDB requested CSIP to prepare specific projects /proposals /strategies that shall be implemented by each RSC in Medium and Long Term, focusing on Service Level Improvement and Service Coverage, and considering project readiness and financial implications of the project.
Re- Prioritization In view of the precarious financial condition of the Government and NWSDB a re-prioritization of investments has been agreed as follows: Priority 1 – Improving existing service levels by ensuring quantity and quality of services for existing consumers giving special attention to vulnerable segments; Priority 2 – Infilling and distribution expansion of on-going projects and completed projects to enhance the connections in order to fully utilize the production capacity; Priority 3 – Business efficiency improvement projects in existing systems such as NRW and Energy Saving; Priority 4 – Enhancement of revenue by providing connections for revenue generating consumer segments; Priority 5 – New projects, to support Government and Private Sector Investment development projects/agenda. These will need to meet project readiness criteria, in particular the secure availability of land and water resources; The earlier project proposals formulated by RSCs have been reviewed in the light of the revised priorities. From the perspective of improving its financial returns on investment, NWSDB will have to raise its revenue through additional connections, reduce operational expenses and re-design FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 169
schemes considering the CSIP suggestion for ‘small(er) is beautiful’ and phasing of schemes.
The revision has resulted in a more down-to-earth can-do set of projects with an emphasis on practical works that can be done using existing stocks, filling-in of additional service connections and upgrading and securing existing services. Cost savings can be achieved by NRW reduction and energy saving measures. Overall NWSDB revenue will increase and operational costs will be lowered. Water resources and some new large-scale projects will still need to be done to enhance service reliability and overcome drought periods. NWSDB is also considering undertaking WaSSIP like projects implemented at provincial level through regular RSC staff as part of the mandate of the Small Town & Rural Water Supply Division unit. Such an approach will help NWSDB to completely serve GNDs that it has started work in, with a mix of normal NWSDB schemes, single/small cluster household solutions and CBO/LAs.
Specific Projects/ Strategies in Medium Term (2021-2025) (i) Raising Quality and Quantity As per Government direction, the first priority is to improve the existing service level by ensuring quantity and quality (Q&Q) of services for the existing consumers. CSIP computed demands, and proposals submitted by the NWSDB were compared and priority Q&Q improvements were identified for implementation during 2021-2023 (Table 12.2). Further details are given in Annex 12.3. Table 12-2 Schemes identified for Quality and Quantity improvements District Scheme Improvement Colombo city, suburbs and Colombo east area Ambatale 50,000 m3/day Improvements Colombo WTP &Transmission Improvement Project Avissawella & Supply Seethawaka and Installation of 02 Nos. of Package WTPs at Kotabodawatta (4,000m3/day) Raddolugama WSS Rehabilitation of Raddolugama WSS Yakkala WSS Augmentation of Yakkala WSS Veyangoda WSS Augmentation of Veyangoda WSS Gampaha Ranpokunagama WSS Augmentation of Ranpokunawatta WTP and Pugoda Intake Construction of 4,500m3/d Intake and Supply & Laying of Divulapitiya WSS 300mm DI raw water main for Divulapitiya WSS & WTP Augmentation Kalutara Ingiriya WSS Ingiriya new WTP Kundasale Augmentation of Balagolla WTP by 6000m3/day Polgolla Rehabilitation of Polgolla WTP Madadumbara 1500m3 per day package WTP, Transmission Kandy Medadumbara distribution & Pipeline replacement of existing Medadumbara WSS Nawalapitiya Nawalapitiya WTP Improvement Marassana Augmentation of Marassana WTP by 3500m3/day Matale Uku_Udathanna Augmentation of Udathanna WTP up to 4000m3/d Nuwaraeliya Maskeliya Nallathanniya WTP Improvement
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District Scheme Improvement Ambalangoda WSS Batapola WSS Baddegama WSS Augmenting Baddegama WTP by 6,000 m3/day Galle Hikkaduwa WSS Balapitiya WSS Elpitiya WSS Galle WSS Galle WTP 10,000 m3/day improvement Matara Weligama - NWS&DB Hallala WTP augmentation Delf WSS Augmentation of Delft WSS Pointpedro WSS Jaffna Valvettithurai WSS Augmentation of Point Pedro & VVT WTPs (Installing RO Plants) Karaveddy WSS
Mannar WSS Construction of Iron -Manganese Treatment plant at Thottaveli (Mannar) Source Development & Transmission improvement in Sannar & Mannar Erukkalampiddy WSS Eachalawakkai WSS (in Mannar) Murunkan WSS Manganese Water Treatment at Murunkan Wellfield in Mannar WSS-lot 1 Vavuniya WSS Source development in Omanthai for Vavuniya WSS Vavuniya Nedunkerny WSS Augmentation of Nedunkerney WSS Pandiyankulam WSS Augmentation of Pandiankulam Mulaitivu Oddusuddan WSS Augmentation of Oddusuddan Mallavi WSS Augmentation of Mallavi Kilinochchi WSS Kilinochchi new 4,000 m3/day WTP Kilinochchi Source development in Iranamadu for Kilinochchi WSS Dehiattakandiya WSS Improvement of Dehiyatakandiya Water Supply Scheme Ampara Lihiniyagama WSS Augmentation of Lihiniyagama Water Supply Scheme Thirukkovil WSS Improvement of Thrukkovil Water Supply Scheme Mahamar Distribution improvement from Mahamar Tower to Kachchakodithivu Junction Supply and Laying of transmission line including Pump from Muthur Muthur WTP to Dehiwaththa & Construction of 1250 m3 Trincomalee Elevated Tower at Dehiwaththa Groundwater investigation, Construction of Production Well and Eachchilampattu Pump House, Supply and Installation of Pump and Pipe arrangement Wariyapola WSS Capacity Improvements Narammala & Dambadeniya WSS For new BHs Kurunegala Rambodagalla, Ogodapola, Ibbagamuwa WSS Capacity improvements Anamaduwa & Andigama WSS For New BHs Kakkapalliya WSS Capacity improvements Puttalam Dankotuwa WSS Capacity improvements Naththandiya & Wennappuwa WSS New BHs + WTP Anuradhapura East WSS Anuradhapura South WSS Thuruwila WTP- Construction of Rapid Sand Filter- 4,500 m3/day and M&E Improvements Anuradhapura Nachchadoowa WSS Sacred-City WSS Augmentations to Thissawewa WTP Galnewa WSS Augmentation of Galnewa WTP
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District Scheme Improvement Bandiwewa WSS Sewagama WSS Augmentation of Gallella WTP (Civil and E&M works) Gallella WSS Polonnaruwa Hingurakgoda WSS Improvements to Minneriya WTP and WSS Minneriya WSS Polonnaruwa WSS Augmentation of WTP Badulla WSS Improvement of Wewessa (Wiyadiguna) WSS Medawala WSS Improvement of Medawala WSS (Installing 1000 package plant) Lunuwatta WSS Badulla Improvement of Lunuwatta WTP (Installing 500 package plant) Bogahakubura WSS Package plant installation Keppetipola WSS Modification of WTP (Convert partial treatment into full treatment) Medagama WSS Installing 1000 package plant Sewanagala WSS Construction of intake wear Monaragala Siyambalanduwa WSS Improvement to Siyabalanduwa Wellawaya WSS Modification to 4000 m3 (2000 m3 plant currently) with full treatment Balangoda Augmentation of Balangoda WTP Quality improvement of Pelmadulla WTP & Improvement of Ratnapura Kahawatta_Pelmadulla Kahawatta WTP and Distribution expansion to Opanayake Kiriella Improving Kiriella WTP quality Warakapola Upgrading existing Warakapola WTP to 4000 m3/day WTP Ruwanwella Upgrading existing Ruwanwella WTP to 6000 m3/day WTP Kegalle Mawanella Improvements in Mawanella WSS (Upgrading WTP, Laying Transmission lines etc.) Dehiowita Upgrading WTP & Distribution (ii) In-filling and expansion of distribution networks The second priority is for infilling and expansion of the distribution of ongoing projects and completed projects to enhance the number of connections and fully utilize the production capacity. Available capacities of completed and ongoing projects were compared with available/projected connections and additional connections that can be provided by these schemes were computed. The result in Table 12.3 lists potential distribution expansions for existing schemes because of excess capacity or Q&Q improvements. Table 12.4 illustrates potential distribution expansion by ongoing projects. These distribution extensions are to be implemented from 2021-2024. Details are given in Annex 12.4
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Table 12-3 Potential for distribution expansion for existing schemes
Number of new connections District Scheme that can be given
Colombo Pamankada, Thimbirigasyaya, Hultsdorf, Slave Island, Maligawatta, Borella, 7,849 Mattakkuliya, Kotahena, Kotte, Kolonnawa, KADUWELA Gampaha Divulapitiya WSS, Mirigama WSS 3,285
Kalutara Ingiriya WSS 1,874
Kandy Gampola, Ampitiya, Nawalapitiya, Marassana 12,947
Nuwaraeliya Ginigathhena, Hatton, Maskeliya, poondaluoya, Rikillagaskada, Walapane 3,750
Galle Galle WSS, Bentota WSS 6,549
Matara Weligama - NWS&DB, Deniyaya - NWS&DB, Makandura - NWS&DB, Hakmana 7,568 WSS, Pitabaddara Hambantota Ruhunupura, Hambantota, Sooriyawewa, Ranna, Weeraketiya, Walasmulla, 947 Ridiyagama, Wakamulla Jaffna Delf WSS, Point Pedro WSS, Valvettithurai WSS, Karaveddy WSS, Vembirai WSS, 9,395 Chunnakam WSS Mannar Mannar WSS, Erukkalampiddy WSS, Thiruketheeswaram WSS, Adampan WSS, 421 Thevanpiddy WSS Vavuniya Vavuniya WSS 308
Mulaitivu Pandiyankulam WSS, Oddusuddan WSS (Including Extension of Oddusudan 1,089 Wassip), Mallavi WSS (Including Extension of Mallavi Wassip) Kilinochchi Kilinochchi WSS 3,215
Batticaloa Mandoor 2,119
Ampara Paragahakele WSS, Gonagolla WSS, Bakkiella WSS, Ampara WSS, Sainthamaruthu 1,791 WSS, Akkaraipattu WSS, Irakkamam WSS, Sammanthurai WSS, Mahaoya WSS Trincomalee Pulmoddai, Muthur, Thoppur, Eachchilampattu 6,284 Wariyapola WSS, Galgamuwa & Ambanpola WSS, Giriulla & Pannala WSS, Kurunegala Narammala & Dambadeniya WSS, Nikaweratiya WSS, Rambodagalla & Ogodapola 9,393 & Ibbagamuwa WSS Puttalam Chilaw WSS (Including ADB 5th), Kakkapalliya WSS, Dankotuwa WSS, 17,242 Naththandiya & Wennappuwa WSS, Puttlam WSS (Including ADB 5th) Anuradhapura East WSS, Anuradhapura South WSS, Anuradhapura New Town Anuradhapura WSS, Anuradhapura North WSS, Mihinthalaya WSS, Sacred-City WSS, Eppawala 8,605 WSS, Kalawewa WSS, Kakirawa WSS, Maradankadawala WSS Pollonaruwa Hingurakgoda WSS, Minneriya WSS, Medirigiriya WSS 2,891 Badulla WSS, Demodara WSS, Hali Ela WSS, Mahiyanganaya WSS, Giradurukotte, Badulla Rathkinda WSS, Medawala WSS, Lunuwatta WSS, Slimiyapura WSS, 9,456 Bogahakubura WSS, Keppetipola WSS, Boralanda WSS, Divithotawela WSS, Welimada WSS Monaragala Monaragala WSS, Sewanagala WSS, Siyambalanduwa WSS, Thanamalwila WSS, 6,674 Wellawaya WSS, Katharagama WSS Ratnapura Ratnapura, Udawalawe, Kolonna, Godakawela, Kahawatta_Pelmaddula, Kiriella 9,836
Kegalle Yatiyanthota, Warakapola, Rambukkana, Mawanella, Dehiowita 3,722
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Table 12-4 Potential distribution expansion for existing schemes by ongoing projects
New HHs covered District WS Project by distribution expansions
Colombo Towns East of Colombo, Kaluganga Ph II 18,201 Gampaha GAMWSP, Katana, Giridara 47,808 Kalutara Aluthgama Mathugama & Agalawatta, Kaluganga Ph II, 13,423 Kandy Kandy North Pathadumbara 23,123 Matale Greater Dambulla, Greater Matale, Wilgamuwa 17,328 Nuwaraeliya Rikillagaskada 59 Galle Urgasmanhadiya, Dikkubura, Gonapinuwala, Bentota 5,431 Matara Matara short term Akuressa, Matara stage IV 5,415 Hambantota Matara stage IV, Kirama katuwana 182 Jaffna ADB 6th 856 Vavunia ADB 5th 785 Mannar ADB 5th 974 Batticaloa Valachchenai 7,559 Kurunegala Alawwa Polgahawela Pothuhera, Deduru Oya, Galagedara Mawathagama 6,725 Puttalam Anamaduwa 1,305 Greater Dambulla, Thambuththegama, Anuradhapura North Phase II, Anuradhapura 6,068 Anuradhapura Phase I Polonnaruwa Towns East of Polonnaruwa 2,625 Kegalle Galigamuwa, Bulathkohupitiya, Hemmathagama 12,818
(iii) Reducing Non-Revenue Water and generating Energy Savings As per the Government direction, the third priority is the business efficiency improvements projects such as reducing Non-Revenue water and Energy Saving of existing systems. Schemes having a NRW of more than 25% were selected (listed in Table 12-5) for improvement under this plan. The cost for the NRW improvement was computed by considering an allocation of LKR10,000/- per connection for each scheme. Details of costs are given in Annex 12.5. In addition, RSCs also have identified several NRW improvements and those are listed in Table 12-6.
Energy savings can be identified only after studying each individual scheme. Recently received suggestions from RSCs assume to achieve energy savings through extensive use of solar panels. This is probably not an energy saving, but rather an energy transition generating an immediate investment to achieve a future reduction in energy. More attention should be dedicated to employing gravity design where possible or maintaining pressure and day-time service through well-placed storage filled during low-consumption periods or through on-demand day-time solar pumps.
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Table 12-5 NRW improvements as identified by CSIP Number of Investment for NRW District Scheme NRW connections 2020 improvements, M LKR Colombo Kaduwela 27% 21,907 219 KMC 37% 29,027 290 Kandy Udu Yatinuwara 30% 62,321 623 Matale Matale 29% 20,994 210 Galle 39% 24,209 242 Ambalangoda 27% 17,215 172 Baddegama 47% 802 8 Galle Bope 31% 8,304 83 Bentara 28% 2,177 22 Balapitiya 27% 8,930 89 Elpitiya 30% 1,645 16 Tangalle 36% 10,953 110 Hambantota Beliatta 26% 1,717 17 Ampara Sammanturai 27% 17,565 176 Kurunegala Wariyapola 28% 5,705 57 Puttalam Chilaw 28% 7,211 72 Badulla 29% 16,713 167 Mahiyanganaya 26% 3,842 38 Badulla Bandarawela 28% 9,825 98 Ambagasdoowa 25% 4,994 50 Udawalawe 26% 8,220 82 Ratnapura Kahawatta_Pelmadulla 26% 6,438 64 Kegalle Yatiyantota 38% 1,046 10
Table 12-6 NRW improvements as proposed by RSCs RSC Work Laying of Transmission main from Alwis Place to Wadduwa Western South Laying of 500mm dia. DI pipeline from Kethhena WTP to Central Junction (near Nagoda) parallel to existing 500mm dia. DI pipeline. Central DI Transmission Improvement from Gelioya to Daulagala Tank Galagedara Replacing Existing pipeline
Northern NRW Reduction Programs in (covering five districts) Eastern Connection Transfer to PE (1000connectio/Year) North Central Replacing of Minneriya- Hingurakgoda transmission main. Distribution Main Line from Minneriya Plant to Hingurakgoda Tower
Uva Relaying of Bandarawela MC distribution Sabaragamuwa Supply and Laying of gravity transmission main to Adurapotha tank for Kegalle WSS
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(iv) Revenue generating consumer segments The fourth priority indicated is for enhancement of revenue by providing connections for revenue generating consumer segments. When finalizing Priority Criteria for prioritization of proposed projects, high weightage was given for this category. Therefore, CSIP has listed the projects planned by NWSDB on the same basis in RSC wise. Batch I was identified in accordance with current investments allocation for water supply sector with 40 numbers of Water Supply Projects (see Table 12-7) and 8 numbers of Water Resources Development Projects (see Table 12-8) to be implemented from 2022- 2026. Details are given in Annex 12.6.
Table 12-7 Water supply projects to be implemented during 2022-2026 (Batch I) RSC Project Name Capacity, m3/day Weliwita WSP (Stage I) 180,000 Western Upgrading Water Supply Facilities of Jubilee Kotte area Network upgrading Central Upgrading Water Supply Facilities of Kolonnawa area Network upgrading Water Treatment Plant and Transmission Improvement Project Avissawella 6,500 Kelaniya Distribution Improvement Project Network upgrading Western Mirigama WSP - Stage I 20,000 North Divulapitiya WSP - Stage I 15,000 Western Capacity improvement of Kandana WTP 50,000 South Ingiriya WSP 1,000 Hasalaka 7,500 Nanuoya 2,000 Hatharaliyadda wsp 5,000 Central Hapugasthalawa WSP 3,500 Poondaluoya 4,000 Kundasale Haragama Phase I 50,000 Lunugamwehera Integrated WSP Phase1 & 2 (including Thanamalvila) 36,000 Baddegama WSS Phase 1 30,000 Greater Galle Stage III WSS 32,000 Southern Lunugamwehera Integrated WSP (Augmentation) 6,000 Augmentation Kataragama Water Supply Scheme (Kataragama ST Water Supply Project) 8,000 Madhu WSP (Network upgrading) Network Upgrading Musali WSP (Network upgrading) Network Upgrading Northern Cheddikulam Water supply project Augmentation of Kankasanturai WSS Chulipuram WSS Augmentation of Mutur WTP & Intake improvement 30,000 Eastern Allai Kantale New 18,000 WTP 18,000 Unnichchai WSP (Network upgrading) Network upgrading Galgamuwa/Ambanpola WSP 10,000 North Bingiriya Udubaddawa WSP (Phase 1) 17,250 Western Katupotha Bamunakotuwa Paduwasnuwara WSP phase 1 9,000 North Anuradhapura South Phase Ii IWSP 33,500 Central Greater Anuradhapura North & Greater Trincomalee IWSP Phase 1 20,750
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RSC Project Name Capacity, m3/day BDHIWSP 20,750 Badalkumbura Alupotha WSS 4,500 Ulhitiya WSP 3,000 Uva Gawarammana Bogahakumbura WSP 14,000 Yahalarawa Ulugala WSP 2,000 Kandeketiya WSP 3,500 Eheliyagoda Water Supply Scheme 14,000 Sab'gamuwa Kolonna Balangoda Stage II 7,000
Table 12-8 Water resources development projects to be implemented during 2022-2026 (Batch I) Responsible Party
Capacity of Needed developments Relevant WSP relevant WSP, m3/day Follow-Up Budget Holding Budget Holding Implementation Implementation Kaluganga salinity barrier NWSDB NWSDB NWSDB Kethhena All water intakes along Maha Oya Yatimahana reservoir NWSDB NWSDB NWSDB below Mawanella Weeoya reservoir in Kelani M/I, All WSP in Colombo and Gampaha M/I NWSDB river basin (SP)*/CRIP which extract Kelani water Bund raising of Ambewela ID/NWSDB ID/NWSDB NWSDB Gawarammana bogahakumbura 14,000 tank Wadurapinuella reservoir NWSDB NWSDB NWSDB Towns North of Kurunegala 67,500 M/MD/ MASL NCP canal project MWSP** Anuradhapura South phase II 33,000 MWSP /NWSDB Ellewewa reservoir ID ID ID Kolonna Balangoda stage II 7,000 Bund raising of Kandiyapitiya ID/NWSDB ID NWSDB Hambegamuwa 3,500 tank
Specific Projects/ Strategies in Long Term (2026-2030) a) Further Water Supply Projects (see Table 12-9) and Water Resources Projects (see Table 12-10) were identified as Batch II out of the RSC wise priority list in accordance with the current investment’s allocation. (Annex 12.6);
b) Since all the planned projects identified cannot be implemented during the period 2020- 2030, currently unserved urban and semi-urban areas were identified outside the area covered under Batch 1 and Batch 2. CSIP has proposed to implement these as Emerging Towns under the WASHIP-type Projects during the period 2021-2029 and recommends that water source investigations are initiated forthwith to determine the feasibility of these projects; c) For any Urban or Semi-urban areas that cannot be covered due to non-availability of water sources, temporary solutions for the provision of water supply systems are to be made. Planned projects in those areas may be implemented after 2030 following a review of the situation at that time.
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Table 12-9 Water supply projects to be implemented during 2026-2030 (Batch II) RSC Project Name Capacity, m3/day Upgrading Water Supply Facilities of Maharagama Area Engineer’s Zone Network upgrading Upgrading Water Supply Facilities of Battaramulla Area Engineer’s Zone Network upgrading Western Central Laying of Pipes along Infilling areas of Towns east of Colombo district Water Supply Project Network upgrading Mabima 1,2 Phase 1 180,000 Western North Kirindiwela WSP phase 1 37,000 Western South Kethhena improvement & expansion project 50,000 Deltota WSP 4,350 Naula Wahakotte WSP 4,000 Central Nawalapitiya/Pallegama 1,500 Pupurassa Atabage 5,600 Kothmale Riverside WSP 4,500 Matara Stage IV Distribution Improvement WSP Network upgrading Barawakumbuka Short Term Project Phase I Kataragama long term WSP phase 1 7,500 Southern RuhunuPura Stage II Water Supply Project 17,500 Deniyaya WSP 3,000 Imaduwa WSP 6,000 Northern Greater Vavuniya phase 1 14,500 GTEWSP phase 1 27,500 Eastern Heda Oya WSP 11,000 Kokkadychcholai WSP Network upgrading Putthalam WSP - Stage II 14,000 TNK phase 1 33,750 Dankotuwa Integrated Water Supply Project - Phase I 15,000 North Western Makandura Pannala Kuliyapitiya WSP 22,000 Chilaw WSP (Stage 2) 9,000 Kalpitiya Water Supply Project 9,000 E’wala Ra’naya No’gama & Giribawa Iwsp Phase 1 22,500 North Central Galnewa Palagala Wsp 18,000 Palugaswewa Wsp 4,500 Hambegamuwa WSP 3,500 Uva Bibila Medagama WSP 6,000 Haldummulla WSP 2,500 Pelmadulla WSP 3,500 Warakapola 16,000 Augmentation of Dehiowita WSS 3,000 Rambukkana 4,500 Sabaragamuwa Greater Ratnapura Stage II 13,000 Kalawana (WaSSIP) 3,000 Kuruvita WSP 4,500 Morontota treatment plant improvements & associated pipe network Kegalle WSS Network upgrading
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Table 12-10 Water resources development projects to be implemented during 2026-2030 Responsible Party Capacity of Needed developments Relevant WSP relevant WSP, Budget Holding Implementation Follow -Up m3/day
Upper Parangi Aru Reservoir NWS&DB NWS&DB NWS&DB Mankulam 13,000 Lower Malwathuoya Reservoir M/I, (SP)* M/I, (SP)* ID Greater Vavuniya 29,000 Vadamarachchi Lagoon Project ID/NWS&DB M/I, (SP)* ID/NWS&DB Greater Jaffna 27,000 Lower Parangi Aru Reservoir NWS&DB NWS&DB NWS&DB Greater Mannar 33,000 Kal Aru Reservoir NWS&DB MASL Per Aru Reservoir NWS&DB NWS&DB /NPID NWS&DB Greater Mullaitivu 15,000 Heda Oya Reservoir ID ID NWS&DB Hedaoya WSP (Potuvil) 30,000 Nawayalawila Source Improvement NWSDB NWSDB NWSDB Tangalle Augmentation 6,000
Phasing-out Projects to be implemented after 2030 Some projects were phased out considering the water supply requirements up to 2030 and their high cost. Phasing-out projects to be implemented after 2030 are included in Table 12-11 with details given in Annex 12.6. Table 12-11 Phase out projects of Batch I & Batch II to be implemented after 2030 RSC Project Name Capacity, m3/day Western central Weliwita WSS (stage II) 180,000 Mirigama WSP - Stage II 20,000 Mirigama WSP - Stage III 20,000 Western North Mabima 1,2 Phase 2 93,000 Kirindiwela WSP phase 2 37,000 Baddegama WSS Phase 2 30,000 Southern Kataragama long term WSP phase 1 7,500 Matara Stage IV Phase II Water Supply Project 30,000 Northern Greater Vavuniya phase 2 14,500 TNK phase2 33,750 North western Bingiriya Udubaddawa WSP(Phase 2) 17,250 Katupotha Bamunakotuwa Paduwasnuwara WSP Phase2 9,000 Greater Anuradhapura North & Greater Trincomalee IWSP Phase II 20,750 North central Eppawala Rajanganaya Nochchiyagama & Giribawa IWSP Phase II 22,500
Sewerage Schemes In Chapter 7 of the Task II report, the Local Authority areas in which sewerage schemes may need to be implemented have been listed using priority criteria developed by CSIP (in consultation with the NWSDB Sewerage Division). The criteria include density, population, administrative headquarters (district capital), Local Authority hierarchy, ability to pay the sewerage charges in the area, tourism potential, NPP2050 priority, water supply status, and for project areas that are sensitive to pollution.
The resulting priority ranking of individual schemes has been followed to select the schemes for development of sewerage systems. From that list, to be implemented within the 2021-2030 period, CSIP recommends 10 sewerage schemes plus Nuwara Eliya and Badulla sewerage
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schemes, the latter as to be implemented as innovative small system approaches under WaSSIP. CSIP further suggests the next 18 sewerage schemes to be initiated after 2030 after considering the investment limitations, local economic opportunities (e.g. self-supply by tourist resorts and EPZs) and alternative solutions that may by then have been developed in global sanitation innovations. Table 12-12 provides the list of the selected 30 schemes. The costs of the investment including the number of households under those schemes are listed in Annex 12.7. Table 12-12 Phase out projects of Batch I & Batch II to be implemented after 2030 Duration District Rank Urban area (Name of the relevant LA) Design capacity, m3/day
Colombo 1 Dehiwala - Mount Lavinia MC 36,000
Hambantota 2 Hambantota MC 42,000
Batticaloa 3 Kattankudy UC 7,500
Gampaha 4 Negombo MC 47,000
Jaffna 5 Jaffna MC 14,000 From 2021 -2030 Colombo 6 Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte MC 18,000
Gampaha 7 Jaela PS & UC 11,500
Gampaha 8 Kelaniya PS 27,000
Galle 9 Galle MC 11,500
Gampaha 10 Peliyagoda UC 6,000
Badulla 15 Badulla MC 3,000 2021-2030 (Under WaSSIP) Nuwara Eliya 20 Nuwara Eliya MC 300
Colombo 11 Borales gamuwa UC 8,500
Colombo 12 Kolonnawa UC 10,000
Colombo 13 Maharagama UC 24,500
Matara 14 Matara MC 6,000
Ampara 16 Kalmunai MC 12,000
Gampaha 17 Gampaha MC 4,000
Polonnaruwa 18 Polonnaruwa MC 1,500
Batticaloa 19 Batticaloa MC 7,500
Batticaloa 21 Eravur UC 4,500 After 2030 Anuradhapura 22 Anuradhapura MC 5,500
Trinco 23 Trincomalee UC 19,000
Puttalam 24 Chilaw UC 3,500
Puttalam 25 Puttalam UC 1,500
Kalutara 26 Kalut ara UC 12,500
Gampaha 27 Wattala - Mabola UC 21,500
Kalutara 28 Beruwala UC 13,000
Colombo 29 Kaduwela MC 30,000
Ratnapura 30 Rathnapura MC 500
Note: Design capacity is calculated considering the population only in GNDs which have pop density >=5,000
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12.3 Investment Plan: NWSDB component Based on the targets presented in Chapter 5 of Task V report, the following achievable targets were set by CSIP with respect to NWSDB, for 2025 and 2030, for water supply and sewerage. Table 12-13 Expected national share of coverage for NWSDB by year NWSDB Share of National Coverage Expected Coverage Targets 2020 2025 2030 2050 NWSDB Piped Water Supply 44.0% 57.2% 68.0% 72.0% NWSDB Sewerage 0.4% 1.2% 3.5% 7.8% excl. CMC/Kurunegala/Kandy, as share of national sanitation coverage Addressing the priorities identified in section 12.2 will lead to investments that enable the NWSDB to achieve by 2030 68% coverage with safely managed water supply and 3.5% in NWSDB operated sewerage coverage.
Investments in Water Supply A draft costing of the proposed investment plan for the water supply component of NWSDB is given in Table 12-14. Table 12-14 Summary of the proposed investment plan for NWSDB (in LKR 2020 prices)
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The required investment up to 2030 is LKR 235 B in existing financing for on-going projects. For immediate actions an amount of 53 B is set aside, while two batches of investment before 2030 require LKR 704 B and a further LKR 346 B beyond 2030 (all 2020 LKR), as follows: a) On-going WS Projects 2020-2024 LKR 235 B b) Batch 0; immediate actions LKR 53 B WQ&Q, fill-in & add connections, reduce NRW c) Batch I; 2022-2026 LKR 361 B d) Batch II; 2026-2030 LKR 346 B (429 B 2025 value) Batch III will complete projects that are phased and can only be taken on after 2030, as well as a number of longer-term priority projects put forward by the RSCs. e) Batch III; 2030-2045 LKR 649 B (2030 budget value) The size of the portfolio for Batch III depends on the number of small and emerging town water supply systems that can be completed in the period 2022-2030. Batch III requirements need to be reviewed by 2030. Details by scheme of the water supply investments are provided in annex 12.6 The rational for a Demand Management and Water Education campaign is as explained in section 5.2 of the Task II report and summarized in section 4.5 of this report. Costing for the sustained campaign are given below. Setting up 2021 LKR 100 M Annual programmes 2022-2030 LKR 400 M f) Total for Water Education Campaign LKR 500 M
Sewerage Schemes by NWSDB In a similar manner as for water supply projects, a priority ranking of individual schemes has been followed to select the schemes for development of sewerage systems. From that list, CSIP recommend first 10 sewerage schemes plus Nuwara Eliya and Badulla sewerage schemes (to be financed under WaSSIP) shall be implemented with 2022-2030 period. CSIP further suggests the next 18 sewerage schemes could be initiated after 2030 after considering the socio-economic opportunities and technical developments. The cost of the investment for the 30 selected schemes and number of HHs under those schemes are mentioned in Annex 12.7. a) Batch I; 2022-2030 LKR 183 B b) Batch II; 2030-2045 LKR 314 B (2030 budget value) Support to Rural and Plantation Sector by NWSDB The National Water Supply and Drainage Board has always supported other sub-sectors in WASH sector. Initially this included the drilling and installation of handpumps in many remote rural areas. In the 1990’s the then RWS Division partnered with CWSSP I to undertake a small-town water supply development programmed. It placed NWSDB in a good position to undertake the ADB-3 programme, which was completed in 2006. In the last decade NWSDB has not provided much coordinated support to the sector. This has changed with the signing of the MoU between DNCWS and NWDSB which describes the NWSDB role in supporting CBOs. Most recently, the Division has been re-named into Small Towns & Rural Water Supply Division. This shows the intent of NWSDB to rationalize its inputs and support to the rural sector. It is assumed that the ST&RWS Division and its RSC units will act as the window through which partners can requests support. FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 182
While a more detailed description of services and responsibilities of ST&RWS is awaited, CSIP assumes that the tasks listed in the section below are included. As far as reasonable, these services have been costed. DGM RWS/Small Towns of NWSDB has overall functional responsibility of the NWSDB support to Rural and Plantation Sector. At each RSC Chief Engineer (Development) has the responsibility to monitor these. Following activities are to be taken up at the Regional and District levels. 1) Rehabilitation of handpump tube wells. 2) Support for development of water safety plans at CBO and LA level 3) Water Quality testing of Rural Schemes and Wells (randomly) 4) Technical Support to DNCWS and Local Authorities
Rehabilitation of Hand Pump Tube Wells The requirement for rehabilitation is estimated at 1500 HP wells per year. Costs are LKR 165,000/- per HP well. At the moment with support of NGOs and others NWSDB is rehabilitating around 500 HP wells per year. Pradeshya Sabhas (PS) also purchase spares worth of around LKR 15 Million /Year. Responsibility of minor spare parts is with PS and major rehabilitation to be done by NWSDB through the regional Ground Water Units. Additional Requirement 1000X 165,000/- = LKR 165 M/Y Enhancement of capacity of Water Quality Testing Additional lab Assistant per Region and additional chemicals required to test all the existing water supply schemes of CBO/LAs and 4000 wells randomly per every 6 months. Chemical cost and other cost excluding overhead charges to be borne by requested party as per the published rates of the NWSDB Laboratory section. Additional Staff cost LKR 75,000/-X17 X12=LKR 15 M/Y Strengthening the RWS units To give technical support to DNCWS and LAs (including Water Safety Plan Development & Monitoring, and Septage Management), the additional staff members together with one vehicle per district are recommended. For the Northern province only 2 units are needed at Vavuniya and Jaffna. Total number of units is 22. Logistical costs other than the advisory input costs are to be borne by respective CBOs or LAs for their schemes. 01 Engineer (Part Time) 01 Engineering Assistant 01 Management Assistant 01 Driver Additional Staff Cost LKR 300,000/- X 22 X 12 = LKR 80 M/Y Cost of Transport LKR 150,000/- X 22 X 12 = LKR 40 M/Y Coordination and monitoring at ST&RWS section Additional Staff Cost LKR 300,000/- X 2* 12 = LKR 7 M/Y Cost of Transport LKR 150,000/- X 12 = LKR 2 M/Y Communication/publishing =LKR 1 M/Y Total budget requirement 2021-2030 = LKR 310 M/Y X10 = LKR 3.1 B Development of Small and Emerging Town water supply by NWSDB ST&RWS Division will be able to undertake LKR 12.2 B worth of Small and Emerging Town water supply systems. These are included in the WASHIP A-D funding packages. See 12.3.5. FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 183
Total Investment Requirement of NWSDB. To achieve 57% Water Supply coverage in 2025 and 68% Water Supply coverage in 2030, a total of 3.5 million Water Connections in 2025 and 4.4 million Water Connection in 2030 is to be given. Similarly, to achieve 1.2 % Sewerage coverage in 2025 and 3.5 % Sewerage coverage in 2030, a total of 18,000 sewerage connections in 2025 and 35,000 sewerage connections in 2030 is needed. Accordingly, the investments requirement for On-going Projects, Quantity/ Quality improvements, Distribution expansions, NRW reduction programs, Batch I & II Projects, Emerging/Small Towns Projects under WASHIP Projects, Sewerage Batch I projects, Support to Rural and Plantation Water Supply and Sanitation were included within this time frame. Total investment requirement of NWSDB project wise by year, for water supply, sewerage and support to others during 2020 to 2030 is given in table 12.15.
Table 12-15 Total investment requirements project wise for NWSDB for Water Supply & Sewerage
Financing proposed: Donor support/foreign financing, possibly with local bonds: LKR 1211.6 B Government financing to NWSDB 4 LKR 53.2 B Financing arranged through WASHIP Projects A to D LKR 11.4 B See WASHIP section
Total Service Coverage that could be achieved by NWSDB by 2025 and 2030 Total investment requirement of NWSDB to achieve 57% coverage in 2025 and 68% in 2030 for Water Supply and 3.5% coverage in 2030 for Sewerage and Support to others during 2020 to 2030 is given in table 12.16. The Investments are matched with Table 12.15.
4 It would be preferred that these types of works will be financed by NWSDB from regular depreciation allocation, but in the current constrained financial context that seems not possible before 2027.
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Table 12-16 Total connection generated for NWSDB for Water Supply and Sewerage Water & Sewerage Cov. (in 1000) 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030
Water Connections 164 154 163 173 183 194 182 191 201 139 144
Cum. Water Connections, 2,632 2,786 2,949 3,122 3,305 3,499 3,681 3,872 4,073 4,212 4,356
Water Supply Coverage, % 44.0 46.4 49.0 51.6 54.2 57.0 58.8 61.6 64.4 66.2 68.0
Sewerage Connections, 1 1 7 10 13 18 15 19 24 29 35
Cum. Sewerage Connect. 19 20 27 37 50 68 83 102 126 155 190
Sewerage Coverage, % 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.9 2.3 2.8 3.5
For additional information on potential coverage of Water Supply and Sewerage during 2020- 2030 and other financial data refer to the Task V report on Finance and Investment. Required Investments by NWSDB each year from 2020 to 2030 are shown in Figure 12.1.
Figure 12-1 Investment requirements for NWSDB for water supply and sewerage up to 2030
The progressive increase in coverage for NWSDB is shown in Table 12.17. Apart from the connections generated through currently on-going projects, it shows the relative importance of the efforts to raise the connections through Batch 0 efforts in expanding the network and upgrading quality and quantity in schemes. Not only does the Batch 0 programme provide more households with safe water, but it also provides a faster return on investment by NWSDB and the Government of Sri Lanka.
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Table 12-17 Progressive increase in connections and coverage for NWSDB from 2019 to 2025 to 2030, by district
2019 total 2025 total covered 2030 total District
covered HH's HHs areas covered HHs WaSSIP) WaSSIP) schemes schemes (including (including expansion expansion Small town town Small CKDu areas areas CKDu Distribution Distribution extension in extension No of HHs in HHsin of No No of HHs by HHsby of No HHsby of No HHsby of No HHsby of No HHsby of No HHsby of No No of HHs by HHsby of No Purenaguama Purenaguama 75% of Batch II Batch of 75% 10% of Batch 1 Batch of 10% 1 Batch of 90% improvements) improvements) (including Q&Q (including Ongoing project project Ongoing Ongoing Projects Projects Ongoing Colombo 564,353 7,926 40,042 0 1,500 613,822 0 13,498 0 0 627,320 Gampaha 309,530 3,268 201,080 0 2,143 516,021 35,669 19,287 75,770 5,045 651,792 Kalutara 148,410 1,874 75,949 0 3,086 229,319 0 27,777 2,937 0 260,033 Kandy 217,697 12,947 27,013 0 1,236 258,892 0 11,120 16,545 2,865 289,423 Matale 45,394 0 50,824 0 0 96,218 1,497 0 3,575 0 101,290 Nuwaraeliya 33,536 3,740 1,302 0 1,028 39,607 40 9,255 814 14,545 64,261 Galle 98,608 6,566 9,564 0 6,870 121,609 0 61,828 5,029 0 188,466 Matara 90,091 4,722 25,393 0 0 120,206 519 0 3,877 3,329 127,931 Hambantota 106,756 940 7,243 0 589 115,528 234 5,300 3,510 5,563 130,135 Jaffna 13,200 9,395 56,708 0 180 79,483 1,298 1,623 0 0 82,403 Mannar 17,391 421 1,332 0 452 19,597 46 4,072 0 1,847 25,562 Vavunia 1,590 0 8,944 0 73 10,607 625 657 13,382 0 25,271 Mullaitivu 2,610 1,089 10,423 0 0 14,122 276 0 0 1,396 15,793 Kilinochchi 762 3,215 8,736 0 0 12,712 548 0 0 1,109 14,369 Batticaloa 75,884 2,119 18,997 0 213 97,213 0 1,917 7,118 8,828 115,076 Ampara 155,294 1,791 0 0 0 157,085 0 0 1,813 0 158,898 Trincomalee 62,091 6,284 0 0 1,395 69,770 0 12,557 17,710 0 100,037 Kurunegala 47,636 9,393 64,826 4,080 4,654 130,588 1,708 41,885 69,200 5,718 249,099 Puttalam 45,127 17,242 19,411 0 0 81,781 606 0 49,745 6,966 139,097 Anuradhapura 75,738 8,605 79,907 1,652 2,135 168,037 1,998 19,214 18,267 0 207,516 Polonnaruwa 31,559 2,891 54,367 17,324 0 106,141 1,668 0 2,293 0 110,102 Badulla 62,115 9,456 6,898 905 2,817 82,191 186 25,351 1,792 6,296 115,815 Monaragala 51,964 6,674 1,412 0 784 60,834 0 7,054 12,185 0 80,073 Ratnapura 63,377 9,810 1,689 0 3,762 78,638 52 33,860 26,405 618 139,573 Kegalle 56,033 3,712 44,770 0 334 104,849 1,002 3,004 16,304 0 125,160 Total 2,376,746 3,384,870 4,144,494 Total SL HHs 5,720,063 5,916,457 6,097,274 Coverage, % 41.6% 57.2% 68.0% Note: Puranaguma projects in Matale, Badulla and Monaragala Districts are considered as ongoing projects
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12.4 Asset management and ensuring service functionality of NWSDB systems The demand for extending services to unserved or underserved urban and semi-urban supplies will grow, while the operational requirements in existing service areas will continue to ask attention in controlling non-revenue-water, minimizing risks related to saline intrusion in intakes and collaborating with other stakeholders on water resource extractions. As systems age and conditions affecting existing systems and water resources change due to population dynamics, economic developments and opportunities, and climate change, asset management and re- investing in the schemes for replacement or rehabilitation will remain a critical and costly component of the operations of the NWSDB. The expenses for these operational and management costs are not included in the investment plan as these costs are already part of the regular financial management for which NWSDB collects revenue through water rates and connection fees. The costs of ensuring service functionality and asset management show an increasing trend. Salaries will be increased by 15 % every three years from 2021 onward whereas other costs will increase in line with estimated inflation at 4.9 %. As personnel costs will fall from 4.3 employees/ 1000 connections in 2018 to 2.1 employees/1000 connections in 2050, the share of personnel costs will decrease from 58.0% in 2018 to 49.1 % of the total expenses in 2050. Other administrative expenses are related to the number of administration personnel and will reduce accordingly with improvements in ICT applications. From 2025 onward because of upgrading staff to meet new demands related to efficient management and accounting through investments in extra training and capacity building to NWSDB personnel, this cost will further increase. Electricity, chemical and repair & maintenance costs will increase due to increase in water production but their unit cost will increase in line with inflation only. Table 12-18 gives details of these cost
Table 12-18 Costs of operation and maintenance, and management
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components. Note that it is assumed that investments in sewerage will not increase O&M costs significantly and fit into the projected cost frame.
In the Task V report on Sector Financing and Investment, the asset management for NWSDB is costed under the heading ‘replacement investments’ of table 7. It is calculated at 80% of depreciation during 2022 - 2050. In 2020 and 2021 replacement investments are 10% of depreciation due to NWSDB financial constraints. In the long run replacement investments should be equal to depreciation. NWSDB should gradually be able to finance the costs from revenue and not require Treasure support for this cost component.
Table 12-19 Costs of replacement investments 2020-2030
Further details on Table 12-19 can be found in Annex 7. New & Replacement Investments and Financing of the Investments 2020 – 2030, of the Task V report on Sector Financing and Investment.
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12.5 Investment Plan: CBOs, LA, Estate Areas and Ministry Additional financing for WaSSIP Currently the WaSSIP project is on-going in 7 districts. It has been extended by another year up to 2021 and will be able to undertake some further projects in water supply and sanitation. Funding will be provided by the World Bank. The additional funding required amounts to LKR 5.5 B. Note that this is inclusive of some 400 million rupees for institutional and policy development support (see annex 7.1). Table 12-18 details the proposed investment by district.
Table 12-20 WaSSIP additional project funding, as proposed, by district in LKR Million
a) WaSSIP additional 2020-2021 LKR 5.5 B District-based WASH investment programs For full coverage, projects required include 4 Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene Improvement Project (WASHIP) groups, covering the following districts: b) WASHIP Group A; 2022-2026 LKR 45.8 B Nuwara Eliya, Kegalle, Ratnapura, Badulla, Monaragala
c) WASHIP Group B; 2022-2026 LKR 22.8 B Ampara, Batticaloa, Trincomalee, Jaffna, Kilinochchi, Mannar, Mullaitivu, Vavuniya
d) WASHIP Group C; 2023-2027 LKR 24.7 B Kandy, Matale, Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, Kurunegala, Puttalam
e) WASHIP Group D; 2023-2027 LKR 20.8 B Colombo, Gampaha, Kalutara, Galle, Hambantota, Matara
f) Revolving Fund; 2022-2030 LKR 9 B
Details of WASHIP A to D projects are shown in Table 12.19 through 12.22. Note that financing in these projects comprises funding for water supply, sanitation and septage management. Similarly, support for development of water safety plans and water quality testing is included in the budget. It is assumed that NWSDB laboratories, other approved laboratories and field kits can be used to provide the services. FCG International Ltd (FCG, Finland) in Joint Venture with Resources Development Consultants (RDC, Sri Lanka) and Integrated Development Consultants (IDC, Sri Lanka) 189
Details on district financing for rural WASH are provided in Annex 12.8
Table 12-21 WASSIP Project Group A
The sewerage schemes for Nuwara Eliya and Badulla are included in the WASHIP Group A project. These will be implemented through NWSDB but will endeavor to pilot innovative sanitation solutions that are suitable to the locality and protect the ecosystems. Some of these opportunities are described in section 5.6. Support for development of water safety plans and water quality testing is included in the budget. It is assumed that NWSDB laboratories, other approved laboratories and field kits can be used to provide the services. Note that CSIP original area-based cost calculations for CBO projects under Group A and B were a little higher, however a deduction was introduced as some projects in WaSSIP districts are assumed to be taken on by WaSSIP additional financing. The CBO projects concerned have been included in WaSSIP additional financing in consultation with WaSSIP management. As it is assumed that occasional water supply problems may continue to exist at Divisional Secretariat level, an allocation of 10 or 20 RWH systems has been introduced to represent additional expenses that the Divisional Secretary may have to use at his or her discretion to resolve such a problem. Where no further investment was assumed in DSDs up to 2025 or up to 2030 because water supply coverage was 100%, this discretionary fund was reserved to enable the DS to provide water supply to existing or new households that could not be connected to existing community-wide water supply systems, to ensure and maintain 100% coverage in the DS. Where such facility is not indicated, piped water supply is deemed to be available.
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Table 12-22 WASHIP Project Group B
Table 12-23 WASHIP Project Group C
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Table 12-24 WASHIP Projects Group D
Closing the service gap In order to achieve the intent of 100% coverage in water supply by 2025, it is essential to identify areas which are not adequately covered yet and prepare plans to provide services to these areas. For domestic sanitation full coverage is expected well before in 2030 through these areas based WASHIP projects. With the present level of coverage of the areas with safe and basic coverage (91% in water supply and 92% in sanitation), this identification process needs to be done carefully, so that there will not be gaps or overlaps. The planning exercise needs to commence as close as possible to the ground level, with accurate data. Section 7.3.1 describes the process proposed to determine the need for and resolution of the provision of universal water supply and sanitation, from the Divisional level up to Provincial level. Revolving fund A revolving fund has been proposed in section 3.5. The fund is included here with an initial seed fund of LKR 9 B. This fund should be available to CBOs registered with DNCWS. A similar fund is available for the use of the Local Authorities in Sri Lanka, which is called Local Loan and Development Fund (LL&DF), under the Ministry in charge of Local Government. No allocation is included in this investment plan for Local Authorities as it is assumed that adequate funding is available from the LL&DF. Nevertheless, technical assistance can be provided to the Local Authorities by the NWSDB.
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The CBO Revolving Fund is initially assumed to be available for 3 years: 2021-2023. Upon mid- term (progress) evaluation it will then be required to be replenished from 2024 onwards, to enable continuous upgrading of CBO schemes. This continuation of the Revolving Fund is kept as pro memoria (pm) in table 12-22. Policy Development and Sector Coordination The Ministry of City Planning, Water Supply and Housing Facilities will undertake Institutional & Policy Reform Activities within the water supply and sanitation sector. The activities to be undertaken are described in detail in the CSIP report on Institutional & Policy Reform (section 9.2). (FCG International Ltd. RDC IDC, 2020a). Several of the Institutional and Policy reform activities are critical measures to be developed and installed in time for full-fledged investment in the sector. It is assumed that both NWSDB and the WASSIP will be able to provide substantial support to the Ministry in this respect. The Ministry will liaise and collaborate with the Ministry responsible for Local Government to ensure that planning processes at DS level proceed smoothly and ensure that those that have been left behind (in estates, resettlement areas, etc.) will also be able to access adequate water and sanitation services. Chapter 7 of this document elaborates the role of the Ministry further in the context of the monitoring sector coverage in the country according to SDG criteria. Initially these activities can be financed from the projects undertaken through DNCWS, but for 2030 onwards when project funds are likely to decline the Ministry has to ensure it has its own budget allocation. The Ministry also houses the Department of National Community Water Supply. It is assumed that the Ministry will ensure the regular annual allocation for the Department to be able to provide the necessary support to CBOs and the rural and estate sector as necessary. DNCWS also performs an important role in managing the monitoring database of the CBO schemes. Until 2028 no separate allocation is included for the Department in this investment plan, as it is assumed that the Department can finance necessary activities from the 4 project that are proposed. From 2028 onward a separate budget allocation will be required for DNCWS to enable it to continue its role in providing support to CBOs and ensure continued functionality of the CBO schemes and their services. The costs of these activities are assessed at g) Institutional & Policy Reform; 2021-2030 LKR 1.2 B h) Continued support for CBOs and sector LKR 4.0 B Monitoring 2030-2050 i) Replenishment of Revolving Fund in 2030 LKR 12.0 B
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Total Investment requirement for CBO, LA and estate sector and Ministry Table 12-25 Total Investment requirement for Rural & Estate sector
Investment requirements and resulting expected service coverage The overall investment requirement for the period 2020-2030 is assessed at LKR Billion 1309, while balance investment for the period 2030-2050 is estimated at LKR Billion 529. O&M and depreciation will need to be derived from the operational revenue and is not included in these costings. This holds true for NWSDB as well as for CBOs, although the reservation for the replenishment of the Revolving Fund assumes that some upgrading by CBOs may not be possible on the basis of their reserves for depreciation alone. CSIP’s calculations and assumptions indicate that when these funds will be made available and judiciously used by NWSDB and rural WASH projects, universal basic service coverage can be achieved. by 2030. The total investment requirements for the Water Supply and Sanitation Sector is shown in table 12.24 Table 12-26 Proposed investments in WASH from 2020-2030
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Table 12-27 Water supply and sanitation sector coverage progression
Figure 12 -2 Water supply coverage by category of supply
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12.6 Procurement and Implementation Plans Quality/Quantity Improvements of NWSDB WSS Since Quality or Quantity improvements are critical to providing safe and adequate water supply to the existing water supply schemes, this activity needs to be taken up with priority. CSIP proposes this work to take place during 2021-2023. Designs of the water treatment plants (WTP) can be done in house by the RSCs within 3 months. It is important to commence the procurement process in 2021 preferably using NWSDB internal financing from depreciation and complete the process within 9 months. Implementation can be completed within 1 to 2 years depending on the size of the plant. The average annual budget is around LKR 8,700 Million. The implementation plan is shown in Figure 12-3.
Figure 12-3 Implementation Plan for Quality and Quantity Improvements
Distribution Extensions of NWSDB WSS From an economic and financial perspective it is advantageous to NWSDB to raise the number of connections when treated water is available. Seeking opportunities to extend the existing distribution systems and include more customers is necessary. Providing connections can be expedited within the available distribution system (by promotion and including attractive payment schedules for settling connection fees). More connections can be given with network extensions. The activity is proposed to be taken up during 2021-2024. Survey and design of this extension can be done in-house at RSCs within 3 months. It is important to commence the procurement process in 2021 with NWSDB financing or GOSL funding and complete within 9 months. Road Development Authority approvals may take 6 months. Implementation can be completed within 1 to 2 years depending on the length of the extensions. The average annual budget is around LKR 4,700 million. Implementation plan is shown in Figure 12-4.
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Figure 12-4 Implementation plan-Distribution expansions of NWSDB WSS
NRW Reduction Programs of NWSDB WSS CSIP has planned NRW reduction Programs for Schemes having NRW more than 25%. NRW Reduction program has to be planned by each RSC and required materials and equipment to do the implementation work during 2022-2025. Average annual budget is around LKR 800 Million. GOSL funds to be arrange for this activity also. Implementation plan is shown in Figure 12.5.
Figure 12-5 Implementation plan- NRW reduction programs
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Water Supply Projects for Batch I and Batch II Detail Feasibility to be carried out for these projects by the Regional Staff and identify the cost- effective option for this category of Projects. More complicated Projects may be carried out using design and Build contacts and all other projects design to be done in house. Detail Feasibility may require minimum of 6 months. Preparation of documentation with or without design, may need 9-12 months depending on the size of the Project. Procurement period is around 9 months. Therefore, identifying funding agency and the commencement of initial activities to be done in 2020 to commence the Implementation in 2022. Implementation plan is shown in Figure 12.6 and 12.7.
Figure 12-6 Implementation plan- Water supply projects for Batch I
Figure 12-7 Implementation Plan - Water Supply Projects for Batch II
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Water Resources Projects for Batch I and Batch II Since NWSDB has limited capacity in water resources development, a separate consultancy (around 9 months) has to be arranged as per the TORs suggested in Task III report to prepare Detail Feasibility, Design and Documentation work. If the identification of funding agency is delayed, GOSL funds are to be provided for the preparation of relevant bidding documents. With the procurement period of 9 months and an implementation period of around 2 years, preparatory activities for this task are also to be initiated in 2021. The implementation plan is shown in Figure 12-8 and 12-9.
Figure 12-8 Implementation Plan - Water Resources Projects for Batch I
Figure 12-9 Implementation Plan - Water Resources Projects for Batch II
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Small/Emerging town Projects under WASHIP Projects. CSIP has identified the urban centers not covered by NWSDB existing schemes, on-going schemes or planned projects. Under the functional responsibility of DGM (ST&RWS), RSCs needs do the feasibility studies including identifying water resources for these prospective service areas. This activity needs to be undertaken in conjunction with stakeholders and Local Authorities. It may well take 12 months. Once the feasibility has been ascertained, the Small/Emerging Town WS Schemes can be included in the respective WASHIP Group Projects for funding. The schemes can be designed and bidding documents can be prepared in-house by staff of NWSDB RSCs within 9-12 months with the available funding for the Project. Implementation can be done during 2-3 years time after 9 months of procurement period. The implementation plan is shown in Figure 12.10.
Figure 12-10 Implementation Plan - Small/Emerging town Projects under WASHIP Group A and B Project; Note: WASHIP Group C and D will commence one year after the A and B Project
Sewerage Projects under Batch I Detailed feasibility studies to be carried out for these projects by the Sewerage Division. The objective is to identify the most cost-effective option for the sewerage projects. More complicated projects may be carried out using design and build contracts while all other projects design can be done in-house. Detailed feasibility studies may require at least 12 months. Preparation of documentation with or without design, may need a further 9-12 months depending on the size of the project. Procurement period is around 9 months. Therefore, identifying the funding agency and the commencement of initial activities needs to start in 2020 to enable the start of implementation in 2022. The implementation plan is shown in Figure 12.11.
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Figure 12-11 Implementation Plan - Sewerage Projects under Batch I
NWSDB support to Rural Water Supply and Sanitation. DGM RWS/Small Towns of NWSDB has overall functional responsibility of the NWSDB support to Rural and Plantation Sector. At each RSC Chief Engineer (Development) has the responsibility to making and annual plan and monitoring this. Activities to be done at the Regional and District levels, with GOSL funding to be arranged: a. Rehabilitation of hand pump tube wells by Regional Ground Water Sections throughout 2021 to 2030. Purchase of materials by head office GW Division annually. b. Random Water Quality testing of rural schemes and wells by Regional labs throughout 2021 to 2030. c. Technical Support to DNCWS and LAs by RWS units at Regional office with the support of other section of RSCs and Sewerage Division throughout 2021 to 2030.
The implementation plan is shown in Figure 12.12.
Figure 12-12 Implementation Plan for sector support to Rural Water Supply and Sanitation
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Rural Water Supply Projects under WASHIP Projects. Currently the WaSSIP project is on-going in 7 districts. It has been extended by another year up to 2021 and will be able to undertake some further projects in water supply and sanitation. For full coverage, additional investment projects required include 4 Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene Improvement Project (WASHIP) groups, covering the following districts: a) WASHIP Group A; 2022-2026 LKR 45.8 B Nuwara Eliya, Kegalle, Ratnapura, Badulla, Monaragala i) WASHIP Group B; 2023-2027 LKR 22.8 B Ampara, Batticaloa, Trincomalee, Jaffna, Kilinochchi, Mannar, Mullaitivu, Vavuniya j) WASHIP Group C; 2024-2028 LKR 24.7 B Kandy, Matale, Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, Kurunegala, Puttalam k) WASHIP Group D; 2025-2029 LKR 20.8 B Colombo, Gampaha, Kalutara, Galle, Hambantota, Matara
Each project group will have to do preliminary work including awareness to district officials, establishment of Steering Committee and District Coordination Committees and ranking of three batches of PSs in a district etc. within 6 months. Activities of each batch of PSs have to be completed within 18 months and work within each district to be completed within 5 Years. A suggested consultative planning process is shown in figure 7-3. The implementation plan for the WASHIP schemes is shown in Figure 12.10. Ranking of PSs and Selection of RWS sub project is described in Annex 12.9. The detailed suggested activity plan of a water supply subproject is shown in Annex 12.10. No details on sanitation planning is given, as the regular NWSDB or WaSSIP procedures can be followed within the Divisional Secretariat. For the design and implementation of septage treatment plants, the NWSDB ST&RWS Division will liaise with the NWSDB Sewerage Section for feasibility survey and design, in consultation with the relevant Local Government Agencies in the service area. The existing procedure as used by WaSSIP will be used. Annex 12-11 provides an overview of the proposed Rural Water Supply Requirements Division- wise up to 2025 & 2030. Note that Annex 12.10 and Annex 21-11 are A3 size documents to be printed on an A3 printer!
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12.7 Road map for implementation from 2020-2030, and prospective to 2050 The road map for the investment plan is a summarized version of the sub-project activities as these have been presented in the previous pages.
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Table 12-28 Roadmap for NWSDB investment activities 2021-2030, excluding current portfolio of on-going projects
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Table 12-29 Overall Road Map (Rural & Estate) WASHIP Group A & B
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Table 12-30 Overall Road Map (Rural & Estate) WASHIP Group C & D
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Table 12-31 Overall Road Map (Sector Support Activities
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List of Annexes in Volume II
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