fit.*

The Historic Jaya Ganga — built by King Dbatustna in tbi <>tb century AD to carry the waters of the Kala Wewa to the ancient city tanks of Anuradbapura, 57 miles away, while feeding a number of village tanks in its course. This channel is also famous for the gentle gradient of 6 ins. per mile for the first I7 miles and an average of 1 //. per mile throughout its length. Both tbeKalawewa andtbefiya Garga were restored in 1885 — 18 8 8 by the British, but not to their fullest capacities. New under the Mabaweli Diversion project, the Kill Wewa his been augmented and the Jaya Gingi improved to carry 1000 cusecs of water.

The history of our country dates back to the 6th century B.C. When the legendary Vijaya landed in L->nka, he is believed to have found an island occupied by certain tribes who had already developed a rudimentary sys­ tem of irrigation. Tradition has it that Kuveni was spinning cotton on the bund of a small lake which was presumably part of this ancient system. The development of an ancient civilization which was entirely depen­ dent on an irrigation system that grew in size and complexity through the years is described in our written history. Many examples are available which demonstrate this systematic development of water and land re­ sources throughout the so-called dry zone of our country over very long periods of time. The development of a water supply and irrigation system around the city of Anuradhapuia may be taken as an example.

Ancient Irrigation Works Anuradhapura had been setup as the capital city in the 3rd century B.C. with a comparatively smill reservoir, the Basawakulame, built across a minor branch of the Malwatu Oya, supply­ ing the city. (The Basawakulame inci­ dentally is the oldest identified ancient irrigation reservoir in the country today). As the capital city grew, its water supply both for domestic con­ IRRIGATION AND sumption and for irrigation had to be augmented. This was achieved first, by the construction of the Tissa Wewa and the Nuwara MULTI-PURPOSE Wewa on other small branches of the Malwatu Oya. Thereafter the Nuwara Wewa itself was augmented a few centuries later from the main DEVELOPMENT Malwatu Oya by means of a diversion anicut and inlet channel. Still later the Nachchaduwa reservoir IN SRI LANKA was constructed encompassing the diversion anicut and making use of

ECONOMIC REVIEW, MARCH 1977 3 the same inlet channel to further tions close to the irrigation reservoirs ing Buddha in Polonnaruwa, the augment the Nuwara Wewa from this and channels. The irrigation system Awkana Buddha and the giant Situl new storage reservoir, (see front tmr). itself at the high point of develop­ Pawwa Buddha image. The decline This system, complex as it was, had ment and utilisation commanded an of this so-called hydraulic civilisation functioned efficiently for about 500 extent estimated at 10,000 acres for after about the 12th and 13th cen­ years during which period Anuradha­ which the assured supply of irrigation turies has been attributed to a variety pura flourished as the capital city of water was "available. of causes. These include internecine wars which had erupted in almost the island kingdom. It was only in the The continuous development of every reign from earliest times, jth century A.D. that further augmen­ irrigation works had taken place in foreign invasions and natural causes tation was achieved no doubt to meet the dry zone from about the jth cen­ such as the advent of malaria which the needs of water supply to a bustling tury B.C. to about the 12th century were aggravated by disruptions caused metropolis which has been estimated A.D. inspite of interruptions on by war. to have covered an area of forty account of internal strife. The island square miles, the size of Greater kingdom with its capital at Anura­ Trade and cultural exchanges had London today. This augmentation dhapura was broken up into smaller taken place between Lanka and of the city's water supply was achieved kingdoms on many occasions. The various foreign nations including with the construction, of twin-reser­ capital itself was moved from Anura­ Greece and Rome in the West, and voirs, the Kalawewa—Balaluwewa dhapura to Polonnaruwa in the 8th China in the East, in the time of the across the perennial Kala Oya, (the century A.D. This led to the deve­ ancient civilization. The island was basin adjacent to the Malwatu Oya), lopment of irrigation works in the also subject to invasion from the and the construction of a trans-basin Polonnaruwa area and the golden age neighbouring sub-continent, and in diversion canal, the famous Jaya of Parakrama Bahu the Great (11J3- turn, had at times, invaded India ganga which brought the impounded 1186 A.D.). This king was respon­ Burma and Malaysia. It could waters of the Kala Oya into the Mal­ sible for the restoration or construc­ therefore be said that Lanka watu Oyi basin via NachchaduWa and tion of no less than 16 j diversion had traded on terms of equality Nuwara Wewa. The Jaya Ganga was dams, 3910 canals, 163 major tanks with various foreign powers during 57 miles in length and had an average this period. In fact, in some instances gradient of only half a foot per mile and 2376 minor tanks, a stupendous achievement by any standard. Lanka was in a superior position in for the first 17 miles and an average its foreign relations, for example in gradient of about one foot per mile The purely technical achievement the 8th century when technologists throughout its whole length. in the construction of ancient irri­ from our country visited Kashmir in gation systems is of the same rank as order toassisttheKingof that country Twin Tanks the construction of the pyramids in in the construction of a reservoir. The construction of the Kalawewa ancient Egypt. Thus the ancient irri­ across the perennial Kala Oya had gation system of Sri Lanka can rightly The arrival of European powers been achieved by means of a simple be described as one of the wonders starting with the Portuguese in the technique which could be called the of the ancient world. 1 jth century resulted in a different twin-reservoir technique. relationship between Sri Lanka and Socio-Economic Aspects various foreign powers. This was the There is evidence to show that the The socio-economic aspect of this beginning of the colonial eta which Balaluwewa had first been constructed achievement of the ancient civilization saw further rapid decline of the on the left bank of the Kala Oya to­ is equally significant. The ancient ancient irrigation systems. The Por­ gether with the massive stone spillway irrigation system could not have been tuguese in the i6tb and 17th centuries which serves both reservoirs, and the developed so systematically in stages, and after them the Dutch in the 17th Kala Oya diverted into this reservoir but for the generation of an increasing and 18th centuries occupied the mari­ in the first instance. Thereafter the economic surplus, due to earlier irriga­ time provinces and engaged in trade massive Kala Oya embankment had tion development, a part of which was especially in spices and precious mate­ been constructed on the right bank, available for this development. rials. They established forts at strate­ and with the breaching of the small Another part of this economic surplus gic points along the coast,, espe­ dividing bund the two reservoirs were had been invested in the construction cially on the Western seaboard. The united. Even today, when the water of religious edifices, some of which Dutch also developed a system of level in the reservoir sinks below a arc considerable technical achieve­ canals based partly on existing Sri certain elevation, the formation of the ments in themselves. Notable amongst Lankan ones for transport of goods in two separate reservoirs can be clearly these are the famous stupa, the the Western area. The development discerned. Ruvanweliseya in Anuradhapura built of Colombo resulted from the use of The maximum population of the by King Dutugemunu in the first cen­ Colombo as a trading port by both city of Anuradhapura at that time tury B.C., occupying a symbolic pride the Portuguese and the Dutch, and has been estimated at two million of place and the large number of the establishment of the Fort of people. The domestic requirements BuddHa statues, most of them carved Colombo as a base to attack the king­ of water for such a large population in the living rock constructed by dom of Kotte. With the advent of was met by the construction of nume­ successive kings from the Anuradha­ the British in the late 18th century rous bathing ponds and separate wells pura period right down to the Polon­ the focus on the Western seaboard for water for human consumption. naruwa period. Of this, mention may was complete. Colombo was hence­ This was made possible on account of be made of the Samadhi Buddha in forth to be the model city of the the increase in the water table in loca­ Anuradhapura, the statue of the Sleep­ British possession which covered the

4 ECONOMIC REVIEW, MARCH 1977 whole island with the fall of the Kan- dyan kingdom in 1815. At this stage, RIVER CLOSURE the dry zone had been virtually aban­ When a dam is built across a perennial in engineering construction in Lanka doned and the infrastructure of its river the last stage of construction is in recent times, for which all credit goes described as the river closure. In the case to the workers and engineers of the ancient civilization swallowed up by of a concrete dam the river may be River Valleys Development Board. the jungle. allowed to flow over the incomplete It is not widely known that a similar concrete structure if necessary. In the epic achievement, though on a consider­ The British Period case of an earthen embankment, this is ably smaller scale, was the breach closure obviously not possible. A temporary during the reconstruction of the Parn- The British with their wonted enter­ river diversion is therefore necessary prise explored the island thoroughly krama Samudra, back in 1942. The through a diversion tunnel or sluice as Eramudu Oya had breached the ancient and rediscovered the ancient irri­ the case may be. Such temporary river embankment, leaving a considerable gap gation works of Lanka. This had diversions are also used in the case of which had to be filled before the start concrete dams. The diversion sluice or of the North East Monsoon rains in long since been reduced to isolated tunnel is ultimately closed by means of a reservoirs, small and large, by far the October 1942. This was especially impor­ steel drop-gate and then sealed up inside tant because a similar attempt made in large majority of them in a state of with a concrete plug. 1941 had resulted in a dramatic failure disrepair, supporting the impover­ At Uda Walawe the original design when early rains washed away the earth ished population in isolated villages. prepared by the American consultants work in the river section. The engineer The remains of the ancient irrigation envisaged a concrete structure across the in charge of the work, Mr.M. M. Ismail, river section. In the modified proposal who was later to become intimately asso­ works excited the interest of indivi­ taken up for construction, the river sec­ ciated with developmsnt in the Gal Oya dual British colonial administrators tion was closed with an earthen embank­ project, had to face a situation which few throughout the 19th century. This ment. Temporary river diversion was men would ever like to experience. At led to the investigation and partial made through a massive river diversion the height of construction activity he re­ sluice on the left bank of the river. ceived an urgent telegram informing him restoration of some of these works, Temporary river diversion was achieved that his eldest son was critically ill in notably the Kala Wewa. Extensive when the river was at a comparatively far-away Sammanthurai. Knowing that surveys were also undertaken to map low level at the beginning of the dry the critical activity on the river closure out the ancient irrigation systems, and season, on June nth 1967. Thereafter could not be allowed to fail a second time the river bed section which became ex­ and that his immediate presence at the eventually the complete topographi­ posed was carefully cleaned, and the site was essential, he had to make a heart­ cal survey of the island was done, this earth embankment in this section was rending decision. He wired back asking being one of the notable achieve­ then commenced. This river closure his people to take the child to a good doctor. Shortly afterwards he received ments of the British period. operation went on till the end of Sep­ tember when the embankment reached another telegram informing him that the The British developed an extensive a safe level. This part of the work was a child had expired. He wired back asking them to give the dead child a decent plantation economy supported by an race against time because the work in the river section had to be completed burial. The Eramudu Oya gap was duly useful infrastructure of roads and before the advent of the rainy season in closed and the vast area of Parakrama railways all centered around the plan­ October. The river closure at Walawe Samudra was filled once more after an tation areas and leading to the Port has been righdy described as an epic interval of about 700 years. of Colombo, which was also rapidly developed. The plantation sector was achievements of the ancient civili­ the Minneriya project which was espe­ developed in the wet zone where the zation. Thus by the turn of the cen­ cially famous because the Minneriya traditional village such as it was, tury there was sufficient interest in the reservoir was the only major irrigation began to be neglected. The traditional systematic restoration of the ancient reservoir that had not been breached peasant in the plantation area was not irrigation works-to justify the setting when rediscovered in British times. employed in the plantations. Inden­ up of a new Department of Irrigation The Minneriya irrigation sluices had tured labour was brought in from in 1900 hived-off from the Public been built by Mahascna in the 3rd India to work in the plantation in­ Work's Department. The Irrigation century A.D. and were reputed to dustry. According to the classical Department had its headquarters in have functioned continuously from colonial pattern, existing feudal laws Trincomalee from 1908 to 1931 when that time. The Minipc anicut across such as Rajakariya were adapted by it was moved to Colombo. After the the Mahaweli ganga built by Agga the British to extract labour from the Malaria epidemic in the 1930s a new Bodhi I in the jth century A.D. to­ already impoverished peasantry for emphasis was placed on the further gether with the Minipe irrigation "construction and maintenance of the development of" settlements based on canal, was also restored by the British roads and railways, and in due course the restored ancient irrigation works and a major colonisation scheme was for the restoration of the ancient irri­ in the dry zone. The then Minister developed around it. During the 2nd gation works. Despite this, however, of Agriculture, Mr. D. S. Senanayake, World War the restoration of the the country was now dependent on commissioned the documentation of Parakrama Samudra described as the imported rice which was paid for with all the available data on the ancient great King Paraktama's 'Crowning the produce from the plantations. irrigation works, and this monu­ Glory' was undertaken. The closing The Sinhala and Tamil dependent mental project was undertaken by Mr. of the breach in the Topawcwa, one bourgeoisie were afforded the privi­ R. L. Brohier whose three volumes of the three reservoirs that made up lege of education in the British tradi­ remain the most comprehensive docu­ the Parakrama Samudra, was an epic tion and this resulted in the birth of mentation on the subject today. The achievement of the time (See box). an elite class, some of whom took ancient major works that were re­ During the 2nd World War our pride in the ancient heritage of Lanka. stored were used to resettle new sources of imported rice were cut off The more enlightened colonial admi­ peasants in what were called major after the Japanese occupation of nistrators were also interested in the colonisation schemes. These included ( Continued on page 8 )

ECONOMIC REVIEW, MARCH 1977 5 THE GAL OYA PROJECT tion of the Headworks was imitated in the subsequent activity for provision of The New York stock market crash in Scheme". However the main emphasis irrigation facilities. Between 1949/50 1929 was followed by the great world­ was on the provision of irrigation facilities and 1965/66 the following items of expen­ wide depression of the 1930s which to 120,000 acres of new lands which diture were incurred which were mani­ led to trie development of Keynesian could be double - cropped in an average festly excessive. Economic Theory. This theory had as year, and protected from all but pheno­ Rs. m. its key concept the creation of new menal floods. The collection of engi­ Roads and bridges ... 23.87 effective demand by increased develop­ neering data for this project was com­ Office and other buildings, ment investment in a free-market eco­ pleted by 1947 when a political decision . residential quarters ... 40.10 nomy. Two major projects were started was taken to set up the Gal Oya Multi­ Motor vehicles ...... 12.46 by the Federal Government in the USA. purpose Development Project on the In this period under Roosevelt's New lines of the TVA. 76.43 Deal, the Tennessee Valley Authority For the purpose of preparing designs, and the Rural Electrification Pro­ These expenditures have to be com­ specifications and estimates for the pro­ gramme were begun. Both were to be pared with the total cost of the main ject, this data was made available to taken up after World War II as models dam equal to Rs. 40 million and.the total "The International.Engineering Co. Inc. for emulation in developing countries, cost of the irrigation system equal to of Denver Colorado, USA, a subsidiary including Sri Lanka, under the subtle approximately Rs. 75 million. In addition of the Morrison Knudsen International influence of Bretton Woods through a total of over Rs. 52 million had been Co. Inc.. who later secured the contract the World Bank. The Gal Oya Multi­ spent over the years on purchase of heavy for the construction of the main dam". purpose Development Project was michinery. Inappropriate technology was For the first time in Sri Lanka a major started in 1947—modelled on the TVA. introduced in the process. For example contract was awarded, on a cost plus jungle clearing was done using heavy This was a considerable departure fixed fee basis, in this case cost plus 11% anchor chains dragged by teams of power­ from previous practice in the develop­ of the agreed target estimate of dollars ful bull-dozers assisted by tree-dozers, ment of river basins, where irrigation 10.5 million to be paid in US dollars. an impressive spectacle no doubt, but development had been based in the Dry Subsequently, the target estimate was extremely costly to the tax-payer: it cost Zone on the restoration of ancient irri­ adjusted to approximately $11.6 million the Director of Land Development "an gation systems. These ranged from very a nd th: construction which was estimated average of no more than Rs. 200/- small village tanks to large reservoirs to take 52 months was begun in March to clear and stump' an acre of land" like Minneriya, Parakrama Samudra, 1949 and completed in November 1931. by labour-intensive methods in 1958, Kala Wewa and Giant's Tank, together The contractor therefore earned a sub­ when "a private company secured a con­ with massive river diversion structures stantial bonus. The original design for tract to clear and prepare 5,000 acres and transbasin diversion canals including the spillway of the Gal Oya reservoir for the Board by mechanical methods for Minipe Anicut on the Mahaweli Ganga, prepared by the US consultants was con­ just over Rs. 2,000 per acre". Similarly; Tekkam on the Aruvi Aru or Malwatu siderably increased by local technologists other advanced equipment was imported Oya, Elahera Headworks and the Anga- who were confident that a much larger which were found to be superfluous. medilla Anicut both on the Ambanganga, design flood had to be provided for. These included, the well-known Barber and canals like the Kala Wewa, Yodha This decision was amply justified when Greene plant for road paving and the Ela, the Minipe canal and Elahera canal. the phenomenal floods in December 1957 Combine Harvester manufactured by the Many ancient irrigation works existed and January 1958 hit the valley. It has International Tractor Company. in the Gal Oya area including the massive been said that "the expenses incurred by Digavapi, one of the more famous of the the taxpayer on this project were already Such imitative techniques used at Gal large irrigation reservoirs. The ancient prepaid by the sole activity of this reser­ Ova were directly inspired by TVA and system had been partially restored voir during the flood". The effect of the other developed world institutions. The in the form of the Pattipola Aru reservoir on the Pattipola Aru Scheme use of these techniques amounted to a Irrigation Scheme which occupied and other Purana lands however had not rejection of other techniques already the inland delta of the Gal Oya been entirely as intended. Problems of available in the field of irrigation deve­ in the middle basin of the river, as well waterlogging have arisen on account of lopment in our country. Further, an as other irrigation schemes dependent ineffective drainage.'' unhealthy emphasis was given to the on restored ancient reservoirs like Thum- purely construction activities in Gal Oya pankani, Di vulana, Chadayantalawa, Illun- High Technology Dream on account of the splendour of the tech­ kuchenai, Nethai, Sagamam and Rufus- The expeditious completion of con­ nological hardware used in. the process, kulam which were collectively described struction of the Headworks by the Ameri­ with an attendant reduction in emphasis as Purana lands in the Gal Oya project, can contractor was held as an example to on the most important aspect of the pro­ to distinguish them from the newly deve­ be emulated in the field of construction ject namely, the human settlement. In loped lands. The Pattipola Aru Scheme technology. However, it was not widely fact, there were other examples of the included several reservoirs such as Konda- appreciated that this contract was exe­ imitative development technique which wattawana Kulam and Amparai Kulam cuted on a cost plus basis so that the ended up as expensive failures. They and was described as "by far the largest contractor could and did equip himself include, "the Gal Oya Valley Food Pro­ paddy cultivation scheme in the island with all facilities including personal duction Company, which proved un­ today, although from anN engineering transport (jeeps, and caw) air-conditioned economic (particularly, in its use of point of view it is the worst". The scheme living quarters, a well equipped club combine harvesters) and was abandoned commanded 33,000 acres but the area house which boasted even a juke box, after the 1957/59 floods". a refrigerated supply van which was re­ under paddy cultivation in 1948 was esti­ The Gal Oya Development Board was mated to be only about 26,000 acres. puted to have run virtually continuously between Colombo and Gal Oya bringing created by the Gal Oya Development These purana lands were expected to consumption goods like beer, during the Board Act No. 51 of 1949 enacted on benefit from the construction of the Gal course of the contract, and so on. Never­ 24th November 1949, and commenced Oya reservoir. This was the original theless, the imi'ge of US high technology to function on 15 th December 1949. conception of the Gal Oya project as was firmly implanted in the minds of our Its operation was financed from a fund credited to Mr. J. S. Kennedy, Director people at this time, so that high officials, to which annual contributions were made of Irrigation in 1936 who saw "the consciously or sub-consciously thought by Government, in addition to revenues possibility of constructing a large reser­ in term"! of the Gal Oya Headworks con­ raised by the Board.under the powers' voir, to be held up by a dam at struction when dreaming of future pro­ vested in it. On 31st March 1950, the Inginiyagala, primarily, to reduce jects. Area of Authority of the Board was flood damage in the flood season defined. This Area was divided into and shortage of irrigation supply The high technology approach to deve­ Developed and Undeveloped Areas, and in the other, in the Pattipola Arn lopment demonstrated in the construc­ the function of the Board was the

6- ECONOMIC REVIEW, MARCH 1977 multipurpose development of these caloa district varied between 1 acre and which also included a tyre retreading arears. about 3 acres. plant, and a large rice mill. The rice mill The possibility of growing and pro­ was located at Chavalakadai at the The principal objective of the Gal cessing sugar cane in the Gal Oya Valley Southern end of the Batticaloa lagoon Oya Development Board was "the estab­ had been suggested in the very early days with the expectation that water transport lishment within its Area of Authority of the project. In due course an extensive would be used to move the milled rice of the maximum number of families of sugar project was launched in i960 with to the railway at Batticaloa. A number Ceylon citizens that the area can carry full-scale planting, and commissioning of private rice mills were also established. at > reasonable standard of good and of a sugar factory. Two years later a comfortable living conditions". In order The creation of the Gal Oya Develop­ distillery was commissioned which to achieve this objective, "the Board ment Board was thus a new departure used molasses produced by the was expected to provide irrigation faci­ in administration in the country. The sugar factory. The distillery produces lities to individual allotments according Gal Oya Development Board was wound­ rectified spirits which are the basis of to "the principle of peasant colonisation up when the Act which created it was Brandy, Rum and other products. The whilst at the same time en­ superseded by the River Valleys Develop­ sugar complex has been described as couraging the growth of collective agri­ ment Board Act of August 26th, 1965. "the most ruinous component of the cultural and industrial undertakings All personnel, plant, equipment etc. of entire Gal Oya Project". It is again among such peasant colonists". To the Gal Oya Development Board were evident here that an attempt had been achieve this the Board was empowered absorbed by the newly created River made to imitate development in other "to organize a system of planned culti­ Valleys Development Board, but an parts of the world without reference to vation of the most suitable crops arrang­ Area of Authority of the new Board was differing socio-economic conditions pre­ ing for such rotation as is deemed agri­ never defined. vailing in this country. It has been point­ culturally necessary or advisable and for ed out-that whereas in the existing The failure of the Gal Oya Develop­ the profitable marketing of the produce". (colonial) plantation industry the largest ment Board to achieve its objectives was There was also provision for the supply estate wis about 4,000 acres in extent, brought out by an evaluation committee of electric power. an attempt had been made to set up a appointed by the Minister of Land, Irri­ The first colonists "were settled in sugar cane estate 10,000 acres in extent gation and Power, Mr. C. P. de Silva in 1950/51 and consisted of 296 families under an autonomous authority. When November 1966, in order to "ascertain displaced from villages taken up for this attempt was found to be a failure, the economic and social returns of in­ development or from villages due to outside expertise was sought in 1966 vestments made, and provide guidance disappear beneath the waters of Sena- from the Parsons Corporation of Los for future development projects of a nayake Samudra". In the course of the Angeles, USA. similar kind". next 15 years about 12,000 families in Apart from irrigated agriculture for all were settled in new village units. The paddy and sugar cane, other develop­ Negative Returns original allotments to each colonist ment activities were undertaken at Gal The evaluation committee discovered family was 4 acres of irrigated paddy Oya. These included generation of hydro that the entire investment for develop­ land and 3 acres of highland. This was power for which an installed capacity of ment of undeveloped land yielded a reduced to 3 acres of paddy land and 2 10 m.w. was provided, and various indus­ negative return; specifically the develop­ acres of highland in 1953, and still later trial establishments which were meant to ment of new irrigated paddy lands, irri­ to 2 acres of paddy land and 1 acre of provide supporting services. These in­ gated sugar cane, the industrial establish­ highland. The size of allotments in cluded a brick and tile factory, a wood­ ments including the rice mill, the wood- village expansion schemes for peasants working complex including a saw mill workng project, the brick and tile factory, from thickly populated localities within and a carpentry workshop, a base the base workshop and the sugar cane the Board's Area of Authority as well a workshop for repair and maintenance factory were run at a loss and could not be some neighbouring villages in the Batti- of mechanical plant and equipment, made to yield a profit. Only the invest­ ment in providing improved irrigation facilities to existing Purana lands yielded a profit, which was estimated as a rate of Gal Oji-tbe famed Inginiyigala return greater than 10%. This was due rock in tbt background with the bund to the absence of expenditure on:— of the reservoir at left. (a) Infrastructure facilities such as roads, bridges and community centres. (b) Administrative overheads of the deve­ lopment authority including residen­ tial quarters for officers. It is thus seen that the Gal Oya project which was set up in the hope that a new approach to land development and settle­ ment was being discovered and which therefore rudely abandoned earlier techniques, has in fact turned out to be a failure. To put this tragic mis­ adventure into its proper perspective, it is necessary to appreciate the funda­ mental error in this approach to develop­ ment which is of an imitative nature. What was successful in the Tennessee Valley Authority in the United States of America during Roosevelt's New Deal could not be transplanted in a newly independent colony which already had its own hoary traditions of irrigated agriculture in the traditional teeter.

All quotations from: Report of tbt Cal Oyi Project Evaluation Com­ mittee, January 1970, Govt. Press.

ECONOMIC REVIEW, MARCH 1977 7 Burma and this resulted in a further In this endeavour attention was paid The Post-War Period impetus to achieve self-sufficiency in to traditional sources of food which food. Emergency measures taken at had long sustained the traditional Immediately after the War, in the this stage included a vigorous drive sector, but had not been popular in mid 1940s, the Irrigation Department for the cultivation of a variety of the new urban sectors like Colombo, was faced with a shortage of per­ so-called subsidiary food crops in­ and in the plantation sector which had sonnel, many of the British engineers cluding non-irrigated grain crops like been made accustomed to imported being no longer available. Moreover maize, and many varieties of yams. commodities. with the achievement of political inde-

WALAWE BASIN DEVELOPMENT proposal for Uda Walawe was also con­ siderably modified in the process. The The main stem of the Walawe Ganga of a thousand tanks and mentions that new Uda Walawe headworks cost about rises in the Adams Peak range whilst in fact 440 small tanks were found in the Rs. 60 million compared to an estimated other mijor tributaries, the Bclihul Oya 142 sq. miles catchment area of.this Rs. 80 million for the ECI proposal. The and the Well Oya spring from the reservoir, which works out to 3 tanks ECI preliminary estimate for Samanala Horton Plains at elevations greater thin per square mile I Wewa was Rs. laomillion. Today's cost 7,000 m.s.l. These branches fall rapidly Another hrge storage reservoir across for a new proposal now being prepared over the southern escarpment to an a perennial tributary had existed on the joindy by the Central Engineerin" Con­ upland platform between 1,500 and 2,000 western bank of the Walawe Ganga. sultancy Bureau with Soviet assistance is m.s.l. where the site of the proposed estimated to be about Rs. 250 million, SiminalaWewaprojectnear Bilangoda is Modern Development excluding cost of plant. located. The upland platform gives way to the lowland plain at the Kaltota scarp Apart from storage tanks many river The Walawe Project with a sharp drop of over 500 ft. which diversion structures and systems of The Wahwe Project under the Uda will be used for power development channels had been built in the Walawe Walawe reservoir was originally envi­ under Samanala Wewa. The famous bisin in indent times of which the Ukgal saged to benefit 60,000 acres of new land Ukgal Kaltota anicut built by King Kaltota system commanding 2,000 acres on both banks of the river. Initially, Gijabahu at the foot of this scarp and has now been restored. A new structure a-5 acre unit consisting of 2} acres of restored in the late 19th century is about called the Liyangastota anicut has also irrigated land, 2 acres of highland and j 00 feet above sea hvel. Below this been built across the main river about 1/2 an acre for a homestead was given anicut the Walawe Ganga traverses the 15 miles from the sea in modern times to to each settler. This was subsequently lowland plain which covers about 500 divert the water along a 5-mile long reduced to a total of 2$ acres per family, sq. miles out of a total 954 so. miles of chinnel to a new reservoir called the from which a net annual income of about this bisin. The plain is bounded on the Ridyagama tank, commanding some Rs. 5,000 is said to be possible from two west by the Bulutora massif from which 2,500 acres. seasons cultivation. spring two tributaries, the Rakwana The International Engineering Co. of Under the first phase of development Ganga (known as the Timbulketiya USA, which also designed the Galoya 8,000 colonists have been settled and Ganga in its lower reaches) and the heidworks, had prepared detailed plans a total of 27,500 acres of new land Hulanda Oya. In the lower plain, the and specifications for the construction brought under irrigated cultivation of course of the Walawe Ganga approxi­ of the Walawe dam and power plant paddy, cotton and subsidiary food crops, mates to the boundary between the Wet located at Embilipiciya about 30 miles in the right bank area. A Youth Settle­ Zone to the West and the Dry Zone to from the sea, but these proposals were ment Scheme has also been established the East. not implemented. In 1954, an aerial where 2,000 acres have been earmarked survey of the land and water resources for subsidiary food crops. Ancient Development of the island were authorised as an aid The 2nd phase of the project envisages Th: one mile to 1 inch topographical project from Canada. Consequent to development during 1977-81 of 15,000 survey reveals a dramatic picture of the this survey, a "Report on a Reconnais­ acres under sugar cane, 15,000 acres remains of the ancient irriguion works in sance Survey of the Resources of the under cotton and 3,000 acres under th; southern area dry zone. In the Walawe Ginga bisin, Ceylon" was pub­ paddy, all in the left bank area. It is pro­ Walawe bisin the aneient storage system lished in July i960. These investigations posed to settle 6,000 farmer families hi J consisted of a number of chains of led to a mister plan for the development during the 5-year period. The total esti­ smill (village type) tanks, one feeding of the bisin which proposed the present mated cost of the programme will be into the other along the tributaries of the Uda Walawe Reservoir located about 7 about Rs. 120 million. The first phase of river. It is conceivable that these tanks miles above the Embilipitiya site, and the the project already completed has cost had been constructed over miny years Samanala Wewa about 5 miles above nearly Rs. 600 million including the starting with the uppermost, the deten­ Ukgal Kaltota on the miin river. There costs df headworks and both left bank tion of the upper tanks already con­ were also to be several small reservoirs and right bank main channels, and the structed being used to control the river on tributaries, namely the Katupath Oya whole right bank system. during construction of the next lower (fore-bay reservoir for the Samanala The Wahwe Project has already run tank. Th: concentration of small tanks Wewa Power Project), the Mau-ara, the into considerable difficulties. After the in this area is the highest for any part of Weli Oya and the Hulanda Oya. Of these epic achievement of river closure virtually Sri Lanka, being about 1.4 tanks per only the Chandrika Wewa across the one year ahead of schedule in 1967 sq. mile. Hulanda Oya was built (by the Irrigation during construction of headworks, the Department in 1964) to command 5,000 Apart from these small village tanks, rest of the development programme has a large reservoir had been built across a acres of new land. moved comparatively slowly. The major tributary now cilled the Mvu-ara Feasibility studies for Uda Walawe and 27,500 acres developed in the right bank which joins the main Walawe Ganga Samanala Wewa were undertaken by area as well as the 5,000 odd acres under from the eastern bank about 25 miles Engineering Consultants Inc. of Denver, Chandrika Wewa are yet faced with fom -he sea. This is the famous Maha- Colorado in 1963. Although they showed some irrigation difficulties which have gami talk which hid so impressed the that the best benefits could be obtained by to be solved. Extensive areas of the left engineer-historian Henry Parker at the constructing both headworks simulta­ bank with a large untapped potential has end of the last century that he thought neously or in quick succession, and the already been brazenly occupied by it mij hive been the original Parakrama next best benefits were to be had by first squatters. This includes land within the Samudri of King Parakrama Bahu the building Samanala Wewa and then follow­ irrigable command of the left bank main Great. R. L. Brohier quotes a local tradi­ ing up with the Uda Walawe project, channel that has already been constructed, tion that this resttvoir held the waters the Uda Walawe was built first. The ECI as well as highland. Some land in the

8 ECONOMIC REVIEW, MARCH 1977 pendence in 1948, the drive for self- specialised and technical personnel. for the restoration of the ancient sufficiency in food was accelerated, A new Designs ?nn Research Branch irrigation systems. and the I-rrigation Department was was set up in the D apartment under a accord'n^ly earmarked for expan­ Senior Designs and Research Engi­ Meanwhile the influence of Anglo- sion. With a favourable external re­ neer of the rank of Deputy Director. American thinking in the immediate sources account, it was possible to This branch was imaginatively con­ post-war era led to the launching of the think big, and the Irrigation Depart­ ceived to undertake investigation Gal Oya Multipurpose Development ment was able to advertise abroad for and prepare implementation studies Project. The origins of this project-

upper catchment area which has been on either bank of the river, distances of another method is widely practised. In declared a Strict Natural Reserve has about 25 miles. This concept is in sharp this method water is allowed to flow also been occupied, the attraction in this contrast to the system that had existed in from one individually owned allotment case, apart from rain-fed agriculture, this area as evident in the remains of the to another, so that an interdependence being illicit gemming. The normal ancient irrigation system, which had con­ arises amongst the peasant cultivators. administrative processes have so far sisted of a large number of small storage That no attempt has ever been made failed to contain these activities. On the tanks, a very few large reservoirs, and a to incorporate this system in the other hand previous experience in the few large diversion systems. Modern design of the modern irrigation schemes old colonization schemes suggests that thinking suggests that the ancient system shows that traditional peasant cultivators squatters would ultimately be legally was wasteful of resources because these are, not consulted when. such schemes recognized by the authorities. An area small tanks were comparatively shallow, are set up. where this view has encouraged much so that the proportion of land submerged All these are aspects of a concept pioneering is the upper left bank of the by the small tanks compared to the area which may be described as a centralised Weli Oya where restoration of some of land cultivated was large in com­ large-scale multipurpose project, of a ancient village tanks has been undertaken parison with the corresponding ratio for type which began at Gal Oya. The tech­ with much enthusiasm by 2nd and 3rd the area submerged under the Walawe nological roots of the failure of the Gal generation settlers spilling over from reservoir and the land benefitted by it. Oya project have been unearthed. A simi­ the Ukgal Kaltota Colonization Scheme. Furthermore, the loss of water through lar enquiry into the Walawe project is Water Management Problems evaporation from the larger aggregate imminent. surface of the small tanks would have Another aspect of the failure of Walawe Reservoir Location been greater than from the surface of the is the shortage of water for cultivation in Another feature of the Walawe Project the right bank area, allegedly due to Uda Walawe reservoir. that may give rise to serious problems in over-consumption caused by negligence The main channels have also been the future is the very location of the and bad soil characteristics in some designed following the logic of the large- massive Uda Walawe reservoir covering areas. The latter is said to be aggravated scale storage and distribution system. 10,000 acres at highest water level. The by tractor ploughing, as opposed to Each main channel intersects a number rationale behind the location of this, buffalo ploughing; this causes a hard of natural streams or oyas which them­ reservoir, is the old concept of a balance pan to form which increases retentivity selves carry much water during the rainy between the water available from the of water in the soils over the years. season and sometimes run dry during the drainage area above the reservoir and Given a particular pattern of soils, the rest of the year. If a small tank is con­ the area of irrigable land lying below it. overuse of water should be investi­ structed at each of these intersections This concept had been used in the Irri­ gated through the water storage and dis­ some water may be diverted into the gation Department in the 1950s to locate tribution system in all its aspects. At main channel during the wet season. reservoirs in many of the 103 river basins Walawe as in all other major projects, Spillways are necessary to get rid of in the country. These are shown on a the system consists of a large storage excess water. When the intersection is map of the hydrological resources of the reservoir owned and maintained by the with a perennial river like the Timbul- island published by the Irrigation Depart­ state through a bureaucratic infra­ ketiya Ganga, a comparatively large ment in 1959. storage reservoir is necessary if proper structure, together with a system of The use of this concept to locate the use is to be made of the water in the main and distributary channels for the Uda Walawe reservoir needs now to be control and distribution of this water tributary. In the case of the Hulanda oya, critically examined. To the West of the fir irrigation. The water is issued to the Chandrika Wewa had already been Walawe Ganga lies the wet zone where each individually owned paddy lot constructed before the Walawe right virtually all the rivers are perennial (as through an individual pipe outlet. Water bank channel was designed, and the inter­ is issued in rotation to each paddy lot section of this channel with the Hulanda seen in the use of the word Ganga). according to a distribution scheme Oya became a problem. If the Chandrika To the East lies the dry zone where the decided upon by a group representing Wewa hid not already been constructed non-perennial rivers are given the name the cultivators and the bureaucracy, it would have been located at or above the Oya or Ara (with the single exception of during each cultivation season. In prac­ point of intersection. Such a possibility the Menik Ganga) all the way to the tice, such a Water Management Pro­ still exists for construction of a reservoir eastern seaboard and northwards to gramme for any given area has to be on the Timbulketiya Ganga which could the Mahaweli Ganga itself. adjusted and modified to some extent, provide supplementary water to the There seems to be no question that in from time to time (to match the weather right bank main channel. If the right the future, population pressure in the for eximple). A constant interaction bank main channel had originally been densely populated south-western sector between the peasant cultivators and the designed on the basis that it would pick of the wet zone will have to be relieved officials is necessary to achieve this, and up water from the Timbulketiya Ganga by developing the now sparsely popu­ success is never certain even when the and the Hulanda Oya, storage reservoirs lated lands in the south-eastern area, as physical features of the project are in would have been constructed in this envisaged in the Southern Area Develop­ perfect working order. Any physical fashion on these tributaries. ment Plan. (See Box on page 12). shortcomings in the system naturally At this stage (which is already almost aggravate the problems. Another aspect of the water manage­ upon us) the Walawe reservoir will stand ment problem that merits attention is the out as a serious obstruction to this At Walawe, the water management question of the individual pipe outlets to proposal for a rational development of problem has assumed such enormous each colonist's allotment. This design the southern area of the country. How­ proportions that it is necessary to re­ attempts to make each peasant cultivator ever, it is better to face this as an objec­ examine even the fundamental layout of independent of all the others and depen­ tive reality and to learn the necessary the scheme. The project is based on a dent only on the system as a whole. lessons from it than to avoid facing the large s:orage reservoir together with two However, in the traditional irrigation issue and inadvertently repeat the same large main channels carrying this water systems in all parts of the country, mistake in the future.

ECONOMIC REVIEW, MARCH 1977 9 \ could be traced to the mid 30s when propped up, with such inducements to development. New construction the-then Director of Irrigation, Ken­ as the training of our technical per­ agencies from East European coun­ nedy, had identified a .suitable site for sonnel for short periods ih manu­ tries were soon seen vying with their a large reservoir on the Galoya river facturing establishments abroad. In West European and American rivals at Iaginiyagala in the Eastern pro­ due course our people were" able to to break into new markets in our vince. Kennedy had also identified direct their natural mechanical bent country. Thus in the late 50s and another suitable site for a large reser­ to the operation of capital-intensive early 60s there was an influx of tech­ voir on the Amban Ganga, the main technological hardware and prove nologies from some of the East Euro­ branch of the Mahaweli in its lower that "our operators and mechanics pean countries. Nationalisation of the reaches, by the construction of a dam were equal to the best in' the world". oil industry in the early 60s resulted across a large gap in the Sudu Kanie (A fact more apparent today, being in the withdrawal of the U.S. Agency range, known as the Sudu Kande Gap. proved by the massive exodus of for International Development from This project had been pigeon-holed these personnel to the Arab world.) our country on account of the in­ at that time because it would have This emphasis on technological- famous Hickenlooper amendment. made the Parakrama Samudra super- hardware for construction resulted ', fluous, since its bed fell within the This further encouraged the "trans­ in a subtle change of emphasis in fer of technology" to the socialist area of command of the proposed our major irrigation projects from countries. Thus the stage was set for Sudukande reservoir. the most vital aspect: namely, the the start of the Walawe project for human settlement and the develop­ Inspite of setting up of the irrigation, power and flood control, ment of the living community Designs and Research branch in the and the Maskeliya Reservoir project (which was the emphasis in the Irrigation Department and the re­ for power and flood control by East pioneer days of Senanayake), to the cruitment of a number of foreign European agencies. engineers at this time, the Gal Oya more glamorous aspect of heavy project was undertaken with Ameri­ construction. Subsequent research The catastrophic floods of Decem­ can assistance because the decision­ and investigation into the Gal Oya ber 1975 were also of great signifi­ makers at this time were influenced project have revealed the extent to cance during this period, when a • by the Tennessee Valley Authority pro­ which this disproportion had occurred number of major ancient reservoirs ject in the U.S.A. The Gal Oya Project in the implementation of that project. were breached. A large amount of therefore was launched in the image This problem is still very much with resources "had to be diverted in suc­ us, and the inquiry itself is still not of the TVA project(see pg.6,7). Mean­ ceeding years for so-called flood while expatriate engineers in the Irri­ complete, but it seems likely that damage repairs. An interesting aspect gation Department were in charge of these mistakes will not be repeated in of this work was the construction of restoration works on many of the the Mahaweli Development Project, a large number of circuit bungalows at least on the same scale. After the lart^e ancient Irrigation projects, not­ in many major projects at this time. construction of theGalOya headworks ably Kantalai Augmentation Scheme, and main canals, there had been some The Designs and Research branch Allai Extension Scheme, Mioya Scheme discussions about the prospect of in the Irrigation Department did very and the Elahera Diversion Project. using the same technology for con­ useful work throughout the jos, but Some of the expatriate engineers, struction of a similar large project in for various reasons it was not en­ particularly the Indians, used labour- the Walawe basin for which the de­ trusted with the responsibility for con­ intensive techniques in their work. signs had been prepared by the same tinuing development. Largely res­ This was not an altogether unmixed foreign consultants who had designed ponsible was the influx of foreign blessing because there was more than the Gal Oya headworks. However, technical assistance for river basin an occasional whisper of abuses and although a surplus of heavy con­ development. This technical assis­ misappropriations, for which expatri­ struction equipment was demonstrab­ tance was often so packaged that the ate and local counterparts were equal­ ly available and manifestly evident in counterpart function assigned to lccal ly responsible when huge amounts of the Gal Oya valley, no attempt was experts was of a secondary nature. money were paid out on checkroll. made to use this plant and equipment In any case the very concept of deve­ in the Walawe in the mid 5 os. Perhaps lopment of separate river basins en­ The grandiose approach to deve­ the image of the Gal Oya magic still forced an unnecessary spatial restric­ lopment demonstrated at Galoya in­ haunted the imagination of decision­ tion which the original Designs and evitably caught the imagination of our making politicians and bureaucrats Research branch of the Irrigation people,- no doubt as intended by far- who were consciously or unconscious­ Department was not faced with, since seeing promoters in other parts of the ly expecting the new project to be they could think in terms of the world. European manufacturing orga­ launched with new equipment I What­ whole island's resources of land and nisations that were desperately trying ever the reason, the Walawe,project water. No doubt inspired by the res­ to re-establish themselves in world was postponed and actually launched tricted basinwise approach, the Irri­ markets after the War, were able to only 10 years later, in the mid 60s gation Department put out a map negotiate new deals for supply of when, ironically enough some of the in 1959 illustrating the possibility of plant and equipment for our deve­ old Gal Oya equipment was used the construction of a large number of lopment projects. In one instance, again after reconditioning. reservoirs in many of the 103 separate light tanks manufactured by a British river basins in the island. Each one. firm during World War II, were con­ After 1956 of these proposals illustrates the prin­ verted into tractors which were sold The significant political changes in ciple of a lard—water balance in the to us. Some of these deals were the mid 50s resulted in new attitudes given river basin combined with the

ECONOMIC REVIEW, MARCH 1977 existing topography, as given in the waters outside the three basins to the equipment and the giant stone-crusher one inch to one mile topographical extensive arid lands in the South­ reputed to be the largest in South- survey of the island. The admitted eastern part of the country. The East Asia. Construction of headworks approximation of such proposals scale of these proposals was such was completed by the end of 1968. based on contours 100 feet apart is that massive investments were neces­ At this stage it was expected that not the point at issue, but rather the sary for construction of headworks the provision of irrigation facilities unnecessary restriction to a single for these projects, and the benefits to 60,000 acres of new lands would be basin in such resource planning. that would ensue in terms of flood completed in about five years. How­ control and controlled issue of water Technical assistance from U.S.S.R. ever, nine years after, only the right for irrigation in the three basins alone was available for the investigation bank area amounting to 27,500 acres could not justify the proposals. Fur­ of the water and land resources of the has been developed (Sie Box). A ther benefits could be achieved from Malwatu Oya or Aruvi Aru basin, and major problem at Walawe seems to be development of hydro-power with the Kelani river basin, in the late 50s overconsumption of irrigation water further marginal investments, but and early 60s. At about the same in the area already developed. As a even this could not justify the colossal time technical assistance from U.S.A. result some doubts have arisen about scale of these proposals. was used to study the Mahaweli the availability of water for develop­ Ganga basin and the Walawe Ginga Colorado's ECI was also commis­ ment of the full potential in the left basin. Another U.S. study was done sioned in 1964 to prepare feasibility bank area. on the three river basins of the South studies for the Walawe basin, for the Better utilisation of irrigation water Western wet zone, namely the Kalu, construction of two large reservoirs, must always be a major objective of Gin and Nilwala gangas. the Samanala Wewa in the uppermost everybody involved in the project The Mahaweli basin investigations region, primarily for development of including farmers, officials and agri­ were undertaken by the United States hydro-power, and the Uda Walawe cultural research workers. Farmers Operations Mission (USOM) in 1958, reservoir in the middle basin, pri­ and officials must work out and imple­ and a report submitted in 1961. marily for irrigation. The ECI stur'.y ment realistic water management pro­ Shortly afterwards the United States pointed out that the construction of grammes, whilst agricultural research Aid Mission was pulled out following both the reservoirs undertaken simul­ workers must continuously try to nationalisation of United States' oil taneously or in quick succession develop new varieties of grain with companies, and no further action would give the best returns on the greater drought resistance needing seems to have been taken on the investments. In the alternative the less irrigation water. Nevertheless USOM report. However, in 1964 a Samanala Wewa reservoir in the upper­ further development in this area must new agreement was entered into by most reaches should be constructed be tied up with the development of first, since the benefits from hydro- G svernment with the United Nations the entire Southern area of the island. Development Programme for a com­ power generation would be available prehensive study of the Mahaweli early to justify these investments and All-Island Development Ginga basin and the adjacent river generate a surplus which could be Btohier has divided the whole basins. This project was to be called used for the subsequent construction island into three broad regions for his the UNDP/FAO Study. The UNDP/ of the Uda Walawe reservoir lower study of the ancient irrigation works FAO team in collaboration with Sri down. of Sri Lanka. These are the North­ Lanka specialists prepared a Master -However, the Uda Walawe reser­ eastern reg'on, the North-western Plan for development of water and voir was constructed first, river region, and the Southern region. land resources in the Mahaweli and closure being achieved in late 1967 Whilst broadly following this divi­ adjacent river basins in the North­ and the reservoir filling completely sion, it is ustful to add the Northern eastern and North-western parts of by the end of 1968. The construction region including the Jaffna Peninsula, the island. The Mahaweli Develop­ of the Samanala Wewa project which as a fourth region, in considering the ment Plan is now under implemen­ in 1964 was estimated'to cost less than irrigation and multipurpose develop­ tation in stages. None of the other Rs. 200 million by ECI is now about ment in Sri Lanka. investigations mentioned above have to be undertaken at a cost of approxi­ yet been tiken up for implementation. A proposal for long-term develop­ mately Rs. 500 million, with technical ment in the Southern region called assistance from the U.S.S.R. The U.S. study of the Knluganga, the Southern Area Development Plan Ginganga and N'lwalaganga basins The Uda Walawe headworks were has already been outlined (See Box). was undertaken by Engineering Con­ constructed according to designs pre­ It has been emphasised that any new sultants Inc. (ECI) of Denver Colo-. pared jointly by the Irrigation project in this area should fit into rado. Their proposals envisaged the Department and Techno Ex­ the framework of this larger proposal. consttuction of several large reser­ port, Czechoslovakia. Local exper­ In this context it is significant that voirs in the upper reaches of these tise was used to a considerable extent, steps are now being taken to con­ rivers. One of these proposed reser­ sub-contracts for construction being struct a reservoir across the lower voirs called the Jasmine Complex executed by Ceylon Development Kirindi Oya called the Lunupan- would impound the waters of major Engineering Company Ltd., and the vehera Wewa. The embarkment for tributaries of all three rivers in a River Valleys Development Board. this reservoir is located about 10 single large reservoir. The terms of The RVDB used some of the equip­ miles from the sea, on the basis of a reference of this investigation pre­ ment inherited from the construction single basin bajancc of water and land cluded further inquiries into the pros­ of GalOya, after major overhauling. resources^ajfc^tdkig to the method pect of diverting the impounded These included heavy earth-moving used injj&e^rjigtttton- pepartment in

ECONOMIC REVIEW, MARCH 1977 the late 50s, as described above. This' The Mahaweli Development pro­ Kantalai, Pankulam Ara, Yan Oya, proposal does not fit into the pro­ ject has been planned on a long-term Mi Oyx, Per Aru, Kaoakarryin Aru, posed Southern Area Development basis with multipurpose objectives. Pali Ara, Parangi Aru, Malwatu Oya Plan and could therefore turn out to The primary objective is the assurance and Kala Oya. Such trans-basin be a misuse of resources which may of irrigation water for 650,000 acres diversion is also being done from one of new land (only some of which are be better utilised. For example, a branch to another within the Maha­ rain-fed) as well as 250,000 acres of suitable reservoir could be construc­ weli river basin itself. Wherever existing irrigated lands. The project ted in the upper Kirindi Oya basin at has not been confined to a single river possible hydro-power is generated in - the intersection of the proposed basin. Diversion of water from one the process of such diversion. Thus a upper trans-basin diversion canal with basin to another by means of tunnels, comprehensive development plan for the Kirindi Oya. This reservoir could as well as open canals is a significant the North Eastern and part of the provide storage water for the very part of the project. The other basins North Western regions has been lands proposed to be benefitted by that will ultimately benefit from drawn up and is being implemented the Lunuganvehera Wewa. this project are, Maduru Oya, in stages (See Box).

SOUTHERN AREA PLAN Menik ganga, the Kumbukkan Oya and There is no need to be discouraged by With the implementation of Stage I of the Wila Oya are taken up for develop­ this; in fact it should be a source of en­ the Mahaweli Diversion Project, it has ment. couragement to have such a long-term been announced that the diversion of the The implementation of this proposal plan available even in outline for the Kelani Ganga to the thirsting lands of will necessarily be in stages. At each future. We have only to look back on the North - Western region would be stage it will be necessary to go through the development of the ancient irrigation undertaken next. This leaves the South­ the usual steps including detailed investi­ system over several centuries as illus­ ern area of Sri Lanka as the third large gation, feasibility studies and implemen­ trated by the story of the water supply to region for multipurpose development tation programmes. However, it will be Anuradhapura from the 5 th century B.C. planning. It is not widely known that an possible and in fact desirable to take ' to the 8th century A.D. for further assur­ outline of a Multipurpose Development • up the construction of the smaller reser­ ance and inspiration. Project for the Southern area has already voirs along the upper diversion canal at Officials from the Asian Development been prepared by a few national techno­ the first stage. Each of these reservoirs Bank evinced interest in the proposal, but logists. The proposed development plan will store water barely sufficient for irri­ was ultimately brought to the attention for the southern area of Sri Lanka in­ gation for one season for all the land of Chinese experts in 1972. Subse­ corporates the feasibility studies carried lying below it in its own basin. Subse­ quently the Chinese government agreed out by ECI for the three basins of the quent construction of the large reservoirs to provide technical assistance for a limi­ South West Wet Zone, the' Kalu, Gin of the wet zone "three basins" will pro­ ted project in the Gin Ganga basin which and Nilwala basins. vide the additional water which can then would provide flood control benefits to be transferred to these existing reservoirs existing lands in the lower reaches of This proposal envisages the diversion by constructing the trans-basin diversion that bisin. This project is now under of excess water from the South West canals in stages. This development pro­ implementation. It may be considered wet zone to the extensive lands in the posal will necessarily span a large period South Eastern dry zone, which area does as a step in the total development plan of time perhaps running into centuries. not have sufficient rainfall for irrigated for the Southern region, outlined above. agriculture for two seasons of the year.' Th; complete project will depend on construction of large storage reser­ voirs in the "three b.isins" as proposed by ECI together with an upper and lower diversion canal flowing from west to east, and crossing a number of river basins in the process. At each crossing a new reservoir will be located which will impound the flow in that river together with the extra flaw from the trans-basin diversion from the wet zone. The upper trans-basin diversion canal will traverse successively the basins of the Walawe Ganga, Malala Oya, Kirindi Oya, Menik Ginga, Kumbukkan Oya, Heda Oya and Wila Oya, and will ultimately fall into the Gal Oya itself, above the existing Gal Oya reservoir at Inginiyagala. The lower trans-basin diversion canal will end up in the Kumbukkan Oya basin. Accord­ ing to this proposal it will be necessary to conserve the uppsr catchment areas of all the above river basins and for this purpose it is proposed to have a broad forest reserve located immediately above the upper trans-basin diversion canal. A corridor forest reserve will connect this proposed reserve with the existing national park and' sanctuary in Yala, so that the fauna in this area may ultimately be made to move to the new reservations. This will become necessary in the distant future when the lower basins of the

12 ECONOMIC REVIEW, MARCH 1977 In the Noith Western area a possi­ Since large investments were neces­ itself. As a result a foreign Con­ bility for diverting excess water from sary, which were obtained as long- sulting organisation was engaged for the Kelani Ganga has been mentioned. term loans from the World Bank, the implementation of Project I, the Meanwhile, basin development pro­ foreign Consulting and Contracting Polgolla Complex. At this time jects have also been undertaken, most organisations were attracted once World Bank projects were being of them based on restoration of more to our country. In fact the terms negotiated which were viewed with ancient reservoirs, chiefly in the of World Bank loans usually specify a much scepticism by local scientists Dad aru Oya, Mee Oya and Kala Oya pre-qualification by the World Bank ( Continued on page 16 ) basins. One of these projects that has been undertaken with foreign tech­ nical assistance is the Inginimitiya THE NORTHERN REGION, GROUNDWATER AND LIFT IRRIGATION Reservoir Project on the Mee Oya, where investigations have been com­ The Jaffna peninsula and the coastal water over a very long period of time. pleted recently with technical assist­ strip of the mainland especially in the .These are the Elephant Pass Lagoon, North-Westcrn part of the island has its to the east of the Elephant Pass; the ance from Japan. In the Kala Oya own unique characteristics on account of Vadamarachchi Lagoon extending in a basin, the new Rajangane Reservoir land formation and climate. In this re­ north-westerly direction along the penin­ was designed by the Irrigation De­ gion an extensive limestone formation sula with a sea outfall about 13 miles partment, and constructed by the exists, which has a potential for retaining north of Jaffna; and the South Lagoon groundwater and which is covered by a with a sea outfall about 4 miles south­ Ceybn Development Engineering comparatively thin soil layer ranging east of Jaffna. The Elephant Pass Lagoon Co. Ltd., without any foreign assist­ from about a few feet to a maximum of has an area of about 19,000 acres and an ance in 196$. This reservoir has a about jo ft. in thickness near Tellippalai average depth of about 4 ft. The excess in the Jaffna peninsula. Groundwater waters from the Iranamadu flow down massive concrete spillway, incorpo­ exploitation for irrigation from surface the Kanakarayan Aru into the Elephant rating 32 radial gates for flood wells has been practised from time Pass Lagoon. The possibility of convert­ control. immemorial using both manpower and ing this lagoon to fresh water had first draught-power especially in the Jaffna been discussed nearly a 100 years ago and The Northern region has unique peninsula. In recent times, the use of taken up as a project about 30 years ago characteristics. It has an extensive power-driven pumps has considerably after completion of the Iranamadu Tank increased the use of groundwater espe­ across the Kanagarayan Aru with a water-bearing limestone formation cially for irrigation of subsidiary food storage of about 82,000 acre feet, in 1922. covered with a comparatively thin crops.' Labour-intensive cultivation of The lagoon has to be kept free of salt layer of soil, in the Jaffna peniusula as chillies, onions and potatoes has made intrusion from the sea. This takes place well as in the northen mainland area. a very useful contribution to domestic from the south eastern end during the production. Self-sufficiency in all three north east monsoon through the sand Groundwater is tapped for irrigation commodities has now been achieved. bar at Chundikulam, and during the of subsidiary food • crops including As a result, the rate of depletion of south west monsoon through the bridge chillies, onions, and potatoes, from a the groundwater in certain areas has at Elephant Pass. • If these two locations number of irrigation wells. A long- given some cause for alarm. An organi­ are effectively scaled off, the Elephant sation was therefore set up early in 1965 Pass Lagoon Fresh Water project could term proposal for converting three for systematic observation of water levels become a reality. lagoons into fresh water reservoirs is and testing of sample water in over 400 also being implemented. This Scheme selected wells known as observation The Vadamarachchi Lagoon has an depends on the overflow from the wells. This work is directed by the area of about 7,300 acres and an average Hydrological Branch of the Irrigation depth of about 3 ft. The Thondaman- Iranamadu reservoir across the Kana- Department. Deep-well drilling has also aar Barrage was constructed in 1548 to karayan Aru. (See Box) been undertaken by this branch, the first prevent intrusion of seawater from the deep wells being drilled at Kondachchi, north western end of the lagoon. Un­ fortunately, the' project has not yet re­ Institutions south of Mannar and at Vanathawillu, north of Puttalam in 1964. It has been sulted in an appreciable storage of fresh water by repeated dilution and leaching The structure of institutions deal­ shown that there is an adequate storage for groundwater in the subterranean of the salt in the lagoon, for various ing with irrigation and multipurpose limestone formation which can be eco­ reasons. One reason given is that the development projects has been chang­ nomically tapped for irrigation by deep intrusion of salt water promotes the fishing industry and is therefore wel­ tube wells. The surface water in the ed in recent times. After 1970 the old comed by some people. The South Mahaweli Development area will be Irrigation Department was consider­ lagoon has an area of 6,400 acres and an approximately doubled when the Maha­ average depth of about 3 ft. A saltwater ably reduced in size and its respon­ weli Scheme is completed and there will exclusion structure has been constructed sibility for maintenance of irrigation be a corresponding benefit to ground near the sea outfall. The fresh water for works was handed over to the newly water in the northern region described this project has to come from local rain­ created Territorial Civil Engineering here, as a result. The systematic exploi­ fall. Organisation. The Irrigation Depart­ tation of groundwater should there­ fore be considered a significant resource There are also several natural wells or ment remained a smaller but specialis­ for' agricultural development in the "kerni" in the peninsula region which ed and centralised organisation with future. hold freshwater. By far, the best known an overview of the water and land In the Jaffna peninsula, the amount of of these is the so called tidal well, Puttur, resources of the whole island. Thus local rainfall has upto now determined usually known as Nilawarai. This well the useful potential of groundwater for has been found to be 164 ft. 6 in. deep. the responsibility for initiating future irrigation because this rainfall was the It has a surface area of about 50 ft x 40 tt. irrigation and multipurpose develop­ only available replenishment. However, and contains freshwater of the highest ment planning is still vested in this the possibility of introducing new fresh potable quality to a depth of 30 ft. Department. water sources from the mainland to bene­ Pumping tests were carried out in 1946 fit the subterranean watertable in the to determine the potential for irrigation In the Ute 60s the implementation Jaffna peninsula has been discussed from from this well, and a project for culti­ a long time past. There are 3 seawater vation of subsidiary food crops of 250 of the fi-st stage of the Mahaweli lagoons which can be converted to fresh acros has been functioning since 1950. Development project was started.

ECONOMIC REVIEW, MARCH 1977 13 MAHAWELI GANGA DEVELOPMENT This Master Plan has been designed to make maximum use of the existing large The main stem of the Mahaweli ganga where evident. The centre of develop­ and medium-scale ancient storage reser­ rises in the Hatton Plateau in a region ment in the pre-Christian era had been the voirs in the development area. These with an annual rainfall of nearly 200 capital city of Anuradhapura on the banks reservoirs which presently provide irri­ inches. It is joined by the Kotmale Oya of the Malwatu Oya and the water re­ gation water for considerable extents of which springs in the Horton Plains, sources of this basin had been developed land will be given an assured supply 7000 feet above sea level, and flows in a at that time to supply the city. Extensive which will come from a number of large northerly direction down to Kandy. development in the adjacent Mahaweli storage reservoirs constructed on the After encircling Kandy, it changes direc­ basin came in the post-Christian period. main river and on major tributaries; but tion to enter the Dumbara valley and . A continuous scheme of development in the first instance the benefit of an flows southward for several miles. It can be seen, indicating that there was an assured water supply to about 132,000 then swings eastward, breaks through the accumulation of knowledge from the acres of existing lands under major and Rantambe gorge near Randenigala and experience of the past which was used medium-scale irrigation projects has been finally turns northward once again. over and over again in the development achieved by a new diversion from the Down the Dumbara valley it picks up of these works. main river at Polgolla. As the project is the waters of many tributaries notably implemented many of the smaller village the Ma Oya and Hulu Ganga flowing tanks lying in the project area and at pre­ It is quite clear that the ancients had southward, whilst the Uva region con­ sent supporting a fairly extensive minor not developed a technology for diverting tributes the waters of the Kurundu Oya, irrigation system will become redundant. a perennial river through a tunnel or the Uma Oya, the Badulu Oya and the Many of these small tanks will therefore massive sluice, in order to construct a Loggal Oya which all flow in a northerly be breached and their tank-bed areas permanent dam across such a perennial direction to join the main river. Beyond brought under cultivation. river. Instead, they had used the twin- Randenigala, the river flows down to the tank technique for such construction sea across the vast plain of the North­ With the proposed construction of best illustrated by the Kala Wewa-Bala- eastern dry zone in a general northerly several large reservoirs the Master Plan lu Wewa. On the other hand they had com­ direction. The river has changed its envisages the installation of several new pletely mastered the technology of con­ course' many times over the years in the hydro-power plants with a total installed struction of stone dams across these middle reaches of this plain. Neverthe­ capacity of over 500 megawatts for pro­ rivers, and these structures were used for less in ancient times the main river had duction of about 2000 million KWH of diverting the flow in the river into a man- been successfully diverted for irrigation energy annually. With the construction made canal. At least in one instance, in by means of massive diversion anicuts and of these reservoirs flood control will also the case of the diversion dam and canal canals, at three known locations in this be achieved in various reaches of the across the Malwatu Oya which augmen­ plain. References also exist in the written river that are now subject to flooding. ted the Nuwara Wewa, a reservoir(Nach- records of other possible diversions The construction of the Kotmale Oya chaduwa) was subsequently constructed which have not been identified. Some reservoir will protect the Gampola-Pera- which encompassed the diversion anicut. tributary streams join the main river in deniya area from floods. Construction of Thus it can be argued that an adequate its middle reaches from the Western or the Randenigala reservoir and Victoria technology was available to harness all left bank side. The most important of reservoir on the main river will ensure available water resources for irrigation these is the Amban Ganga which is a flood control in the Minipe project area without the type of large-scale temporary sizeable river at the point of its confluence and further down the river. Construction river diversion that is used in modern with the Mahaweli Ganga. Major tribu­ of the Bowatenna reservoir and Mora- times. taries of the Amban Ganga are the Kalu gahakande reservoir on the Amban Ganga and the Sudu Ganga. The Nalanda Ganga will ensure flood control in the Oya is a comparatively small stream Modern Development Minneriya-Polonnaruwa area. which falls into the Amban Ganga but is The Master Plan prepared in the period In a project of this scale, which has to of some importance on account of diver­ 1965 to 1968 by the UNDP/FAO team in be implemented over a long period of sion of its waters to the adjacent Kala Oya. collaboration with Sri Lanka specialists .time, the estimated cost will be subject There are no large tributaries joining the envisaged the multipurpose develop­ to upward revision from time to time. river from its right bank in the dry zone ment of the land and water resources in This has been the experience both at area. Thirty miles from the sea the Maha­ the Mahaweli basin and adjacent river Galoya and at Walawe. The original weli Ganga gives rise to a single large basin at an estimated cost of Rs. 6,700 estimate of Rs. 6700 million in 1968 has distributary, the Verugal Aru, which million at that time (1968). The plan was now increased to about Rs. 10,000 branches off in an easterly direction to the to be implemented in 30 years (by 1998). million representing an almost 50% sea. The main delta of the river has five According to this plan 4.7 million acre escalation in about 10 years. separate outlets which fall into Koddiar feet out of the total 7.0 million acre feet Bay, South of Trincomalee. of the flow in the Mahaweli Ganga could In view of the large extent of the be utilised for irrigation in an area of scheme and the large investment cost, 900,000 acres. An additional 0.9 million the implementation plan has been divided The Mahaweli basin area of 4030 acre feet of water available in the deve­ into three phases. Each phase in turn square miles, out of the island's 25,000 lopment area would also be used making will be divided into several stages. Each square miles, is estimated to carry an a total of 5.6 million acre feet. Of the stage will be defined and described in average of seven million acre feet of 900,000 acres to be benefitted about terms of the extents and acres to be bene­ water each year representing approxi­ 250,000 acres are presently irrigated but fitted. For example Phase I of the project mately one-fourth of the total average are not assured of irrigation water sup­ is divided into three stages in which - Stage I benefits 132,000 acres of existing discharge of all rivtrs in Sri Lanka. plies for two seasons every year, whilst about 650,000 acres will be new lands land, Stage II will benefit 71,000 acres (some of it presently under rain-fed culti­ of new land in the Kala Oya basin on In ancient times a comprehensive diver­ vation). This figure should be compared which some 28,000 families will be sion network of anicuts and canals had with the total of. 925,000 acres served settled, and Stage III will benefit 20,000 been constructed in the Mahaweli basin. with irrigation facilities under major pro­ acres of new land in the Kantalai and Two of these diversion systems led water jects at the present time. Of the 900,000 Kaudulla schemes. directly to the storage reservoirs, (Minne- acres, 422,000 acres lie in the Mahaweli riya - Giritale and Parakrama Samudra) basin and the balance 478,000 acres lie in The major engineering features of each whilst all the others diverted irrigation adjacent river basins, Maduru Oya, phase have also been identified as pro­ water through subsidiary networks of Kantalai, Pankulan Ara, Yan Oya, jects. Thus Project I ofPhase I is described - small channels and village tanks to the Ma Oya, Per Aru, Kanakarayan Aru, as the Polgolla Complex, the Suduganga fields. The traces of most of the smaller Pai Aru, Parangi Aru, Malwatu Oya, Training Works, the Bowatenna Complex channels hare long been obscured, but and Kala Oya. and the Elahera Headworks and Main the remains of the small tanks are every­ Canal Construction. The construction of

14 ECONOMIC REVIEW, MARCH 1977 Project I is now being completed. Items Mahaweli Ganga and on the Amban of work in the Polgolla complex are the Ganga. These are Victoria Falls Reservoir Polgolla diversion concrete dam 565 and Randenigala Reservoir on the Maha­ feet long with a maximum height of 5 5 weli and the Moragahakande Reservoir on feet, incorporating 10 gates each 21 feet ^jhe Ambanganga. Full investigation high and 40 feet long; the Polgolla Diver­ studies and implementation reports have sion Tunnel 16,450 feet long and 19 ft. first to be prepared after which con­ 6 in. diameter to carry 2,000 cusecs; the struction will commence. It is expected Ukuwela Plant with two 20 megawatt that as much control as possible will be units giving 235.2j million KWH annu­ exercised by the new institutions like the ally. The Bowatcnna complex includes Central Engineering Consultancy Bureau the Bpwatenna concrete dam 771 feet on the execution of the feasibility studies long with a maximum height of 103 feet even though they may be partly financed . incorporating six radial gates each 32 by the foreign agencies. After the feasi­ feet long and 37 feet high and the Bowa­ bility studies are completed it will be tenna Diversion Tunnel 22,468 feet long necessary to negotiate financial assistance and 13 feet diameter carrying 1,000 cusecs from lending agencies like the World of water. The Suduganga Training Works Bank for implementation of these pro­ consists of widening and deepening the jects. Dhunoya into which the water from the Ukuwela Power Plan will be discharged. The last phase of the project will be The Dhunoya falls into the Suduganga the construction of other reservoirs in­ which will also be improved to carry cluding the Kotmale Oya reservoir. The 2,000 cusecs. The reconstruction of the main objective of the Mahaweli project Elahera Hcidworks includes raising the is the development of 900,000 acres of height of the existing anicut and con­ land with an assured supply of water for struction of a new head sluice. The main cultivation. Since about 650,000 acres Elahera - Minneri - Yodaela has also to will be new lands which will be settled be widened to carry a new maximum dis­ on the basis of 2$ acres per family, it will charge of 2,000 cusecs. be seen that some 260,000 families repre­ senting perhaps 1 million people will thus Stage I is now being completed and an be settled over the next 30 years. Looked at r assu ed water supply is now available to in these terms this is a vast human settle­ exis hg Wids under the following major ment programme for which attention an 1 m:dium scale ancient reservoirs as should be focussed not merely on the his produce in like manner.' In practice follows:— visible infrastructure but on the less such a transformation may not be possi­ tangible aspects as well. It is therefore Mahaweli Basin Acre' ble for a new settler accustomed to old heartening to note that the Mahaweli Kiudulla 10,200 ways. Development Board has virtually from Elihcra ... 4.500 its inception paid attention to the vital Minneriya ...... 12,000 importance of the settlement aspect. The In regard to the second point it may be Giritale ... 4.500 mentioned that the Mahaweli Develop­ failures of Gdoya and the impending Parakrama Samudra ... 19,000 ment Board obtained the services of a failures of Wahwe should be kept fore­ Gal Amuna - 3.500 firm of Japanese consultants to report on most in mind when the Mahaweli Master possibilities for development of new Village Tanks ... 6,065 Plan is being implemented. Attention industries in the development area. It Kala Oya Basin may be drawn in particular to two as­ should be stressed that such consultancy Kandalama ... 3.500 pects. Firstly a change in the pattern of services should be used only as a guide­ Kalawewa ...... 13.500 the i nfrastructurc for providing irrigation line and not as a gospel. No foreign Maha Illuppallama ... 380 facilities compared to the traditional organisation can possil.ly compichcnd Kattiyawa ... 504 techniques to which the village culti­ our socio-economic environment to such Rnjangtna ...... 13,300 vator is accustomed. Secondly the need a degree as to be able to prepare a new Siyamb.ilangamuwa ... 1,500 to diversify the activities of the settlers small-scale industrial prnicct that will be Malwatu Oya Basin ... • *• into various industries so that the living easily and readily accept: blctoour peasant Nachchaduwa - 5.337 community will have other prospects to cultivators and their childicn. It is neces­ Nuwara Wewa ... 2,399 offer future generations who will find sary that this type of industrialisation Tissa Wewa 1,028 that new land and water resources are which has been demonstrated in the De­ Basawakuhma 921 no longer available. In this context the velopment Council (D.D.C.) programme Yan Oya Bacin need to systematically intensify culti­ should be the objective in the Mahaweli vation techniques is also evident. Hurulu Wewa 8,000 development area. Other types of new industrial projects which arc setup by Total... 132,000 transfer of technology generally in urban The first point mentioned above may centres may have a ph.ee in the new be explained further. In traditional agri­ towns in the development area, but this Work on StigeTI of Phasel commenced cultural communities a great deal of co­ will merely employ wage labour as they in 1974 according to schedule and should operative effort is used during particular do in other towns. In this area State be completed in 1979. In this stage periods such as during land preparation Corporations may well embark on new 57,000 acres of new lands will be deve­ and harvesting of the crop. In some projects where suitable raw materials are loped below Kala Wewa and 14,000 acres village schemes, the very provision of available. It need hare'ly be mentioned below Kandalama, and 28,000 families irrigation water from one liyadde to that appropriate technology should be will be settled. Stage 111 just started another makes for this type of co-opera­ used even on such projects. The possi­ consists of the development of 9,000 tion between neighbours. In the layout bilities for such appropriate technologies acre: of new land under Kantalai and of the colonization schemes, on tkc other- for manufacture of cement and cement 11,000 acres of rew land under Kau- hand, the need for such co-operation is products, paper and paper products, dull?.. This work should also be not built into the project. Theoretically ceramics, wood charcoal etc. should be completed by 1979, when all work on each individual farmer can function inde­ investigated. The processing of agri­ phase I would be completed. pendently of all the others obtaining his cultural produce and thair preservation requirements of agricultural inputs, credit should also be the basis for new industrial Phase II of the project envisages con­ facilities etc. from the respective state projects using appropriate technology. struction of storage reservoirs on the organisations and harvesting and selling

ECONOMIC REVIEW, MARCH 1977 15 and technologists. Two of these cal assistance in the form of vehicles In the field of consultancy the projects were specially severely criti­ and equipment may be absolutely Engineering Studies Organisation suc­ cised, namely the proposal to instal necessary, but often the human com­ ceeded in being recognised by the a 50 Megawatt Gas Turbine, and the ponent that is also included is not Asian Development Bank for the pre­ proposal called the Highways Project considered.Toaggravate the situation paration of proposals for the hydro- to allegedly "modernise the road the so-called counterpart Sri Lanka power aspect of the Bowatenne system" in a chosen area. In an un­ technologist who often works with Complex. This is the first time that a precedented expression of national foreign "experts" finds that for the local consultancy organisation has feeling many scientists and techno­ same work there is a difference in achieved such a breakthrough. The logists were openly critical of official tangible rewards in a proportion Central Engineering Consultancy Government policy in regard to greater than 1 : 10. Thus the Bureau is at present engaged in pre­ foreign-financed projects at this stage. vicious circle of the brain drain is paration of proposals for the Samana­ When the Government changed in promoted. la Wewa Power Project-jointly with 1970 there was a significant change in The example of the work done by experts from Techpron Export, attitudes in many development pro­ the Engineering Studies Organisation USSR, the project being financed by jects. In the M ihaweli Development led to the setting up of the Central the Soviet government. The CECB Board for the first time an engineer Engineering Consulting Bureau has also prepared a technical report was appointed as Chairman and a (CECB) in the Ministry of Irri­ on the Canyon Power Project which greater responsibility was placed with gation, Power and Highways under has been accepted by the Asian Deve­ local scientists and technologists for the Industrial Corporations Act in lopment Bank, and are now negotiat­ tfie execution of the work. 1973. This organisation, as its name ing with a Netherlands organisation The Mahaweli Development Board suggests is vested with responsibility that is interested in financing Full grew in stages with the expansion for providing consultancy services Investigation Studies for the pro­ of the project itself. In the process, for lar :e projects. posed Randenigala and Moragaha- an Engineering Studies Organisation (ESO) was set up in this Board in FOREIGN EXPERTISE 1967, initially to review the UNDP/ The River Valleys Development Board construction had also been carefully FAO reports. Later the ESO was was set up in August 196 j as the successor planned using the best planning tech­ to the Galoya Development Board short- niques available such as network analysis, able to undertake necessary engineer­ . ly after work on the Walawe project was which was a comparatively new tech­ ing studies for this project. The ESO started. A considerable amount of plant nique at the time. These techniques were was manned largely by personnel and equipment and a large number of also used in planning the outside con­ personnel were transferred to Walawe tracts. from the Irrigation Department led from Galoya and a new base workshop by the late Mr. H. dc. S.' Manamperi, set up at Wat 1 we. Construction of the Alas, in late 1968 the Ministry of who at one time was simultaneously UJa Walawe headworks in 1966 and 1967 Planning and Economic Affairs obtained Chairman of the Mahaweli Develop­ also saw the arrival of a great amount of the services of an expert to advise the new construction equipment. After Plan Implementations Division on plan­ ment Board and Director of Irri­ river closure was successfully completed ning techniques. In due course this gation. The ESO has proved once in September 1967 it was apparent that expert advised that the Heavy Construc­ again the capability in designs and there was a surplus of heavy construc­ tion Division should be disbanded and tion equipment of a particular type in all the men and machines sent back to planning of Sri Lankans in this Walawe. A decision was therefore taken Walawe. After a somewhat drawnout field of irrigation and multipurpose by the Board to set up a new Heavy struggle with the local engineers who development. Construction Division with the object of were opposed to this proposal, the undertaking construction contracts out­ expert's view prevailed. The Heavy Sri Lankan engineers and techno­ side the Walawe project as well. It was Construction Division was therefore logists are highly-thought of in the clearly stated that first priority was to be wound up in late 1969. Thereafter there given to construction development Work was such a surplus of personnel at emerging countries of Africa espec­ in the Walawe project. The Heavy ially in the field of irrigation. We Walawe that it was said that skilled men Construction Division made an imme­ were asked to clock in at the workshop have contributed considerably to­ diate impact on a problem which even and then leave the premises, as there wards the development of many of at that time was reaching major pro­ was no room for all the men to work portions, namely the utilization of the together! After several years, the foreign these African states through the large numbers of employees in the expert duly returned to his homeland so-called 'brain drain'. It has been Board's service. Outside contracts were and in 1975 the R.V.D.B. decided to undertaken all over the island. These mentioned that another factor that we undertake outside construction contracts have more recently started contribut­ included such important projects as con­ struction of the Ella-Wellawaya road, once again, although development work ing to this development is the and the new Maskeliya roads to rephce at Walawe was still far from complete. 'brawn drain'; the large numbers of those submerged by the Momsakelle Today a new outside Contracts Division skilled and trained workers who have Reservoir; earthwork on the Railway is once more functioning effectively in the R.V.D.B. and has undertaken con­ followed the engineers aind technolo­ extension at the Cement Factory, Putta- lam; the restoration of the Nagidipa struction work on the Lower Uva Deve­ gists to Africa. Apparently we are Mitiawewa and the Muruthavala Wewa. lopment Project including construction losing one of our precious resources, (The latter, a medium-scale reservoir in of Muthukandiya Reservoir; construction namely our manpower, because we the wet zone near Tangalle, with an of Dambulu-Oya reservoir project; resto­ ration of minor tanks and construction of do not know how to value and use it. earth embankment about 100 feet high is now called the Rajapakse Samudra.) roads in Medawachchiya area; construc­ The irony of this situation is that at This work was appropriate for the men tion of the Ambewela-Pattipola road; the same time we are accepting tech­ and machines that had been engaged on construction of buildings for the State nical assistance from other countries the dramatic river closure operations at Fertilizer Manufacturing Corporation at Walawe in 1967. The Walawe headworks Sapugaskande and construction of access for development of our irrigation and roads at Samanala Wewa. multipurpose projects. Such techni­

16 ECONOMIC REVIEW, Maic» 1977 kmde Reservoirs in Phase II of the Development Engineering Co. Ltd. which have been recognised as pre- Mahaweli Development Scheme. The has blazed a trail in the field of C3n- qualified for consultancy and con­ CECB has absorbed many of the per­ struction work for irrigation and struction work to setk such work sonnel of the original E.S.O. multipurpose development projects, abroad. This may serve the further If the E.S.O. (which is' part of the and is now recognised for such work purpose of channelling the 'brain- Mahaweli Development ' Board) by both the World Bank and the drain' and the 'brawn drain' to some winds up, the CECB will become Asian Development Bank. useful purpose which seems to be a the sole organization in the country In this context the possibility now more practical approach than any for undertaking consultancy work exists for Sri Lankan Agencies to attempt to stem these drains. on irrigation and multipurpose undertake designs and consulting in projects. foreign countries as well. Although In construction work, the State it may sound ironical that foreign Conclusion Engineering Corporation in the pub­ agencies are doing the same type of Today, it is being increasingly lic sector was the first to gain recog­ work in our country, this follows realized how critical water will be nition by a financing agency, in this from the nature of these contracts, to the quest for self-sufficiency in case the World Bank. The State where the financing agency has the food. The severe droughts that have Development and Construction Cor­ say in the choice of consultant and affected every continent in recent poration has also since followed this contractor. Therefore, it may be years has brought the attention of lead. In the private sector, the Ceylon easier for Sri Lanka organisations almost every country to bear, as

HYDRO - POWER DEVELOPMENT potential has been estimated by the chiefly in the Jasmine Reservoir com­ The hydro-power potential in Sri UNDP/FAO study as follows: plex and the Kukulc Reservoir in the Lanka wai first assessed in an ECAFE Kalu Ganga Basin. study, as iooo M.W. A study prepared Installed Firm In British times a number of small in 1949 and mentioned in a World Bank MW Energy power plants had been set up in the Report in 19;a, gives a total of 500 No. River 10 KWH plantation sector. The power generated megawatts made up of 13 individual 1. Mahaweli Ganga from these small power plants, was projects located on the major rivers Cascade 342.5 1339.2 consumed in the immediate vicinity, Kelani Ganga, Mahaweli Ganga, Walawe 2. Kormalc Oya so that there was no med for expensive Ganga a ad Kalu Ganga. The United Cascade ... 207.2 784.7 transmission lines. Unfortunately a pro­ Nations expert Mr. Pfeiffer gave an 3. Amban Ganga ject for electrification of the plantation increased estimate of 1400 megawatts Cascade ... 161.9 638.4 sector financed by the Asian Development in 1957 by identifying a total of 30 new 4. Uma Oya Cascade 126.6 468.6 Bank was started recently, as a result projects. However, both these estimates 5. Badulu Oya & Log- of which some of these small power concentrated on large projects. gal Oya Cascade 48.5 143.5 plants have been scrapped. After Development of hydro-power in the 6. Other tributaries ... 36.2 119.9 the increase in petroleum prices, upper Kelani basin originally proposed by new thinking has resulted in an effort Total Potential WimalasurenJra in 191S, was started in 922.9 3494.2 to stop this possible waste. A proposal 1928, but this project at Norton Bridge has also been recently outlined by the was not completed until 1948 when the Chairman, Electricity Board, to set up 2; M.W. Norton plant was commissioned. At present the Ukuwela Power Plant a number of small-scale reservoirs At this time a proposal was prepared with 40 M.W. of installed power giving with much less initi-il capital coot than for systematic development or hydro- 170 million KWH of firm energy has been for the larger projects, in nil our major power resources in the Kehelgamuwa commissioned, and'construction of the river basins. Incidentally these reservoirs Oya and the Maskcli Oya, upper reaches Bowatcnna Power Plant has just com­ of the Kelani Ganga. Simultaneously, menced. This project is of interest will provide hydro-energy over a proposal was made to set up a fertilizer because the designs have been prepared and above that which is presently plant in this region to utilise the large by the Engineering Studies Organisation estimated to be available from the large amount of power that would be available of the Mahaweli Board and the con­ projects in these river basins. struction contract has been awarded from the proposed Seven Virgins pro­ Small scale power plants can be to the Ceylon Development Engineering ject, but the World Bank mission in 1932 also installed in irrigation sluices in the Company Limited, the first instance when turned down this proposal. Foreign large reservoirs. This his been done at a power project has been undertaken experts who advised the Planning Uda Walawe where these reservoir power without any foreign expertise. Under Secretariat . also turned down the plants have an installed capacity of Stage II of the Mahaweli project, power proposal for electrification of railways 6 M.W. At Gal Oya, a conventions 1 before the 10-year plan was published plants will be installed at Kotmale power plant sited below the Senanayake in 1959 so that this Plan proposed Reservoir, Victoria Falls Reservoir, Ran- Samudra has an installed capacity of "modernising"the railways by doing away denigala Reservoir and Moragahakande 10 M.W. with the steam engines and introducing Reservoir. diesel traction. Many foreign Governments have In the Walawe Ganga, the Samanala shown interest in providing technical Utilisation of hydro-power potential Wewa power project has now been started assistance for small scale hydro-power of the upper Kelani Ganga is now with technical assistance from the Soviet projects. An offer was made by the ncaring completion, but the original Union. The project should be completed Chinese Government for such assistance proposal was broken down into a number by 1981, with an installed crpacity of for a small-scale power plant located of smaller projects. The total firm energy ' 120 M.W. giving 400 million KWH at Dhuvili Ella above Ukgal Knltota on available in th« complex is 1003 million of firm energy. Tha Samanala Wewa the Walawe Ganga ar:d preliminary in­ KWH. powar project will be the first hydro vestigations have already, been done. A further 170 million KWH approxi­ power plant that will benefit from both Incidcntally,at Ukgal Kaltota, the Circuit mately will be available when a further monsoons, and will thus add a much Bungalow is provided with electricity 39 MW is installed in the proposed needed stability to our national power from a generator driven by a very small Canyon Power Plant. system. A considerable power potential water wheel designed and constructed Under the Mahaweli Multi-purpose will also be available in the proposed by a local Irrigation Engineer more than Development Project the hydro-power Southern area project. This will be 20 years ago.

ECONOMIC REVIEW, MARCH 1977 17 V

never before, on the problems of water conservation. Not only in Sri Lanka but in most parts of the world, the earliest civilizations emerged where soils were richest and water most available, and be­ came extinct when irrigation fell into neglect, when watersheds had been deforested, and when soil ero­ sion and silting destroyed the very basis of agriculture.

In Sri Lanka, the heritage of our ancient civilization is known to have depended on an irrigation system that had achieved a multipurpose objective comprising irrigation, drainage, flood control and conservation. Modern irrigation and mul­ tipurpose development projects tend to concentrate on irrigation, flood control and hydro-power production with only secondary emphasis on drainage, and an almost complete absence of attention on conservation. The modern multipurpose development project is characterised by large initial capital investments on a reservoir and channel system. Subse­ quent investments on land development and settlements are usually spread out over a comparatively longer period of time. The benefits from such projects are also spread out over a comparatively long period. In spite of a considerable investment in the post-independence era, the output of our domestic agricultural sector has been slow in making a signi­ ficant impact on our food production.

In the colonization schemes which were started in the immediate pre-war period and gathered much momentum after World War II, adequate attention was paid at least at the beginning, to the human settlement aspect. With the start of the Gal Oya project, attention was focusscd on the efficiency of the invest­ ment in economic terms. Unfortunately this particular project has not measured up to the desired criteria for such an investment. The same appears to be true for the Walawe Project.

Much hope now rests on the Maha­ weli Project. Here unlike at Galoya and Walawe attention is once more focussed on the human settlement aspect of the project. Duting Stage II, which is now underway a total of 71,000 acres of new lands are to be settled with 26,000 families represent­ ing about 150,000 people. Since purana villages and the old type colonization schemes are also found in the development area, the settle­ ment in the new areas involves the integration of new and old. It is heartening to note that the autho­ rities are making every effort to approach their task with courage and humility. There is both the will to succeed and a willingness to learn from the people.

18 ECONOMIC REVIEW, MARCH 1977