December 2011

№ 3

Edited by Frog Helen F. Leslie and Mathias Nordvig

Published by Folklore Studies / Dept. of Philosophy, History, Culture and Art Studies University of Helsinki, Helsinki

ISSN/ISSN-L: 1799-4497

www.helsinki.fi/folkloristiikka/English/RMN/index.htm

CONTENTS Editor’s Note ...... 5

COMMENTS AND COMMUNICATIONS

The Contemporary Evidence for Early Medieval Witchcraft-Beliefs ...... 6 Alaric Hall The and ragnarǫk ...... 11 Leszek P. Słupecki The Ship in the Field ...... 14 Joseph S. Hopkins and Haukur Þorgeirsson Re: Distinguishing Continuities: The Case of Discontinuities in Conceptual Schemas ...... 18 Jill Bradley Ethnocultural Substratum: Its Potential as a Tool for Lateral Approaches to Tradition History ... 23 Frog Conferences and Seminars Conference Report: The in Finland Seminars ...... 38 Sirpa Aalto Conference Announcement: Register: Intersections of Language, Context and Communication 42 Kaarina Koski Conference Report: Cultural Exchanges across the Baltic Sea in the Middle Ages Symposium and Workshop: First Meeting of the Austmarr Network ...... 43 Mart Kuldkepp

PEOPLE Research Reports Arukask, Madis The Question of Borders in Vepsian Folk Belief ...... 45 Belova, Olga The Choice of Faith in East European Folklore ...... 45 Frog Conceptualizing Chaos and Conflict in the Assertion of Order: Finno-Karelian Magic, Ritual and Reality in Long-Term Perspective ...... 46 Traditional Epic as Genre: Definition as a Foundation for Comparative Research ...... 47 Goršič, Matej The Runo Song of Killing a Snake: Origin and Transformations ...... 49

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Kollinger, Karol St Brun of Querfurt and His Relation from a Mission to the Pechenegs ...... 49 Morawiec, Jakub Conversion of Royal Ideology: Christian Background of the Reign of in England...... 50 Potts, Debbie Turning Wine into Water: Unfermented Liquids in the Corpus of Referring to Poetry ...... 51 Timonen, Senni The Virgin Mary in Karelian Folk Poetry and in the Kalevala ...... 52 Willson, Kendra A Putative Sámi Charm on an Icelandic Spade: Runic Reception, Magic and Contacts ...... 53 Articles Frog qua Fulcrum: Perspectives on the Cultural Activity of Myth, Mythological Poetry and Narrative in Medieval Iceland ...... 55 Timonen, Senni Obscene Kalevalaic Songs (Kalevalaiset hävyttömät laulut) ...... 56 Essay Collections Dewey, Tonya Kim, and Frog Versatility in Versification: Multidisciplinary Approaches to Metrics ...... 57 Monographs Bek-Pedersen, Karen The in Mythology ...... 61 Glukhov†, Vladimir, and Natalia Glukhova Systemic Reconstruction of Mari Ethnic Identity (Sistemnaya rekonstruktsiya mariiskoi etnicheskoi identichnosti) ...... 62 Doctoral Research Projects Bonté, Rosalind Literary Perception and Cultural Identity: Exploring the Pan-Atlantic Identity 800–1300 [working title] ...... 66 Kalkun, Andreas Seto Singing Culture in Studies of Estonian Folklore: A Supplement to the History of Representation ...... 70 Lukin, Karina Landscapes of the Living and of Bygone Days: Kolguev in the Everyday Life, Recollection and Narration of the Nenets ...... 76

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Sykäri, Venla Words as Events: Cretan Mantinádes in Performance and Composition ...... 79 Master’s Research Projects Bourns, Timothy The Language of Birds in Old Norse Tradition: A Preliminary Introduction ...... 80 Gjengedal, Ragne Hagrum A Comparison of Old Norse and Modern Dialects in North-West Norway (Sammenligning mellom norrønt og moderne dialekter på Nord-Vestlandet) ...... 82

CALLS FOR PAPERS The 16th Congress of the International Society for Folk Narrative Research (ISFNR): Folk Narrative in the Modern World: Unity and Diversity ...... 83

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Editor’s Note

RMN Newsletter appeared in response to the need exponentially, inciting a surprising amount of for a medium of contact and communication for interest, inquiries and responses. As a members of the Retrospective Methods Network consequence, RMN Newsletter has taken on a life (RMN). One year has passed since its pilot issue. of its own, and both the newsletter and the The test of the interest in and viability of this network are being defined through participation. publication resulted in a remarkable and That participation has provided RMN Newsletter unexpected response from scholars around the with both breadth and quality, for which we are world – from places as diverse as India, Australia, indebted to the contributors. This has been North America and South . This revealed realized in the present issue; it will again be that the publication not only filled an immediate materialized in the forthcoming special issue need for the RMN, but that it simultaneously met Approaching Methodology (RMN Newsletter № 4, a much broader international interest. RMN May 2012) and we hope to see this continue into Newsletter is presently realizing its goal of the future. becoming an emergent discourse space in which Our present discussions have been shaped by individual scholars present reports and and respond to the history of discourse in our announcements of their own current activities, and fields. The latter half of the 20th century allowed where information about events, projects and our disciplines to make tremendous progress institutions is made available. It has also become through separatization and inward concentration. a venue for discussion and for engaging in vital However, this was not without consequences. The cross-disciplinary dialogue as scholars contribute process of disciplines turning away from one responses to pieces published in previous issues. another led them to become closed to one another. This can be seen in several contributions to the As they developed internally, the lack of cross- present volume. disciplinary dialogue made it difficult for different The RMN is an open network which can disciplines to understand each other – particularly include anyone who wishes to share in its focus. It among scholars of younger generations who is united by an interest in the problems, frequently lack foundational knowledge outside of approaches, strategies and limitations related to their own fields. Significantly, these same considering some aspect of culture in one period processes led research disciplines to become through evidence from another, later period. Such increasingly isolated from and inaccessible to comparisons range from investigating historical society more generally. Although this is most true relationships to the utility of analogical parallels, of hard sciences, the hard sciences are validated and from comparisons across centuries to through practical relevance to business and developing working models for the more industry. Culture is more essential to any society immediate traditions behind limited sources. than technology, but the humanities are now Although comparative discussion was devalued in threatened because they are closed off or the latter half of the 20th century, its value is inaccessible from outside individual disciplines implicit in the degree to which examples from and also lack authoritative outside affirmations. modern cultures are naturally used in research Reopening discourse and discussion across practice, pedagogy and raising social awareness disciplines is the first step in making our fields when illustrating points and propositions accessible to wider audiences. This is the first step concerning cultures past and present. Comparison in raising general awareness of the value and and analogy appear to be essential tools for significance of the humanities – and of culture generating understandings. itself – to our daily lives and the societies in The international electronic medium of RMN which we live today. Newsletter has allowed it to become a nexus of contact and communication through which the Frog broader membership in the RMN has increased University of Helsinki

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Comments and Communications

The Contemporary Evidence for Early Medieval Witchcraft-Beliefs Alaric Hall, University of Leeds

I am excited about the emergence of RMN Readers of RMN Newsletter will probably Newsletter. It is a small publication, but it at some point have shared the excitement with stands for some big things. Our work which I once read Carlo Ginzburg’s I demands long and slow gestation, rigorous Benandanti (1983 [1966]), more familiar in research, fact-checking and referencing – not English as The Night Battles: forty-odd years to mention subsequent editorial work. But we after its publication, this remains a startling, can also benefit from a more dynamic mind-opening insight into non-elite European scholarly community, in which we can culture. It also established – presumably more communicate and test ideas quicker – a or less unintentionally – a paradigm which community based more on discussing rough much subsequent work on witchcraft has ideas and less on polishing gems. I am not followed. Ginzburg found a fascinating abashed at drawing a comparison between the culture in Friuli, in northern Italy, of select Newsletter and Nature: the journalistic individuals (the benandanti [‘good walkers’]) dimension which John Maddox brought to leaving their bodies by night, amongst other Nature in the 1960s has long benefited the things to convene and fight malandanti [‘evil hard sciences. It is axiomatic for the walkers’]. This discovery cried out for Retrospective Methods Network, of course, historicisation – in a sense, for retrospective that cultures change slowly, but it is still fair methods: as well as wanting to use the to say that humanists have been slow to learn benandanti as evidence for earlier beliefs, from Maddox’s example. At the same time, Ginzburg rightly also felt a need to give the despite knowing perfectly well that our benandanti themselves a past, to avoid the libraries can no longer afford the books which twin inquisitorial pitfalls of writing this we ourselves write, we have been sluggish in subaltern group off as a mere aberration, or of embracing the opportunity which the internet eliding it with some handy but ill-fitting provides for free-access publication. RMN intellectual category, as the inquisitors did by Newsletter responds to both these issues. integrating the benandanti’s stories into elite This article has two main aims. One is to preconceptions of heresy. Accordingly, bring to a wider audience a small group of Ginzburg looked for synchronic evidence of a early medieval texts pertinent to the history of broad distribution of similar beliefs in space, witchcraft, most of which were rather finding them in Livonian beliefs about haphazardly gathered in my PhD thesis (2004: werewolves; and diachronic evidence of esp. 171–179), in the hope that they will similar beliefs at earlier times, finding them in receive more attention. The other is to make the celebrated Canon episcopi, a perhaps 9th some methodological points about the century text which admonishes to historiography of European witchcraft and preach against the belief that women might magic relevant to retrospective methods. ride out in the night on animals with the goddess Diana. From here, however,

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Ginzburg leapt into prehistory, taking a key have you believed what certain women are role in starting the craze for ‘shamanism’ accustomed to believe, that you, along, which has pervaded scholarship on European moreover, with other associates of the magic and belief ever since (cf. Ginzburg Devil, are raised up in the silence of the 1992 [1989]). peaceful night, through closed doors, right to the clouds, and that there you fight with We can, however, find much more about others, and that you wound them, and that early modern witchcraft beliefs in our early you receive wounds from them? medieval texts than occasional statements of ecclesiastical disapproval – if we know how 2. The Old English charm Wið færstice to look for them. For those who still want to [‘against a stabbing pain’] is attested only dive back into prehistory, better understood in British Library, Harley 585, a early medieval texts would at least offer a manuscript of medical texts roughly firmer anchor-point than the 16th century. But contemporary with Burchard’s Decretum. a better understanding of early medieval It presents a first-person narrator in battle evidence would also open up what we might, against mihtigan wif [‘powerful women’] in the context of the Retrospective Methods who have ridden across the land and Network, call prospective methods, helping us inflicted illness on the patient by means of to look forward to the early modern witchcraft garas [‘spears’]. The text has formulaic trials, providing the beliefs which they reveal similarities to Eddaic verse, indicating its with a historical depth and breadth which coherence with vernacular poetic tradition, studies of the intellectual roots of heresy and and the infliction of illness through spears demonology only begin to provide. Looking is echoed elsewhere in Anglo-Saxon texts forward from a better understood early (Hall 2007: 1–3, 110–112). medieval period would help us to develop a 3. The Vita Sancti Swithuni, composed by reliable history of changing mentalities in Lantfred of Fleury in Winchester in the Europe. The Canon episcopi is an important 970s, describes how, in 971, an inhabitant text, not least because it continued to be read of Winchester encounters three super- and heeded for centuries. But we too seldom natural women in the countryside, two look beyond it. The four sources listed below black and terrifying and one shining white. are just a few of the many waiting to be They all attack him, and the one in white analysed in this connection, but they will just manages to strike the fleeing man with serve to make my methodological point. the breeze of her sleeve, paralysing him 1. Burchard of Worms’s Corrector sive until, a few days later, he is miraculously medicus is, like the Canon episcopi, well restored to health by St Swithun (Lapidge known in studies of witchcraft. It is a 2003: 274–77). This source has an obvious penitential and the nineteenth book of relevance to the study of the dream-women Burchard’s Decretum, published between of Gísla and the dísir of Þiðranda 1012 and 1023. It asks, amongst other þáttr, not to mention the attack by a black things of interest to historians of witchcraft supernatural woman on a twelfth-century (Hansen 1901: 40): Norwegian cleric recently brought to scholars’ attention by Antonsson, credidisti quod quaedam mulieres credere Crumplin and Conti (2007); but it also solent, ut tu cum aliis diaboli membris item deserves to be compared with the texts in quietae noctis silentio clausis ianuis in listed above. aëram usque ad nubes subleveris, et ibi cum aliis pugnes, et ut vulneres alias, et tu 4. Chapters 26–27 of the Vita I Sancti vulnera ab eis accipias? th Samsonis, from between the early 7 century and the early 9th, probably from

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Brittany but set in south-west Britain, near-contemporary and nearly first-hand explain how Samson and one of his account. Even this small body of evidence deacons are attacked by a screaming transforms the reliability, but also the variability and complexity, of the cultural theomacham hyrsutam canutamque, iam uetulam anum suis uestimentis birrhatam nexus suggested by the Canon episcopi. I will trisulcatamque uenalem in manu tenentem, not analyse these texts here in more detail, ac siluas uastas ueloci cursu uolucritantem even though my brief comments neglect many fugientemque recta linea insequentem problems and possibilities. Suffice to say that (Flobert 1997: 184) they indicate that a more critical analysis, backed up by a fuller search of our early which probably means: medieval texts, would be worthwhile – and an unkempt grey-haired sorceress, already that I do not see myself as likely to undertake an old woman, with her garments ragged it! and holding in her hand a bloody three- Instead, I focus now on what the omission, pronged [weapon], and in a swift course particularly of text number two above (Wið traversing the vast woods and rushing past, færstice), from historiography on European following after [the deacon] in a straight witchcraft tells us about our methods, and line. how we could work better. Some of these (The term venalis, of course, texts are perhaps simply too little known: conventionally means ‘for sale’, but we indeed, I only found out about Lantfred’s presumably have here a meaning because I was pointed to it by Katy Cubitt, influenced by a false etymological who had herself probably seen it primarily connection with vena [‘vein’], hence my because of Lapidge’s recent edition and translation ‘bloody’.) This Vita is odd in translation (for her own discussion of the many ways, but whether or not we should importance of Anglo-Latin hagiography as a take this story seriously as evidence for source for folklore, see Cubitt 2006). But this belief, it is clear evidence for a discourse can hardly explain all the omissions: in about fast-moving, armed and harmful particular, Wið færstice has often been females – and it has close analogues in translated, discussed and even anthologised. later Welsh literature and more distant Linguistic expertise and the structuring of ones in Antique Gaul (see Hall 2004: 176 syllabuses will have something to do with it: n.224). members of history departments get used to

It is possible that the writers of some of these dealing with Latin texts, members of language texts knew the work of some of the others, but departments to dealing with vernacular ones. they are surely too dispersed in space and And Wið færstice specifically has long been genre, and in the range of their own respective pigeon-holed as being about ‘-shot’, analogues, simply to represent textual putatively arrows fired by mischievous, borrowing. Nor are any of the episodes invisible sprites (cf. Hall 2007: 6–7, 96–118), merely a stock feature of genre: we are surely to the detriment of its more prominent seeing traditional discourses peeping here into ‘mighty women’. It seems unlikely, however, the textual record. Thus it seems fairly clear that these factors could explain the ignoring that across northwest Europe, certainly of Wið færstice entirely. around 1000 and perhaps several centuries Rather, the key problem, I suggest, is what Stuart Clark (1997: 4) has identified as earlier, there was a discourse in which women traversed the land, inflicting harm on others. an overriding, though largely unspoken, Activities of this kind are attested in not only commitment to the realist model of a penitential but, to judge from its context, a knowledge. In this model, language is seen perfectly serious medical text; as well as a as a straightforward reflection of a reality

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outside itself and utterances are judged to Mitchell 1997). Even so, Mitchell (2011: 20– be true or false according to how 21) still writes that accurately they describe objective things. This kind of neutral reference to the perhaps our best and most direct indication external world is held to be the only of prevailing, popular views of witchcraft reliable source of meaning and, indeed, the and magic in the immediate post-Conversion most important property of language. era is to be found [...] among the early laws of Scandinavia. In this kind of analysis, a word can either denote something which is objectively real, or And law codes and elite intellectual texts also something which is not. A historian might form the centre of gravity for Valerie Flint’s seek evidence of fantasies about mythical, The Rise of Magic in Early Medieval Europe supernatural beings (who are not actually (1991) or, say, Catherine Rider’s fine Magic real), or of ‘real’ witches (flesh and blood and Impotence in the Middle Ages (2006) – women who might be identified in the impressive though these are in their scope. objectively observable world) – but evidence Maybe our sources are such that this really is for one cannot be evidence for the other. the only option, but I suggest that with Burchard’s Latin presents the historian with different starting assumptions, we could shift the image of a flesh-and-blood woman the weighting elsewhere. Narratives from confessing to delusions about riding out at hagiography or vernacular medicine which do night and harming people, and the idea of the not immediately strike modern readers as confession itself does not strain our being pertinent to witchcraft might actually expectations of physical possibility. Wið take us closer to the cultural crucible in which færstice and the Vita Swithuni, by contrast, witchcraft beliefs are formed. And despite confront us directly with groups of women Mitchell’s important work on Scandinavia, inflicting harm by supernatural means, which possibilities for the study of Europe more does stretch the imagination – and this is generally still await exploration. perhaps why historians have neglected them. The bifurcation of the real and the However, Burchard’s proscriptions surely supernatural has been exacerbated by the fact presuppose texts and stories similar to Wið that it has permeated not only scholars’ færstice, in which people fight one another interpretations of texts, but their outside the usual physical parameters of interpretations even of the words of which the existence, and in which women traverse the texts are comprised. One example is the word land inflicting supernatural harm. Indeed, the hægtesse, which occurs in Wið færstice. mighty women of Wið færstice need not have Bosworth and Toller’s Anglo-Saxon been envisaged simply to have come out of Dictionary entry sensibly translated this as “a the blue: the possibility is raised by witch, hag, fury” (1898; cf. Hall 2007: 85– Burchard’s text that they were women who 87), but the derived Thesaurus of Old English should have been, as Burchard puts it in an lists hægtesse under “a witch, sorceress”, but entry adjacent to the one I quoted, lying in not under “a fury” or “the Fates” (Roberts & bed with their husbands on their bosoms. Kay with Grundy 2000 I: §§16.01.04, If the present article is preaching to the 16.01.06.02, 05.04.01). Somewhere, a kind of choir, one of the choir’s foremost singers is of cultural blindness has come between the course Stephen Mitchell, whose work on dictionary entry and the thesaurus-maker, Nordic sources has provided one of our best who has felt the need to categorise hægtessan and most rounded case studies of European as either witches or furies, but not both. (That witchcraft beliefs before the early moden this is not an accident is suggested by other witchcraft trials (2011; for a free-access study recategorisations: Hall 2007: 9–11.) Meaney’s particularly pertinent to this article, see response to the same impulse (1989: 17–18) was to argue that hægtesse (along with

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wælcyrige and burgrune, words which gloss a vernacular material; and it includes texts from similar range of Latin lemmata) originally regions which do not produce many denoted “minor goddesses”, but that witchcraft trials, but which can nonetheless give us rich insights into a wider the coming of Christianity would have understanding of the roles of traditional affected these words [...] The burgrune supernatural agents in health and harm in and the hægtesse would have been early medieval Europe, such as the Celtic- interpreted as basically bad, and their speaking world. protective characteristics forgotten. All Perhaps part of the value of research three words would have declined in uncovering this evidence would be to provide use, and the meanings partly forgotten, a platform from which to peer back into an so that they could be applied to mortal earlier time; perhaps it would help us to take a women, at first metaphorically, then rigorous stance on the proliferation of exclusively. ‘shamans’ wherever in European history our This reading is viable, though this decline texts do not shed light. But I suspect that its would have been far from sudden (as the greatest value would be prospective: to help Oxford English Dictionary shows s.v. hag, us look forward through the longue durée of hægtesse’s reflexes continued to be used of European history. the Furies into the 17th century). But it assumes unquestioningly that if Anglo- Works Cited Saxons did not use different words for the Bosworth, Joseph, & T. Northcote Toller. 1898. An mortals and immortals of Classical tradition, Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. : Oxford University Press. it must be because of confusion or Clark, Stuart. 1997. Thinking with Demons: The Idea of degradation in their belief-systems. We might Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe. Oxford: infer more economically that hægtesse’s Clarendon Press. semantics did not make the distinction Cubitt, Catherine. 2006. “Folklore and Historiography: between the supernaturally powerful woman Oral Stories and the Writing of Anglo-Saxon History”. In Narrative and History in the Early next door, whom one might bring to trial, and Medieval West. Ed. E. M. Tyler & R. Balzaretti. the supernaturally powerful woman from Studies in the Early Middle Ages 16. Turnhout: elsewhere, whom one might not. Research on Brepols. Pp. 189–223. Old Norse has been afflicted with a similar Flint, Valerie. 1991. The Rise of Magic in Early desire to distinguish mythological women Medieval Europe. Princeton: Princeton University Press. from legendary ones, or supernatural ones Flobert, Pierre (ed. and trans.). 1997. La Vie Ancienne from real ones (cf. Hall 2007: 22–23; 2004: de Saint Samson de Dol. Paris: CNRS Editions. 174–175). Ginzburg, Carlo. 1983. The Night Battles: Witchcraft I am not, of course, arguing that we should and Agrarian Cults in the Sixteenth and throw all our early medieval, supernaturally Seventeenth Centuries. Trans. John & Anne Tedeschi. London: Routledge & Keegan Paul. powerful females (or, for that matter, males) Originally published as I Benandanti: Stregoneria e into one capacious category: fine distinctions culti agrari tra Cinquecento e Seicento. Torino: between different accounts and the semantics Einaudi, 1966. of different words are essential. But Ginzburg, Carlo. 1992. Ecstasies: Deciphering the scholarship at the moment is, through some Witches’ Sabbath. Trans. by Raymond Rosenthal. London: Penguin. Originally published as Storia too seldom challenged assumptions, missing a Notturna. Turin: Einaudi, 1989. pool of evidence for the understanding of Haki Antonsson, Sally Crumplin & Aidan Conti. 2007. supernatural power and harm in early “A Norwegian in Durham: An Anatomy of a medieval Europe. This includes Latin texts, Miracle in Reginald of Durham’s Libellus de which folklore scholars tend to miss because admirandis beati Cuthberti”. In West Over Sea: Studies in Scandinavian Sea-Borne Expansion and of their (understandable) enthusiasm for Settlement Before 1300. Ed. Beverley Ballin Smith,

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Simon Taylor & Gareth Williams. The Northern Scragg and Marilyn Deegan. Corr. reissue. World 31. Leiden: Brill. Pp. 195–226. Manchester: Centre for Anglo-Saxon Studies, Hall, Alaric. 2004. “The Meanings of Elf, and , in University of Manchester. Pp. 9–40. Medieval England”. Unpublished doctoral Mitchell, Stephen A. 1997. “Blåkulla and its dissertation, University of Glasgow. Antecedents: Transvection and Conventicles in http://hdl.handle.net/1905/607 Nordic Witchcraft”. Alvíssmál 7: 81–100. Hall, Alaric. 2007. Elves in Anglo-Saxon England: http://userpage.fu-berlin.de/~alvismal/7sabbat.pdf Matters of Belief, Health, Gender and Identity. Mitchell, Stephen A. 2011. Witchcraft and Magic in Anglo-Saxon Studies 8. Woodbridge: Boydell. the Nordic Middle Ages. Philadelphia: University of Hansen, Joseph. 1901. Quellen und Untersuchungen Pennsylvania Press. zur Geschichte des Hexenwahns und der Rider, Catherine. 2006. Magic and Impotence in the Hexenverfolgung im Mittelalter. Hildesheim: Olms. Middle Ages. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lapidge, Michael. 2003. The Cult of St Swithun. Roberts, Jane & Christian Kay, with Lynne Grundy. Winchester Studies 4.ii. Oxford: Clarendon. 2000. A Thesaurus of Old English in Two Volumes. Meaney, Audrey L. 1989. “Women, Witchcraft and Costerus New Series 131–132. 2nd rev. impression. Magic in Anglo-Saxon England”. In Medicine in 2 vols. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2000. Early Medieval England: Four Papers. Ed. D. G. http://libra.englang.arts.gla.ac.uk/oethesaurus/

The Vanir and ragnarǫk Leszek P. Słupecki, University of Rzeszów

The dramatic event of ragnarǫk belongs and, when the world of the Æsir must undoubtedly to the most attractive and best collapse, he can return home, free of his known episodes from Old .1 obligation to stay in Ásgarðr as a hostage.4 In narrations concerning it, however, there As everyone knows, the five most are, I believe, still some points of which we important duels constituting the battle on need a better understanding.2 Among such Vigriðr are fought by Óðinn (against ), questions is the following: Who actually has Týr (against ), Þórr (against to perish in ragnarǫk, or – more precisely – Miðgarðsormr), (against ) and which categories of mythic beings were (against ). These are also duels imagined to be affected by ragnarǫk and fought by the most important Æsir (N.B. – the which were not. list of combatants exhibits a hierarchy of In this short paper, I will analyze the Æsir, in fact naming the most important gods question of whether the Vanir had anything to of these kin-groups) against their most do with ragnarǫk, and conclude that they had dangerous enemies, which appear to be rather nothing to do with it, as it was an event of no monsters from the world of chaos (Fenrir, importance for their world.3 Garmr, Miðgarðsormr) or incarnations of evil It is instructive to read here a statement in (Loki, Surtr) as Giants. The most important of Vafþrúðnismál 39, where Óðinn answers all these duels appears to be that fought by Vafðrúðnir’s question and informs us about Freyr against Surtr, as it is the only one in Njǫrðr (cited according to Neckel & Kuhn which the victor, Surtr, survives and is able to 1962): complete the destruction by fire. From this it may follow that it was Freyr who was, at that í aldar rǫc hann mun aptr koma / heim point, the most significant among the Æsir, This can only mean: ‘In ragnarǫk (aldar rǫk since his defeat is decisive! [lit. ‘doom of the age’]) he [=Njǫrðr] will Traditionally, we tend to count Freyr return home’. This statement explains why, in among the Vanir as the son of Njǫrðr. Snorri the battle on the field of Vigriðr where was of a different opinion and was correct on ragnarǫk culminates, Njǫrðr does not appear this point. We have to remember here that the at all. He obviously has nothing to do there authors of our sources take a very legal point

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of view! If Freyr (and of course ) were worlds) of the Giants we know nothing, yet born in Ásgarðr5 after Njǫrðr had already we know that Giants will fight on the side of come there as a hostage as a consequence of the victors – so their world does not seem to the reconciliation between the Æsir and the be in danger. The same should be assumed Vanir, he thus belongs to the Æsir as a god about Muspell, the world of victorious born in Ásgarðr – having, of course, a Muspellssynir [‘sons of Muspell’] (although character typical of the Vanir inherited from we know very little about who they were). his father. Having such features, Freyr also However, of what happens to the Disir we had duties of the Æsir and fulfilled them on simply know little more than nothing! Vigriðr field, fighting and dying there. Thus Nevertheless, it seems to me that ragnarǫk Freyr was one of the Æsir in the same way was imagined first and foremost as a great that the football player Zlatan Ibrahimovic is defeat affecting some great tribe from the a Swede: as a person born in Sweden, he is time of the Migration Period, with its most Swedish yet still retains his Bosnian roots. important champions killed, settlements Freyr was correspondingly ‘Æsirish’, having burned and women captured (let me here ‘Vanirish’ roots and a ‘Vanirish’ character! presume such a destiny for the Disir!). It is In fact, the myth about the reconciliation also not simply the pagan equivalent of the between the Æsir and the Vanir and their Doomsday of the Christian tradition. exchange of hostages not only explains the Obviously, something from such a Christian situation of Njǫrðr, but – almost in mirror- vision must have reached the Old Norse image – also that of Hœnir, who was a myths from the south, and even if it arrived hostage of the Æsir among Vanir. Hœnir also there many times – very probably firstly in does not appear on Vigriðr field and – what is Wulfilas’s time in late Roman Period, lastly is still more significant – according to Vǫluspá visible in the writings of our good Christian 63, he has to appear after ragnarǫk in the Snorri in 13th century AD, and between the new, re-born world, having some hlautviðr at times of these two sources other influences his disposal, whatever that might be.6 It seems can be observed (compare, for example, the that Njǫrðr escaped home to analogy between ON Muspell and OHG before ragnarǫk in order to avoid the last Muspilli). Another, more traditional image of battle, whereas Hœnir decided to remain there the end of the world, which, as in India, is a bit longer, waiting until the battle was over. neither the first nor the last but belongs to the In this way, both these gods survive! frame of cyclically appearing and However, this would mean that ragnarǫk is disappearing worlds, is also readily visible in not the end of the world of the Vanir! the sources as demonstrated by Jens Peter Correspondingly, I would also like to propose Schjødt some years ago using the example of that ragnarǫk is only the end of the world of Vǫluspá (Schjødt 1981; 1992). the Æsir, and of the world of beings created Bearing in mind the statement from by the Æsir (men and dwarves), and of the Vafþrúðnismál 39 about what Njǫrðr will do world of objects created and ruled by the Æsir at ‘the doom of the age’, and remembering (such as the stars and Sun). The other worlds Hœnir, who according to Vǫluspá 63 will may survive. Thanks to Vafþrúðnismál 39, we survive the ragnarǫk, I would like to know that this is indeed the case of the world conclude by repeating that one may assume of the Vanir (Vanaheimr). The same can be that the world of Vanir (which may quite assumed about . According to Vǫluspá 62, naturally be called Vanaheimr) will be a safe it seems that and Hǫðr will return to the shelter during the end of the world. Yet the world from Hel, reborn after the destruction – fact that the world of the Vanir is not affected and this implicitly means that Hel will still by ragnarǫk – precisely like Hel, Jǫtunheimr exist. Regarding the destiny of the world (or and Muspell (as assumed above) – tells us

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something about the Vanir, placing them and Illustrious Ex-quaestor of the Palace…, Translated their home in the otherworld or in a sphere of with Notes and Introduction. Liverpool. Gunnell, Terry. 2006. “How Elvish Were the Álfar?”. similar significance, which can confirm the In The Fantastic in Old Norse / Icelandic hypothesis about their rather chthonic, Literature; and the British Isles: Preprint perhaps ‘elvish’, or even partly demonic Papers of the 13th International Saga Conference character. Durham and York, 6th–12th August 2006. Ed. John McKinnell, David Ashurst & Donata Kick. Durham: The Centre for Medieval and Renaissance Notes Studies, Durham University. Pp. 321-28. 1. For the shortest overview and most important Gunnell, Terry. 2007. “How Elvish Were the Álfar?”. literature, see Simek 1995: 330–332. In Constructing Nations, Reconstructing Myths. Ed. 2. A good example that there is still something more to A. Wawn. New York: Brepols. Pp. 111–130. discover is Bo Gräslund’s paper on fimbulvetr Hall, Alaric. 2007. Elves in Anglo-Saxon England: (2007), which he connects to the well-attested event Matters of Belief, Health, Gender and Identity. of the darkened Sun that, according to late-ancient Anglo-Saxon Studies 8. Woodbridge: Boydell sources, occurred in 536: Barnish 1992: 179; Press. Procopius of Cesarea, De bello Vandalico, IV, 14, Gräslund, Bo. 2007. “Fimbulvintern, Ragnarǫk och 5: Procopius 1961: 329; cf. Axboe 2001; Arjava klimatkrisen år 536–537 e. Kr.” Maal och Minne 2006. 2007: 93–123. 3. Contrary to (2006: 379; 2010), who Neckel, Gustav, & Hans Kuhn (eds.). 1962. Edda: Die doubts the existence of Vanir, I continue to believe Lieder des Codex Regius nebst vewandten in the Vanir as a “mythological people” existing in Denkmälern: Text. 4th edn. Heidelberg: Carl Winter. Old Norse beliefs. The efforts to connect Vanir Procopius of Cesarea. 1961. “De bello Vandalico”. In with Elves in some way seems quite convincing to Procopius. Trans. H.B. Dewing. Vol. 2, Cambridge, me, see Schjødt 1991; cf. Gunnell 2006; 2007; Hall MA. 2007; Tolley 2011. Schjødt, Jens Peter. 1981. “Vǫluspá: Cyklisk 4. I proposed such an interpretation some years ago in tidsopfattelse i gammelnorsk religion”. Danske my handbook on Old Norse Mythology in Polish Studier 1981: 91–95. (see Słupecki 2003: 64). Schjødt, Jens Peter. 1991. “Relationen mellem aser og 5. As some, but not all, versions of his myth tell us (see vaner og dens ideologiske implication”. In Nordisk Słupecki 2003: 173). hedendom: Et symposium. Odense: Odense 6. For divagations and suppositions concerning what Universitetsforlag. Pp. 303–319. hlautviðr may have been, see Słupecki 1998: 113. Schjødt, Jens Peter. 1992. “Nio man ec heima, nio ividi, miotvid maeran fyr mold nedan: Tid og rum i Works Cited Voluspa 2”. Arkiv för Nordisk Filologi 107: 156– Axboe, M. 2001. “Amulet Pendants and a Darkened 166. Sun”. In Roman Gold and the Development of the Simek, Rudolf. 1995. Lexikon der germanischen Early Germanic Kingdoms: Aspects of Technical, Mythologie. Stuttgart. Socio-Political, Socio-Economic, Artistic and Simek, Rudolf. 2006. “The Use and Abuse of Old Intellectual Development. Ed. Magnus Bente. Norse Religion”. In in Long- Historie och Antikvitets Akademien 51. Stockholm. Term Perspectives. Ed. A. Andrén, K. Jennbert & Arjava, A. 2006. “The Mystery Cloud of 536 CE in the C. Raudvere. Lund. Pp. 377–380. Mediterranean Sources”. In Thresholds of the Simek, Rudolf. 2010. “The Vanir: An Obituary”. RMN Sacred: Architectural, Art Historical, Liturgical, Newsletter [1]: 10–19. and Theological Perspectives on Religious Screens. Słupecki, Leszek Paweł. 1998. Wyrocznie i wróżby Ed. E.J. Sharon. East and West 59. Washington, pogańskich Skandynawów. Warszawa. DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Słupecki, Leszek Paweł. 2003. Mitologia Collections. Pp. 73–94. Skandynawska w epoce Wikingów. Kraków. Barnish, S.J.B. 1992. The Variae of Magnus Aurelius Tolley, Clive. 2011. “In Defense of the Vanir”. RMN Cassiodorus Senator, the Right Honourable and Newsletter 2: 20–29. .

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The Ship in the Field Joseph S. Hopkins, University of Georgia, and Haukur Þorgeirsson, University of Iceland

The Vanir have been a topic addressed in refering to Icelandic literary records of Norse previous issues of RMN Newsletter. The paganism. It is tempting to think of the buried present article will carry this discussion into boats as vehicles for the voyage of dead the field of archaeology, asking whether there warriors to the afterlife in Valhǫll with Óðinn. is a connection between the Vanir and the However, the mythological record does not stone ships and boat burials that dot the contain any tales of the dead travelling to landscape of the pre-Christian North Valhǫll by boat.2 Nor is Óðinn strongly Germanic cultural sphere. associated with boats or the sea.3

Literature and Archaeology Boats and the Vanir When we use retrospective methods, we are Another, perhaps more promising, idea is to making use of evidence from one period to connect the ship motif with the Vanir gods, throw light on an earlier period. One area in who certainly do have associations with which the use of such methods has a long seafaring. The tells us that the history is when literary evidence preserved in god Njǫrðr lives in Nóatún [‘Enclosure of 13th and 14th century Icelandic manuscripts is Ships’],4 and that he ræðr fyrir gǫngu vinds used to throw light on Scandinavian ok stillir sjá ok eld. Á hann skal heita til archaeological data from the pagan period. sæfara ok til veiða [‘rules over the course of Sometimes the success of this method is the wind and calms sea and fire. He is to be hard to argue with. Pictures of eight-legged called upon for seafaring and fishing’] horses on image stones in Gotland find a (Faulkes 2005: 23). This association carries parallel in the Prose Edda’s account of on to his children; Freyja bears the name Óðinn’s horse . Pictures of figures in Mardǫll (the first element of which is ‘sea’), a boat near a serpent are readily explained by and Freyr owns Skíðblaðnir – beztr skipa the account of Þórr’s fishing expedition in [‘the best of ships’] (Faulkes 2005:36). Hymiskviða and the Prose Edda – even down The identification of ship burials with a to the detail, present in some of the images, Vanir cult has enjoyed some prominence in that Þórr spyrndi við svá fast at hann hljóp contemporary research. Archaeologist Ole báðum fótum gǫgnum skipit [‘braced himself Crumlin-Pedersen writes that “in recent with such force that he pushed both feet discussions the association between a boat in through the boat’] (Faulkes 2005: 44–45).1 a grave and Freyr’s ship icon has not been challenged” (Crumlin-Pedersen 2010: 157). Boats and Burials While there is certainly a case to be made for One very widespread phenomenon in the associating the Vanir with boat graves (see archaeological record of the Northern Crumlin-Pedersen 2010: 145–163), the Germanic peoples is the ship motif. There are connection with Skíðblaðnir in particular numerous ship images on rune stones, seems somewhat tenuous. It is worth quoting ornamental stones and coins, but most the Prose Edda’s description of Skíðblaðnir: intriguing is the connection of boats with Dvergar nokkvorir, synir Ívalda, gerðu burials. Not only are there hundreds of burials Skíðblaðni ok gáfu Frey skipit. Hann er svá with real boats deposited in graves, but also mikill at allir Æsir megu skipa hann með many stone ships: burial sites with lines of vápnum ok herbúnaði, ok hefir hann byr stones erected in the shape of a boat. þegar er segl er dregit, hvert er fara skal. En Naturally enough, scholars have sought to þá er eigi skal fara með hann á sæ þá er hann throw light on the ship burial custom by gǫrr af svá mǫrgum hlutum ok með svá

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mikilli list at hann má vefja saman sem dúk compound himinvangar [‘the fields of ok hafa í pung sínum. (Faulkes 2005: 68) heaven/the sky’], which occurs in Helgakviða

Certain dwarves, the sons of Ívaldi, made Hundingsbana I 8.6, 15.6 (cited according to Skíðblaðnir and gave the ship to Freyr. It is Neckel & Kuhn 1962). It has an exact parallel so large that all the Æsir can man it with in hebanwang [‘Heaven’], which occurs in the weapons and war gear and it has a favorable Heliand 3925 (cited according to Sievers wind to sail wherever it should go as soon as 1878). Also worth noting are the Old English the sail is hoisted. But when it is not to be neorxnawang and Gothic waggs, both taken to sea it is made of so many parts and meaning ‘paradise’.5 From this comparative with such great art that it can be wrapped up data, it seems plausible that the Norse word like a cloth and kept in one’s pouch. vangr had some sacral connotations or This is a fairly extensive description, but it connection to the afterlife at an early stage, notably lacks any connection to death, burial carried forward in the idea of Fólkvangr. or the afterlife. The only Vanir god who is The description of Fólkvangr and described in the written record as having a Sessrúmnir is certainly valid evidence relation with death and the afterlife is Freyja. connecting the Vanir with death and the The Prose Edda tells us, citing Grímnismál afterlife but unfortunately, for our purposes 14: here, it lacks any mention of boats. However, this thread of inquiry should not be En Freyja er ágætust af Ásynjum. Hon á abandoned right away. There is another þann bœ á himni er Fólkvangar heita, ok hvar sem hon ríðr til vígs þá á hon hálfan source that mentions Sessrúmnir and that is val, en hálfan Óðinn, svá sem hér segir: worth considering on its own.

Fólkvangr heitir, Sessrúmnir in the Þulur en þar Freyja ræðr The Þulur (plural of þula) or Nafnaþulur sessa kostum í sal. [‘Þulur of Names’] are a collection of Hálfan val hon kýss á hverjan dag, versified lists of names and synonyms for en hálfan Óðinn á. various creatures and objects, mythological and mundane. The Þulur are preserved in five Salr hennar Sessrúmnir, hann er mikill ok of the seven principal manuscripts of the fagr. (Faulkes 2005: 24–25) Prose Edda. It is not impossible that they And Freyja is the most excellent of the were a part of Snorri’s original composition, Ásynjur, she has that homestead in heaven but it seems more likely that they were added which is called Fólkvangar, and wherever to the work shortly afterwards. The Þulur are she rides to battle she has half of the slain, conventionally dated to the 12th century, but the other half belongs to Óðinn, as is though some strophes might originate in the said here: 11th century or even earlier. On the other th Fólkvangr is called where Freyja decides hand, some might be as young as the 13 the seat choices in the hall. Every day she century. (For discussion see e.g. Faulkes chooses half the slain but half belongs to 1998: xv–xviii; Finnur Jónsson 1923: 174– Óðinn. 184). It is possible that some of the Þulur are

Her hall Sessrúmnir is large and beautiful. so young that they postdate the Prose Edda and thus might even be based on It would seem, then, that Freyja gathers dead Skáldskaparmál and so have no independent warriors to her hall Sessrúmnir, located in value as a source. There is, however, no Fólkvangr. In Old Norse, the word vangr reason to assume this of any particular part of [‘field’] is mostly used in place names, poetry the collection. The general opinion has been and compounds. Especially noteworthy is the that the bulk of the Þulur is most likely to be

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earlier than Snorri’s work, so we would 1998: 343). Each of these sections contains expect any given strophe to be a valid, the name of a mythological ship, in each case independent source of information. a trisyllabic compound noun. These As an example of the curious way in which distinctive names can be said to punctuate the the Þulur can serve as sources, take the stanza, as already observed by William occurrence of the names Harðgreipr ok Sayers: Vagnhǫfði [‘Harðgreipr and Vagnhǫfði’] in a While names of legendary ships seem to list of jǫtnar. No other Icelandic source punctuate the stanza, the initial ǫrk may be a mentions either of these figures. However, the purposefully Christian term, the Ark, here by Saxo Grammaticus intended to take precedence over the heathen contains an extensive story involving the ships Sessrúmnir, Skidblaðnir and Naglfari. giantess Harthgrepa, daughter of Wagnhoftus (Sayers 1998:53.) (see Dumézil 1973 for an analysis). The Sayers is clearly right here, and perhaps a bit occurrence of these two names in the Þulur overly cautious. The word Ǫrk is never used makes us inclined to think that some similar in Old Norse texts to refer to ships other than legend existed in Iceland. This instance serves the Ark.6 That the great ship of the Bible is to show that the Þulur contain potentially mentioned before the great ships of pagan interesting information that is clearly not mythology demonstrates that this is a derived from Skáldskaparmál. carefully crafted strophe and not a product of We now turn to a strophe from the Þulur happenstance. As a result, the inclusion of containing the name Sessrúmnir. The strophe Sessrúmnir is particularly notable. is in a group of three strophes containing names for ships and nautical objects. Can the Sources Be Reconciled? Nú mun ek skýra What are we to make of the difference of skipa : between the sources? One obvious possibility Ǫrk, árakló is that one of the interpretations arose by a askr, Sessrúmnir, misunderstanding. Perhaps Sessrúmnir is skeið, skúta, skip, originally a hall but someone who heard the ok Skíðblaðnir, name without sufficient context assumed it nór, Naglfari, nǫkkvi, snekkja. referred to a ship. Or perhaps the opposite is (Finnur Jónsson 1931: 208) true, and the ‘hall’ understanding arose by a misinterpretation. Neither of those Now I will set forth the names of ships: Ark, possibilities can be dismissed and we can see oar-claw, bark, Sessrúmnir, longship, cutter, no strong reasons to prefer the ship and Skíðblaðnir, vessel, Naglfari, testimony over that of the Þulur strophe or rowboat, smack. vice versa. As demonstrated by Elizabeth Jackson There is, however, a further possibility. (1998), Old Norse and Old English verse lists Perhaps each source has preserved a part of can be analyzed as using certain typical the same truth and Sessrúmnir was conceived devices or recurring features. In Jackson’s of as both a ship and an afterlife location in terminology, the first two verses of our stanza Fólkvangr. ‘A ship in a field’ is a somewhat – ‘Now I will set forth / the names of ships’ – unexpected idea, but it is strongly reminiscent constitute a list signal, indicating that a list is of the stone ships in Scandinavian burial sites. about to begin, and an organizing principle, ‘A ship in the field’ in the mythical realm telling the audience what the list consists of. may have been conceived as a reflection of The next six verses can be divided into three actual burial customs and vice versa. It is list sections, each section consisting of two possible that the symbolic ship was thought of verses and containing four items (see Jackson as providing some sort of beneficial property

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to the land, such as the good seasons and Vries 1957: 410–411). This approach has peace brought on by Freyr's mound burial in difficulties, but if the roots are connected, a father- daughter relation may be demonstrated between the Ynglinga saga. afterlife fields of Njǫrðr and Freyja. Evidence involving ships from the pre- 6. The late medieval rímur sometimes use ǫrk as a Christian period and from folklore may be generic synonym for ‘ship’ in their kennings similarly re-examined with this potential in (Finnur Jónsson 1926–1928: 419; Björn Karel mind. For example, if Freyja is taken as Þórólfsson 1934: 152). The rímur poets relied heavily on the Prose Edda and may well have got possessor of a ship, then this ship the idea of using the word in this way from the iconography may lend support to positions Þulur strophe we are discussing. arguing for a connection between a Vanir 7. Perhaps to be included within this Indo-European goddess and the “Isis” of the Suebi, who is framework are the so-called Tarim Mummies from associated with ship symbolism in Tacitus’s the Tarim Basin. Strikingly, recent analysis has identified cow-skin covered ship burials among a Germania. “forest” of “phallic” poles at the once-riverside Afterlife beliefs involving strong nautical “Small River Cemetery No. 5”, which reportedly elements and, separately, afterlife fields, have features around 200 of the oldest graves yet been identified in numerous Indo-European discovered in the Tarim Basin. These ship burials cultures (Mallory 1997: 153). Comparative have led Victor Mair to compare them to Norse ship burials and other elements of Bronze Age research may contribute to a better Northern European society (Wade 2010). The understanding of the Vanir and their potential employment of phallic poles and ships may parallel relation to the afterlife beliefs of other Indo- the death, seafaring, and fertility aspects of the European peoples.7 Vanir cult.

Acknowledgements: We would like to thank Olga Works Cited Thomason and Frog for their comments and Björn Karel Þórólfsson. 1934. Rímur fyrir 1600. suggestions while preparing this paper for publication. Kaupmannahöfn: Hið íslenzka fræðafélag. Crumlin-Pedersen, Ole. 2010. Archaeology and the Sea Notes in Scandinavia and Britain. Roskilde: Viking Ship 1. For a recent treatment of the verbal and iconographic Museum. representations of this myth, see Frog 2011. Dumézil, Georges. 1973. From Myth to Fiction. 2. The incident with Sinfjǫtli in Vǫlsunga saga is the Chicago: University of Chicago Press. closest candidate but it is too vague to be Faulkes, Anthony (ed.). 2005. Edda. Prologue and nd convincing. Gylfaginning. 2 edn. London: Viking Society for 3. An alternative interpretation, suggested to us by Northern Research. Frog, is that the ships could be buried in Faulkes, Anthony. 1998. Edda. Skáldskaparmál. Vol. anticipation of a great flood at Ragnarǫk. See 1. London: Viking Society for Northern Research. further Frog 2010: 175–176. Finnur Jónsson (ed.). 1931. Edda Snorra Sturlusonar. 4. Njǫrðr's association with seafaring appears evident København. in sources both much later and much earlier than Finnur Jónsson. 1926–1928. Ordbog til rímur. the Old Norse period; Tacitus’s 1st century København. description of Nerthus (from Germanic *Nerthuz, Finnur Jónsson. 1923. Den oldnorske og oldislandske nd precursor to Old Norse Njǫrðr) in Germania litteraturs historie. Vol. 2. 2 edn. København. strongly connects her with bodies of water, and Frog. 2010. Baldr and Lemminkäinen: Approaching folklore collected in the early 20th century records the Evolution of Mythological Narrative through what appears to be a family tradition of thanking the Activating Power of Expression. A Case Study Njor for a bountiful catch of fish in Odda, Norway in Germanic and Finno-Karelian Cultural Contact (Dumézil 1973: 220). and Exchange. PhD dissertation. UCL Eprints. 5. Neorxnawang and Fólkvangr may have a relation London: University College London. Available: besides cognate second elements. While the root of http://eprints.ucl.ac.uk/19428/ Njǫrðr and the apparent first root of Neorxnawang Frog. 2011. “Distinguishing Continuities: Textual are both elusive subjects, it has been theorized that Entities, Extra-Textual Entities and Conceptual the two may be one and the same, perhaps Schemas”. RMN Newsletter 2: 7–14. rendering Neorxnawang as an Old English ‘Njǫrðr's Jackson, Elizabeth. 1998. “‘Not Simply Lists’: An field’ or as the field of a deity sharing this root (de Eddic Perspective on Short-Item Lists in Old English Poems”. Speculum 73: 338–371.

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Mallory, J. P. 1997. Encyclopedia of Indo-European Sievers, Eduard. 1878. Heliand. Germanistische Culture. Taylor & Francis. Handbibliothek 4. Halle. Neckel, Gustav & Hans Kuhn (eds.). 1962. Edda: Die de Vries, Jan. 1957. Altnordisches etymologisches Lieder des Codex Regius nebst vewandten Wörterbuch. Brill. Denkmälern 1: Text. 4th edn. Heidelberg. Wade, Nicholas. 2010. “A Host of Mummies, a Forest Sayers, William. 1998. “The Ship heiti in Snorri’s of Secrets”. The New York Times website, 15th Skáldskaparmál”. Scripta Islandica 49: 45–86. March 2010: http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/16/ science/16archeo.html?pagewanted=1

Re: Distinguishing Continuities: The Case of Discontinuities in Conceptual Schemas Jill Bradley, Radboud University, Nijmegen

The question of continuities – and their each other at right angles can have a implied discontinuities – is something we multiplicity of meanings within one culture. have all addressed at one time or another, but Such a shape can ‘mark the spot’ – the buried frankly tend to forget in the details of specific treasure or my hotel room; on a map it research. However, the question of the denotes a (Christian) religious building, continuity of “textual entities, extra-textual clustered together with a cemetery, in a line, a entities, and conceptual schemas” (Frog border or frontier. It can stand for Christianity 2011) can have a great deal of impact on any in general, and all which that implies; after research, especially if we dip our toes into the someone’s name, it tells the reader that that deep and murky waters of interpretation. I am person has died. We put it on the sides of not talking about personal interpretation – ambulances, and designate a pharmacy by its when every person has a slightly different use. Turn it on its side and it is the ‘unknown’ understanding of any text, performance, or – or a kiss at the bottom of a letter. These are depiction, based not only on their cultural just a few of the meanings given in modern background, but also on their unique and western culture to a cross. Nevertheless we personal experience – but about the cultural navigate all these meanings effortlessly, even consensus of the significance of any ‘textual though many are related and overlap to some entity’, a common attribution of meaning extent. We do so because we have the cultural without which communication and social knowledge to understand what applies in interaction is impossible. Because any which context, and once past childhood never symbol, any entity has to be understood and really stop to think about it. an individual in a culture must “appropriately The question then arises as to what interpret and apply” (Frog 2011: 12) such happens when this is not our own cultural symbols, the cultural competence required to context, or the context changes. While I am correctly interpret a sign is often overlooked: primarily concerned with the visual and the the appropriate interpretation is often visual as a means of communication, I do not automatic, and the ability, even facility, to intend here to go into what is meant by visual make the correct reading is taken for granted. semiotics or even if such is possible (for discussions on these matters see for example Context of Interpretation Greimas, Collins & Perron 1989 and/or However, symbols – and here I include Hasenmueller’s “Panofsky, Iconography, and words, iconographic and textual themes and Semiotics” [1978]). Valuable though their elements – are often poly-interpretable and insights can be, such discussions pay lip dependent on the context. To take a very service to the idea of differing cultural simple and basic case – two lines crossing contexts but really fail to take them into

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Figure 1. Museu d’Historia de la Ciutat, Barcelona account. Even Panofsky’s famous illustration Formal Likeness of ‘natural’ interpretation of a man raising his This is particularly the case for those of us hat as a sign of greeting can hardly be who deal not just with past decades but many regarded as obvious today in a society in centuries past. The automatic ‘reading’ of a which few men wear hats and the raising of sign, symbol or textual entity can disguise them in greeting is a rarity. Signs and symbols another meaning, that which was intended at can change and become (almost) the time. The sign is recognizable, but we can unrecognizable within a few decades. We can be in danger of giving a false reading. Take, say that there is a shift: the conceptual entity1 for example, a portion of a 4th century C.E. of a greeting remains in the raised hand, but Catalan mosaic floor (figure 1). To anyone the form is (partially) lost. Losing the cultural looking at it now, the crosses (and swastika) knowledge and background to interpret and are unmistakable. While we are unlikely to apply is common. A curator of medieval associate the swastika-type figure with sculpture lamented to me the fact that it was Nazism, or even Buddhism or Hinduism in difficult to give information in the brief space this context, we almost inevitably ask allowed by exhibits because no one ourselves if the floor may have come from a recognizes saints by their attributes anymore. Christian household. For many visitors seeing While we, as a society and a culture, lose the this mosaic, the connection between the knowledge of the cultural consensus of crosses and Christianity is self-evident. meaning to be attributed to many formal Professional caution and – an admittedly textual entities of the past, we are constantly scanty – knowledge of the area and period creating new consensi, and problems can arise dictates, for me at least, an agreement with the if these have formal likenesses to those of museum that these are ‘geometric motifs’. another time. This is only one way in which our cultural baggage can influence how we apply and

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interpret our cultural knowledge when forgotten: ‘gay’ simply ‘means’ homophile. confronted with a formal likeness. In fact, the We have here continuity of signifier – the danger is of projecting a later conceptual word – but discontinuity of concept, not just scheme onto something that signals interpretation, not just adaptation, but a case something different within the context of its in which sender and receiver both have a own time. totally different meaning in mind for a word How do we then regard continuity if there which they agree on as a sign, which in this seems to be continuity of the sign, but the case has a formal likeness to an older sign, intention of the sender and the interpretation but which it has now superseded. of the receiver change? Again I am not talking This is the one of the problems that we about adaptation to a new context, such as have to deal with when considering the distant Frog’s example of the fishing trip, the past. If there could be such a radical alteration Arcadian/Good Shepherd (see van Dael in the meaning of a word within a few 1989), or the midwinter festival. Most decades, how can we tell whether such calendric celebrations show a great deal of alterations have taken place with other signs, continuity, even if many people would deny with other textual entities? Whether we are this. A spring festival is still a celebration of dealing with words, depictions, abstract signs, renewal and rebirth, whether it is a Christian narrative elements or any combination of Easter, Dionysian or any other rite. Generally these, we are dealing with them from a speaking, the form shifts slightly to adapt to different cultural background. Our cultural those extra-textual elements: the concept background has been shaped by the past, but remains the same, the form, or textual element much of what we deal with is a ‘dead is (slightly) adapted, and on the interpretive language’. There are things that we recognize, level our cultural consensus clothes the both formally and conceptually, and being concept in the appropriate accessories of the aware of our own cultural baggage is some time and context. However, what happens if safeguard against imposing a hodiecentric the concept changes while the form appears reading. But, it is all too easy to assume that if the same? To take another very simple and there is formal continuity there is also modern example, we can consider the word conceptual continuity. This is even more ‘gay’. When I was a child, long ago when the difficult when we wish to interpret the world was young – but in the course of products of a society in which the primary history, very recently – gay meant ‘happy, means of both expression and communication carefree, light hearted’: The child that is born were visual and performative. History and on the Sabbath day, is bonny and blithe and historians have tended to rely on written texts, good and gay. We simply do not use the word on the written word – and these are easier in that sense anymore. A good number of both to see within a particular context and to people are probably perfectly aware of this check whether a particular textual entity still former use of the term, but hesitate to use it expresses, even with modification and since the culturally common attribution of adaption, what the makers of that text meaning is now ‘homosexual’. The consensus intended. The oral and the visual expressions has shifted from one concept to another, and I are less amenable to this sort of cross- suspect the majority of people now no longer checking, and what survives is possibly know, or at least no longer consider, the older changed beyond recognition, as attested by meaning. Furthermore, a greater degree of the versions children make of rhymes, songs discontinuity can be postulated because it is and stories, as attested to by Iona and Peter very uncertain how many people using ‘gay’ Opie’s (1960) old, but still relevant work. A in its new sense know that it is in fact an child’s delight in altering and making fun of acronym for ‘good as you’. The origins are the words and actions of adults, with his or

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her own creativity and making something on say that, in their own area, such judgments are their own, shows how easily things can not legitimate, but it must be recognized that change, not just in a formal sense, but also in these are not the standards by which it was turning around the meaning. intended to be judged, nor the function for which it was intended. Unless we recognize The Visual Text and the Conceptual Schema this, we are held fast in a mindset that not Much of my work has dealt with the changes only denies other views, but that is a dead-end in concepts, usually defined or at least as far as scholarship and understanding are indicated by visual metaphors. As a rule, it concerned. can be said that if a metaphor changes then it To return briefly to the idea of visual needs investigation: either the concept has semiotics, it can be said that if a visual changed or the metaphor no longer fulfills its element refers to something other than itself, function within a changed context. The it can be regarded as a means of problem arises when the metaphor continues communication (I prefer to use but ceases to be a metaphor for one thing and communication rather than language, since becomes a metaphor for another. Everyone the latter often carries a sense of the verbal), who has lived or worked in a culture other and as such it is subject to analysis in that than the one in which they grew up has way, in other words it is regarded as a textual experienced, even in ‘psychically near’ element. Iconography has often been seen on cultures, misreading something – an event, this level, both as the unit and a whole text. expression, word, situation – because there Iconology, in the sense given by Panofsky, is was a formal similarity to something familiar, the interpretive level: while Panofsky linked and they applied their own cultural the understanding of iconographic features to interpretation to what was something written texts, what I am discussing goes far different. We learn quickly from such beyond this. Particularly in societies that are mistakes, either because someone points them not primarily literate, this link can be sought out to us or because the reactions to them outside what is written and can give insights make us revise our first reading of the into a more basic and diverse culture. Another situation. As a result, we learn new cultural point is that iconography has its own competences that allow us to identify conventions, its own language, built up over correctly and to adapt the signs to their – for time and recognizable to those who did not us – new context. When we are dealing with have access to written texts, or refers to that the distant past there is no such means of which is not expressed in written texts. In the auto-correction and we are forced to ask Middle Ages, if theological writings ourselves if our reading is correct. Does our mentioned Joseph at all, it was as a faithful reading fit, not with what we automatically and honorable servant of God. The see as the common interpretation for a sign as iconography of the high and late Middle Ages determined by our own cultural knowledge gives a very different view – that of a foolish and competence, but rather with other old man, often doing ‘women’s work’, in fact, expressions and with what we know of the as a man who accepts the child of another. context of the time in which our formal Actually, these depictions refer to something element, our textual element was made? outside themselves, outside the usual message Letting go of aesthetic considerations, looking of the nativity scenes, in this case to gender at the function within the context of its being and age stereotypes and roles, and in addition made, can confront us with puzzles, because to a view of the cuckold held at the time. judging something to be beautiful, artistic, These attitudes have changed (somewhat) and literary, even ‘traditional’, is imposing other Joseph was later given more dignity. In this norms on the object of study. This is not to case, a whole textual entity (the nativity and

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all its implications) was also the vehicle for a inimical to God (giants, serpents, dragons unit of text that had little to do with the bound in hell), to a natural process (a female primary message.2 This example shows that, personification), to not only physical, but while an entity might show continuity, something to be avoided, inimical to man (the elements can come and go, and these elements skeleton or transi with sword, spear or in fact have an independent significance. scythe). The change in the way in which the Trying to analyze a conceptual scheme on Crucifixion was depicted between the 9th and the basis of a visual textual element can be a the 13th centuries shows a transformation in hazardous business unless we are aware of the the way in which the relationship between differing units, variations, and levels that go man and God was regarded, and not only that, into making up that textual element. We must but a change in man’s place in the scheme of also consider what we mean by a conceptual things, what he was to be and do. Such things schema. Frog (2011: 11) gives the example of are more than shifts of interpretation, the similarity between mythic beings in adjustments to differing contexts: they are ancient burial mounds and drunken drivers as fundamentally differing attitudes, even if they beings that can bring disaster to a community use the same, or an only slightly modified, and how such beings can be rendered textual or extra-textual entity. Are there harmless. As he says, there is no essential conceptual discontinuities in these examples? difference, only the adaptation to a particular It is hard to say, but it is as well to remember circumstance and context dresses the idea in that the recognizable and continuous textual different terms. In the same way there is no entity might disguise deep and far-reaching essential difference between heroes slaying change and discontinuity, the more so because dragons or monsters, whether this is Theseus, such changes are rarely sudden, but happen , Michael or Christ: they all show the almost imperceptibly over time. power of the supernatural being over another To return to the case of Joseph as a foolish supernatural being. They can be seen as good and deceived old man, this belongs to the (in the sense of my god, my tribe, my belief) same conceptual scheme as Aristotle and triumphing over evil (someone else’s god, Phyllis, while the nativity can be grouped tribe, belief) because the victor is stronger and with those legends of gods’ dealings with more powerful. Is it the same conceptual mortals in order to produce a super-hero to scheme if that triumph is not based on put things to rights. If we can distinguish the strength? Is it based, not on the idea that the various schema, we can see that the treatment mighty triumph, but that those in the right, in of Joseph in the nativity scenes is not integral the judicial sense, triumph? Can we say that to that conceptual scheme, but is another in its Christ as the Fisherman’s bait in Hortus own right. The one can be read without the Deliciarum fits the same scheme? The other, as is shown by the different treatment representations of the devil at the Crucifixion of Joseph (although he usually remains old) in and Joseph as the Mousetrap take the legal later works. To a large extent the argument of breach of agreement in order to interpretation of an iconographic element is account for Christ’s triumph. We can say that dependent not only on the extra-textual the concept of good’s victory over evil factors but on the other elements of a remains the same, but how that victory is depiction, a whole rather than it units, but we conceived has changed, and with it notions of must be aware that often there is more than the godhead. In the same way, we can say one conceptual scheme that may or may not there is continuity in the concept of death, as influence the reading of another. The case of an abstract idea, but how people conceived it, Joseph cited above, for example, can be seen what they thought it to be, changed, going as independent of the nativity narrative and all from an eschatological concept as something that it implies: it in no way alters the scheme

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of divine–human relationships. However, it gender can be used together with ideas of wisdom, does impinge on the interpretive level, health, greed, courage and so forth to give an idea of old/young/men/women and how these are shifting the emphasis slightly by minimizing perceived – or rather how their images are Joseph’s role, and thereby increasing the conceived – by the society of the time. However element of divinity, and incidentally the since this is a complex, and often subtle, process of importance of Mary. In this, we can also note amalgamation, I will henceforth use the term the importance of extra-textual factors that are ‘conceptual scheme’, both to make the connection with Frog’s article in RMN Newsletter 2 (2011), involved; these depictions were current in a and since I will not be attempting to unravel time of great Marian devotion, and can be examples fully here. seen an expression of this, perhaps an 2. The nativity, as a visual expression in all its unconscious emphasis on Mary’s role. Putting variations, can be regarded, in itself, as a textual the conceptual scheme based on the entity, but with regard to the image of Joseph, and thereby to that of age and gender roles and to the representation of Joseph into the framework social judgments of the time, the nativity can be of the basic Biblical narrative means that seen as extra-textual. Strictly speaking, the two there is a danger of one being seen as integral entities are both separate and simultaneous but not to the other, and part of the message might be intrinsically embedded one in the other: the either lost or regarded as essential to the other particular connections take place in the mind of the scheme. By distinguishing various conceptual viewer, based on congruity. schema and textual entities, we can hope to Works Cited disentangle the various messages and come to van Dael, Peter. 1989. “Een hemel onder de aarde”. In a better understanding of both sign and the Annus Quadriga Mundi. Ed. J.B. Bedaux & A.M intention behind it. Koldeweij. Utrecht. Frog. 2011. “Distinguishing Continuities: Textual Notes Entities, Extra-Textual Entities and Conceptual 1. I use the term ‘conceptual entity’ to denote a single Schemas”. RMN Newsletter 2: 7–15. unit, in this case a greeting. These entities can be Greimas, Algirdas Julien, Frank Collins & Paul Perron. combined into a complex scheme in which the 1989. “Figurative Semiotics and the Semiotics of component parts make up a particular concept or the Plastic Arts”. New Literary History 20(3): 627– attitude. For example, in the case of Joseph 649. mentioned below (p.21), the entities of age and Hasenmueller, Christine. 1978. “Panofsky, gender are combined with those of social attitudes Iconography, and Semiotics”. The Journal of to sexual chastity and patrilineal descent. The same Aesthetics and Art Criticism 36(3): 289–301. entities can be used in different combinations to Opie, Peter & Iona. 1960. The Lore and Language of express different concepts or ideas so that age and Schoolchildren. Oxford.

Ethnocultural Substratum: Its Potential as a Tool for Lateral Approaches to Tradition History Frog, University of Helsinki

Lauri Harvilahti (2003: 90–115) has used the concepts, patterns of social practice, and so term ethnocultural substrate or ethnocultural forth. These form substratum to refer to “archaic features long a concise whole, used in different genres and preserved in a tradition” (2003: 91). These actualized on different occasions, and in features include poetic diction, prosody, some cases revitalized in favourable cultural melody and music, modes of performance, situations. The ethnocultural substrates serve images, motifs, traditional meanings, as dynamic mental models for forming a

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network of fundamental elements of the other on impacts of iron-working technologies ethnocultural characteristics of particular on mythic models in the Circum-Baltic area. traditions. (Harvilahti 2003: 91.)

The value of Harvilahti’s term lies in its A Continuum Model of Fuzzy Categories breadth, which is inclusive of diverse registers Traditions, whether inherited or borrowed, (cf. Foley 1995). For example, alliteration always emerge in a present filtered through belongs to the ethnocultural substratum of the semiotics and cognitive models of the Finnic traditions as an essential element of contemporary culture. This ongoing historical diverse vernacular genres and modes of process functions on the level of small-group expression, as do mythic images such as the communities and networks of such dog of the otherworld, conceptions such as communities in interaction. The fundamental the magical quality of iron, typologies of elements filtered through this process are mythic being, mythic figures, and even internalized to form the “dynamic mental narratives which provide essential points of models” (Harvilahti 2003: 91) that provide cultural reference. Reflexes of these elements the foundations for shared meanings. They may vary widely in form, function or may be described as the elements constitutive significance across conventional uses in of cultural competence. different genres and cultural practices, and not On a synchronic plane, the term all of them will necessarily be realized in ‘ethnocultural substratum’ constructs a every genre or mode of expression. general frame of reference for a cohesive (if The breadth of the term ethnocultural diversified) network of meaningful elements substratum is conducive to generalization and features of a broad linguistic-cultural which can then provide a frame for group, collection of such groups, or particular approaching different registers and modes of small sub-group, depending on how the expression. In diachronic research, the subject under discussion has been defined. substratum model allows the consideration of Use of the term and concept minimizes long-term continuities in significance without variation in highlighting continuity. This necessarily resolving that significance occurs proportionate to the number and range according to meaning, function or genre. of communities and groups to which Moreover, the substratum model implicitly ‘ethnocultural substratum’ is applied. At the situates elements and features as functioning same time, it qualitatively emphasizes the in a synchronic system, and implies that this vital core areas and communities at the synchronic present is essential to meaning and expense of peripheral ones, where continuities understanding in historical social realities (cf. may have been deemphasized or may not Bradley, this volume). have been maintained at all. Ethnocultural The present paper approaches the model of substratum therefore identifies a fuzzy the ethnocultual substratum as a potential tool category: ethnic or geographical inclusion in the diachronic study of traditions. It will becomes defined in relation to a qualitatively focus particularly on the development of developed semantic core rather than lateral approaches to tradition history, and on quantitatively according to a statistical survey the value and limitations of ethnocultural of a predefined population. substratum as a descriptive tool and frame of As an essential feature of every cultural reference which emphasizes a synchronic environment, an ethnocultural substratum can totality of earlier eras within a culture along a be postulated for every preceding cultural broad continuum. This will be discussed in period. The term ‘substratum’ employs a relation to two central examples, one metaphor of ‘layers’. Each layer is constituted concentrating on a shift in institution of ritual of the inherited “network of fundamental specialist in North Finnic cultures, and the elements” (Harvilahti 2003: 91) filtered

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through the semiotics and cognitive models of earlier substrata allows continuities in which the contemporary culture that together form earlier periods (and even several the dynamic mental models constitutive of simultaneously) may be reflected. cultural competence. The term ‘ethnocultural The reflections of earlier substrata in any substratum’ is preferable to ‘layer’ because it present are, however, the outcome of the emphasizes a synchronic totality into which diachronic processes and filtered through any preceding substrata of earlier periods have intermediate substrata. Continuities implicitly been assimilated and filtered (giving rise to indicate discontinuities: even when the continuities) rather than isolating elements cultural element has remained unchanged, its associated with each period and ascribing significance and functions are shaped in these to different ‘layers’. relation to a present environment. Within In diachronic approaches, principles of these processes, the forms, contents and generalization with the minimization of applications of elements exhibiting continuity synchronic variation apply. Historical may therefore have undergone radical ethnocultural substrata become differentiated adaptations and revaluations in the process of according to discernable historical change as a maintaining currency and relevance as a practical tool for the lateral indexing of historical process. potential relevant indicators of historical processes. As a practical tool, substrata An Institution-Based Substratum become functionally differentiated and Ethnocultural substrata function practically as constructed as fuzzy categories around core lateral categories for indexing and cross- features of a relevant change or changes, or referencing relevant indicators of historical more broadly defined categories into which process, although many of these can only be these can be situated. The narrowness or approached hypothetically through breadth of these categories is dependent on comparative evidence. Relevant indicators points under discussion and how the mark differentiation from preceding or categories are being used, as will become subsequent substrata along a continuum. The clear through the discussion of examples. value of the substratum model is precisely in the flexibility of the categories in the process Strata and Stratification of mapping relevant indicators. The Ethnocultural substrata are phenomena of a ethnocultural substratum associated with the present which connect with the past. As a origin or early history of the Finno-Karelian historical process, substrata are not simply a institution of ritual specialist called a tietäjä sequence of layers stacked up on top of one [‘one who knows’] will provide an example another: each ethnocultural substratum filters for discussion. This institution’s appearance that which precedes it, hence it is always a can be approached as a relevant indicator at present whole. Connections to the past within the core of an ethnocultural substratum. This that present (whether perceived or presumed) substratum can therefore be characterized may not reflect historical realities or even be through discontinuities and changes from that consistent with those of the preceding which preceded it (i.e. the preceding substratum. Elements of the preceding substratum). substratum must find relevance in changing This institution has been extensively historical and environmental circumstances or explored by Anna-Leena Siikala (2002a). She they atrophy and disappear. Networks of has described the tietäjä as “the heir to the elements develop internally within a role played by the shaman in ancient substratum as a historical process and external communities” who “preserved shamanic elements are assimilated from outside it. models of thought” (Siikala 2002a: 42). Nevertheless, the sequential assimilation of Siikala develops a long-term continuum

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model in her analysis, both to offer transformations) offer indications of this perspectives on cultural history and to offer a earlier institution and associated ethnocultural deeper and more developed understanding of substratum. What can be said of the stratum the traditions documented predominantly in associated with vernacular shamanism the 19th and 20th centuries. She maintains a remains very limited and abstract. It relies broad frame that considers the tietäjä- heavily on comparative evidence, and is institution in relation both to a Finno-Ugric generally limited to identifying probable linguistic-cultural heritage and to ‘classic’ or continuities and discontinuities. Northern and Eurasian shamanism on the one The tietäjä-institution is marked by hand, and to Indo-European traditions, fundamental discontinuities from classic traditions of Northern Europe and Christianity shamanism (however abstractly described). on the other. These are centrally maintained These include the dependence on incantations as points of reference for the consideration of which allow the immediate actualization of, particular elements or motifs rather than being and interaction with, the unseen world and its developed into full substrata models. Siikala inhabitants without the need for soul-journeys concentrates on the tietäjä-institution as a by the shaman or spirit-helpers imagined in phenomenon that emerged during the Iron physical spacial terms. These incantations Age and took shape in relation to antecedent also circulated as orally transmitted cultural practices, and also on its development knowledge-objects, functionally equivalent to and roles in subsequent periods associated first-hand experience, obviating the need for with Christian environments. initiatory orientation in the otherworld via The institution of the tietäjä appears to be soul-journeys. Most remarkably, the tietäjä- a uniquely North Finnic development. Its institution did not maintain conceptions of a emergence or establishment in the Iron Age separable soul (or spirit possession). It was was in conjunction with radical social and therefore exclusive of one of the most historical changes impacting virtually all fundamental conceptual models of classic areas of culture to varying degrees. The shamanism (on which e.g. soul-journeys were process was associated with the adoption of dependent; cf. Vajda 1959). new technologies and the transition to The cultural model for the tietäjä- increasingly agrarian settlements in a period institution is the figure Väinä / Väinö, whose when Germanic cultural influences were name is most commonly found in the dominant. (See Siikala 2002a: esp. 335–349.) metrically conditioned form Väinä-möinen. As a ritual specialist, the tietäjä relied Väinämöinen cannot be the cultural model for centrally on incantations in the Kalevala- the institution prior to its emergence. When meter and associated rite techniques (although this is situated on a long-term continuum, the these are now rapidly disappearing). These cultural model of the vernacular shaman incantations and rite techniques seem to have would presumably be the reflex of Finno- emerged through the synthesis of Germanic Ugric *Ilma [‘Sky’], the central sky-god in a models into an existing cultural milieu and dualist system. In contrast, *Väina, meaning into vernacular poetic expression. something like ‘broad, slow-moving water’ The existing cultural milieu maintained a (the proto-element opposed to the sky at the vernacular reflex of Central and Northern time of creation), was the probable antithesis Eurasian or ‘classic’ shamanism rooted in a of *Ilma – or more correctly of *Ilmari in the Finno-Ugric heritage. Those elements and Proto-Finnic period (when the tietäjä- aspects of the vernacular shamanic culture institution emerged). *Väinä is unlikely to which could find a place through these and have been a model for any institution of ritual subsequent processes of cultural change specialist. Väinä’s dominant, central position (potentially demanding multiple in the mythology is a change. The

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marginalized and subordinate position of institution. It suggests that Germanic models Ilmari or Ilmarinen, the reflex of Finno-Ugric extended from the genre of verbal magic, *Ilma, also reflects a change. Ilmarinen’s motifs and images, to concepts related to the significance and centrality in earlier substrata cultural model for the ritual specialist. can be detected, but the central sky-god of Correlating evidence according to an later belief is the thunder-god Ukko [‘Old ethnocultural substratum gradually appears to Man’]. Ukko is the central supernatural reveal a complex system including: a) supporter of the tietäjä, yet curiously absent structural incantation models and techniques; from mythological narratives. His centrality b) mythic images, motifs and figures; c) in the mythology is a development conceptions of incantations as verbal attributable to Indo-European models (see knowledge-objects; d) conceptions of the Frog 2011a: 79–80). (Frog forthcoming.) body/soul underlying ritual activity (e.g. Kalevalaic mythology is Väinö-centric and illness diagnostics, healing); e) conceptions of oriented to the ideology and priorities of the the accessibility of the otherworld (e.g. direct tietäjä-institution. A continuum model reveals verbal actualization); f) the ritual specialist that, for example, ‘new’ narratives asserted associated with incantations; g) the cultural Väinämöinen’s authority over Ilmarinen model for that ritual specialist; h) narratives (Frog 2010a: 119–127) and the sky-god has about the cultural model reflecting that role been deleted from the Finno-Ugric dualist and aetiologies relevant to the associated creation myth (rather than replaced by Ukko), ideology; i) the position of the thunder-god leaving the antithesis diver Väinämöinen as and his relationship to the ritual specialist; j) the dominant figure. Siikala (2002a: 321–322) the marginalized role of the vernacular sky- emphasizes broader shifts in mythological god (presumably the cultural model and narrative material reflecting earlier models: central supporter of the vernacular shaman- the significance of otherworld locations were institution); and k) the (eventual) deemphasized and focus was placed on disappearance of the vernacular shaman- ‘words’ (incantation knowledge-objects) institution. acquired there by Väinämöinen. These Rather than independent developments or a became the tietäjä’s heritage of incantations. gradual sequence, these features suggest that This system of mythological narratives and the introduction of the tietäjä-institution incantations does not simply exhibit involved a complex package of material. This continuity of content. The conservatism of package extended from incantations and rite kalevalaic poetry allowed these to be techniques to ideologies on which those maintained as ‘textual entities’ (see Frog incantations were dependent and 2011b), with continuity in their mythological models related to the institution representations of that content. In other and cultural practice. It was synthesized into a words, there was a core repertoire of poems vernacular system, involving adaptations of associated with the tietäjä institution. established mythic figures. The historical Väinämöinen’s shift to centrality as the scope between most source-evidence and the cultural model for a ritual specialist is directly Proto-Finno-Ugric linguistic-cultrural era parallel to the shift in the Germanic god spans thousands of years during which this Óðinn – a chthonic figure and cultural model process could have occurred. However, this for a magical practitioner appearing, rather simplified summary shows that these diverse remarkably, as the dominant god, world- indicators intersect in a more narrowly creator, and lord of the celestial realms of concentrated probable transition in which a Valhǫll and Ásgarðr. This parallel appears vernacular institution of shamanism was related to the Germanic models underlying displaced by the emergence of the tietäjä- the incantation tradition central to the tietäjä- institution as exclusive categories. Siikala’s

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detailed investigation of comparative ecology exhibits continuity from the relevant evidence, the semiotics of the institution’s period or earlier, then it is reasonable to practices and correlations with linguistic and postulate that evidence is lacking for not less archaeological evidence situate this than 96% of the social resources concentrated substratum in the Iron Age, contemporary in the ethnocultural substratum possibly in the centuries prior to the Viking being approached. This emphasizes that Age although with roots that may extend substratum models deal in probabilities and much earlier (Siikala 2002a: esp. 335–349). abstractions as a hypothetical frame rather Approaching this model according to an than certainties and concrete reconstructions. ethnocultural substratum does not demand ‘reconstructing’ the substratum with the Ideology and Indicating Elements unequivocal identification of all narratives, In the preceding discussion, the tietäjä- motifs, images, etc. that were necessarily at institution emerges as an ideal category at the the core of the proposed systemic package. core of an ethnocultural substratum. This is The substratum model proposes that this not unlike employing Church authority as a broad package has a history of continuity. It point of reference in discussing local forms of suggests that some (perhaps many) of the medieval Christianity. The substratum is textual entities, images, motifs and constructed around this institution’s ideology associations in the documented corpus have a and mythology, differentiating it from that continuity from the period in which the which characterized the preceding era. The tietäjä-institution emerged or spread, or that tietäjä-institution may also be distinguished at least their essential features and/or from later strata associated with the medieval functions were shaped in that process. More transition to Christianity. generally, however, the substratum model is The conversion process brought concerned with the essential conditions, revolutionary changes to the network of models and environment from which later fundamental elements characterizing the evidence exhibits continuity – at an abstract emerging cultural milieu. The tietäjä- level – rather than with reconstruction. institution persisted in this emergent This model acknowledges that the environment. The new traditions and ideology continued relevance implicit in long-term carried mythic figures, locations, images, continuity permits flexibility and motifs, vocabulary, concepts, narrative development. It allows for developments in material, etc. As a consequence, the later periods which are difficult or impossible ethnocultural substratum changed in spite of to distinguish from those which are earlier. It its clear continuities – the antecedent also allows for developments such as substratum filtered into the emergent milieu, extended and contracted usage or fields of each shaping the other, presenting a activity. In order to maintain perspective substratum characterized by syncretism. The within the working-model, the following process of the conversion to Christianity was equation is proposed: the proportion of extremely protracted: in more remote regions, material in the tradition ecology of the source it was ongoing into the present era. materials that is not identifiable with the Within the broad substratum of the earlier ethnocultural substratum of focus or Christian era, it is possible to distinguish those substrata that preceded it (i.e. implicitly substrata of the pre- and post-Reformation in current in the relevant period) should not be the west, and impacts of the Reforms of considered less than what has not survived Patriarch Nikon in the east. The Reformation from the earlier tradition ecology. According of Catholic Finland had a comprehensively to this adage, if, for example, evidence disruptive impact on vernacular ritual, belief suggests that perhaps 4% of the tradition and performance traditions. The reforms in

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the Orthodox Church had more complex and cultural contexts. A value of the substratum ambiguous impacts in different regions of model is that it allows the consideration of Karelia, (Siikala 2002b.) (Although Karelia long-term continuities in significance without seems ‘close’ from a European perspective, necessarily resolving that significance (which but was a remote wilderness from the may have changed as a historical process). perspective of Russia, comparable to Siberia). This highlights the importance of The Christian ideology imported a network of comparative data in the exploration of earlier fundamental elements. These present relevant ethnocultural substrata – observing that, for indicators of the broad ethnocultural example, Judas and the River Jordan only substratum. However, pre- and post-reform become indicators of a Christian ethnocultural milieus share a common essential network, substratum in the light of comparative with few distinctive semiotic, stylistic and evidence that identify them with a Christian conceptual elements characterizing the post- heritage but not with an earlier vernacular reform environment (although cf. Timonen, heritage. Comparative evidence allows certain “The Virgin Mary”, this volume). This generalizations about particular meaningful problematizes the identification of elements, their relationships to one another reinterpretations and revaluations of inherited and also aspects of a historical substratum’s elements: the relevant indicators are too few network of essential elements – even if the to clearly map distinct substrata. dynamic mental models to which these gave Interpretations and conventional functions rise are irrecoverable. change faster than motifs. Stratification The ‘deeper’ a phenomenon is and the therefore progressively obscures earlier more cultural changes it has been filtered ideologies, values and functions of elements, through, the more abstractly and generally it all of which can be flexibly adapted as social becomes discerned. Earlier continuum models resources. Poetic features of ethnocultural for kalevalaic poetry and mythology, such as substrata maintain broad indices to cultural Matti Kuusi’s (1963; 1994a) remarkably practices rather than representing or being dynamic (if not unproblematic) five-stratum interpreted through specific concepts and model or Siikala’s (2002a) more successful conceptions. This allows them to be the most model for the tietäjä institution, situate a core salient and persistent elements of cultural period in the Iron Age antecedent to the expression through shifts and changes in conversion process, with a broad earlier layer ideologies. For example, conversion that preceded it, and several distinguishable processes appear to regularly result in (Christian) layers that followed it. Detailing applying authoritative modes of vernacular an Iron Age ethnocultural substratum largely expression to the myths and epics of the new on the basis of 19th and 20th century materials ideology, such as the Old Saxon Heliand, is enabled by the persistence of the tietäjä- kalevalaic epics on Christian themes or Shor institution, which maintained a relevant epics of Siberia on Christian subjects. In essential ideology, cultural practices and contrast, units of meaning are sites where repertoire of traditions. Its extensive adaptation and renewal are more likely to documentation offers perspectives on occur. It may therefore be hypothesized that variation and interactions with Christianity on in cultural expression, elements of local and regional bases. The Christian representations (words, images, motifs) and substratum was initially interpreted through their constellations provide the most essential the antecedent substratum and also engaged it relevant indicators for earlier ethnocultural in the process of making the transition to a substrata, while the meanings or applications different ideology, characterized by of these elements or units may change in the synchretism alongside the vernacular tietäjä- process of maintaining currency in later institution. Christian cultural practices

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themselves became historically stratified and The majority of impacts and developments characterized by synchretism of traditions associated with iron blur into the semantic rooted in the Christianity of different eras. environments of the broader Iron Age (cf. the The tietäjä-institution was also interpreted problem of distinguishing pre- and post- through the antecedent substratum, reform strata of Christianity). However, the assimilating and engaging its elements. longue durée of mythological figures and Although the earlier shamanic institution did material associated with them present a not survive per se, elements of it became context in which relevant indicators of earlier established and were maintained where they cultural change become suspended. The found relevance – for example references to impacts of iron-working technologies on Ilmarinen forging the vault of heaven as his North Finnic mythologies in particular have essential power-attribute, or his identification received concentrated discussion (esp. as the source of thunder and lightning in Hakamies 1999; Salo 2006). function-specific contexts of riddles and The The identification of this technology with Origin of Fire. However, traditions of that Ilmari involved e.g. reconceptualising the earlier substratum do not seem to survive Proto-Finnic sky-god *Ilmari as the smith of outside of their synthesis into later systems. heaven, the vault of heaven as created through They are therefore much more remote – i.e. this technology, and thunder and lightning as units of meaning which have become produced by *Ilmari’s iron-working at the top suspended or maintained in their new contexts of the vault of heaven or world pillar. and applications within a different ideology Attribution of the world-creation event and semiotic system. Limitations of the data contrasts with Ilmari’s absence from the and frame of reference therefore problematize earlier dualist world-creation, from which he outlining a continuum of earlier substrata. was eclipsed by Väinämöinen. Attribution of thunder contrasts with Ilmari’s displacement Riddles of Stratification: from centrality by the thunder-god Ukko in The Case of Iron-Working Technologies the tietäjä-mythology. New technologies that sufficiently impact The attribution of lightning and thunder to diverse areas of cultural practice may also the smith of heaven is found in (South Finnic) function as cores around which ethnocultural Livonian and (Baltic) Latvian, where it is substrata may be distinguished. Iron-working associated with the thunder-god; evidence technologies had revolutionizing impacts on suggests that it had been known in cultural practices and mythological thinking Lithuanian; there is not clear evince of it in in the Circum-Baltic area. These range from Estonian, between the North Finnic and the the fundamental conception of iron as a Livonian and Baltic traditions.1 This magically powerful substance and the mythic conception was suspended in riddle traditions, ‘origin of iron’ to images of gods and whole according to which thunder was produced by mythological narratives. Transmission of an hammering and lightning was the sparks this ideology is unsurprising or even inevitable in produced. This riddle appears to have conjunction with the new technology where provided a nexus of persistence: it opened a adopting that technology is indistinguishable mythological narrative in North Finnic from assimilating cultural practices. Randi traditions and was a mythic narrative Haaland (2004: 11) stresses that although the component in Latvian daina poetry. South technology and symbolism of iron-working Finnic and Baltic riddle traditions specify that can be separated in analysis, these should be the spark (lightning) fell into a mythic body recognized as “different aspects of the same of water or the sea. This location is elaborated empirical phenomena.” in the North Finnic mythological narrative traditions but not mentioned in the riddle.

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This suggests a common narrative model intersecting images, conceptual schemas and underlying Finnic and Baltic traditions. minimal narrative motifs, with culture- Saxo Grammaticus appears to refer to a specific conventional realizations identified Germanic tradition of the smith of heaven as with a particular mythic figure. These appear master of thunder. He mentions remarkably to be heavily stratified adaptations of a heavy hammers of Þórr described as cult common, historically underlying tradition that objects used to imitate thunder (Olrik & defies any concrete reconstruction. Ræder 1931: 350) comparable to the medieval Interestingly, the creation accomplished by Lithuanian cult hammer identified with the the smith of heaven, his liberation of the liberation of the captured sun (Vėlius 1996: stolen sun and placement of the sun / celestial 591; cf. Perkins 2001: 80). (N.B. – the fact bodies appear to have been secondary that Þórr’s lightning-weapon is precisely a nexuses, perhaps owing to a greater hammer could be explained by an earlier dependence on narration, and therefore on centrality of the smith of heaven.) Sámi and contexts appropriate to narration.3 Germanic cultures exhibit evidence of a nail Cross-cultural comparisons potentially mounted in a world pillar image or head of a complement this ethnocultural substratum thunder-god idol used in fire-striking to incite with additional minimal narrative cores or lightning (alternating with a flint, presumably motifs connected with the relevant mythic connected to the piece of whetstone – a stone figures. For example, Ilmarinen forges a wife which is itself an iron-working technology – of gold and a smith forges living hair of gold that, according to myth, became lodged in for Þórr’s wife; both forging events involve Þórr’s head). The image of the nail in the the production of a series of three objects world pillar is attested throughout Finnic and characterized by deformity or undesirability also in Sámi traditions, where the North Star (cf. Krohn 1903–1910: 247–279; Faulkes is the ‘bottom nail’ (cf. Old Norse veraldar 1998: 41–42). In the Þórr-myth, the forging nagli [‘nail of the world’]), on which the vault event incorporates the motif of the smith’s of heaven turns. This image presumably adversary taking the form of a flying and belongs to conceptions of a creation of the biting or stinging insect which causes world associated with iron-working imperfections in the smith’s works. In the technologies.2 Finno-Karelian Origin of Iron, a flying, Like the traditions of the tietäjä, together stinging insect (the ‘devil’s bird’) corrupts the these are suggestive of a package of elements smith’s work in the creation of iron itself, that became attached to thunder-gods in Indo- making it capable of doing harm (cf. Krohn European (and Sámi) cultures but to 1924: 86–90). Although the narrative core Ilmarinen in Finnic. This suggests Proto- may be minimal, these each present a Finnic *Ilmari was still the central celestial constellation of iron-working technology, a figure to whom attribution of the creation of figure associatable with the smith of heaven the sky and origin of thunder were appropriate tradition, and features that appear to at that time, as they would be to reflexes of characterize a particular mythological *Ilma in other Finno-Ugric cultures. This narrative in each culture (i.e. the narrative would be consistent with *Ilmari assimilating material does not appear to be freely the identity of the smith of heaven nearer the occurring in other myths nor characteristic of introduction of iron-working technologies and non-mythological folktales). The constellation prior to the revolutionary restructuring of the with restricted use particular to a specific mythological system accompanying the mythological narrarrative entity in each tietäjä-institution and incantations. culture (Frog 2011b) offers the possibility that Taken together, the smith of heaven and the parallels reflect some form of continuity. nail-star appear as nexuses of variously

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In some cases, the connection to iron- essential conditions for later exchange or working may have been lost as a historical otherwise typological parallels to develop. It process. For example, in Finno-Karelian is an area worthy of further investigation. traditions the spark struck by Ilmarinen in This system or network of material may in heaven is swallowed by a fish, the catching of many cases reflect developments of earlier which involves the invention of the seine-net material with an already long and stratified and group fishing (cf. Krohn 1924: 115ff.). history. For example, Nijolė Laurinkienė This parallels the event of catching Loki in (2008) argues that the narrative cycle about the form of a salmon – in a markedly different mythic smith included (among other things) a context: in a constellation with the invention myth of liberating the sun. The example is of the seine net, a community fishing event, interesting precisely because the incredibly fire (which initially burns the net) and Þórr as widespread ‘myth of the hidden sun’ (see the central figure who catches the fish Witzel 2005) was attached to the mythic (although Þórr’s relationship to the broader smith in these cultures. Similarly, Pentti Aalto narrative is questionable) (cf. Krohn 1924: (1987 [1975]: 89–96) observes that the myth 138–140; Frog 2010a: 333–334). of the smith’s spark from heaven being lost in Hypothetically, a devaluation of images of water is paralleled in Indo-Iranian traditions Þórr as a smith in heaven producing the spark (Agni [‘Fire’] hiding in water after being (although retaining the hammer?) could be born), where it could also be connected to an related to the adaptation of the mythic seine- aetiology of fishing as practice. A historical fishing adventure to a new context and relationship is not inherently unreasonable. application (cf. Frog 2011a). In other cases, Aalto situates this parallel in relation to the the narrative material may have simply lost other mythological parallels as a complement association with the smith of heaven figure to evidence of a rich stratum of Indo-Iranian and been ascribed elsewhere. For example, influences on the Finnic lexicon, advancing the forging of both the Finno-Karelian sampo toward a dynamic substratum model. and the fetter of the wolf Fenrir are associated Nevertheless, the origin of the net and with the motif of forging from materials connection to iron-working would be characterized by ‘lack’, and the created developments from this earlier stratum. objects have cosmological centrality in which Earlier bronze-working technologies may their essential role is to be destroyed in an underlie other narratives and images – for event of eschatological proportions (cf. example, when forging is described simply in Faulkes 1982: 27–28; Tarkka 2005: 160–175; terms of placing objects into a forge and Frog forthcoming). Taken independently, the removing them (consistent with casting) correlation of only a few core elements may rather than hammering. This does not appear as little more than coincidence and diminish their potential relevance to an iron- curiosity. However, these become cumulative working ethnocultural substratum, but it when indexed according to a substratum emphasizes the degree to which earlier strata model and they are connected to a remarkably may have been assimilated and concealed. large proportion of the mythic iron-working events in each culture. The minimal cores are The Problem of Biased Cores not conducive to reconstructing narratives and A synchronic ethnocultural substratum some of these may be later developments. characterized the fundamental network of They are nonetheless sufficient to suggest that elements underlying broad cultural a system of mythological narrative material competence. The examples outlined above developed and circulated cross-culturally as have highlighted a core system of presumably some sort of a package associated with iron- interconnected elements that differentiated the working technologies, and established stratum from that which preceded it, and

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which was assimilated, rejected or revised by central. These need not be reconciled with the those that followed it. In each case, the focus ideologies and functioning of semiotics in was narrowed and biased rather than genres outside the sphere of the institution. comprehensive according to cultural era. (Frog 2010b.) Consequently, genres Social institutions function through associated with different institutions can cultural practices and thus traditions are reflect very different modelling systems, essential to the functioning of social ranging from poetic features to institutions, whether healer, priest or representations of the otherworld. Thus the politician. A single community or network of central genres for the tietäjä, ritual lamenter small-group communities easily maintains and Christian priest may all even maintain several institutions of ritual specialists with markedly different mythologies. different fields of authority and social Interfaces across co-existing traditions and functions. For example, the tietäjä, Christian parallel ideologies appear to be a natural and priest and ritual lamenter may all be found in essential part of the historical process of the the same community. These may be parallel, evolution of traditions. Highlighting the primarily intersecting in the cultural resulting variation at the level of the competence of individuals, and particularly of individual can suggest flexibility to the point individuals competent in multiple such social of a tradition seeming almost chaotic. roles (cf. Stepanova forthcoming). They may However, the majority of this variation seems be complementary, even interfacing as to be resisted in the diachronic processes of counter-roles in complex ritual contexts (cf. social negotiation. (Cf. Converse 1964; Frog Pentikäinen 1978: 182–204, 221–227). They 2010a: 225–229; Stepanova forthcoming.) may even have been competing where fields These interface processes may play a of activity and authority were overlapping, as significant role in the development and with the tietäjä and shaman (Frog 2010a: maintenance of genres, their aesthetics, 138–139) or when ideologies were more semiotics and stylistics, as well as in the aggressively contested as sometimes occurred maintenance of associated institutions. Their between Christian priests and vernacular mere presence in a community environment specialists (cf. Haavio 1949 [1959]). where their significance is acknowledged Such institutions tend to be correlated with allows diverse systems to complement one particular oral genres. The institution (often) another through assimilations, contrast with maintains the specialists in those genres one another through oppositions, or to reshape central to its cultural practices. As such, it meanings and interpretations through the presents a conduit of authority for the alternatives offered by another system. transmission of those genres, with Selecting one social institution as a core implications for how those genres develop as for an ethnocultural substratum presents a a historical process. (Frog 2010a: 135–139.) biased picture. It is not inherently problematic Genres present conventionalized that the construction of a lateral category is constellations of features – ranging from form biased and narrowed according to focus: this and aesthetics to specific contents and is a function of developing ethnocultural ideologies – with refined or potentially highly substrata as a lateral indexing tool. However, specialized semiotics. A specialist of such an the bias must be recognized and acknow- institution internalizes and constructs ledged. Such substratum models with parallel ideologies and understandings of the world foci, intersecting and overlapping cores, can through genres and cultural practices to the then be correlated and consolidated. degree of exposure and interaction with them The discussions above emphasize the – hence those genres essential to his or her significance of correlation across cultures: in institution’s cultural practices may be most each case, the radical changes at the core of

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the substratum are directly identifiable with remains obscure. This could have taken a cultural contacts. Ethnocultural substrata have hundred years or a thousand; it may have the possibility to deepen insights into areal, initially fermented for centuries in coastal cross-cultural parallels according to genres in communities and only much later been terms of formal and semiotic features as well rapidly assimilated by communities to the east as in terms of specific contents (cf. Siikala and north. The tremendous differences in the 2002a; Frog 2010a; Stepanova 2011). ideology and traditions of the tietäjä and vernacular shamanism makes it reasonable to Relative Chronologies – Historical Processes distinguish these groups ethnically and As observed above, traditions always emerge ideologically: even where these belonged to a in a present filtered through the semiotics and common linguistic group, social identities cognitive models of the contemporary culture. tend to be developed around social and This is an ongoing historical process cultural practices with their associated functioning on the level of small-group ideologies (cf. Orthodox and Lutheran communities and interacting networks of such identities in the linguistically diverse region communities. The process is therefore not of Ingria). The ethnocultural substratum uniform over a broad cultural area, nor is it identifiable with the spread of the tietäjä- necessarily simultaneous over such an area. It institution can be described as progressing may arise from a gradual process of social historically in geographical scope rather than negotiation within and across communities, or having a unified chronology over the entire such negotiations may involve a more linguistic-cultural area. This is also true for aggressive, drastic and rapid progression iron-working technologies and Christianity. across language and dialect communities. In All of these socio-historical processes either case, the process is never instantaneous occurred at the level of small-group and always occurs within the context of an communities. The development of processes existing tradition ecology. The conversion to on a relative chronology at different rates in Christianity may be considered ‘drastic’, as different regions – or along a chronology – may (presumably) the earlier process of suggests that the characteristics of an conversion to the tietäjä-ideology (Frog ethnocultural substratum may have been 2010a: 127–141). However, the evidence only different at the time when transition processes presents the outcome of diachronic processes began in different regions. rather than a depiction of the processes themselves. Construction of the substratum The Problem of Transmitted Substrata concentrates on a core for a broad, abstract It was pointed out above that the tietäjä- and ideal model that minimizes variation. institution was characterized by an extensive Consequently, transitional processes between core system of textual entities – i.e. substrata remain only loosely defined – i.e. incantations, mythological narratives, and fuzzy categories. Syncretism and interfaces of whatever else the ritual specialist might multiple institutions nevertheless appear require. This was possible in part owing to the essential to these historical process, and there degree of verbal conservatism of the may have been long periods of interface Kalevala-meter. It raises two major issues. between, for example, the tietäjä-institution First, it is reasonable to consider that the and the vernacular shaman-institution. network of fundamental elements The history of the tietäjä-institution’s characterizing the ethnocultural substratum spread over the whole of the North Finnic may have extended to other aspects of linguistic-cultural area (as well as its poetics. In other words, the ritual specialist’s relevance to the linguistic and cultural authority in the community associated with assimilation of Sámi populations in Karelia) Kalevala-meter could have resulted in broad

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shifts in general poetic ideals. A local form of smith of heaven, the form of that identity the meter and poetics spreading with this which persisted may have been particular to institution could thereby become a dominant the spreading tietäjä-institution. Therefore, model over a large linguistic-cultural area. earlier ethnocultural substrata reflected Matti Kuusi (1994b) has in fact hypothesized through the tietäjä-institution’s repertoire such a process as the most reasonable may not necessarily shed light on traditions of explanation for differences between North the same or earlier substrata that were current Finnic and South Finnic forms of the common in other regions. This problem is amplified Finnic alliterative tetrameter. according to the number and magnitude of Second, strata on the continuum model substrata considered (e.g. motifs associated reflected purely through later strata could with bronze-working, potentially carried potentially have been spread as part of a later cross-culturally in the package of material stratum. For example, traditions related to the associated with iron-working technologies). smith of heaven may not have been universal across the North Finnic linguistic-cultural Perspectives area at the time when the tietäjä-institution Ethnocultural substratum provides a valuable spread. Evidence of the smith of heaven is tool in constructing modelling systems as centrally maintained in the incantation frames of reference in both synchronic and tradition of the tietäjä-institution. It is diachronic study. In diachronic study, this therefore probable that the smith of heaven tool offers a strategy for the lateral indexing tradition was established or competing at the of potential relevant indicators of historical time when the tietäjä-institution took shape or processes. Situating ethnocultural substrata during which it began to spread. However, along a continuum model has the potential to evidence of the smith of heaven may have offer insight into the breadth and magnitude been suspended as elements and references in of historical cultural processes of earlier eras. the core system of textual entities carried with The biases implicit in selecting a core for the institution. It can be observed, for developing an ethnocultural substratum are example, that in southwest regions where mitigated by the flexibility of these categories Ilmarinen’s significance is foregrounded, this as frames of reference for research, and for occurs within the core system of Väinö- future research in particular. Although initial centric poetic narratives which is (more or studies may incline to biases according to less) common across all regions where the theme, genre or social institution, these mythic narratives were preserved. This core models become complementary: their repertoire of the tietäjä-institution appears to correlation and comparison offer possibilities have completely assimilated or superseded the for generating new knowledge and deeper corresponding songs of the shaman- understandings. Within a culture, multiple institution, and it is not clear that local models can complement one another mythologies became established in variations synchronically or in the construction of of this repertoire. This process could occur diachronic continuum models. They may irrespective of whether different forms may complement one another across disciplines, as have been established in other areas: local in the correlation of folklore, linguistics and forms may simply have been assimilated or archaeology as Siikala (2002a) has done in wholly superseded by those embedded in the her research on the tietäjä-institution, or in spreading tradition. Local conceptions of cross-cultural studies, as in the case of iron- *Ilmari and *Väinö were presumably working technologies outlined above. As a displaced or assimilated by those tool, ethnocultural substratum has great accompanying the tietäjä-institution, and even potential for offering new and promising if *Ilmari was widely identified with the directions for future research.

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Notes 1. For a brief summary of data on North Finnic 1996: 257–258); this figure’s relationship to traditions, see Sarmela 1994: 128–129; on the Perkūnas raises questions of the stratification in this relationship to iron-working, see further Salo 2006: tradition and of potential variation in the 16–22; on Livonian traditions, see Loorits 1926: significance of Þjálfi / Þjelvar (cf. 51–52; in Latvian, see Biezais 1972: 105–106, 125– http://finds.org.uk/database/artefacts/record/id/4092 128. Proto-Finnic *Ilmari did not survive in 49; Frog 2011a: 79). Estonian. According to Arvo Krickmann’s comparative index of Estonian riddles (in Acknowledgements: I would like to thank Lauri preparation), Estonian examples of the smith of Harvilahti and Joonas Ahola for their comments and heaven riddle (see below) are not attested. suggestions while preparing this paper for publication. However, there is evidence of mythic iron-working I am grateful to Arvo Krickmann for his consultation activity identifiable with the smith of heaven, for on Estonian riddle traditions and to Jūratė Šlekonytė example providing an aetiology of the Northern for her tremendous help with Lithuanian materials. Lights rather than of thunder and lightning (cf. Loorits 1949–1953 II: 286–287, 385). This tradition Works Cited may underlie the traditional Lithuanian riddle Aalto, Pentti. 1987 [1975]. “Connections between Kubilius danguj šaukia = perkūnas / Perkūnas Finnish and Aryan Mythology”. In Studies in Altaic (http://www.aruodai.lt/paieska2/fiksacijos.php?OId and Comparative Philology. Studia Orientalia 59. =4304&FId=6757&back=home) [‘The (barrel)- Helsinki: Finnish Oriental Society. Pp. 80–98. hooper shouts in the sky = thunder / Perkūnas’]. Biezais, Heralds. 1972. Die Himmlische Götterfamilie (N.B. – the common noun ‘thunder’ and name of der Alten Letten. Uppsala: Uppsala Universitet. the god are identical.). If so, this variation in a Converse, Philip 1964. “The Nature of Belief Systems Lithuanian form would be consistent with in Mass Publics”. In Ideology and Discontent. Ed. Lithuanian variation at the periphery of other D. Apter. London: Free Press. Pp. 206–261. Circum-Baltic thunder-god traditions, in this case Drobin, Ulf, & Marja-Liisa Keinänen. 2001. “Frey, replacing ‘smithing’ with the god’s voice as a more Veralden omali och Sampo”. In Kontinuität und recognizable aetiology (cf. Frog 2011a: 84–85). Brüche in der Religionsgeschichte. Ed. M. 2. See e.g. Drobin & Keinänen 2001: 145–147; Tolley Strausberg. Berlin: de Gruyter. Pp. 136–169. 2009 I: 272–291. The term ‘nail-star’ is also found Faulkes, Anthony (ed.). 1982. Edda: Prologue and independently in a remote group of cultures as one Gylfaginning. London: Viking Society. among several terms for the North Star (cf. Harva Faulkes, Anthony (ed.). 1998. Edda: Skáldskaparmál. 1922: 10–12, 18, 23; Hultkrantz 1996). This is most London: Viking Society. probably an independent development of the world Foley, John Miles. 1995. The Singer of Tales in pillar image and does not appear associated with Performance. Bloomington: Indiana University any motifs which form the complex here. Press. 3. The fabrication of the vault of heaven survived in Frog. 2010. Baldr and Lemminkäinen: Approaching North Finnic only in references to the mythic event; the Evolution of Mythological Narrative through the theft of the sun almost completely disappeared the Activating Power of Expression. UCL Eprints. except in Ingria, where it assumed a moralistic London: University College London. Available: element appropriate to Christian ideologies and to http://eprints.ucl.ac.uk/19428/ tensions in social realities (see Frog forthcoming Frog. 2010b. “Narratiiv kui ravi: Riituse-etendus ja and works there cited). Traces of a Germanic narratiivi aktualiseerumine kogemusena”. fabrication of the celestial realm remain ambiguous Mäetagused 45: 7–38. and suggestive of stratification (cf. Vǫluspá 7; Frog. 2011a (in press). “Circum-Baltic Mythology? – Meyer 1891: 21–22, 99–100) and evidence of the The Strange Case of the Theft of the Thunder- theft of the sun is problematized by its relation to Instrument (ATU 1148b)”. Archaeologia Baltica the Masterbuilder Tale. The fabrication and 15: 78–98. liberation of the sun persisted in tale traditions in Frog. 2011b. “Distinguishing Continuities: Textual Baltic cultures. However, the smith is identified as Entities, Extra-Textual Entities and Conceptual Teljavel’ (Телявель) in evidence from medieval Schemas”. RMN Newsletter 2: 7–15. Lithuania, and performs for (?) the thunder-god Frog. Forthcoming. “Confluence, Continuity and Perkūnas who is not himself identified with the Change in the Evolution of Myth: Cultural Activity smith of heaven. (See Laurinkienė 2008: 5–8.) and the Finno-Karelian Sampo-Cycle”. In Mythic Teljavel’ is most probably cognate with Old Norse Discourses: Studies in Uralic Traditions. Ed. Frog, Þjálfi, servant of Þórr (Toporov 1970; for an A.-L. Siikala & E. Stepanova. Helsinki: Finnish overview of proposed etymologies, see Vėlius Literature Society.

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Haaland, Randi. 2004. “Technology, Transformation Pentikäinen, Juha. 1978. Oral Repertoire and World and Symbolism: Ethnographic Perspectives on View. FF Communications 219. Helsinki: European Iron Working”. Norwegian Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia. Archaeological Review 37(1): 1–19. Perkins, Richard. 2001. the Wind-Riaser and the Haavio, Martti. 1949 [1959]. “Eine karelische Eyrarland Image. London: Vikinig Society. Hekatombe”. In Essais folkloriques. Studia fennica Salo, Unto. 2006. Ukko: The God of Thunder of the 8. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. Pp. Ancient Finns and His Indo-European Family. 49–59. Wachington DC: Institute for the Study of Man. Hakamies, Pekka. 1999. “Ilmarinen ja kansanomaiset Sarmela, Matti 1994. Suomen kansankulttuurin teknoutopiat”. In Kalevalan hyvät ja hävyttömät. kartasto II: Suomen perinneatlas. Helsinki: Ed. U. Piela et al. Helsinki: Suomaliasien Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. Kirjallisuuden Seura. Pp. 79–92. Siikala, Anna-Leena. 2002a. Mythic Images and Harva, Uno. 1922. Der Baum des Lebens. Helsinki: Shamanism. FF Communications 280. Helsinki: Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia. Academia Scientiarum Fennica. Harvilahti, Lauri. 2003. The Holy Mountain: Studies on Siikala, Anna-Leena. 2002b. “The Singer Ideal and the Upper Altay Oral Poetry. FF Communications 282. Enrichment of Poetic Culture”. In The Kalevala and Helsinki: Academia Scientiarum Fennica. the World’s Traditional Epics. Ed. L. Honko. Hultkrantz, Åke. 1996. “A New Look at the World Studia Fennica Folkloristica 12. Helsinki: Finnish Pillar in Arctic and Sub-Arctic Religions”. In Literature Society. Pp. 26–43. Shamanism and Northern Ecology. Ed. J. Stepanova, Eila. 2011. “Reflections of Belief Systems Pentikäinen. Berlin: de Gruyter. Pp. 31–49. in Karelian and Lithuanian Laments: Shared Krohn, Kaarle. 1903–1910. Kalevalan runojen historia. Systems of Traditional referentiality?” Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. Archaeologia Baltica 15: 128–143. Krohn, Kaarle. 1924. Magische Ursprungsrunen der Stepanova, Eila. Forthcoming. “Mythic Elements of Finnen. FF Communications 52. Helsinki: Karelian Laments: The Case of syndyzet and Academia Scientiarum Fennica. spuassuzet”. In Mythic Discourses: Studies in Kuusi, Matti. 1963. “Varhaiskalevalainen Runous”. In Uralic Traditions. Ed. Frog, A.-L. Siikala & E. Suomen Kirjallisuus I. Ed. M. Kuusi, et al. Stepanova. Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. Pp. Tarkka, Lotte. 2005. Rajarahvaan laulu. Helsinki: 129–215. Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. Kuusi, Matti. 1994a. “The Five Stylistic Periods of Tolley, Clive. 2009. Shamanism in Norse Myth and Ancient Kalevala Epic”. In Mind and Form in Magic I–II. FF Communications 296–297. Folklore. Ed. H. Ilomäki. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Helsinki: Academia Scientiarum Fennica. Kirjallisuuden Seura. Pp. 37-49. Vajda, László. 1959. “Zur phaseologischen Stellung Kuusi, Matti. 1994a. “Questions of Kalevala Meter: des Schamanismus”. Ural-Altaische Jahrbücher 31: What exactly did Kalevala Language Signify to Its 456–485. Users?” In Songs Beyond the Kalevala. Ed. A.-L. Vėlius Norbertas (ed.). 1996. Baltų Religijos ir Siikala & S. Vakimo. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Mitologijos Šaltiniai I: Nuo Seniausių Laikų iki XV Kirjallisuuden Seura. Pp. 41–55. Amžiaus Pabaigos – Sources of Baltic Religion and Laurinkienė, Nijolė. 2008. “La imagen del cielo y los Mythology I: From the Oldest Times to the End of motivos de la creación del Sol en la mitología the 15th Century. Vilnius: Mokslo ir Enciklopedijų báltica”. Culturas Populares 6: 1–10. Available: Leidykla. http://www.culturaspopulares.org Vǫluspá. In Edda: Die Lieder des Codex Regius nebst Loorits, Oskar. 1926. Liivi rahva usund I. Tartu: vewandten Denkmälern I. Ed. G. Neckel & H. University of Tartu. Kuhn. 4th edn. Heidelberg: Carl Winters Loorits, Oskar. 1949–1957. Grundzüge des estnischen Universitätsbuchhandlung, 1963. Pp. 1–16. Volksglaubens I–III. Lund: Lundequist. Witzel, Michael. 2005. “Vala and Iwato: The Myth of Meyer, Elard Hugo. 1891. Die eddische Kosmogonie. the Hidden Sun in India, Japan, and beyond”. Freiburg: Mohr. Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies 12(1): 1–69. Olrik, J., & H. Ræder. 1931. Saxonis Gesta Danorum. Hauniæ.

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Conferences and Seminars

Conference Report: The Viking Age in Finland Seminars 28th–29th, April, 2011 and 11th–12th November, 2011, Helsinki, Finland Sirpa Aalto, University of Oulu

The collaborative interdisciplinary project members of such a diverse audience. Viikinkiaika Suomessa – Viking Age in Discussion was always lively and not only did Finland was introduced in the last RMN questions and debate following each paper ran Newsletter (May 2011). This project has for more than half an hour, it was also organized two seminars in 2011, which were regularly continued over coffee and lunch, hosted by Folklore Studies (Department of and also facilitated discussion of relationships Philosophy, History, Culture and Art Studies, between papers, fields and disciplines. University of Helsinki), and that were made possible thanks to support from the Finnish Cultural Foundation. The seminars were held 28th–29th April and 11th–12th November 2011, respectively. The purpose of the seminars was to open discourse across disciplines, with an emphasis on raising questions and opening discussion. The orientation toward cross- disciplinary discourse was emphasized by allowing approximately 30–40 minutes discussion following each presentation. Representatives of different disciplines were brought together to present the Viking Age as it is perceived and regarded within their particular fields, and what can or cannot be said about the conditions and cultures in Finland and associated areas in that period. The first seminar was The Viking Age in Each speaker was allowed approximately Finland Defined in the Light of the twenty minutes for presentation (in either Approaches of Different Disciplines, and the Finnish or English) and made a conscious purpose was to find out what the status quo is effort to introduce and discuss his or her field concerning the Viking Age in Finland. This and topic in a way that made it accessible kind of interdisciplinary discussion was very from other fields. These fields ranged from welcome, because the latest results in folklore and history to genetics and different fields may not be known by all meteorology. The orientation of presentations scholars. The seminar was opened by Lassi to broad cross-disciplinary discussion Heininen (University of Lapland), the leader frequently led papers to run as long as 25–30 of the project. He reminded the audience that minutes. This was nevertheless appreciated by we tend to forget that cultural and other all when that time was devoted to making impacts in the Viking Age were not just discussions and research accessible to moving from Central and Western parts of

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Europe to the North, but that actually the trade in the Viking Age was not conducted North first came south, as it were. solely with minted money. Ville Laakso (University of Turku) Research presented was certainly not commented that the term ‘Viking Age’ was restricted to disciplines in the humanities and easily accepted by Finnish archaeologists in social sciences. Heikki Tuomenvirta (Finnish the beginning of the 20th century. Meteorological Institute) discussed how to Interestingly, the term was not associated with reconstruct the climate in the past and the Vikings but it was rather used solely to make problems involved in this kind of research. As periodization clearer. The Viking Age in is generally known, the climate in Northern Finland (ca. 800–1050 AD) appears as a Europe seems to have been relatively warm in distinct period having some of the following the Viking Age. Tuomenvirta concluded that characteristics – e.g. women’s jewelry has in Finland the summers were probably Scandinavian features but is still unique and warmer than in the preceding and subsequent the weapons are mainly imported from centuries, and the average rainfall in the elsewhere. At the same time, the settlements spring was low, as well as the snowfall in the seem to expand. Nevertheless, archaeology winter. Teija Alenius (University of Helsinki) faces many challenging questions concerning presented on how the Viking Age appears how to interpret the finds, whether they can from a paleobotanical perspective. Alenius be associated with certain ethnicities, what has conducted pollen analyses from lake kind of peripheral settlement there was, and sediments, which can reveal whether there so forth. The settlement question has been was cultivation in certain areas and what was central in Finnish archaeology. Matti Leiviskä cultivated. Slash and burn cultivation, for (University of Oulu) has studied how the instance, appears clearly in paleobotanical settlements spread to Northern Ostrobothnia data. However, this kind of research can in the late Viking Age and the Early Middle reveal only limited information about the Ages. He showed that it is possible to cultivated land in the Viking Age, particularly demonstrate, on the basis of toponymic when sampling has been unevenly distributed evidence, that some of the inhabitants came across different regions. from Ylä-Satakunta (in central Southwestern Elina Salmela (University of Helsinki) Finland) around the year 1000 AD. Northern researches the Finnish genome. Her research Ostrobothnia was hardly a core area, but there addresses the question of how the modern must have been some kind of draw that Finns are genetically related to their brought people north. neighbours. Salmela emphasized that genetic Coin finds in particular have been research cannot resolve, for example, when important when looking at the Viking Age in certain peoples moved from one area to Finland because they show how the Finno- another. In the light of genetic research, it Karelians were connected to the outer world. seems that there are, however, significant Tuukka Talvio (National Board of differences between modern eastern and Antiquities) presented the results of his western Finns. Western Finns are genetically research, which show that the area of present- closer to Swedes from Norrland and Svealand day Finland was not the core area of Viking than to their eastern Finnish compatriots. Age trade. For instance, Estonia seems to Sirpa Aalto (University of Eastern Finland) have been more important to Viking trade gave a presentation on how the Viking Age is because over 10,000 coins have been found perceivable in Finnish historiography. Aalto there – more than have been found in Finland. stressed that in her opinion the word ‘Viking Nonetheless, conclusions cannot be drawn Age’ was long associated only with the straightforwardly from this information, as Scandinavian past by Finnish historians. The reasons for this lie mainly in the ideas of

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National Romanticism and nationalism. In the Petri Kallio (University of Helsinki) discussed Finnish historiography from the 19th century, the historical development of Finnic it was important to create a past for the languages into distinct forms as a historical Finnish people and thus to legitimize their process by reminding us that linguists are existence as a nation. Therefore, the historians unable to date language if there are no preferred to stress Finnish or Finno-Karelian contemporary sources. Therefore it is difficult culture, which, in their opinion, was to say anything definite about the Finnish perceivable in the poems of Kalevala. The language that was spoken in the Viking Age. historians preferred to call the Viking Age the Janne Saarikivi (University of Helsinki) ‘heathen past’, the ‘Iron Age’ or the ‘Age of presented how toponyms can be used in the the Tribes’. However, today the Viking Age is study of language areas. They often represent no longer considered to be an exclusively the earliest language that was spoken in the Scandinavian phenomenon and it is accepted area and they do not spread from one place to that it also has some kind of relevance to the another. For example, there are several place Finnish past. names in Southern and Central Finland that Joonas Ahola (University of Helsinki) and indicate that they were named by speakers of Frog (University of Helsinki) represented the a Sámi language. The question of where folkloristic research done in Finland – Finnic languages were spoken in the Viking research which naturally concentrated initially Age remains open, but according to Saarikivi, on the Kalevala. Ahola pointed out that the the core area of this language seems to have so-called Saarelaisepiikka [‘Islander-Epic’], a been outside present-day Finland. For cycle of oral poems in the Kalevala-meter that example, Finnic languages were spoken in has been dated by Matti Kuusi to originate in vast areas of Northern Russia. the Viking Age, is questionable as a source on The first seminar sustained lively the Viking Age. The poems have connections discussion, which continued in the second to the Viking Age, but they were collected seminar concentrated on Cross-Cultural and written down in the 19th and 20th Contacts and Their Significance in Finland in centuries. One of the most challenging the Viking Age, in the area of present day questions concerns what possibility there is to Finland and Karelia. The second seminar had date the poems. Frog reminded us that little more than twice the attendance of the first, new diachronic research has been done in the drawing scholars from other institutions past fifty years. The traditional poems in the around Finland to participate in the exciting Kalevala-meter – especially the above discussions surrounding each presentation. mentioned Saarelaisepiikka – could be On first day of the seminar, Jukka Korpela revaluated from different, updated (University of Eastern Finland) spoke about perspectives. how to understand mobility and space in the In his presentation, Clive Tolley Viking Age. He emphasized that we should (University of Turku) addressed loan words in not exaggerate, for example, how fast the Finnish language which seem to indicate innovations spread and also stressed that trade that the connections in the Viking Age seem had other functions than just the exchange of to have been one-sided. Nonetheless, the loan products. Joonas Ahola (University of words alone do not describe cultural contacts Helsinki) then discussed what kind of folklore or the intensity of these contacts. It has been connections the Scandinavian traditions may assumed that language and cultural contacts or could have had with the Finnic tradition of go hand in hand, which is not necessarily the the hero Kaukomieli and Russian bylina-epic case. In the same way, archaeologists tend to traditions related to Viking Age contacts. explain that changes in culture are due to a Ahola’s outline of potential relationships was change of ethnos. In his own presentation, thought to be plausible from an

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archaeological point of view because some contacts. Johan Schalin (University of kind of warrior ideal appears to have already Helsinki) also presented evidence from existed in Finnic communities in the Bronze linguistic research concentrating on place Age. In her presentation from just such an names, showing how some Finnish place archaeological perspective, Anna Wessman names have been borrowed into Swedish and (University of Helsinki) pointed out that the then back into Finnish, as well as elucidating Viking Age in Finland cannot be understood the problems of approaching this evidence properly without looking at the preceding and identifying specific loans more generally, periods, and that there may have been great offering a remarkably rich array of examples. cultural diversity across the areas under The seminar concluded with two papers on discussion. Mervi Koskela Vasaru (University archaeological evidence from Northern of Oulu) has done an extensive study on Finland. Jari-Matti Kuusela (University of medieval sources concerning Bjarmaland, and Oulu) discussed problems involved with the spoke about the possibility that the Bjarmians archaeological data collected from the areas could have been a people who spoke a Finnic of Northern Ostrobothnia, Koillismaa and language but who possibly assimilated with Kainuu, showing that the finds from the the Karelians later in the Middle Ages, and Viking Age in these areas are concentrated thus disappeared. inland as opposed to finds from earlier Mikko Heikkilä (University of Tampere) periods which were concentrated in coastal addressed the etymological background of the areas. Tiina Äikäs (University of Oulu), who name Kaleva, which refers to a mythic being recently defended her PhD thesis on Sámi or giant in Finnic cultures. Heikkilä argued sacrificial sites (seita) in Northern Finland, that the origin of the name could be traced to presented on seita and pointed out that it the same origin as the name Hlér in Old seems that, according her data, there was a Norse, with the implication that the people in gradual change in ritual activity of the Sámi the south-western part of Finland adopted the in the Viking Age and Early Middle Ages. name perhaps as early as 300–575 A.D., The open discussion at the conclusion of resulting in excited discussion. Frog the seminar highlighted the degree to which (University of Helsinki) spoke about myths participants from every discipline were and cultural contacts. He concluded that these dependent on other disciplines in order to processes occurred at the level of small successfully frame their research on the communities, both across language groups Viking Age. This emphasized the significance and within language and dialect groups, and of holding interdisciplinary seminars of this he challenged us to reconsider ‘cultural sort in the future, and The Viking Age in contacts’ to include contacts between Finland project is preparing to respond to that communities within a language group when need by organizing a more developed, addressing the spread of new beliefs and thematically prescribed seminar series in the technologies over a large cultural area. future. The lack of vernacular written documents Papers presented at the two seminars of the from the period makes it problematic to pilot year of the project are being developed address the language or languages in Finland into a peer-reviewed essay collection in during the Viking Age. In her presentation, English under the working title Defining and Kaisa Häkkinen (University of Turku) Contextualizing the Viking Age in Finland, observed that this is the main reason why edited by Frog (University of Helsinki) and there is not much research conducted focusing Joonas Ahola (University of Helsinki). The on that time frame, elucidating her more volume produced by the project is organized general discussion through addressing terms as a coordinated and cooperative effort with for different plants as evidence of cultural participants from both seminars. The

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coordination of participants and their articles production of a more coherent and unified seeks to better synthesize the diverse whole. It is hoped that the volume will be be contributions from wide-ranging disciplines. available at the end of 2012 or during 2013. This promises to lead to the fruitful

Conference Announcement: Register: Intersections of Language, Context and Communication 23rd–25th May 2012, Helsinki, Finland Kaarina Koski, University of Helsinki

‘Register’ originated as a term in linguistics and English (University of Missouri, USA), for contextual variation in language, or Susanna Shore, Adjunct Professor of Finnish language as it is used in a particular Language (University of Helsinki, Finland) communicative situation. This term and and Jim Wilce, Professor of Anthropology concept has become important across several (Northern Arizona University, USA). In intersecting disciplines, particularly in addition, participant presentations on register discussions of genre and approaches to and variation have been invited from all language in written versus oral disciplines. Presentations have been requested communication. As a consequence, ‘register’ to be accessible to participants from other has been used by folklorists, linguists and fields and open to cross-disciplinary linguistic anthropologists with varying fields discussion. of inclusion and exclusion, ranging from the The colloquium is organized by Folklore purely verbal level of communication to all Studies of the University of Helsinki and the features which have the capacity to signify research project Oral and Literary Culture in (props, gestures, etc.). Uses of ‘register’ have the Medieval and Early Modern Baltic Sea become highly diversified within the Region of the Finnish Literature Society. The scholarship of each field, and the different event will be held in the Great Hall of the fields have not opened a discourse with one Finnish Literature Society (2nd floor, another on this topic. The international Hallituskatu 1, Helsinki). colloquium Register: Intersections of If you would like to participate in the Language, Context and Communication is colloquium without presenting a paper, please intended to bring together representatives of inform us by the end of February by diverse perspectives in order to open cross- contacting Kaarina Koski (kaarina.koski[at] disciplinary discussion of the term and helsinki.fi). When informing us of your concept ‘register’. participation, please also let us know whether Keynote speakers at the colloquium will you would be interested in moderating a be: Asif Agha, Professor of Anthropology session. (University of Pennsylvania, USA), Ruth For more information, please see also our Finnegan, Professor of Sociology and webpage at http://www.helsinki.fi/ Anthropology (Open University, UK), John folkloristiikka. Miles Foley, Professor of Classical Studies

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Conference Report: Cultural Exchanges across the Baltic Sea in the Middle Ages Symposium and Workshop: First Meeting of the Austmarr Network 14th–15th April 2011, Tartu, Estonia. Mart Kuldkepp, University of Tartu

The name Austmarr is a rare poetic Old Norse Tartu, gave a talk titled “Migratory Legends term for the Baltic Sea. The words by the 9th in Estonian Folklore”, mostly focusing on century Þjóðólfr hvinverski about king folk legends and different classification Ingvarr’s death in Estonia are well known: systems. He discussed both different ways of distinguishing genres and types of tales in ok Austmarr jǫfri sœnskum folklore. Frog, from the Department of Gymis ljóð Philosophy, History, Culture and Art Studies at gamni kveðr. at the University of Helsinki, held a (Finnur Jónsson 1912–1915: 11.) presentation on “Questions of Ethnocultural Substrata in the Finno-Karelian Song of The East Sea sings her song of waves; Creation and the Sampo-Cycle”, investigating King Yngvar’s dirge is ocean’s roar Resounding on the rock-ribbed shore. the possibility that some forms of exchange (Laing 1844: 247.) from Germanic to Finno-Karelian culture

th th could have taken place in the context of a On 14 –15 April 2011, the Department of larger mythological narrative tradition Scandinavian Studies at the University of circulating in the Baltic Sea region. Tartu, Estonia, became the first official After the coffee break, the first day of the meeting place of the Austmarr Network, a symposium continued with Charlotte network uniting scholars interested in Hedenstierna-Jonson from the Museum of comparative and interdisciplinary work in the National Antiquities in Sweden, who field of pre-modern history and culture of the presented her research project on identity, peoples living around the Baltic Sea. This self-image and cultural expression in Viking research network was initiated by Professor Age Sweden called Birka, Rus´ and Nordic Daniel Sävborg of the University of Tartu as a Gentes. The project focuses on the inhabitants sub-group in the wider scholarly movement of Birka and was presented in Tartu under the interested in the re-actualization of title “Searching for Identities in Funerary retrospective methods in the fields of history Practices and Material Culture”. Professor and culture studies, aiming to further their use Janne Saarikivi, from the Department of in this particular regional context. Finnish, Finno-Ugrian and Scandinavian These two days in Tartu brought together Studies at the University of Helsinki, gave scholars from Finland, Sweden, Poland and some “Remarks on the Denominations of the Estonia, who had the opportunity to present Pre-Christian Deities in Finnic Languages”, ongoing research, discuss future plans for the examining the problem of deity names and network and – last but not least – to socialize other pre-Christian religious terminology and get to know each other better. The among the Finnic-speaking peoples. symposium was organized as a series of The first day was completed with two presentations lasting around twenty minutes presentations focusing on more recent eras: each. The presentations covered a Professor Leszek Słupecki, from the considerable breadth of topics and were, University of Rzeszów, gave an overview of without exception, followed by a lively the history and the present-day status of Old discussion. Norse Studies in Poland, and PhD student Ülo Valk, Professor of Estonian and Mart Kuldkepp, from the Department of Comparative Folklore at the University of Scandinavian Studies, University of Tartu,

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discussed the reception of Old Norse presentation of the phenomenon of Literature in Estonia. changelings in Estonian and Swedish folklore Even though the symposium programme by PhD student Siiri Tomingas-Joandi of the was formally over for the first day, the Department of Scandinavian Studies, evening continued with a longer guest lecture University of Tartu. The second day in Swedish for the students and academic staff concluded with a roundtable discussion of of the Department of Scandinavian Studies by future plans for the Austmarr Network. Maths Bertell, from the Department of It was decided that the next meeting will Ethnology, History of Religions and Gender be on the theme Transcultural Contacts in the Studies at Stockholm University. The lecture Circum-Baltic Area Symposium and was concerned with the question of Workshop and take place in Helsinki, similarities and differences between Finland, organized by Frog and Janne Scandinavian Þórr and the Estonian thunder Saarikivi at the University of Helsinki. The god, especially in the context of the myth of meeting is tentatively scheduled to take place the stolen thunder-weapon. The lecture was on 1st –2nd of June 2011, coordinated with the greatly appreciated by both the students and Sixth Nordic-Celtic-Baltic Folklore staff of the Department of Scandinavian Symposium, Supernatural Places, to be held Studies and the participants of the in Tartu, Estonia, June 4th–7th, 2012. The symposium. Austmarr meeting is planned to allow one day The second day began with a presentation of travel from Helsinki to Tartu in order to by Tõnno Jonuks, Senior Researcher at the facilitate the participants’ attendance at both Estonian Literary Museum, on the image of meetings. The precise dates of the network Estonia in Old Norse literature, which was meeting will be fixed in February when the found to be two sided: Viking Age Estonia schedule of the symposium in Tartu is was apparently well-known to Scandinavians finalized. With the second meeting of the as a part of the same Baltic Sea region, but Austmarr Network, we hope to engage other later came to be associated with monsters and scholars from the countries around the Baltic magic. The day continued with Maths Bertell Sea, so that Russia, Latvia, Lithuania, giving a talk on Þórr, Fjǫrgyn and their Germany, Denmark and so forth will also be connection to Lithuanian Perkūnas. represented in future meetings. Amongst Daniel Sävborg gave a short presentation other things, this might open up the exciting of his future research plans on Estonian folk possibility of hearing and comparing traditions related to Viking and pre-Viking alternative perspectives on processes which Scandinavia. Most of these traditions are affected the whole region, such as the certainly based on late, written sources of a crusades or the functioning of the Hanseatic learned tradition, but the development of such League. traditions is nevertheless interesting, and there could potentially also be folk traditions about Works Cited medieval Scandinavia with actual medieval Finnur Jónsson. 1912–1915. Den norsk-islandske roots. skjaldedigtning B1.: Rettet tekst. København, Rosenkilde og Bagger. This was followed by another coffee break, Samuel Laing. 1844. The Heimskringla or Chronicle of during which the participants of the the Kings of Norway.Vol. 1. London, Longmans. symposium could read the fine poster

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People

Research Reports

The Question of Borders in Vepsian Folk Belief Madis Arukask, University of Tartu

Paper presented at the Fifth International Symposium on Finno-Ugric Languages: The Finno-Ugric Contribution to International Research on Folklore, Myth and Cultural Identity, organized by the Department of Finno-Ugric Languages and Cultures, University of Groningen, 7th–9th June 2011, Groningen, the Netherlands.

The meaning of being a human (ristit) seems closer observation in the paper. These to be more important in traditional Vepsian practices and customs are still well known or folk belief than relatedness to Orthodox remembered among my informants in the Christianity (as the high religion). The present day. In rituals, the imaginary border relationship to other(ness) and to the between the forest and community is anomalous is central here. Self-determination, safeguarded, and the customs contain a lot of both on the collective and personal level, symbolic diplomacy. Central here is the takes place through cultural delimitation, herdsman’s role and the taboos in his daily which is expressed via different speech acts, work. In the paper, the customs connected to folklore genres and practices. The herding magic on the broader North-Russian traditionality of Vepsian culture in everyday areal background are under consideration. life appears in characteristic personal The original material analysed in the paper expressions, which help to define the personal was collected on expeditions conducted in self and terminate communicative situations. Vepsian villages in 2007–2010. Among folklore practices, the magic procedures connected to herding are under

The Choice of Faith in East European Folklore Olga Belova, Institute for Slavic Studies (Moscow), Russian Academy of Science

Paper presented at Conversions and Ideological Changes in the Middle Ages in Comparative Perspective, organized by the Institute of History, University of Rzeszów, 29th September – 1st October 2011, Rzeszów, Poland.

The paper presents a short survey of folk are not widespread in oral tradition, remaining legends about the choice of faith by different instead a facet of literary texts. All the more nations fixed from the middle of the 19th interesting is to analyze folk narratives century until the present in Slavic Christian dealing with the problem of ‘one’s own’ and and East European Jewish traditions. The folk ‘the other’ religion and the folk attitude to the versions of the plot about the choice of faith faith of ethnic neighbours. The paper is based

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on the folklore evidence from the 19th century eschatological ones (the legends about the up to the present day from different regions of nations’ fate at the Last Judgement, the Slavic world. The modern material was depending on their religious identification). gathered during our field research at the The following points were under cultural and confessional borderline – in consideration: regions such as Ukrainian and Belorussian 1. How different religions appeared. Polesie and Western Ukraine (Galicia and 2. The founders of religions and the Bukovina). The texts about the choice of faith acquisition of faith. reflect the ideas and opinions of the Orthodox 3. The nationalization of sacral persons. and Roman Catholics (as in Polesie), 4. Changing/choosing the faith (the motif Orthodox, Roman Catholics and Greek- of folklore texts). Catholics (as in Galicia), the Christians and 5. The choice of faith and oral history. the Jews (as in Bukovina), and the Christians 6. The choice of faith and folk eschatology. and the Muslims (as in the Balkan regions). The topic of the choice of faith is presented As the folklore evidence shows, the choice of in different kinds of folk legends – from faith, being a literary motif in its origin, found cosmogonic (God himself gives the religion, its place in oral tradition and became an sacral texts and religious festivals to integral part of the folk worldview and of Ukrainians, Poles, Jews, Russians, etc.) to national folklore.

Conceptualizing Chaos and Conflict in the Assertion of Order: Finno-Karelian Magic, Ritual and Reality in Long-Term Perspective Frog, University of Helsinki

Paper presented at Peace, War, Folklore: The 123rd Annual Meeting of the American Folklore Society, 12th–15th October, 2011, Bloomington, Indiana, USA.

Magic and ritual practices are strategies for illness diagnostics. Finno-Karelian interacting with reality. These strategies are conceptions of illness were based on the reflexes and reflections of how individuals penetrable body but did not include a conceptualize realities in their societies. This separable soul. Illnesses were conceived of as paper approaches evidence of Finno-Karelian dangerous forces that penetrated or attached magical and ritual practices, and particularly themselves to a victim. These were regularly those employed by the vernacular ritual attributed to a hostile and active agent, but specialist called a tietäjä. It addresses a) active agents never penetrated the body battle imagery in conceptualizations of the themselves (i.e. there was no ‘spirit- healing event, b) the ritual use of a possession’). These conceptual models of mythological battle to stabilize seasonal body and spirit were incompatible with change, and c) situates these in long-term classic shamanism. Rather than a healing-rite perspectives of the synthesis and adaptation developed on the narrative paradigm of a of conceptual models in changing cultural dangerous (shamanic) journey to a remote circumstances. mythic location to negotiate the recovery of As a Finno-Ugric culture, Finno-Karelian the patient, a tietäjä employed incantations in traditions inherited a form of ‘classic’ or which he summoned armour, weapons and Central and Northern Eurasian shamanism. support (including men slain in battle) over However, the concepts of the soul-journey of the patient in order to forcefully compel his the healer is absent, as is soul-loss from adversaries with no reciprocal negotiation –

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confronting and banishing an adversary that The long-term perspectives focus on a had penetrated the community within that revolution in technologies and cultural immediate context. This conceptually practices used as a primary means of identified the healing act with a battle over the interaction with the otherworld during the immediate body of the patient. However, the Iron Age. The shift from a form of semiotics of battle appear largely or purely as ‘shamanism’ to the institution of the tietäjä power-attributes: weapons are never used; associate it with a period of radical social and armour is never assailed; ‘battle’ is never cultural change during the Iron Age. This realized. transition had complex and pervasive impacts The most well-known myth of Finno- on the vernacular semiotic system, and carried Karelian epic traditions is the cycle of a reservoir of images and motifs from that narratives surrounding the mysterious object milieu that exhibit a long-term historical called a sampo, which the heroes steal from continuity. This process seems to have had the ‘North’ on a sea-raid, climaxing in a battle revolutionary impacts on conceptualizations with the monstrous mistress of the otherworld of relationships and interactions with forces in (who has transformed herself, her ship and the unseen world. This new mode was entire crew into a giant bird). This myth was incompatible with the inherited form of performed in sowing rituals in order to secure shamanism on the one hand. On the other, it crops against the return of frost. The use of found continued relevance in changing the myth mapped the threat of frost over the cultural practices, adapting even into the ‘North’; through the verbal actualization of modern age: these same, essential incantation the battle in which she was originally strategies were applied in contexts ranging defeated, her defeat was re-actualized and from securing oneself from bullets in warfare prevented the return of frost in the new year. to staging oneself for victory in a dissertation defence.

Traditional Epic as Genre: Definition as a Foundation for Comparative Research Frog, University of Helsinki

Paper presented at Traditional and Literary Epics of the World: Textuality, Authorship, Identity, the Kalevipoeg 150, organized by the Estonian Literary Museum and the Institute for Cultural Research and Fine Arts, University of Tartu, 29th–30th November 2011, Tartu, Estonia.

The understanding of epic genres has been identity representations in the traditional shaped by Western scholarship, dominated by community or group receiving the epic.

Classical models. This has conditioned This definition is notably concerned with definitions of epic to include formal individual ‘epics’, not genre. The present characteristics of those models although these paper deconstructs this definition reducing it are questionable in cross-cultural contexts. to a foundation of ‘epic’ in social and This is even found in Lauri Honko’s (1998: semiotic functions, and stressing that these 28) now widely quoted definition: functions are socially negotiated. Epics are great narratives about exemplars, Rather than individual or unique texts, this originally performed by specialised singers as paper is concerned with recognizing a superstories which excel in length, power of vernacular genre as ‘epic’. Genre is expression and significance of content over approached in terms of a constellation of other narratives and function as a source of prescriptive conventions related to form,

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content and applications within a vernacular the authority imported by the form. If the genre system. The specific conventions are signifying system of form is used to represent all culture-dependent. This problematizes inappropriate content, the product is only an asserting formal features (e.g. length) as epic metaphorically (figure 2). universals (although they may be common in Content – form = metonymically epic large isoglosses). A Saussurian model of the Form – content = metaphorically epic sign is employed for identifying ‘epic’ as a generic product according to vernacular Figure 2. Description of only one element of the signifier–signified relationship of a Saussurian- conventions of form and content within that based genre model. discourse. In other words, just as the relationship of signifier and signified Conventions of application are essential to the constitute a sign, a relationship of form maintenance of the epic form’s capacity to (refined system of signification) and content confer the authority of epic on new or (that which is represented through unfamiliar content (i.e. the ability to assume signification) constitute an epic according to an epic’s social and semiotic capacities). This generic classification (figure 1). leads to the following working definition of the epic genre: Signifier + signified = sign Form + content = epic a mode of expression characterized as a constellation of prescriptive conventions Figure 1. Description of ‘epic’, following the concerning form, content and applications, Saussurean model of a sign, as a product and that affirms the social centrality and according to a combination of form as represent- validity of the mythic status of the narrative ation and content as that which is represented. that becomes its object of representation. Form is approached as conventional This abstract definition is intended to provide prescriptive strategies of representation that a frame of reference for identifying and correspondingly function as a refined approaching vernacular epic traditions and (æsthetically marked) system of signification. their social and semiotic functions in cultural It remains conventional to discuss content practices. This definition is not intended to be without form (e.g. a summary) as ‘epic’. prescriptive. It seeks to provide a cross- However, accepting the generic typology, this cultural basis for comparisons of genres would not be a generic producs; it would only according to social, semiotic and discourse be an ‘epic’ metonymically: any epic status functions and theri maintainence within a conferred on it depends on conventional vernacular genre system – comparison association with generic presentation (i.e. epic according to genre equivalence rather than form). Conventions of content in an epic identity (cf. Saussure 1916: 158–162). The genre may initially be loosely described in abstract cross-cultural definition provides a terms of appropriate as opposed to point of reference for approaching distinct inappropriate. Appropriate content stands in a cultural characteristics or uses of epic. It also reciprocal relationship with form. Where has value for discussing historical processes content is established within a community, through which genres may be advanced to or form affirms the epic authority of that displaced from epic functions. content, and content reciprocally affirms the ability of form to affirm and also to confer Works Cited authority. In circumstances where otherwise Honko, Lauri. 1998. Textualizing the Siri Epic. FF acceptable content is not established or Communications 264. Helsinki: Suomalainen wholly unfamiliar, form functions in the Tiedeakatemia. capacity of an iconic sign which identifies Saussure, Ferdinand de. 1916 [1967]. Cours de that content as ‘epic’. Content that is linguistique générale. Paris: Éditions Payot & Rivages. conventionally not appropriate contrasts with

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The Runo Song of Killing a Snake: Origin and Transformations Matej Goršič, University of Ljubljana

th Paper presented at “Sa laulad siinnä, ma laulan siellä...”: The 4 Regilaulu Conference, organized by the Estonian Literary Museum, 24th–25th November 2010, Tartu, Estonia.

The paper presents a new interpretation of a of the song’s lines within runosong poetry) line cluster type, called ‘The Runo Song of and inter-culturally (the closest parallels are Killing a Snake’ by the author. The found in the Rig Vedic and Slavonic interpretation of the song presented in the material). On the basis of this examination, forthcoming article is the final result of conclusions on the origin and transformations several years’ worth of research, and differs of the song’s images are drawn. Key words of fundamentally from the interpretation of the the article are: runosong poetry, Indo- song originally proposed at the conference. European thunderstorm myths, Rig Veda, The article begins by introducing the two comparative mythology, typological and types of the song, its variants, and its linguistic analysis, origin and transformations. structure. The introduction is followed by a A fundamentally revised version of this presentation of the history of research of the paper will be published in the proceedings of song. In the central part of the article, images the conference, edited by Mari Sarv, to appear of the song types are examined both intra- in Studia Mythologica Slavica 15 (2012). culturally (typological and linguistic analysis

St Brun of Querfurt and His Relation from a Mission to the Pechenegs Karol Kollinger, University of Rzeszów

Paper presented at Conversions and Ideological Changes in the Middle Ages in Comparative Perspective, organized by the Institute of History, University of Rzeszów, 29th September – 1st October 2011, Rzeszów, Poland.

The mission of St Bruno to the Pechenegs in By way of conclusion, I suggested that the 1008 is special because the expedition is first important leg of this mission was Kiev, related in a text written by Bruno himself. It is where Bruno had to persuade Vladimir the a part of The Letter to King Henry II Great to accept his ideas. Vladimir indeed (Karwasińska 1972: 97–106), written at the accepted Bruno’s plans and assumed his new end of 1008, in the court of Boleslaw the role – as a political backer of the Valiant. In this paper I analysed Bruno’s text, Christianising mission. Bruno organised this because my main question was what we can mission because he felt it possible that he conclude from reading this source. could Christianize the land of the Pechenegs. As a starting point, I investigated three In the second part of the paper, I tried to problems: analyse some key problems concerning the progress of Bruno’s mission and its results.

 Where did Bruno start his mission to the For example: Pechenegs?  Who was the political backer of Bruno’s  Why did the Pechenegs decide to mission? convoke the assembly of all nomads?  Why did Bruno organise a mission to the  Was Bruno’s mission a success, if he Pechenegs? gained only thirty souls for a new religion?

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 Why did Bruno write that the Pechenegs come to grips with Islam? We have some ‘were the worst and cruellest people of all interesting fragments in the Book of Highways the pagans on earth’, if, in the text as a and of Kingdoms, written by Al-Bakri, about whole, we can also see another picture of the conversion of the Pechenegs to Islam. But the Pechenegs? in Bruno’s case, we can only say that we do not know whether Bruno had some contact At the end of the paper, I considered some with Islam or not. additional problems. Firstly, I addressed the issue of the consecration of a for the Works Cited Pechenegs by Bruno. Secondly, I considered Karwasińska, J. 1997. Brunonis Querfurtensis Epistola whether Bruno’s mission was an experiment ad Henricum regem. Monumenta Poloniae for him, in the midst of which he wanted to Historica (series nova) 4:3. Warsaw 1972.

Conversion of Royal Ideology: Christian Background of Reign of Cnut the Great in England Jakub Morawiec, Silesian University

Paper presented at Conversions and Ideological Changes in the Middle Ages in Comparative Perspective, organized by the Institute of History, University of Rzeszów, 29th September – 1st October 2011, Rzeszów, Poland.

In 1017, Cnut the Great became king of poetry composed at Cnut’s court. Although England. It was the result of a two year most poets praise the king for his military conquest, mainly marked by the series of achievements, including those against the military encounters with Edmund Ironside. As English (see Sigvat Þorðarson’s and Óttar a usurper, Cnut had no right to the throne. svarti’s Knútsdrápur and anonymous Moreover, there were rightful heirs still alive. Liðsmannaflokkr), Hallvarðr Háreksblesi in Thus it was of high importance for the new his Knútsdrápa adds a new dimension to regime to find ways to legitimise its royal presentation of the king. This skald praises power in England. It was the English Church Knut as the protector of the kingdom and that very quickly appeared as the natural, compares him to God, who equally protects obvious and best ally of new king. Heaven (the splendid hall of the mountains). Although Cnut was undisputedly Christian This shift has its most visible at the time of his acquisition of the English representation in Cnut’s relations with the throne, his Christian background remains English Church. One of the most prominent rather obscure. Most likely, the scope of the Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastics of that time, religious element in royal ideology in Anglo- Wulfstan Archbishop of York, was an author Saxon England was new for him. of law codes, promulgated in 1018 in Oxford Nevertheless, Cnut very quickly adapted to and in 1020/1021 in Winchester, respectively. his new conditions and circumstances. Thus Both legislations bear the heavy mark of we can talk about a conversion of royal Christian doctrine, most likely influenced by ideology of new English king. Wulfstan’s own views. There are references In general terms, it meant a shift from the to the defence of one Christian faith and the typical Viking leader, a skillful, brave and Church, promotion of ecclesiastic reform and generous warrior, to a Christian king, elimination of pagan rituals and practices. promoter of peace and protector of his Cnut’s patronage of ecclesiastic subjects and land. This shift, based entirely on institutions developed greatly across his entire Christian doctrine, is also seen in skaldic reign. The king appeared to be a generous

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donator of land and of both judicial and Æthelnoth of Canterbury, Ælfwine of financial privileges to numerous abbeys and Winchester, Lyfing of Credition-Cornwall minsters. It also included distribution of and of Wells. The case of Brihtwine of precious gifts, especially relics of saints. Wells seems to be especially intriguing. He Royal crowns occupy a special place. There replaced a former bishop, who had been are stories about the king giving away his expelled by Cnut around 1023 just to take part crowns to communities in Winchester and as one of the three concelebrants of the Canterbury. Although rather late and spurious translation of relics of St Ælfheah in the same regarding facts, these stories may have arisen year. from authentic gestures by Cnut, influenced Cnut, with extensive support from the by his visit to Rome in 1027. English Church, promoted and patronized the Many English bishops attested Cnut’s cult of Anglo-Saxon saints. The king took diplomas, and the witness lists let us estimate particular interest in the cults of St. Edmund the group of churchmen that supported the of East Anglia, St. Edward the Martyr and St. king. It is clear that Wulfstan and Ælfric Ælfheah. The translation of relics of this last Puttoc of York and Ælfstan and Æthelnoth of saint was one of the biggest religious Canterbury played the most prominent roles. occasions during Cnut’s reign, and it However, there were also others, like Lyfing manifested a strong alliance of the royal court Bishop of Cornwall and Credition, Ælfsige of and the archbishopric of Canterbury. Winchester and Byrthwold of Ramsbury, who Cnut also patronized the memory of were trusted by the king. In several cases, Edmund Ironside, whom he called his brother. Cnut took care to place his own candidate in One may list two main events connected with the vacant seat. Some of them had already it: the foundation of the minster in Ashingdon been attached to the king as members of his in 1020, and the king’s visit to Glastonbury in royal chapel. Such was the case with 1032 where Edmund was buried.

Turning Wine into Water: Unfermented Liquids in the Corpus of Kennings Referring to Poetry Debbie Potts, Cambridge University

Paper presented at the Cambridge Symposium, organized by the Department of Anglo-Saxon, Norse and Celtic, Cambridge University, 28th–29th June 2011, Cambridge, UK.

The corpus of kennings referring to poetry is phenomenon which appears in a distinctive awash with bodies of water associated with group of reknar kenningar [‘extended the natural world. The most common liquid kennings’] where poetry is visualised in terms force of nature functioning as a base concept of a liquid in a (mind) container. Given that in poetry kennings is the sea, in its various the dominant metaphor which permeates the mutations, but we are also confronted by poetry-kenning tradition conceptualises the fjords, waterfalls, rivers and rain. The referent as an intoxicating drink, it is striking concept of a natural body of water clearly to note that only two felt compelled to inspired a great deal of imaginative vibrancy extend this metaphor within the larger verse in the self-reflexive language of skalds; context, developing an evocative image of almost half of the verse contexts in which poetic mead, consumed by the ear-mouths of these kennings appear elaborate on the poetry- the audience. This is found in Egill sea metaphor in some way. Such elaboration Skallagrímsson’s Arinbjarnarkviða 6 and may also be internal to the kenning figure, a Haukr Valdísarson’s Íslendingadrápa 1.

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Indeed, the mutual adoption of the metaphorical relationship between the sea and construction hlustar munnar [‘mouths of intoxicating beverages evinced in the hearing’] in both these sources may suggest traditions of kennings referring to drink; the the intertextual influence of one on the other. extension of a structural metaphor that The occurrence of a natural body of water conceptualises the human body in terms of the as a base concept in this corpus has been natural world. The two former possibilities accounted for with the assumption that this would suggest that the presence of a natural kind of liquid signifies mead metonymically. body of water is somehow cognitively reliant In this paper, I considered some other on its linguistic and conceptual relationship potential motivations that may underlie the with drink, whereas the latter places it within salient presence of a natural body of water: the context of a pervasive metaphor that the extension of terms for drink into the provides the cognitive motivation for a sphere of heiti (specialised poetic terms) for number of other kenning types in the skaldic natural bodies of water through a form of corpus. ofljóst (word play); the embedded

The Virgin Mary in Karelian Folk Poetry and in the Kalevala Senni Timonen, Finnish Literature Society

Paper presented at Kalevala: Finnish and Karelian Epic, Folk Poetry, Art and Music, organized by the Kalevala Society, 28th–29th May 2011, Cividale del Friuli (Udine), Italy.

The Christian themes in the Finno-Karelian 1. How Mary miraculously became Kalevala-metre songs and charms have their pregnant, origin in the Middle Ages, in the time when 2. How she sought a place to give birth to Christianity reached Finland (from the Roman her son and was driven to a stable on a hill, Catholic West), and Karelia (from the Russian 3. How she lost her son and searched for Orthodox East). The Virgin Mary in particular him, was so popular among Finns and Karelians 4. How she found her son in a grave and that not even the Reformation destroyed the how he was released, memory of her in folk culture. In the charms 5. How he (or she) went to the smithy of and prayers of Lutheran Finland and Hiisi (i.e. to Hell) and shackled the smith Orthodox Karelia, she was still the figure (= the Devil) forever. most often called on for help in the 19th In this paper, I will concentrate on theme 3, century. the search of the child, and address some of In Orthodox Karelia, the Virgin Mary also its continuation into theme 4. appears in the epic song cycle depicting the The search song has a wide European life of Christ (The Song of the Creator). In background. The Virgin in search of her son some areas, it was she who in fact became the (Maria Wanderung) is one of the most heroine, and there the cycle was given the title beloved Marian themes in popular religious The Song of Mary. Told from her point of songs from Scandinavia to Italy, and from view, this version, mostly sung by women, Great Britain and Russia and Germany. The concentrates on the feelings and actions of the characteristic feature of this song type is the Mother, not on those of the Son. combination of the Nativity and the Passion. The Song of Mary contains the following In the structure of the Karelian Song of themes: Mary, the search theme is central. Its position in the middle of the cycle is emphatic, its

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variants are more numerous and more  How does the Karelian version of the elaborated than those of any other theme of search song differ from other European the cycle, and it has correspondences in many versions? other women’s songs in Karelia. Elias  How did Lönnrot use the Karelian song Lönnrot also understood the expressive power of Mary’s search? of the child-search theme. He used the song in  Did Lönnrot appreciate Karelian the Kalevala twice, in connection with two women’s experience and interpretation extraordinary women and mothers: or did he use and change it to his own Lemminkäinen’s mother and the Virgin Mary. purposes? In this paper, I will discuss the following questions: Particularly in the case of Lemminkäinen’s mother, Lönnrot created an image of ideal  Is the popularity of the child-search song Finnish womanhood/motherhood/maternal based on a deep, almost archetypal love – an image which has had a profound female experience? impact on gender stereotypes in Finnish culture.

A Putative Sámi Charm on an Icelandic Spade: Runic Reception, Magic and Contacts Kendra Willson, University of California, Los Angeles / University of Turku

Versions of this paper were presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Advancement of Scandinavian Studies, 28th–30th April 2011, Chicago, Illinois, USA; Re-mapping Runic Landscapes, 25th–26th May 2011, Krakow, Poland; and the Fifth International Symposium on Finno-Ugric Languages in Groningen: The Finno-Ugric Contribution to International Research on Folklore, Myth and Cultural Identity, 7th–9th June 2011, Groningen, The Netherlands.

Olsen and Bergsland (1943) proposed that a been accepted by all later runologists, thitherto undeciphered sequence boattiat in a although it also presents difficulties. runic inscription (boattiatmik i i t r ' Marstrander also suggests that the object was kærþi) on a 12th century wooden spade found a ritual spade used at funerals by the priest in a bog in Iceland was the Sámi word boahtit Páll Sölvason (d. 1185), and that its [‘to come’]. They interpreted this as a charm: deposition in the bog was a continuation of ‘may this object return to its owner if it is lost pagan bog sacrifice. or stolen’, and suggested that the word had Despite the unambiguous rejection of been learned in northern Norway by the Olsen and Bergsland’s interpretation among ancestors of Icelandic settlers. The rest of the runologists, it has become a factoid cited in inscription is Norse, ‘me Ingjaldr made’. popular presentations of Sámi history (e.g. Olsen and Bergsland's interpretation is Hætta 1996), as well as in some studies of problematic. The likelihood of a Sámi word Norse-Sámi contacts (Kusmenko 2002). The being transmitted among Norse speakers with notion of a Sámi presence in writing this early unassimilated alien phonology is low and and this far away appeals to Sámi pride. there is little evidence for Sámi speakers in However, the vehemence with which the Iceland in the 12th century. Their analysis of runological community rejected Olsen and the word is based on modern Sámi. Bergsland’s interpretation also reflect a Marstrander (1945) instead reads the tendency to downplay Sámi influence on sequence as Norse, Páll lét [‘Paul caused’], Norse-Icelandic culture and to dismiss the with inversion of ᛚ l to ᛐ t; this reading has 53

Figure 1. The spade from Indriðastaðir (from Figure 2. Detail of the inscription on the Kristján Eldjárn 1962: section 72. Reprinted with Indriðastaðir spade. permission of the National Museum of Iceland).

possibility of being used for other interpreted as magical. The assumption that, languages. if Sámi, the word must be a charm reflects the Garbled or incomprehensible sequences in strong magical associations with both runes runic inscriptions have frequently been and Sámi in Old Icelandic literature and later Icelandic tradition.

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Works Cited Stockholm, 26.−27. Mai 2001. Ed. Jurij Kusmenko Hætta, Odd Mathis. 1996. The Sami: An Indigenous & Sven Lange. Berlin [s.n.]. Pp. 102–120. People of the Arctic. [Karasjok]: Davvi girji. Marstrander, Carl. 1945. “To islandske Kristján Eldjárn. 1962. Hundrað ár í Þjóðminjasafni. runeinnskrifter”. Norsk tidskrift for sprogvidenskap Reykjavík: Bókaútgáfa Menningarsjóðs. 13: 295–319. Kusmenko, Jurij. 2002. “Utvecklingen av suffigerad Olsen, Magnus, & Knut Bergsland. 1943. “Lappisk i en negation i urnordiskan”. In Strövtåg i nordisk islandsk runeinskrift”. Avhandlinger utg. av det språkvetenskap. Föredrag från det 6:e Norske Videnskapsakademi i Oslo, II kl. 1943, №. studentkollokviet i nordisk språkvetenskap 3.

Articles

Snorri Sturluson qua Fulcrum: Perspectives on the Cultural Activity of Myth, Mythological Poetry and Narrative in Medieval Iceland Frog, University of Helsinki

Paper published in Mirator 12: 1–29 (available at http://www.glossa.fi/mirator/).

In the year 1220 or shortly after, Snorri reviews a range of specific examples in an Sturluson began writing a vernacular (Old attempt to develop a (by no means Icelandic) treatise on traditional oral poetry exhaustive!) overview of impacts and and poetics. This is the work called Edda responses to the reception of Snorri’s ars (more commonly the Prose Edda or Younger poetica. Edda). In the modern era, Edda is arguably Discussion opens with a brief review of our most important source for Old Norse probable relationships between Edda and uses mythology, for the vernacular poetic system, of mythological references in skaldic verse on and for important poetic texts scattered as the one hand and in the documentation and quotations through the work. use of mythological eddic poems on the other. This paper reviews the impact of Snorri It describes how these two types of evidence and his work Edda on its audiences across the are complimentary. next three centuries. It emphasizes that Snorri Relatively unequivocal examples of was not necessarily the ‘first’ in his many and Edda’s impact is shown in examples from diverse roles in the history of vernacular later poetry through the example of the rímur literature and the cultural activity of poetry Lokrur, composed directly from Snorri’s and mythology. The paper argues that Snorri account of Þórr’s visit to Útgarða-Loki, was a pivotal agent in the cultural activity of followed by an example of the composition of mythology and mythological narrative new eddic stanzas from the late (and thus now traditions in particular. Although the largely unknown) stanzas added to Baldrs influence of Edda can only be assessed and draumar. The kenning arnar leir [‘mud of interpreted in terms of probabilities, this paper the eagle’] is discussed as evidence of the

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immediate reception of Snorri’s myths by of mythological material that constructs a contemporaries. This is accompanied by an parable about understanding poetic language. argument that, as an aetiology of ‘bad poetry’, Þrymskviða is briefly addressed as a Snorri’s account of Óðinn wetting himself in burlesque of mythological material that his escape with the mead of poetry: a) potentially responds to Snorri’s handling of contradicts the basic conceptual metaphor of vernacular mythological material (rather than poetry as liquid which passes orally and is his myths) in ways that made it interesting consumed (cf. Potts, this volume); and b) the and relevant in a contemporary Christian humiliating expression of fear contradicts cultural milieu. The later Bósa saga, which Óðinn’s role as a cultural model for a poet, makes direct reference to Edda, is presented making it unlikely that poets would as a parallel example to show that Snorri’s characterize Óðinn (and thereby poets work could be received and responded to in generally) as cowardly in the very myth this way. which establishes Óðinn as the cultural model Probable sites where Snorri manipulated with the origin of poetry itself. traditions in his mythography are emphasized A discussion of Lokasenna outlines the because references to these sites in other texts complimentary intersection of relationships can be most reasonably associated with direct between a) Edda and the prose texts attached influence. Although none of these examples to this poem, b) the unique use of ragna røkkr are beyond equivocation, the overview is not as opposed to ragna rǫk, and c) the series of dependent on every detail of every argument insults levelled against Þórr which culminate being resolved. Even if not all of these in references to Þórr’s visit to Útgarða-Loki. examples can be attributed to Snorri’s This discussion includes arguments that ragna influence, the broader pattern that is revealed røkkr was never conventional outside of (or at in this survey may nevertheless be maintained least prior to) Snorri’s Edda and that Þórr’s as a frame of reference for further discussion. visit to Útgarða-Loki is a parodic reworking

Obscene Kalevalaic Songs (Kalevalaiset hävyttömät laulut) Senni Timonen, Finnish Literature Society

Paper published in Sommelon säikeitä: Runolaulu-Akatemian seminaarijulkaisu 2009–2010, edited by Pekka Huttu- Hiltunen, Janne Seppänen, Frog, Riikka Nevalainen & Eila Stepanova, Runolaulu-Akatemian Julkaisuja 15, Kuhmo: Juminkeko, pages 11–31.

This article considers the question of what the sex. Sexual topics form a wide and diverse word obscene actually means in the context of sphere in this culture, and they are not always kalevalaic songs and runo-poems. Who related to obscenity or pornography. In a perceives a certain phenomenon as obscene? nutshell, it is possible to outline the subject of What is obscene? Is it obscene from the sex in runosongs broadly as follows: perspective of the singers and sorcerers themselves, or from the perspective of the  Sexuality particularly connected to a learned world collecting the poetry? Or has woman’s body was understood in the the concept itself been constructed by modern runosongs as a mythic and magical society? power associated with both evil and In the kalevalaic singing culture, the word holiness. The power of a woman’s obscene cannot be directly and genitalia could both cure or protect and unambiguously connected with the subject of cause disease or ruin. These features are vividly revealed, for example, in the

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incantation Vitun vihat [‘Cunt’s Wrath’],  At the same time, sexuality has always and they can be traced in secular sexual been a problem. In men’s sexual songs, runosongs, especially in their this was treated in comic handlings of misogynistic sections. sexual and anal subjects, as well as  Sexuality was a highly esteemed basis denigrating a woman’s body. There is for marriage and a symbol of conjugal only sporadic evidence of corresponding life. Sexuality was welcomed, and women’s folklore, but it must surely sexual health and wellbeing were later have existed. tended to with incantations and magic  The sexual activity of local people rites. intrigued fellow villagers and those who  Sexuality was an inexhaustible source of created songs. This interest appears in inspiration. This is evident, for example, gossip-type runosongs and mocking in sexual fantasies, where genitalia act as runosongs. These compositions could independent creatures wandering the cruelly stigmatize the character of their world. object in the community, but they also  Sexuality was also presented in the contained generally accepted humor and manner of basic and real activity, comic features. The investigation of regarding which the poetry could those runosongs, the process of their verbalize everything. Sexual runosongs creation and their contexts of describe that activity in detail. performance reveal interesting micro- historical glimpses of life in the past and of the runosinging culture.

Essay Collections

Versatility in Versification: Multidisciplinary Approaches to Metrics Tonya Kim Dewey, University of Bergen, and Frog, University of Helsinki

Essay collection edited by Tonya Kim Dewey and Frog, published in 2009 as volume 74 in the series Berkeley Insights in Linguistics and Semiotics by Peter Lang in New York, xvi + 297 pages. ISBN 978-1-4331-0578-4.

Versification stands at the nexus of a diverse verbal expression, and more specifically into array of disciplines, and it is both imperative verbal expression that places priority on and worthwhile for these many disciplines generating patterned arrangements of sound in and their dynamic range of approaches to be time, often through the use of meter. It can be brought into discourse with one another. approached as a rule-governed system within Versification is the act or art of putting a language. Versification systems are something into ‘verse’, in other words, into a dynamic, generating a relationship between socially or culturally recognized form of the formulation of new expressions and the

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established conventions of the tradition from review of inscriptions which have been which they evolve. considered ‘metrical’, pointing out that Versatility arises in versification through features such as alliteration are also present in the mastery of the language within those diverse components of language, and do not constraints of tradition. This volume provide a sufficient condition for identifying a addresses the ‘versatility’ of versification in a text as verse. number of ways. Some of the authors treat In “Metrical Learning and the First verse as a ‘versatile’ component of language, Grammatical Treatise”, Guðrún Nordal i.e. something that stretches the limits of what provides a lucid introduction to the the language allows, and thereby extend our development of the medieval Icelandic understanding of the structure of language. vernacular poetry tradition in the evolving Other authors treat the ‘versatility’ of verse genres of grammatica, ars poetica and written itself, looking at how systems of versification histories, addressing one of the most change and adapt over time. important transitional periods in the history of This volume brings together the work of a poetry and poetics in Scandinavia. wide range of scholars who embark on a In “On Kuhn's Laws and Craigie's Law in discourse across disciplines, addressing Old Icelandic Poetry”, Kristján Árnason aspects of poetry and poetics, particularly discusses three well-known laws applicable to within the Germanic language family. This early Icelandic verse and their application discourse has effected the development of the across meters (both eddic and skaldic). This individual chapters, which variously treat approach not only sheds light on the meters, their relationships to language, and relationships between the various meters, but poetics in application. The subjects range also on the interaction between phonological from runic metrical inscriptions to the structure and morphosyntax in the early literature and poetics of the modern day, and Icelandic language as a whole. the approaches range from linguistics and In “The Syntax of the Verb in Old folklore to cognitive theory. These diverse Icelandic: Evidence from Poetry”, Thórhallur subjects and approaches form remarkable Eythórsson focuses on the structure of the constellations of complementary relationships verb phrase, considering data from a variety and continue to engage in a discourse to the of verse types, both eddic and skaldic. great benefit of the reader. Eythórsson takes the view that the structure of early Icelandic verse makes it easier to Diachronic Approaches recover features of the natural language which The chapters in this section are united by their otherwise might not be fully understood. treatment of versification from a historical In “The Effect of Prosody on the Linear perspective. The authors in this section Structure of Adpositional Phrases in Eddic encourage us to rethink the role of metrics in Verse”, Tonya Kim Dewey utilizes verse to describing and accounting for linguistic recover features of early Icelandic that have change, as well as how the way we think otherwise not been preserved. She considers about metrics has changed over the centuries. the distribution of prepositional and The opening chapter addresses the earliest postpositional phrases in a single corpus potential examples of Germanic poetry found encompassing both verse and prose (the in runic inscriptions, which it is only possible Codex Regius), concluding that the data to interpret as ‘verse’ through comparison preserved in this manuscript reveal a syntactic with poetic systems preserved in much later change underway in 13th century Icelandic. manuscript traditions. In “Early Runic This section is rounded off with Ragnar ‘Metrical’ Inscriptions: How Metrical Are Ingi Aðalsteinsson’s “Alliteration and They?”, Michael Schulte offers a critical Grammatical Categories”, which addresses

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alliteration in Icelandic verse over more than without imposing a designated position within eleven centuries. Aðalsteinsson suggests that each metrical foot. changes in the use of alliteration reflect Nigel Fabb focuses on a theory of meter changes in the morpho-phonological structure which relies on the generation of a metrical of Icelandic, as well as changes in preferred grid. In “Formal Interactions in Poetic metrical structures. Meter”, he assesses whether the six-syllable line or the twelve-syllable couplet (equating Generative Approaches to a Germanic long line) is the more basic Since versification is a universal human metrical unit of dróttkvætt. Fabb advances activity, found in every culture around the discussion to proposing cross-linguistic world, it makes sense to examine the human generalizations concerning cognitive limits of cognitive faculty for versification. The sustainable complexity in versification chapters in this section reveal something to us traditions. about the cognition underlying versification. In “How Germanic Features Can Appear in The identification of lexical stress with Italian Metrical Poetry”, Stefano Versace metrical stress provided the foundation for employs the same theory. He addresses Sievers’ (1893) scansion of Germanic meters. features of flexibility and variation that have Sievers’ classifications have drawn increasing been adapted and applied by Italian poets criticism in recent years. Several chapters of through influence from ‘Germanic’ poets (in this volume illuminate issues with Sievers’ the Italian sense), considering how system, illustrating that a single uniform innovations are attributable to contacts typology is neither practical nor appropriate between versification systems and their poets. for the many manifestations of Germanic meters. In “Old English Feet”, Chris Golston Performative Æsthetics focuses on the subtleties of meter which Versification does not exist in a vacuum. We occupied the Beowulf poet, but to which over create metrical texts intending for them to be a century of scholarship has remained deaf. performed in some way, whether in oral Golston presents a statistical study that recital, musical arrangement, or in the mental demonstrates that the poet actively avoids performance of silent reading. The chapters repeating the same pattern of stressed and of this final section address the significance of unstressed syllables in on-verses and off- performance and reception in understanding verses, contextualizing these findings in uses systems of versification, and their salience to of asymmetries in meters around the world. the people who use them. The problem of patterning stressed and In “The Poem as a Site of Inherited unstressed positions in Germanic meters is Structures and Artistic Innovation”, Sissel also addressed by Tomas Riad in “Accents Furuseth addresses the ‘division of labor’ Left and Right”. Stressed syllables in between linguistic and literary approaches to Swedish have three levels of relative poetics, and the relationship between them. prominence dependent on their tonal Dell Hymes (1986:59) has stressed that, “It is contours. Riad shows that some meters may a truism, but one frequently ignored in only regulate the more prominent classes of research, that how something is said is part of stressed syllables. He then looks at what is said”. Furuseth moves into the field of alignments of prominence within a verse foot cognitive poetics, focusing on æsthetics and in relation to the alignment of stress patterns meaning generation through the activation of in natural language, creating a foundation for indexical and intertextual associations on approaching Germanic meters as having reception. ‘emergent’ rhythms, regulating prominences In “Dipod Rules: Norwegian stev, Paired Accents and Accentual Poetry”, Jacqueline

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Pattison Ekgren draws together a tremendous verses in The Saga of Gísli, discussing their amount of research and fieldwork on the potential to activate an intertextual referent in performance tradition of Norwegian stev the aural reception of the written saga, and poetry, which may be directly descended from going on to propose that these verses reflect a an early Germanic meter. Ekgren shows that genre of improvisational verse. understanding the performance tradition is The closing chapter of the volume moves essential for understanding this poetry’s back into the modern era, shifting the focus to meter, demonstrating that although free verse, in which the interplay of language Norwegian stev could be performed with and rhythm is highly flexible. In “Towards a dance melodies and rhythms, it could not Theory of Aesthetic Rhythm”, Eva Lilja derive from a dance tradition. addresses the role of rhythm in æsthetics and In “Speech-Acts in Skaldic Verse: Genre, meaning generation, with attention to the Compositional Strategies and Improvisation”, relationship between verbal and visual Frog discusses the cultural activity of a rhythms, and to the semantic content of versification system, its compositional communication. strategies and meaning-potential. He focuses on metrical speech-acts that stand outside Versatility in Versification conventional generic categorizations, and Every chapter of this volume provides a addresses historical continuities in formulas useful and interesting contribution to the and ‘multiforms’ as strategies essential for study of metrics and poetics, drawing on a generating situational ‘speech-acts’ in verse. diverse background of disciplines and In “No Royal Road: The Extremes of traditions. Though at first glance these dróttkvætt Lines in Snorri's Háttatal”, Helgi disciplines and traditions may seem widely Skúli Kjartansson addresses the flexibility of divergent, each chapter augments those which the (six syllable) dróttkvætt line presented in preceded it. When all of these various Snorri Sturluson’s ars poetica, and the degree chapters are brought together, the whole is far to which this reflects tradition. Kjartansson greater than the sum of its parts. The chapters considers Snorri’s treatment of lines that engage one another in a dialogue, and indeed, historical language changes reduced to five as the closing section of this volume syllables and lines of as many as nine emphasizes, it is only in reception, perhaps in syllables, suggesting that these explanations the silent performance of the reader, that this reflect Snorri’s own innovative adaptations of multidisciplinary dialogue comes to fruition. tradition. The reception of orally delivered verse in Works Cited manuscript reading and its interaction with Hymes, Dell. 1986. Models of the interaction of oral culture has been little explored. In language and social life. In J.J. Gumperz & D. Hymes (eds.), Directions in Sociolinguistics: The “Gnast and brast: On Metrics, Enjambment Ethnography of Communication. Oxford: and More in Two Ditties in Gísla saga, the Blackwell. Pp. 35–71. Shorter Version”, Bergljót Soffía Sievers, Eduard. 1893. Altgermanische Metrik. Kristjánsdóttir approaches a pair of situational Tübingen: Niemeyer.

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Monographs

The Norns in Old Norse Mythology Karen Bek-Pedersen, University of Aberdeen

Monograph published in 2011 by Dunedin Academic Press in Biggleswade, UK; 208 pages (ISBN: 9781906716189).

The nornir or norns were a group of female supernatural beings closely related to ideas about fate in Old Norse tradition. Karen Bek- Pedersen provides a thorough understanding of the role played by norns and other beings like them in the relevant sources. Although they are well known, even to people who have only a superficial knowledge of Old Norse mythology, this is the first detailed discussion of the norns to be published amongst the literature dealing with Old Norse beliefs. Surprisingly little has been written specifically about the norns. Although often mentioned in scholarship treating Old Norse culture, the norns are all too often dealt with in overly superficial ways. The research presented in this book goes much deeper in order to properly understand the nature and role of the norns in the Old Norse world view. The conclusions reached by the author overturn a number of stereotypical conceptions that have long dominated our understanding of these beings. The book has a natural focus on Old Norse from Celtic, Anglo-Saxon and Classical culture and is especially relevant to those traditions is also employed and the book is interested in or studying Old Norse culture therefore of interest also to those with a and tradition. However, comparative material broader interest in European mythologies.

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Systemic Reconstruction of Mari Ethnic Identity (Sistemnaya rekonstruktsiya mariiskoi etnicheskoi identichnosti) Vladimir Glukhov† and Natalia Glukhova, Mari State University

Monograph published in 2007 by “String” publishers in Yoshkar-Ola, Mari El Republic, Russian Federation; 184 pages (ISBN 5-88448-186-1).

This work consists of an introduction, four group, as well as the part of one’s thinking, chapters (parts), concluding remarks, a perceptions, feelings, and behavior that is bibliography of the cited sources and a list of attributable to ethnic group membership. In folklore collections. the monograph, the authors view ethnic The introduction contains a description of identity as the authenticity of an ethnic culture the main aim of the research, a hypothesis and to itself, considering culture as a triad system an innovative investigation methodology of images, symbols and values that reflect a applied to Mari folklore texts of different nation’s type of thinking and feeling. genres: songs (2,118 texts), proverbs and The algorithm of the research includes the sayings (7,590), myths and legends (177 following steps: texts), and Mari proper names (9,348). It 1. The process of reading texts with the includes a description of the methodological aim of discerning images, symbols or basis of the systems theory which, in turn, values (referred to with the unifying term involves a decision making theory and a ‘factor’) after applying methods of theory of values, as well as factor and semantic investigation (componential and statistical analysis – a dichotomous method. contextual types of text and lexeme The results are graphically represented in the analysis) form of tables, diagrams, histograms, 2. The compilation of the list of factors cumulative curves and matrices. 3. The distribution of the texts according to The book examines the core psychological the factors components of Mari ethnic identity 4. The estimation of factor incidence and a reconstructed from authentic folklore texts of calculation of the probability of factor different genres. One difficulty in ethnic usage (the preparation of tables) identity reconstruction lies in the absence of a 5. The ranking of factors in descending standard by which one can assess and order of probability interpret ethnicity (cf. Phinney 1992). This 6. The singling out of dominant, book offers an approach that allows a solution complementary, auxiliary and insignificant for this problem. As a standard for the factors by a dichotomous method, applying analysis, the work proposes to use a rank (a the principle of simple majority employed place in a scale) of images, symbols and in mathematical statistics values in a histogram depicting probability distributions of their mention in the genres One of the outcomes of the mathematical analyzed. For any two probability histograms, statistical method is deriving the histogram a correlation coefficient, quantitatively depicting probability distributions of the showing coincidence of different nations’ factors mentioned in the genres analyzed. The images, symbols and values, can be reliability of the results obtained has been calculated. The authors have analyzed the assured by highly illustrative, plausible concept of ethnic identity, which has the evidence embodying opinions on all status of an analytical term and is often phenomena of the nations’ life and showing described as one’s sense of belonging to an peoples’ interests culled from thousands of ethnic group and one’s identification with this folkloristic texts representing material filtered

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through the Mari nations’ memory over volume of perceived space. The parameters hundreds of years. As a starting point, the used for its analysis are: authors posit an almost self-evident idea: 1. Topography (description of surface namely, that the more important a factor is for shape and other features) a Mari ethnos, the more often it will be 2. Type of space (an area / location, place) mentioned in its texts, or that the whole 3. Space attainability meaning of the text will be devoted to this 4. Explored possibilities of space certain factor. 5. Space value Chapter 1 discusses a subsystem of images 6. Arrangement of the physical qualities of in Mari culture based on the analysis of space psychological time perception in lyrical songs as well as in proverbs and sayings. Time The complex combination of volume perception is analyzed with the help of five parameters leads to the creation of different factors to which the authors refer: space types. The space types used in Mari proverbs and songs vary from 16 to 32, with 1. Discreteness the dominant group from three (in proverbs) 2. Intensity to six (in songs), which create ethnic images 3. Emotional attitude of space. In proverbs and sayings, the most 4. Cyclic recurrence important space image is a narrow path in the 5. The possibility of prediction forest leading to a distant place where life is Out of the five factors in the analyzed Mari better than in a native village. In old songs, songs, time is mainly perceived emotionally. the leading space images are meadows and Time images are connected mainly with the forests, surrounding a native village which is transition from youth to maturity. They are situated not far from a river, stream or lake. In the ‘blooming of flowers and trees’ and ‘trees contemporary songs, some other types of with fruit’. Past youth is associated with spaces showing changes in the village ‘withered flowers and plants’. Proverbs and infrastructure are added. sayings, together with their emotional The subsystem of typical images deduced attitude, stress the intensity of time which is mainly from folksongs and proverbs shows evaluated negatively, thus close ties with the system of showing more vividly the symbols. A symbol differs brevity of life. Another part from an image by a greater of this chapter is dedicated to degree of generalization and the reconstruction of Mari typicality. Their meanings ethnic memory, which is are understood in texts. carried out on the material of Chapter 3 is dedicated to the Mary myths and legends. description and analysis of Chapter 2 deals with the the subsystem of symbols results of the psychological deduced form Mari proper space perception in songs names and lyrical songs. In and proverbs. Images of Mari ethnic culture, space are based on the emotions and feelings are landscape surrounding the expressed with the help of Mari villages. One of the five leading groups of most important parameters in symbols. Statistical analysis, psychological space perception is its volume. together with a dichotomous method, reveals The authors pioneer the use of several the most widespread names of plants, parameters in combination to show the numerals, colors, birds and animals,

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organized into groups of dominant, auxiliary some abstract concepts (loneliness, beauty, and additional symbols significant for the wealth, poverty). Mari. The least numerous group is the group of Among trees, plants and flowers, the most animal symbols. The most important symbol important are: is the steed personifying a father, a husband, or an elder brother. Less important are the

 The birch tree gelding, cow, ram/sheep and the hare. As in  The apple-tree in bloom the previous groups, animals can be used as  The apple-tree with apples symbols of different types of people and their  Ripening rye qualities.  The bird cherry tree in bloom The analysis and interpretation of Mari ethnic names (9,348) has revealed their  The oak specific semantic and pragmatic properties.  Strawberries Investigation into the semantic nature of the  The poppy names brought to light the systems of ethnic symbols and values. A pragmatic approach Blooming trees are mainly associated with has shown the characteristic features of the young girls, whereas a beloved young man form of Mari proper names – their average may be associated with the poppy. Trees with length and distinct sound pattern. Among fruit usually symbolize women with children. names, the following, are the nine most Ripening berries have several meanings, the widespread groups of symbols: leading among them is sexual pleasure. Trees and plants may symbolize people and their 1. A ‘sprout’, ‘shoot’ (symbolizes a new character features or qualities. generation, offspring, children) The second group of words with symbolic 2. A ‘home’, ‘roof’, ‘nest’ (associated meanings is presented by numerals. The with the idea of a nuclear family as the numerals one (symbolizing orphanhood, only condition for the clan’s survival) loneliness, the unique character of someone 3. An ‘embryo’, ‘larva’ (indicates a and of the native land) and two (which is used newborn child) for symmetry, interdependence, and the 4. ‘Iron’, ‘steel’ (the symbol used in good- formation of a balanced whole: a boy and a wishes for a child to be healthy and girl, eyes, gates, friends) form a group of physically strong) dominant symbols. 5. A ‘bunch’ (symbolizes family strength) In Mari culture, the most widespread color 6. Names of totems (indicate the clan of terms are white and black. In the analyzed relatives and include the names of animals material both words have several symbolic and birds) meanings. The prevalent meanings of white 7. A ‘root’ (a symbol of the founder of the are purity, naivety and the absence of grief, clan) whereas black is associated with sorrow and 8. A ‘man’ (shows male dominance in the threat. system of family relationship) The dominant symbols in the next group 9. ‘Fruit”, a ‘berry’ (associated with a new are the names of such birds as the nightingale, born child) cuckoo, rooster and hen. These birds can A summary of the meanings of all of these personify people (all four birds above), as reveals that Mari proper personal names were well as loneliness (the cuckoo), melancholy created in a patriarchal society in a tribal and sorrow (the nightingale). Birds from a system during the Iron Age, under strong non-dominant group symbolize different influence of neighboring tribes in a forest types of people and can serve as symbols for zone.

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The focus of Chapter 4 is the Mari value 3. Ethics (consisting of a strict hierarchy in system. Any society or economy represents a the clan) certain life-style that has its own system of 4. Wealth values. The term ‘value’ can be understood in 5. Clan different ways. Dictionaries define value as In the monograph, the Mari ethnic ethical both a) abstract concepts of worth, standards system is also analyzed. The authors show the of principle, or qualities considered vices and moral flaws disapproved of by the worthwhile or desirable, and b) material Mari in their proverbs and sayings. objects (e.g., an apartment, a car, a precious In the Conclusion, the authors summarize ring, painting, etc.). In a word, value is what the results of their reconstruction. They hold we think is good or important for us. The that their research of Mari ethnic culture in its study of the values of individuals and social folklore genres has shown the main aspects of groups, not to mention an entire society, is Mari collective consciousness. Three leading difficult. A fundamental problem is finding subsystems – a subsystem of images, a proper indicators of a given value. In the subsystem of symbols and a subsystem of present monograph, the Mari ethnic value values – show the character of a nation’s system has been deduced from ancient Mari thinking and feeling, demonstrating a texts (proverbs and sayings) with the help of harmonious correlation among sensory- componential and contextual types of pictorial, pictorial and rational types of reality analysis. A people’s ‘popular’ wisdom evaluation. Psychological time perception is reflects the ethnic system of values in harmonious and emotional. Out of five factors concentrated form as represented in proverbs singled out in the book, only cyclic recurrence and sayings. Factor and statistical analysis of is not well represented. Ethnic time images the texts, namely 7,590 proverbs, permitted are associated with the blooming of flowers, arranging basic traditional values into the trees and plants and their withering. following order of priorities: The evolution of ethnic space perception 1. Family (large, extended, and nuclear) shows the change of three leading images of 2. Ethics (strict hierarchy of moral qualities native land – starting with a narrow forest with a strong accent on respect towards path (leading to a distant place where life is elderly men) much better than in a native place), through 3. Labor (physical agricultural work for the the image of meadows and fields benefit of a large, extended family) (surrounding a native village), and finishing 4. Knowledge (of nature and the climatic with a village street with one’s own house, conditions useful to provide for the garden and orchard. everyday life of an extended family) The analysis and interpretation of the 5. Food symbolic meanings of plants, numerals, 6. Speech, communication colors, birds, and animals reveal the unique 7. Wealth ethnic system of symbols reflecting an 8. Health. emotional evaluation of life phenomena. As the Mari culture is characterized by animistic Semantic investigation of 9,348 Mari proper beliefs and the worship of trees and forests, names has shown that they contain an the investigated genres lack images and inventory of 21 values. The main group symbols typical of monotheistic religions. includes five of them. The results allow the The essential idea expressed in the system of arrangement of Mari basic traditional values leading Mari symbols comes down to the in the following order of priorities: reproduction of the clan in a nuclear, 1. Family monogamous family within a large extended 2. Health family.

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The Mari ethnic system of values embraces have no counterparts in the described cultures a wide range of priorities, highlighting eight of the world, and being authentic and unique, as the most important. The list of these they organize the complete and exclusive priorities may seem trivial, but they show a triad-system of Mari culture. wise economy of resources for clan survival under severe climatic circumstances, limiting Works Cited the consumption of resources, as well as Phinney, Jean S. 1992. “The Multigroup Ethnic complicated interpersonal relationships within Identity Measure: A New Scale for Use with Adolescents and Young Adults from Diverse a large extended family. The reconstructed Groups”. Journal of Adolescent Research 7: 156– and analyzed subsystems of images, symbols 176. and values constituting Mari ethnic identity

Doctoral Research Projects

Literary Perception and Cultural Identity: Exploring the Pan-Atlantic Identity 800–1300 [working title] Rosalind Bonté, University of Cambridge

This research project is a study towards the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Cambridge, for which the thesis is scheduled for submission in the autumn of 2013. Supervisors: Dr Elizabeth Rowe and Dr James Barrett.

From the mid-8th century onwards, understanding of a pan-Atlantic identity true? Scandinavian immigrants, primarily from Some 500 years after the first Norse-speakers Norway, left their homelands to found new began journeying to new lands, the North colonies across the North Atlantic. This Atlantic was indeed pulled together into a migration began with the earliest settlements political community, the Norgesveldet [the in Orkney and the Faroes, continued via Norwegian realm and its dependencies] under Iceland, and finally culminated in a last push the sway of the Norwegian king. What impact across the Atlantic to Greenland (and even, did Norwegian expansionism and concern briefly, to the east coast of the American about the present have upon the Icelandic continent). The result was a widespread depiction of the past? And is the idea of a diaspora of Norse speakers, a ‘pan-Atlantic’ pan-Atlantic identity anything more than a community with a shared history and a shared late literary construct? culture. In my thesis, I will address the concept of a This, at least, is the impression given in the pan-Atlantic identity through a close study of 13th century Icelandic sagas, where skalds, the Norse colonies of the North Atlantic. This fighters and traders could sail between analysis will be in two different parts. In the different communities and still find their own first section, I will attempt to explore the cultural niche. But to what extent is this nature of the pan-Atlantic identity as

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perceived by 13th century Icelanders by with a more nuanced understanding of why questioning how the North Atlantic diaspora the Icelanders chose to develop this myth. was depicted in some of the most The boundaries of this thesis may seem geographically wide-ranging of the Icelandic broad: perhaps it is more easily defined by texts – namely the konungasögur or kings’ stating what I do not intend to do. In sagas. In particular, given that texts such as particular, I do not intend to draw specific Morkinsinna, Fagrskinna and Heimskringla conclusions about identity in Orkney, the were written much later than the events they Faroes or Greenland: rather, it is my intention purport to describe, I aim to set the texts in to use these settlements as case studies, their historical context and question whether snapshots of an Icelandic need and viewpoint events in 13th century Iceland and the during a specific period in history. Nor do I encroaching threat of Norwegian power may intend to use my thesis to come up with a new have encouraged the Icelanders to look definition of social or cultural identity – beyond their own island to their kindred instead, I intend to build on the ideas set out communities across the North Atlantic. by Pierre Bourdieu (1977), Frederick Barth In the second section of the thesis, I will (1969), Kirsten Hastrup (1985) and Richard continue this theme by focusing more closely Jenkins (2008), and to apply their definitions on Iceland’s neighbouring colonies in the to this specific cultural setting. By avoiding North Atlantic: Orkney, the Faroe Islands and these two areas – each worthy of a thesis in its Greenland. Using the Icelandic saga material own right – I hope to offer a more focused that focuses particularly on these settlements, discussion of my main interest: whether the I aim to give a close analysis of the way in Icelandic interest in their fellow North which the identity of each of these settlements Atlantic colonies and their depiction of a pan- is depicted in this 13th century source Atlantic identity in saga texts was the result of material, and question how these communities political expediency in the face of Norwegian were portrayed within the texts and the way in expansionism, and their subsequent desire to which this fed into the construction of a pan- explore what Icelandic identity involved. Atlantic identity. In particular, I want to explore why the Icelanders were interested in A Royalist Approach writing about their neighbours. Was it In line with this overview, I will therefore because they genuinely saw these colonies as begin my thesis by exploring our medieval kindred, or did they want to test their ideas Icelandic literary sources, questioning in about identity and independence by setting particular how the Icelanders depicted them in an environment that was at once connections between Norway and the wider similar and yet separate to Iceland? North Atlantic community and comparing the I will then move away from this decidedly konungasögur to early foreign texts such as Icelandic viewpoint by discussing key points Adam of Bremen’s Gesta Hammaburgensis of the saga texts alongside other source Ecclesiae Pontificum and the Norwegian material. In particular, I will draw on native synoptic histories. Central to this issue is the contemporary material finds that may give us representation of the Norwegian kings in a very different impression of the North Icelandic saga literature. In particular, I aim to Atlantic of the later sagas texts, as well as question the literary notion of a ‘pan-Atlantic making use of other historical source material identity’ by exploring the literary presentation such as annals, synoptic histories and of four Norwegian kings and their activities in ecclesiastical documents. In this way, I hope the west. From Haraldr hárfagri, who to be able to unpick the literary myth of a triggered the migration to the new North pan-Atlantic identity and instead replace it Atlantic settlements, to Óláfr Tryggvason, who Christianised them, and from Magnús

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berfœttr, who died raiding in the west, to presentation in the 13th century Hákon Hákonarson, who forced the Faroes, konungasögur. More particularly, I want to Iceland and Greenland to submit to question the way such myths may have been Norwegian authority, these kings are typified used in the face of growing Norwegian in the Icelandic literature as unifiers and expansionism. Finally, I hope to explore the claimants to the greater Norse world in the impact that earlier texts such as Heimskringla Atlantic. I will suggest, however, that these may have had on the relatively contemporary literary presentations are connected, and that Hákons saga Hákonarsonar – and whether the kings were used by the Icelanders as a Hákon may even have drawn inspiration for basis for the medieval notion of a unifying the creation of the Norgesveldet from his pan-Atlantic identity. quasi-mythical ancestors. A clear example of the way in which the image of a Norwegian king may have been North Atlantic Drift manipulated within the Icelandic saga My discussion of the konungasögur will be material can be given with the case of Óláfr offset by my focus on the Icelandic depiction Tryggvason. A zealous missionary, Óláfr is of Orkney, the Faroes and Greenland as I depicted in the Icelandic texts as having question why these settlements became the Christianized both Norway and the Norse subject of sagas and what this may tell us North Atlantic in five short years through a about the society that gave rise to these texts. clever combination of fair speech and brute Using only those texts that focus specifically force. I argue, however, that this depiction of on these colonies – Orkneyinga saga, Óláfr developed over time in response to Færeyinga saga, the two Vínland sagas and growing Icelandic concerns about Norwegian Einars þáttr Sokkasonar (also known as royal power. I therefore suggest that the Grœnlendinga þáttr) – I aim to provide a Icelanders deliberately depicted the close analysis of the depiction of identity conversions of Orkney, the Faroes and within these texts. Greenland as heavily Norwegian-influenced A specific example of my approach to to act as a counterpoint to the more evidently these sagas can perhaps by given by my work self-determined Icelandic conversion, thus on Einars þáttr Sokkasonar (ÍF 4: 271–92). creating a Freiheitsmythos that justified This short text, although written in Iceland, is Icelandic independence from Norway (Weber, often considered unique in the saga corpus for 1987: 125–40). To this end, Óláfr Tryggvason its decidedly Greenlandic perspective. Central was used as a tool by medieval authors to to the text, detailing a conflict between a highlight certain cultural similarities across recalcitrant bishop, his followers and several the Norse diaspora at the same time as aggrieved Norwegian merchants, is the revealing key differences between the insistence of the Greenlanders that they act colonies. In emphasising that Iceland accepted eptir grœnlenzkum lǫgum [‘according to Christianity of its own volition and thus Greenlandic law’] – a symbolic move that I neutralising the role played by Óláfr suggest is designed to establish an Tryggvason, the 13th century saga authors independent Greenlandic identity in the face were also making a statement about their of Norwegian threats (ÍF 4: 280). While this contemporary independence in the face of text conceivably reflects a significant encroaching Norwegian authority. Greenlandic tradition, nonetheless it was By exploring the literary depiction of preserved in Icelandic tradition and Icelandic Haraldr hárfagri, Óláfr Tryggvason and texts, and could therefore tell us something Magnús berfœttr and their role in the west, I interesting about the Icelanders themselves. aim to trace how myths about these kings may What, for example, can this text tell us about have built up over time, culminating in their the connection between law and literary

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identity? And why might the Icelanders have Norway to claim his position as king (ÍF 34: been interested in exploring Greenlandic 25–7). But, if we set the saga narrative aside resistance to an apparently Norwegian threat? and instead look only at the material evidence from the Brough of Deerness, a different Hard Evidence conclusion might be reached. Following on from my literary analysis of the When the stone chapel was excavated, it saga texts, I will then move on to a more was in fact discovered that there were two interdisciplinary approach, drawing in superimposed phases on the site. Beneath the particular on the results of archaeology, as stone construction, the remains of an earlier well as on other fields such as onomastics, stone-clad timber chapel were found (Morris: genetics and climatology. To enable a close 1986, 1996). Discovered between the two frame of reference and a focused layers was a worn coin of the Anglo-Saxon argumentation, I have selected two case king Eadgar (ruled 959–75), which, Barrett studies for each North Atlantic colony that has suggested, arguably provides a terminus can be explored in relation to the ideas set out post quem for the stone construction and a in the saga texts. Thus for Orkney I will look terminus ante quem for the earlier timber at the Brough of Birsay and the Brough of building (Barrett, 2003: 215). As such, this Deerness (the latter site being familiar to me might mean that there was a Christian as I took part in excavations there in June building on a Norse site by around 975 – 2011). In the case of the Faroes, I will focus some twenty years before Óláfr Tryggvason on the sites of Sandur and Niðri á Toft. was said to have converted Orkney. Finally, in Greenland, I will explore Inevitably, there are some difficulties with Brattahlíð in the Eastern settlement and this theory Morris pointed out that the Sandur in the Western settlement. wooden remains could represent a pre-Norse Putting archaeological and literary sources population, although he ultimately concluded into dialogue can often be an extremely that the building was architecturally most fruitful approach, but in many ways it also consistent with a Norse milieu (Morris 1996: raises more questions than we can perhaps 192). Moreover, the coin could have been old hope to answer. A case in point is perhaps at the time of deposition, pushing the period reflected at the site of the Brough of of construction later. Nonetheless, Barrett has Deerness. This small, elite settlement, argued for an early date that precedes Óláfr positioned at the top of a sea-stack off Tryggvason’s alleged mission, raising an Orkney’s main island, Mainland, is home to interesting discrepancy between both a small chapel and around thirty archaeological and literary findings (Barrett associated buildings. The site has been 2003: 215–21). excavated at various different times, with While the findings at the Brough of Christopher Morris focusing on the area Deerness remain open to debate, the site around the still-partially standing stone chapel provides a clear example of how, by bringing in the 1970s (Morris, 1986), and James archaeological and textual sources into Barrett more recently exploring the dialogue we can – if not necessarily prove a surrounding buildings in 2008, 2009 and contradiction – at least highlight the 2011. While the site as a whole promises to possibility that events may not have occurred be an extremely illuminating case-study, of in quite the way in which they are presented particular interest at the moment is the chapel. in the Icelandic saga literature. It is by Saga tradition holds that the missionary highlighting such differences that I hope to king Óláfr Tryggvason, mentioned above, was draw some conclusions about how and why responsible for the forcible conversion of the Icelanders chose to depict their Orkney to Christianity c. 995 as he returned to neighbours, and in doing so, to ask what this

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might tell us about the identity of the Shetland”. In The Cross Goes North. Ed. M. Icelanders themselves. By drawing on Carver. Woodbridge. Pp. 207–226. Barth, F. 1969. “Introduction in Ethnic Groups and different fields of research, it is possible to Boundaries: The Social Organization of Cultural distance ourselves from the narrative of the Difference”. Ed. F. Barth. London. Pp. 9–38. main Icelandic source material, and in doing Bourdieu, P. 1977. Outline of a Theory of Practice. so, question what the very production of these Trans. R. Nice. Cambridge. texts can tell us. Hastrup, K. 1985. Culture and History in Medieval Iceland: An Anthropological Analysis of Structure and Change. Oxford. Conclusions ÍF 4 = Einar Sveinsson & Matthías Þorðarson (eds.). The final chapter of my thesis will be used to 1935. Eyrbyggja saga; Eiríks saga rauða; draw my findings together. In particular, I Grœnlendinga saga; Grœnlendinga þáttr. Íslenzk will assess whether we really can speak of a fornrit 4. Reykjavik: Hið Íslenzka Fornritafélag. ÍF 34= Finnbogi Guðmundsson (ed.). 1965. pan-Atlantic identity and whether there really Orkneyinga saga. Íslenzk fornrit 34. Reykjavik: were degrees of kinship across the North Hið Íslenzka Fornritafélag. Atlantic before the creation of the Jenkins, R. 2008. Rethinking Ethnicity: Arguments Norgesveldet. I will also question why the and Explorations. 2nd ed. London. Icelanders might have been interested in Morris, C. 1996. “Church and Monastery in Orkney and Shetland: An Archaeological Perspective”. In exploring this idea given their own Nordsjøen: Handel, religion og politick. relationship with the kings of Norway. Karmøyseminaret 1994 og 1995. Ed. J. Krøger & Ultimately, I hope that this thesis will give H. Naley. Karmøy. Stavanger. Pp. 185–206 some insight into an extremely interesting Morris, C., & N. Emery. 1986. “The Chapel and period of textual productivity in Iceland, as Enclosure on the Brough of Deerness, Orkney: Survey and Excavations 1975–77”. Proceedings of well as offering some suggestions as to the the Society of Antiquarians of Scotland 116: 301– ideas and interests that may have underlain 374. sagas looking at the wider Norse Atlantic. Weber, G. 1987. “Intellegere historiam: Typological Perspectives of Nordic Prehistory (in Snorri, Saxo, Works Cited Widukind and Others)”. In Tradition og Barrett, J. 2003. “Christian and Pagan Practice During historieskrivning: kilderne til Nordens aldste the Conversion of Viking Age Orkney and historie. Ed. K. Hastrup & P. Meulengracht Sørensen. Acta Jutlandica 63. Århus. Pp. 95–141.

Seto Singing Culture in Studies of Estonian Folklore: A Supplement to the History of Representation Andreas Kalkun, Estonian Literary Museum

Dissertation publicly defended for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Estonian and comparative folklore at The University of Tartu on the 30th of August, 2011, published as Seto laul eesti folkloristika ajaloos. Lisandusi representatsiooniloole as number 18 in the series Dissertationes Folkloristicae Universitas Tartuensis by Tartu Ülikooli Kirjastus in Tartu. Supervisor: Kristin Kuutma. Opponents: Tiina Ann Kirss and Thomas A. DuBois.

The aim of the dissertation Seto Singing four chapters describe case studies that aim to Culture in Studies of Estonian Folklore: A reveal certain aspects of the relationship Supplement to the History of Representation between Estonian folkloristics and Seto is to provide four insights or supplements to heritage. Though the subject of the the history of Seto folklore collection and dissertation is the disciplinary history of publication, as well as to the history of the collecting traditional Seto poetry, as well as representation of the Seto singing culture. The of the associated editing and publishing

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practices, this thesis does not merely focus on therefore Seto songs were collected relatively ’things from the past’, but also on the critical actively in the end of the 19th and the and reflexive analysis of representations. For beginning of the 20th century. Furthermore, this work, it has been considered necessary to the Seto heritage has been considered a study the theoretical and methodological valuable part of Estonian or, more broadly, framework presented by scholars writing Finno-Ugrian heritage, but such a context has about the Seto people and their cultural inevitably resulted in ‘erasing’ the Seto heritage. In addition, their ideological or heritage as an independent entity and political position, as well as the poetics and neglecting some specific phenomena that are rhetoric that configure their writings have unique to the Seto themselves. The catalyst been examined. This history of representation that triggered interest in this project and discusses many notable individuals provided a background to its research was the (Kreutzwald, Hurt, Krohn, Väisanen, problem of the so-called ‘improvisational’ Sommer, Loorits), institutions (Estonian songs (labelled thus by folklorists), which the Folklore Archives, the Association of the Setos themselves have held in high esteem, Border Regions), the largest archive although they appear to be scarce in folklore containing Seto folklore (The Sommer archives or publications, being neglected as a Folklore Collection), and, the most significant research topic. publication of poetic texts in the field of Seto The approach employed here shows how folklore collection and studies, Setukeste the knowledge of Seto folklore, as well as a laulud [‘Songs of the Seto’]. However, this selection of collected and published heritage, work is not a regular disciplinary history are imbued with politics and ideology. The focusing on the institutional aspects or on study of meta-texts on Seto heritage reveals individual scholars, as it endeavors to bring an obvious connection between Estonian forth the ‘voice’ of the Seto alongside folkloristics and the Estonian national identity representations of them by folklorists. This project. Seto folklore has been unequivocally representational history is presented from a regarded as an integral part of Estonian halfie position which has determined my folklore, or alternatively as an ancient choice of a specific perspective, where my microcosm of general Estonian culture. purpose was to highlight the Seto people and Including Seto culture in the framework of to create a history in which the Seto might be Estonian or Finno-Ugrian heritage has granted a particular subjectivity. This study provided researchers with a particular reveals the complexity of the collection and ideological and theoretical grid, but this representation of the Seto as the ‘other’ in perception has also defined the methodologies Estonian folklore studies, and also stresses the used. For example, the lyric-epic poetry of the ideological and politicized nature of folklore Seto singing culture – so highly estimated in collecting, of publishing and of the process of scholarly circles – is in fact rare in Estonian representation. folklore more generally, and yet it has, at the This study has set out to uncover how the same time, enabled researchers to link knowledge of Seto singing culture in Estonian Estonian traditional poetry with Karelian epic folklore discourse has been created. The four traditions. Seto folklore has become a part of case studies demonstrate the embeddedness of the Estonian ideological and national project, folklore collecting, studying or publishing in which means, however, that specific Seto the particular historical settings, politics and phenomena have remained disregarded in academic trends of the time. Historically, the previous studies. The Seto perception of their Seto heritage, and especially its singing singing culture has not been of much interest culture, has been considered attractive and to researchers, and the context-related important due to its ancient traits, and improvisations that the Seto consider to be the

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most representative part of their singing Instead, it takes interest in the specific culture have not been collected. Folklorists historical features of writing about the Seto, have neglected this repertoire because these i.e. the discourse about the Seto and how it songs have been composed explicitly for constructed the truth it claimed. particular occasions and thus do not meet the The four chapters of the dissertation criteria of memorization and age presumed of concern core topics in the studies of the Seto traditional heritage. The desire to ‘rescue’ the culture while offering a new perspective and old songs of the Seto for posterity has resulted thorough analysis of topics that have been in imposing collection projects on folklorists previously neglected (the study of the Seto as well as in initiating the somewhat perverse improvisations) or that have only received counting of verse lines performed with an limited attention (due to the editing practices aspect of competition. of Setukeste laulud, Samuel Sommer’s The present investigation is guided by the folklore archive, its foundation and handing- theoretical frame of Hayden White’s (1975; over to the Estonian Folklore Archives, the 1985) critical disciplinary history, which field work by Väisanen). Although the four emphasizes the poetic and rhetorical side of topics chosen for the case studies are essential history writing. In addition, it employs a in the historiography of the studies of Seto maneuver known from the feminist theory of culture, the current work only provides an history writing to ‘add’ a ‘missing part’ to the introduction to the complicated current historiography in order to shift the representational history of Seto folklore, perspective of the approach. This enables the which still needs further examination. introduction of new problems and thereby to The history of collecting and studying Seto question the representativity of the former folklore has been inseparably linked to the historiography. This analysis of the general representation of the Seto and their representation of the Seto in the history of position in this process. The position of the Estonian folkloristics encompasses a critical Seto in the disciplinary field in relation to the awareness of the poetics and rhetoric of the Estonians has been varied, and the attitude descriptions of cultures, histories and other towards the Seto people has been ambivalent. texts I have studied. I have been interested in The present research focuses mostly on the the ‘meta-historical gestures’ of writers, in period of the ‘discovery’ and ‘domestication’, tropes used in texts, and in the poetics of when the Seto served as ‘ideal primeval narratives. Being aware of the narrative and Estonians’ and were referred to as ‘younger specific poetic nature of history writing has in brothers’, ‘lost sons’ and ‘the drawing card of turn made me more critical of my own text Estonian folkloristics’. All these patronizing and inspired me to try out different ways of comparisons have referred to the ‘otherness’ writing. This study comes from the of the Seto, but they have also confirmed the perspective of a ‘Seto’ folklorist, and image of a kindred folk that, due to several therefore it can be seen as a ‘supplement’ to historical reasons, has altered or changed. other folkloristic writings. This specific These and other tropes in the meta-texts about perspective prevents the dissertation from Seto folklore are regarded critically in the merely continuing the existing disciplinary present study, which highlights the repeating history, but, in keeping with Virginia Woolf’s motifs and rhetorical devices used by (1963) or Jacques Derrida’s (1997) folklorists by showing the intertextual terminology, it takes the form of a marginal relations or theoretical and ideological supplement or critical ‘replacement’ of that arguments of different approaches. history. However, the aim of the dissertation Since the story of Seto heritage has been is not to help the truth come to light, call to on the periphery of the history of the order or rehabilitate anyone from the past. discipline, incorporating the Seto into the

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history of Estonian folkoristics has meant repertoire among folklorists. It describes the ‘archeological’ work: identifying, examining special status of improvisations in the Seto and illuminating the sources. In fact, an singing culture, and raises the question about important part of this research has been the the scarcity of studies on these improvisations creation of sources – for example, looking for and the frequent negative references to them references related to improvisations in in folkloristic research. These are marginal writings or identifying the ‘voice’ of complimented with an analysis of the Seto women in the notebooks and recordings differences between the popular and scientific of A.O. Väisanen. Throughout this process, classifications of songs. It presents the very the intention of the researcher and interpreter earliest descriptions of Seto singing and Seto has been crucial and overtly expressed, which poetry in order to identify their ideological is the reason why the Setos and their folklore backgrounds. This is done by showing the are the focus of this research. kinship or intertextual relations between This dissertation consists of an Schlegel’s, Hupel’s and Kreutzwald’s introduction and four chapters, all of which writings on improvisations and those focus on the problems related to the recording concerning singing in general, which and interpretation of the Seto poetic heritage. obviously have had as much impact on All the chapters stress the selectiveness of folklore scholars as their field work folklore collection and the notion of the experience. This research history also ‘constructedness’ of any type of introduces the classifications of the Seto representation. I have paid special attention to songs made by Jakob Hurt, A.O. Väisanen et the rhetoric and repeating images used by al. and the place of improvisations in these former researchers. Each chapter offers a case classifications, followed by an overview of study that complements a theoretical problem. the change in paradigm that occurred in Introduction: How to Write a History of Estonian folkloristics in the 1930s. The the Collection of Seto Folksongs introduces chapter ends with a description of how the problems discussed in the dissertation and folkloristic research treated Seto describes the place of the Seto in the improvisations in Soviet Estonia. This brief published disciplinary histories of Estonian research history shows that, due to folklorists’ folkoristics. It also presents the terminology desire for an ‘ancient’ heritage and their text- and theoretical framework used, with an centered approach based on the Historical- additional analysis of my own position as a Geographic Method, the improvisations that researcher and author in order to explain the were context- and singer-centered term ‘supplement’ and the special nature of improvisations – although especially my sources. important to the Seto themselves – were The first chapter, Improvisations in Seto ignored. Singing Culture: Interpretations of The issue of Seto improvisations is related Researchers and Singers, traces the Seto to many interesting questions in the research improvisations in the history of Estonian history of Estonian folk poetry, These include folkloristics and investigates the research questions of the age and value of songs, history of the phenomenon diachronically. questions concerning remembering or The chapter focuses on the analyses of Seto creating poetry, whether they were women’s improvisations in the meta-texts created by or men’s songs, problems of generic folklorists and reveals the intertextual composition and of the age of genres in the relations and the dynamics of transformations singing heritage. Often the writings on and repetitions. The brief research history of improvisations have a disparaging tone. improvisational songs concentrates primarily Research paradigms that fixate on ancient on the reasons for the neglect of this songs and the memorizing singer have created

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a situation in which the collectors and system. This resulted in month-long researchers of improvisations have found it discussions between the two scholars; their necessary to ‘apologize’ for dealing with such urge to create a typology and classification a subject. In most cases, they have excused changed their assessment of songs that did not their interest in improvisations by claiming fit into the system. Jakob Hurt’s publication that they were studying the creation methods of Setukeste laulud [‘The Songs of the Seto’] used by singers. In other cases, the collection clearly reflects the collector and his collecting and study of improvisations has also been ideology. It recontextualizes the songs and initiated by references to the names of gives only one possible version of the Seto prestigious figures occurring in the lyrics, or singing culture. to a search for particular songs or singers who The third chapter, The Context of might be considered representative of the Fieldwork and the “Creation” of Research tradition for ideological purposes. Material: A.O. Väisanen’s Fieldwork in 1922 The second chapter, Folksong Publication and His Recording Seto Women, gives an as Creation: The Representation of the Seto overview of the special features of the Heritage in Setukeste laulud by Jakob Hurt, collection of Seto folklore and explores, in the analyzes some aspects of the production of form of a case study, the fieldwork of A.O. the edition Setukeste laulud and the editing Väisanen in Setomaa in 1922. The chapter principles of the Seto songs defined by Jakob aims to reveal the stories of the creation of Hurt and Kaarle Krohn. This analysis documented folklore texts that have been emphasizes the importance of the editors’ role published or stored in the archives. I explore and reveals the methodological and the context of doing field work and the ideological backgrounds of this publication. encounters with the ‘Seto folk’ as a process of Hurt’s editing practices derived from his dialogue, which forms an integral part of my theoretical framework, based on Jacob research, alongside the folklore performed Grimm’s comparative linguistics, Darwinist and recorded. enthusiasm for fossils and Krohn’s Historical- To introduce the analysis of Väisanen’s Geographic Method of folklore studies. The field work, it gives an overview of the understanding that the Seto were less rhetoric and rationale for his comparison of developed, and the hope to be able to use that the Setos and the Karelians, but it also fact to write the history of the Estonians (who describes the field work methods of the were considered more developed), incited former collectors of Seto folklore and scholars to focus on the older part of the Seto analyzes the reflections in their travelogues. It singing culture (lyric-epic songs) while explores the collaboration between collectors, paying less attention to lyric songs and scholars and singers, based on their disregarding improvisations related to a site reflections on Seto traditions, customs and or individual. their gender system. An intriguing issue In studying the editing and publishing appears to have been the practice of paying principles of Hurt and Krohn, focus is placed for the performance of folklore. Based on the on the practice of dissecting the songs and the abundant documented material of A.O. concurrent justification of such a practice. Väisanen’s fieldwork during 1922, it has been The process of classifying songs for possible to recover and subsequently publication has been investigated on the basis deconstructed the process, while using the of the archived personal correspondence improvisations performed and conversation between Hurt and Krohn. These scholars extracts in order to trace the experience of a differentiated between the so-called simple documentation event with Seto women. This and complex Seto songs, while the compound results in a narrative about field work events songs appear to contradict their typological that makes it possible to hear the ‘voice’ of

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the individual or individuals being recorded, capital of Estonians that was presumed to thus providing a kind of counter-narrative to prove the nation’s existence and greatness in Väisanen’s fieldwork accounts. spirit. The collection practices and the size of The improvisations recorded by Väisanen ‘our’ (i.e. Estonian) collections have at times and the extracts of conversations that he had dazzled other folklorists and inspired them to written down show the other side of folklore start more ambitious and larger publication collection – the context of the recording and collection projects. Among the latter, process that has seldom been reflected in later Sommer’s folklore collection was without publications. These observations and the doubt one of the most extraordinary. This contextual analysis set the songs performed, chapter introduces Sommer’s views and the photos taken, and the works of art created visions, his organized collection of Seto (sculptures, paintings) in a different light and folklore and its reflection in the media. Based demonstrate the dominant role of the on contemporary personal correspondence researcher in the process of selecting and and also on discussion in the newspapers, it storing ‘sources’. The ultimate fieldwork sheds light on his conflict with Oskar Loorits, result to be preserved depended primarily on the head of the Archives, who subsequently the will of a selecting, combining and influenced the fate and representation of directing researcher/collector. A dialogue Sommer’s folklore collection. The present between the recorder and the individual being discussion presents the institutional relations recorded undoubtedly occurred, but it was with the owners of private folklore collections clearly unequal and subject to the researcher’s and Sommer’s court case, after which his will. collection was declared ancient heritage and The impact of Väisanen’s 1922 fieldwork taken under the Archive’s protection as on Estonian folkloristics was not restricted to national property. The analysis touches upon the songs, photos and works of art he took several sensitive issues in the history of back to Finland. His fieldwork and writings Estonian folkloristics (ownership and location left a mark on the later discourse of Seto of folklore collections, their pending sale or Studies more generally. As a foreigner, disappearance) and the metaphors used in Väisanen’s regular fieldwork in Setomaa and connection with collecting folklore. his special interest in documenting Seto Untangling the story of Sommer’s culture left a permanent impact. His collection reveals the political nature of presentations of Seto culture and his opinions folklore collecting practices, culminating in reflected in them have influenced later the creation of a national archive. It also representations and served as a model for shows how much the history of the discipline Estonian researchers. has been influenced by interpersonal relations The forth chapter, To Whom Does the Seto and the media. In the conflict between Heritage Belong? The Story and Reception of Sommer and the Archives, a question Samuel Sommer’s Folklore Collection, emerged: to whom does the Seto heritage presents the story of the foundation of Samuel belong? Symptomatically, the Seto people Sommer’s folklore collection and how it were left out of this discussion, the only ended up at the Estonian Folklore Archives. question asked was whether the heritage This chapter focuses particularly on the belonged to the organizer of the collection or ownership problem of folksongs and to the whole Estonian nation – and thus to the discusses the image of folklore collection. national Archives. In the discussion about The foundation of Estonian folklore collection copyrights and heritage protection, the Seto was a symbolic project from the very were excluded, although they, as the creators beginning: folklore collections were seen as and performers of their culture, were closest common national property, the common to the subject of the argument. The main

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problem appears to have been the debate White, Hayden. 1975. Metahistory: The Historical about when an item of documented folklore Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe. Baltimore, London: Johns Hopkins University would turn into national property, and thus Press. become part of the ancient heritage of the White, Hayden. 1985. Tropics of Discourse: Essays in Estonian nation, to be registered and Cultural Criticism. Baltimore, London: John preserved. Hopkins University Press. Woolf, Virginia. 1963. A Room of One’s Own. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Works Cited Derrida, Jacques. 1997. Of Grammatology. Trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak. Baltimore, London: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Landscapes of the Living and of Bygone Days: Kolguev in the Everyday Life, Recollection and Narration of the Nenets Karina Lukin, University of Helsinki

Dissertation to be publicly defended for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Folklore Studies at the University of Helsinki on the 10th December 2011, published as Elämän ja entisyyden maisemat: Kolgujev nenetsien arjessa, muistelussa ja kerronnassa, as volume 1339 in the series Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seuran toimituksia by Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. in Helsinki (ISBN 978-952-222-312-8; ISSN 0355-1768). Supervisors: Academician Anna-Leena Siikala (University of Helsinki), Professor Pekka Hakamies (University of Turku) Opponents: Dr. Eva Toulouze (Uniiversity of Tartu / University of Paris), Professor Jarkko Niemi (University of Tampere)

The Nenets are an ethnic community living in northern Russia and northwestern Siberia. They comprise a part of the so-called small- numbered indigenous peoples of the North, an administrative whole of 40 ethnic communities in the Russian Federation. During the Soviet years these peoples were settled from the tundra or taiga into the Soviet type settlements, leaving the surrounding landscape uninhabited but still significant and vital. Landscapes of the Living and Bygone Days discusses the conceptions of place and A Kolguev landscape painted by Grigorij Ivanovich landscape among Nenets living on the island Ardeev, a Kolguev islander of Kolguev, situated in the Barents Sea. The study focuses on the places and landscapes of traditions and recollections performed in everyday life and their narration of a post- Russian, along with Russian and Nenets place Soviet community that has left its traditional names. The complementary archival and other environment and moved towards the written material functions as a background for settlement and modernization. the Nenets speech material and makes it The research material was collected in understandable, but is also juxtaposed with Bugrino in four periods of ethnographic the Nenets material. fieldwork during the years 2000–2005. The The study unfolds the relationships main material of the study consists of oral between Taleworlds, physical places and

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landscapes and different periods of time in the The Settlement life and speech of the Kolguev Nenets. The analysis moves from the contemporary Accordingly, the study leans on Keith Basso’s settlement to the tundra, which was and (1996) ideas about sense of place and remains a significant landscape for the interanimation. The Halbwachsian ideas about Kolguev Nenets. The settlement is a places as permanent frames, and thus their community that arrived in Bugrino from importance for a community’s sense of different directions. Russians and Ukrainians stability, are also central in this study came to build a new Soviet community; (Halbwachs 1980; 1992). Nenets moved there because the prospect of When analyzing the oral tradition, the life in houses and settlements represented study focuses on the thematic contents of modernity and progress. In the Taleworld of speech in the context of Nenets oral tradition. the radiant past (svetloe proshloe), Bugrino is Oral tradition is here regarded as an a home for the community of the collective intertextual system built around collective economy. systems of utterances, contents, structures, The negative sense of place attached to the genres and their simultaneous and interactive settlement is analyzed as a part of a long usage in the creation and interpretation of continuum of descriptions, according to meanings. It is an open system that is which the Nenets living in or near the Russian available in different ways to different villages are seen in terms of degeneration and individuals in the community. The analysis exploitation. In these descriptions, Bugrino is aims to uncover how and why performers evaluated in relation to big cities of the build connections to previous performances mainland or in relation to the evaluations of and the larger body of Tundra Nenets the outsiders about the settlement. The folklore. Concentration on thematic analysis negative sense of place is produced in the means that research has been oriented toward speech of Kolguev islanders within the genre finding recurring themes and their contexts of litany, transmitting the image of complete and frames of performance. disintegration (polnaia razrukha) (Ries 1997). The concepts of Taleworld and Storyrealm Although attached to the same physical developed by Katharine Young (1987) environment, the Taleworld of the radiant past provide a point of departure for the and the negative sense of place are almost disentanglement of thematic wholes. Whereas total opposites of each other. Storyrealm refers to the event of the telling as a bounded act in the realm of a conversation, Taleworlds of the Past a Taleworld is the world created by the teller The places of Kolguev Island are situated in in the Storyrealm. The relationship between multiple and diverse levels depending on the Taleworlds and place is twofold. On the one point of view. In the beginning of the hand, the tellers themselves create the places analysis, the Nenets and Russian senses of the of a Taleworld in relation to the previous Kolguev landscape are sketched as two Taleworlds. On the other hand, everyday life different views, i.e. marine view and tundra outside the Storyrealm penetrates into the view. As, in the 19th century, the Nenets lived Taleworlds. All in all, Taleworlds are not on the island year-round, herding and hunting, separate from physical landscapes. These they dominated the tundra and came to the interact constantly with each other in the coast from the inland tundra. The Russian Storyrealm, but also outside of it. Taleworlds Pomor traders and hunters, on the other hand, animate physical landscapes, which came to the island from the sea and stayed in reciprocally lend their features to the coastal areas when visiting Kolguev. Based Taleworlds. on this concrete division of the landscape in the past, both views are reflected in place

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names, recollections and written materials. centers of everyday activities. The significant Although the views differ, they are not periods and places for the community are completely opposite or mutually exclusive. indeed significant because of their I contrast these landscapes using the exceptionality. In addition to Sharok, there terminology of Denis Cosgrove (1989). The are other such kinds of places on the coast of dominant landscapes are especially Russian the island. For example, the recollections of images of the island and they are concentrated the primordial Nenets on the island, told in in the coastal areas of Kolguev. These frames that play with historical and mythical landscapes are opposed to the alternative Taleworlds, center on the coastal areas. landscape of the Nenets that is often ignored Everyday life does not give rise to circulating in travelogues and the diaries of outsiders. As recollections as the elevated events in the life a dominant landscape, Kolguev is a strange, of the community do. Thus, daily nomadic frightening and empty island detached from life is not attached to the places where the mainland. In addition to the sea and the recollections are centered. Nomadic life is mainland, coastal residences provide points of attached to routes or interplaces (Casey 1996) view for perceiving the whole island. The and the camp sites that are surely significant depths of Kolguev (glub’ ostrova), from places for the senses of place of individuals. which the Nenets come to the trading posts, In this study, they only come up through place are unknown to the Russians. In addition, the names and implicitly as parts of the trading posts are described as filthy, gray and Taleworlds of the past. crude places, and the trading itself is described as exploiting the Nenets. Landscape of Spirits The alternative landscape in the Nenets In addition to the hot spots and nomadic recollections represents a different kind of routes, a landscape of spirits is sketched in the Taleworld of the past. Especially important study. This landscape is not accidentally are the areas near the trading post of Bugrino repeated; it expands and deepens with the and the old harbor of Sharok, as these are also material. The landscapes brought out in this central dominant landscapes that occur in study represent sirtia landscapes (where one Nenets recollections. They are places where can meet the sirtia-creatures), networks of culturally significant times and places meet. shamans’ graves, chapels and significant These are called hot spots of tradition (Siikala Nenets sacred places. They have been & Siikala 2005) in the study. The hottest point narrated within personal experience in Nenets recollections is Sharok Harbor. It is narratives, international narrative motifs and the place where the Nenets forefathers landed shamanic or mythic narration. when coming to the island; a place where a The ancestral territories (rodovye zemli, shaman built a chapel and where the Nenets rodovye mesta) encountered frequently in performed their rituals. Reindeer were Nenets speech are an inherent part of the slaughtered in Sharok, both reindeer and the landscape of the spirits. As the sacred places products of hunting were stored in the and family cemeteries are situated in the harbor’s granaries; it was a trading post where ancestral lands, these landscapes carry a communally important issues were discussed. strong religious charge. Besides the oral Sharok was also a place for encounters tradition, the continuity and tenacity of the between different ways of thinking, between religious sense of places are reflected in the different religious ideologies that are episodes through which Kolguev Nenets have reflected in the recollections and in the negotiated the meanings of the island’s places physical artifacts of the harbor. within a society that requires modernization. The hot spots of the past’s Taleworlds The study focuses on two main examples, one seem to gather in the places that were not relates a sacred place called Seikorkha and the

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other a narration about the last shaman, both Works Cited concerned with incongruities in Basso, Keith H. 1996. Wisdom Sits in Places: understandings and their mediation. Landscape and Language among the Western Apache. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico The landscape of spirits tells of the places Press. to which a community that has undergone Casey, Edward S. 1996. “How to Get from Space to sweeping changes wants to be attached. The Place in a Fairly Short Stretch of Time: landscape of spirits attracts the attention of Phenomenological Prolegomena”. In Senses of outsiders, but because of the inner terms of Place. Ed. Steven Feld & Keith H. Basso. Santa Fe: School of American Research Press. the tradition and also because of Soviet-based Cosgrove, Denis. 1989. “Geography is Everywhere: attitudes, this landscape is partly inaccessible Culture and Symbolism in Human Landscapes”. to them. It is a private landscape of the Horizons in Human Geography. Ed. Derek Gregory islanders. Ironically, this landscape justifies and Rex Walford. Totowa, NJ: Barnes & Noble. unambiguously to whom the island belongs. Halbwachs, Maurice. 1980 [1959]. The Collective Memory. New York, Cambridge, Hagerstown, The Taleworlds described in this study are Philadelphia, San Francisco, London, Mexico City, circulating within the island’s Nenets São Paulo, Sydney: Harper Colophon Books. community. While some are better tellers than Halbwachs, Maurice. 1992 [1952/ 1941]. On Collective others, the Taleworlds are common Memory. Chicago & London: University of knowledge in the community. Speech of this Chicago Press. Ries, Nancy. 1997. Russian Talk. Culture and kind is never insignificant or without Conversation During Perestroika. Ithaca & meaning. The speech intertwines with and London: Cornell University Press. conjures up landscapes; place names, Siikala, Anna-Leena & Jukka Siikala. 2005. Return to narration and recollections represent speech Culture: Oral Tradition and Society in the Southern about places and landscapes with special Cook Islands. Helsinki: Academia Scientiarum Fennica. significance for the whole community. Both Young, Katharine Galloway. 1987. Taleworlds and in spite of and because tellers intermittently Storyrealms: The Phenomenology of Narrative. criticize the Taleworlds or handle them with Hingham, Lancaster, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic humor – testing them – the Taleworlds remain Publishers Group. tenaciously alive.

Words as Events: Cretan Mantinádes in Performance and Composition Venla Sykäri, University of Helsinki

Dissertation publically defended for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Folklore Studies at the University of Helsinki on the 5th of February, 2011. Published as volume 18 in the series Studia Fennica Folkloristica by the Finnish Literature Society in Helsinki; 234 pages (ISBN 978-952-222-261-9). Opponent: Professor Michael Herzfeld, Harvard University

Words as Events introduces the tradition of individual experiences in spontaneous short, communicative rhyming couplets, the utterances. The local focus on communicative mantinádes, as still sung and recited in a economy and artistry is further examined in a variety of performance situations on the close analysis of the processes and ideals of island of Crete. Recently, these poems have composition. By analyzing how the also entered modern mass media and they are “restrictions” of form and performative widely being exchanged as text messages by conventions in fact generate impulses of Cretans. Focusing on the multi-functionality creativity, the author creates a theoretical of the short form, Sykäri demonstrates how approach that is sensitive to the special the traditional register gives voice to

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characteristics of the short, rhymed poetic traditions. In this interdisciplinary study, the reader is invited to become familiar with the current folklore theory of oral poetry, which has a long tradition in Finland. The author combines the results of earlier folkloristic and anthropological insights, and extends the theoretical concerns further to address questions of spontaneity and individual agency. The research data has been produced in communicative interactions during long- term fieldwork. As a result, the short, rhymed poetry, often neglected by scholars in earlier research paradigms, can now be seen in new light – specifically as dialogic poetry – through its extended, multi-layered dialogic qualities.

Master’s Research Projects

The Language of Birds in Old Norse Tradition: A Preliminary Introduction Timothy Bourns, University of Iceland

Thesis undertaken for the degree of Master of Arts in Medieval Icelandic Studies at the University of Iceland, to be completed in the beginning of 2012. Supervisors: Torfi H. Tulinius and Ármann Jakobsson

Select individuals in medieval Icelandic communication of wisdom to people in Old literature are endowed with the ability to Norse tradition offers another example of understand the language of birds. This their unique role in humanity’s socio-cosmic phenomenon has not received sufficient reality. academic attention and is deserving of Special attention will be given to the detailed, extensive, and interdisciplinary Vǫlsung cycle of eddic poetry and legendary study. With their capacity to fly and sing, literature. After slaying the dragon Fáfnir and birds universally hold a special place in tasting its blood, Sigurðr comprehends the human experience. Their effective speech of birds (Fáfnismál and Vǫlsunga

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saga). They warn him of Reginn’s intended the belief continued into the present era and betrayal, advise him to take the serpent’s can be detected in recent folklore. For treasure for himself, and direct him towards example, in 1906, anthropologist Vilhjálmur Brynhildr. The dragon-slaying symbolizes a Steffánson wrote on occult practices heroic initiation whereby a numinous ability undertaken to understand the language of is acquired. In Guðrúnarkviða I, Guðrún birds in modern Iceland. tastes Fáfnir’s blood and also gains this skill; The significance of bird-human and in Ragnars saga Loðbrókar, Sigurðr’s communication must receive comparative daughter Áslaug learns from three birds of her consideration. The cross-cultural diversity of husband Ragnar’s deceitful plan to wed a language of birds understood by ‘the Ingibjörg. initiated’ indicates that this motif is universal Other texts containing bird-human to the human condition. Previous theoretical communication shall receive analysis, approaches to birds in myth and legend will including Ynglinga saga (King Dag and his be explored. With the ‘transcendent function’, sparrow), Morkinskinna (King Óláfr III and Carl Jung proposed that birds can symbolize the Kráku-karl), Helgakviða Hjǫrvarðssonar movement from the conscious to the (Atli and the “fogl fróðhugaðr”), Rígsþula unconscious mind; Mircea Eliade wrote (Konr and the crow), and the conversation extensively on the connection between between a and a raven in the poem shamanism and mythic bird-imagery (the Hrafnsmál. Parallels with mythological ‘magical flight’); and Claude Lévi-Strauss material will also be drawn: Óðinn’s daily offered compelling conclusions about the dialogue with the ravens Huginn and Muninn metaphorical role of birds as a reflection of who travel the world(s) to bring him human thought and society. Birds are a knowledge, and Óðinn’s spitting the mead of special class of species in humanity’s poetry into Ásgarðr whilst in the shape of an perception of nature; Old Norse literature eagle. reflects this reality. Although other animal The differences between each scenario are species are occasionally able to communicate significant, but the connections between them with people, only birds are considered are the most telling. Birds serve narrative, nature’s purveyors of wisdom. religious, and symbolic purposes. Wisdom Fantastic relations between humans and emerges as central. A person is considered to animals in Old Norse literature provide an be particularly wise if she or he can insight into the environmental beliefs of the understand bird-speech; likewise, birds medieval North; bird-human communication provide useful (and often necessary) insights. is an important example of this potential. The It is also significant that birds are not application of the theory of ecocriticism will speaking a human language; rather, the challenge the existence of a human-animal sources clarify that certain humans have the dichotomy: the language of birds is one of the capacity to understand an animal language. many moments in medieval Icelandic sources Similar to shape-shifting, it is a process that where the distinction between the ‘human’ can be named ‘becoming-animal’. and the ‘animal’ is blurred with mythical or The wide chronological and geographical folkloric fancy. The imagined human ability range of this tradition is important. In the 1st to understand bird-speech is a marvel that the century CE, Tacitus writes in Germania that typical modern reader cannot believe to be the act of listening to birds was a common true; but in its symbolic complexity, the form of divination among the Germanic language of birds represents one of the most tribes. Pictorial representations also pre-date desired and universal goals of the human the medieval texts (e.g. the widespread spirit: transcendent wisdom. carvings of the Sigurðr legend). Moreover,

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A Comparison of Old Norse and Modern Dialects in North-West Norway (Sammenligning mellom norrønt og moderne dialekter på Nord-Vestlandet) Ragne Hagrum Gjengedal, University of Bergen

Thesis in preparation for the degree of Master of Arts in the field of Old Norse Philology at the University of Bergen, scheduled for submission in May 2012. Supervisor: Odd Einar Haugen

This thesis aims to investigate how the My research will focus on a comparison of dialects in the North-Western region of some of the dialects, and find out how they Norway have developed from Old Norse to differ in aspects such as the use of the dative modern times. My background for this is an and the use of svarabhakti vowel. How has interest in the similarities between different the use of dative changed through time, and languages and a wish to understand how and how is it used today, if it is used at all? The when the Germanic languages started to dative case is not normally used in modern differ, and how we still can see the written Norwegian, but is still used in some similarities. This has driven me to studies in dialects. When did we start to use svarabhakti Old Norse, Latin, and Icelandic. vowel, and how (and why) does it differ in There is no such thing as a single areas that are geographically close? These are ‘Norwegian’ language; rather there are a several of the questions that I will discuss in multitude of dialects that can have my thesis. considerable differences in pronunciation, In order to compare my study of modern vocabulary, and grammar. When my father dialects to Old West Norse (Old Icelandic and told me about a boy in his class in Old Norwegian), I will use Old Norse sources videregående skole [‘secondary school’], who such as the First Grammatical Treatise (AM came from a small, secluded place in 242 fol., a grammatical treatise that offers a Nordfjord (in Norway), who could read Old detailed phonemic analysis of Old Icelandic Norse because his own dialect was so similar, from the mid 12th century), and Old I realised it would be a golden opportunity to Norwegian texts preferably written in study the changes that modern Norwegian has Western Norway. I will also in part build gone through. However, this similarity of the upon the research done on Old Norse dialects Njordfjord dialect to Old Norse was reported undertaken by Marius Hægstad. over 40 years ago, and since then the At the end of the 18th century, the study of improved infrastructure of the area means that dialects was a popular field of research, as Nordfjord has become easier to travel both to Norway tried to create a ‘Norwegian identity’, and away from in recent years. The Nordfjord something to set us apart from Sweden and dialect has thus been open to influences from Denmark. People became interested in dialects from elsewhere, and so this particular Norwegian language and history. Collections dialect will have changed a lot in the past four of Norwegian words and dialects were decades. For this reason, I will base my published, and the study of the similarities studies of the North-Western Norwegian between Old Norse and dialects in rural areas dialects on phonological and morphological of Norway was begun. However, this kind of tests done by, amongst others, Ivar Aasen research has not been undertaken to a great (1813–1896), known in Norway as the man extent since then. This makes my research who made one of our written languages, more difficult, but also, I think, more Nynorsk, which he based on dialects that he interesting and worthwhile. traveled around and collected in the years 1843–1847.

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Calls for Papers

The 16th Congress of the International Society for Folk Narrative Research (ISFNR): “Folk Narrative in the Modern World: Unity and Diversity” 25th–30th June 2013, Vilnius, Lithuania

An International Congress organized by the Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore and Vilnius University

The International Society for Folk Narrative University was founded in 1579 and ever Research – ISFNR (www.isfnr.org) is an since, as an integral part of European science international academic society whose and culture, has embodied the concept of a objective is to develop scholarly work in the classical university and the unity of studies field of folk narrative research. The research and research. Vilnius University is an active interests of ISFNR members around the world participant in international scientific and cover a number of disciplines in humanities academic activities and boasts many and social sciences, including folklore, prominent scientists, professors and anthropology, cultural studies, comparative graduates. The 16th Congress of ISFNR will literature, language, history, museology, convene in the Old Campus - the complex of education and ethnography from the point of University buildings extending over a whole view of narratives. block of the Old Town. Its original The Institute of Lithuanian Literature and architecture attracts the visitor’s attention. Folklore (www.llti.lt) is a major national The construction of the University research center, carrying out fundamental buildings was carried out over the centuries investigations of Lithuanian literature, under the changing influences of the Gothic, folklore and cultural heritage. The Institute Renaissance, Baroque, and Classical styles. also hosts the Lithuanian Folklore Archives – Bounded by four streets, the campus is the largest and oldest repository of folklore in composed of 12 buildings, arranged around Lithuania, documenting centuries-old peasant 13 courtyards of different shape and size. At culture as well as contemporary folklore. present, the Rector’s Office, the Library, the Altogether the Archives now store over Faculties of Philology, Philosophy, and 10,000 collections comprising over 1.9 History, as well as some interdisciplinary million folklore items. Among the chief centers, are situated in the old town. objectives of the Institute, preservation, editing and publication of the monumental Topics sources of the Lithuanian cultural heritage The general topic of the 16th Congress of the should be named. The Institute publishes ISFNR is Folk Narrative in the Modern annually about 30 academic publications, and World: Unity and Diversity. Subtopics of the organizes about 10-15 research conferences, congress are: seminars and other academic events. Vilnius University (www.vu.lt) is the oldest  What is Folk Narrative? Theoretical Definitions vs. Practical Approaches university in the Baltic States and one of the oldest universities in North Eastern Europe. It  Narrative Genres: Heritage and is also the largest university in Lithuania. The Transformation

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 Homo Narrans: Remembering, Telling, Evolving through "legends" and "belief Forgetting legends", the latest manifestation of "belief  Folk Narrative and Social narratives" does not just signal an Communication adjustment of the label granted to a certain  Crossing the Boundaries: the Local and kind of story, it also indicates the inclusion the Global in Narrative of stories such as "myths" and "saints  Folk Narratives and Modern legends" that have mainly been considered Technologies: Preservation, separate from "legends". Whereas the Transmission, Creation concept of "belief legends" (which some would consider as pleonastic) already Panels constitutes one of the most problematic Participants wishing to suggest a panel are kind of story, these problems multiply most welcome. Please submit your when faced with "belief narratives". This suggestions (indicating chair/convener of the also makes them extremely fascinating and panel, topic, titles of papers and participants), a fertile ground for new research and complying with the thematic guidelines of the discussions. subtopics and the general topic of the As part of the 16th ISFNR Congress, congress. The deadline for submitting the Belief Narrative Committee is suggestions for pre-organized panels is 1st organizing a series of sessions exploring October 2012. the boundaries of belief narratives; lively Some preliminary suggestions for panels exchanges on the following, sometimes include: overlapping topics are anticipated:

 Child-Lore and Youth Lore by Laima  Beliefs, truths, and disbeliefs Anglickienė (Vytautas Magnus  Defining belief narratives University, Kaunas, Lithuania)  Old figures in new shapes  Folklore and / in Translation by Cristina  Myths Bacchilega (University of Hawaii at  The issue of eurocentricity Manoa, Honolulu, USA)  Prospects and projects

 Storytelling: The Building and The above themes are merely meant as Transformation of Identity by Jurga guidelines. They are meant to be expanded Jonutytė (Vytautas Magnus University, and criticized. For abstracts sketching the Kaunas, Lithuania) scope of the suggested themes, please  Folk Narrative in the Modern World: check the BNN website: Computers and the Internet by Theo http://www.isfnr.org/files/beliefnarrativene Meder (Meertens Instituut, the twork.html. Please send your proposals for Netherlands) papers and/or other contributions to:  World in Made of Stories by Algis Willem de Blécourt, Mickūnas (Ohio University, USA) [email protected] Do not hesitate to get in touch when in doubt about the Symposiums suitability of your subject. The deadline for Two symposiums are scheduled to be held st th final proposals is 1 October 2012. within the framework of the 16 congress of the ISFNR in Vilnius: 2. The ISFNR Committee on Charms, Charmers and Charming will also hold its 1. Belief Narrative Network (BNN) will symposium entitled “Charms on Paper, hold its symposium entitled “Boundaries of Charms in Practice”. Belief Narratives”.

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Once again, following meetings in Institute of Lithuanian Literature London (2003, 2005), Pecs (2007), Athens and Folklore (2009), Bucharest (2010) and Moscow Antakalnio 6, LT-10308 Vilnius (2011), the ISFNR Committee on Charms, LITHUANIA Charmers and Charming will hold a symposium during the 16th ISFNR Registration Fee Congress in Vilnius (2013). More details Registration fees are as follows: about the Committee's work is available

via the Committee’s website at  Regular registration until February 1st, 2013: 250 EUR http://www.isfnr.org/files/committeecharm s.html.  Reduced fee for accompanying persons, While paper proposals on all aspects of unemployed colleagues and PhD charms studies will be welcome, the students: 150 EUR symposium's title, Charms on paper,  Late registration after February 1st, 2013 charms in practice is intended to highlight or on-site: 300 EUR two topics that are particularly welcome,  Reduced fee for the accompanying namely the status of charms as text (in persons, unemployed colleagues and PhD manuscripts, in books, in archives) and the students: 200 EUR

practice of charming. Proposals touching Please note: Participants of the Vilnius on both such spheres are welcome, as are Congress are reminded that this is an event those which attempt to link 'words on organized primarily by and for members of paper' and 'living practice'. As long as the International Society for Folk Narrative there is a focus on the verbal aspects of Research. To ensure their full ISFNR magic, there are no restrictions as to the membership status, including the right to vote period or the language of the material. during the general assembly, participants will Please email your proposals of 150 to be asked to check with the treasurer or the 300 words to Jonathan Roper, [email protected]. st treasurer's representative, and ISFNR The deadline for proposals is 1 October members who have not yet paid their dues 2012. will be asked to do so prior to registration. The current membership rates are 25 Euros or Book Exhibition 30 US Dollars for the period between the The congress will also host a book exhibition major congresses, to be paid in advance. The of recent folklore publications. Participants current membership period is 2009-2013, so wishing to contribute their publications for the next period will be 2013-2017. the exhibition may send them to: Non-members wishing to participate in the

Ms. Rūta Pleskačiauskienė (for the ISFNR Vilnius congress are welcome. Meanwhile, book exhibition) non-members will be expected to pay an Library of the Institute of Lithuanian additional registration fee of 50 Euros or 60 Literature and Folklore US Dollars prior to registration. Reduced Antakalnio 6, LT-10308 Vilnius, rates at 25 Euros or 30 Dollars for non- Lithuania. members will only be applicable for students, unemployed, and accompanying persons. Registration Please note that all payments to the ISFNR The deadline for registration is 30th June treasurer must be made in cash. 2012. Please submit your registration by e-mail: [email protected] Submission of Abstracts The deadline for the submission of abstracts is by fax: + 370 52616254 st by mail: ISFNR 16th Congress 1 October 2012. Sessions and panels will be

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structured according to topics (with a Institute of Lithuanian Literature maximum of four participants). Suggestions and Folklore for panels are going to be treated as separate Antakalnio 6, LT-10308 Vilnius units, organized and submitted by the panel LITHUANIA organizer / chair. Participants are kindly asked Online: available soon. to indicate the sub-topic for their papers while submitting the abstracts. Guidelines for Local Organizing Committee abstracts are as follows: The local organizing committee is made up of: Mindaugas Kvietkauskas (Chair), Antanas

 Format: RTF, Rich Text Format Smetona, Lina Būgienė (Secretary), Daiva  Typed: Times New Roman, 12 point Vaitkevičienė; Jūratė Šlekonytė, Radvilė  Length: up to 300 words Racėnaitė, Gintautė Žemaitytė,  Space: single [double space between Bronė Stundžienė, Uršulė Gedaitė and Lina title/subtopic/ author/ address and the Sokolovaitė body of the abstract] st  Deadline: 1 October 2012 Further Information

You will be notified about approval of your Should you have questions, please e-mail: submitted abstract by 31st January 2013. [email protected]. Please find regularly updated N.B. – Presentations should not exceed 20 information regarding the congress, next minutes followed by 10 minutes of circulars, registration procedures, etc., on the discussion. following websites: Please submit your abstract by e-mail: [email protected] www.llti.lt by fax: + + 370 52616254 www.isfnr.org by mail: ISFNR 16th Congress

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RMN Newsletter in an open-access biannual  PhD project summary: 2–3 pages (max. publication that sets out to construct an 5) body text informational resource and discourse space  MA project summary: 1 page body text for researchers of diverse and intersecting – Places disciplines. Its thematic center is the  Outline of programmes, projects and discussion and investigation of cultural other activities or research associated phenomena of different eras and the research with an institution, organization or tools and strategies relevant to retrospective network of organizations – preferred methods. Retrospective methods consider some length, 1–3 pages (max. 5) aspect of culture in one period through evidence – Calls for Papers from another, later period. Such comparisons range from investigating historical relationships to The orientation of RMN Newsletter is toward the utility of analogical parallels, and from presenting information about events, people, comparisons across centuries to developing activities, developments and technologies, working models for the more immediate traditions and research which is ongoing or has been behind limited sources. RMN Newsletter recently completed. Rather than presenting welcomes and encourages its readership to conclusive findings, short-article engage in this discourse space and it also contributions for the Comments and promotes an awareness that participation will Communications section are generally support, maintain and also shape this oriented to discussion and/or engaging in emergent venue. discourse opened in earlier issued of RMN The publication is organized according to Newsletter or in other publications. four broad sections: Comments and The success of this publication as both a Communications, People, Places and Calls for resource and discourse space is dependent on Papers: the participation of its readership. We also

– Comments and Communications recognize the necessity of opening contact  Short-article / discussion pieces – with and being aware of the emerging preferred length, 3–7 pages body text generation of scholars and welcome (plus images, tables, list of works cited) summairies of on-going and recently completed MA and PhD research projects.  Conference report / announcement – preferred length, 2–3 pages (max. 5) If you are interested in making information about your own work available or  Project announcements – preferred participating in discussion through comments, length, 1–3 pages (max. 5) responses or short-article contributions, please – People send your contributions in *.doc, *docx or  Research report (abstract / summary of *.rtf format to Frog at conference paper): max. 1 page body text [email protected].  Published paper summary: max. 1 page For more information and access to earlier  Edited volume summary: 1–3 pages issues of RMN Newsletter, please visit our (max. 5) body text web-page at http://www.helsinki.fi/  Monograph summary: 1–3 pages (max. folkloristiikka/English/RMN/. 5) body text

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Published by Folklore Studies of the Department of Philosophy, History, Culture and Art Studies, University of Helsinki