•o TAL ,o

A SURVEY OF THE COASTAL ZONE OF

BY C. M. MADDUMA BANDARA DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

COAST CONSERVATION DEPARTMENT ...... 1989 This Report is being printed for the Coast Conservation Department of Sri Lanka tinder he Sri Lanka Coastal Resources Management Project. This project is funded by the Office of Forestry, Environment and Natural Resources, the itureau of Science and Technology and the U.S. Agency for International Development through a co-operative agrecment with the Coastal Resources Center at the University of Rhode Island. A SURVEY OF THE COASTAL ZONE OF SRI LANKA

BY C. M. MADDUMA BANDARA DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY, UNIVERSITy OF PERADENIYA

COAST CONSERVATION DEPARTMENT PREFACE

The Survey of the Coastal Zone of Sri Lanka which led to this Report was undertaken by the University of at the request of the Coast Conservation Division of the Ministry of Fisheries. The field programme which encompassed the entire coastal zone of the Island was started in August 1981 and continued till February, 1982. The base maps for field investigations were prepared at the Departments cf Geography in Colombo and Matara. The training of field investigators, monitoring and supervision of field work, data processing, preparation of final maps and the Survey! Report were handled by the author at the Department of Geography of the University of Peradeniya. The original draft of this report was in three volumes, namely; Vol. I The Descriptive Text Vol. II • Appendix Tables Vol. III Map Folders The present publication is an edited version of the descriptive text with some s!atistical data given in Appendix Tables from the Volume II. There were 362 coloured maps at the scale of 1: 6500 in Volume III, covering the entire coast !ine of Sri Lanka. The interested reader may refer to these maps which are available at the Coast Conservation Department. Over 60 persons from different universities in the Island have participated in the survey activities. Their names and the functions they performed in the Project are given below:

Coordination Dr. W. P. T. Silva, (Head of the Department of Geography, ).

Project Staff Dr. Leo de Graaffe, NUFFIC Project, University of Colombo. Dr. M. D. C. Abeyratne, University of Sri Jayawardenepura. Dr. (Mrs.) Kanthi Abeynaike, University of Colombo.

Supervisors Mr. W. N. Wilson, University of Colombo, Eastern Coast. Mr. R. M. Dissanayake, University of Colombo, Northeastern Coast. Mr. R. Sri Kanthan, University of Colombo, Northern Coast Et Islands. Mr. A. H. Dhanapala, University of Colombo, Western Coast. Mr. J. Katupotha, University of Sri Jayawardenepura, Scuthwestern Coast. Mr. L. A. Premadasa, Ruhuna University College, Matara, Southern Coast. Mr. U. C. de S. Weerakkody, Ruhuna University College, Matara, Southeastern Coast. Mr. S. H. Hashbullah, University of Peradeniya, Northwestern Coast.

oi=11 Investigators

Western Coastal Zone Southeastern Coastal Zone 1. P. M. Karunaratne 1. A. M. Weerasena 2. U. H. G. J. K. Wijesinghe 2. D. M. M. B. Dissanayake 3. H. W. Karunasena 3. B. M. U. D. l3asnayake 4. W. R. V. Wickramanayake 4. M. M. Ariyaratna Banda

Northwestern Coastal Zone Southern Coastal Zone 1. J. A. Croos 1. S. Rathugama 2. S. '^. Caroos 2. A. Edirisinghe 3. S. Kanapathyppillai 3. K. S. Somaratne 4. S. Sebamalai 4. H. A. Nandasena 5. W. H. Senadeera Northern Coastal Zone 6. H. R. P. Chandrasena 1. A. Ariyaratnam 2. K. Kanapathy Southwestern Costa/Zone 3. N. Balachandran 1. R. M. Kaunaratne 4. K. Kanagarajah 2. J. M. A. J. Karunaratne 5. S. Shanmuganathan 3. K. A. Sherwin Senadeera 6. S. P~inniyaseelan 4. M. Bandusena 5. P. H. Punyawardena North eastern Coastal Zone 6. P. G. Gunaratne, 1. W. L. Herath 2. M. Rajakumar Data Processing Assistants 3. W. Karunaratne 1. M. Rajakumar 4. B. M. Gunapala 2. W. B. Herath 3. Priyani Wijesinghe Eastern Coastal Zone 4. W. M. Weerakoon 1. T. Viveganandan 5. Lakshmie de Silva 2. W. MI.Weerakoon 3. W. M. Wijesinghe Cartographers 4. W. S. M. Herath Banda 1. S. M. B. Amunugama 5. P. K. Amerasinghe 2. Swarna Seneviratne 6. M. G. Dharmapala 3. Sunethra Gamagedera

In addition to the persons mentioned above, several officers of the Coast Conservation Division of the Ministry of Fisheries also actively participated in the survey activities. They included Mr. Renton de Alwis Mr. H. V. Dayananda Mr. P. Amarasinghe and Mr. Indra Ranasinghe I must express a special word of thanks to Mr. Renton de Alwis, former Deputy General Manager, Planning, Coast Conservation Division who initiated interest in this Project and worked with great enthusiasm and dedication to see it through. Finally, I must record my gratitude to the late Prof. S. Wijesundra, then Vice-Chancellor, University of Colombo and the former Director, Coast Conservation, Mr. S. R. Amarasinghe for providing us with the raie opportunity of seeing with our own eyes the entire coastal Zone of Sri Lanka, including the islands off the Peninsula. C. M. Madduma Bandara Department of Geography, University Park, Peradeniya. November, 1989. iv CONTENTS

PAGES Preface ...... iii Chapter I Introduction ...... 01 Chapter II : Objectives and Scope of the Survey ...... 08 Chapter III Survey Methodology ...... 11 Chapter IV The Western Coastal Zone ...... 17 Chapter V The Northwestern Coastal Zone ...... 21 Chapter VI The Northern Coastal Zone ...... 26 Chapter VII: The Northeastern Coastal Zone ...... 32 Chapter VIII: The Eastern Coastal Zone ...... 36 Chapter IX The Southeastern Coastal Zcne ...... 40 Chapter X • The Southern Coastal Zone ...... 44 Chapter XI • The Southwestern Coastal Zone ...... 49 Chapter XII: Water-front Structures ...... 55 Chapter XIII: Land Utilization ...... 61 Chapter XIV: Summary and Conclusions ...... 67 Bibliography ...... 72 Appendix Tables ...... 74

V CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

1.1 Location and Historical Significance The Island Republic of Sri Lanka, located in the between the latitudes of 5°55'N and 9051 N and the longitudes of 79'41 E and 81'53 E,covers an area of 65610 square kilometres. It consists mainly of an elongated pear-shaped tropical island with a maximum length of 434 kilometres from Head on the South to on the North, and a maximum width of 227 kilometres from Colombo on the West Coast to on the East Coast. There are also a few small islands scattered along its coast. The midway location of Sri Lanka astride the sea routes between West and East facilitated its use as a stepping stone across the great Indian ocean by people of many nations throughout the ages. The coastline of Sri Lanka with its numerous bays, anchorages and natural harbours afforded adequate shelter for the sailing ships of ancient and medieval times. Since the second century A.D., when the Island first became familiar to Greek and Arab sailors, it has been a port of call and an emporium of sea­ borne trade between the West and the East. At Mahatittha (modem Mantai) on the mainland opposite Mannar,ships from various countries sold and exchanged merchandise and also took away pearls, precious stones and many other products of Sri Lanka. Due to its midway location it was also po,',sible for many travellers to visit Sri Lanka from early periods of her history. Probably no island in the world has been more frequently mentioned in the records of travellers than Sri Lanka (Cook, 1951). Thus travellers from the Far East like Fa-hsien (411 A.D) and those from the West like Marco Polo (1293 A.D.) and those from the Arab world like Ibn Batuta (1344 A.D.) gave a special place to Sri Lanka in their travel records. MariInolli, the Papal envoy to China who visited Sri Lanka in the early 14th century, reported that pmradise" itself existed in Sri Lanka, while Marco Polo referred to it as the "best island for itssize in the world." In olden days, Sri Lanka was so well known to western civilization, that Ptolemy-the veteran map maker of the 2nd century A.D. was compelled to depict Sri Lanka as an extra­ ordinarily large equatorial island occupying the area that should have at least partly been occupied by peninsular . His map was the earliest to show the coastal areas of Sri Lanka in some detail (Fig. 1). For Ptolemy the entire coastliae of Sri Lanka consisted of capes, bays (havens) and headlands. It is clear that details of the coastline were obviously better documented, than most topographical information given fcr the interior parts of the country. Several centuries later when Robert Knox visited Sri Lanka in the 17th century more information on the coastline was available to the navigators. (Fig. 2) it is interesting to note how Knox's map depicts Kalpitiya peninsula as a separate island on the west coast. Some of the coastal features, particularly lagoons, are also not properly represented in Knox's map. In spite of these minor deficiencies Knox's map reflects the remarkable knowledge of the coastline possessed by the Dutch in the 17th century. The vestiges of Dutch rule in Sri Lanka are still seen in the physical structures preserved at numerous points along the coastline The political and commercial interest shown in Sri Lanka by the leading maritime nations of the West since the beginning of the sixteenth century resulted in the mapping of its coastal areas in greater detail and with greater accuracy than for many other tropical islands. The British Admiralty Charts and old topographic maps provide information useful even today on off-shore phenomena as well as on coastal features. 1.2 Environmental Setting Physiographically, Sri Lanka is an extension of peninsular India,from which it is separated by ;;hallow sea. It is thought that the separation took place during the Miocene times when a belt of the Miocene sea covered the South-eastern part of South India. Howuver, the drifting appears to have begun much earlier in the Mesozoic era (Gondwana period) when according to Wagner's theory Sri Lanka drifted in an anticlockwise direction creating an upturned "V' shaped isobath pattern in the (Kularatnam, 1954).Even today, tie southern tip of India and Sri Lanka stand upon the same continental shelf. The shelf around Sri Lanka ends abruptly T AB VL A A S IAEXI

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Figue 1~ £2 ~ zo zz m31 2 2Y 22 2Z7 2Z~ 29 30 32 ~~333AN in the South and East, but broadens towards the North and Northwest forming the Pedro Bank and the Mannar Pearl Banks respectively. It has an average width of about 20 km around the Island. The isbarely 15 fathoms deep while elsewhere the mean depth of water is only about 36 fathoms beyond the continental shelf the sub-marine elevations drop abruptly to 500 fathoms within 3 km and 1000 fathoms within about 15 km. Beyond this there is a steep descent of over 3000 fathoms bringing it to the general bottom level of the Indian Ocean. As a result of the Miocene marine transgression in the Northern and Northwestern parts of the Island, a sedimentary limestone cover was formed. This extends to the sea in many places. However the rest of the coastline has a crysfaffine rock base which is a complex of granites, gneisses and other Precambrian rocks. Where the coastline goes across the strike of the rocks the occurrence of bays increases as in the Northeastern parts of the coast. The crystal­ line rocks are capped by lateritic formations in many parts of the wet zone coastal areas. Laterites have been discovered even below sea level in some localities. Coral reefs and sandstones are two of the most important near-shore formations found around the Island. Coral reefs are particularly noticeable along the southern part of the coastline from to . Sandstones are prominent in places such as Minihagalkanda in the Southeast and Mullaitivu on the Northeastern coast. Except during the Miocene period, Sri Lanka has not experienced any major changes of sea level leading to significant changes in its coastal configuration. The evolution of the Jaffna peninsular is related to the recession of the Miocene sea (Puvanarajan, 1968). Large tracts of the present coasts of Sri Lanka are the outcome of minor Ouarternary sea level changes. Evidence of such sea level fluctuations are found both on the continental shelf and on the coastal zone. Among others, (1958) studied sea level changes in the Nolthwestern coastal areas. Receded cliifs have been recorded by Swan (1964) for the Southwestern coastal Zone, while Cooray (1956) refers to raised beacheson the Kollupitiya-Mount Lavinia Coast. Cooray has also made an aerial study of the evolution of the Northwestern coastal belt (Cooray. 1968). Apart from such geomorphological evidence, the historical records also provide information on short period sea-level changes The Mahawamsa for example refers ti the disappearance of an island with the name 'Gir', and to the sea encroaching upon the land in the Kelaniya area. During the more recent periods of history, changes in the coastline due to coastal erosion have also taken place in many areas. Sinigama Devale near , which was accessible by land about 50 years ago, is now completely cut off from the mainland. Sim:lkrly Deraniyagala (1958) refers to a large building near Arippu (Doric's Bungalow) which was built in the 19th century at a distance of about 200 yards inland from the cliff edge, out has now fallen off the receding cliff. These changes caused by erosion are particularly noticeable on the South and Southwestern coasts. The climate along the coastline varies considerably, from the wet humid tropical type of the Southwestern coast to the semi-arid type in the Northwestern and Southeastern parts of the Island. In general, the climates of the coasts of Sri Lanka are affected by the insularity of the landmass, its proximity to the equator and the Indian monsoons. The Southwest monsoon prevails from Mid-May to September -nd the Northeast monsoon from Octobet to February. Although associated with rainfall, the term monsoon basically means a wind. It is this aspect of the monsoon that affects most coastal processes as well as human activities in the coastal zone. It is in the seasonally moisture deficient drier areas, that beach sands become sufficiently dry to be transported and re-deposited in dunes. Just as the agricultural cycle is adjusted to the monsoons creating Maha and Yala seasons, the fishing industry is also adjusted to monsoons as reflected by the fishing season (Walala) and the off season (Warakan). It also leads to the migration of fishermen from the West coast to the East coast and vice-versa. Similarny, even tourist activities nowadays shift betwcn the West coast and the East coast in harmony with the monsoons. 1.3. Coastal Processes The dominant processes that operate on the coastline of Sri Lanka ate often determined by or related to the monsoons. When the winds are on-shore the seas become rough and when they are off-shore calm conditions tend to prevail. Calm conditions can also be expected during the inter-monsoonal periods.

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1v______- The swell that originates in the or in the Arabian Sea is experienced more or less throughout the year. However, as Table 1.1indicates, it approaches the Island mainly from a Southerly direction. The heavier swell strikes the coastline obliquely, and promotes long-shore transport of beach materials despite the refraction it undergoes in shallow water (Swan, 1979). In the Coastal Zone sheltered from the waves of the open sea and in the islands and peninsulas in the Northwest calm conditions prevail throughout the year. Thus it is a zone where aggrada­ tion is dominant. In other parts of the Coastal Zone beaches exposed to the monsoons undergo seasonal depletion and accretion depending on whether the monsoon is off-shore or on-shore. In the Indian Ocean currents also reverse their direction with the change of the monsoons. Thus there is a tendency for the water to rove from Southwest to the North east during the period from March to September and in the opposite direction from September to March. However, shallow seas in the Gulf of Mannar and the Pedro Bank b'eak this continuity of circula­ tion by deflecting the currents. Since Sri Lanka is in a micro-tidal environment the Island is almost unaffected by tides. Around the coast of Sri Lanka the rise and the fall of the tide is hardly perceptible. The highest tides hardly exceed one metre above mean sea level. There is little change in the level of water at the mouths of most Sri Lankan rivers. As a result they are often blocked by sand bars or banks

Table I.I. Seas and Swell of Sri Lanka Direction of Approach . J F M A M J J A S 0 N D Dominant Direction Sea.. .. NE NE NW W W W W W W W W NE Swell.. .. NE NE S W SW W W W W Wv S NE Next dominant direction N N NE NW SW SW SW SW SW SW NE N N N NE S W SW SW SW SW SW SW N Next dominant direction .. NW NW N SW NW NW NW NW NW NW N NW SW S NW SW NW S NW NW NW S W S Next dominant direction WSW .. .NW SW S SW SW NW S S S 5 S NW NE SW Sower.' Alias of Sea & Swell Charts. Indian Ocean, U S Navy oxtraicted from Swan 1979

cf mud. This has led to the formatior' of large shallow, coastal lagoons around the Island. In faict low-tidal conditions of Sri Lankan river mouths stand in contrast to many West European river mouths or to those of the Ganges where the tides rise over 5 metres. Although, in Sri Lanka the highest tides hardly rise over one metre, a combination of high tida and swell can cause severe erosion along some segments of the coast. Sand and other materiils from which be,,ches are formed iresupplied mostly by the rivers. There are some 103 rivers with distinct basins in the Island which discharge into !he se-, carrying with them sediment in suspended form or as bedload. These sediments are carried back and forth and are re-worked by the waives or moved along the coastline by coastal currents and long-shore drifting These processes lead to the formation of aggrivational feature; such as sand-spits and tombolos. They also occasionally lock the river mouths and contribute to the formation of lagoons and bays. The materia eroded from the coastline forms another source of beach material. Thus the Southwestem coast particularly between and Matara, is poorly supplied with sandy bejche., because it represents tracts from which s 'nd is transported to other areas by the long-shore drift, 1.4. Coastal Types The coastal processes activated by the monsoons are affected by a host of other physical and biological factors. Geomorphologically, the aspect or orientation of the coastline is one of the most significant factors that determines the nature of the coastline in Sri Lanka. Thus the south-western and southern parts of the coastline directly facing the southwest monsoon receive the full brunt of the high monsoonal winds and the swell caused by it, unlike the north western

5 coastal areas that are sheltered from their effects. The type of rocks found along the coast line may enhance the rate of solution and erosion by the waves as in the Miocene areas or impede it because of the resistive properties of certain rock types such as charnockites, gneisses and granites. The coastal vegetation plays an important role in the formation and stabilisation of coastal sand accumulations. The dryness of the climate combined with strong winds leads to the formation of sand dunes in many parts of Sri Lanka-a rare phenomenon in the low energy coastal environment of the equatorial regions. The different combinations of these coastal processes produce different coastal types around the Island. A common belief is that the southern half of Sri Lanka has submergent coasts and the northern half emergent coasts, caused by the tilting of the island with the fuicrum running East-West between Colombo and Potuvil and with the down-tilt in the South. As Swan (1965) has pointed out this is an attractive but an unwarranted explanation of misunderstood facts. There is evidence to suggest that as far as the coastline is concerned, Sri Lanka has been tectonically stable during the recent periods of geological history. It is difficult to assume that processes of isostatic recovery after the Pleistocene which were common in most North European countries were operative on a similar magnitude in Sri Lanka. The oscillations of sea level in Sri Lanka have been of a minor nature. Both positive as well as negative changes are evident in South-western as well as in North-eastern coastlines. Therefore, a simple classification of coastal types as 'emergent' and 'submergent' will not hold in the Sri Lankan context. In general, the entire cc3stal plain of Sri Lanka can be considered as a plain of submergence. It is true that there is evidence of emergence in the fonn of raised beaches, wave-cut terraces and elevated coral reefs here and there around the coast. However, owing to the slight rise of sea level observed since the middle of the 19th century, the dominant characteristics are those of submergence. The presence of broad flat alluvial plains virtually at sea level behind partly silted up lagoons shut off from the sea bv low sand bars and spits, is indicative of this sequence of events. Considering the morphological variations, the coastal plain of Sri Lanka can be divided into four regions (Cooray, 1967). (i) The Mannar Coastal Plain (iii) The Coastal Plain (ii) The Coastal Plain (iv) The Coastal Plain On the basis of erosional stability, Swan (1965) has recognized nine types of beaches in the southwestern Coastal Zone of Sri Lanka b..tween Colombo and Tangalla. This classification is found to be useful in studying the problem of coastal erosion in the areas concerned, although it may not be applicable to beaches of all types found in the Island. 1.5 Coastal Erosion Coastal erosion is the most widely discussed problem relating to the Coastal Zone of Sri Lanka. This is because the worst affected part of the coastline happens to be the most densely populated part of the country. Thus the Southwestern Coastal Zone dominates the thinking on coastal planning in Sri Lanka. Coastal erosion is defined as a condition where the beach is unable to withstand the energy of nearshore currents, waves and breakers. Considerable extents of land are eroded in the process of disspation of such energy. Under natural conditions a coastline tends to reach a balance between' its erosive and depositional forces, thereby attaining a certain steady state over a period of years. However, eustatic or isostatic changes may cause a rise in the level leading to a greater loss of coastal land. Such situations are normally rare and take long periods of time to regain their balance once they occur. What often happens is that man encroaches on nature's domains and subjects himself to heavy penalties In the context of coastal phenomena there is a certain belt along the coast line with an ecosystem developed in harmony with nature. When man encroaches on these !.qnds and disturbs these ecosystems for his housing, cultivation or recreational purposes then it becomes necessary to guard against the forces of nature. Thus unplanned and uncoordinated human activities without a proper understanding of the ways of nature often lead to unexpected problems. Coastal erosion is also accelerated by the capricious activities of man himself. These include mining of sand from rivers and beaches, the breaking and mining oi Coral reefs and the

6 removal of coastal vegetation. An example is the from which an estimated 400,000 cubic metres of sand are removed, annually when the total bedload of the river is around 600,000 cubic metres (Economic Review, 1980). Similarly, coral mining is extensively practised in the Southwestern Coastal Zone resulting in accelerated coastal erosion. Preventive measures introduced without scientific planning may also lead to coastal erosion. Coastal structures introduced as adhoc engineering devices can have negative effects in the long run. Thus in certain situations, piling of boulders to combat erosion can provide additional tools for the waves to attack coastal lands with increased vigour. Modern coastal engineering offers a variety of solutions to erosion problems such as construction of groynes, revetments and artificial beach nourishment. 1.6. Conservation and Management Since Sri Lanka's coastal waters have been used by colonial naval powers over a long period of time, there is a wide variety of coastal structures that have been left behind by them. The Portuguese and Dutch forts, jetties and still bear testimony to the intense activity along the coastal zone in colonial times. The relatively higher population pressure on the south-westerncoastal lowlands has also led to the launching of coastal protection programmes in these areas particularly during the last century. The current wave of tourist activity ;! the Coastal Zone has added a new dimensic,r to the country's coast conservation ploblems. For purposes of tourism massive structures are now being built for hotels on the water-front preventing public access to the beaches. These hotels often increase coastal pollution through waste disposal. The current interest in coastal problems can be traced back to the 1940s when efforts were made to construct adhoc protective structures in places where the impact of erosion was most severely felt. During this period several Government agencies such as the Departments of Public Works, Railways, and Irrigation, introduced coast protection measures to suit the individual requirements of these agencies. Since National Independence in 1948 development activities related to fisheries, com­ mence and agriculture led to the construction of more and more maritime structures such as breakwaters, quays, arid fishery harbours which have often been introduced without adequate investigations and research studies. This has near!y always had the effect of aggravating the existing problems inevitable can't be reconciled. The first attempt to coordinate coastal management activities was made when the subject of coastal protection was transferred to the Colombo Port Commission in 1964. Since 1960 successive Governments have invited foreign consultants to study and report on the coastal conservation problems. These included studies by Zeaper (1960) of the Netherlands, Eaton (1961) of the U.S.A. and more recently by the UNDP. With the expansion of the tourist industry a stagc has now been reached where it is necessary to bring all coastal areas within a sound plan of development. If this is not done a chaotic situation will inevitably result in many parts of the Coastal Zone in the near future. Recognizing this need the Government initiated the present programme of coast conserva­ tion in January 1978 with the transfer of coast conservation functions from the Colombo Port Commission to the Ministry of Fisheries. The Coast Conservation Act was passed in Parliament in June 1981, with the aim of laying the foundation for the rational development and manage­ ment of coastal resources. Any plan of development to be successful requires an understanding of the existing state of the Coastai Zone. The study that led to this report was an attempt to fulfil this need in a modest way. The present report thus forms only another contribution to the commendable efforts now being made by the Coast Conservation Department, to conserve for future genera­ tions the beauty, usefuness and stability of the Coastal Zone of Sri Lanka. CHAPTER II OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF THE SURVEY

2.1. Objectives The Coast Conservation Act of 1981 provides for surveys of the Coastal Zone aimed at inventorising coastal structures, coral reefs, mineral deposits, recreational areas, sand and coral mining areas, and areas faced with coastal erosion hazards, and at conducting a census of all workers currently engaged in activities related to the Coastal Zone. The present survey was designed as a reconnaissance study of the nature and location of coastal structures, landuse patterns and landforms in the entire Coastal Zone (See Fig. 3). The specific objective of the inventory of coastal structures was to observe and map the natural and man-made coastal structurus through field observations. These structures included the following: i. Revetments and Boulder walls. ii. Groynes. iii. Breakwaters. iv.Piers and Jetties. v. Sewage outfalls. vi. Headiands and other natural features. vii. Reefs and rock outcrops. viii. Hotels, houses and other buildings. In the case of artificial structures, the location, dimensions, age, functional condition and the area served by them were among the featuies that were observed. Regarding natural structures, their location, natural history, morphology and a general understanding of their characteristic features were to be obtained. The second major aspect of the project dealing with landuse and landforms inthe coastal zone was undertaken with the following objectives. (i) Designning out a classification for the mapping of landuse in the Coastal Zone. (ii) Preparing an inventory of landuse in the coastal zone mapped at the scale of 1 : 6500 using air photographs with ground follow up. (iii) Describing the existing lanO uses in an area specific manner. (iv) Preparing an inventory of the major geomorphological features in the Coastal Zone. (v) Describing the major landforms found within the Coastal Zone. Since the entire coastline of the country was covered on foot by survey investigators, several other observations not directly related to the two major objectives referred to above were also made wherever possible. These included observations on the following: (i) Beach matrial (particularly beich sands). (ii) Dominant vegetation types, and (iii) Dominant human activities. Accordingly, a reconnaissance study of the coastal zone of Sri Lanka remained the under­ lying objective of the entire survey. The survey was not intended to be an engineering study or a land survey where surveying instruments had to be used. In the field studies undertaken, the basic tools used were the available air-photographs and topographic maps. The main strategy was to scan the entire coastline and observe and inventorise all items of significance found falling within the Coastal Zone. 2.2 Scope of the Survey The Coast Conservation Act defines the Coastal Zone as the area 'lying within, a limit of three hundred metres landwards of the Mean High Wate Line and a limit of two kilometres of the Mean Low Water Line. The survey was designed to study the features in the landward coastal zone of 300 metres from the Mean High Water Line. Nevertheless, the reefs, rock outcrops and structures, which could be examined from the beach were ,tudied and recorded wherever possible. 8 Although the entire Coastal Zone of Sri Lanka including that of the main islands came within the purview of the survey, the smaller islands off the North-western Coast had to be mapped from air photographs. No field investigations were undertaken. Thus, while all the larger islandssuchasTalai Mannar, , Punkudutivu, Nainativu and Delft were surveyed in the field, small islands such as Sinnativu, Iranativu and Paiativu were mapped from airphoto­ graphs. Similarly, while bays were included in the field survey, lagoons were left out except those of Jaffna, Mannar and Puttalam which are open to the sea throughout the year. Here also the inner part of to the east of Elephant Pass was mapped mainly from airphotographs. The lagoons which are not often open to the sea with their unique ecosystems deserve a separate study organized on a different footing. Certain parts of the coastline with poor accessibility such as those falling within the Yala National Park had to be mapped by approaching the coastline in boats. The coastal zone falling within the Wilpattu Nationai Park was covered on foot. It was approached from its southern and northern boundaries. The salt marshes and estuaries with silty beaches where access was dilficult were mapped by observing them from a distance with the help of airphotographs. Although the entire Coastal Zone of the Island as defined in the Act was encompassed by the survey, particuiar attention was paid to the water-front. The landuse in the rest of the coastal zone was mapped out on the basis of a classification especially deve'oped for the purpose.

The total length of the Coastal Zone covered by the field survey was: (i) Coastline Open to the Sea (including bays) ...... 1639 km (ii) Coastline of the islands* • ...... 281 km

Total ...... 1920 km 'Excluding the coastline of the islands mapped from air photographs)

Apart from the quantitative observations made on coastal features and artificial structures, a large number of coastal residents were interviewed in order io obtain qualitative information on the history of the coastline close to their homes or fishinq camps. The sample was of course purposely selected and was largely determined by the availability of respondents. In addition, information on hotels and Government buildings was obtained from officials of concerned institutions. An attempt was made to perfect a questionnaire for each kilometre covered by the field survey; a total of 1920 questionnaires were completed in this manner. In addition to recording inmtiation in the field, samples of beach material were inspected at the margin of creeping vegetation for texture and colour. The Coastal Zone covered by the survey is depicted in 41 one-inch topographical maps (Table 2.1 ). Table 2.1: One Inch Maps Covering the Coastal Zone

Name of Map Dates of Revision, Edition and Printing

1. Colombo Printed 1973. printed 1973. 2. Negornbo 2nd Revision 1946, Fourth Fdition 1948. 3. 3rd Revision 1946, Fourth Edition 1950. 4. Battulu Oya 2nd Revision 1943, Third Edition 947 5. Puttalam Revision 1965, Printed 1972. 6. Kalpitiya 2nd Revision 1943, Third Edition 1947. 7. Kudiremalai Revised 1938, Reprited 1980. 8. Marichchukkadai Revised 1938, Reprinted 1958. 9. Murunkan Revised 1972, Printed 1972. 10. Mantai Revised 1972, Primed 1981.

9 Name of Map Dates -)f Revision, Edition and Printing

11. Revised 1971, Reprinted 1980. 12. Tunukkai Latest Revision 1938, Fourth Edition 1950. 13. Pooneryn Revised 1937, Partly Rev'sed 1971, Reprinted 1972. 14. Delft Revised 1961, Printed 1968. 15. Kayt,. Latest Revision 1938, Printed 1939. 16. Jaffna Revised 1959, Reprinted 1980. 17. Point Pedro Revised 1959, Reprinted 1971. 18. Elephant Pass Revised 1938, Reprintad 1971. 19. Iranamadu Revised 1972, Reprinted 1974. 20. Mullaitivu Revised 1936, Re-printed "969. 21. Kokkilai Revised 1972, Reprinted 1980. 22. Padawiya Revised 1972, Printed 1973. 23. Revised 1943, Reprinted 1960. 24. Trincomalee Revised 1952, Reprinted 1967. 25. Kathiraveli Revised 1951, Reprinted 1971. 26. Vakaneri Revised 1962, Printed 1969. 27. Revised 1967, Printed 1970. 28. Batticaloa Revised 1939, Reprinted 1971. 29. K .4munai Revised (Partly) 1968, Printed 1971. 30. Tirrukkovil Revised (Partly) 1968, Printed 1970. 31. Pottuvil Revised 1965, Printed 1968. 32. Rovised 1965, Printed 1969. 33. Yala Revised 1936, Reprinted 1971. 34. Kataragama Revised 1965, Primed 1968. 35. Revision 1935, Third Edition 1945. 36. Ambalantota Reviscd 1955, Reprinted 1967. 37. Matara Revised 1972, Printed 1967, 1974. 38. Galle Revised 1943, Reprinted 1967. 19. Partly Revised 1971, Reprinted 1972. 40. Alutgamrr r Revised 1974, Printed 1980. 41. & Revised 1972, Printed 1979.

10 CHAPTER III SURVEY METHODOLOGY In view of the extensive area to be covered by the survey and the large numb( r of investi­ gators needed, and in order to minimise any operator variation, certain methodological pro­ cedures had to be adopted for the survey from its very outset. The methodology of an inquiry of this nature also determines to a considerable extent the degree of reliability that can be placed on the inferences drawn from it. Therefore, the procedures outlined below are not necessarily standard ones but have been developed to suit the special requirements of the Survey and the constraints of available time and resources. 3.1. Cordination of Investigations As noted earlier, there were two major objectives of the survey, namely, to prepare an inventory of coastal structures and to map the contemporary landuse pattern in the Zone. It was planned Coastal from the very outset to coordinate investigations related to both tiese objectives so as to avoid duplication of field effort. These two aspects of the Coastal ' one are also interrelated to a considerable extent, despite the fact that some of the structures have only historical significance today. Information on both structures and landuse were recorded on the same data recording schedules and the same investigators were used to observe both aspects. The mapping of geomorphological information was also done in a similar way. 3.2 Operational Definitions As indicated in the outline of the scope of the survey, almost all the field observations were confined to the find area of the Coastal Zone as defined by the Coast Conservaticn Act No. 57 of 1981. i.e. the irea lying within a limit of 300 ietres from the Mean High Waiter Line (MHL) It was found that precise identification of the MH/. on the grounad is not easy during field imvestigations. Therefore the seaward lirom of natiral weqe tatiGi paticularly that of creep ig ve(getat i)0, was aken to ;eprf, r it !he MHL AlnioA tihi in 'totli!o l,vi v(e11pvuh t 1ontypes such as ,V/&/l ravana.: rlvi//a (Sl)1rhf/V /1ttoleus) and 81111u/,-m61111I (/pomtHin lpeoscaprae) helne"d to a great eten itIn def0inn.r ig , limit Sirict haird!v any surveying instruments w re 'Lse(t in tho field survey, !he! 300 metres landward distance forn the High Water Mark was estimatt:d by pacing. It was founld that, owing to the fo';,ation Of buildings;, pirape wills and fences, and similar obst'uctions, it would take a long time to prcisely demarcate the Coastal Zone on the grotind in many places even with survymg instrunients. Athough measuring tapes were used occasionally to measure the dimensions of certain structures whte feasible, most field measurements were only Visual approximations. 3.3 Organization of Field Work In order to facilitate the organization and supervision of field investigations, the coastline of the whole Island was divided into 8 zones. (Table 3.1 and Fig. 3).

Table 3.1

Length Number Zone of Investigators Extent in km. assigned

Zone I Colombo-Puttalam .... 286 4 Zone II Puttalam-Elephant Pass 380 4 (including Talaimannar) Zone III Elephant Pass-Chempiyanpattu .. 181 6 Zone IV Islands off .. 218 Zone IV Chempiyanpattu-Foul Point .. 266 4 Zone V Foul-Point-Pottuvil .... 204 6 Zone VI 'Pottuvil- Hambantota .... 127 4

11 OO A S p . .

,,, 0 I....\ \ Some Important Place Names 4 A ..."\'o along the Coast Line of

Kd-. JAF AWA Sri Lanka.

-',)I ~ ,0 0 LAitO0iV - h ~O..4i3',O

" -4. .. 1-1

0 0~ ~ 'AARU ILAGOOO

'A 0*00* A1A 0R~~ Vr-!.1', 1 .. L.T ,.

N I \ I" A000,A *0 714_ .

N 0 2 to I,.A tA- . . '.. .- 4u'", A~lK.01 jg,t IA PooiN, "-"I"Y:-.-". . " . 0" 0,". A1, 'OE O AAM

\ \\- "\\D- (J-\ ... .7'; /,--+' -'-. h 10h

/A1 'A I '

) N

-, .o/ :T"T "- " , ' ," . / ',' ... i ;' 00j .I .2 I ' , \ • "

pd.. oU, N ....-,, ,, ..., I\" .. ... --'-1'>!

PAMA

. )r A{, ,,o .. , - . . :,,A, , ., n AIi !

ft"~~.40

{lll i" l¢ .- ' > - ­

, \\ , , '' ...... I \ ,\al.,Oq-

II', , '-' -" ' 0 I',\,, ",., ' 7 ",, , ',:00J l i , 000 '0­ 'I',0 . .. ; " "/',' , ,, ,

2Figure 3 4 "20l0..0..."0

'R"0

12 Length Number of Investigators Zone Extent in km. assigned

Zone VII Hambantota-Galle ... 123 6 Zone VIII Galle-Colombo . 135 6 Total ...... 1920 40

Zones II and III included the islands lying off their coasts. Although Talai Mannar is included in Zone I the information relating to the islands off Jaffna Peninsula are presented separately in the Report. Each zone was assigned to a field supervisor of the rank of Assistant Lecturer in a university, and a group of graduate investigators who worked under his supervision. The number of investigators assigned to each zone varied between 4 and 6 depending on the length of the coastline to be covered and the estimated amount of work involved. All supervisors ai d invesigators went through a training programme immediately prior to the beginning of the field survey. This included a day visit toa selected segment of beach by the Project coordinators and supervisors, and a three day workshop attended by the officers of the Coast Conser ' ation Department, Project coordinators, field supervisors and investigators. During th;s workshop the investigators who were a!! graduates wtth Special degrees in Geography, were given a practical training for the field survey. This included the preparation of base maps, questionnaire schedules, and other necessary materials related to the zoneL assigned to them. Every attempt was made to select investigators from the coastal areas and to assign them field stations close to theis homes. Thus Mannar Zone (Zone II) was covered by 4 investigators from that area while the Jaffna Zone (Zone Ill) was covered by 6 investigators from the Jaffna Peninsula. Therefore, most of the investigators were familiar with th,-. coastal environments investigated by them. All field investigato;s were issued with specific instructions as to how they should conduct the survey. On the first day of field work, supervisoes accompanied their investigators to the respective areas and demonstrated how the field measurements and recording of information should be done. Investigators were instructed to cover the entire length of the coastline assigned to them on foot and directly observe the phenomena they mapped. Each investigator had a fairly accurate estimate of the length of his pacing and carried a field note book to record his observations in addition to mapping the Coastal Zone and filling the questionnaire schedules. The investigators were expected to go to the field in pairs, particulprly in the more hazardous stretches of the coastal zone. The supervision of the work of investigators was carried out in two ways. The supervisors were required to visit their investigators on at least five occasions during the survey and whenever they thought it ne..,essary. . e Project coordinators visited each group of investigators as and when necessary during 'he period of the survey. 3.4. Mapping Procelure Base maps were prepared at the scale of 1 : 6,500 on tracing paper before the beginning of the field surve-1. These base maps were made by enlarging the available airphotographs upto the required scale and inserting the locations of a few prominent landmarks on to them. In most maps the enlargement was made mechanically by the Air Photo Reader available at the University of Colombo. Although 1974 air-photographs were available for most areas. investi­ gators had to depend on 1956 photographs for Eome localities, particularly in the Northern region. Since the mapping was done through direct observation and with the aid of base maps of uniform scale, the age of the air' hotographs did ioq: significantly affect the mapping procedure. For all purposes of the field survey, a distance of one kilometre has been considered as the operational unit for mapping and collection of information. Thus the Colombo lighthouse was taken as the 'beginning' or zero point and each kilometre from there was reckoned in a clockwise direction. An investigator was expected to cover one kilometre (or two kilometres for a pair) per day on the average. In th3 way investigators had adequate time to observe and record

13 relevant information during their traverses. This also gave them sufficient time to prepare for each day's work in advance. The questionnaire schedules were also designed to record informa­ tion for each kilometre covered. 3.5. Questionnaire Schedules In addition to the recording of information on base maps, the field investigators each carried a questionnaire schedule and recorded detailed information on coastal structures and landus.,. During the training programme, investigators bec3rne familiar with the questionnaire, and how each question should be answered, and how each box should be filled. On the first day of fieldwork, their supervisors also demonstrated how information should be recorded in the questionnaire schedules. The supervisors had to go through each questionnaire completed by the investigators and certify them after proper scrutiny The questionnaire schedule which ran into 18 type written pages had blank spaces to be filled after observation and measurement as well as after interviews with coastal residents. The main headings under which information was sought by the questionnaires were as follows: (i) Locational Particulars (Map Coordinates, G. S. N. Division, Landuse, etc.). (ii) Geographical Description (a) Whether straight coast, sandspits, bay, headland, etc. (b) Rock types. (c) Nature of beach material (d) Dominant vegetation types (e) Dominant human activities (iii) History of the Shoreline-whether receding or developing and the approximate rate of recedence or development. (iv) Man-made Structures­ (a) Revetments, Boulder Walls, Groynes, etc. (b) Breakwaters, Piers and Jetties (c) Sewage outfalls (v) Natural features-Headlands, Reefs, Rock outcrops, islands, etc. (vi) Hotels, Houses and Other Buildings (vii) Vegetation types-Sandy shore, , Saltmarsh, Forest and Grass, etc. (viii) Landuse-Agricultural, Recreational, Commercial, Residential, etc. (ix) Water-Front structures-An enumeration of Houses, Boutiques, Hotels, etc.

3.6. Data Processing The raw data collected during the field survey and information contained in the question­ naires and base maps were analysed with the following aims: (a) extraction of statistical information from the data schedules and, (b) preparation of a folder of mars covering the entire coastal zone of the Island. so as to make the symbols and colour schemes meaningful even to a user from outside Sri Lan!-a. The final legend, prepared with the above considerations in mind, had over 70 symbols and a number of colour combinations Depending on 'he type of information to be portrayed, these symbols and colours had to be used occasionally in an overlapping manner. In order to make the maps more meaningful to the local reader. One-Inch Topographical Map symbols were adopted where possible. Nevertheless, the international code developed by the ITC of the Netherlands was used as a basic guide. As noted earlier the general scale of the maps wac 1 6,500 or approximately 10 inches to a mile, which had also been the scale of base maps. This scale was considered appropriate to depict the information collected in view of the fact that most types of information could be accommodated without making the map over-crowded. At present to the best of our knowledge there have been no other maps of the same scale, or maps containing the same quantum of information on the coastal zone of Sri Lanka. In the organization of data we were guided by the recent division of the coastal zone into some 46 segments for planning purposes by a "Committee appointed to demarcate tourist

14 development areas of the coastal belt of Sri Lanka". For the purposes of processing data we have incorporated these 46 divisions in the 8 zones around which the field survey was organized (See Table 3.2) below. Table 3.2: Zones and Segments of the Coast Line Zone No. Zone Segment Length in km. I. Colombo-Puttalam :Colombo light house to Kelani river 15 (286 km) Kelani river to Lagoon 27 : Negombo to Mahaoya 9 : to Karukkupona 42 : K-rukkupona to Talawila 59 : Talawila to Puttalam 134 I Puttalam-Elephant Puttalam to Mannar 113 Pass . Talaimannar Island 63 (380 km) Vidattaltivu to Mannar 22 : Vidattaltivu to Elephant Pass 182 III Elephant Pass- Elephant Pass to Jaffna 93 Chempiyanpattu Jaffna to Point Pedro 72 (181 kin) : Point Pedro to Chempiyanpattu 16 IV Chempiyanpattu to Chempiyanpattu to Mullaitivu 61 Foul Point Mullaitivu to Kokilai 36 (266 km) Kokilai to Irakkandy Bridge 43 Irakkandy Bridge to Trincomalee 17 Trincomalee to Foul Point 109 V Foul Point-Pottuvil Foul Point to Vakarai 40 (204 kin) Vakarai to Kaldudah 34 Kalkudah to Batticaloa 32 Batticaloa to Pottuvil 98 VI Pottuvil-Hamban- Pottuvil to Heda Oya 7 tota (127 km) Heda Oya to Hambantota 120 VII Hambantota to Galle Hambantota to 41 (123 km) Tangalle to Dondra Head 34 Dondra Head to Matara 5 Polhena 3 Polhena to Bay 8 Weligama Bay 8 Weligama Bay to Koggala 12 Koggala to Unawatuna 7 Unawatuna to Galle 5 VIII Galle to Colombo Galle Municipal Limits 14 (135 km) Galle to Dodanduwa 9 Dodanduwa to Hikkaduwa 9 Hikkaduwa to Ambalangoda 11 Ambalangoda to Ahungalle 10 Ahungalle to Kosgoda 5 Kosgoda to Induruwa Railgate 6 Induruwa Railgate to Bentota Estuai-y 7 Bentota Estuaty to Beruwela Light House 4 Beruwela Light House to Maggona Headland 8

15 Zone No. Zone Segment Length in km.

VIII Galle to Colombo Maggona Headland to 7 (135 km) Contd. Kalutara Lagoon 5 Kalutara to Thalpitiya Ela R Thalpitiya Ela to Panadura Ganga 5 Panadura Ganga to Mount Lavinia 17 Mount Lavinia to Vanderwert Place, Dehiwela 2 Vanderwert Place to Colombo 7

The tabulation of statistical data was arranged according to the above coastal segments and zones, in the hope that they would prove useful that way for planning purposes. 3.7 The information collected on the base maps was transfered after necessary editing o cartographic maps of the same scale, i.e. 1 :6,500. Therefore, there was hardly any loss of infor­ mation in the preparation of the final maps The most important aspect of map preparation was the development of an appropriate classificatory legend. The legend had to be on one hand comprehensive enough to incorporate almost all the features observed in the coastal zone. On the other hand, it had to be concise enough not to be too unwieldy. Furthermore, the legend had to be prepared in such a way that it could be followed by a local user of the maps without much difficulty. At the same time, it was thought desirable to conform to international conventions in coastal map making

16 CHAPTER IV THE WESTERN COASTAL ZONE

4.1 Location The Coastal Zone stretch between Colombo (Light House) and Puttalam (town limits) defines the Western Coastal Zone for the purposes of the survey. This includes six segments of the coastal zone rucognized for coastal development planning. The total length of the Western Coastal Zone surveyed comprises 286 kilometres of coast line including that of the Kalpitiya Peninsula. The main alignment of this coast line in north-south except in a short stretch that falls within the Dutch Bay and . The coast-line runs more or less parallel to the 80E longitude and extends between 6.55'-8.20'N latitudes (See Figure 3). 4.2 Prominent Features 1 Immediately to the north of Galle Buck the first maior feature encountered in the Western Coastal Zone is the Colombo harbour. The harbour with its long breakwaters, quays and jetties form the biggesi man-made complex of coastal structures in the island. To the north of Colombo harbour is the fishery harbour at Modera. The area up to the mouth of the Kelani Ganga is thickly populated with a dense network of roads and buildings. At the mouth of the Kelani Ganga there are some sand bars and islets, the biggest of which is Crow Island. The Kelani Ganga which reaches the sea along a meandeting path has an annual discharge of about 4660x10 3 acre feet of water. The removal of river sand which is a common practice here, undoubtedly affects the beach formation processes in the vicinity of the river mouth. The segment of the coastline from the Kelani estuary to Negombo ( lleegamuwa) is basically a straight coastline. There are two major coastal features in this area, namely the Muthurajawela marsh and the . The Negombo lagoon is formed by a large sand bar, which runs from Pamunugama to Duwa near the town of Negombo. The Hamilton which begins its north-ward journey from the mouth of the Kelani Ganga, traverses more or less through the entire Western Coastal Zone, only interrupted occasionally by lagoons and estuaries. The Maha Oya estuary near Kochchikade forms the next important landmark. Two pro­ minent sand bars are found on the two banks of the Maha Oya estuary. From Maha Oya estuary to Chilaw (Halawata) the coastline remains straight without any prominent land marks. The Deduru Gya estuary to the north of Chilaw displays several sand bars and islets somewhat similar to those at the Kelani estuary. The is often considered to be the geographical boundary between the Wet Zone and the Dry Zone. From Deduru Oya to Udappu is a straighi coast line behind which is a zone of continuous canals and Marshlands! Udappu, is located at the southern end of the Kaipitiya Peninsula which represents the longest sandspit formation in the country. The Kalpitiya sea board has some of the prime fishing areas of the west coast such as Talavila and Kandakuliya. There are several small islands to the north of Kalpitiya such as Erumativu, Periya Arichchal and Ippantivu. Some of these islands are uninhabited and are subject to seasonal changes. The eastern coast of the Peninsula which burders the Puttalam lagoon is more densely inhabited than its western coast, except at the southern end of the laqoon where some salt marshes form a dominant landscape feature. The Negombo-Puttalam canal joins the Puttalam lagoon near Palavi and from Palavi to Puttalam a few salterns and a small area somewhat polluted by waste disposal can be observed. 4.3. Environmental Setting The climate of the Western Coastal Zone ranges from the wet humid climate near Colombo to the Dry Zone climate of Puttalam The average annual rainfall of Colombo arour.d 2300 mm gradually decreases northwards towards Puttalam which receives only 1140 mm. Thus the Western Coastal Zone includes all (hree major climatic regions of the island, namely. .lle Wet Zone, Intermediate Zone and the Dry Zone. The coast line which mainly faces the west, except

1 Galle Buck is an anglicination of tIhe original Sinhala woid Galbokka

17 in the eastern coast of the Puttalam lagoon, receives the full brunt of the south west monsoonal winds and their accompanying swell. However, unlike in the south western coast, here the south westerly winds reach the coast line somewhat obliquely, facilitating conditions of longshore drift f;om south to north. This aspect of the climate is primarily responsible for the formation of most coastal features particularly those related to sand spits in the northern segment of this zone. The western coastal zone comprises of two underlying geological formations. From Colo­ mbo upto a point north of Chilaw around Sinnapadu, the main geological formation is a com­ plex of Archean gneisses and granites. Here the gneisses of two types are found, Wanni Gneiss to the North of Colombo and Bintenna Gneiss towards Colombo. In most places within the gneiss-granite region, a laterite formation rests on the parent rock, extending to the shore line and occasionally even beyond it. Considerable deposits of peal are found at Muthurajawela to the north of Colombo. To the north of Sinnapadu the second major geological formation, namely that of Miocene limestone could be seen. Small pockets of clay deposits are found in the area around Palavi and Bangadeniya. One of the geological formations important to coast conservation is the beach rock, which can be observed in many places along this coast line (Cooray, 1968). The five-fathom submarine contour is located within five kilometres of the coast line, and runs along almost the entire Western Coastal Zone. However, the 10 fathom submarine contour is located at a distance of 10-15 kilometres away from the shore line except along the west coast of Kalpitiya Peninsula. Thus there is a reldtively wide belt of shallow sea with depths ranging from 5 to 10 fathoms in most places of the western sea-board. This contrasts some­ what with the southern and south-western coastal areis where the ten-faithom submarine con­ tour almost hugs the coastline. The prominent crenulation of the ten-fathom contour near the mouth of the Deduru Oya is of some geomorphological significance since it could be an indication of the extension of the estuary further into the sea during an earlier alge 4.4. Results of the Field Survey A summary of geomorphological information collected during the field survey is presented in Appendix Table 1. It should be noted that the data presented in this Table are based on ground observations made by field investigators at distances of one kilomnetre In some instances it was possible to observe and record more than one geomorphological crature even within a distance of one kilometre. The information recorded for each kilometre in the field is 1Jrouped into the 6 segments referred to earlier and for the Western Coastal Zone ais a whole. Thus Appendix Table I shows three major sets of geomorphological information pertaining to the Western Coastal Zone, namely, geomorphological description, nature of beach material and the history of the shoreline. The first set of data indicates that nearly two thirds of the coast line isstraight and sandspits and lagoons are the most donimant features. Off-shore red1s ire obs.rved in nearly one third of the coastline. Sea cliffs are almost totally absent and rock outcrops are hard to come by. As can be seen, offshore reefs and sandspits become more preponderant towards the northern parts of the zone. The reefs while providing some protection to the shoreline, pose obstacles to small fishing vessels. In some places, gaps have been made on the reefs by fishermen to take their boats across. In contrast to the South Western Zone head­ lands are rare, except in a small stretch to the north of Talawila in the Kalpitiya peninsula. A wrecked ship lying at Palliyawatta is observed to be creating the effect of a headland in a coastline which is otherwise straight. The field observation on beach materials indicate that boulders, cobbles and pebbles which are characteristic of cliffed coastlines are rare in the Western Coastal Zone. Nearly 90 per cent of the coastline has sandy beaches while short stretches of silty beaches are observed near river mouths and lagoonal areas. Brownish sands which cover (account foi) nearly 20 per cent of the area investigated are seen more in the northern areas and in the Pattalam lagoon. Black sands which are particularly dominant in the Maha Oya-Karukkupona stretch and the Kelani-Negombo stretch deserves special mention these black sands are particularly noticeable on the beach at Kammala, a village to north of the Maha Oya estuary. Some information on the history of the shoreline was obtained wherever possible from the residents of the coastal zone. Such information is based on personal experiences of the res­ 18 pondents during their life time. The interviews were mainly centred around the question as to whether the coastline has receded or developed and the approximate distances if it was possible to recall. Appendix Table 1 gives the responses received for the 20-30 years perid for which there was) a reasonable amount oi information was available. This indicated that in the 92 kilometres covered (32% of the total length of coast) the coastline has receded at an average rate of 2-3 metres per annum during the last 20-30 years. On the other hand the shore line is reported to have been developing along 59 km (20% of the total). The average annual rate of development is computed to be less than one metre. Furthermore, while the recendence of the coastline was observed in all the six segments of .ie zone, its development was reported only from three of them. The dominant natural vegetation types in the coastal zone were also observ- and re­ corded during the field survey. This was based on a classification of vegetation into the following categories. 1. Sandy shore vegetation (a) on flat beaches (b) on sand dunes 2. Mangrove vegetation 3. 4. Forest, and 5. Grass The results of the survey of the vegetation types (Appendix Table 2) show that the most dominant type in the coastal zone is sandy shore vegetation in which the low creeping type was the most common. This included species such as Bimtaniburu (Ipomea pescaprae) and Maha Rawana Ravulh (Spin/fix httoreus). Mangrove and dune vegetation came second and third in terms of abundance. Much of the mangrove vegetation was mature with species such as Kadol (Avicenna) and Wetake ('Pana ,"ustectornus)' The dune vegetation was fined to the coastal con­ zone north of Karukkup)oaa, Safltniarsh vegetition with (doiinant species such as 'lnugas' was c01nfined to the lago(_nal ,ir,s to thel K.:lpitiya P(MnIula|. Forests were seen only in a few locations of the same area Similarly .friss, shruhs md litturl woodlinds were; dlso mostly observed in the inoither.n ,)it of thi, coastl /orii. A ; ij-"y of tt donii nt humnl ;IAvItieS f 1lW. W St fn costal ,'OitW ili ,eatesthat this ZOnU POSS( S -;-0o1o'o pliil,' fishing areas the1 CO ntry (Se Tble 4.1 ). Beaching boits ,rod lagoonal fishinq p;iiticularly in th. Dutch B w ire the nost common types (f fishing t ihis zoni Mudil fishirn( wals ob.;ervW-d , tons 7? k,:cmtes (!5 ifl w ttil lciilth) and dry fish W diy.!S ;!s of o'') ''. w fciril iloiiij 63 kloitri!s hse ti;i.ertwo t e,,s,;),.of fishing actIVIies ::e2 i i;rly .;it r * i ;1) t . i 11)0 l ttil(ie

19 Table 4.1 Dominant Human Activities in the Coastal Zone from Colombo to Puttalam

Number of kilometres at which specified activities were observed

Fishag Other activities

Segment of the coast line -- ; c Z -I

...... i-.

Colombo Light House to Kelani Fiver 15 03 01 01 01 10 Kelani River to Negombo Lagoon . 27 16 02 01 13 02 ' 03 03 Negombo Lagoon to Maha Oya .. 09 08 01 01 01 01 08, Maha Oya to Karukkupona 42 40 06 08 03 02 02 Krukkupona to Talawila .... 59 33 04 34 31 02 Talawila to Puttalam . 134j 89 03 27 103 03 27 05 02 01 02

Total .. .286 189 14 72 105 20 63 05 01 17 07 02 10

% of kilometres at which specified activities 0 were observed (for earh group) .. 16985 4.87 2508 '36 56 696 21 95 1 74 034 592 243 067 3.48

%of total mentions (for each group) 4082 302 1555 2268 432 1361 1190 .238 4047 11666 '476 2380

Apart from erosion, the blocking of estuaries by sandbars poses another problem to coastal residents. Although some estuaries such as that of the Kelani Gdnga and the Maha Oya are directly connected with the sea, smaller estuaries which are connected to the tend to get blocked seasonally. Thus, in times of heavy rains, the villages have to clear these blocks in order to avoid flooding. The problem can occur even in larger estuaries as those of the Deduru Oya. Coral mining which has reached serious proportions in the South Western Zone is still not so common in the Western Coastal Zone. However, it is observed that it is practised in certain parts of the Kalpitiya Peninsula. Similarly, at present sand mining is practised on a wide scale in the area upstream of the Kelani Ganga estuary Pollution caused by sewage outfalls and waste disposal is seen mainly near larger towns. This problem is particularly evident around Puttalam, Kalpitiya, and in the coastal zone between Negombo and Chilaw. The processing of larger varieties of fish and turtle on the beach as observed at Kandakuliya also leads to pollution of beaches, particularly where scavenging animals like pigs are absent. The hunting of turtles although discouraged by law was observed to be going on unabated in places like Kandakuliya.

20 CHAPTER V THE NORTHWESTERN COASTAL ZONE 5.1 Location The North Western Coastal Zone is defined as that segment of the coast which extends from Puttalam to Elephant Pass (Alimankada). It also includes Talaimannar and other smaller Islands that are located in the North western seas. The North western coastal zone, extends ' between latitudes 8°.20 N and 9°.35'N and longitudes 79*50 ' E and 80.20' E, and forms the longest stretch of coastline covered by the survey. Although the field surveys were limited only to the mainland 'and Talaimannar island, the smaller islands off the coast were mapped from available airphotographs. The total length of the mainland segment of this zone was found to be 380 km while Talain,dnnar island had 63 km of coast. Except in the Jaffna lagoon area and Talaimannar island the coastline generally faces a northwesterly direction. 5.2 Prominent Features The North western Coastal Zone beings from the township of Puttalam which had been famous for salt and dry fish since oldern days. The coast line to the north of Puttalam passes through the delta of which discharges into the Puttalam lagoon, where the calm waters favour the development of deltaic cohditions. The Mi-Oya delta infact forms one of the most well preserved natural deltas in the Island. The next major coastal feature before the estuary is the lagoon which can be described as 'lagoon within a lagoon', Karaitivu forms the last major settlement in this part of the coast (line) until one reaches the fishing settlements near Mannar. Apart from the salt pans, some peculiar forms of fibrous and globular aquatic vegetation can be seen afloat near the beaches of the Karaitivu lagoon. The Kala Oya which discharges into the Dutch Bay at a point about 10 km to north of Karaitivu forms another delta similar to that of the Mi Oya. Here the river mouths are larger and are covered by extensive mangrove swamps. The volume of discharge from the Kala Oya in­ creased after the diversion of Mahaweli waters into the Kala Oya basin in 1976. This increase of fresh water at the river mouth is likely to affect the estuaring fauna and flora. The coastline from Kala Oya to Silavatturai remains uninhabited except for a few fishing camps at places such as Karuwalakuda, Kollankanatta and Pallangaturai. A part of the coastal zone here falls within the . A coast line formed of low cliffs forms the main coastal feature in this area. Some ruins of an ancient harbour can be seen between Kollan­ kanatta and Pallangaturai. A few off-shore islands parallel to the coastline such as Aligahakele and Karaitivu can be observed from the coast. The Kudiramalai point and the mouths ot the Moderagam Aru and the Kala Kal Aru are the only prominent coastail features until one reaches the mouth of the Malvatu Oya. The Malvatu Oya (Aruvi Aru) also forms a small delta to the north of Arippu with several islets and off-shore bars. The area around the right bank of the Ma!vatu Oya estuary is historically important since it is believed that King Vijaya and his retinue landed there in the 5th century B.C. The brownish colour of the soil here is supposed to have given the name Tambapanni (Taprobane) to the island. It is however, doubtful in the light of coastal erosion, whether the original historical site isstill preserved as part of the land To the north of Malvatu Oya a series of lagoons such as the Periya Kalapuwa and Vidattal­ tivu lagoon form the dominant features of the coastal plain. Talaimannar island which extends to Adam's Bridge forms the largest island on the northwest coast. Talaimannar island together with the town of Mannar and smaller settlements such as Erukkulanipiddy and , form the densely settled island in this area. It isa railway terminal. Recent oil explorations have made it well known. Wild ponies and donkeys are a common sight in Talaimannar island. Mantai, a small settlement located to the north of Mannjr road had been famous in history as an ancient port. Similarly the shallow seas around Mannar are well known for their pearl oyster beds. There are hardly any prominent settlements on the coast, except those small fishing villages such as Vidattaltivu, Paravanpiddy, Varavil and Pallikulam until one reaches Kalmunai which marks the tip of the Pooneryn Peninsula. There are a few streams such as Punkadi Aru,

21 and Mandekal Aru reaching the sea in this stretch of the coast. The Devil's Point near Ponnaveli and the Palaitivu island off the coast form the only prominent landscape features in the area. After passing Kalmunai on the tip of the Poonen n peninsula, one enters the southern coast of the Jaffna lagoon which has its own characteristic landscape. Most of the coastal features in the Jaffna Lagoon are depositional in the area around Pooneryn. The Pooneryn peninsula itself has probably developed as a long sand spit. There are several other smaller sand spits and islets to the East of it. The Sangupiddy and Nagatevanturai jetties are the only land marks on the southern coast of the Jaffna lagoon until one reaches the Elephant Pass salterns. Small villages on the southern coast of the Jaffna lagoon attract settlers from the Jaffna peninsula to which it is linked by a ferry service. 5.3 Environmental Setting The entiie North-western Coastal Zone is underlain by sedimentary Miocene limestone rocks which outcrop occasionally in the northei n parts of the coast line. These limestones are generally fossiliferous and Miocene marine vertebrates are reported from Aruakallu, while marine shells occur upon the sub-cliffs near Kudiramalai (Deraniyagala 1958). The limestone bedrock is covered by beach deposits and alluvium in most parts of the coasil plain. Deep bores indicate that the coastal plain has been built up on a post-Miocene land surface formed by the develop­ ment of off-shore barriers, cutting off of lagoons and thei. subsequent infilling by fluvial sedi­ ments (Cooray, 1968). Gunatilaka (1975) estimated that an approximately 16 km wide strip of coastal plain has been built up in this area since post-Miocene times. In certain places around Mannar the depth to the underlying bedrock surface was found to be over 100 metres. The coastal plain below an elevation of 30 m. extends more than 25 km inland ;n most places to the north of Mannar. (Fig. 4). The only area with an elevation above 30 m. is found in the southern part of the coastal zone where Kudiramalai rises over 75 m above sea level. Some of the shallowest seas around the island are found ne,ir the Northvvst coast Here the 10 fathom isobath extends to more than 50 km into the sea at certain places. The submarine contours also indicate submerged river courses, particularly those of the Malvatu Oya and the Kala Oya located between Kalpitiya and the Talairnannar island (Deraniyagala 1958). Most parts of the North-western Coastal Zone are sh,!tered by barrier islands, off-shore bars and spits. Although the North west coast is in geneural a prograding one characturied by rapid depositiona', regressinn, there are problems of coastal erosion in certain lcalities. Climatically, the Northwestern Coastal Zone forms one of the driest areas of Sri Lanka In early demarcations of climatic regions in the Island this area is indicated as an 'Arid Zone'. The mean annual rainfall as reported from Pomparippu, Mannar and T,.lai mannat rain gauging stations is less than 1000 mm. Long periods of drought exceeding 200 days per year are comnlon in the area. The only months in which there is some water surplus are those of the Northeast monsoonal period. The mean maximum temperatures exceed 90'F in April at both Puttalarn and Mannar. Thus a combination of conditions of low rminfill, high temperatures ;eld hi h excmation rates tend to create an 'arid' appearance in the coastal landscape. A large part of this coastal zone still remain sparsely populated and therefore, some natural vegetation cover still rema;ns in the area. In contrast to the extensive coconut plantation areas on the West coast, Palmyra palms begin to appear ingreater numbers as one moves northwards. Jungles of Palmyra cover many parts of the Talamannar island. A few Baobab trees which were introduced several centuries ago from East Africa can still be seen in places like Errukkulamroiddy. 5.4 Results of Field Survey The observations made on coastal features along the northwest coastline are summarized in Appendix Table 3 which shows that more than 67 per cent of this coast consists of straight coastlines. Lagoon,, and bays are observed in more than 40 per cent of the distance covered in the field survey. This is mainly due to the presence in the area of a few large lagoons such as the Puttalam and Jaffna lagoons and bays suchas Portugal and Dutch Bays. The coastline tends to rmain straight even within these bays and lagoonal areas. Islands form the next dominant geomorphological feature, although information on most small islands are noi presented in Appendix Table 3. As noted before, reefs are observed mainly off the stretch of the coast between Puttalam and Mannar. The relative scarcity of headlands and coastal rock

22 * .foe MA NA. ed'c' o .

/I0 a

:1- ret

;a Q too% U Ora

, 0 Coast'al Plain

d• mn Fxisting River Curses --.,- Suhmnergedl River .o 'Courses ! \ AfarDem niya naia,195 8)

Fig. 4 Submerged River Courses of the Northwest of Sri Lanka

23 outcrops reflects the effects of underlying limestone rocks on the formation of coastal features, and the generally prograding nature of the coast line. This contrasts clearly with the dominant landscape features of the South western Zone. However, it appears that the reces­ sion of the Northwestern coastline had been quit3 widespread in the recent past. Thus in 70 per cent of the distance covered in this study the coastal residents reported a recession of the coast line within the last 20 to 30 years at an average rate of 2-3 metres per annum. The field observations on the nature of beL,:;, material indicate that most beaches are silty in the North­ west, particularly in the lagoonal areas. Sandy beaches that come next in frequency are ob­ served in about 35 per cent of the coastline. Where the beaches were sandy the dominant colour of the sands was found to be black, a feature which deserves further investigation and attention. The observations made on dominant vegetation types in the Coastal Zone are given in Appendix Table 4. This indicates that sandy seashore vegetation which is observed in 63% per cent of the coast line is most preponderant type. However, and salt marshes are also observed in more than 25 per cent of the coast line, while dune vegeta­ tion accounted for nearly 20% per cent. The forested areas in coastal zone are found mainly in the Puttalam to Mannar stretch where the Wilpattu sanctuary extends to the coast line, and in the area between Vidattallivu and Elephant Pass. In these two areas a variety of grasses was also observed in the Coastal Zore. The information collected on the principal human activities of the area indicates that fishing is the most important economic activity in the Northwest. As Table 5.1 shows, beaching boats is the most common form of fishing which was observed along 57 per cent of the coast. However, off-shore and lagoonal fishing which are reported from over 30 per cent of the coast also occupy an important place. Some 49 dry fish wadi were reported from the North Western Coastal Zone. Some of the prominent fi,hing centres in the country such as Pesalai, and Talai­ mannararefound in the North western coastal area. Shark, Turtle, Yellow-fin-tuna and Devil Ray are some of the common types of aquatic animals/fauna found in this zone. In the lagoonal areas L .. r, Sea Crab, Prawn, Sea Cucumber and Beche-de-mer represent some of the im­ portant types of aquatiu food animals caught. There are several beche-de-mer factories in the area. As noted earlier, from ancient times the Gulf of Mannar had also been famous for Pearl fishing Although this industi, is not so important now, the Government is planning to boost revitalise it again. Salt industry and sand mining are two otherimportantactivities in the area. Sand mining is particularly common in the area while the salt industry is confined to Elephant Pass and a few other locations such as Karaitivu. 5.5 Problems and Areas of Concern Even in the Northwestern Coastal Zone which is noted for depositional features, coastal erosion appears to be one of the major problem in some localities. This is particularly notice­ able in the stretch between Kudiramalai and Mannar which is less sheltered from coastal currents. Silavaturai and Vankalai represent some of the badly affected areas. Historical places such as Alli Rani at Silavaturi are now faced with the threat of total collapse caused by wave action. The probelrn of coastal erosion in this area is partly aggravated by migrant fisher­ men who clear patchei of coastal vegetation haphazardly for camping and fuelwood. Although this is nnt a thickly populated area, sand mining is now assuming significant proportions. This is particularly evident in the Pesalai and Tarapuram areas. Among other purposes, the sand is usfd in these areas to construct roads and reclaim law-lying areas. Coastal pollution is still not a serious problem iii the North west. However, the pollution of water by oil released ejected from mechanised fishing boats poses some problems in the fishing areas. A few fishermen from Pesalai and Vankalai expressed the fear that this can affect lagoonal fishing in future.

24 Table 5.1 Dominant Human Activities in the Coastal Zone from Puttalam to Elephant Pass

Number of kilometres along which specified activities were observed

Fishing Othe, Activities Segment of the coas.t line -. -

E- 0Q S Puttalamto Mannar 113 79 30 27 46 40 18 04 01 03

Talaimannar Island 63 Mannar to Vidat.llivu .... 28 20 36 11 10 222 033 5i,0 20 07 02 05 07 Vidattalivu to Elepha-it Pass . 03: 01 182 107 71 01 89 67 08 05 T.ta. 380 217 126 63 146 124 49 12 01 10 -49 of kilometres az which specified activities were observed (for each group) I l 100 57.10 33.15 1658 38.42 32.63 12.89 315 025 2.63 %of total mentions (for each group) 100 29.93 17.38 8.69 20-14 17.10 6.76 52.17 4.34 I 43.47

ILA CHAPTER VI THE NORTHERN COASTAL ZONE

6.1 Location The coastline from Elephant Pass (Alimankada) to Chempiyanpattu in the northeast, It is situated covering the entire Jaffna Peninsula ;s defined as the Northern Coastal Zone. ° islands between latitudes 9 49' and 9' 25,: N and longitudes 70°39' E and 80 40 E. The The lying to the west of the Peninsula are considered separately at the end of this chapter. while the Jaffna lagoon which is open to the sea was included in the field survey, Zone Thondamanaru lagoon had been excluded. The total length of the Northern Coastal which thus defined was found to be 181 km excluding the off-shore islands. The coastline coastal faces different directions in different parts of peninsula exhibits a wide variety of landscapes. Prominent Features 6.2. to a The southern coast of the Jaffna Lagoon extends eastwards from Elephant Pass Apart from the point close to Kariyavayar-a small village near the boundary. interrupted lagoonal beaches near Elephant Pass the continuity of this coast line is occasionally Aru, Puluthi by the mouths of a few morth flowing dry zone streams such as Kanakarayan of the JaffnaI Aru, Kodikathai Aru, Piramenthal Aru and Theravil Aru. The northern coastline and rejoins lagoon passes through several hamlets such as Chundikku!am and Vannankulam several sandspits, the northern side of the Elephant Pass. This coastline is characterized by main feature of offshore bars, islets and tidal flats. Long groves of wild palmyra palms form the the Chundikkulam this area. The eastern segment of the Jaffna lagoon also forms part of sanctuary. a The northern coast of the Jaffna Lagoon to the west of Elephant Pass is essentially Almost the straight coastline that extends upto the municipal limits of the city of Jaffna. sprawl entire coastal zone in this stretch is formed of sandy open spaces. The Jaffna urban This area has extends upto the coast line in the Prea between ColumbuthLrai and Nawanthurai. Peninsula. the largest concentration of man-made coastal structures in the whole of Jaffna Valuki Aru The Old Dutch Fort is one such dominating structure. Between Nawanturai and a long embank­ there is an extensive open area subject to flcods occasionally, and around which surface ment had been constructed. The Valuki Aru with a prominent estuary forms the largest stream basin in the whole of the Jaffna Peninsula. a small From Valuki Aru to Mathagalthurai is a zone of coastal deposition. except for western parts stretch to the north of Tiiruwadinilayam. The prominent sandspits in the north that they have of the peninsula indicate rapid beach development. Some fishermen reported had to shift their dwelling houses towards the water front because of beach development. a coast of The northern coastline from Mathagal to Thumpalai on the other hand is basically near the beach. erosion where low sea-cliffs and boulders of limestone rock are often observed lagoon is one 'rhondamanar Aru which represents the northern outlet of the where the venerable of the most prominent features of the northern coast To the east of Mathagal as Keerima- Theri Sanghamitta is beli. ved to have landed, one comes across settlements such as a beach lai, Kankasanturai, Valvedditurai and Point Pedro. Of these Keerinialai is famous Point Pedro resort with hot springs and Valvedditurai as a port noted for contraband goods. forms the biggest town in the north eastern corner of the peninsula. Chalai. The north eastern coast of the Peninsula begins from Tampilai and e xtends upto The stretch of coast between Tampalai and Chempiyanpattu is a dune-country par excellence. Moving sand dunes can be observed between M;.nathkadu and Nakar Kovil (Sivakumaran 1978). The islands lying off the western coast of Jaffna Peninsula constitute the largest congrega­ tion of islands within the territorial waters of Sri Lanka. The bigger islands among these has the include Kavts, Punkudutivu, Karaitivu, Analativu, Nainativu and Delft. Kayts (which shape of a kite on the map) forms the biggest and nearest island of them all, while Kachcha­ 26 tiue is the furthest. Nainativu or Nagadipa is one of -the places believed to have been visited by the Lord Buddha and therefore even today is one of the most venerated places of worship for Buddhists from all over the country Delft is the largest island locate6 away from the coast of Jaffna Peninsula. The western parts of this island still remain uninhabited and a breed of wild horses introduced by the Dutch several centuries ago still survive there. 6.3 Environmental Setting Geologically, the entire Northern Coastal Zone falls within the Miocene limestone belt. This limestone appear on the surface in some localities such as Mathagal, Myliddy and in the island of Delft. In most nther areas the limestone bedrock is covered by a veneer of beach deposits, moving sands or red soils. The depth of the soil cover can vary upto three metres from surface. The type of limestone found in the Northern Coastal Zone is mostly a coral limestone that exhibits a whitish colour. It is quarried for cement manufacture as at Kankezan­ turai or for use as building stones. Owing to its soluble and cavernous nature, limestone forms good groundwater reservoirs as exemplified by the bottomless well at Putter. A large proportion of the shallow wells in the Jaffna peninsula, tap this ground water body for agri­ culture as well as for domestic use. The use of ground water resources in Jaffna is now reach­ ing a stage of over-exploitation (Ardmugam and Balendran, 1968). Some springs originating from limestone can be seen at places such as Keerimalai on the northern coast, The climate of the Northern Coastal Zone is semi-dry with many characteristics common with the rest of the Dry Zone of Sri Lanka. Although the rain gauging stations at Jaffna and at Point Pedro record a mean annual rainfall of around 1200 mm, rain is highly 6 % seasonal. Nearly 0 of the total rainfall is received within a period of 3 to 4 months during the north-east monsoon. The mean annual temperature is around 27 C and remains high throughout the year without much seasonal variation. The Jaffna peninsula stands upon a broader continental shelf than many other parts of the Island. It is essentially an area of lagoons and islands. The Jaffna and Thondamanaru lagoons, the two large lagoons in the peninsula dominate the geography of the Peninsula. Due to the presence of such lagoons and islands close to the peninsula, large t~dal flats and silty beaches are a common feature in this area. Only the northern and northeastern coasts are exposed to the full impact of wave action. 6.4. Results of Field Survey A summary of the coastal features observed during the field survey is given in Appendix Table 5. This shows that in nearly 75 per cent of the distances covered by field investigators a straight coastline was the dominant feature. Sandspits and lagoons occupied second and third places respectively in terms of frequency. These latter features were found to be particularly prominent in the stretch from Elephant Pass to Jaffna. On the other hand reefs and limestone rock outcrops were more frequently observed along the coastline from Jaffna to Point Pedro. As indicated earlier, deltas, estuaries and surface streams with the exception of Valuki Aru found to be extremely rare in the Northern Coastal Zone The field observations made on beach materials indicate that most beaches in the northern region are sandy or silty. Some 65 per cent of the beach sands examined were whitish in colour. Unlike in the North Western Zone, black sands were relatively rare here. It is interesting to note that in over 50 per cent of the distance covered by the field survey the coastline had been developed during the last 20 to 30 years. Only in 37 per cent of the total distance of the coastal zone had there been some loss ol land. The developing beaches were found mostly in the stretch between Elephant Pass and Mathagdl, while the receding coastlines were most common in the stretches from Mathagal to Point Pedro and from Point Pedro to Chemptyanpattu. Some of the most prominent developing beaches in the region ware found in the area immediately to the west of Mathagal. The rate of development had however been much slower compared to the rate of recedence. The field observations made on coastal vegetation type are listed in Appendix Table 6. This table shows that, as in other areas, the most dominent vegetation type is the sandy-sea­ shore vegetation (38 percent). However, the preponderance of salt march vegetation (34 per cent) is also a striking feature. A mangrove type vegetstion had also been observed in some

27 18 per cent of the coastline surveyed. Mangroves were particularly noticeable in the coastal zone between Elephant Pass and Jaffna, while dune vegetation was most common in the area between Point Pedro and Chempiyanpattu. In most parts of the coastal zone of the northern region, palmyra grows wild. It is therefore included in the category of littoral woodlands. The grassy types of vegetation were most commonly by found in the Northeastern coastal areas of the peninsula. Human Activities The dominant human activities in the Northern Coastal Zone are given in Table 6.1. This table shows that the most important human activity in the area is fishing, and the most common type of fishing is with beaching boats. Beaching boats were observed in 70 per cent of the distances covered. Off-shore fishing was reported for 18 per cent of the northern coastline, in which there were some 57 dry fish wadi at the time of the survey. The dry fish wadi were particularly numerous along the coastal zone from Jaffna to Point Pedro and from Point Pedro to Chempianpattu. The main fishing centres in this zone were Mathagal, Myliddy and Thalaiyady. Lagoonal fishing on the other hand was mostly confined to the Jaffna lagoon. Among other human activities, coral mining is reported only from the coastal zone from Jaffna to Point Pedro. Sand mining on the other hand was observed in a wider area covering all three coastal segments of the Northern Zone. Tourism is not so widespread here except locally in places such as Keerimalai. The Islands The islands to the west of the Jaffna peninsula share many features in common with the peninsula although they differ in several important natural Tharacteristics. Geomorphologically, about 67 per cent of the coastline of the islands was found to be 'straight' (see Appendix Table 7). Although there were not many sandspits and lagoons as in the peninsula, most islands had offshore reefs. There were also more rock outcrops and headlands in the islands than in the Peninsula. The beaches of the islands were also more pebbly and sandy than in the mainland. Some 61 per cent of the 3and beaches had white beach sands; black sands were almost absent. One of the important differences in the islands was that most coastlines facing west, were found to be recriding due to erosion. They amounted to 36 per cent of the distance traversed. In contrast, developing beach-is were more common in the peninsula than receding ones. The residual limestone pillars in ,he Samithoddamunai irea on the west coast of Delft is a clear example of the high rate of erosion in the islands. The north wesi coasts of the peninsula are to some extent protected by the sheltering effect of the islands. Owing to their relative isolation the different islands also exhibited certain differences in coastal vegetation. Thus mangroves were more common in the islands (74 per cent) than in the Peninsula (see Appendix Table 8), while on the other hand, salt marsh and dune vegetation types were common in the peninsula than in the islands. Grass type vegetation was quite com­ mon in the island of Delft, where a breed of wild horses was found to be grazing on them. Despite certain differences, sandy seashore vegetation, particularly creeping vegetation and low shrubs, formed the dominant vegetation types both in the islands and the peninsula. Fishing was the dominant economic activity both in the peninsula and in the islands (see Table 6.2). In the islands however, ma-del fishing was much more common than in the penin­ .ula. This may also be taken as one indication among several of the fact that near-shore fishing is still economically viable and that the fishery is not over-exploited in the islands It also appears that coral mining is not practised in the islands except in certa in Parts of Kayts Beach sand mining for building purposes is quite common in the islands owing to the absence of rivers and hence of river sand. In general, there appears to be a decrease in human activities in the coastal zones of the islands owing to out-migration of people in recent years (Balasunderam­ pillay 1982). 6.5 Problems and Areas of Concern I he Noithern Coastal Zone is one of the few areas of the country where the coast line is found to be developing in many places. However, the threat of coastal erosion exists particularly in the islands and in the northern part of the peninsula. In general, the Northern Coastal Zone when compared with that of the Southwest can be considered as a region which has not been 28 Table 6.1 Dominant human activities in the Coastal Zone from Elephant Pass to Chempiyanpattu

Number of kilometres at which specified activities were observed

Fishing Other Activities

Segment of the coast line z- b l j II --

Elephant Pass to Jaffna .. .. 93 73 .03 Jaffna 06 10 171 01' 03 to Point Pedro ...... 72 44 24 02 01 15 31 17117 05 03 02 Point Pedro to Chempiyanpattu .. .. 16 10 15 14 1 07 16 1 03 Total 181 39 28 57 17 37 1 06 06 02 of Kilornetres at which specified activities were :observed (for each group) .. 100 70.17 .33.70 11.05 21.55 15.47 31.49 9.39 20.44 3.31 3.31 1.1 % of total mentions (for each group) 100 38.25 18.37 6.02 11.74 8.43 17.16 25.0 54.41 8.82 8.82 2.94 Table 6.2 Dominant human activities in the Coastal Zone of the Islands off Jaffna Peninsula

Number of kilometres at which specified activities were observed

Fishing Other Activities

= Segment of the coast line"= '= " cbb

Mandativu .. .. 20 07 04 031 04 03 Punkudutivu .. .. .45 45 01 36 15 05 04 Delft ..... 28 21 21 08 19 06 .. ... 03 03 03 01 .... 11 08 08 03 04 07 Paraitivu ...... 02 02 02 02 Eluvativu...... 08 01 03 01 04' 04 04 Naynativu 11 09 10 01 06 08 Kayts .. ... 65 17 18 481 08 33 06 02 17 01 01 Karaitivu .. ... 25 12 13 12 03 03 13 06 01I

Total 218 125 83 112 26 43 61 02 48 )5 01 I 04

% of kilometes at which the specified activities were r I observed (for each group) 200 57.33 138.07 51.37 111.92 19.72 27.98 0.91 22.01 2.29 0.45 1.83 _____-__i______0"0__'______off____ota,_____e total mentions______r (for each group)__ea______....______.___1_._,100. 18.44 24.88 .15.77 9 -I6.55 much affected by destructive human activities. Tourism has hardly begun in these areas except in the stretch between Jaffna and Point Pedro where this industry caters mostly to local tourists and pilgrims. There appears to be much scope for the development of some form of tourism particularly in the islands. The density of settlements is relatively less in the western coast, compared with some interior parts of the Peninsula, except near certain big towns such as Jaffna, Point Pedro a,ld Valvedditurai. This is one of the reasons for the absence of serious coastal problems such as pollution, and accelerated erosion due to human activities. So far no housing schemes have been started in the coastal zone here, unlike in several other parts of the country. Nevertheless, it would be useful to monitor the environmental impact of limestone quarrying and other activities connected with the cement industry at Kandesanturai. Special attention may be paid to the new harbour development activities at Kankesanturai.

31 CHAPTER VII THE NORTHEASTERN COASTAL ZONE

7.1 Location The coastal zone extending from Chempiyanpattu in the northeastern coast of the Jaffna peninsula to Foul Point at the southern end of the Trincomalee Bay is considered here as the Northeafern Coastal Zone. The Northeastern Coastal Zone thus defined, is located between the latitudes of 9°.38 ' N and the longitudes of 81 '.19' N and 80.22' N.This Zone includes the Trinco­ malee Bay which it self has a coastl line of approximately 104 km. The total length of the coastal zone surveyed (excluding lagoons) was estimated to be 266 km. The entire coastline except that of the Trincomalee Bay faces a northeasterly direction thereby exposing itself to the north­ east monsoonal winds and the accompanying swell and other coastal process. 7.2 Prominent Land Marks In accordance with the demarcation of coastal segments for development purposes, Chem­ piyanpattu is considered to be the beginning of the Northeastern Coastal Zone. For the purposes of the field survey, Chalai which marks the end of the Jaffna Peninsula was treated as the northern boundary of the Northeastern Coastal Zone. From Chempiyanpattu to Chalai, a continuous straight coastline with scattered fishing camps is the most common sight. Talaiady forms the most important fishing settlement in this area. The exceptionally low price of fish here is a consequence of poor marketing and the lack of adequate refrigeration facilities. Chalai marks the beginning of the mainland segment of the North Eastern Coastal Zone of Sri Lanka, where the main characteristic is a series of lagoons and bays. The first major lagoon south of Chalai is the Kadal which undergoes significant seasonal changes in its water spread area. In this stretch the coast line is dotted with numerous fishing camps particularly near Mullaitivu, which is the main township in the area. The straight coast line characteristic continues until one reaches the Nayaru Lagoon. The mouth of this lagoon dries up during the dry season when one can walk across it. Along vehicle tracks. Alampil and Chenmalai are two small fishing settlements on the Eastern shores of Nayaru lagoon. However, in the fishing camps on the main coastline, it is migrant fishermen from Nego­ mbo and Udappu who are frequently seern. Kokkilai is the second largest lagoon in the area next to Nayaru. Here one can find several villus or marshy areas close to the coast line such as Periyavillu to the north of Kokkilai village. Pulmoddai (or Puhulmote in Sinhalese), where the Mineral Sands Corporation factory is located, lies between the and the estuary. Here the coastal sands are rich in ilmenite. The main function of the factory is their extraction and processing. The ruins of the famous Buddhist temple of Tiriyai are found to the south of Yan Oya. Having passed through Periyakarachchi lagoon one enters the main tourist area of the north east coast line. Here, the Nilaveli beach is the main tourist attraction, although many tourist activities have spread outwards up to Trincomalee in recent times. It is well known that Trincomalee has one of the first natural harbours in the world. It was developed by the British during their regime. Trincomalee played an active role as a port of call for Allied ships during the Second World War. The main Trincomalee Bay includes several smaller bays within it such as Black Bay, Dutch Bay, China Bay, Tambalagam Bay, Koddiyar Bay and Shell Bay. Most of these bays are bounded by headlands such as Konesar Malai, Rocky Point, Elephant Point, Ostenburg Point, Plantain Point, Cod Point and Round Point. Foul Point (or Kevuliya) is the last of these head lands. There is also a series of much smaller bays or coves such as Nicholson's Cove, Yard Cove, Malay Cove, Snug Cove and Dead Man's Cove. Several islets such as Elephant Island, Sober and Round Island are found scattered inside the main bay. There are a few small settlements along the discontinuous road that runs round the Bay. The most prominent of these are Kinniyai, Mutur and Sampur. The Mahaweli Ganga has several mouths discharging into the Koddiyar Bay. Thus, if one proceeds along the road running 32 round the bay from Trincomalee to Foul Point, at least five ferries, namely Kinniyai, Upparu, Gengai, Podowkattu and Mutur have to be crossed. 7.3 Environmental Setting Gpologically, the Northeastern Coastal Zone falls within 2 major rock groups: (a) The high!and series rocks in the Trincomalee area, and (b) The Vijayan series rocks lying to the north of Kuchchaveli and to the south of Mutur. These parent rocks are overlain by a variety of beach deposits and alluvium brought in by many rivers that discharge along to the Northeastern Coast. Apart from the Archaean rocks there are smaller outcrops of fossil-bearing sandstones in most part of the Northeastern Coast. One example is the sandstone outcrop which can be observed in the area between Senmalai and Nandikadal. ;n certain places of the Northeastern Coast, beach sands are rich in minerals such as Ilmenite and Rutile.The Mineral Sands Corporation factory at Pulmoddai extracts and processes some of these minerals. The striuctural trends in the Northeastern region are even more important in the develop­ ment of its coastal features than its lithological variations. This is one of the few areas where the coastline runs across the strike of the rocks. It partly explains the frequency of the occurence of many bays and lagoons along this part of the coast, which have been created mainly by differen­ tial erosion of a bedded series of rocks (Cooray, 1956). The presence of high cliffs which is a rare phenomenon in most other parts of the coastal zone of Sri Lanka, and the existence of submarine canyons off Trincomalee Bay, may also have some relationship to the geological structure of the area. The climate of the Northeastern Coast is basically of the 'Dry Zone type'. The mean annual rainfall at Trincomalee is around 1700 mm. of which over 60 per cent falls within a period of four months from October to January. This is also the season of the Northeast monsoonal winds. The mean air temperature is high, around 82'F, and remains fairly uniform throughout the year. These climatic characteristics have favoured the development of sand dunes in many areas of this coastal zone. Although the climate is relatively dry in the Northeastern Coast, it is also an area which has recorded some of the highest daily rainfall intensities in the country. Thus Mullaitivu had a record fall of 31.18 inches of rain in 24 hours on 18th December 1911 while Nedunkerni recorded 31.72" inches on 15th December 1897. 7.4 Results of the Field Survey The information collected on the coastal features of the Northeastern Coastal Zone during the field survey are histed in Appendix Table 9. This shows that in nearly 60 per cent of the distance covered, a straight coastline was the dominant feature. However, the most striking feature of this coast line was the presence of a series of bays and lagoons. About 40 per cent of the coastal zone was thus found within bays while 19 per cent of it was in lagoons. Compared with most other areas of the coastal zone, boulders (20 per cent) and rock outcrops (15 per cent) were observed along considerable distances along the coast line. The presence of headlands and cliffs particularly between Trincomalee and Foul Point gives a special character to the Northeastern Coastal Zone. Sand dunes were quite common in the coastal zone between Mullaitivu and Chempiyanpattu, although they are not as well developed as in the Nakarkovil-Manalkadu area of the Northern Coastal Zone. The observations made on the nature of beach material indicate that over 70 per cent of the beaches in the Northeast Coastal Zone were sandy. Nevertheless, there was a significant number of beaches with cobbles (18 per cent) and pebbles (17 per cent). Although the colour of beach sand was predominantly white (42 per cent), there were considerable stretche3 of brown and black sands. The brown sands were seen mostly in the silty beaches to the north of Mullaitivu, while black sands were frequently observed in the coastal zone between Mullai­ tivu and Irakkanda bridge. A peculiar type of beach sand was observed in the area around the Arisimalai e'tuary, These were sands with exceptionaly rounded grains with an appearance like that of polished 'samba' rice. In the areas of Shell Bay, Sampur and Foul Point, the beach material had a high content of sea shells.

33 L43

Table 7.1 Dominant human activities in the Coastal Zone from Chempiyanpattu to Foul Point.

Number of kdometres at which specified activities were observed

Fishing Other Activities

Segment of the coast line Oi s ­

r: -* - 0'-Q~l ac 2 c

Chempiyanpattu to MullitivL . 61 57 39 55 01 37 40 02

Mullaitivu to Kokkilai 36 22 01 32 02 03 22 02 04 Kokkdai to Irakkandy Bridge 43 17 03 34 06 03 06 02 04 09

Irakkandy to Trincomalee . 17..7 02 10 Trincomaeeto Foul Point .. . 109 20 01 1-7 17 14 13 04 07 04

Total ...... 266 116 44 169 26 571 81 04 06 23 08 09

% of kilometres at which the specified activities ­ were observed (for each group) .. 100-____...... 143.61--- 16.54 6353 977 --21 4313045 --- 1.50.--.- 226 ---... 865 301 3.38

% of total mentions (for each major group) ." 100 123.53 892 3427 1 527 11l56 1643 18.0 :120 460 160 180 r[ f______1- 892 i 101 A receding shore ine was observed in 43 percent of the kilometre segments covered by the field survey. Only 6 percent of the coastline was found to be devloping. According to the information collected, the rate of recedence per annum was around 1.52 m. while the rate of development per annum was only 0.64 m. It may therefore, be concluded that the Northeastern Coast is predominantly a coast of erosion than one of deposition. The observations made on coastal zone vegetation (see Appendix Table 10) clearly indicate that sandy shore vegetation is the dominant vegetation type (80 percent) in the North east as in most other areas of the Island. Nevertheless, other types of vegetation particularly dune vegetation (47 percent ) was quite prominent in the northern parts of the zone between Kokkilai and Chempyanpattu. The North eastern Coastal Zone also represents one of the few areas of the country where the forest cover along the coast is still preserved. Littoral woodlands are fre­ quently observed in several places of the Trincomalee Bay and in the coastal segment between Chempiyanpattu. and Mullaitivu. The latter area was also observed to have several stretches under mangrove vegetation and salt marshes. As in many other coastal areas of the Island the most important hunan ictivity in the Northeast Coastal Zone was fishing (see Table 7.1 ). Thus some form or other of fishing activities were observed in at least 65 per cent of the coast line surveyed. Ma-del fishing was the most common method and was practised along 63 percent of the coast line. Beaching boats and off-shore fishing were more frequently observed in the coastal zone to the north of Kokkilai. Dry fish wadi were also found in greater numbers in the northern area than in the southern parts of this coatal zone. Prawn and crab fishing was frequently observed in the northem parts of this zone as well as in the Trincomalee Bay area. Among activities other than fishing, tourism and extraction of minerals and sand were the most prominent. Tourism was largely confined to the Nilaveli area, and to the Trincomalee township. Mineral extraction activities were to a great extent centred around Pulmoddai, where the Mineral Sands Corporation factory is located. However, mineral sands are brought even from coastal sites which were 5-10 km. away from the factory. The long trenches from which the mineral sands were dug out can be seen in most places close to the beach in this area. 7.5 Problems and Areas of Concern As indicated earlier, the North eastern coast is predominantly a receding coastline rather than a developing one. Therefore, the problem of coastal erosion exists in certain localities of the coastal zone, particularly where the density of settlement is higher. Thus in the coastal stretch between and Nilaveli most fishing settlements arethreatened by severe erosion. No attempt appears to have been made to control erosion in this area. Similarly in the Sinnakin­ niya area near Gengai the roadway is already in the process of being washed away. Here local residents have used empty tar barrels and small boulders to prevent the total collapse of the road. Coastal pollution is observed in areas near major settlements and in places close to factories and other industrial establishments. At least 8 sewage outfall structures were observed in Trincomalee. At the site of the Mineral Sands factory at Pulmoddai, there are outlet pipes carry­ ing waste water to the beach. Some pollution can also be observed in the area around the Trincomalee Petrol depot and some caused by fuel from passing ships.

35 CHAPTER VIII THE EASTERN COASTAL ZONE

8.1 Location The stretch of coast that extends from Foul Point (Kevuliya) to Pottuvil is considered as the Eastern Coastal Zone. The total length of this Zone is approximately 204 km excluding the lagoon beaches. It is situated between latitudes 80 30 N and 60.35 N and longitudes 81.15 E and 81.47 E The entire coastline faces the east excent near Foul Point and in areas with bays and lagoons. 8.2 Prominent Land marks Moving south of Foul Point one can see a series of lagoons and marshy lands in the coastal zone. The first large lagoon encountered is the Ullakallie lagoon to the east of Seruvila. To the south of this lagoon a major tributary of the Mahaweli Ganga-the flows into sea exhibiting some deltaic conditions around its estuary. This isa low-lying area with marshy lands. The Verugal Aru flows through a sparsely populated area having forest cover and infested by crocodiles. To the south of Kathiraveli, another large lagoon with the name Uppar can be seen. At Vakarai, a settlement located near the mouth of the lagoon, two prominent sand bars have developed. A straight coastline isthe main feature between Vakarai and Mankerni. To the south of Mankerni, several bays such as Thennade, Pulavikuda, Vandeloos, and Kalkudah are located around the mouth of the Maduru Ova. One of the finest beaches of Sri Lanka, namely Passe­ kudah, is located in this area near Valaichchenai, Proceeding fwither southwards rrom Valaich­ chenai one comes to Batticaloa (Madakalapuwa) one of the largest towns on the east coast. The which can be considered to be one of the largest natural lagoons in th6 Island, extends from to Kalmunai, a distance of nearly 60 ki. From Kalnunai to Akkarai­ ptu a straight coastline becomes the dominant feature again. However, the mouth of the , located to the south of Kalmunai displays some deltaic conditions. Another large lagoon in the area, namely Periya Kalapuwa is found between and Tirukkovil 8.3 Environmental Setting The climate of the Eastern coastal zone is of to the 'Dry Zone'. Although the annual rainfall at Batticaloa exceeds 1700 mm., about 25 percent of it falls in December. The mean daily maximum temperature remains high (around 30*C) throughout the year. While the highest recorded temperature exceeded 38*C the lowest fell below 18°c.The prevailing wind directions in Batticaloa are predominantly Northeast during the period from November to March. In most other months the winds are variable or calm particularly in the morning hours. During the south­ west monsoons the wind directions in Batticaloa are mostly Southeasterly. There is a significant difference between the morning (7 km ph) and afternoon (14 km ph) windspeeds. The highest windspeeds have been recorded in January, February and March. One of the most important features of the climate in the East Coast is the occurrence of tropical cyclones. These cyclones cause extensive damage to taller types of coastal vegetation accelerate the normal rate of erosion significantly. The cyclone of 1978 devastated large coconut plantations in and around the coast and blew the roofs off from man'v buildings and houses. The stumps of coconut trees destroyed by the cyclone were a common sight in most areas of the Eastern Coastal Zone, even three years later at the time of the field survey. The Geological map of the Eastern coastal area shows two major rock groups, namely (a) Khondalite-Charncckite series and (b) BintennaGneisses. Both groups are Precambrian meta­ mornhic rocks. The Khondalite rocks occupy a small area around Foul Point at the Northern end of the zone. The khondalites include a variety of common country rocks such as quartzies, gneisses granulites, crystalline limestones and dolomites. Bihtenna gneiss isalso found in a large part of the Eastern Coastal Zone. The well banded black and white gneisses form typical rock formations of this group. The bedrocks mentioned above are covered by a thick mantle of superficial material in most parts of the coastal zone. These superficial materials include 36 (a) regosols cr recent beach and dune sands. (b) alluvial soils and (c) solodized solonetz soils. Of hese three types, regosol isa pale brown, imperfectly drained coarse sand, usually 2 to 4 feet in d.oth, which overlies a greyish sandy clay loam of residual origin. The coconut estates in the area are mostly found to contain these soils. The solodized solonetx are soils which have a shallow sandy top soil which overlies a strongly alkaline subsoil of much heavier texture. The subsoil is very hard when dry and very sticky when wet. The alluvial soils of loamy to sandy texture are found in riverine areas and in estuaries. 8.4 Results of the Field Survey The data collected on the coastal features of the Eastern Coastal Zone during the survey are listed in field Appendix Table 11. This shows that over 80 per cent of the distance had straight coastlines. However, covered bays (4.8 percent) lagoons (23 percent) and sand spits (28 per cent) were found to be the other dominant features of the Eastern Coastal Zone. Some (32 per cent) were frequently encountered from Vakarai to Kalkudah and between Batticaloa and Pottijvil. Similarly, reefs and rock outcrops were mostly seen in the northern most segment of the Coastline between Foul Point and Vakarai. The observations made on the nature cf beach material shows that sandy beaches are the most common type. About 75 per cent of the beach sands were found to be white in colour. However, there were considerable stretches of brown sands in the Foul Point-Vakarai stretch and black sands in the Batticaloa-Pcttuvil stretch. Information collected on the history of the shoreline shows that 54 per cent of the coast­ line was receding while only in 22 percent was developing. The annual rate of recedence therefore more than was twice as great as that of development. However, compared to areas, the proportion of developing most other beaches isquite significant mainly because of the presence of sandspits. The results of observations made on vegetation types in the Eastern Zone are summarised in Appendix Table 12. This shows that the most dominant vegetation type is dune vegetation which isfound in nearly 70 percent of the coastal zone. Well-developed sand dunes are present in many places along the coast from Akkaraipattu to Pottuvil. When the dunes are located very close to the sea, their windward side isoften devoid of vegetation. However, on the crest of the dunes lowcreeping plant species such as Ipomea pescaprae (Bintamburu) and Spinifex Littorus (Maliarawana rawula) are found. Sandy shore vegetation which forms the dominant vegetation type in rnos! other areas occupies only the second place (52 percent) while mangroves were observed in 41 percent oi" the costline Mangroves occur near estuaries and in small The follwing types of species lagoons. were identified in the groves of manqrove vegetation. (i) Rhizo­ phora (ii) Bruguiera (iii) Sonneratla caseolaris (iv) Cerions taga/ and (v) Avcen,,ia of/icinails. Several of these can be seen at the Mahaweii Ganga estuary near Mutur. On the higher ground behind the magrove proper is a mixed woodland with mangrove plants and species charac­ teristic of littoral woodlands such as Iteilera hlttorahz, CalophgV//utn and Term/nal/ia cetappa. These species however, appear to be less tolerant than Rh/zophora to high salinity levels tend to be absent from and areas subject to frequent inundation by sea water. Coastal forests quite significant in the were northern parts of the coastal zone between Foul point and while Kalkudha grasslands were more dominant in the Batticaloa-Pottuvil stretch. A listing of the dominant human activities in the Eastern Coastal Zone isgiven in Table As in most other coastal areas 8.1. fishing was the most important human activity. Beaching boats and Ma-del formed the most common fishing methods. Off-shore fishing and dry fish wadi were frequently observed in the coastal zone between Batticaloa and Potuvil.Lagoonal fishing activities were also largely confirned to the southern parts of the zone. Among the vities, sand mining other acti­ as well as coral mining were frequently observed in the Batticaloa-Pottuvil stretch. Tourism formed a dominant activity, particularly in the Kalkudah-Passikuddah of the coast line. areas Coconut based industires were observed only in the Batticaloa-Pottuvil segment.

37 00

Table 8.1 Dominant Human Activities in the Coastal Zone from Foul Point to Pottuvil

I Mumber of kilometres ot which specified activities were observed

Fishing Other Activities

i Segment of the coast line I 1 M

FolPit to Vakarai .. 40 05, 16 01 0 Vakarai to Ka~kudah .... i 34 10 12 :1 16 01 09 03 Kalkudah to Batticaloa .... ! 32-I 20 i , 017 22 ;' 03 01 13 I , 04 05 Batticaloa to Pottuvil .. i 98 58 1 44 33 26 01 33 1 05 11 54 27 08 03

.. ... al 204 93 "73 87 31 02 64 05 58 35 08 03

%observed of kilomet-es (for each at whicn group) the specified activities were. 100 ,45.58 5 .87 41426 0.7 18. 2.45 I28.43 17.15 3.92 1.47 oofoala l nto enti ons(forn (reai eac gop .. . . 340 2 10'5 2! 1.6 ,6 01 5 1829 "813"1 0 3 3 Kaludh o attcaoa ....2 0 7!223321.11 0 05.7 8.5 Coastal erosion is still not a serious problem in most parts of the Eastern Coast. However, the cyclone of 1978 caused severe erosion of beaches such as Kalkudah Punna­ kudah and Valaichchenai. In certain places 10-15 metres of the beach had been eroded during the cyclone. Sand mining is practised on a limited scale in the area from Kalkudah to Pottuvil. This was observed mostly in areas such as Naddharkudi, Mannanai and Kaluwanchikudy, where new housing schemes were started recently. As a result of sand mining certain parts of the Kalmunai town had come under the threat of erosion. Although there aro. well developed coral reefs between Valaichchenai and Batticaloa, coral mining has still not reached serious proportions. However, it was practised on a large scale in 1979 around Kalkudah and Panich­ chankerni. Coral mining is now confined to a small area around Tirankulam and Kaluwanchikudy. At Kaluwanchikudy, large heaps of sand are collected to prepare mounds for betel and vegetable cultivation. Environmental pollution by waste disposal is not very marked on the East Coast except near Batticaloa. However, chemicals and other effluents from the Valaichchenai paper mill are diverted to a canal leading to the beach. Although pollution due to these industrial wastes is not clearly observable in this area, it can become aserious threat in the future. The processing of fish on the beach, though not a serious pollution problem yet, can affect tourism in certain areas. The clearing of coastal vegetation for has been observed in serveral pqrts of the Coastal Zone. Unlike in the interior of the country, forest clearance along the coast, can lead to accelerated wind erosion of the terrain so exposed owing to the sandy nature of soils. In some places between Pottuvil arid Batticaloa, sand is blown away during the dry season and tends to be deposited in the paddy lands and highland plantations. Chena cultivation was also observed in the Coastal Zone between Foul Point and Vakarai.

39 CHAPTER IX THE SOUTHEASTERN COASTAL ZONE

9.1 Location The segment of the coast that extends from Pottuvil to Hambantota is defined as the South­ eastern Coastal Zone. The total length of this zone covered by the field survey was approxi­ mately 127 km. It is located within the longitudes 81' .811 E and 810501 E and latitudes 6.08 and 6.51'. The northern part of this zone between Pottuvil and falls within the Amparai Administrative District and the area to the southwest of Kumbukkan Oya falls within the Hambantota District. In general the coastline faces a Southeasterly direction. 9.2 Prominent Land Marks The Southeastern Coastal Zone represents an area which is not much affected by human activities, except around Pottuvil in the north and Hambantota in the south, Nevertheless, there is evidence to suggest that this area has had human settlements since the early periods *of Sri Lanka's history. To the south of Pottuvil where the Southeastern Coastal Zone begins, is located, one of the most attractive beach resorts of the country - Arugam Bay is formed by a small headland near the mouth of the Sittu Aar - a distributary channel of the Heda Oya. The road from Pottuvil ends at Panama - an old Sinhalese settlement located on the right bank of the Wila Oya. Apart from Panama there are also a few other small settlements in the area such as Helawe Eliya and Kumana. Folklore indicates that settlers of Panama and Kumana were people who had fled from the Kandyan territory after the rebellion of 1818. From Panama begins a coastline with frequent sand-bars and dunes interrupted only by the estuaries of rivers and numerous lagoons which bear ancient Sinhalese names. The Yala National Park begins at Okanda and extends up to Palatupana. The section of the Park between the Kumbuk­ kan Oya and the is considered a part of the Strict Natural Reserve. Geologically important Miocene sandstone beds are found at Minihagalkanda located between Uda Potana and Agara Eliya. Coastal settlements begin to appear again after Palatupana. Kirinda isone such important settlement where the famous Sinhalese queen Viharamaha Devi is believed to have landed. However, a similar claim is made by Muhudu Maha Viharaya located at Pottuvil. According to the latter claim. Queen Viharamaha Devi landec: at the site of Muhudu Maha Viharaya and had her wedding ceremony at the site of at where the matrimonial pedestal is still preserved. Before reaching Hambantota which marks the end of the zone, one comes across Bundala and Koholankala which are famous for their salterns, lagoonal fishing and buffalo curd. A sand-bar developed at the mouth of Bundala Lagoon is one of the most picturesque coastal formations one comes across in a journey along the coastal zone of the Island. 9.3 Environmental Setting The climate of the Southeastern Coastal Zone may be described as semi-arid except bet­ ween Pottuvil and Panama, where Dry Zone characteristics prevail. Inother parts of this zone, the rainfall conditions are more or less si.lar to those in Mannar. Thus at Hambantota the mean annual rainfall is 1075 mm. while that in Yala is around 950 mm. The seasonal variation in rainfall at Hambantota is however not so great as in most other parts of the Dry Zone. Panama on the other hand receives an annual rainfall of 1560 mm. The mean maximum temperatures remain high, around 85°F, while ihe mean minimum temperatures do not fall below 75F. At Hambantota the dominant wind directions are northerly and northeasterly during the November- January period and southwesterly and westerly during the April to October period. Thus south­ westerly winds prevail for a longer period throughout the entire dry season. This climate favours the formation of sand dunes aided by an environment of xerophytic vegetation. There are two famous lighthouses bearing the names Kuda Ravana Kotuwa (Little Basses) and Maha Ravana Kotuwa (Great Basses) located off the Southeastern Coast (Douglas 1874). The isobaths near the southeastern shoreline indicate a somewhat complicated submarine

40 topography which is not usual in most other parts of the continental shelf. submarine ridges parallel Here one can find to the coastline, formed at 5 fathom and cally, the entire Southeastern 10 fathom isobaths. Geologi­ Coastal Zone is made up of Bintenna area where Gneisses except in an small Miocene sandstone beds such as those at Minihagalkanda are found. Bintenna Gneisses belong to the Vijaya series of rocks which were formed during the The Minihagalkanda beds are considered Precambrian age. important from a geological point of view the dearth of geological deposits owing to of that age in the Island. These beds outcrop about 5 km. located to in an area of the east of the Manik Ganga estuary. They from the extend about 0.4 km. inland shoreline and are dissected in some places. by gully erosion. The lowest layer of beds is formed of ferruginous grit and sandstone these which are non-fossiliferous. This is overlain a thick layer of grey and yellow sands by and clays. The topmost part of the beds ferous limestone cover. contain a fossili­ Apart from sandstones, almost all other banded rock outcrops are made of gneisses which become visible occasionally at headlands and similar locations. The beach materials, mainly dune sands and alluvium, cover the rest of the coastal zone. 9.4 Results of the Field Survey The geomorphological observations made during the field survey indicate that only 4 percent (Appendix Table 13) of the coastline can be considered as much lower straight coastline. This is a figure for that category than that for the Eastern Zone. The rock outcrops (24%), lagoons (21%) estuaries (17%), bays (15%) and headlands (11%) produce a landscape in this area. However, varied coastal the most dominant feature of this coastal of sand dunes of zone is the presence varying sizes. In most places these 2 dune fields extend from 00-to 1000 m. inland from the highwatermark. The location of some of the prominent dune fields are as follows: Approximate length 'Approximate width Coastal Tract (ii) from Amaduwa of dune field (km) of dulne field (m) (i) from to Patanangala estuary towards . Kirinde 032100-200 300 (iv) from Uda (iii) from Potana estuary Patanangala to Meniktowards Ganga Panama estuaryFon 0507 300 (v) from Andarakala 100 lagoon to GirikulaI dunes exceeding 08 10 300-800 metres are The highest of not uncommon. the area these dunes vary There between betwecn 3 to is a variety Patanangala 10 metres in mostof dunes fore-dunes, cliffed and Okanda. places,including although fore-dunes, and Most berms,sand parallel dunes. Theredune fields Rock outcrops are alsowere a number observed Some other of crescenticto be woodlandexamples than Minihagalkanda underdunes littoral in when arethey Kirinda, extend extendPalatupana, beyond 200 sandstones, right up Amaduwa,m. from the high-watercould to the waterfront Patanangala, mark.be seen in The in Butawa several places. Southeastern places such and Kimbulagala. lagoons and Coastal as Kirinda, 6 prominent Zone is also Patanangala They tota. There bays can a zone of and Amaduwa. are at least be seen many lagoons of estuaries 12 salterns between Bay and bays. are formed of different and Embilikala At lerst 16 in this zone sizes associated lagoon masor by the rivers with near Hamban­ cliffs which and Oyas these lagoons. are rot flowing A large Southeasterprominent too common south eastwards number estuariesZone. Theare those on Sri Lankan Some of provide some cliffs atof Kirinde,the Heda Oya, coasts the examples. Hambantota,Wila Oya,can Manik be seen Most of Butawa, Gangain severaland Kirindi these cliffs Patanangala placesOya. of Sea are associated an the with headlands; Itikala lagoon at least 11 headlands can be seen along the coastline between Hambantota and Pottuvil.

41 t-i

Table 9.1 Dominant Human Activities in the Coastal Zone from Pottuvil to Hambantota

Number of kilometres at which specified activities were observed Length -­ of coast Fishing I Other activities Segment ofthe coast line lne Beaching Pawn & Tourism Salt Industry (km) boats Off shore Ma-del crab

Pottuvil to Heda Oya 07 02 01 02 - 04 - Heda Oya to Hambantota 120 20 01 02 03 03 06

Total ...... 127 12 02 04 03 07 06

of kilometres at which the specified activities were observed (for each group) ...... 100 - 9.45 1 1 57 315 236 5.51 4.72

%of total mentions (for each major group) .. 100 6315 1052 21.05 15.78 5394 46.15 A large proportion of the beaches (69%) covered by the field survey were sandy beaches. However, there were rocky beaches along the coastline between Palatupana salterns and Amaduwa. Silty beaches were almost totally absent in this coastal zone. Although the dominant colour of beach sands was white (41%) there were considerable stretches of black sands (35%). brown sands and beach sands of other colours were also found occasionally. The information collected on the history of the shoreline indicates that in some 30% of the distances covered the shoreline was receding, while it was recorded that it is developing along 17 percent The average rate of recedence per annum was around 0.96 m. while the rate of development was only around 0.34 m. Therefore, in general the Southeastern Coastal Zone can be considered as a zone where erosion predominates. The observations made on natural vegetation in the area are listed in Appendix Table 14. This shows that in 93 percent of the distances surveyed the dominant vegetation type was dune vegetation. The three types of vegetation observed on sand dunes, namely creeping vegetation, shrubs and woodlands show some zonation parallel to the coastline in many places, with creep­ ing vegetation near the shore and wocdlands towards the landward margin of the Coastal Zone. In the Coastal Zone between Patanangala and Panama littoral woodlands even reach the high­ water mark where elephants roam. Most woodlands exhibited thorny (eg. Parhok, Daluk and Kukulkatu), stunted and gnarled habits (e.g. Eraminiya and Demata), which are common to semi-arid climates. Other types of vegetation observed apart from dune vegetation, were sandy sea-shore vegetation (20%) and mangroves (14%). Although salt marshes were almost absent, grass dominated vegetation types (6%) were observed on a few stretches. Due to the sparsely populated nature of the area and the presence of the Yala National Park, only a few scattered human activities were found in the Southeastern Coastal Zone. These included fishing, tourism and the salt industry (see Table 9.1). These activities were also con­ centrated mainly in the Pottuvil to Panama and Hambantota to Palatupana stretches. The rest of the area falls within the Yala National Park. Nevertheless, the Hambantota salt industry and tourism at Arugam Bay are well known activities in the area. Although observed to be practised only along less than 10% of the coastline surveyed, beaching boats were the most popular method of fishing. [he other forms of fishing were observed only in a few places. 9.5 Problems and Areas of Concern It appears that the fishing industry has much scope for development in this area. In spite of the presence of many lagoons in the area, lagoonal fishing is concentrated mainly along the Pottuvil coast. Fishing in the areas falling within the National Park, particularly around Patanan­ gala, is limited to migratory fishermen holding permits issued by the Fisheries Corporation. This occastionally leads to minor disputes between fishermen and Wild Life Department officials. The tourist industry as at present is concentrated in such places as Arugam Bay, Amaduwa and Hambantota. The demand for land is on the increase. Particularly in the Coastal Zone between Pottuvil and Ullaln this area tourist 'cabanas' are a very frequent sight. Despite the poor facilities offered this area had become attractive to tourists due to the certain rare freedom they can enjoy on some sections of the beach. Although there is hardly any environmental pollution in these areas at present, there is what one may call 'cultural pollution'. A hotel project which was started near Panama had apparently been abandoned on the orders of the Government because of its proximity to the Ruhunu National Park. The natural facilities available for salt manufacture in this area also seem to be under­ utilized. Despite the many lagoons which are suitable for salt, production only the salterns at Malala, Koholankala, Maha Lewaya, Bundala and Palatupana were found to be functioning. Several other salterns which functioned in the past have apparently been closed down.

43 CHAPTER X THE SOUTHERN COASTAL ZONE 10.1 Location The coastal strip between iambantota and Galle is defined here as the Southern Coastal Zone. It is located between longitudes 80.13' E,and 810.09' Ead latitudes 6*.02 . N to 6'.08' N. The total length of coastline surveyed was 123 kilometres. 10.2 Prominent Features In the coastal tract from Hambantota to Tangalle a continuation of most features of the Southeastern Zone can be observed. A series of lagoons and lewayas such as Karagam lewaya, Lunawa kalapuwa, Kalamatya kalapuwa and Rekawa kalapuwa are found along this stretch. Similarly, beaches with sand dunes form dnother major coastal feature, Several estuaries are formed by streams such as the Walawe Ganga, Ranna Oya and Kirama Oya. Proceeding further westwards from Tangalle, one observes that the number and the size of lagoons decrease rapidly, the only exceptions being the Mawella kalapuwa and the Koggala lake. Similarly, the frequency of occurrence of sand dunes diminishes and rocky beaches become a dominant coastal feature between Tangalle and Dikwella. The southernmost tip of the Island represented by the Dondra Head islocated between Dik­ wella and the estuary of the Nilwala Ganga. Matara which issituated at the estuary of the Nilwala Ganga is the larqest town on the southern coast. Almost the entire coastline from Dikwella to Galle is marked bynarrowsandy beaches, a few headlands and some small cliffs The Weligama Bay and the form two prominent bays of the south coast. Both the Nilwala Ganga and Polwatta Ganga which are two major southern rivers in the south exhibit unique meandering paths before they reach the sea. From Dikwella the main road to Colombo runs quite close to the beach in many places, thereby exposing itself to the threat of marine erosion. The Fort of Galle which marks the end of the Southern Zone isbuilt on one of the most prominent headlands of the entire coast of Sri Lanka. Both Matara and Galle are historic cities which gained great prominence during the period of European colonial rule. 10.3 Environmental Setting The climate of the Southern Coastal Zone changes from the dry, warm and seasonal climate of Hambantota, through the Intermediate Zone represented by Tangalle, to the warm and humid Wet Zone climate of Galle. The'mean annual rainfall figures for Hambantota (1075 mm.) Tangalle (1342 mm) and Galle (2573 mm) indicate this change quite clearly. The marked seasonality of the Dry Zone type rainfall climate of Hambantota gradually becomes blurred when one proceeds westwards and finally at Galle ayear round moisture surplus regime becomes the general pattern. This distinct variation of climatic types in the Southern Zone manifests itself in the formation of characteristic coastal features, and particularly in those associated with the occurrence of beach dunes. The transition of climatic conditions along the coast from dry to wet types is also reflected to a considerable extent in the coastal plant communities. The entire Southern Coastal Zone is underlain by Precambrian rocks of the lijayan series. The dominant roCK types are charnockites, granites, gneisses, granulites and quartzites. Some near­ shore sandstone beds of the Miocene age can be observed in a few sites at Devundara, Kotte­ goda, Ahangama, Hungama and Ussangoda, These sandstone beds become clearly visible at low-tide in certain places. Most of the low cliffs in the Southern Coastal Zone are formed of either granites or laterites. The occurrence of laterites becomes more and more frequent as one approaches the Wet Zone. The coral reefs which represent an important organic element in the area are often seen along the breaker zone of waves. Most coral deposits belong to the Holo­ cene age and are relatively resistant to marine processes. The parent rocks occasionally outcrop at headlands and cliffs. In other places they are overlain by superficial material such as beach sands, sand dunes and river alluvium. 10.4 Results of Field Survey Some results of the oservations made on coastal features during the field survey are given in Appendix Table 15. This shows that cliffs (48%) in the Southern Coastal Zone are as im­ 44 portant as straight coast lines (47%). This is unique when compared with other areas of the country. Boulders are observed in 39 percent of the distances covered while reefs were seen in 38 percent of them. The bays (38%) and headlands (30%) also occupy an important place among the coastal features observed in the Southern Zone. However, lagoons, bays and sand­ spits are concentrated mainly in the stretch between Hambantota and Dondra Head. Similarly. cliffs, headlands, boulders and rock outcrops were mostly concentrated along the coastline from Tangalle to Dondra Head. On the other hand straight coastline are the dominant feature bet­ ween Matara and Koggala. The observations made on the nature of beach material indicate that beaches in 72 percent of the were sandy distances covered by the survey. Cobbles and per pebbles were found in 32 cent while silty beaches were observed in 17 per cent. A clear vatiation was observed in the colour of beach sands in the eastern and western parts of the Coastal Zone. White sands were dominant in the area from Weligama to Galle, while brown, black and other coloured sands were frequently found between Hambantota and Weligama. The information collected on the history of the coastline, shows that in 85 per the distances covered, in the survey, cent of the shore line was receding. This was most conspicuous between Dondra Head and Unawatuna. The average rate of recedence per annum was reported to. be around 0.95 mm. Developing beaches were observed only between Hambantota and Tangalle and at the Weligama bay. The average rate of development is reported to be in the region of 0.30 m. Thus, in general, the rate of recedence was found to be more than times the rate three of development in the Southern Coastal Zone. The observations made on vegetation types in the area surveyed, indicates that sandy seashore vegetation is present almost throughout the entire zone (97%). (see Appendix Table 16). Nearly 80 percent of the sandy shore vegetation was found to be creepers. However, shrubs and littoral woodlands were mostly seen on the coast between Hambantota and Dondra Head. Dune vegetation, salt marshes and mangroves were observed to have an equal distribu­ tion of about 20 percent each of the distance covered. These three types of vegetation were concentrated mainly in the area between also Hambantota and Tangalle. Most of the mangroves observed were mature while thorn scrubs dominated the salt marsh species. Although forest type vegetation was limited to small patches specially around Hambantota, some grass cover was observed throughout the coastal zone, with concentrations between Hambantota and Dondra Head. In general, the occurrence of natural vegetation types decreased rapidly from Hambantota to Dondra Head. Some of the plant species observed in the Southern Zone are listed in Table 10.1 below: Table Coastal Plant 10.1 Species observed in the Southern Coast Pedalium Zone murex (Pedalicacae) aj : Sesuvium portulacastrum (Ficoideae) ?r t,6-i Emilia sonchifolia (Compositeae) % UU)6 Phyla nodiflora (Verbenaceae) 0 Hydrophylax j ,- maritima (Rubiaceae) , , lpomea pescaprae (Convolvu!aceae) i w. Indigofefa enneaphylla (Legurninosae) 6f Crotalaria podocarpa (Leguminosae)- Phaseolus trilobus (Leguminosae) R a Canavallia podocarpa (Leguminosae) ,nlt; Euphorbia rosea (Euphorbiaceae) ,:i' z Agyneia baccformis (Euphorbiaceae) c,& -'zjv Tribulus terrestris (Zygophyllacae) .,s Spinifix littoreus (Graminae) ® U):Z_. 6L Cyperus arenarius (Cyperaceae) , :,vii;s, Jatropa curcas (Euphorbiaceae) Pandanus tectorius (Pandanaceae) Stchetarpheta indica (Verbenaceae) Barringtonia speciosa (Lecythidaceae) Barringtonia racemosa (Lecythidaceae) 3 ;,&€

45 Table 10.2 Dominant Human Activities in the Coastal Zone between Hambantota and Galle

Number of kilometres at which specified activities were observed

Fishing Other Activities

h c M Segment of the coast

z iz 't I.,

C 0 ...Q

01 04 01 02 02 Hambantote to Tangalle .. 41 06 05 22 08 25 07 01 03 07 04 25 Tangalle to Dondra Head 34 1C 12 16 02 02 03 Dondra Head to Matara .. 05 04 02 01 02 Polhena . . . .. 03 02 - 01 04 05 01 04 Polhena to Weligama Bay .. 08 01 02 03 01 Weligama Bay 08 05 01 06 05 02 11 Weligarna Bay to Koggala 12 07 I 03 03 07 Koggala to Unawatuna 07 01 01 02 03 Unawatuna .. 05 04 01

02 23 25 13 60 01 Total .. .123 45 18 40 10 33 % of kilometres at which the specified activities were 1.63 18.70 20.33 1057 48.78 0.81 observed (for each group) .. .. 100 3659 14 63 3252 813 7.20

2.0.49 10.65 49.18 0.81 % of total mentions (for each group) 100 0.40 12.16 2702 6.75 2229 1.35 18.85 I I I The results of observations made on dominant human ictivities in the Southern Coastal Zone are listed in Table 10.2. This shows that fishing, coconut based industries, coral and sand collection and tourism are the major activities in the area. Beaching boats were observed right along the coast However, almost much of the fishing activities other than beaching concentrated boats were in the area between Hambantota and Dondra Head. fishing Thus ma-del fishing, lagoonal and dry fish wadi were hardly ever observed along the coast between Dondr;1 Head and Galle. The prime fishing area in the Southern Coastal Zone appears to lie in the stretch between Tangalle and Dondra Head. Here, 3 1/2 ton boats and 17 1/2 feet fibre glass boats are used for off-shore fishing. A large number of fishermen also migrate from places such as Kottegoda and Kudawella during the off season (Premadasa 1979). A list of the more important types of fish caught in the Southern Coastal Zone is given in Table 10.3. Among the other prominent activities of the area, coconut based industries were observed in nearly 50 per cent of tho Coastal Zone with more or less on an even geographical distribution. Similarly, sand and coral mining activities were also widespread and observed in about 20 per cent of the area surveyed. The collection of corals is done in the following ways: (a) mining in inalnd areas near the coast; (b) collection of pieces of coral that are washed ashore; (c) the breaking of offshore live coral reefs (d) large scale removal of stratified sea shells, particularly in the Hatagala, Kalamatiya and Hungama areas. Of these different types of coral extraction the first type is practised particularly in around Galle real mining style using water pumps, labour gangs etc. Tourism provides one of the important sources of income for coastal residents of the Southern Coast. Thus small-scale tourist guest houses are observed at Tangalle, Dondra Head and Polhena. Larger hotels are seen at Galle and Koggala where one of the longest beach side hotel structures in the country can be seen.

Table 10.3 Some Common Fish Varieties caught in the Southern Coastal Zone Sphyraena obtusata . Sphyraena jello 3o! Sillago sihama

Lactarius lactarius t ::7, Carangoides malabaricus Gnathanndon speciosus "-, Chorinemus lysan , Chorinemus tala Pristipomoides typus Lutianus kasmira eG 6-€Z­ Leiognathus splendens z . Leiognathus equulus Otolithus ruber Rastrelliger kanagurta Katsuwonns pelamis Euthynnus affinis ', CJo...) Chiloscyllium indicum Ginglymostoma ferrugineum - Rhincodon typus " Galeocerda Cu\ eri Scoliodon sorrakowah Scoliodon palasorrah Hypoprion macloti

47 Squalus zygaena (, )U) Raja djiddensis :. U) Raja lyma Io 3,L, Raja Uarnak cZi( -

Raja Narnak . .w Raja Narinaria ,C Hu

10.5 Problems and Areas of concern It could be seen from the data given in Appendix Table 15, that the erosion hazard in some parts of the Southern Coast is reaching serious proportions. Studies conducted by Zeaper (1960), Eaton (1961) and Swan (1974) also indicate the different localities of the zone where the erosion problem is most acute. It is generally believed that the erosion threat is greater in the more densely populated areas in the western parts of the Southern Zone. During the field survey it was observed that the erosion problem exists loc;lly in places such as the beach facing Galle Bazaar, Kataluwa, Ahangama, Wella Devalaya iria of Unawatuna, Kapparatota, Gandara, Kottegoda and Tangalle. A moderate rate of erosion could be observed in places such as Polhena, Matara, Rekawa and the Hambantota town area. With increasing density of population and the concomitant increase of human activities, pollution of coastal areas becomes a common phenomenon. In the Southern Coastal Zone pollution occurs in several ways. The mining of inland coral in the coastal zone has left behind a large number of abandoned pits in areas such as Galle, Kataluwa, Ahangama and Polwatu­ modera. The pollution of coastal waters by petroleum oils could be seen at the Galle Harbour, Mirissa and Tangalle. Similarly, at the salterns where diesel engines are used for pumping water, the diesel oil from these engin ...tends to pollute the surrounding water bodies. In the more urban areas of the Southern Coast sewage outfall structures and waste disposal points pollute the beaches. Coconut based industries were observed frequently in most part of the Southern Coastal Zone. The processing of coconut husks for coir extraction involves retting them in stagnant pools of water for several months. This causes pollution of most water bodies in the coastal zone and creates obnoxious smells in many areas.

48 CHAPTER XI THE SOUTHWESTERN COASTAL ZONE 11.1 Location The Southwestern Coastal Zone is defined as that stretch of the Coast which extends from Galle to Colombo (Lighthouse). It is situated between the longitudes 79'.50 E and 80.1 5'E and the latitudes 6°.00'N to 6'.56'N. The total length of the Southwestern Coastal Zone covered by the field survey was 135 km. This area is depicted in 5 one-inch topographical map sheets and 26 aerial photographs (1:40,000). Almost the entire coastline faces the Southwest, thereby exposing itself to the full brunt of the 'outhwest monsoon.

11.2 Prominent Features The Southwestern Coastal Zone is the most densely populated part of the country. There­ fore, most of the coastal resources of the area are heavily utilized, and there are even signs of over-exploitation in several cases. The coastal tract from Galle to Gintota is a densely populated area most of which falls within the Galle Municipality. The estuary is the first major land mark one comes across in the journey from Galle to Colombo. The Gin Ganga which carries about 1446x10 -1acre feet of water annually (Bocks, 1959) also carries a heavy sediment load. As a result an impressive sand bar is formed at its mouth. From Gintota to Bentota is a series of lakes, lagoons and lowlying areas. Some of the prominent lakes are Ratgama Lake, Lake, Randombe Lake and Dedduwa Lake. Many southwest flowing streams such as the Hikkaduwa Ganga, Talawatte Ganga and tend to form lagoons of varying sizes. There are large marshlands around Akurala and Madampe Lake. In this part of the coast Hikka­ duwa and Bentota are two of the well known tourist resorts in Sri Lanka. The Randombe- Balapitiya area with its numerous headlands and curved beaches forms one of the most picture­ sque coastal landscapes on the southwest coast (see Fig. 5). The Bentara Ganga is the second major river to the north of the Gin Ganga. The lakes and lagoons which are so numerous in the Gintota-Bentota stretch become less frequent to the north of Bentota. The only exceptions are the at and the in Colombo. However, there is reason to believe that some of the low-'ng paddy lands in the interior areas around Kalutara formed lakes in the past. The Bentota Ganga which marks the boundary between Pasdun Korale to the north and Walallawita Korale to the south had been an important cultural boundary in recent periods of history. There is a saying among the Sinha­ lese, that, 'not even a kitten should be brought from beyond the Bentota Ganga if it had already opened its eyes'. An examination of air-photographs in the area around the estuary suggests that the river had possibly changed its course in recent periods of geological history. The Bentota Ganga also forms a long sand bar at its mouth creating tile beautiful Bentota Beach. The coastal tract between Aluthgama on the right bank of the Bentara Ganga and Kalutara on the left bank of the has some prominent headlands in the Southwest Coast, such as those at 2nd Maggona. This is an area of predominantly Muslim settlements. The Kaluganga which has a basin area of some 2 2690km carries a larger volume of water (6190 x 103 acre feet) than any other river in the Island. The enormous amount of river sediment transported by the river has led to the formation of two sand bars at its mouth creating a small lagoon in the Kalutara South area. The coastal zone between Kaluiara and Colombo forms the most densely populated area of the Island. From Paiyagala the railway line runs continuously along the coast with the Colombo - Galle Road on its right. Thus both the railway tract and the Galle Road remain the threat of erosion in several under places. As one elderly resident of Sinigama remarked during the field survey, the present road is the 'third Galle Road'in the Werallana-Totagamuwa area. This area also has pollution problems created by an urban environment, where for a long time the beach and the lagoons have been considered to be dumping grounds for solid wastes and outlets for sewage disposal. 49 11.3 Environmental Setting The climate of the Southwestern Coastal Zone belongs to the 'hot-wet-lowland tropical' type. Galle and Colombo are (he two main meterological stations in this area with fairly long weather records The mean annual temperature at both stations is in tie same range with 77.6°F (25.2'C) at Galle and 80.5'F (26.95"C) at Colombo. The annual seasonal variation of temperature is almost negligible. Similarly, mean annual rainfall in Colombo is around 94.31 in (2400 mm) while at Galle it is 98.95 in. (2514 mm). Thus although the rainfall in Galle isslightly higher, both Colombo and Galle exhibit basically similar climatic characteristics. There are however certain differences in the wind directions and velocities between Colombo aod Galle during different season. Thus in Colombo the dominant wind direction in the period from March to October remains southwesterly and westerly. In Galle, westerly winds remains dominant during the period from April to October while southwesterly winds remain weak in July and August. Thus the dominant wind direction during the South-west Monsoon remain westerly in Galle while it is southwesterly in Colombo. Similarly, observations made on wind velocities indicate that Colombo can experience daily wind mileages of over 150 (240 km) during the May to September period. The daily wind mileages in Galle on the other hand appear to be much higher throughout the year and exceed 250 (400 km) in the period from May to September. This shows that the geographical locition of Galle makes its coast more vulnerable to wave action and other related coastal processes generated by the strong westerly winds. Almost the entire Southwestern Coastal Zone is underlain by metamorphosed and partly facies migmatised rocks consisting of charnockites and metasediments. These are granulite in rocks belonging to the Pre-Cambrian age. Calc granulited and gneissic rocks are often seen and the area around Galle, Gintota, Aranga;a and Aluthgama. In the area between Aluthgarna Beruwela the main rock type is garnet-sillimanite--granites and biotite garnet-graphite­ gneisses. Most of the headlands observed on the southwestern costine are made of charnockites and granitic gneisses At the southern end of the Gale Harbour area there are some crystalline limestone rock outcrops. Laterite occurs as a surface duricrust of variable thickness over the crystalline rock base- ment. It is particularly noticeable in areas such as Dadella, Hikkaduwa, Beruwela and Maggona. The headland areas of Magalkanda, Naigala and Molligoda are f rmed of at, indurated lateritic cover. Quarternary alluvial deposits form a common type of superficial cover over the bedrocks, particularly in the valleys and estuaries of the Gin Ganga, Bentara Ganga, Kalu Ganga and Panadura Ganga. Unconsolidated sands and littoral sandstones are found at the sand bars and sand spits along the coast. A few peaty areas are also found in the flood plains of Bentara the Ganga, and the Kalu Ganga and several other maishy lands. Along the inland margin of coastal zone, at least four different types of soil were ohserved, namely, (a) red yellow podzolic soils with soft or tNd lterite in rolling or undulating terrain, (b) bog and half-bog soils on flat terrain, (c) alluvial soils of variable texture on flat terrains and (d) regosols or recent beach sands, also on flat terrain. 11.4 Results of the Field Survey The observations made on the nature of the coast in the Southwestern Zone are summarised in Appendix Table 17. This shows that the most dominant feature of the area was a straight the coastline, which was observed in some 87 per cent of the distances covered. In terms of in frequency of ob-ervation, beaches with rock outcrops came second. Reefs were observed some 29 percent of the coast line while headlands were seen in 23 percent. In most headlands there were cliffs and stacks. In the Maggona headland there are cliffs as well as sea holes. One example is the Ginnanguliya cave which, according to the villagers, extends about 3 miles in­ land. Bays and estuaries were also observed in 18 percent and 17 percent respectively of the total distance covered. Sandspits which were observed mostly along the estuaries and deltas were not so common. In general, erosional features were found to be far more frequent than depositional ones in the Southwestern Coastal Zone. Although off-shore islands do not form a major landscape feature in the Southwestern Coastal Zone, there are many rocky islets which are larger than average rock outcrops. Some of the prominent ones are the Hikkaduwa Bird 50 Sancturary islets, Sinigama Island, Nanga Andu Gala, Kaputuduwa, Kaikawalagala and Kaluwamodera island. It is possible that most of the islands and islets in the area from Hikkaduwa to Maggona had been connected to the mainland in the past. The observations made on beach materials indicate that 88 percent of the Southwest coas­ had sandy beaches. There were only 10 percent silty beaches. The beaches with pebbles and cobbles w--e rather rare and very localised. The dominant colnur of the beach sand was found to be brown, while white sands were observed mostly between Galle and Hikkaduwa. Some of the brown sands around Beivuwala had high natural radioactive levels. Black sands were observed here and there throughout the entire zone except between Thalpitiya Ela and Colombo. Black sands were particularly noticeable in theKosgoda-Induruwa stretch and in the K-lutara-Thalpi­ tiya Ela stretch. The information collected mostly from coastal residents on the history of the coast line shows that in some 81 percent of the distance covered, in the survey the shore line had receded. Only in 21 percent of them had some shore line development in the past 20-30 years taken place. These developing beaches were mostly associated with the Gin Ganga, Bentara Ganga and Kaluganaga estuaries. The average annual rate of recedence of the coast line in the South­ from the coastal tract between Maggona and Thalpitiya -'awhere the coastline receded between 20-40 metres within a period of 20 to 30 years. A simil;, rate of recedence was reported from the area between the Bentara Ganga estuan, and the Beruwela lightl, )use. Some vill, gers re­ ported that rock outcrops in the area from Mahamodera to Dadalla formed part of the main­ land 20 to 30 years ago. In the Akurala area near the 52/2 culvert the ruins of an old Colombo- Galle Road could still be seen. Some old maps of the Hikkaduwa area available in the Survey Department show how Sinigama Devale island was depicted as a tombola about 50 years ago (Fig. 6). The observations made on the coastal vegetation types are !isted in Appendix Table 18. This shows that sandy seashore vegetation was a!most ubiquitous (97 percent) throughout the zone. Among the sandy sia shore vegetation communities, low creeping vegetation types such as /pomea pescaprae, Cr.,navaliajosea and Spinifix fittoreus were the dominant species. Among the low shrubs were piant, species such as Scaevo la sericae (-' ,'(-zW) which could be seen in the areas of Balapitiya, Aluthgama, Maggona ari Paiyagala. Clerodendrum inerme (Q' c,) Morinda citrifolia (au) _.,)and Pandanu.5 tectorius ( were ob­ served herc and there along the coast line but mostly in the areas of Mahamodera, Beruwala, Maggona and Paiyagala. The other major vegetation type along the southwest coast besides sandy sea shore plani communities, observed was mangrove vegetation which was noticed in at least 31 per cent of the distance covered. Most mangroves observed were mature and highly localised, particularly along the landward margins of river mouths in the Kosgoda, Maggona, Paiyagala and Waska­ duwa areas. The dominant mangrove spec"es included Bruguiera (cc -&i Avicennia ( fs) Excoecarla ( .c- Lumntzera ((,?z) and Aeglceras " ,eThere were many other species of shrubs such as Termincha cebappa ( Calophvllumn Waler ( and Cerbera manghas (zx6L) and Scaevola sercea ' ,_)scattered here and there along the coast. The information collected on dominant human activities in the zone is given in Table 11.1. This shows that fishing is the most important activity and was observed in over 75 percent of the Coast31 Zone surveyed. The most common method of fishing in the area is by beaching boats and is practised in all the 17 segments of the coastline. Ma-del which formed the next most popular method of fishing was observed mostly in the area between Kosgoda and Thalpi­ tiya Ela. Off-shore fishing was confined mainly to the Galle and Beruwela areas. A list of the varieties of fish caught in two important fishing areas around Ambalangoda and Paiyagala is given in Appendix Table 1e. There is also some fresh water fishing in the numerous fresh water lakes located close to the coastline. There are sevbrarl activities in the Southern Coastal Zone other than fishing. These include coconut based industries, tourism, sand mihmng, coral mining, and mineral, extraction. Of these activities coconut based industries are spread all along the coastal zone and ubserved in at least 51 Table 11.1 Dominant human activities in the Coastal Zone from Galle to Colombo

Number of kilometres at which specified activities were observed

Fishing Other activities Segment of the coast line ----......

I L

Galle Municipal limits 14 06 05 02 01 02 06 Galle to Dodanduwa 09 07 08 02 01 .J9 01 Dodanduwa to Hikkaduwa 09 03 07 03 09 8 02 HikkaduwatoAmbalangoda 11 11 08 04 02 10 01 AmbalangodatoAhungalla 10 10 03 02 09 to Kosgoda 05 05 04 01 05 Kosgoda to Induruwa Rail Gate .. .. 06 06 01 03 01 01 01 04

Induruwa Rail Gate to Bentota Estuary 07 02 03 01 02 05 05 Bentota Estuaryto Beruwala light house.. 04 03 01 04 04 Beruwala light house to Maggona head lard 08 08 03 04 01 01 03 08 Maggona head land to Kalutara .. . 07 05 07 04 07 Kalutara lagoon . 05 02 04 01 01 03 03 Kalutara to Thalpitiya Ela.. 09 05 06 01 02 03 08

Thalpitiya Ela to Panadura I , Ganga .. .. 05 05 02 02 03 Panadura Ganga ,o Mt. Lavinia .. . 17 16 08 03 10 Mt. Lavinia to Vanderwert Place .. . 02 02 Vanderwet Place to I Colombo .. . 07 02

Total 135 103 10 27 ('2 02 01 25 38 47 99 04

% of kilometres at which the I activities were observed (forI- each______. group) 100 ______76.29 7.40 20 ______-1.48 1.48 0.74 18.51 28.14 34.81 73.33__ 2.962.96___

% of total mentions for each group) . 100 72.02 6.89 18.62 1.37 1.37 0.68 11.73 17.84 22.06 46.47 1.87 73 per cent of the distance surveyed. Toddy tapping, coir products manufacture and coconut wood carving are some of the activities based on the coconut plam which is grown in homesteads and small holdings in the area. In recent times tourism has gained prominence as a major income generating ictivity in certain parts of the southwest coast. The well developed tourist centres in this area include Hikkaduwa, Bentota, Beruwela, Mount Lavinia and Colombo. Apart from these main centres, tourism is found on a smaller scale at places such as Narigama, Tiranagama, Patuwatta, Ahun­ galla and in several places between Ambalangoda and Bentota, and between Kalutara and Hik­ kaduwa. In fact, in certain areas almost every household in the coc.stal zone had some involve­ ment with tourism. In several places sections of the beach area have been marked out as 'private beaches', particularly by the bigger hotel owners. This restricts the freedom of locdl peoplc to move along the beach freely -a freedom they have traditionally e-njoyed. Coral mining forms an important economic activity, par',icularly in the coastal stretch between Galle and Ambalangoda. Buried coral deposits occur inland in the stretch from Hik­ kaduwa to Ambalangoda. Mining of this coral hal hecomeb d flourishing cottage industry. Apart from inland coral mining there are some places where coral is extraced from I'olf-shore reefs. Coral is used mainly for lime burning in these areas. The mining of coral is believed to be accelerat­ ine erosion and threatening the stability of some beaches, particularly those around Hikkaduwa. Said mining is practised all along the southwest coast particularly around townships. The extraction of minerals from the land within the coastal zone is observed in several localities. The ilmenite deposit at Kaluwellii near Galle has been used for many years. This is a black ilmenite-bearing sand deposit about -half a mile in extent. The other mineral sand deposits in the southwest coast i--lude monazite deposits at Kaikawela (near Induruwa) and Beruwela. The beach sand here is rich in monazite and contains as much as 40 percent of this mineral at certain place's. These deposits were exploited from time to time by an experimental plant for separation of monazites. The extraction of mineral sand had also been observed occasionally along the coast between Galle and Ambalangoda. 11.5 Problems and Areas of Concern Coastal erosion remains the single most important problem in this densely populated Coastal Zone of the Island. The historical information collected on the recedence of the shore line shows that considerable tracts of land have been lost through erosion by marine action. In fact the rate of erosion in certain other parts of the country has been found to be even greater than what is observed in the Southwestern Zone. However, due to the pressure of population, land values are much higher in the Southwest. The damage due to erosion is therefore higher than in the most other areas. Similarly, the network of roads, railway and other infra-structural facilities have a higher density in the Southwestern area. Consequently, the potential for erosion damage is much greater in the Southwest than anywhere else in the country. In other words, although the natural rates of erosion in the south-west may not be much different from those in some other areas of the Island, thp -amage caused by erosion is obviously much higher in the Southwest. Therefore the prob~em in the southwest becomes primarily a matter of environmental economics and inappropriate landuse. It is possible to identify three different types of erosional areas in the southwest on the basis of the severity of erosion and erosion damage, namely (a) areas of severe erosion-such as Hikkaduwb, Sinigama, Pereliya, Telwatta, Kahawa, Akurala, Madampagama, Moragalla, Beruwala to Polkotuwa, and Dummal Modara to Maggona. (b) areas of moderate erosion-such as the coast from Galle to Kumarakanda, Kaikawalagala to Induruwa, Katukurunda to Kalutara, Waskaduwa, Koralawella and Angulana. (c) Areas )f low erosion. These include some areas where the beach was observed to be developing as at Bentota, and Kalutara. In recent years, however, in the coastal areas to the north of Hikkaduwa and Beruwala there has been accelerated erosion as an unwelcome result of the construction of breakwaters for new harbours.

53 The mining of corals and sand and the clearing of natural vegetation cover appears to have disturbed the ecosystems and the sand budget of the coastal zone. The coral reefs provide some natural protection to the beaches. Their destruction paves the way for strong waves to reach the shoreline unhindered. 'The clearing of vegetation and the removal of sand from the beaches also tend to have an impact on the beaches similar to that of coral mining. In view of the high population density of the area and the location of large urban settle­ ments, sewage as well as industrial wastes tend to pollute the beaches. The survey revealed that there were more than 22 major sewage outfall structures in the area between Galle and Colombo. The old Sinhala idiom that "all the dirt goes to the Bay of Beruwela" (or its more recent version "all the dirt goes to Beira Lake") vividly summarizes this situation. The booming tourist industry has added to the problem of pollution through construction of beach resorts too close to the water front, although it is against the industry's own interests. Tourism also affects the social and cultural values of coastal residents thereby creating another type of pollution­ ,cultural pollution'. As noted earlier the freedom of the people to move about freely on the beaches is also hindered by the demarcation of 'private beaches' by some hoteliers.

54 CHAPTER XII WATER - FRONT STRUCTURES 12.1 Introduction The preparation of an inventory of man-made coastal structures is one of the major objectives of the present survey. In view of the fact that the investigations on structures land use were conducted and simultaneously during the field survey, the study of structures approached in ,wo ways. was Firstly an inventory of all the structures found at the water-front during the field survey were inspected and recorded. For this exercise the water-front was considered as the zone of 10 metres bordering the shoreline at the time of the survey. Investi­ gators moved along the beach and recorded information on all the structures that fell within the water-front zone. The houses, hotels and other buildings which came within this zone were enumerated and information about them was recorded in detail. Secondary, all the buildings found within the coastal zone (which extended upto 300 metres) were recorded under the relevant landuse categories as part of the landuse investigations. 12.2 Types of Structures The field survey revealed that there is a considerable variety of man-made structures at the water-front. A list of these structures is given in Appendix Tables 20 to 28. These structures were classibied according to the .unctions they perform into the following categories: 1. Erosion preventive stuctures (revetments, boulder walls masonry walls and groynes) 2. Structures related to ports and harbours (breakwaters, piers, jetties etc.) 3. Residential structures (houses, both permanent and temporary). 4. Tourist and commercial structures (hotels, tourist shops, boutiques, industrial premises and fish sales centres). 5. Transport structures (roads, both major and minor, and railways). 6. Fishermen's huts (including both semi-permanent and temporary sheds put up by fishermen within 10 metres of the shoreline). 7. Other buildings and structures (including various Government buildings). For each of these categories an enumeration was carried out and all relevant information such as the dates of construction, numbers and sizes were compiled. The effort made here was confined to an analysis of the distribution of these structures in different coastal areas of the Island. 12.3 Structures in the Western Zone A summary of water-front structures observed in the Western Coastal Zone is given in Appendix Table 20. This shows that among the erosion preventive structurf-s, the most frequent type in the Western Zone comprised of revetments They were found to be mostly evident in the coastal segment between the Neqombo lagoon and the Maha Oya, where about 25 revet­ ments were reported within 9 kilometres. The groynes came next in terms of frequency. Most groynes were seen in areas such as Lansiyawatta to the north of the Kenl,ii 'G,anq, ind in the Negombo-Maha Oya stretch. The boulder walls formed the next popular structures in this category, particularly within the stretch between the Kelani estuary ind the Negombo ligoon. Masonry walls were also found mostly within the same segment, as well is in the ire, from Talawila to Puttalam. Altogether there were about 164 erosion preventive structures in the Western Coastal Zone at the tim of tle survey. In addition, the use of sandbags as a temporary erosion preventive device was observed in Negombo as well as at Kandakuliya. Almost all the structures related to harbours were seen in the Colombo harbour ire,i. The only exceptions were three jetties observed on the coast between Talawila and Puttalam. The residential structures included both permanent and temporary dwelling houses. Altogether there were about 1063 houses on the water-front. Although there were about 22 hotels in this zone, only four were found to be on the waterfront. Boutiques, fish sales centres and fishing sheds were mostly seen in the area from Talawila to Puttalam. The large number of

55 other buildings in the Colombo harbour area were mostly warehouses. The waterfront structures also included the impressive Dutch fortress at Kalpitiya. In the category of transportational landuse some 2km of roads and 3 km of railways were observed within the waterfront zone. 12.4 Northwestern Zone Compared with most other areas of the country, there were relatively few coastal structures in the Northwestern Zone (see Appdndix Table 21). The only noteworthy erosion preventive structures were masonry walls which were observed near Puttalam and in some parts of the Talaimannar Island. The only groyne seen in the area was found at Vankalai. There was a considerable number of permanent (105) and temporary (161) dwelling houses on the water front. Although there were no railways within the waterfront zone except at the Talai-Mannar pier area, there were about 8 km of major and minor roads. The most numerous structures on the waterfront zone consisted of fishing sheds which were mostly temporary huts put up by fishermen. The presence of these fishing sheds in greater numbers is partly due to the large number of dry fish wadi observed within this zone. One noteworthy structure observed in the area is the Alli Rani fort at Silavaturai which is under the threat of erosion. Two impressive Dutch forts are found at Mannar and Pooneryn (meaning Flower City). The latter of course lies outside the Coastal Zone. Most of the Dutch forts were built at a time when pearl fishing was very popular. An old lighthouse structure was seen in the Vidattaltivu village. The presence of a considerable number of sewage disposal structures around Puttalam is a problem that needs attention. 12.5 Northern Zone The Northern Coastal Zone represents an area with relatively few coastal structures except near the big cities and towns such as Jaffna, Valvedditurai and Pollt Periro (see Appendix Table 22). The most popular erosion preventive structure in this area is the masonry wall. At least 36 masonry walls were observed in this zone during the field survey. Revetments were almost mention. Although hotels and tourist activities were rather rare in the Coastal Zone, there was a considerable number of boutiques (25) on the waterfront. A large number of permanent houses (830) were observed on the water-front in the Coastal Zone particularly near the big cities, obviously due to the greater demand for land. Over one thousand fishing sheds were seen on the waterfront of the Northern Coastal Zone. Most of these were found in the area between Jaffna and Chempiyanpattu. Two important aspects of the distribution of structures in the northern zone pertain ot (a) sewage disposal and (b) the presence of roads within the waterfront area. There were about 37 sewage outfall structures and 29 km of road within a distance of 72 km between Jaffna and Point Pedro. The islands off Jaffna Peninsula were different from it in several characteristics (see Appendix Table 23). Among the erosion preventive structures in the islands a considerable number of revetments were observed particularly in Nainativu, Kayts and Karaitivu where the population desnsity is higher and the problems of erosion more visible. Another difference between Jaffna Peninsula and the islands was the presence of a large number of jetties in the latter. Some 21 of them were seen during the field survey. This is understandable in view of the regular movement of people between the islands and the peninsula. Among the similarities between the Peninsula and the islands, the presence of a greater number of permanent houses in the water-front, the existence of a large number of fishing sheds, boutiques and roads (46 km.), may be mentioned. The exceptionally large number of fishing sheds (1306 reported) in the islands is explained by the presence of a large number of dry fish wadi there. 12.6 The Northeastern Zone A significant feature of the distribution of structures in the Northeastern Coastal Zone is their high concentration in the Trincomalee area (see Appendix Table 24). Revetments (09), boulder walls (05) and masonary walls (23) were almost entirely confined to the area from Trincomalee to Foul Point. The largest number of erosion mitigating structures in this segment comprised of masonry walls. There were about six groynes in this area, three each in Mullaitivu and Trincomalee. 56 In view of the importance of Trincomalee as a harbour, a considerable number of piers (6) and jetties (17) have been constructed. These can be seen in the stretch between Trincomalee and Foul Point. About 231 houses were observed on the water-front of which about 50 per cent were found to be permanent structures. Although there were about 27 hotels within Coastal Zone only seven of the them were located on the water-front. One significant feature of the distribution of hotels was that unlike other structures they were not confined to the Trincomalee area alone. Nearly 70 per cent of hotels were located between Kokkilai and Trincomalee parti­ cularly around the famous Nilaveli beach. The number of fishing sheds on the water-front also showed a rapid drop towards from the South. They were almost absent in the area between Irakkandy and Trincomalee. There were 19 km of road and 2 km of railway within the water-front area with a consider­ able length within the Trincomalee area. A large number of buildings falling into the category of 'other buildings' can be seen in Appendix Table 24. Most of these structures were Govern­ ment buildings, harbour buildings or buildings used for defence purposes. A large number of sewage disposal structures (19) seen in Trincomalee indicate not only pollution but their at different times in the use past. In most of the tourist areas around Nilaveli, there were no sewage outlets to the beaches. 12.7 Eastern Coastal Zone The Eastern Coastal Zone has very few maritime structures (see Appendix Table 25). Thus there were hardly any erosion preventive structures, harbour structures, or sewage outfalls. There were however about 1138 houses on the water-front although nearly 70 them were per cent of temporary. There was a considerable number of hotels in the Kalkudah-Batticaloa stretch (13) and in the Batticaloa-Pottuvil stretch (06). In fact the southern boundary of this zone marked the beginning of another important tourist area on the east coast namely the Arugam Bay area. Unlike in the Northern and North eastern Coastal Zones, the number of fishing sheds on the beaches in the east coast was relatively small (104). However, a number of boutiques considerable and fish sales centres were observed in the area between Batticaloa Pottuvil. The category and of other buildings in Appendix Table 25 included mostly government buildings such as bus depots and rest houses. 12.8 Southeastern Zone As indicated in Chapter IX the Southeastern Zone represents an area of sparse human settlements except near Pottuvil and Hambantota (see Appendix Table 26). Thus only 23 houses, both temporary and permanent were observed on the water-front. Nevertheless, there was a sizeable number of hotels, particularly in the Pottuvil area (07) and in Hambantota (06). The hotels at Arugam Bay were mostly small-scale guest houses or cabanas. Only 58 fishing sheds were observed on the waterfront. The considerable number of other buildings observed were mostly those that were associated with salterns or with the Yala National Park. The only erosion preventive structures seen were a few masonary walls and groynes between Kirinde and Hambantota The two Jetties observed were also located at Hamban­ tota. There were 4 sewage outfall structures at Hambantota, all located on the beach facing the bazaar. The petrol shed at Hambantota near the beach isapossible source of pollution. 12.9 Southern Coastal Zone The Southern Zone is an area of relatively dense human settlements which exhibits an array of maritime structures (see Appendix Table 27). Groynes and boulder walls were found to be the most common erosion preventive structures. The most prominent groyne fields were found at Kanattegoda, Dondra Head, Matara, Weligama and Aranwela. The revetments and masonary walls were mostly seen in the area between Tangalle and Dondra Head. Although harbour structures were not many in this zone, there were three breakwaters, two *piers and two jetties. The most conspicuous feature of this zone is the presence of a large number of permanent houses (1096) on the water front. There were also 34 hotels spread along most segments of the zone. The heaviest concentration of hotels in the Southern Coastal Zone was found in the 57 area between Weligama and Koggala. A large number of boutiques (169) were also seen along the coastline, with their frequency increasing in the direction towards Galle. There were about 55 km of both major and minor roads and 8 km of railways that came within the water-front area. This gives an indication of the magnitude of the potential threat from erosion to transport routes in the area. 12.10 Southwestern Zone The Southwestern Coastal Zone is the most densely populated part of the country and has the largest number and variety of coastal structures (see Appendix Table 28). The consttuc­ tion of groynes appears to be the most common method adopted to combat erosion in the southwest. There were about 80 groynes between Galle and Colombo with significant con­ centrations in the stretches between Hikkaduwa and Ambalangoda, between Panadura Ganga and Mount Lavinia, and between Vanderwert Place (Dehiwela) and Colombo. The main groyne fields (with 6 to 12 groynes) were observed at Totagamuwa, Telwatta, Kahawa, and Galle Face. Smaller groynes fields with 3 to 5 groynes were observed at Paiyagala, Beruwela, They Kalutara and Moratuwa. The groynes observed at Telwatta were of a different types. well consisted of a series of concrete cylinders named as Kulasinghe' groynes, named after the known Sri Lankan engineer. to Revetments were found to be the most numerous erosion preventive structures next between Galle groynes. There were about 44 revetments in this zone many of them being found walls within and Ambalangoda. There were also 22 boulder walls and more than 20 masonry of Colombo and Galle. this zone. The longest masonry walls were those found in the vicinity with most of them being found in There were eight breakwaters and ten jetties in this zone, harbour is not included in the the Galle harbour area. It should be noted that the Colombo Southwestern Coastal Zone. Altogether about 3389 houses wert, found on the water-front of the Southwestern Zone. of The number of permanent houses observed was rather low compared with the number Lavinia. temporary houses reported from the stretch between the Panadura Ganga and Mount of In this stretch the land between the railway line and the beach is occupied by a large number the small temporary houses. This area (including the segment upto Thalpitiya Ela) also had largest number of fishing sheds (171) in the zone. The only other area which had a large number of fishing sheds was the stretch between Dodanduwa and Ambalangoda. At least 60 hotels were observed on the water-front in the Southwestern Zone, as well as a considerable number of tourist shops in the area between Bentota and Beruwala. Two major tourist complexes can be recognized on the Southwestern Coast between Colombo and Galle. between the One of them is centred around the Bentota beach while the other is found these two areas Hikkaduwa Ganga and Dodanduwa Tourist establishments are so numerous in from and vary so widely in size that it woiild be difficult to differentiate tourist structures residential structures except through r indepth investigation. The city of Galle is included in the Southwestern Zone. A considerable number of bouti­ water­ ques were also reported from the stretch upto Dodanduwa. Fish sales centres on the front were also quite numerous in this area upto Hikkaduwa. There were some 45 km of road and nearly 14 km of railway within the water-front area. This shows the vulnerability of transport routes in the southwest to wave action particularly during the monsoons. As mentioned earlier the main Colombo-Galle road has to be relocated several times in the past in certain areas. Even today direct wave attack on the Galle road could be seen in several places. Some 24 industrial premises and 20 major sewage disposal structures were observed within the Southwest Coastal Zone. As could be anticipated most of the sewage disposal structures were found in the two major cities of the zone i.e. Colombo and Galle. Nevertheless, there were several sewage outfall points in the Beruwala-Maggona stretch. the Industrial premises were mostly observed in the Hikkaduwa-Ambalangoda area and in Beruwala-Maggona area. 12.11 National Situation and Areas of Concern in A summary of man-made structures in the coastal zone of the entire country is given Appendix Table 29. This shows that there was a total of about 560 erocion preventive structures 58 around the country. Of this number, 162 were groynes concentrated mainly in the South­ western, Western and Southern Coastal Zones. Revetments were as frequent as groynes (161) but were more widespread. Although the western and Southwestern Coastal Zones had the largest number of revetments they were observed even in the islands off Jaffna. Masonry walls had a grea.'-r spread around the country than any other erosion preventive structure. Thus the highest number of masonry walls were found in the Northern, Western and Northeastern Coastal Zones. Boulder walls, on the other hand were seen mostly in the Western, Southwestern and Southern Coastal Zones. As could be expected, structures related to harbours were found mostly in Colombo, Trincomalee and Galle. However, a large number of jetties were seen in the islands off Jaffna. Altogether there were about 9393 houses on the water-front of the coastal zone of Sri Lanka. Of this number a little more than half were permanent structures. The largest concentra­ tion of houses was in the Southwestern and Western Coastal Zones. The Northern, Western and Eastern Coastal Zones also had around 1000 houses each. The number of hotels on the water-front was found to be around 151. It should be men­ tioned however, that the total number of hotels in the Coastal Zone is much larger than that. We reckon it to be in the region of 250. The frequency of tourist shops was roughly proportional to the number of hotels. The largest number of such boutiques was found in the Southern and Southwestern Coastal Zones. There were some 5111 fishing sheds and 208 fish sales centres on the coastline around the country. While the largest number of fishing sheds was observed in the northern parts of the country between Puttalam and Trincomalee the largest number of fish sales centres was found in the Fpstern Coastal Zone Altogether there were 243 km of roads and 27 km of railway on the water front. Mosi of the roads on the water-front were found in the Southern and Southwestern Coastal Zones. The railways on the water front were however found mainly in the Southwestern Zone. Similarly industrial premises were observed in the thickly populated areas of the South-western and Northern Coastal Zones. The largest number of sewage outfall structures was observed in the Northern Coastal Zone. However, the Southwestern Coastal Zone had about 20 major sewage outfalls. In general, it appears that the number of erosion preventive structures is related to the rate of erosion as well as to the density of population and the distance from Colombo. Thus while the Soui,..u.tern Zone received much attention, other areas away from Colombo particularly the northern coast and to some extent the southern coast do not seem to have received adequate attention. The Southern Coastal Zone has the largest number of permanent houses on the water-front and its average rate of coastline recedence was much greater than that in the Southwestern Coastal Zone. Similarly, in the northern coast of Jaffna Peninsula the rate of shoreline recedence is much greater than in the Southwest. The former also has a considerably high population density. As could be expected the number of sewage outfall structures is greater in the major cities. Nevertheless, Puttalam and Jaffna, and to a lesser degree Trincomalee appear to have some pollution problems due to sewage disposal. Industrial premises are also on the increase ill some of these areas leading to potential pollution problems. A cursory examination of the location of tourist hotels on the water-front indicates cluarly that such hotels are not necessarily associated with big cities. In fact they tend to develop away from the cities and are clustered in certain areas of the Coastal Zone. Thus at least seven tourist clusters can be identified around the Island. The Nilaveli, Kalkudah-Passikudah and Arugam Bay on the east coast and Hikkaduwa, Bentota and Koggala in the southwest and Negombo on the west coast represent some of these clusters. It is these clusters, not the entire coastal zone, that should receive particular attention in coastal zone management planning in relation to tourism development. The largest number of fishing sheds and fish wadi were found on the northern coast. Due to the rapid increase of land values in recent times there is a tendency for these temporary sheds to be converted to permanent housing. Some of these sheds seen during the field survey had

59 concrete floors and lockable doors etc. It would be worthwhile to monitor this transaction permanent settlements where feasible. It should be noted that there were several new housing projects within the coastal zone which are not suitably located in terms of their stability or the needs of coast conservation.

The threat to roads and railways from erosion exists in most parts if the country, particularly in the Southwestern, Southern and Northern Coastal Zones. Most of these transport routes have obviously been built without anticipating the dangers involved. Urgent preventive measures are needed to check erosion in some of these threatened localities. A considerable number of old and unused structures were seen in most places around the coast. Many magnificient forts are left to decay or in some places such as Alli Rani, they are left to be swallowed by the waves. It is worthwhile to preserve these structures and to put them to some useful purpose, connected perhaps with tourism. A large number of apparently unused buildings were also seen particularly in the Trincomalee area. About 27 lighthouses were observed during the field survey excluding those operational as at Great Basses and Foul Point.

60 CHAPTER XIII LAND UTILIZATION

13.1 Introduction As indicated in chapter II (Section 2 I p.17), the landuse investigations were undertaken with five main objectives: The last two of these objectives were related to geomorphological features and have been dealt with in the decriptions of individual coastal zones (see Chapters IV to XII). This chapter is devoted to a discussion of the results of the survey in relation to the first three objectives, namely: (a) developing a classification for mapping of landuse, (b) preparing an inventory of landuse types, and (c) describing existing uses of land in the Coastal Zone in an area specific manner 13.2 Classification of La".duse In advance of the field survey a classification of landuse types in the Coastal Zone was attempted on the basis of available information. Based on this classification, information on landuse types in different parts of the Coastal Zone was collected through field inspection. The majo rtypes of landuse and their sub-types as inventorized are listed in Table 13.1.

Table 13.1 Classification of Landuse in the Coastal Zone (A) Agricultural Landuses (C) Commercial 1. Homesteads 1. Tourist 2. Perennial Crops 2. Non-tourist (a) commercial (b) domestic use (D) Residential 3. Seasonal Crops 2. Temporary (,) commercial (b) domestic use (E) Transportation 4. Livestock Farming 1. Bus stands 5. Farms 2. Railways and railway stations (a) crops 3. Major roads (b) livestock 4 Minor roads 6. Shifting Cultivation (F) Mining (B) Recreational 1. Functional 2. Non-functional 1. Hotels (G) Services 2. Parks (H) Industrial 3. Sanctuaries (I) Defence 4. 'Playgrounds (J) Fisheries (K) Vac int 5. Other recreational uses (L) Other landuses 13.2 Definitions In the above classification, homesteads are defined as village gardens with a house and some crops around it. Although in the case of perennial and seasonal crops both commercial and domestic types were considered, in most areas this distinction was rather blurred. Similarly, the distinction between livestock iarming within and outside the 'farms' was only a matter of organization and scale of operation. Shifting cultivation on the other hand included only the practice of chena cultivation.

61 Unlike in agricultural landuse, the five types of recreational uses identified were mutually exclusive to a considerable extent. Nevertheless, the distinction between 'parks' and 'play grounds' was not always clear. Shops and boutiques along the Coastal Zone vere included under 'commercial landuse'. Although two categories of shops and boutiques i.e. tourist and non-tourist are listed they are not strictly exclusive. Certain shops and boutiques were found to cater mainly for tourists. Under residential landuses, there is a wide range of housing conditiops. Houses with cemented floors and tile, asbestos or tin roofs were considered as 'permanent' while all other structures were considered 'temporary'. Here again, many permanent houses or even temporary ones in some areas, were used to accommodate tourists. Therefore, they were both commercial and residential. Nevertheless, if a family was resident in such a house it was considered residential. The fishing sheds were found to be mostly temporary structures and were treated as a seJarate category. Under landuse types related to transportation, major and mnor roads were considered separately. For purposes of the survey all macadamized roads were considered as major roads and all gravel roads were treated as minor roads. All types of quarrying coral and sand removal were included under 'mining'. The landuse category of 'services' included petrol sheds, medical services, post offices, banks, schools, garages, etc. Camps, firing ranges, naval bases, were included in the landuse category of 'defence'. The vacant lands included mostly infertile and saline lands as well as woodlands and forested areas which are not used for any obvious economic purpose. The last category, 'other landuse' was meant to include any type of landuse which has not already been specifically listed in the classification. Places of worship such as temples, kovils, mosques and churches and cemeteries are included in this category, 13.4 Landuse Mapping As explained in Chapter III - Survey Methodology the mapping of all coastal phunomea with spatial expression, including lancluse was basexl on airphotographs and ground checking by teams of field investigators. The information obtain.d( during field investigations was recorded on base maps on the scale of 1 6500 The presence or absence of different landuse categories in a given area was noted in the questionnaire schedules. In any location where land was being put to more than one use, the details of such uses were recorded. As noted earlier, the basic mapping urut was one kilometre measured along the shoraline. An investigator was expected to cover a distance of one kilometre each day on the average and among other things to observe and record all the landuse types within a zone of 300 metres from the shoreline Every investigator had to carry a One Inch Topographical Map ol the area, a set of air photographs, a base niap and questlionnaire sched lre. The different types of landuse were marked on the base maps. by adopting the sare; iipha-numeric codes as in the landuse classification. Thus 'A.,b' was used to denote grIcu!Iural with perenni-l crops grown for domestic use, while 'Cl' meant a connmmerclal area with tourist shops At the stage of ihe preparation of ithe final maps, conventlonal symbols and colouir codes were used Thus per­ manent residential areas were marked in grey, and paddy lands in green Perennial crops were marked in yellow with a subscript to denote the crop (eg. 'c' for coconut ). Colour sodes were Juxtaposed to mfhcate mixed landuse 13.5 Results of the Survey The results ot lhe survey are presented in Appendix Tables 30 to 38 In these Tables collected landuse data are presented by coastal segments and zones All-island statil tics for different landuse types are presented in Appendix Table 39 These tables contain information collected on all landuse types given in the classification adopted. The more prominent observations in each Coastal Zone are discussed below. 13.6 Landuse in the Western Coastal Zone Appendix Table 30 shows that perennial commercial crops, mainly coconut, form the most prominent land use category on the West Coast. They were observed in 65 percent of the distances covered. About 53 percent of the perennial crops are grown for domestic use. 62 Homesteads were observed along 31 percent of the coastline, but the frequency gradually declined as one proceeded northwards. The commercial coconut plantations on the other hand continue right upto Puttalam. There are no farms or tracts of shifting cultivation along tais Nevertheless, the rearing of livestock zone. particularly pigs on a domestic scale is quite common. Fishing of couse forms the most frequently observed activity a'ong the cost. Recreational land does not occupy a prominent place in the ,Western Coastal Zone. Such land w, observed in less than 10 percent of the coastline. Nevertheyss, hotels and their premises are found along 9 km of which 6 km lie in the stretch bet,.teen Negombo and the Maha Oya. Shops and boutiques, particularly those of the noi-tojrist type could be seen in 27 percent of the distance covered. Residential landuse is quite prominent in this zone, and both permanent and temporary houses were observed in more than 50 percent of the distances covered. Among the landuses related to transportation, major roads were observed in 87 km and minorroads in 91 km while bus stations were se, i in about 5 km. Mining is not very common except in the Maha Oya Karukkupona area It is interesting to note that services such as schools and hospitals were observed along about 78 kilometres surveyed. Vacant lands were observed in about 11 percent of the distance covered, particularly in the areas adjacent to the Puttalam lagoon. All other types of landuse such as churches and cemeteries were found in about 44 km. Since a large proportion of the population in these areas are Christians, churches and cemeteries near the beach are a common sight. 13.7 Northwestern Zone The coastline between Puttalam and Elephant Pass still remains one of the most sparsely populated areas in the country. The only exceptions are a few townships like Mannar and Put­ talam. In the southern parts of the zone, the majority of the residents are Muslims, while in the northern areas around Pooneryn the residents are Tamils who depend on agriculture and fishing for their livelihood. The most frequent category of land that could be seen comprise vacant lands which are observed in about 107 km. These include both forested areas and large tracts of palmyra (see Appendix Table 31). The perennial commercial crops were observed in 64 km. Seasonal crops include mainly paddy in the Jaffna lagoon area. Residential areas and homesteads represent the next prominent landuse categories. But these were widely scattered and accounted for only. 13 percent of the coastline. There are also a consider.ble number of non-tourist boutiques in this zone. Another important feature of the landUse pattern in the northwest is the presence of several minor roads flong the coast. A number of service facilities such as schools, and hospitals bus stations ate irregularly scattered along the coast. The area with the highest density of settlements and intensity of landuse in the North­ west is the Talai Manner Island. But even there, over 20 percent of the Coastal Zone comprises of vacant lands. 13.8 Northern Zone The three coastal segments that come within the Northern Coastal Zone and the islands lying off the Peninsula show considerable variation in landuse (see Appendix Table 32). How­ ever the stretch of coast between Point Pedro and Chempiyanpattu was mostly sand dune country, and hence vacant lands were observed all along this 16 km stretch. The only important human activity in this area is fishing. In all other areas of the Northern Coastal Zone, with lhe exception of some sniall islands, the intensity of landuse was found to be quite high. In the coastal segment stretching from Elephant Pass to Jiffna perennial commercial crops dominate the landuse pattern and coconut lands are the most common type. There is also i considetable amount of land under seasonal crops both for commercial as well as for domestic use. These crops include tobacco and vegetables and are particularly noticeable in the Chava­ kachcheri area. However, due to long stretches of mostly uninhabited coastal lands along the Jaffna lagoon, vacant lands were observed in over 50 percent of the distance covered. In these areas fishing is the dominant economic activity. The highest intensity of landuse in the Jaffna Peninsula is seen in the Coastal Zone between Jaffna and Point Pedro. However, between Jaffna and Mathagal, a considera-:e amount of 63 vacant lands were also observed. These are either areas liable to floodingor areas with groves of wild palmyra. The area between Mathagal and Point Pedro has the largest extents of permanent residential sites, the longest extent of roadways and the largest concentration of lands occupied by service facilities. The landuse in the islands varies from one island to another (see Appendix Table 33) Livestock farming, shifitng cultivation and recreational landuses are almost totally absent in the islands. In Kayts, Karaitivu, Nainativu and Analaitivu the intensity of landuse is as high as in some parts of the Peninsula. In most of the other islands, vacant lands were observed in as much as 80 percent of the Coastal Zone surveyed. Most perennial and seasonal crops are grown mainly for domestic use. Residential landuse (permanent) was observed in some 56 percent of the distance surveyed. Most of the roads, particularly minor roads in the islands fall within the Coastal Zone. Fishing constitutes the main source of livelihood for most islanders. Due to their relative isolation and problems of transport commercial landuse is virtually absent. 13.9 Northeastern Zone With the exception of Mullaiti\,u, Nilaveli and Trincomalee areas the Northeastern Coastal Zone represents a coastline with thiily scattered settlements and low intensity of landuse (see Appendix Table 34). In the coastal Eegment from Chempiyanpattu to Mullaitivu, for instance, homesteads are few and far apart. Vacant lands were observed in some 61 percent of the distance. Fishing forms the major livelihood of people almost throughout the coastline. Perennial crops, mainly coconuts, are grown for both commercial and domestic use. Privately owned coconut estates such as Fairfied and Taunton are found in this area. The large number of fishing wadi in the area has obviously inflated the figures relating to residential landuse. Long tracks of minor roads are found running along the Coastal Zone in this stretch. The pattern of landuse in the Mullaitivu town is generally similar to that in the Chempiyan­ pattu area. The same pattern ;s continued from Kokilai to Irrakandy. Two important characteristics in the Coastal Zone between Chempiyanpattu and lrrakkandy are the presence of livestock farm­ ing and chena cultivation. These features were almost totally absent in the Coastal zone. In the Kokilai to Irrakkandy stretchi more organized farms and tourist hotels have appeared in the recent past. This pattern of landuse has become established in the area between Irrakandy and Trincomalee also. Shifting cultivation all but disappears after Irakkandy until it reappears around Foul Point in the south. Tourist hotels and tourist shops were increasinr':v observed along the 16 km of coast between Kokilai and Trincomalee. On the other hand thr3 is a clear decrease in fishing activities in such areas. The costline from Trincomalee to Foul Point falls within the area of the well known Trincomalee natural harbour consisting of several bays. Here the homesteads and residential landuse types are quite common upto Mutur. Between Mutur and Foul Point chena cultivation and most other features of the Mullaitive stretch can be seen again. One common feature of the entire zone is the presence of many roads, both major and minor, along the coast. 13.10 Eastern Coastal Zone The Eastern Coastal Zone represents an area of sparse settlements particularly in the two northern segments that extend between Foul Point and Kalkudahi. In the southernmost part between Batticaloa and Pottuvil a moderate density of settlements and a well developed land use pattern can be observed (see Appendix Table 35). Although between Foul Point and Vakarai vacant lands comprise nearly 30 percent of the coastline covered in the survey,the cultivation of perennial crops mainly coconuts for domestic use is also quite common. While homesteads are found along 5 km of coast, temporary dwelling stuctures can be seen along 21 km. Shifting cultivation was observed along 9 km. The area between Vakarai and Kalkudah on the other hand has more commercial coconut plantations. Although residential lands were obseved in nearly 70 percent of the distances surveyed, vacant lands were also seen in over 40 percent of the coastline. The land uses associated with hotels appear more frequently towards its southern parts. The coastal segment between Kalkudah and Batticaloa has a greater density of homesteads and other residential landuses. It also has a larger number of hotels and tourist shops.. The 64 density of the road network is higher here than in the Vakarai area. Although commercially grown coconut plantations continue with the same frequency, coconut cultivation for domestic use is found to be on the increase. Inspite of this iocreasing intensity of landuse, vacant lands were observed along nearly 45' of the coast line. The coastline between Batticaloa and Pottuvil has the highest density of population in the area. As a result the number of homesteads, residences, boutiques and service facilities are found to be somewhat high on this stretch. There is also a Useater density of roads within the Coastal Zone. About 60 percent of the perennial crops, mainly coconuts, is grown for domestic use. Betel leaf is grown in the area around Kaluwanchikudy. Nevertheless, vacant lands can be seen along about 60 percent of the coastline while shifting cultivation was observed along 13 km. 13.11 Southeastern Zone The Southeastern Coastal Zone is one of the most sparsely populated areas of the Island owing to the location of the Yala National Park within it. As can be seen in Appendix Table 36, the most prominent landuse categories in this area are vacant lands and wildlife sanctuaries.The Yala National Park spreads across some 40 k:n of the coastline The land given over for hotels and tourism is prominent at the northern end of the zone near Arugam Bay and in the area near Hambantota. Residential lands are observed only in scattered settlements, such as Panama and Kirinda. Most of the crops grown in this zone are for domestic use. It is interesting to note huwever, that chena (shifting cultivation) is not Widely practised in the Coastal Zone in this area. This is mainly due to the availability of land for chenas in the interior, and the presence of the Yala National Park. 13.12 Southern Coastal Zone The Southern Coastal Zone has a wide variety of 'anduse types and a higher density of popu­ lation than anywhere else along the East Coast (see Appendix Table 37). Yet, upto Tangalla the sparsely populated appearance of the Hambantota area continues because of the presence of large tracts of vacant lands and shifting cultivation. Tangalla in fact represents not only a zone of climatic transition but also a zone of landuse tr3nsition. The Coastal Zone between Tangalle and the Galle Municipal limits is an area of high popula­ tion density. Over 60 percent of the coastline has homesteads within the Coastal Zone. This is particularly noticeable in the stretch from Tangalle to Dondra Head. The bulk of tile perennial crops grown is for domestic use. Almost all tle seasonal crops grown, particulardy paddy and vegetables, are also for local use. Livestock farming is rarely seen. This contrasts clearly with the Western Coastal Zone where piggeries are quite common. Hotels, tourist shops and boutique catering to non-tourist consumers occupi.d more land than those catering to tourists. Permanent residences occupy nearly four times the land area occupied by temporary dwellings. Vacant lands are rarely seen in this area. There are many majorroads (25 km) and minor roads (64 km) within the limits of the Coastal Zone. Service!.such as schools and hospital;, and mining industrial premises were observed in more than 20 percent of the kilometre units covered by the survey. There are also four bus stations and two railway stations within the Coastal Zone. 'Other landuse types' including temples and cemeteries were seen only along less than 4 percent of the coastlinb. 13.13 Southwestern Zone The Southwestern Coastal Zone forms the most density. populated area in the country and shows the largest vatiety of landuse types. For coastal management purposes this zone is divided into 17 segments. Although data in Appendix Table 38 is presented according to these segments, variation of landuses between them is relatively small except between the urban arid rural areas. Thus the two segments representing Colombo i.e. between Mount Lavinia and Colombo Fort, show a special combination of urban landuse types. Here homesteads are rare and agricultural landuses are almost totally absent. Hotels, playgrounds and commercial enter­ prises, permanent residential lands and services form the ominant land use types. Roads and railways also occupy a sizable portion of the Coastal Zone. It is interesting to note that many vacant blocks of lands are still available in this area. These are mostly to be found adjacent to the railway line on the seaward side and obviously represent railway reservations.

65 The landuse pattern in Galle, the other major city in the Southwestern zone is somewhat different from Colombo. Unlike in Colombo there are many homesteads within the Galle municipal area. Most rural landuse characteristics can be seen in the area immediately outside the city limits. Perennial crops grown both for commercial and domestic use and a considerable extent of vacant lands are found within the municipal limits. However, the density of permanent settlements is high. Most other landuses found in urban areas such as hotels, parks, playgrounds, commercial enterprises, industrial establishments and services are also present. The density of the road network within the coastal zone is quite high. The Coastal Zone between the Galle Municipal limits and Mount Lavinia is somewhat similar in terms of most landuse characteristics. The only exceptions are tourist areas such as Hikkaduwa mnd Bentota. In most coastal townships such as Ambalangoda, Kalutara and Pana­ dura a mixture of urban-rural landuse characteristics can be seen in the Coastal Zone. In areas such as Induruwa rural characteristics dominate, with prominent mosaics of paddy fields and vacant lands. On the other hand, vacant lands are almost totally absent in the Coastal Zone between Hikkaduwa and Kosgoda. Hotels and tourist shops can be seen in the majority of the coastal segments. A considerable number of bus arid railway stations fall within the Coastal Zone. Some 83 km of major roads were observed and 117 km of minor roads were seen. Mining activities are mostly concentrated in the stretch between Hikkaduwa and Ambalangoda. In general, most places along the Southwestern Coastal Zone are hives of human activities as is normally the case in areas of high population density. 13.14 National Level Situation and Areas of Concern The survey reveals (see Appendix Table 39) that, apart from activities related to fisning, the most dominant use of land in the Coastal Zone of Sri Lanka is the cultivation of perennial crops for domestic use. The major perennial crop is of course coconut. An estimate of the number of coconut palms made L, thc- investigators suggests that there were approximately 80,000­ 90,000 of them on the water-front. Commercial coconut plantations were also observed along 37 per cent of the coastline surveyed. Residential land for permanent housing represents the second most important category of landuse in the Coastal Zone. This type was observed in some 43 percent of the kilometre units covered. Homesteads and temporary housing are equally important in most areas. These were observed along 30-40 per-cent of [lie coastline. The Vacant lands that were observed in some 41 per-cent of the coastline provide a crude indication of the availability of land for development purposes. However, much of this land is infertile and is to be found in remote parts of the country. Minor roads were seen in some 4' percent of the coastline while major roads were found in 23 percent. There are some 103 bus stands and 41 railway stations within the Coastal Zone. Similarly, services including schools and hospitals, were observed in 16 percent of the distances covered If 'defence' establishm,-nts are also added to this, land given over to transport and service facilhes and other state managed services represent a significant pro­ portion of lands in the Coastal Zone of Sri Lanka. Furthermore, model villages have been estab­ lished in some places along the Coastal Zone. It therefore becomes clear that the highest share of responsibility for the use or misuse of coastal lands lies with the Government. One important problem of landuse in the Coastal Zone, particularly along the East Coast is the practice of chena cultivation. This was observed along some 62 km of the coastline. Since this is bound to have advarse ecological consequences on a fragile environment, some effective steps have to be taken to contain it. Mining which inc!uded both coral mining and sand mining was observed along at least 10 percent of the distance covered. Hotels and tourist areas in fact occupy less than 6 per­ cent of the Coastal Zone. Nevertheless, tourist activities are concentrated along some of the best hcaches of Sri Lanka. The management of coastal lands in these areas has therefore be­ come an important concern.

66 CHAPTER XIV SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

14.1 The Survey The main objective of the survey of the Coastal Zone of Sri Lanka which led to this report was the preparation of an inventory of coastal features through field investigations with special emphasis on structures and landuse types. The Coastal Zone for this purpose was taken to be the 300 metre zone from the high water line. as defined in the Coast Conservation Act. In field investigations the seaward margin of creeping vegetation was considered to be the limit of the high water mark. Although the lIndward area of the coastal zone formed the main focus of the survey, observations were also made on the water-front and on offshore structures observable from the beach. The survey encompassed the enire Coasta! Zone of Sri Ladka including that of its offshore Islands. Field investigations were conducted on all major islands while the smidler ones were mapped with the aid of irphotographs. The distance covered on foot by the field investigators totalled 1920 kilometres excluding the beaches of lagoons. In order to improve the organi­ zation of field work, the entire coastline of the country was dividend into 8 zones representing the 8 cardinal directions. However in the presentation of results of the survey, the 46 coastal segments identified by the Government for coastal management purposes have been incorporated in the 8 zones. The fundamental unit of observation was the kilometre measured along the shoreline. Therefore investigators had to cover each kilometre on foot and record the relevant information on base maps and on questionnaire schedules specially prepared for recording field data. In addition field books were used to record any descriptive information which could not be accommodated in the questionnaire. The task of mapping and coliecting field data was accomplished with the assistance of 40 field investigators and 8 field supervisors. Each supervisor was responsible for the field work in a given zone, while a small team of investigators who resided in the area were assigned the tasks of making the necessary field observations. Simple field equipment such as latest available airphotographs and One Inch Topographical maps were used in field investigations. Final maps of the scale of 1:6500.were made from field base maps. Statistical information has been analysed by manual methods using desk calculators. 14.2 Information Collected The survey has generated a considerable amount of information on the following aspects of the Coastal Zone: (a) Nature of the coastline (its geomorphological character, nature of beach material and history of the shoreline). (b) Dominant vegetation types (sandy-sea-shore, dune salt marsh, mangrove, etc.) (c) Dominant human activities (fishing, coral and sand mining, tourism, coconut and palmyra based industries, salt and mineral extraction industries). (d) Water-front structures (erosion preventive structures, structures related to ports and harbours, residential buildings, tourist and commercial premises, transportation structurej, fishing sheds and other buildings). (e) Land utilization (agricultural, recreational, commercial, residential and landuses re­ lated to transportation and mining). 4.? Nature of the Coastline The results of the survey indicate (Appendix Table 40) that geomorphologically two-thirds of the coastline of Sri Lanka could be considered as 'straight coastline'. The lagoons that are wide open to the sea such as those of Puttalam and Jaffna accounted for 27 percent of the distance covered. The coastlines of other lagoons which are not so open to the sea such as those of Batticaloa, Kokkilai and Negombo did not come under the purview of this survey. The bays

67 occupied one-fourth of the coastline while sandspits were observed in 19 percent of kilometre units surveyed. Near-shore reefs were observed in 20 percent while there were rock outcrops in 13 percent. The'najor islands off the Northwestern Coast and the Jaffna Peninsula accounted for 16 percent of the coastline. This figure does not however include . smaller islands which were mapped only from airphotographs. Ai.hough high cliffs are rare on Sri Lankan coasts, low cliffs were present in 10 percent of the coastline, headlands and boulder strewn beaches were seen along 9 percent of the coastline surveyed. Estuaries occupied 5 percent of the coastline while deltas were rarely seen except at the Mi Oya, Malvatu Oya and Mahaweli Ganga estuaries. A field inspection of beach materials indicated that 62 percent of the beaches of Sri Lanka are sandy while only 14 percent were silty. The latter type was observed mostly in the northwestern coast. The beaches with cobbles and pebbles occupied 7 percent of the costline. The observations made of the colour of beach sands show that 38 percent is white, 19 percent is black and 17 percent is brown, while all other colours accounted for only 7 percent. The information collected on the history of thQ shore line of S6 Lanka indicates that in nearly 51 percent of the kilometre units covered, the shoreline has receded during the last 20-30 years. It has developed only in 15 percent of the distance covered by the survey. The average annual rate of recedence reported was approximately 1.1m while the rate of development was only around 0.51 m. A developing shoreline was observed mainly in the North and Northwest, while ',he receding shorelines were commonly observed in the South and in the Southwest. 14.4 Dominant Vegetation Types An analysis of the information relating to dominant vegetation types in the Coastal Zone shows that sandy shore vegetation is present along 69 percent of the coastline surveyed. (see Appendix Table 41). Around 50 percent of sandy shore vegetation areas had low creeping plant types. The second most frequent type of vegetation comprised of mangroves. Mature mangroves occupied 39 percent of the coastline while immature types were observed in 22 percent. Dune vegetation formed the third most common type (34%). Within the dune vegetation type, low creeping vegetation was the most dominant (31%). Low shrubs and littoral woodlands were observed in 28 percent and 15 percent of the coastline respectively in the areas surveyed. Salt marsh vegetation types were observed in 29 percent of the coastline. Salt marshes are responsible for the occurrence of considerable extents of bare lands in some areas. Salt marshes with thorn scrubs occupied 6 perce, t of the coastline, while 7 percent of them were used as pastures. Among the other vegetation types in the Coastal Zone grasslands (26%) and forests (1 6%) were reported from several areas. 14.5 Dominant Human Activities The dominant human activities observed in different areas of the Coastal Zone of Sri Lanka are presented in Table 14.1 Since fishing formed the most frequently observed human activity on the coastline, information on it was collected in some detail. This shows that, geographically, beaching boats form the most frequently observed (53%) method of fishing. Ma-del fishing which was the next most popular method has been observed along 30 percent of the coastline, particularly in the Northern and Northeastern Coastal Zones and in the islands off the Jaffna Peninsula. Off-shore fishing activities as observed along 22 percent of the coastline were quite common in the relatively calm seas off the north-western coast. Lagoonal fishing was observed along 20 percent of the coastline. The dry fish wadi, seen along nearly 20 percent of the coastline were found mostly in the northern and northeastern areas of the country between Puttalam and Pottuvil. Among the other activities along the coastline, sand mining (12%) and coconut based industries (10%) we. the most frequently observcj types. Tourism was found to be an im­ portant activity along 153 km (8%) of the coast. Coral mining which was observed along 4.2 percent of the coastline has been confined largely to the southern and southwestern areas. It was also being practised to a certain extent in the Jaffna Peninsula. Other activities such as salt extraction, mineral exploitation and those related to harbours were limited to specific localities. 68 Table 14.1 Dominant Human Activities in the Coastal Zone of Sri Lanka

Number of kilometres at which specified activities were mentioned

Fishing Other activities

Segment ofthcoast ine .. 28 8-1 2 0

_ _ _ _ _ i L ­ olombo to Puttalam . 286 189 14 72 105 20 63 05:01j 17 07 02 10 Puttaiamto Elephant Pass .. 380 217126 63 146124 49 12 01 (including Talaimannar Island)IF 10

ElephantPassto Chempianpattu 181 127 61 20 1 39 28 57 17 37 06 06 02 Island off Jaffna P.ninsula 218 125 83 112 2 06 0 01 25 31409 Chempianpattu to Foul Point 266 116 44 169 1 26 Foul Point to Pottuvil...... 204 57 81 04 06 23 08 09 93 7387 310 1 40 3,8 031 Pottuvil to HambantotaTotal~~~2fo .12 07 41 57!35 18 127 12 02 04 . 034..3 i 375 1 025 48 , 150 - 08 4 06 5 1 Hambantota to Galle 123 45 18 40 10.9 33 02 23 2 13 60 01 Galle to Colombo 10310 27 02 02 121350125 38,47 992.0 3 04 Total ...... 1920 1027 431 567 j385 i312 378 81 225 153 1841j 08 24 15 0

Fof kiometres at which the , specified activities were ob- ,FF served (for I each group) .. 100 53.46 22.43'1 29.51 0.0 1 2 4 6.24 19.67 14.21 11.71 F7.96 19.57 1041 1.24 0.78 0.52 %of total mentions (for eachF group) 0 6 IF . .. 100 33.13 13.901 18281 12.241 1. J12.19 111.68 32.50 122.09 '26.56 1.131 34 2.16 1.42 14.6 Water-front Structures Altogether some 560 erosion preventive structures were observed along the water-front of the country's entire Coastal Zone. Groynes and revetments which represented the most common duvices for erosion prevention, accounted for nearly 60 percent of the total number of such structures. Gioynes were mostly concentrated in the Southwestern, Western and Southern Coastal Zones. Prominent groyne fields were observed at Totagamuwa, Telwatta Kahawa, Kanattegoda and 1ondra Head. Although revetments were found mostly in the Western and Southwestern Coastal Zones they were observed even in the islands off Jaffna. The largest number of masonry walls were found in the Northern, Western and Northeastern Coastal Zones. Boulder walls, on the otherhand, were seen mostly in the Western, Southwestern and Southern Zones. Nearly 10,000 houses were observed on the water-front of the Coastal Zone of Sri Lanka. Of this total, a little more than half were permanent houses. The largest concentration of houses (both permanent and temporary) were seen in the coastal segment between Panadura and Mount Lavinia and in that between Tangalle and Dondra Head. About 150 hotels were located on the water-front. It is estimated that at least 250 hotels (excluding guest houses) are located within the Coastal Zone. A cursory examination of the location of tourist hotels on the water-front indicates that they are not necessarily associated with big cities. Thus lat least 7 tourist clusters could be indentified along the entire coastline of the country. Three of them were on the east coast, and the others on the west coast. Almost every house in these clusters had some involvement or other in tourism. Altogether there were 243 km of roads (both major and minor) and 27 km of railway lines on the water-front. A large proportion of these roads and railway lines were in the more populous Southern and Southwestern Coastal Zones. Most of these transport routes have obviously been built during colorial times when the coastal areas became centres of trade and administrati.;n and coast conservation not a serious concern. It appears that the distribution of erosion preventive structures is related not or to the rate of erosion, but also to the density of population and the demand for land. Thus alchough the erosion rates are much higher in the Southern, and Northern Coastal Zones, they have not received the same attention that is given to the Southwestern Zone. The large number of sewage outfall structures seen particularly around Puttalam, Jaffna and Trincomalee also deserve some mention. Over 5000 fishermen's huts were observed around the Island. These fishing huts were associated with dry fish wadi and temporary fishing settlments. The sanitary conditions in these wadi are extremely poor. A trend towards making these temporary huts more permanent was observed in certain areas. It would be worthwhile to monitor this trend and plan for more permanent settlements where feasible. A substantial number of old and unused structures were observed in several places. These included some magnificant fortresses which have been left to dilapidate or to be swallowed by the waves. There were also some 27 lighthouses around the Island excluding those at the Great Basses and Little Basses. 14.7 Land Utilization The survey reveals that, apart from activities related to fishing the most widespread use of land in the Coastal Zone of Sri Lanka is cultivating of perennial crops for domestic use (46%). The major perennial crop is coconut except in certain parts of the Northern Coastal Zone where palmyra takes its place. Commercial coconut plantations were also observed a!ong 37 percent of the coastline surveyed. The secondmost important category of landuse in the Coastal Zone, is residential landuse mainly for permanent housing. This type of landuse was observed along some 43 percent of the coastline surveyed. Homesteads and temporary housing units are equally important (30-40%) in most areas. A recent addition to residential landuse is represented by the model villages and housing schemes appearing in the Coastal Zone. Some examples are provided by Kalmunai on the east coast and Ratgama on the southwest coast. 70 Land under transport routes and their reservations constitutes a sic iificant landuse category in many parts of the Coastal Zone. Thus minor roads were seen in som, 41 percent while major roads were found in 23 percent. There were some 103 bus stands and 41 railway stations within the 300 metre Coastal Zone as defined by the Coast Conservation Act. An important problem of landuse in te coasti zone, particularly along the east coast the practice of chena cultivation. is This was observed along some 62 km of the coast line. Mining which included both coral extraction and sand collection was observed along at least 10 percent of the coastline. One significant aspect of landuse revealed by the survey is that the Government is one of the principal users of land in the Coastal Zone. Many of the State owned lands are under transport routes, plantations and services. Therefore, the responsibility of various Government Departments and Corporations for creating the present landuse pattern in the Coastal Zone cannot be overlooked. Despite the intensive use of coastal lands in many parts of the Island, the survey reveals that vacant lands are still available along approximately 41 percent of the coastline. However, much of this land is infertile and located in remote parts of the country. Hotels and tourist areas still occupy less than 6 percent of the Coastal Zone. The survey shows that there are many more coastal tracts in Sri Lanka endowed with scenic beauty which remain under-utilized and available for development of tourism and recreational use. 14.8 Coastal Zone Management : Some thoughts for the Future Since its major objective was the preparation of an inventory of the Coastal Zone, the survey was not designed or geared to be prescriptive. Nevertheless, on the basis of the experience gained in conducting field investigations some thoughts are expressed here in the hope that they will prove useful for future Coastal Zone management planning. (i) At present the land area falling within the Coastal Zone is defined only by an Act of Parliament. For any future planning exercise, it will be necessary to landmark the perimeter of the Coastal Zone by a proper land survey. This will help local officials in dealing with issues related to the management of the Coastal Zone. The land­ mwking process mav be started in areas which deserve priority attention and may be extended later to cover the entire Island. (ii) It would be useful to label all the structures, buildings and other items of significance within the Coastal Zone by a suitable inventorising system. Apart from their use for identification purposes, the display of these labels on the walls of structures and buildings would help to instill a feeling among the local residents that they are living within a conservation zone. (iii) It was noted that the entire Coastal Zone of the country has been divided into 46 segments for the purpose of demarcating tourism development areas It may be useful to consider aspects other than tourism as well and demarcate the Coastal Zone into permanent management divisions. This would facilitate better administra­ tion of the Coastal Zone in the future. In such a demarcation exercise. the natural and ecological homogeneity within a coastal segment should form one of the primary criteria. (iv) It has been noted that the State is the user of a substantial extent of lands falling within the Coastal Zone. Responsibility for some of the problems arising out of the misuse of land therefore, rests also with the State. This has obviously resulted from the poor coordination between and differences in the needs and outlook of various State agencies pertaining to the use of coastal lands. The present trend of building housing schemes and model villages on vulnerable tracts of the coastal zone provides the latest example of such misuse. Possible conflicts of interest between different State agencies are best anticipated and reconciled before they become acute. In this regard, the 300 metre limit may be imposed on all users of coastal lands irrespective of whether they are private organizations or State agencies.

71 (v) It was noted that most erosion preventive structures, particularly groynes, are found mainly in areas within easy reach of Colombo. It therefore appears that there is a need to extend a helping hand to other parts of the country which are as badly affected. (vi) Upto now the dominant approach in combating coastal erosion has been the adoption of 'hard solutions' or civil engineering measures. In future it may be necessary to seek more 'soft solutions' which ar- relatively le s expensive. The preservation and propagation of erosion preventive vegetative communities may prove equally effective as engineering solutions. The survey reveals that certain creeping plant species on sandy shores and dunes are quite effective in mitigating erosion. 'Maharavana ravula' or 'ravanan meesai' (Spinidex littoreus) deserves special mention here. It is found almost everywhere in the Coastal Zone, except where it has been destroyed by man. It would be best to take effective measures to protect and propagate such plant species and littoral woodlands. (vii) Chena cultivation appears to be continuing unabated in the Eastern Coastal Zone in spite of the recent legislation prohibiting it. Since this is beginning to a have a serious adverse ecological impacts on the surrounding areas, some action is neces­ sary to contain it. (viii, Certain segments of the Coastal Zone appeared to have special problems of their own. Among them are; (a) Outside the Southern and Southwestern areas where erosional problems are receiving some attention, there were several other places such as Talawila, Kandakullya, Arippu, Keerimalai, Uppuveli, Mutur and Ka'munai which deserve urgent attention. (b) The coastal segments between Panadura and Mount Lavinia and between Tangalla and Dondra Head have an exceptional high density of housing units within the Coastal Zone. (c) Pollution problems caused by sewage disposal need urgent attention in certain places such as Puttalam, Jaffna and Trincomalee. (d) Fishing camps with clusters of temporary sheds are densely distributed in the Talai Mannar Island, Karaitivu, Delft and in the stretch between Chempiyan­ pattu and Mullaitivu. These settlements have serious problems of sanitation and waste disposal. (ix) Some of the historical structures in the Coastal Zone such as the Portuguese and Dutch forts need nreservation It may be possible to use some of these old buildings as tourist attractions. (x) Several areas of the Coastal Zone have considerable potential for the development of tourism. It may be useful to identify these areas and plan for the future, before tourism spreads haphazardly to these areas on its own.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Abeygunawardena, T H. D, (1949) The Islands on the West of the Jaffna Peninsula-Bull. of the Cey. Geog. Soc. Vol. 4, No. 3. 2. Adams, F.D. (1929) Geology of Ceylon, Canadian Jour Res Vol 1 3. Administration Report of the Director of Irrigation for the financial years-(1968-69), (1969-70) 4. Amarasinghe. S R (1971) 'Coast Protection in Ceylon, Colombo Port Commission Draft Report EW3/cpw/Gen. 1 (Vol III), Colombo 5. Arumugam, A and Balendran, V (1968) Groundwater in Jaffna, Water Resources Board Colombo 6. Blalasunderampillay, P (1982) Hydrological Base of Human Settlements in the Islands off the Jaffna Peninsula, in TropicalEnvironments.Yoshinoet al (Eds ) 37-39 pp. 7. Cook, E K. (1951) The Seas and Coasts around Ceylon, Colombo, Ceylon 8. Cooray. P G. (1963) Size and Sorting in some recent Coastal Sands from Ceylon-The Indian Mineralogists 4. 9. Cooray, P.G. (1965) The Geology of the Country around Aluthgama-Ceylon Geol Sur Dept, Men 3 10. Cooray. P.G. (1967) The Geology of Ceylon, Colombo 11. Cooray, P. G. (1968) A note on the occurrence of beach rock along the west coast of Ceylon Jour. of Sedi. Petr. 38.

72 12. Cooray, P.G. (1968) The Geomorphology of the North Western Coastal Plain of Ceylon-Zeitschrift fur Geonorpho­ logie Supp. 7. 13. Cooray, P. G. (1956) Geological Foundations of Ceylon's Scenery. Bulletin of the Ceylon Geographical Society, Vol. 10. Nos. 1 & 2. 14. Dayananda, H, V. & De Alwis, Renton- (1980) Impact of Cyclones on 15. the Coast (Sri Lanka Foundation Institute). Dassenaike, S. W. (1928) Coast Erosion in Ceylon. Transactions, Engineering Association of Ceylon 16. Deraniyagala, PEP. (1958) for 1928 The Pleistocene of Ceylon, Ceylon National Museums 17. Deraniyagala, Natural History Series P.E.P (1961) The Amphitheatres of Minihagalkanda, 18. De Silva. Spol. Ceylon.-Vol. 29. S.H.C (1976) River, Estuary, Lake and Reservoir Quality Management in Sri Lanka In Proceedings/ Reports of International Conference on Water Pollution Control in Bangkok 19. Douglas, W 21 25 Vol 1 (1874) The Great Basses Light House Ceylon, London 20. Duing, William Clowes & Sons W. (1970) The Monsoon Regime of Currents of the Indian Ocean: International Indian Ocean Expendition Monography No. 1 (East West Centre Press) 21. Eaton, R. 0. Honolulu. (1961) Coast Pro:ection and Coastal Resource Development in Ceylon, U S.Operations Mission Report 83/31/012/2/10057 22. Engineering Association of Ceylon: Transactions established (1906) for 1956. Fifthtieth 23. Gerristsen, Anniversary Souvenir. F.(1974) Coastal Engineering in Sri Lanka, Report 24. Gunatilake, of U N Mission A. (1975) Some aspects of the biology and sedimentology of laminated algal mats from Mannar Lagoon, North West Ceylon Reprinted from sedimentary Geo:ogy, 25. Kahawita, 14 D.W. R.and Vaithialingam, E.(1954). Report on beach study in the vicinity of Negombo Lagoon. Transac­ tions, Engineering Association of Ceylon, Part I 26. Kularatnam, K. (1954) The Face of Ceylon, Ceylon A-;,;ocs Adv Science, Section 27. Oakley D, PreKidential Address. David and Ellis Brain (1980) Suge-waters, Floods, Settlements and Infra-structure (Sri Lanka Foundation Institute). 28. Mailoux, S, P (1961) Coast Protection Works Division, Colombo 29. Paranathala, Por Commission, Unpublished Reports W.E. (1950) Memorandum on Coast Erosion and Protection in Ceylon, unpublished report, Department of Irrigation, Colombo. 30. Paranathala, W. E (1952) Coast Erosion. Times of Ceylon, Colombo. 31. Paranthala, W. E. (1953) Schedule of Incidence of Coast Erosion in Ceylon. 32. Paranathala, Irrigation Department, Colombo. W. E. (1954) Thoughts on the Organisation and the Development of Coast Protection Works in Ceylon, Transact. Engineering Association 33. Paranathala, of Ceylon W E (1958) Success and Failure of Coast Protection Works in Ceylon, Proceedings of the 6th Con­ ference on Coastal Engineering, 34. California Paranathala, W. E (1959) The Menance of Sea Erosion, 35. Ceylon Daily News, Colombo Paranath31a, W E.(1959/,o) Second Interim report on the Organisation of the Coast Protection Department. file of the Official Coast Protection Branch of the Public Works Department, 36. Colombo. Peoples' Bank (1980 Nov.) Economic Review, Special 37. Peoples' Report. Coast Conservation Vol. 66. Bank (1981) Alternative Employment Opportunities for persons engaged in Coral Industry, Coastal between Zone Ambalangoda and Dikwella, Peoples' Bank Research 38. Premadasa. Division, Colomho 2. L. A (1978) Sri Lankave Dhivara Samupakara Samiti Saha ton 3 Yatrika Bottuvalin Kerena Veral3­ bada Dhivara Karmantaya. Unpublished 39. Puvanaralan M.A Thesis, Peradeniya. Ponnuswamy (1969) Geomorphology of the Jaffna 40. Pt"iinsula Unpublished M A Thesis. Peradeniya. Searle, D L (1962) A Geological Report on the Radioactive Mineral Occurrence of the Aluthgama Area Referer,, with Special ,, the Beach Sands. Ceylon Geol. Sur Dept Unpublished 41. Selvaniyagam, S Heport (1963) Landuse of the Jaffna Country. Ceylon, M.A. 42. Sivakumar, Thesis, University of London, Unpublished J. (1977) Geomorpholopy and Physical Resources of the Eastern Coastal belt of the Jaffna Peninsula, Unpublished M A Thesis, 43. Somerville, Peradeniya. C D.R.B T (1908) The Submerged Plateau Surrounding Ceylon. Some Considerations Regarding the Formation of the Coast Line. Spolia Zeylanica 44 Steuart James (1862) Notes on Ceylon and its affairs, during a period 45. of theirty-eight years ending 1855. Part III Svan, S.B St. C. (1964) Evidence for Eustatic Changes in Southwest Ceylon Unpublisged M.A. thesis. University of London 46 Swan S B St C (1965) Coast Eyosion Principles and a c!assification of South-West Cey!on 's Btaches Basis of their on the Erosional Stability, Bul Cey Geogr Soc Vol 19 47. Swan, S B St C (1973) Pragmatic Appraisal of the Coist Erosion Hazard in an Underdeveloped South Country, the West Coast of Sri Lanka--45th Anzaas Congress Section 48. Swan. S.B 21, Perth St C (1967) Characteristics of Coastal Sands and their Depositional Environmentas in South West Ceylon, Journal of Tropical Geography, Vol 49. Swan, S.B. 24 St C (1974) The Coast Erosion Hazard in South West Sri Lanka, New England Research Series in Applied Geography No 40, (Armidale N.S W) 50. Swan,. $B St C (1975) A Model for lnvest-gating the Coast Erosion Hazard in South West Sri Lanka, Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie Supp 22 51. Swan, S. B St C (1979) Sand Dunes in the Humid Tropics' Sri Lanka Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie. 52. Wsdia, D.N. Vol 23, No. 2 (1941) On the Occurrence of Pumice on the East 53. Wikkramatilake, Coast of Ceylon, Spol Zeylan Vol 23 Rudolph (1963) South East Ceylon-Trends and Problems in Agricultural Settlement, Dept. of Geography, University of Singapore, 54. Reasrch Paper No. 3. Zeaper, S (1960) Sea Erosion Studies and Recommendations on Coastal Protection in Ceylon, Bureau of Inter­ national Technical Assictance U.S.A. 73 APPENDIX TABLE 1 Nature of Coastline from Colombo to Puttalam (Number of kilometres along which the specified features were observed)

History of Geomcrphological Description Nature of beach material i the shore linel

I I Colour of beach sand

Segment of the coast line I I

1t--

Colombo L-ght house I I i. to Kelani River 15 02 01 01 01 01 14 03 01 01; 05 02 01 01 03 02 Kelani River to Ne­ gomboLagoon 27 26 06 01 01 101 01 02' 25 01 13 03 25 19 05 Negombo to Maha Oya 09 03 03 01 02 01 09 0604 08 07 Maha Oyato Karuk- I kupona 42 41 27 02 03! 09 02 42 38 09 37 15 13 Karukkupona to Talawala 59 55 56 09 01 01 10 59 57 07 19 23 19 Talawila to Puttalam 11341 32 481106 17 01 03 23 78' 112 11 103 33 12 25 20

Total '286164 140 1 10 30 07 01 05 14:23 191 102 i04 01 03!252 141218 56'0 92 59

% of kilometres at I , -' Ii-­ which the feature ' i ' , Iwas observed (forI : each491381024 2 5 8 32 7 1 4 1.88 5 76 20 36 1 32 21 eh140 section10 52_ 2 5 8 32_

oftotal mentions 1100 28 i 24 19I 5 1 0.2 0.9 2 4 16 0.3 2 04 1 92 27 61 39 APPENDIX TABLE 2 Dominant vegetation types in the Coastal Zone from Colombo to Puttalam

Description of vegetation (Number of kilometres along which specified types were observed

Sandy shore Mangrove i Dominant Vegetation vegetation Sand dune vegetation Salt Marsh

Segment of the coast /,ne ...... -9" . . '- ...... -.. . iermoo, ,Io... I S= , , I I I i ! -

Colombo Lght House to Kelan , 0 0 0 0 0 0 I

Kelan River to Negombo Lagoon 27 25 17 2 Negombo 11 02 19 02 Lagoon to Maha Oya 09 07 03 06 03 04 03 01 Maha Ova to Karukkupona 42 39 15 3 3 008 I 24 Karukkupona to -ala 59 13 45 02 10 12 01 10 45 20 1 3 0 03 06 13 5 7 581 13 16 4-0 28 69 19 59 23 -6 1 5 FTotal 67 2 8 6 1 6 0 10 4 116 01 102 66 4 1 8 50 44 147 23 59 23 6 of kilorietres at which specified-- T- - -- types were observed (for each - l ; - .- 1 7 8 group) 100 13571' 2 3 2 4 9 6 1 1 2589 0221 1285 831 1058~ 11 08 630 554 1851 29 1 743 29 1765 2021 982 %ftotalrrmentions (for gtoup) ,100 55 75'3624I 2334 4041 '0351 3554 :23 0 29 26 3066 1742 15 33!51 -4o:, 21 80 , 20 *5 80 -487 ,°jo ,, ° ,, o o ° , . o :, ,, , ! : ,;,= 557 ,2717= APPENDIX TABLE 3 Nature of coast line from Puttalam to Elephant Pass (Number of kilometres at which the specified features were observed)

____I---History______- --- of the Geomorphological Description Nature of beach material shore line

IColour of beach

Puttalamn to Mannar 113 68 04 ['70 58 18 J9 01 270 4 12 2 4 2 02 63 taa., Mann... 2sf.,d 63 63 03 09 04 45 0301 22 35 07 48

V-dizitaI,u to Eleothan Pass 182 124 93 75 13 '01 02 01 02 01 01 02 75 55 26 143 i01

Tona, to0 257d0801 172 02157220 TT 5 4 140590 13 5 5 02T 26 0

ofg kIom ett s at which the eature I VLJ~aKv toEe-n- 2 3 7 3 1 0 1 0 ;0 -s-8 1 0 5t 5;2 4 p0 a o nnd 100 68 2 45 41 8 02 15 8 14 1 35 36 1 05 16 70 026

of total nmentions(fo. eachI 100n36 1 24 I 2 SF01 8 4 3 5 5 43 45 8 89 3 100 037 APPENDIX TABLE 4 Dominant vegetation types in theCoastal Zone from Puttalam to Elephant Pass

Description of vegetation (Number of kilometres at which specified types were observed)

Segment Sand, s hore of the coast le I Dominant Vegetation Mangrove Veqetation Sand dunes Vt'getat:on Salt Marsh

•• , ° - , ...... Puttalsm to Mannar Talemanner Island ;11363 3630 19 13 43 59 30 19 16 18 3474 0721 0918 !17 04 52 13 36 17 16 06 0314 0414 036i0 1153 30 11 11 04 03 02 0 Mannar to Vidantahvu 22 Vdattalhvu to Elephant Pass 182 11 22 03 10 03 i 163 25 54 42 145 103 53 05 1 11 0 03 2 06 01 12 12 14 5 21 49 23 01 09 45

Total 380 240 74 108 101 225 221 84 32 65 46 123 44 i 69 43 06 02 37 98 30 specified of Kilometrestypes werea- which observed the . -"a ------" (for each group) i i 100 6316 1947 2842 2657 6710 5816 2210 842 1710 1210 3236 1157 1815 1131 158 0521 974.2578 780

%of total mentions (for each group) 100 4589 1415 2065 1931 200 1964 747 284 578 409 1093 391 613 82 053 017 32 269

-J -4 00

APPENOIX TABLE 5 Nature of coast line from Elephant Pass to Chempiyanpattu (Number of kilometres at which the specified features were observed)

Geomorpthoiogo Descrotron Nature of .each rate-al Shore fine

Colour of Deth

I - - sand

Segment of the cozst ,he I I .

a'' " -" T- "

Elphn. P ,s:o J, 93 5' 45 48 C1 01 0 05 01 (1 C1 C4 06 04 22 02 78 24 02 80 1 J)"nj to Po,: Pedto 72 63 03 03 01 02 02 01 05 29 23 11 16 08 27 01 13 .03 34 10

Point Peidro To Chm­ 1 16 13 01 02 01 01 10 15 02 04 13

Total 181 136 61 51 02 01 02 02 02 07 06 32 25 15 22 13 59 18 93 26 03 18 52 90

of k lomtutt I!

which T11W .,gtrsl 'chs-ct,on) I U 75 34 28 1 05 1 1 1 4 3 18 14 8 12 7 33 10 1 51 15 2 10 29 33

f i mntionos fo 06i I 2 - eCh SC!iOf) 100 42 19 16 06 i 3 06 06 6 I2 2 1 10 18 -12 17 10 46 14 165 20 2 13 37 631 Dominant APPENDIX TABLE vegetation types in the Coastal 6 Zone from Elephant Pass to Chempiyanpattu

I Description of vegetation (Number of kilometres 3t which specified types were observed) - IDominant Vr.getation 1y shre ietn M.,nqrovre Sand une vegetation Sle. Marsh

Sgmen, ofrhcIle ,,,

7 3 it 7 4.= 2 s .1

Flephnt Pssto Jaflna 93 1 8-4 ? 13 90 37523743 79 '1 36 0 37 135 09 83 50 16 13 0 .Jffna to Point Pedro 72 37 09 38124 n P 30 r to m 27 04 20 16 02 6160 1 01 05 23 14 02 03 21 16 14 oi o,... . , %o fk .l u 16 16h . 181 137 36 4. 125 61 98 112 15 ...70 1 06 34 3 40 16 ,115 1 02 1 4 specfied types were observed (for I .h group)_ 1.1C 7.73 10 .5 06 3646 54 4 61 8 9 I3867 33 701 331 3 2 u4 0 8 4 6354 39"3 1878 1657 111!773 % of tota l m e nt on s (fo r ea ch g ro up ) i oo 37 3 9 3 4 34 1 1 1 . 94. 1 6 7 0-- ' . . . = ] 24Z 1 8 05 0 797 9 964 5 528 2 1 5 9 3 1 ' 1 15,19 4 4949...... 9.. 2 1 ------­ I .. . . __

'..0 ...... _.. . .. 1 .. APPENDIX TABLE 7 Nature of cost line of the Islands off Jaffza Peninsula (Number of kilometres 3t which the specified featurbt; were observed) History of Geomorphological Descr'ption Nature beacn material he coast line

I 0 Color of beacq

Segmrent ot the coast hne l

Manct..., 20 2 20 100 02 0

P45kuduti 45 44 8 41 01 04 01 3F 44 34 09 23 Delft 28 14 02 01 28 05 28 23 05 27 16i28 Puhyantivu 03 03 03 01 03 03 05 Analativu . 08 09 01 01 ,111 01 01 01 11 Parartivu . 02 02 01 02 E/uvat*u 08 04 0 08 03 0E 04 05 07 06 02 08 Naynaivu 11 11 I 10 '11 05 081 09 Kayts 65 0 1012 60 02 03 33 44 1 06 09 Karatvu25 0 03 04 01 231 03 20 1 17107 10 03 1 09

07 L.. 37 02 79 Total 1 218 146 21 26 05 204 02 17 01 117 3 0 12 3 5 150

% of klIcmettes at which t ie feature was 5 1 i9 2 observed (for each section) . 1012 2 94 9 8 5 54 1711 6 3 281 I 9 36 12 2 %of total mentlons (for each section) 2100 4 35 03 L 2 20 17 73 361 37 217525 j APPENDCX TABLE 8 Dominant vegetation types of the coastal zone of the Island off Jaffna Peninsula

Description G.f vegetation (Numberof kilometres at which the specifed types were observed)

I Dominant Vegetationt Sandy shore Mangrove Vegetation Sand dunes vegetation Salt Marsh . I 17

Mandatv . 20..1o07 0,1 07 03 01 07 - --15 -;16-13. 06.. . Punkudutivu 45. 5 45 Delft 45O50 ... 28 27 6 0 03o 0 1 28 27 2680 7 4 7 0 3 0 AnP°,,an, , ...... 0311 031, 1 13 11 1o0 0001 02 -I 11 0903 01 01 I / 03 0' 03 02 02 03 /t 02 r~ 02 Eluvativu 0 .. 08 08 3 0 02 02 08 08 02 08 I anatvu .. 20 1 11 10 1 1 0 Kayts 11 11 3 1 ...... 65 57 Karait.vu 09 44 61 55 25 42 1 0 03 11 2112 11 0101 23 21 61 62 25 44 1 162av11 13121810 14704032 1801 10 01 18 07 08 01 13 oaltgt 1 0917 08 14 32 01 60 .10 218 2 0 2 119 02 0202 0 65 570334. ... s. 6105442416...... 0970361_622_44-1-07-- 01-1 Eutypewere observedd(, each group) 808 0 31 86.6967.43 825 16 550 68 91467 0 ofatota mentions (for... group) 2100 1387844 2404_ _ _ -1 1182001 350 _ _ _ ,_L.1.t. . 1 0 8 1 12 .. _ 3_ ____,8 oftoalmetins(frac gou) 218 87 44 240 ] 19.03 140 18] 1140 5 .0 1510 14 09 6,1461 12816212 32 16 1.10 010 604 -- 4- _ I_ I 1.0 10 .4 80-­ ------I APPENDIX TABLE 9 Nature of coast line Chempiyapattu to Foul Point Number of kilometres at which specified features were observed

History of Geomorphological Description Nature of beach material the shore line I ' Colour of beach sandI

Segment of the coast he f Colour of beach

Che pyanp tosuto Mu atnvu - -t61 61 05 02 - 3 11 6 39 15 4 1 M. .la-,t .Kok...to 36 36 07 04 03 07 03 34 20 1 20 08 Kokilat to Itakkandy Bridge 43 41 09 07 06 01 01 02 105 02 11 02 01 38 01 18 1721 0 lrahkkandv to Trincomalee 17 16 0205 j 39 01 01 13 I15 01 01 105 Trincomaeto Foul Point 109 03 37 105 11 :21 25 09 02 f 39 45 45144 01 43 01 44~ 04

la -- 26E 157 21 s0 1105 0O6- 01 1421 30 0<9 41 54j 48 I46 1901 iJl13 3 19 114 17

of klomctre at which the feature was -01II-_ oviarsed (for each section) - 100 59 8 92 1 - ~ 1 17 1j 52 1 7t 43 6

oftotal mentions (for each sections) 100 331 4 11 2 3- 41461346 12 50 1 S 'S 16 9 87 13 APPENDIX TABLE 10 Dominant vegetation types in the Coastal Zone from Chempiyanpattu to Foul Point

Description of vegetation (Number of kilometres at which specified types were obseved)

Sundy Dominant Vegetation shore Mangrove vegetation Sand dunes vegetation Salt Marsh Segment ofthe coast line

I

Chempiyanpatu 1o Mulaitivu • 6• 6,0 59 29 39 60 51 15 60 58 48 41 39 19 25 02 36 13

Mullaitive to Kokilat .. . 36 35 26 07 07 35 25 20 akkandy Bridge toTrincomalee 23 21 12 06 05 Kokilai to Irakkandy Bridge . 17 16 04 03 02 01 01 11 15 .. 43 35 18 14 13 04 05 08 08 32 33 25 04 01 05 02 14 15 10 05 06 09 12 10 01 057 105 10 04 Trincomalee to Foul Point "" 109 67 is8 3 57 40 57 55 12 10 06 54 08 20 31 04 08 04 68 76 Ttal 266 213 125 81 11 181 179 119 114 1 S8 77 105 61 53 69 07 16 10 125 120

% of kilometres at which specified

%oftotalmentions ....eah group) 100 40.18 34 5.28 120l.94 13.46 3.32 8 8..03 5.73 781 4.54 : 9, "510"52 1.9' 0.74 9.30 8.93

00 W­ 00

APPENDIX TABLE 11 Nature of coastline from Foul Point to Pottuvil (Number of kilometres at which the specifiad features were observed) History of

Geomorphological Descrip:.on Nature of bwach material shore line

___C -' colour of beach

Segment of thecoast hne !2

Foul Point to Vakara .. .. 37 15 05 01 13 14 01 02 14 3 17 123 VakaraitocKakudah .. . .. 3.3 03' 06 23 02 021 01 41 7 01 17 01 26 10 0 1 7 C Kalkudah to Batticaloa.. . 321 24 08 0 23 1 06 05 0 04 01 0117 1 21 13 03 20 95 1 Barticaloa to Pottuwi .. . . 98 30 29 39 01 j 44 06 06 0 , 01 51 1 4

01 152 68 61l 44 Total .. .. 1 6 56 98 06 0 11 66 3 25 0J 03 02 106

% of kilometres at which the foatureswas 551532 54:22 observed (for each section) .. .. 100 82 28 23 5 3216 1252 30 72 28 I%oftotalmentiorns(foreachsection) . 100 32= -1_ !_9_1191 22______4 2 13 57 32 92 ______APPENDIX TABLE 12 Dominant vegetation types in the Coastal Zone from Foul Point to Pottuvil

Description of vegetation (Number of kilometres at which the specified types were observad)

Sandy shore Dominant Vegetation Mangrove vegetation Sand dunes vegetation Salt Marsh

Segment ofthe coasuine ~~.

Foul a ~~~~-Pon 4a Vak15 to 3V9 2 5 1 0 9 2 1 2 5 1 3 0 2 0 6 1 FuPrtoVakaraitoKlu% 4 071 84 4 . I 30 09 2 05 151 19 2309 04252 03 002 3 07 Katkudah to Batticaloa.. . 32 18 28 1 9 08 16 05 24 28 13 09 06 Batticaloe to Pottuvil . 03 19 .. 9 66 49 19 41 59 36 09 41 41 41 46 42 05 10 0101 12 42 Iotal 16 141 30 84T rmin 5 101 42 09 117 112 58 85 77 98 13 07 02 05 62 78

% of Kilometre-. at whici the specified types were obbervasd (for each group) 100 52.0 69.1 1.4.7 A1.2 12.45 49.5 20.6] 4.4 1 57.4 54.9 28.4 41.7 O-7 37.7 3.92 6.37 3.43 0.98 2.45304 8. U09 % f oalmntosfr ah rup 9. 8.5 8.1 9 22.9 1.36 13.0 I54 11615.1 14.4 7.47 10.9 9.92 1.03 1.681 0.90 0.26 0.64 80 1.

00 I.A 00 Ch

APPENDIX TABLE 13 Nature of coast line from Pottuvil to Hambantota (Number of kilometres at which specified features were observed)

History of Geomorphological Description Nature of beach material theshoreline

V IColour of beech sand

Segment of the coast ZI . b 0 hne In'-V en ZQ Cr cc a MzS U a - Z

Pottuvil to Heda Oya 03 04 02 j1 00604 0 03 07 0504 051 AledaOy3toHambantota 1120 57 04 23 15 19 02 13 15l 01 30 06 102 01 82 52 40 12 12 37 19 To~at 127 621 04 26 19 21 1 02 14 16 01 30 06 02 01 88 52 22 44 12 38 22

% of kilometres at which II- __ ---­ the feature was observed 100 (for each section) 49 21 15 17 2 1 24 5 2 1 69 41 17 35 10 30 17 % of total mentions (for!IL 1 19 1 0 ~ . __ (each section) 100 32 2 3 1 1 .5 15 6 15 34 9 163 3 APPENDIX TABLE 14 Dominant vegetation types in the coastal zone from Pottuvil to Hambantota

Description of vegetation (Number of kilometres at which specified types qere observed)

Sandy store Dominant Vegetation Mangrove vegetation Sand dunes vegetation Salt Marsh

Segment Of the coast hne

Pottuvil to Heda Oya - 07 05 04 C3 04 04 04 03 03 04 02 0 Heda Oy Of to Hambantoa 120 21 114 15 12 11 11 114 116 45 15 03 07 Tot31a 127 26 118 18 16 14 15 117 119 49 17 04 08

% of kdometres at whhCn the specified observed for each group) types .ere 100 2047 9291 1417 1259 11 02 11 81 9212 9370 3858 1338 314

9L.% of total men7ons (for each grour,, .. ,-604 11 445 389 418 2259 3315 1365 473 1 11

00 00 00

APPENDIX TABLE 15 Nature of coast line from Hambantota to Galle (Number of kilomeires at which specified features were observed)

History of the Geonorphological Description Nature of beach rnaterial shore line Colour of beach I

sand

Segment of the coast hme

29 (.4 0 26 13 2 29 06 Himb.,nlt, '0 Tanualle 41 16 C,4 14 11 02 O1 07 ( 11 03 07 02 05

Ta.lqale o Dondra rl-id 34 11 11 10 25 01 04 03 20 '5 09 07 25 19 G8 21 07 (5 20 30 Dbndrt H., id .toMor 05 04 01 01 01 01 01 01 02 04 03 02 01 02 01 C4 01 03 05 'olhet,. 03 03 01 01 01 03 03 01 01 03 01 03 03 01 PPiF q•- B", 08 05 01 01 04 01 C1 05 05 01 C2 01 06 04 08 W,, t, 0 05 01 03 03 01 02 (', 01 01 06 04 04 08 01 WehIoaqa a to . ;.. 12 10 01 02 01 02 05 11 04 04 10 04 05 09 05 12 03 06 07 Ko9gg,,t, !o Un.,au -, 07 02 03 C5 04 03 66 06

Unitom , iO G H, MC L,-Is 05 02 03 03 03 02 05 -3 03 02 04 03

Tot, 123 58 22 30 47 03 01 11 06 37 59 47 24 48 25 15 88 21 15 26: 4(- 67 105 07

oo kIlotetre.it 11-At,.ch T feature1 observed (for ,ch . c!,an) 100 47 19 24 38 : 2 8 9 5 301 38 38 20 39 20 12 72 17 12 21 33 54 85 06

tOtf lnt,il-­ ons (for, ch section) . 100 17 6 9 14 9 3 3 2 11 17 14 7 24 13 8 45 11 10 18 27. 45 94 6 APPENDIX TABLE 16 Dominant vegetation types in the coastal zone from Hambantota to Galle

Description of vegetation (Number of kilometres at which specified types were observed)

Dominant Vogetation vegetationSandy shore Sand dunes vegetationMangrove Salt Marsh

Segment of the coast line Z

Harr.jrantta tc Tjngalla 41 39 14 15 16 30 26 27 08 09 04 Condra Hpd to Malara 1 b 05 0 1 05 Tangale o DondraW ehg 05 05 01 01 11 09 05 22 Hedd 0834 0833 04 03 05 0 06 06 07 6a.- .5 2 0 22 33-7 04 0 02 02 4 0 6 0 034 0 2 0 2 063 Pte 03 03 Pulhena to W ehg dri B 02 01 08 08 01 03 02 03 03 02 Ko ii~j a o i Matn0 07 04 080 03 0 1 01 01 0 1 010 01 3 50 0 210 07 03 02 W elni anm 6 1,to Ko g ga 12 01 1 2 0 3 1 2 0 5 0 5 03 03 0 1 00 03 otn 07 07 01 0 02 01 07 01 02 02 01 01 01 02 01 03 Unawdtun, "o Gille MC limits 05 05 03 02 02 01 03 j To-il 03 To:,i 123 120 24 27 27 01 98 68 03 0 86 20 13 11 % 22 16 02 14 08 of ktlhmeTtes a! which the spec, 13 13 10 81 each grouD) 100 9756 1951 21 95 21 95 081 7967 5528 6992 1626 1057 894 1789 1300 1 63 11 38 650 % Of totoimentions 1057 1057 813 6585 (for eich group) 1CO 6030 1206 1356 1356 050 2063 1431 1810 421 273 231 463 336 042 294 168 273 273 210 1705

No00 APPENDIX TABLE 17 Nature of coast line from Galle to Colombo (Number of kilometres at which the specified features were observed)

History of msteritl the shore tin Geomnorphologiral D.-ctption Nature of beach

Colour of beach sand

Seqmen of the coast 1,,,e

-_- - - ­ 5.+ 5. - . - ­ c

G.?Il- 14 C8 07 0)3 04 ;,-" 0- 09 5 C,6 r1 (-7 01 C7 02 03 10 07 1 0 01 U6 01 06 G -i to Ddandul. '9 07 03 G2 02 03 02 02 5

07 02 08 67 01 06 03 uol ,-u,., 'o HA , 1, 09 07 02 05 02 01 (1 01 09 01 11 11 10 03 01 01 01 09 06 01 11 05 01 08 10 10 A-,),,I qod.. to Ahuq Wi 10 09 01 01 03 015 04 Ahuq W K o 1oA 06 5 01 01 G3 01 06 05 03 06 01 , *q:,I'w , , ,,.' 06 06 01 03 01 02 05 03 06 02 04 07 Ev 07 06 03 01 03 07 03 01 01 04 01 03 01 . fl,, L gh, HouS- 04 04 01 01 01 02 01 02 04 01 08 01 CC 09 03 *, - . o M iogo h , 1 0 05 01 03 , 02 02 05 01 04 05 " 0 06 01 01 ("01 01 01 .1 07 01 01 06 01 08 03 05 04 01 05 01 02 03 K 00,' 5 04 03 03 02 ,.." . • . ('9 C9 01 01 C9 01 07 03 CI1 06 05 05 E G q., es 05 01 05 P G V. 17 16 01 02 01 03 02 13 01 11 OS 15 02 02 V r ..'% V...." p(2 02 02 02 02 02 07 05 P! ..." re 07 07 01 06 06 08

13 22 60 16 21 110 28 135 117 13 07 24 23 02 05 08 31 09 39 69 28 03 04 119

. 5 + +.,+,+ I. hCh 1rW fM*e' w.Is o..:h -c1 o'1 100 97 10 5 18 17 1 4 6 23 7 29 51 21 2 3 88 10 16 44 12 16 81 21

79 20 c, men,,ons (to .-Ch %,-,!,On) 100 34 3 2 7 7 5 1 2 9 3 11 20 17 2 2 71 8 18 50 13 18 APPENDIX TABLE 18 Dominant vegetation types in the coastal zone front Galle to Colombo

Description of vegetation 0of *,;oei, nt Cf, Uerhed "'p-i Att ob~enedj

Sandy shore Mangrove Dominant Vegetation vegetation Sand dunes vegetaton Safl Marsh

Segment of the coat In >. -. z z 20 c

Gd 14 13 03 ,2 (11 12 {2 C-2 02 C2 01 03 (02 02 03 10 Gall ; D~d W,---a 09 09 (1 (01 09 01 1 05 ol-u.-. '0 u, C,1.9 09 ,2 51 ,9 02 02 06 A-,,* A,,-qfl, 10 10 10 U q - q- H-j, 0 03

lh- :,' K-, . I f1 05 05 05 02

Gx, O* 046 05 06 05 04 01 0 '' E,!.-' 07 07 0108 06 04 06 0

"",o , 04 04 03 02 03 03 01t \0~

.h',,,;•r", '.09 09 06 09 04 03 '03 i C5 05 05­

P= ,, ,a ,' . .. 17 15 15 01

r 135 131 04 04 42 0)1 117 35 02 02 01 33 18 o1 03 03 02 02 27

ro'"' f,3,,ClruD 1Yt 0c 9703 2 96 296 31 11 "74 86 66 2592 1 48 1 48 074 2444 1333 074 222 1 48 1 48 2222 27 'S"o f To !.0 - - n - 1 ir, lCh q10 11D 100 71 9 7 2 1 9 2 1 9 2 3 0 7 0 5 4 4 7 6 14 2 2 08 1 0 81 0 40 3 4 1 731 0 40 1 2 1 0 8 1 0 8 1 1 2 1 10 9 7 APPENDIX TABLE 19 Sinhalese Names of some Varieties of Fish. types of corals and sea weeds found in the southwestern Zone.

o N 9Q-"SOzJt"Czz2zdn= zlZJ z(c. S3Jo

92 APPENDIX TABLE 19 (Cont)

~cr ~&~A O c6tz) o~U)co~

c J,6)J n( ±-"JUI -'z7 6)aI -,)6)ca6

C5iwLC ~4C'C v ) 0,L

Lie d x

U) !C ,nn no)z)coj0& E3 C nu6 43 :T c) jjc t,)Z

cn Z ) q i )-'u )6 z)n) . q t q s) O ,n z q Q,3 4geul cr 5au 1 Z)Lck)(:!E 20 = n6 Zcj60 LzvXl- nj6Ou I)

ozo~n 1 d J L~:i C

au-E:, I Ut5n ))

L312 30C .I 6 ,L)6(

-- w= !) n Z.6t) 593 APPENDIX TABLE 19 (Cant)

pjotZ76)

WUMvjsLe.Zk'l d

oc.~3 tq, C.t

rO)

, cF

94 APPENDIX TABLE 20 Water-front structures in the Coastal Zone from Colombo to Puttalam

Type of Structure (Numbers counted;

Segment of the coo-g/jfln

Colombo Light House to Kelani River o'501 07 07 01 04 53l--3 Kelani River to Negombo Lagoon . 27 14 16 11 18 70 01 01 03 02 03

Negnmbo Lagoon to Maha Oya .. . 09 Maha O-a to Karukkupona 25 06 02 02 53 129 42 08 07 03 08 04 Karukkupona lie 194 to Talawia .. .. 59 03 03 . 10 18 Talawila to Pu.Aam 5 I Total . ______296 5 36 31 36 23 01 04 01 56 07 390 673 04 01 17I 02 03 C3 03 42 20 Ii APPENDIX TABLE 21 Water-front structures in the Coastal Zone from Puttolam to Elephant Pass

Type of structures Numwbers counradi

Segment of the. oas it e .­

r. tu M... 03 3 1i- , 2

T0~--' - 1 03 0.. 601 02 to2 01 36 *Vld.,tt..IIvo * ', . niv tp{|P . * ' "2

;G, 161 03 09 01 03 08 58 02 Tojl -4-." u1 G51-2 UJ 07 APPENDIXTABLE Water-front structures 22 in the Coastal Zone from Elephant Pass to Chempiyanpattu

Type of Structures (Numntle', CO,.." f

Segrmrent o tn. cost ne iI 5

Eiephant Pss to Jaffna 93 04 14 04 15 149 3645 Jaffna to Point Pedro 72 1) 04 20 tL 17 329 59 01 01 • I 14 Point Pedro to Chempryanpantu 3 569 02 - - 16 02 352 3A C2 ," 181 17 08 36 01 05 52 830 133 G1 ul 25 14 28 40 05 1C-21 03 '000

APPENDIX TABLE 23 Water-front structures in the Coastal Zone of the Island of Jaffna Peninsula

- Type of Structures (Numbe s counted)

I I I

Segment of the coastal Ifne 2"::

03 29 1 Mandativu .20 1 01 1.02 Punkudutivu . 45 I 02 14 21.3 397 Delft .. ...28 02 02 01 1 Puyantivu .. .. 03 I 61 80 Analaitivu 11 02 05j Paraltvu .. 02 I 08 03 01 1 EluvaI 0 3 I 3 09 81 86 11 03 03 91 10 NaIas 6 1 01 13 03 02 67 42 03 1 25 06 02 01 03 06 0142o 672

0 ToaI. . 2000 0t7 02 01_ I 21 132 1412411 '01 I12I2 I 42 APPENDIX TABLE 24 Water-front structures in the Coastal zone from Chempiyanpattu to Foul Point (Number of Counts)

Type of Structures (Numbers counted)

Segment of th6coast ine : ­

Chemo,vanpaTti,O Mullat1 .. 61 1 12 O 02 850 Mul'aitvu to Kokila, .. .. i36! 03 03 30 '02 06 03 Kokl, to Irakkandy Bridge I 3 I i I 01 02 91 01 I 01 rakkandy to Trincomalee 17 01 74 40 01 01 01 04: 9 T.ncoma:ee to Foul o, . i,0g1 09 0 2 03 01 06 -7 ,1 10 34 1 02 07 020 1 2 8 04

-Total - 266 99 05 23 06 oeD 18 - 21 116 115 14 03 11 (13 IS 19 2 15 4

%0 APPENDIX TABLE 25 Water-front structures in the Coastal Zone from Foul Point to Pottuvil rti1 Type of Structures (Nu,nbers countedi

Segment of the coast line z t2I;i ' 20 Foul Point to Vakkar 40 02 67 01 08

Vakkari to Kalkudah 34 2 143 1 02 Kalkudah to Batt.cato. 32 ,11 17 112 13 05 06 01 2 Baltcaloa to Pultul 98 01 348 428 06 37 75 24 9 07

oi 204 T 01 390 748 1 211 0 78 104 AP PEIrND 1X T,,,.E2 Water-front structures in the Ccastai Zcnae from Pottuvil to Hambantota

Type A St.ICIU,.. "%,V

ZZ SectheN, nf th foas! Ime :t

Pottu."l !o H da O,, 07- Hcd. O Hamb.nlot 02 06 i . C i 07 !f 09 2 0 75 3 13 Total 7 06 02 04 16 07 05 7 22 0_ .. " 05 , 77 54 22 APPENDIX TABLE 27 Water-front structures in the Coastal Zone from Hambantoa to Galls

Type of Structures (Nu Oers counted)

Segmentofithe coast line . 0

15 5 Hambantota to Tangalle . 41 01 02 04 r 02 88 06 0,0 01 04 02 01 Tengetle to Oondra Head 34 05 04 05 01 01 01 02 513 18 05 02138 02 06 9 04 02 3 01 02 Dondra Head to Matara - i 05 01 u4 04 340 03 05 Po!hena I 03 03 02 03 i 1 , 01 10 01 1 Polhena to Weligama Bay . 08 0, 240 21 Weigama Bay . 108 04 05101 054 02. i003 03 6 Welogama Bay to Koggala 04 1 00 07 08 051 38 01 04 12 65 1801 04 12 2 1 5 " Koggala to Unawatuna 07 02 03 "! 02 01 I tii 175 03 25 1 01 Unawatuna to Galle 05 03 01 192 03 06 30 05 3 _2111 I 02 169 _ 05 21 5

Total 123 20 -2611 26 03 02 02 057 03 _ _ II I Water-front APPENDIX TABLE 28 structures in the coastal zone from Galle to Colombo

I Type of Struutures (Number counted)

Segment ofthe coast,~line ~

Galle -, 14 07 06 07 08 03 09 ,' Galie to Dodanduwa 05 320 77 14.04.2.0'....1 0 2 24 310 14 . 1. .7 ­ 0odanduwa 111 24 to Hrkkaduwa .09 14 04 29 11 06 02 02 07 14 124 31 H~kkaduwa, to Ambalangoda 01 19 02 - - 11 10 40 55 18 01 1 7 04' 168464 01 ~~A mbalan go d to 02 43 03 Altunga a • 10 40 0 0 0 10 001 5 .1 05 Ahungalla to Kosgoda 0 e Rel gate to Bentota Estuary 45 180500 Kosgoda to lnduruwcaRail gate 071nduruwa01 t' - 06 0 01 7 03 01 0 01 02 1 1 01 0 02 02 36 01 015 03 - O Beruwala ight House to Maggona 04 0 12 head land 08 04 Bentota Estuary 02 01 07 001 O,oeuwal 1 03 22 L~ght House 01 012 01 07 3 0 .04 191 08 02 Maggona head land to Kaluta1a 7 0 Kalutara Lagoon 01 12 16 02 Kalutara 05 01 01 01 01 to halp ala 01 01 6 4 1942 05 2011 Th ~~apa andraa 0 l 03 05 03 15 18 0 04 02 Panadura t o M L Benotigt oue EtutytoBeU~da 0404 3 0 010 0010F 2 3 01 2 1 5 0302 2.101 09 01082043 0104 1o 144 Mt Lana to VenderweRa Place 02 02 Venderwert Place toColombo E 07 04 02 03 15 02 01 03 04 02 01

______0agn .135 44 22 Total edln oKltaai70 20 80 08 1 0 10 20 ... 1 8361 2538 60 16 56 24 43 5 '13728 690

______I F APPENDIX TABLE 29 Water-front structures in the coastal zone of Sri Lanka

Type of Structures (Numbers counted)

...... r ......

Segment of the coastine I­

o 0

04 01 17 02 12 03 03 42 10 36 31 56 02 01 56 07 390 673 Colombo to PLttAam .286 51 Tala­ to Elephant PasS (ncluding Puttom'in 09 01 C3 08 758 02 08 01 02 03 07 105 161 03 mannar Island) 380 01 01 01 25 14 28 40 05 1021 03 36 01 . 05 52 830 133 Elephart Pass to Chempiyanpatu 181 17 08 03 14 01 12 4624 1306 218 20 07 02 01 21 132 Isl3fd of Jdffna Penosula - 1 11 03 id 19 02 1125 54 23 06 06 18 21 116 115 03 ChemoiyanpattutoFoulPoint 266 09 05 104 07 01 380 748 21 05 43 78 26 Foul Point to PoTluwl 204 01 05 0752 58 22 02 03 1 02 03 16 07 13 Pcitu,' to Harbantota 127 169 05 21 55 08 07 03 11 26 03 02 02 02 '2111 78 34 13 Hamban•ota to Gall. 123 20 26 16 56 24 43 45 1372 690 11 20 80 08 10 20 836 2533 60 Galle to Colombo 135 22

39 342 49 208 2429 2722 5111 124 172 16 12 117 113 4926 4467 151 Total . . 1820 161 99 138 APPENDIX TABLE 30 Land utilization of the coastline from Colombo to Puttalam (Number of kilometres at which specified types were observed)

Cor- Resi­ Agriculture Recreatio.,al mercial dential Transportation [Mining

Perent Season- Farms I al crops al crops

Segment of the coast line

CoobIh oset eaaRvr Colonbo 'grt 5 House to Ken, River 15 01 01 02 .. !0 1 0 02 04 02, 01 01 07 01 0 Kelani River to Negombo Lagoon 05 :-- 3 09 27 13 27 26 01 11 11 1 01 03 02 01 03 r' 16 25' 20 22 08 13 26 Negombo to Maha O-a 09 05 09 08 01 06 0305 00 07 07 07 07 08 04 C7 07 .0701101 O Maha Oya to Karukkupona 42 22 40 40 10 20 . 01 02 08 03 02 03 27 38 31 '4 30 20 1111 01 40 02 14 Karukkupona to Talawila 59 37' 34 19 02 25 07 05 33 38 01 06 06 02 50 07i Talawila to Putalam • • .134 4C 76 56 04 17 36 01 01 04 01 01 19 65 61 03 30 42 02 02' 40 06 01 ,122 18 06

Total - .286 88 187 151 05 41 56 109 09 26 10 13 20 78 170 158 05 87. 91 04 02 76 08 0" % of k io m etres at w hich sp ecified la nd 248' 30 144; ...... -...... - ...... use types were observed 'for each group) .. .­ 100 !31! 65 53 2 14 20 '3 3 9 4 5 7 27 59 55 2 30 32 1 .7 27 3 .7 89a 11 15 % of total mentions (for each group) .100 17, 35 29 94 8 10 21 13 39 15 19 5 18 40 37 3 47 1 4 50 67 33 19 2 5 61 7 11

LA APPENDIX TABLE 31 Land utilization of coast line from Puttalam to Elephant Pass (Number of kilometres at which specified types were observed)

Corn- Resi. Agriculture Recreational rnercial dential Transportation Mining

Pere- Season- Fiarms i al

S~egmentof thecoastlirne -' tf

Putalam to Mannaf 11 l 24 17 02 01 04 02 19 01 01 09 16 15 03 12 14 04 01 05 Ca 02 06 3305 02 Talalmannar Wand . 63 02 19 12 02 01 10 15 12 09 02 12 21 06 r9 01 03 08 15 02' Mannar to Vdattalhvu 22 01 02 01 01 02 (2 01 01 Vdattalvu to Eleohant Pass 182 15 21 04 22 19 01 07 18 11 07 48 04 03 03 57 071

Toa " 380 23 64 34 .2 21 01 05 02 19 102 '91 02 26! 51 39 19 02 33 83 12 02 18 07 06 i17 10711

0rf kiorr'etresat which specifed land use types were observed" (for each 1,(, 7 .' ' 6 " ' i ' 5 ' 5 .1; 3 5 7, 3 "1 I 3 ' 5' 9 122 , 3 5 5 2 1 4 28 i 4 group) 10 6 6 ' ' ­

%oftota mentions(for eachgroup) .100 14 38 2 13 12 01' 3 8 801 8' 4 2 22 43 1 30 10' 2 25 .63 186 14' 11: 4 4 10 63 8 APPENDIX TABLE Land Utilization in coast line from Elephant32 (Number of Kilometres pass to Chempiyanpattt; at which specified types were Observed)

Com- Rei-

Agriculture Recreational mercia dential Transportation Mining SPeren- Season- - . . . Inialcrop a crops' Farms

Sg"en ofthecoast ,,I, Z z' Z

Elepharn. ass to faffna . 9 49 63 61 40 35 93 1 02 02 02 02 02 01 02 27 1 02. 12 Jaffna to Point Pedro 01 2 06 102 z 12 0 0 . 3 . 81 . ­50 72 18 26 39 10 11 04 02 103 03 1 1 09 0i01 03 ' 5 03 03 02 01 21 237 33 i Point Pedro to Chempivanpattu 0i 1 02 1 0 16 i01 12 0 5 4 010 05 115 0 1 i To~if 02 03 02 01 0 16 181 '68 101 100 16 1 .. T - 400 -;. . Ton- 09 1 9 8010 02 ~4 09505 05 04 03 24 69 0 104 14S 52 1304 23 108 0 070 ladf ilomnetres it which each group) specifie27d 100 ,38 56 55 28 '24 2 1 3 36 5 93 59 12 13 4 5 8 5 % ofmerrtior0s tot (for each group) 118 127 27 14 12 125 20 'l. 2-. 5- 5 .. ... 2 1611 3 28 3 36 3 3 36 3 __1 25 2

C1 i- 0D

APPENDIX TABLE 33 Land Utilization in the Coastal Zone of the Island (Number of Kilometres at which specified types were observed).

Com- Resi- Transportation Mining Agriculture Recreational mercial dential

nialcrops al crops FormsI

Segmentofthecoast fne - %c~'

0 7 Ot 0108 ......

01 06 20 05 03 10 0' Mandativu 20 02 03 02 45 45 Pun--dut-u .35-1 2 02 03 02 01 03 05 04 04 02 Puedtvu-- -. 45 i25 24 35 19 24

02 02 16 18 02 03 22 06 03 26 :26 22 01 Delt 28 13 13 24 11 11

03 03 U3 Pulhyantivu 03 '02 03 01 01 0909 01 09 08 01 11 05 Analastivu 11 10 08 10 09 09 02 02101 Paratu02 02 0803 02 02 :05 01 Eluvotivu 08 08 01 01110503 040609 03 11 09 02 Naynativu 11 09 01 10 09 09 01 01 05 42 33 02 12 50: 18 06 02 01 01 651 5 03 Kayts ... 65 18 2 60 35 36 02 21 1803 0311301 106 01 01 01 2519 Karativu 25 01 24 03 04

% of kdometresa which specified land use types was observed (for each 2 4 5 56 40 5 13 50,23 5 5 2 2 92 83 3 group) 100 37 33 83 41 44 100 4 5 55 40 7 19 731 84 16 3 1 1 49 44 2 %of totalmentions (foreach group; 100 16 14 35 17 18 APPENDIX TABLE 34 Land utilization in coast line from Chempiyanpattu to Foul (Number of Kilometres Point at which specified types were observed). Agriculture Recreational Corn- Rea

mercia dential Transporation" Mining

Peren- Season- Farms r nial crops at crops I I I

Segment of 'le cos lin C iZ0

CheemptvanDatt to MUlc,11L 61 26 48 01 04 U1 u0703 02 ,02 02 02 01 Mu!la:livu 02 33 28 06 r2 12 28 to Kokilai ;04 02 04 03 01 61 61 r. 36 09 1' 21 02 060 u 0 14 27 0723 3512209 Kollai to fraknv Bridge 43 '2 3 05 1! 04 0 '11 02 frakkandy Brdge to Trncomalee 111 07 02 01 01 02 08 28 23 17 16 11 13 01 02 01 22 29 07 04 04 02 39 1506 09 05 101 01 0C 06' 16 09C908 01 17 03 02 01 16 104 to Foul Point 109 46.0736 12 02 '01 10 06 05 06 13 09034.56 'd'02 405 57 03 Ti060 09 2705 33 80i 39 09 P856 , 07 02 Total 40 26 66 .55 60 0 129 01 21 18 12 :04 31 22 14 08 18 10 '20 55 102 . of klo ,melr.s at hich spec,fed land 110 (8 02 87 15d 111 12 '.. I. 41 13 34 261 145 31 use types were oheve6 (for eachi . group) 100 21 23 49 3 9 7 5 2 12 8 5 i 7 4 8 21 38 41 3 7 31 58 14 5 15 5 13 98 58 12 of...... a s eh g .. 51 2 6 APPENDIX TABLE 35 Land utilization of coastline from Foul Point to Pottuvil (Number of Kilometros at which specified types were observed)

- iCom- Resi- Agriculture Recreationa omrcial dendial Transportation Mining A u Recretioa I I I 1 I I'Peranni- Season Farms .alcrops a crops! ,''' sogmtnofthecoastline Z2

i _ __ _ - -t Q1i I ., jj K

FoulPoint:oVakarai 40 05 09 2. 061 I 7 21 04 0 17 14 01 02 01 00611 043. Vakarato Kalkudah *.34 101! 25 06 05 060 0 1 14 01'0 16 04 0 0 1 8 1 52 Kalkudah to Bacaloa 32 i08!2 11 0 0 o, 04 04 24.10, 04036 04 04 01 23 14

eatticaloa to Pottuuil 98 57 231 60 02 129 03 13 01095!7 Ti i 52 75' 20 70 54 06 22 02 65172 20

Total 204 71 78 97 102 29 17 2212 ) 010 05 :19 25 84 36 01 261 13 5B 06 33 03 101 123 1115 21.

%of kIomeires atwhich specified andI

use types were go..observed ) (for. each .10 3 383 8 1 14 8 • , 11 6 I 4 4 3 9;. 12;I 41 67 5s 13 155 28 13 3 1 2 2 5' 60, 561 10

% ofv,al mentir.s (for each group) 100 23 25 31 6 7 32 3 1' 5' 1 3 7 19 8111 1 1 4 I S- - --- ' , ,-! ------" 'I_____1 , _ APPENDIX TABLE 36 Land utilization of coast line from Pottuvil to Hambantota (Number of Kilometres at which specified types were observec)

Cora- Resi- Agriculture Recreational mirial dential Transportation Mining

Parenni- So in- Farms al crop3 al crops1

Segment of the coast hne

T ota l 1 027.. 7 0 8 04 0 84 4 0 04 0 0 0210 1 TolI - 0 06 1 05 06 02 12 74 group) 100 6 6 06 62 3 21 4 4 4 8 94 j 9 2 8 use~feec ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~H 5y's~eeosre25 1 28 28305 51121 %oftotal mentions (for each group) 100 39 - 4F ~ 17 251 10 [ I 5_ 1 Land utilization in theAPPENDIX Coastal Zone TABLE from 37 Hambantota to Galle (Number of Kilometres at which specified types were observed

...... Corn- Resi-

Agriculture Recreational marcial dont!i Transportation Mining

-T T

Segmentoftha coast line I I - . .

041I os210232 Hambantota to Tangalle '41 '14 16 25 2 02 0 0 02 1 5

I i Tangalte to Dondra Head . 34 20 23 29 04, 01 03 01 102 03 04 10 25102Ii 02 12 17 04 04 t0604 01 27 01 0 5 0 2 0 1 DondraHeadtoMatara . 05 '02 05 05' 02 02 02 02 02 02 02 I 03 03 01101:04 02 04 01 Polhena ... 03 02 02 03, 01 03 10 102 02 01 01 C: 01 Polhena to Wegama Bay . 0S 06! 04 08 I 05 05 0606 0 .08 07;,6 03' 01 101 OWeigamaSay01 I 01 104 08 03 04 04 01 03 01 01 06 01 KoggalatoUnwatuna . '07101 07 03 I 01 0707101r01 0 01 07 02105 02 01 ' 1 0 07 102 02 5 2 !' i 0 ;002 I 03' '0 I '043 Unwatuna !o Gatle 05 04 { 02 01 I I01 0305 02 1 0305 104 03 04 01

Total !12372162 89'1 17 i04 02 0 112 05 106 6i06 12 34 4 23 04102 52 64 12 13 1 4 05 8 7 0

of kilom tres at which spectf.,d I.ind ' - "­ * use wypes were observed (for each I , II I group) .59150 :100 '1 1 14 3 2 4 !1 . I 7 3 I 109 4 1 5 10 2B 76 1 3 2 i5 44222 of total mentions (for each group) 100 29 25 361 17 7 21 14 ' 2 4 53 64361813 * _-----. I i-- L L1iL I 11111 ji jI i APPENDIX TABLE 38 Land utilization in the coast line from Galle to Colombo. (Number of Kilometres at which specified types were obs-rved)

Corn Agricultre ,...... , .. Resi Recrational m.l c,o nt.°lj Tr....portation Mno i ning ­

Parenni. S ason- Farms I - SIlcrops a[ crops Segment orthe coast ine Z I ,oI~, ... ,,,n thjos ztmo ; I

Galelo odanauwa Gale 09 08 08 08 01 14 12; 09 09 02 03 08 02 4 02 08 09 09 101 05 1 113 09 03 08 1 06 01 103 04 08 Dodandt-wa to H0kkdduwd 01 1108 01 08 01 01 b9 09, 0" 09 O07 02 03 01 05 08 09 09 06 04 09 09 01 09 04 09 Hikkadu..... Amhlangod 03 02 a 11 111 . I1 01 03 02 01 11 02 06 06 11 11 01 01 A1blargoda to Ah -glla 11 .1 07 05 07 11" 1 1 0 10 10 10 02 3 06 01 01 02 01 06 08 10 10 01 01 1507 07 010 03 04 0 1l 01 1 Kosguda t Induruwa Rai;gate 01 03 06 06i -6 05 02 Indurw Ra gwt o Bentuta 030 Estni' 07 06, C4 05 ! 05 01 106 1 07 02 02 02 01 04 01 05 Bentora Estuaryto eruwala 05 06 02 03 ggh:hous" G4 04 04 02 01 102 01 04 Bfluisala lighthous 02 04 02 03 to Maggond head 03 03 01 Idnd 01 01 04 01 C8 08 03 03 01 01 01 0' 02 02 0 06 07 02 01 C1 06 8 01 08 03 0 08 06 0 Maggona head land to Kdla,.r 07 07' 07 07 01 004 0 6 03 KalutJa, Laguon 02 C,3 07 1 04 03 05 04 04 03 107 107 05 1 02 01 02 01 Kalutata TOThIp~tlya 02 03 G1 05 09 09, 02 001 04 02 01 09 06 03 03 01 02 09 0102 1Thal ,ty a Eli t0 Pan-u 03I07105I 0 1 a4, w og5 C5, 05 05 Panadui, Ganga to Mt La ,na 0,o 0 1 17 15 04 04 02 03 50 2 5 0.20 03 02 01 04.16 . 1 6 07 16 03 Mount Lavinia 03 0605 16 09' to Vanoetwert Place 02 G2 01 G4 16 16r 60 - ,5 1 ' 9D Vandefwert Place to Culombo 07 01Ol2 I10 02 C2 01 01 05 02 01 '02 ('3 06 06 2! 1i 02 07 01 03 05 05 05 02 01 06 011 135 120 81 104 C- 10 G 01 02 02 53 11 09 33 09 46 73 44 88 20 30 83 117 153 18 73 75 10 100 59 43 o kilome..s at which speCified a' land types goup) were observed (fot each 100 89 60 77 7] 7 ;51I7 2 9 8 ; 4:6 i 00 89' 60i7 2 39 8 7 24 7 34 54 84 6r1 13 22 62 87 11 13 54 56 7 74 44 32 .. (or 37 25' 321 31 21 3 6 46 10 8 29 8,14 23 36 27' 8 12 33 47 45 55 20 *21; 3 28116112 APPENDIX TABLE 39 Land utilization in the Coastal Zone of Sri Lanka (Number of Kilometres at which specified types were observed)

Agriculture Recreational M trcial dential Transportation Mining

Prenni-Seasonall Farmsrn at C rops ---

Puttalat to Elephant P's (.ncldmg) Tat.....a. Island) 3 4 2 17 P (incplding)t PtatoElephant 6811 1 50 4 04 0 09 5 0 03 24 6 04 87 52 2304 23 08 9 150 107 01

101 04 201 180 07 Islands of Jaffna Peninsula 218 80 81 181 190 5 05 01 12 122 88 11 01 28 108 51 11 04 31 Chenrivyanpiattu to Foul Poin! 266 55 60 129 101 21 18 '12 041 31 22 14 08 18 10 20 55 102 110 08 02 82 54 11 2 41 13 3471 51 06 01 123 115 21 Foul Point to Po..... 204 71 78 97 02 29 17 22 12 01 01 05 19 25 84 36 01 26 113 58 33 03 06 16 05 06 02 02 12 74 Pottuwtl to H mbantota 27 07 8 03 08 40 04 03 6 06 01 12 13 32 24 05 88 27 05 Hambantota to Galle 123 72 62 '7 19 04 102 05 12 05 6 06 06 12 34 94 23 04 02 52 64 23 73 75 110 100 59 43 Galle to Colomnbo 135 120. 81 10 10K 07 101 02 02 53 11 089 33 118 46~ 7311418B8 20 30, 83 117 15 18 Tal1 704 1893i17 2881 219 59 79 71 107 33 16910 41 4 97 67 314487217820 Total 1920 584 "I 71 81 1103 i22 08 62 9 45 I 1 11487 7543 10 88 240

% ofkilometres at which the specified land use was observed (foreach i group) 10 0321 46 915 51 4 3 5 1 16 8 4634113

32 57 11 2 of total .entions (lot each group) 00 21 25 32 6 10 4 7 3 22 23 17 6 54 48 7 3 APPENDIX TABLE 40 The nature of coast line in the Coastal Zone of Sri Lanka (Number of Kilometres at which specified types were observed)

Geomorphological Description Nature of material theHistory shoreline of t I~egmI~e~o~h7 ~ 1Co our0f beac j$ :~9103 'U and

t286 Putalam 164 140 110 n to Elephant Pass (including 3 30 07 01 OE 14 0 5 2040 9 0 8 014 031252 14 14 218 TaianrIln)30 05 56 5 02 02I 92 59 27 08 127 Elephant Pass to 157 32 0 6 Chempivinpattu 811 06 36 61 51 02 01 0 15 I1 34 138 Island of Jaffna Peninsula 02 02 02 06 05 5 0 218 146 21 32 25 15 '2 266 01 Chemoiyanrip 26 05 204 13 59 18 93 28 to Foul Point 02 17 01 177 ' F1 03 18 52 90 266157 21 50 105 o6 o 12 35 150 07 60 0 1 14 21 3 09019 41o 37 0 9 26 2 300 48 461907415 19 4 54 48 46 ,, Foul Point to Pottuvil03 1 190 1 41 Ill 39 : 33 192 1 1 02 1062 01 152 6 Pottuvil to .ambantoa 19 11 17 127 62 4 26 19 21 F 02 1416 01 30 Hambantotato GIe 0 03 021 88 0 52 123; 50 22 30 47 68 12 38i 22 03 Fl1 06 37151 5I 4' 24 2488 48 25 15 22241,8 LTotal o35 15 26 F 2 1920 117 35613 !21807 48724_ : 0 67 1105 9923 1002 ,205 919 , 08 126431 09 07 6 39 F 69 28 033 i9 , 9 5 4877 55.9 119 22 60 .6 21210 1195 379 253 1167 131 1133 1186 1 28 { " r 253 728 336 59 141 967 294 [ -­ % of kiloIetres a, wh7 e feat . as bse..edd(f . Fc3 I a.n section) 100 66 17j 19 27 25 5 5 16 3 9 10 20 13 9 7 62 14: sections) 100 31 1 9 7 50 15 9 13 12 2 2 7 1 4 5 9 61 7j 7 63 14 21 1 F 7 47.'.46 APPENDIX TABLE 41 Dominant vegetation types in the coastal zone of Zri Lanka

Description of vegetation (Number of kdometies at which specihed types were observed)

Sandy shore Mangrove I Dominant Vegetation vegetation Sand dune vegetation Salt Marsh

Srgment ofthecoast lne c Z:Is K i

Colombo to Puttalam .286 160 104 67 116 01 102 1 66 84 88 50 44 i147 231 59 23 1 16 78 including Talaimannar Island) 380 240 74 108 101 1 2-15 21 84 3 65 6 !"2 4 69 43 06 02 37 ! 98 30

I 1I1

Island of Jaffna Peninsula 218 102 22 119 162 i 189 !147 18 35 12 iOJ 1140 61 21 32 16 11 01 60

Chompivanpattu to Fou: Potnt 266 213 125 81 ill 181 179 !119 114 108 77 1:105 161 53 69 07 16 10 1125 120

PoulEalehn Point Pso to ChomboPottuvol npt 204181 1371Of 14130 1 304 25 6684 1051 101112 42 5 09 0 117 1126 1 0658 85'3..016.34 77..002 05 13 07 02 05 62 781 Ham-anPotuvi tot Hambanto-.atoGallo 123127 12026 11824 i 27 2718 I 01 9816 1468 15 8 117 0 119 4449 14 17 j 04 2 23 14 7808 to 43 08 .al 0epha 46 23 4 6 02 0 81 72 1 0g 117 35m2n0ar 33s8 101 03 u2 03 27

Toal P u 920 1325 22 11 27 1897 8 312 1 10 40 1 21 3 1 110 Pottusini42 12 to9263 1178121 5 17 11 7 626anot 0 0163 13 13 4558 %ofpoup) taotaetons(akilometres al which thechgrup spec,-1 I2041230 O 68.975192 211710 384223 05 1 8 8 4268 3 096 20307 3112 58 8522 118057748 13 7 6 2 5 163278