What Can Graphic Design of Static Teaching Resources Learn from Commercial Film and Media in Order to Be More Relevant for Today's Children?

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WHAT CAN GRAPHIC DESIGN OF STATIC TEACHING RESOURCES LEARN FROM COMMERCIAL FILM AND MEDIA IN ORDER TO BE MORE RELEVANT FOR TODAY'S CHILDREN?

by Tetiana Koldunenko

Master of Design (by Research) - UNSW Australia October 2014 Abstract

This thesis initially describes a new ‘digital age’ for children; an age specifically identified as one where children consume and interact with digital media on a daily basis. It describes a ‘gap’ that continues to widen between what is defined as ‘static’ and ‘dynamic’ media – as the latter continues to develop at an accelerating rate. Research within this thesis supports the view that traditionally static visuals, still used in today’s teaching resources, do not engage or provide information to children in a way that aligns with more contemporary modes of communication with which they are now more familiar. The thesis presents a body of research to explore ways in which graphic designers could improve existing teaching resources to increase children’s motivation to learn.

Chapter 2 begins by defining what is described as ‘static’ and ‘dynamic’ media. It presents a short history of dynamic media in order to explain the technical and commercial forces that exist which continue to drive its proliferation and uptake, especially amongst young children. It argues that children are attracted to a mix of both visual and non-visual characteristics of dynamic media: realism, colour, movement, appealing characters, exaggerated emotions, etc. In contrast, the history of static media is characterised by limited development and progression.

The research is further focused by providing an overview of a selection of traditional Mathematics textbooks, illustrating how, in general, static Maths teaching resources (still used today) are increasingly outdated and in need of improvement regarding internal layout, illustrations, etc. It is emphasised how such learning materials have experienced little change over time and are clearly not what children now respond to.

As a result of the initial introductory overviews and definitions within the thesis, together with a thorough literature review of relevant fields, a specific research question is formed: what can the graphic design of teaching resources learn from contemporary commercial film and media, in order to become more relevant for today’s children?

The two main goals of this research are to: (i) make suggestions of how graphic designers can adopt the design elements of commercial film and media and apply them to teaching resources in order to make them more relevant to today’s children; (ii) demonstrate how a newly designed practical outcome – a set of cards and board game – could be used by teachers/ educators to support contemporary teaching methods for the foundation year Mathematics curriculum (kindergarten). Chapter 3 gives justification for a particular graphic design approach to produce revised practical outcomes, as well as the analysis and explanation of a number of visual and non-visual design elements. Following is an overview of the current Mathematics school curriculum in order to clarify what children are required to learn in their kindergarten year at school (in NSW, Australia). The chapter progresses to give a description of how new methods could be applied to answer the overall research question. It describes how a number of concepts could be taught using static printed materials (cards, board game) that have been developed using dynamic media design elements and which goals are being met in terms of contemporary teaching methods discussed in Chapter 2.

Chapter 4 provides an evaluation and conclusion of the entire research project and its practical graphic design outcomes. The chapter aims to argue the case that: a new design strategy is needed to improve existing ‘static’ teaching resources; that commercial film and video, together with new graphic design techniques, offer the means to make visual Mathematics learning materials more relevant to today’s generation of kindergarten children; and, finally, that the resulting and improved teaching resources and suggestions could now be even further developed and practically applied by teachers in today’s kindergarten classrooms.

Acknowledgements

This dissertation would not have been possible without the guidance and help of several generous individuals who in one way or another contributed and assisted in the preparation and completion of this study.

First and foremost, my utmost gratitude to my academic supervisor Associate Professor Rick Bennett, PhD, MHEd, BA (Hons), School of Design Studies, College of Fine Arts (COFA), University of New South Wales (UNSW) for his wise guidance, patience and critical input into my work.

Also my sincere gratitude is extended to Wendy Parker (Coordinator Postgraduate Research, School of Design Studies), Liz Williamson (Head, School of Design Studies) and Dr Katherine Moline (Senior Lecturer, Graphics Media Coordinator) for their valuable inputs.

In addition I would like to thank Maria Zueva from UNSW Learning Centre for her help in reading through sections of my work and commenting on language and structure of my paper, as well as Joanna Elliot for her advice and support regarding administrative requirements of the degree.

I would especially like to thank to my family: Evgeniya Chemerys, Kateryna Chemerys, Anton Chemerys, and my son Bogdan Koldunenko for their constant support and understanding during this exciting and challenging time.

Finally I would like to say a special thank you to my husband, Raymond Raheb, for his patience, emotional support and encouragement throughout the process of writing this thesis. Table of Contents

Chapter 1 - Introduction 8

Overview 8 The new ‘digital age’ for children 8 Current state of children’s teaching resources 9 Identifying the gap in children’s teaching resources 9 Filling the gap – graphic design and the research problem 10 Conceptual framework 11

Chapter 2 - Review of Literature 12

Definitions of: ‘static’, ‘dynamic’, ‘media’. 12 Evolution of dynamic media 12 A short history 12 Commercial interest 13 Visual evolution 14 Evolution of static media 16 Teaching Math 17 Traditional mathematics texts 17 Design of Math textbooks 17 Following, are some examples from an early 1960s elementary school textbook 20 Math books from the 1990s 21 Contemporary Math text books 23 Math teaching – the on-line alternative 25 Financial aspect of textbook production 26 Patterns of use – comparison of dynamic and static media 27 Background 27 Growth of overall time spent on media 28 Types of devices and percentage of use 28 Age and time spent on each type of consumer electronic device 30 How much time children spend on reading 32

6 Comparison of design characteristics – dynamic and static media study materials 34 Relevant research 38 Decline in academic achievements 38 Australia and the world 38 Contemporary teaching methods 40 Important works in the field 40 Statement of the research question 45 Main goals of the research and practical outcome 46 Chapter 3 – Method 47

Justification for the proposed graphic design approach and its practical outcomes 47 Analysis of adopted dynamic design elements into practical outcome 48 Imitation of screen 48 Horizontal orientation 49 Full colour pages, intense and depth background 49 Bright and colourful texts and images 40 Non-linear layout 50 Volumetric style 51 Appealing characters 52 Increase in entertaining effect 53 Current Math school curriculum 54 Common age when children start attending school 54 Australian school system curriculum 55 Mathematics course 55 Proposed method of solving the research question (practical outcome) 57

Chapter 4 - Evaluation and Conclusion 68

Answering the research question 68 Implications of an innovative graphic design approach 69 Future possibilities 69 List of references 71 List of figures and tables 77

7 Chapter 1 - Introduction

Overview

Human perception is influenced by the kinds of activities we engage in. Radio journalists, as an example, comprehend audio information better than written text; whereas, for a novelist or writer, the reverse would be true (Oakley, 2009). Children, today, spend increasingly more time in front of electronic devices (Marszalek, 2013) with the result that they have become more receptive to information delivered in this way (Edgar & Edgar, 2008). The consequence for school teaching resources – which for the most part are in printed form (AEL, 2003) – is that they have become outdated, less engaging and less motivating to children.

This paper will discuss research studies that support the view that current static school teaching resources must change in order to reflect the changes in preferences of school children today. Studies have shown that Australian education standards have fallen in the last ten years. This paper argues for the need to improve our education resources in order to make them more relevant as children have become habituated to these prevalent visual forms so much so they are perceived by them to be the norm; whereas traditional static teaching resources, e.g. school textbooks which have developed little in recent years, are consequently less interesting to them. This paper argues that improving the visual design of these materials with the tools of graphic design will increase a child’s interest and potentially their engagement and motivation to study. Based on my research, this paper will describe a strategy (model) that adopts some of the visual and non-visual design elements of commercial film and video and apply them to static teaching resources. This paper will also describe how these resources can be used by educators/teachers to support their methods and so demonstrate the application of my strategy from a practical viewpoint.

The new ‘digital age’ for children

The proliferation of electronic devices has brought about changes to children’s everyday lives. Electronic devices (smart phones, tablets, TV, Xbox, PS4, etc.) entertain and educate children for hours at a time. In terms of my research, the significance of these changes are that children are now accustomed to visual information that is bright, colourful, moving; often interactive and of limited duration; whereas, school teaching resources – such as worksheets and books –

8 continue to be mostly static and less exciting. Static materials have not kept pace with what children are now accustomed to. Consequently, they fail to interest and engage many children in the study process.

Current state of children’s teaching resources

The last century has seen the development of many innovative and interesting teaching methods. However, in the main, schools (as the main educators of children) seem to lag behind and maintain traditional techniques of information dissemination. In the last ten years, electronic devices have been brought into schools; nevertheless, teaching materials have not transformed to any large extent. One reason for this is the lack of financial support for materials and teacher training; another is the lack of research into the development and assessment of new teaching resources.

Identifying the gap in children’s teaching resources

A significant ‘gap’ has developed between the design of video and printed materials. Video has developed at an accelerating rate; whereas printed materials have fallen behind with the result that they are outdated – less engaging and motivating for children as study material. The point is that static material and books could adopt many design elements from visual media design in order to improve engagement, motivation and potential effectiveness as study material. In the main, current study materials use pictures as decorations or illustrations (see Figure 1). This state of affairs has little effect other than to distract the child, as the illustrations often have no relation to the subject material. Also, the layout of current static material is often ‘linear’1 and the style of illustrations is not what children are now accustomed to. There is a need to make the visual design of teaching resources align with what children now respond and so become more relevant to them.

1. by which I mean design components are placed in strict order like in a table.

Figure 1 These pictures are used as decorations without conveying the message.

Filling the gap – graphic design and the research problem

This paper argues that school teaching resources need to be more relevant, i.e. more contemporary2 and engaging, and provide information in a way that aligns with the modes in which children are now familiar. Additionally, this paper will describe how graphic design can be used to improve static teaching materials by making them more engaging so as to increase the child’s motivation to learn. Motivation is an ‘engine’ that moves the learning process along. Voluntary activity is far more effective than a forced one (Parondjanov, 2001). The way to engage a child’s attention is to give them something they can recognise as a source of interest and pleasure.

2. Contemporary has the meaning of belonging to or occurring in the present. This paper argues that static teaching resources are currently outdated. 10 Conceptual framework

Education literature describes school engagement as a multidimensional construct that has the potential to ameliorate declining academic motivation and achievement (Fredricks et al., 2004). Researchers describe engagement as having behavioural, emotional and cognitive components. Fredricks et al (2004) emphasise that the interconnections between these three components are complex and argues for a ‘multifaceted’ understanding, by which is meant that components overlap and should not be considered in isolation pp 60-61. The idea of school engagement, for a child in a learning environment, may manifest itself in a wide range of dispositions including: to be committed, motivated and interested; whereas disengagement may manifest itself as boredom and disconnection. Importantly, research suggests that engagement may mediate academic achievement (Fredricks et al., 2004). Research identifies engagement itself as being mediated by several contextual factors such as: curriculum, classroom environment, and positive or negative attitudes toward teachers and school work (Epstein & McPartland, 1976; Yamamoto et al., 1969). This paper argues that the efficacy of learning materials is an important part of the classroom environment that will elicit qualitative responses from students. For example, if dated or uninspiring, the material likely evokes a negative emotional response; if it serves to simplify or clarify concepts, the material likely evokes a positive cognitive response. These trivial examples are intended to demonstrate how either disengagement or engagement may be elicited by learning materials.

Learning literature suggests that engagement is malleable (Fredricks et al., 2004). By this is meant that it is amenable to interventions or reforms. Additionally, the research suggests that there are better opportunities for engagement where classroom tasks are both authentic, i.e reflect real world interaction, and provide an element of fun (Newmann, 1991; Newmann et al., 1992). These are themes that will be picked up later in this discussion.

In summary, the conceptual model predicts that by improving static learning materials, by making them more contemporary and part of the world to which the child is now accustomed, the child will be engaged, i.e. demonstrate commitment, motivation, and interest which will lead to positive learning outcomes.

11 Chapter 2 - Review of Literature

Definitions of: ‘static’, ‘dynamic’, ‘media’.

For the purpose of this paper, a static presentation of information includes materials, the perception of which has no time constraint. Examples are printed materials, books, magazines, table and card games, posters, flyers, task sheets etc. The absence of a time constraint can be beneficial in that it allows children to explore information at their own pace. In relation to children’s learning, static presentation materials tend to be less colourful and more linear – consequently they are usually less interesting and less entertaining (Larkin, & Simon, 1987).

A dynamic presentation of information is constrained by time in the sense that video (picture), sound and text are shown for a short period of time (often not immediately controlled by a viewer). Also, it almost always requires a stable and static physical body position with the eyes locked upon the screen. Examples are video games, movies, TV etc. Dynamic information typically has an entertaining effect – due to, amongst other things, the form of characters which appeal to the child’s emotions. They also tend to be more colourful and less linear (see pp 33-37).

Media is defined as ‘digital devices of screen type’. In this sense, media includes all types of motion pictures, animation, video, games. In other words it is a dynamic presentation of information.

Evolution of dynamic media

A short history

When we talk about dynamic media, we think, first of all, about cartoons and video games and the devices that provide them. Both have been changing and improving significantly with technological progress. In order to understand why dynamic media has accelerated in its development far more than static media, and is consumed by children to the extent that it is, it is necessary to look at its history.

12 Dynamic media 3, as we understand it today, developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with the first use of the optical effect to create the illusion of the moving picture. Allied with the invention of film celluloid which enabled the easy projection of these images onto a screen, the cartoon industry was born. Dynamic media techniques have improved rapidly since. In mid the 1920s sound was synchronised with the moving picture. Also, black and white cartoons were substituted with three-colour cartoons when Technicolor was introduced by Walt Disney. In the 1930s cameras invented by Disney and Iwerks improved quality and depth of the picture. With the arrival of the television era, the market for animation grew significantly. Colour television was introduced to the US market in 1951. Later, in the 1970s, the use of personal computers gave moving pictures the possibility to be interactive. In the 1990s, CGI (computer generated image) pushed cartoon and video game production to new levels. 3D cartoons were subsequently a further development. Computer animation became ‘mainstream’ entertainment with the phenomenal popularity of Toy Story (1995) – the first animated film completely made using this technique. In this last decade, new devices have developed such that cartoons and game-playing have become increasingly mobile and increasingly affordable. Additionally, software has become more sophisticated. We have today a plethora of devices available from the supermarket shelf developed by corporations with huge technical and financial resources that do a very good job of marketing their products to well-targeted groups – including children from 3 to 4 years of age.

Commercial interest

Accelerating technology together with strong market growth has stimulated dynamic media to occupy a significant segment of the entertainment market. Commercial interest, i.e. the profit motive, has driven investment in the industry. Cartoons developed to feature films of a standard that attracted large paying audiences of both children and adults.

Disney invested $225,000 to make Snow White (an incredible sum for the time). Over the many years since it was made, this film has accumulated revenue of approxemately $7 billion. Shrek 2 by Dreamworks/SKG (2004) grossed $919,838,758 with budget $70,000,000 and profit $389,919,3794 . Television, as another popular medium, was in need of entertainment content and cartoons became successful product here too.

3. This chapter is based on books of Leonard Maltin, American film historian, lecturer at New school for Social Research in New York City, author of eight books on film history, editor of 17 other books on film history, publisher of a film buffs magazine for nine years, lecturer on that subject at colleges and universities around the world. 4. http://voices.yahoo.com/top-10-most-profitable-films-decade-5025866.html. Martha Fry, Yahoo Contributor Network, Dec 7, 2009. Accessed on 29.09.2013. 13 Additionally, the advertising industry uses cartoon characters to promote their products and businesses. Children become familiar with cartoon characters and become consumers of products those familiar characters promote. DreamWorks Animation licensed images of their Madagascar characters to marketers of snack food5. (see Figure 2). Disney use characters of Monster’s Inc. for promoting stationery6.

Figure 2 Cartoon characters marketing snack food

In summary, high profits has promoted investment in cartoons which has grown from year to year: in 2008, the animation market was worth US$68.4 billion7. The global animation and gaming market is expected to grow from $122.20 billion in 2010 to $242.93 billion by 2016. This represents a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 12.94% from 2011 to 20168.

Visual evolution

Dynamic picture or animation has been changing constantly as it continues to be influenced by technological progress and commercial interest9. The era of computer generated animation brought a change of style to become more volumetric and photorealistic.

Computer generated animation has almost replaced all other kinds of animation production because of the creative possibilities it allows. The CGI animation process involves painters,

5. http://www.cspinet.org/new/201207181.html, DreamWorks Under Fire for Letting ‘Madagascar’ Characters Peddle Junk Food. July 18, 2012. Accessed on 9.10.2013. 6. http://www.disneystore.co.uk/monsters-inc/monsters-university/stationery/mn/1331002+1000209/. Accessed on 9.10.2013. 7. ‘Animation’ boi.gov.ph. Board of Investments. 2009-11. Retrieved 2012.07.24. 8. http://www.marketsandmarkets.com/Market-Reports/animation-gaming-market-514.html. Report by marketsandmarkets.com, published on November 2011. 9. http://www.siggraph.org/education/materials/HyperGraph/animation/rick_parent/Intr.html. Chapter 1. Introduction to computer animation Rick Parent, last updated 5/10/96. 14 sculptors, illustrators, texturisers, model builders, camera specialists, choreographers and so on; a collaboration between technical and creative specialists (Hooks, 2003). The resources brought to bear certainly have no analogue in static media.

One of the prominent studios, DreamWorks Animation (DWA), paid much attention to technological improvements. With a multitude of technical awards and accolades, this group is at the forefront of the industry. Acknowledging the incredible achievements in computer graphics, they call the process of creating a cartoon ‘a delicate marriage between creativity and technology’.10 Starting with the release of Monsters versus Aliens in 2009, all feature films at DWA are produced in stereoscopic 3D.

Computer animation includes a variety of techniques – the unifying factor being that the animation is, today, created digitally on a computer. 2D animation techniques tend to focus on image while 3D techniques usually build virtual worlds in which characters and objects move and interact. 3D animation can create images that seem realistic to the viewer. Animalistic creatures still have big eyes that help to express emotions, but these eyes are now volumetric. Perspective, easily achievable with 3D software, plays a bigger role in story presentation. The camera moves freely in the virtual environment. Advanced techniques allow the possibility to display controllable particle systems such as: fireworks, seeds, sand, dust, and little objects – a level of detail hitherto unavailable to the cartoon world.

Key to the success of a cartoon is appeal. Appeal in a cartoon character corresponds to what would be called charisma in an actor. A character that is appealing is not necessarily sympathetic – villains or monsters can also be appealing – the important thing is that the viewer feels the character is real and interesting. There are several tricks for making a character connect better with the audience; for likable characters a symmetrical or particularly baby-like face tends to be effective. A complicated or hard to read face will lack appeal, it may more accurately be described as ‘captivation’ in the composition of the pose, or the character design (Johnston & Thomas, 1981).

One of the most used principles is exaggeration, which is an effect of reinforcing message by increasing size, length, volume or other characteristics. The level of exaggeration depends on whether one seeks realism or a particular style, like a caricature or the style of an artist. The classical definition of exaggeration, employed by Disney, was to remain true to reality, just

10. http://www.dreamworksanimation.com/insidedwa/tech/ http://www.dreamworksanimation.com/ insidedwa/productionprocess. Accessed on 31.10.2013. 15 presenting it in a wilder, more extreme form. Other forms of exaggeration can involve the supernatural or surreal, alterations in the physical features of a character, or elements in the storyline itself. It is important to employ a certain level of restraint when using exaggeration; if a scene contains several elements, there should be a balance in how those elements are exaggerated in relation to each other, to avoid confusing or overawing the viewer (Johnston & Thomas, 1981). For instance, exaggeration of squashing or stretching brings additional effectiveness to motion; bigger face parts convey emotions easier.

In summary, what began with Disney’s classic cartoon style (realistic with depth and volume), for economic reasons evolved as something more suitable for limited animation (flat, bright, very symbolic). With technical progress, computer inking sped up the production process and 3D software allowed cartoons to push the limits of realism (photorealism). Today, significant budgets are necessary to fund the many writers, artists and technicians that are required for production.

This paper argues that, by applying appropriate visual and non-visual characteristics – 3D effect, depth of picture, appealing characters, non-linear layout, exaggerated emotions, bright colours, entertaining stories and jokes – from commercial film and video to static prints, they can be made more relevant to young children.

Evolution of static media

The late 19th and early 20th centuries have become known as the ‘golden age of children’s literature in Great Britain’ as this period included the publication of many books acknowledged today as classics. Australia, too, produced its share of quality children’s literature, e.g. Ethel Turner’s with highly successful children’s novel Seven Little Australians (1894). The children’s book industry of this time paid attention to illustration and presentation. English speaking countries provided a large and growing market for books written in English. However, the school textbook industry paid little attention to the visual or design aspects of books – much less than education theory did (Times, 2014).

16 Teaching Math11

The growth of schooling in Europe, and compulsory education, led to the mass production of standardized textbooks which became the primary teaching instrument for most children since the 19th century. Two school textbooks of historical significance in the United States were the 18th century New England Primer and the 19th century McGuffey Readers (Roberts, 2010).

Teaching math at schools has moved through different stages: initially traditional mathematics (sometimes called classical math education) dominated in the United States in the early-to- mid 20th century. Traditional mathematics education has been challenged by several reform movements over the last several decades. However, these reforms were for the content of Math textbooks and did not touch upon their visual approach. New math (reformative) was a set of alternative methods but is now largely abandoned and discredited. The most recent reform in mathematics (i.e. standards-based mathematics) based on NCTM standards12 has been widely adopted. Again, it is focused on teaching methods and not presentation.

Traditional mathematics texts

In general, books which focus on instruction in standard arithmetic methods can be categorized as a traditional math textbook. Reform math textbooks will often focus on conceptual understanding, usually avoiding immediate instruction of the standard algorithms and frequently promoting student exploration and discovery of the relevant mathematics. This approach is a subject of criticism by some educators (Bornstejn, 2011).

Design of Math text books

In the following pages we will look at some examples of old and recent math text books. Some of the design elements have not changed: linear, table-like structure with little use of pictures (see Figure 3).

11. As will be explained, a goal of my research is to improve math teaching resources and is why this discussion of math text books is included. 12. Principles and Standards for School Mathematics are guidelines produced by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics in 2000, setting forth recommendations for mathematics educators. 17

Figure 3 Example of old traditional text book

One of the early examples of a Math book is the USA’s Number Fun Activity Book for Beginners by Beckley-Cardy Co (below). First edition was in 1932, second in 1936 and third in 1941, colouring book/workbook with math and arithmetic for first grade and kindergarten, it is black and white, has relatively small font size and simple structure (see Figure 4).

Figure 4 Number Fun 1932

Numbers We See is a school book for Grade 1 to learn number and reading readiness. Made in 1948, it was purchased for schools in 1953. The pictures are very colourful, realistic without any shape stylization (see Figure 5). 18

Figure 5 ‘Numbers We See’ 1948

La Ronde Des Nombres, an atypical math textbook from 1957, written by René & Suzanne Brandicourt (a couple of teachers ) and illustrated by M.T. Aberdam. This book’s illustrations are very symbolic and flat. Only two colours are used. It was edited in 1957 by ‘Les Editions Bourrelier’. Its artistic approach makes it very unusual for a math textbook (see Figure 6).

Figure 6 ‘La Ronde Des Nombres’ 1957

19 Some examples from an early 1960s elementary school textbook

The pages below are from ‘Seeing through Arithmetic 1’, W. J. Gage Limited, Toronto, 1963. Illustrated by Jerry Warshaw with the assistance of Jim Weathers. Symbolic pictures use limited colours and flat images. The linear structure is softened by imitation of paper pieces with different tasks (see Figure 7).

Figure 7 ‘Seeing through Arithmetic 1’ 1963

Educational flash cards of 1960s by Milton Bradley have stylised characters accompanying tasks but not adding any informational value to them (see Figure 8).

Figure 8 Educational flash cards of 1960s

20 Math books from the 1990s

1 + 1 Take Away Two! math book by Michael Berenstain, illustrated by Doug Cushman, published in 1991 byA Golden Book, New York, Western Publishing Company, Inc., Racing, Wisconsin. It is a Fast Start book recommended for ages 4 and over. The layout is generous in space and the images are light watercolours – somewhat realistic illustrations (see Figure 9).

Figure 9 ‘1 + 1 Take Away Two!’ 1991

The book Math K (Saxon, 1994), developed by John Saxon, is a teaching method for incremental learning of mathematics. It involves teaching a new mathematical concept every day and constantly reviewing old concepts. Though this book is quite popular among US Math teachers, its graphical or visual design are not likely to engender much interest from the child (see Figure 10).

Figure 10 ‘Math K’ 1994

‘Math: A Book You Can Count On’ (Simon Basher & Dan Green, 2010) Basher Books series introduces basic mathematical terms such as zero, line, pi, quadrilaterals, ratio, bar graph, and x (representing unknown quantities). Each term, personified in the accompanying digital illustration, speaks for itself as in a children’s story with characters. The illustrations are reminiscent of Japanese cartoons which are simple and symbolic. Images are characterised by thick outline, flatness, and simple geometrical forms.The book is recommended for students ages 8 and over (see Figure 11).

Figure 11 ‘Math: A Book You Can Count On’ 2010

22 Contemporary Math text books

As shown below, contemporary Math text books are to some extent similar: vector graphics replaced hand drawn illustrations. All use bright, flat colours and similar layouts. Some use flat images with bold outline, some use more sophisticated illustrations; others use photos or 3-D graphics (see Figure 12).

Figure 12 Contemporary Math text books

Cambridge Primary Mathematics published by Cambridge Press, 2013.

Australian Math Dictionary by Judith De Klerk, 2010, published by Dorling Kindersley.

Big Workbook Second Grade by School Zone Publishing Company, 1999.

Happy Math: Numbers by Mala Kumar, illustrated by Angle and Upesh, published by Pratham Books, 2007.

BOOST Maths Ages 4-6 book 1 of 3 published by Pearson Australia in 2007, written by Helenmary Jarrott (see Figure 13).

Figure 13 BOOST Maths

In the last ten years interactive whiteboards have became more common in classrooms. Consequently, some study materials have begun to obtain electronic shape. An example of this transition to electronic media in studying materials is enVisionMATHS F Interactive Whiteboard DVD 13 (see Figure 14).

Figure 14 enVisionMATHS F Interactive Whiteboard DVD

13. http://www.pearson.com.au/educator/primary/maths/envisionmaths-f-6/digital-resources/. 24 However, the design of these electronic study materials is not as exciting as cartoons or video games. Common practice is for publishers to spend more on the cover which is crucial for sales and spend less on internal material. Although some schools use electronic studying materials to teach, students continue to work by hand in the main and the materials they use look far less attractive compared to entertaining videogames.

Danica Mae McKellar is an American actress, film director, book author and education advocate. She has written four non-fiction books:Math Doesn’t Suck, Kiss My Math, Hot X: Algebra Exposed and Girls Get Curves: Geometry Takes Shape, which encourage middle-school and high-school girls to succeed in mathematics. McKellar designs her books in a style similar to teenage magazines. Attention is given to the psychological perception of Math, especially to overcoming Math fear and improving confidence (McKellar, 2009). Three of McKellar’s books were listed as New York Times bestsellers (see Figure 15).

Figure 15 Math textbooks by Danica Mae McKellar

Math teaching – the on-line alternative

A relatively recent development in maths education is teaching that is delivered on-line. A highly regarded example of this type is Khan Academy (http://www.khanacademy.org/) and Free Math Help ( http://www.freemathhelp.com/). An advantage of this mode of teaching is that the video lessons can be stopped and replayed at any time. In other words, it is highly convenient and cost-effective with the potential to reach a wide (national and international) audience via the internet. A disadvantage is the lack of monitoring in that it has no ability to

25 react to the particular needs or conceptual difficulties that might arise for a child or group of children. The teaching strategy is to progress the student through a series of tutorials of increasing difficulty. The on-line testing provides the only means of determining whether learning objectives are met; instruction is passive in every other respect, which is to say there is little motivation other than an assumed willingness to learn. The presentation is driven by a clear and concise blackboard/screen exposition supported by informal and relaxed audio instruction which is aimed to bolster confidence and draw the student along. Further reinforcement is provided by on-line testing with ‘points’ awarded for correct answers.

Financial aspect of textbook production

As shown in the graph below, the prices in the USA for educational books rose 812% over the last 35 years, while new home prices rose only 325% (see Table 1). Such growth is an effect not only of an increase in production costs but also the inclusion of digital media such as CDs.

Table 1 Prices in the USA for educational books (Kingkade, 2013)

The demand for textbooks is increasing with the increase in global population. This might suggest that textbooks have become more profitable. However, publishers often prefer to invest in the cover as a selling point and neglect internal design in order to keep their production profitable. The spread of interactive whiteboards is becoming more frequent, requiring special electronic materials. However, such materials suffer from poor content design. While obviously educational materials cannot derive the same profit as the cartoon

26 industry, it is important to acknowledge their priority as an effective source of knowledge rather than just a commercial project (Times, 2014).

In summary, books have declined as the main entertainer for children in recent decades. Textbook design has always been underinvested relative to their high educational importance. The design of Math text books progressed through simple text tasks with no illustrations to outline illustrations suitable for colouring. Unfortunately, internal layout and illustrations have experienced very little change over time. The main characteristics are the same: illustrations rarely related to the task are used as decoration instead of active sources of information and motivator to proceed. Table-like structure, text based tasks, often black outline images, and white background all tend to demotivate a child. Some educators, however, are trying to bridge the connection of pure concepts with contemporary design. For example, American actress and educator Danica McKellar uses her own image and character as a role model in Math textbooks for girls. In addition, she imitates the style of a girl’s magazine in her books to create a sense of familiarity and encourage positive, relaxing emotions. A recent development has been the growing number of on-line teaching resources in math education. The deficiency here is the reliance upon self-motivation and the passive form of teaching which would not be successful with young children.

Patterns of use – comparison of dynamic and static media

Background

Recent studies (Commonwealth of Australia, 2007; NPD, 2007) have detailed a significant increase in the use of electronic ‘novelties’ among young users, as well as the increased time periods they spend in front of the screen. The growing popularity of digital devices as well as a decrease in the age of users is evident (Vanderwater, et al., 2007). In some countries, such as the USA, the number of young media users and the time they spend using media is dramatically high. For example, according to a study conducted by the National Institute on Media and Family (USA), American children spend more time sitting in front of electronic screens than any other activity besides sleeping (in some cases more than 53 hours a week). While research shows that Australian children do not appear quite as obsessed with digital devices (as their US counterparts), the tendency seems comparable (Commonwealth of Australia, 2007; Rideout, et al., 2010).

27 Growth of overall time spent on media

Technology has transformed the way children learn and interact with their environment (Rutherford, et al., 2010) 14. While scientists argue the positive and negative effects upon the population, the excessive use of media is undoubted. It is important to reflect that the time children spend engaged with all forms of media is time they do not spend on other activities – including a range of physical and social experiences that are vital for their development. Children spend more than half their spare time in front of devices, sparking concerns children are not spending enough time interacting with real people and getting exercise (Fogarty, 2013).

Researches such as Generation M2: Media in the Lives of 8- to 18-Year-Olds January 2010, USA (GM2) which has been conducted by the Kaiser Family Foundation and ACMA research Media and communications in Australian families 2007(MCAF) showed overall media use has increased dramatically due to mobile and online media access. While time spent on TV remains almost the same (Marshall, et al., 2006), the overall time spent on media use increased due to the uptake of new media platforms including the internet, mobile phones, and personal mobile devices (MCAF, 2007). Developments in the media environment over the last three years, including digital television switchover and the adoption of media-enabled smart phones, are providing children with even more possibilities to access digital content.

In addition, the increase in the number of computer and video games is confirmed by digital games industry growth in the United States. For instance, from 1985 to 1994, the game market grew from $100 million to $7 billion (Provenzo, 1991; Rideout, et al., 2010). The same tendency has occurred with other types of media devices such as personal digital music players, laptops, digital cameras and cell phones.

Types of devices and percentage of use

Commencing in May 2010, the Australian Research Alliance for Children and Youth (ARACY) initiated a Young Children and the Media project. This initiative focuses on identifying media strategies to enhance the wellbeing of children in their early years (2–8), including exploring the different types of media usage, media and digital literacy, and the optimisation of content suitable for children. This project studied the positive and negative effects of media use on the wellbeing of children in this age range.

14. Young Children and the Media project is one of a number of collaborative research projects of Australian Research Alliance for Children and Youth (ARACY) prepared by: Dr Leonie Rutherford from Deakin University, Professor Michael Bittman and Dr Dean Biron from University of New England. 28 The project found that portable videogame systems are at the top of the youth list of consumer electronics devices (CE devices), with a penetration rate of 39%, followed by portable CD players (30%), console videogames (29%) and TVs (28%). Children’s use of non-portable TVs was 73%, followed by desktop computers (69%), non-portable DVD players (58%) and console videogames (50%).

Media technology that children use include: i. radio and television broadcasting on in-house sets, iPods and portable players or on mobile phones ii. films and TV programs broadcast or on DVDs iii. computer games on PCs, laptops or hand-held modules and interactive games on the internet iv. communicative (social) media such as chat rooms, mobiles and email.

Between 2000 and 2005, children’s use of computers and the internet in Australia rose from 7% to 23% (Edgar & Edgar, 2008). Bond University and the Interactive Entertainment Association of Australia provide the latest figures on computer-based games. The data comes from a survey of 1,600 Australian households conducted in October 2008. The results of the survey show the rapidly rising use of media, with 70% of all Australians playing games, 95% of all children aged six to ten playing games and 88% of Australian households owning a games console. In addition, 1.2 million consoles were purchased in the first nine months of 2008 (Brand, 2012).

The ACMA (2009) report entitled Use of Electronic Media and Communications: Early Childhood to Teenage Years found that television (94%) and DVD/video (91%) are the most commonly used media among 3 and 4-year-old Australian children, with computer and internet usage less common (40%) and electronic games the least used (16%).

The top two devices commonly used by children are televisions and computers, but there is a shift even among these devices as children are beginning to move to high-definition televisions. Also, there is a move from desktop computers to laptops (NPD, 2007).

29 Turner Broadcasting System Asia Pacific conducted a study of 1,800 children and parents commissioned by cable TV station Cartoon Network. The study has found that tablets and smartphones have joined television as the major entertainers of children. The rapid explosion of smart devices has changed the way children are accessing the internet and playing games. Today, applications for smartphones are playing a big role in children’s entertainment (Fogarty, 2013).

Age and time spent on each type of consumer electronic device

According to the NPD Group’s report Kids and Consumer Electronics Trends III (2007) children use electronic devices at an earlier age than previously. The average age at which children begin using consumer electronic (CE) devices has declined from 8.1 years in 2005 to 6.7 years in 2007. The report, which studies the penetration of consumer electronics in children’s lives and measures device-usage dynamics and trends, showed that since 2005, nearly all of the various electronic devices have registered a decline in average age (of users) at the time of initial use. Children begin using electronic devices without adults’ help at the age of 4en5 (televisions, desktop computers) and at about nine years of age for satellite radios and portable digital media players (according to the NPD Group). The Edgar and Edgar research (2008) suggests that most children acquire many of their media literacy functional skills early and with little formal instruction.

The discussion paper by Dr Patricia Edgar and Dr Don Edgar (2008), focusing on the youngest Australians (0en8years old), states that young children are significant television viewers: “in fact children under the age of four watch more television than anybody” (Edgar & Edgar 2008, p 2). The study found that children use electronic devices on average three days per week, with non-portable televisions (5.8 days), cell phones (4.3 days) and digital video recorders (4.1 days) showing the maximum use.

A recent Australian Communications and Media Authority survey of media use (Commonwealth of Australia, 2007) found that children aged 0en4 spent 154 minutes per day viewing free-to-air television (127 minutes on commercial channels) and 194 minutes per day watching subscription TV.

30 That makes the total viewing average time 5 hours 48 minutes per day for the youngest children – who are the heaviest viewers of television in the family. Children of 5en12 years old spend less time – an average of 4 hours 50 minutes per day. The average hides the upper limit of viewing time of a typical distribution curve, this upper limit taking a large section of a child’s day. Younger children control the amount of media time use less than do older children. Besides, family and individual variability can affect how children spend their time in their preschool years and school period (Huston, et al., 1999).

The Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC), a nationally representative survey, reports that 40% of 3 to 4-year-old children participate in computer or internet activity daily, rising to more than 80% for 7 to 8 year olds (Commonwealth of Australia, 2009). Also, Australian research sourced from the LSAC found that 4-year-old children watched an average of 2.3 hours television on weekdays and 2.2 hours per day on the weekend. The survey shows that children spend most of their playtime watching television, videos or DVDs, but the total length of engagement with these devices was predisposed by socio-demographic variables (Gray & Smart, 2008).

One of the few in-depth investigations of computer use by toddlers and preschool children in the US suggests that the use increases proportionately with age, with parentally-mediated usage waning and autonomous usage commencing at around 3-and-a-half years.

In an article, ‘Too much screen time eating into playtime’ by Deborah Smith (Sydney Morning Herald, 21.11. 2011), there is a discussion about the problem of children’s inactivity. From the graph (see Table 2) contained in that article, it can be seen that the time children spend in front of a TV, computer, or other screen is dominating. What can be inferred is that both primary and high school students are now accustomed to a media based lifestyle, which is to say that most of the information they come upon (view, read, interact with) comes via this channel. Beyond that, inferences can also be made about the likely health effects of such a sedentary lifestyle.

Table 2 Minutes children spent on activity per day, during weekends

In summary, the research above describes the change in patterns of media use among young children in recent years. Despite the uptake of new media, the dominant media viewed by children are free to air television and DVDs, i.e. screen watching activities. This indicates that cartoons are the more common type of entertainment for children today. Additionally, even very young children become regular and active users of this media. As mentioned, psychologists (Edgar & Edgar, 2008) suggest that media use in the early years of a child’s growth is life-defining, in that patterns established have long-term implications for intellectual development. What is amply supported by the data is that young children today, on average, are spending significant amounts of time as consumers of media, to their detriment as they need a range of physical and social experiences for growth. The clear implication is that their academic performance suffers also.

How much time children spend on reading

“The foundations for reading start well before kids learn to read”, says Professor Frank Oberklaid from the Royal Children’s Hospital Centre (Marszalek, 2013). He states that the ability to read and the habit of reading are developing when parents read to children. Children naturally mirror their parent’s activities. In so doing they learn what to do with a book; how to concentrate upon it and so on. Enduring reading habits are instilled in this early experience of reading. If the experience was successful, there is a strong probability that a parent’s habit to

32 read will be copied by their children. Unfortunately reading time is reducing as we can from following example: a survey of 1,100 parents of young children found that the young children spent twice as much time watching TV than reading – this is approximately four-and-a-half hours per week (news.com.au, 2013).

In the modern age of technology it is almost impossible to keep children away from any form of visual media as it is present in the lives of every child and greatly influences them (Addlington, 2010). In early child development, media establishes the pattern for future life (Anderson, 2001). Children of every age are influenced; preschool children are most likely to be influenced in terms of their behaviour as they are spending increasing amounts of time viewing it (Rutherford, et al., 2010). For this reason, it is important to focus on the content that children are watching during early childhood.

Both opponents and the proponents of modern technology for children’s education and entertainment agree that electronic devices have transformed the way children learn and interact with their environment. Edgar and Edgar (2008) found that better developmental outcomes are demonstrated by children who use media less than two hours a day (also recommended by American Academy of Paediatrics) (Rutherford, et al., 2010). Edgars confirm that the time children spend with media should be limited. Other researchers emphasise clear links between the amount of time children spend reading, and their academic achievement (Hofferth and Sandberg 2001; Timmer et al. 1985). This particular US-based study found that most computer usage in this age-range is associated with game-play and suggested a correlation between non-game computer uses and enhanced reading skills.

Television can be beneficial for children. It has the ability to stimulate their imagination and improve their understanding of the world. Edgar and Edgar (2008) make the point that it is very effective in promoting emotional growth as it brings children into contact with stories that inform and challenge them. Guidance and supervision, however, are necessary requisites as television has the potential to be misunderstood or misinterpreted. What is of value is age appropriate educational content. “When done well, television programs can stimulate a child’s imagination and open up the infinite opportunities that life presents. Like good books, good television programs can extend children’s understanding of their world. Stories are particularly effective in helping children develop emotionally” (Edgar & Edgar, 2008).

33 Comparison of design characteristics – dynamic and static media study materials

Commercial interest has a large influence on the development and design of children’s products. Many sectors of the children’s products industry have undergone tremendous change in recent years. Thousands of people are employed in the design of video games, children’s films and cartoons. Disney’s Studio began in 1923 and has grown into a multinational corporation with 4,500 people working for Disney’s Hollywood studios alone (WDWMagic, n.d.). Together with the development of new computer 3-dimensional technologies, video production has achieved a high level of realism (see Figure 16).

Figure 16 Cartoons from 2-D to 3-D.

There is considerable commercial interest in developing marketable cartoon characters. The development of technologies (such as plastic production, printing facilities, etc.) means that the availability and variety of children’s products has increased immensely. For example, a ‘popular’ cartoon character could be marketed across many different sectors of the children’s products industry: production of books, comic books, posters, cards, stickers, various forms of stationary (with character motif), clothes, plastic toys, soft toys, food packages, interior decorations and many others (see Figure 17).

Figure 17 Popular cartoon character helps to promote other children’s products.

Computer games have also experienced significant changes. The example below illustrates the convergence of two technologies: user controlled movement within a 3-dimensional game, i.e. not only the picture is 3-dimensional but also the ability of the user to move within the game became 3-D (see Figure 18).

Figure 18 Development of video games

Notwithstanding the wide proliferation of electronic devices and rapid advances in the design of cartoons and video games, the book industry still invests resources to book design and print (albeit in a limited way when one compares to dynamic media) (see Figure 19).

Figure 19 Contemporary books

However, education materials, purchased often with tightly controlled government funds, are typically focused upon the improvement of teaching content rather than graphic design or artwork. Photos below illustrate the point that classroom graphic materials are typically low- tech and meagre by comparison to those produced by commercial design (see Figure 20).

Figure 20 Classrooms materials of Mt Colah primary public school

Task sheets, as an example, are often black and white for economic reasons and often have linear or table-like layout which is easier for a teacher to check but quite different from what children are now accustomed to. Below is an example of typical printed materials (see Figure 21).

Figure 21 Printed materials from Mt Colah primary public school

The two pictures below (see Figure 22) illustrate the contrast in different approaches to character design: black and white versus saturated colour; 3-dimensional versus flat; detailed (almost real) versus simple outline. Modern cartoon characters are often illustrated in a hyper- real style with human emotions to make them more appealing to children.

Figure 22 Design of a character from static printed material versus dynamic

Recent developments in commercial dynamic pictures have heightened the need for an overhaul of the design of static studying materials (if they are to have the desired effect) (Larkin & Simon, 1987). Given the significant resources devoted to the design of commercial graphics (cartoons, computer games), those responsible for the design of educational materials must acknowledge that the current state of graphic representation is likely disengaging children’s interest.

37 Relevant research

Decline in academic achievements

The Victorian Competition and Efficiency Commission, in its reportPerformance and Characteristics of Victoria’s School System15 finds that the performance of the Victorian school system is comparatively strong, as indicated by national and international tests. However, it also finds that it falls behind a number of international comparators on common performance measures. Consequently, both the Commonwealth and Victorian governments have announced goals to raise school performance into line with these ‘top tier’ countries.

National and international tests placed Victoria in the first or second quartile of performance. However, there is significant performance variation within the Victorian system, both across and within the government, Catholic and independent sectors.

The performance distribution of Victorian students, compared with other top tier jurisdictions, shows that they have a larger percentage of students at the lower end of the performance spectrum.

The Victorian Auditor-General’s Office (VAGO) report Literacy and Numeracy Achievement concluded that efforts over the ten years to 2007 had not improved average literacy and numeracy performance (VAGO, 2009).

It says that there has been a significant and sustained decline in school productivity, with increased expenditure producing static outcomes. These outcomes are not unique to Victoria, with other jurisdictions in Australia and overseas experiencing similar outcomes.

Australia and the world

The International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) and the International Study Centre at Boston College publish international comparisons of educational achievement in five-year cycles for literacy, and four-year cycles for science and mathematics. These are known as the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study and the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study.

15. Inquiry into School Devolution and Accountability, May 2013, by Victorian Competition and Efficiency Commission that was established by the Victorian Government. 38 Forty nine countries participated and were ranked on various literacy criteria. In terms of reading achievement, Australian students ranked 27th out of 45 countries that assessed performance at the fourth-grade level.

In science, Australia ranked 24th out of 50 countries that assessed students at the fourth-grade level. Australia ranked 12th in science at the eighth-grade level, but with a score of 519 was still significantly below high achievers such as Singapore, which achieved 590.

In mathematics, Australia ranked 19th out of 50 countries that assessed students at the fourth- grade level. At the eighth-grade level, Australia ranked 12th in a similar-sized group, but with a score of 505 performed significantly below countries like South Korea (613) and Singapore (611).

In all cases, Australian fourth-grade students ranked above the centre point – the mean of the distribution of overall achievement, set at 500 index points, with 100 index points representing one standard deviation.

Australian students achieved a score of 527 on literacy (with Hong Kong at the top with 571), 516 in science (with South Korea leading with 587) and 516 in mathematics (with Singapore at the top on 606). At eighth-grade level, Australian students had caught up by ranking, but not by actual achievement.

Dr Ian Lillico is the former Principal of City Beach High School in WA and international consultant in gender, boys’ education and middle schooling. He has been with the Education Department of WA for 31 years and has held the positions of Teacher, Head of Department, Deputy Principal and Principal. Over the past ten to 15 years there has been a decline in academic achievement among teenage boys, according to Dr Ian Lillico16. One reason for this decline is the advent of digital technology, which has really captured boys’ attention, claims Dr Lillico (Lillico, 2013).

The Gonski Report (2011) is the most comprehensive research on the quality of studying and teaching in Australia. Commissioned by the Australian Government in 2010 and chaired by David Gonski, the review panel received more than 7,000 submissions, visited 39 schools, and consulted 71 education groups across Australia.

16. http://www.schoolatoz.nsw.edu.au/wellbeing/behaviour/teen-boys-and-learning. http://www.boysforward.com.au/about-us/ian-lillico. 39 The report finds that the performance of Australian students has declined at all levels over the last ten years. In 2000, only one country outperformed Australia in reading and scientific literacy, and only two outperformed Australia in mathematical literacy. By 2009, six countries outperformed Australia in reading and scientific literacy, and 12 outperformed Australia in mathematical literacy.

The report found Australia has a significant gap between its highest and lowest performing students. It says a concerning proportion of Australia’s lowest performing students are not meeting minimum standards of achievement. Also, that there is an unacceptable link between low levels of achievement and educational disadvantage, particularly among students from low socioeconomic and Indigenous backgrounds.

In summary, Australia has experienced a clear decline in academic achievement over the last ten years which needs to be analysed and addressed. The key conclusions of the Gonski Report are:

• Australia must aspire to have a schooling system that is among the best in the world for its quality and equity, and must prioritise support for its lowest performing students.

• Every child should have access to the best possible education, regardless of where they live, the income of their family, or the school they attend.

• No student in Australia should leave school without the basic skills and competencies needed to participate in the workforce and lead successful and productive lives.

Contemporary teaching methods

As my suggestions are based on math curriculum for Foundation year, some of the recent works on teaching math are discussed below.

Important works in the field

The Spalding Method is the methodology and educational philosophy of The Writing Road to Reading program for English study. Here, both the physical and mental wellbeing of a student is the primary concern. Teachers provide support for students to articulate, reflect, and explore new concepts. Careful daily observation of student progress enables teachers to tailor instruction to meet individual needs. Spalding instruction is explicit, interactive, 40 diagnostic, and multisensory. Students see, hear, say, and write using all channels to the brain to enhance retention. Kindergarten through to 6th-grade curricula is structured, sequential, and cumulative. The Spalding method is considered to be successful because of its innovative approach to conveying information and interactive structure of the lessons.

Research-Based Strategies to Ignite Student Learning (2006) by Judy Willis from the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development is describing techniques that educators can use to enhance learning process. Willis’s research proposes multi-modal approaches and suggests that the more ways something is learned, the more memory pathways are built. Consequently, the more regions of the brain will store data about a subject, the more interconnection there will be. The idea is that any new information or learning must enter the brain through as many senses as possible (hearing, seeing or visualizing, touching, tasting, smelling, and emotionally feeling).

Willis posits that the brain is an emotionally, socially, and sensory responsive organ. In her book Learning to Love Math: Teaching Strategies That Change Student Attitudes and Get Results (2010) she explains that children who ‘zone out’ are not intentionally misbehaving; their brains are literally protecting them because the stresses of boredom or frustration set brain processing to take place in the stress-reactive lower brain. It is from this unconscious, reactive part of the brain that come the reactions of fight/flight/freeze that appear to us as wilful, lazy or inattentive behaviour. She also says that mental comfort is essential for good comprehension; that is why, if a student has some negativity to the studied concept, it needs to be changed to a positive experience. For example, tasting different lollies and then making a graph of their first, second and third choice lolly taste makes learning graphs a very positive and exciting experience. Emotional comfort comes from interest and brings engagement to the study process and results in better processed information.

Board of Studies NSW17 Mathematics K–6 Syllabus provides information about mandatory minimum curriculum requirements for primary schools and about teaching and learning in Mathematics in NSW. The main idea of which is to increase discussion and minimise passive ways of studying. The core of the program is to teach a child to work mathematically. Working mathematically involves a set of five key processes: Questioning, Reasoning,Applying Strategies, Communicating and Reflecting. These processes are embedded into the other five strands through the content and use sub-strands to aid organisation. (Strand – numbers; sub- strand – digits).

17. http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/. 41 Count Me in Too (2006) is an innovative numeracy project operating across New South Wales Department of Education and Training primary schools since 1996. Its aim to assist teachers in extending their knowledge about children’s math learning by focusing on the strategies students use to solve arithmetic tasks. This project suggests varying activities in class by using such resources as playing cards, dice and dominoes (Cavanagh, 2006).

Studies such as The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two (Miller, 1956) and Working Memory (Baddeley, 1992) have suggested that mnemonic techniques might be part of what permits the brain to hold a larger total amount of information in short-term memory, which in turn can aid the creation of long-term memories.

A group of educators are concerned with the different abilities of children who study Math in a class and think that improving the methods used to teach math in schools can develop everyone’s proficiency. In the reportApplications and Misapplications of Cognitive Psychology to Mathematics Education (Anderson, Reder, Simon, 2000) it is suggested a better way to teach Math is by aligning tasks with what cognitive science tells us about the brain and how learning happens. In particular they suggest spending more time with students who struggle to raise their confidence and mental comfort. They blame peculiarities of perception of struggling children. Also, in the report it is mentioned that children who struggle in math usually have difficulty remembering math facts, handling word problems and doing multi-step arithmetic.

Dr. Arthur Bornstejn’s study A Better Way to Teach Math finds that children who had enough time to consolidate new concepts are performing better in ‘problem-based’ or ‘discovery- based’ learning, that is widely used today (Bornstejn, 2011). Memory expert Arthur Bornstein has developed a set of cards Multiplication Memoriser that contain visual information on one side and text on another. He suggests that observation of the illustration helps to recall related information. When the student thinks of the numbers, the answer is automatically remembered by the visual and sound association.

JUMP Math is a numeracy program that aims to reduce the difference between students of different abilities and stimulate teachers to diversify teaching approaches (Mighton, 2002).

42 In particular, Jump Math identifies problems that need to be addressed:

• limitations of working memory

• need for extensive practice to gain mastery

• psychological cliché of not being in a smart group as being not smart.

Jump Math’s curriculum is in use in classrooms serving 65,000 children from grades 1 through 8. John Mighton (founder of Jump Math) believes that, to be effective, concepts often had to be broken down into minute steps; each student’s understanding had to be assessed at each level before moving on. He believes that if a student didn’t understand a step he could lose his/her confidence and motivation. Mighton suggests spending more time on assurance of full understanding to build confidence and motivation to study (Mighton, 2002).

Hans Heymann in his book Why Teach Math? suggested that making math tasks in school less theoretical and more applicable to children’s lives can increase their interest in the subject and consequently their academic results (Heymann, 2004).

Danica McKellar is an author of a series of Math text books. Three of her books were listed as New York Times bestsellers. The key to their popularity is in their familiar look and practical application to children’s lives. McKellar’s books are targeted for teenage girls and she designs her books in a style similar to teenage magazines. Attention is given to the psychological perception of Math, especially to overcoming Math fear and improving confidence (McKellar, 2009).

Robert Bjork, director of the UCLA Learning and Forgetting Lab and memory expert, suggests that learning in ‘bits’ is more effective than learning in ‘blocks’. “It seems likely that a variety of learning tasks in the classroom might profit from interleaved–rather than blocked– schedules of practice or study”, suggest Bjork and his colleagues in the study Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval (Birnbaum, et al., 2012)

Many techniques are available to assist and improve children’s ability to understand and retain information. Learning techniques that aid memory include mnemonics. Mnemonics aim to translate or code information into a form that the human brain can better recall.

43 One successful strategy is to activate different forms of memory (auditory, visual, and kinaesthetic). This is based on the idea that the human mind easily remembers spatial, personal, surprising, physical, sexual, humorous, or otherwise ‘relatable’ information, rather than the more abstract or impersonal forms of information (Soanes, et al., 2006). For effective learning, more than one of the coding styles should be combined so as to ensure that the learning goals are met (Ambekar, 2008).

In summary, contemporary teaching methods have varied strategies. Following is a list of what I consider to be the important features:

1. Emotional comfort, friendly atmosphere, self-confidence (wellbeing of the student).

2. Engagement / active participation come from the interest in the subject and create motivation to succeed.

3. Personal importance of material achieved by linking the abstract concept to students’ reality. It creates an emotional link and supports engagement.

4. Better understanding achieved from Multisensory approach (different activities and diverse way of material presentation).

5. Better memorisation achieved through better understanding and multi-coding (mnemonics).

6. Repetition is traditionally important for learning, but repetition from a different angle is considered more effective (multisensory approach).

7. Learning in ‘bits’ instead of ‘blocks’.

44 Statement of the research question

Children who spend most of their time engaged with electronic media become accustomed to a certain kind of visual presentation of information (Fogarty, 2013). Many children do poorly at school because, amongst other things, they are less engaged with the way information is presented to them.

Video games and cartoons have undergone immense development in recent years (pp 11- 14). In contrast, study materials that children are exposed to at school are not much changed (pp 14-26). Engagement with dynamic, colourful pictures is significantly greater than static pictures; yet static pictures which have become outdated remain the norm in children’s learning material. This causes a lack of interest in the study process and negatively affects academic achievement. Within the context of these considerations I now present the research question: What can graphic design of static teaching resources learn from commercial film and media in order to be more relevant for all today’s children? My strategy is to adopt visual and non-visual design elements of commercial film and media and apply them to static prints. A brief illustration of my approach is shown in the following static print of the concept of a division. Using a selection of design elements (as has been explained in this chapter) the concept is understood by the child in terms of the size of the pizza slice – see Figure 23.

Figure 23 Pizza as an example of division concept 45 Main goals of the research and practical outcome

The goals of my research and expected practical outcome are:

• To suggest and develop ways of adopting selected design elements of commercial film and media to static teaching resources in order that they be more relevant, i.e. more contemporary18 and therefore motivating to children.

• To demonstrate how the practical outcome, i.e. set of teaching resources that I have developed, could be used by teachers/educators to support contemporary teaching methods for Math Curriculum Foundation year (kindergarten).

18. Contemporary has the meaning here of belonging to or occurring in the present. This paper argues that static teaching resources are currently outdated and need to be more attuned to present time. 46 Chapter 3 – Method

Justification for the proposed graphic design approach and its practical outcomes

As has been described, children today are regular and active consumers of cartoon and game playing media and read very little static printed material, i.e. books, stories etc. They are habituated to receiving information from commercial film and media. In Chapter 2, this paper suggested that children are attracted to dynamic media because it is generally entertaining and appealing. This paper argues that adopting selected design features of commercial film and media to children’s static teaching resources will make those materials both contemporary and appealing and consequently more relevant to children. Following are the visual characteristics that could be adopted by graphic design from dynamic media:

• imitation of screen on the page that makes it more familiar to a child

• horizontal orientation

• full colour pages, intense and depth background

• bright and colourful texts and images

• non-linear layout

• volumetric, clean style of illustrations imitating modern 3-D cartoons

• appealing characters (below are the details that makes character more appealing).

Following, are some non-visual characteristics that make dynamic media, e.g. cartoons, so entertaining and can be supported by graphic design:

• humour

• interesting story.

47 In order to create an entertaining effect, graphic design needs to compress a story into a single frame with only the most important information written in text. In order to do this, graphic design needs to use all possible ways to convey information: layout, positions, colours and shapes.

The adopted elements of dynamic media will be demonstrated in the practical outcome. For the practical outcome, I chose activities that were used in some successful math textbooks, e.g. tasks, exercises. My research of contemporary teaching methods also suggests memory strategies which could easily be adopted. For example, linking the abstract concept to the child’s real world by activity and by choosing a familiar object, e.g. a pizza, brings emotional connection and activates emotional memory. Using graphic design, important words can be colour highlighted to link the word to the object which is also illustrated in the same colour so as to encode association (activate associative memory). Position and quantity of objects also carry information that can be linked to the concept being explained.

Analysis of adopted dynamic design elements into practical outcome

Imitation of screen

Even very young children, today, are users of smart-phones, tablets, and video devices of one kind or another. These devices typically have frames (surrounds) with rounded corners. My suggestion is to stylistically imitate this in teaching resources as a design element of what is familiar to them. My belief is that children will positively respond, i.e. be more receptive to that is familiar (see Figure 24).

Figure 24 Imitation of screen

48 Horizontal orientation

TV and computers have a screen that is normally viewed in a horizontal orientation; tablets and smart phones are used in both horizontal and vertical orientations. Most video production – such as cartoons and films utilise a horizontal orientation in the main.What is observable is the trend toward increasingly wider screens for each new generation of TV and computer monitor. As for print media, most books have a vertical orientation of the page. Nevertheless, today, significantly more time is spent by children looking at a screen than a page of a book. My suggestion is that a horizontal orientation is the more familiar to children; children’s eyes are more accustomed to a horizontal screen than vertical. Therefore, a horizontal orientation becomes a design element for the teaching materials I propose (see Figure 25).

Figure 25 Vertical and horizontal layouts

Full colour pages, intense and depth background

Most books have dark text on light background. There are many practical reasons for this: it is economical in its use of ink; it is easier to read black text on white background rather than white on black (Timpany, 2009). Children, however, watch video screens where dark backgrounds are prevalent. My suggestion is to adopt this visual element in static teaching materials for the reason that it is more familiar to children and likely to attract greater interest (see Figure 26). Additional benefits of dark backgrounds are:the ability to create depth and an illusion of a reality (where some action is taking place); and the ability to visually unite characters and text into story. Where detailed information is used and readability is judged an issue, however, it is placed in little boxes with dark text on light background.

49 Figure 26 Dark background

Bright and colourful texts and images

Bright and intense colours were chosen to imitate computer games graphics. Also, interest and entertaining effect can be brought about by bright colours. Colourful text suggests being entertaining rather than boring (See Figure 27).

Figure 27 Bright colours

Non-linear layout

It is common for children’s task sheets to have table-type layouts, i.e. formal rows and columns. In video games, however, it is common to have a freestyle layout. My suggestion is to imitate a typical computer game’s informal layout as much as possible (see Figure 28). The tasks are decorated into window-type boxes. The topic of the page is accompanied by a

50 centrally located character which is interacting with the main topic. For example, the concept of number ‘one’ is presented centrally by a character (pelican) who is embracing the number.

Figure 28 Linear, table-like layout and informal layout

Volumetric style

The development of SVG technology has changed cartoon production. Modern cartoons and computer games – of which children are regular and active users – are made in 3-dimensional styles. The illusion of depth-of-page creates additional ‘space’ for children’s fantasy and visual connection with the picture as something that is dynamic. For these reasons, I suggest 3-dimensional pictures to be utilised in teaching materials (see Figure 29).

Figure 29 3-dimensional objects look more attractive

51 Appealing characters

The style of children’s illustration has been changing throughout the years. Many different forces have had an impact upon development. Often one can find the reflection of a philosophical mood. For example, The Simpsons is devised as a social satire on modern (American) family life. Disney cartoons produced a style which was imitated many times over. Technical innovations, too, had a great influence on cartoon and book designs. During the last century, the style of children’s illustration has passed through many different phases: from realistic soft watercolours, through constructivism and symbolism, to bright colours with thick ink outline and today to 3-dimensional computer graphics (see Figure 30).

Figure 30 Imitation of modern cartoon style

Stylisation went from very natural prototype to hyper-realistic – through the addition of big human eyes and amplification of prominent parts. Often, also, exaggerated human emotion would be added to illustrated characters to make them more appealing to viewers (see Figure 31).

Figure 31 Hyper-real human emotions

With regard to my suggested material, I have developed characters in a modern 3-dimensional style to reflect what is current. Different photos of animals were selected for analysis, and the main characteristics of the shape and texture of the image formed the base of the character which was further developed. Human emotions and amplified eyes were added following the current fashion in the children’s graphic industry.

Increase in entertaining effect

Accustomed to bright moving pictures, children are bored with white paper sheets and black outline. While adults may consciously motivate themselves in order to do something they consider boring, young children who are typically deficient in both self-motivation and self- control cannot. Motivation can be engendered, however, were understanding to be mixed with entertainment such that children follow their interest. Entertaining effect can be brought about by: adding a story to a particular concept; changing activities in tasks; having a background visual story accompanying the concept (see Figure 32 ).

53 Figure 32 Presentation of a number concept

Current Math school curriculum

The practical outcome of my research is to show how my suggestions and materials can be used in schools today. It is important to know, therefore, what children are required to learn in their Foundation year at school (in NSW) and what skills they must already have. Below, I present information about the target group to whom my suggestions / practical outcome is addressed. Also, I give an overview of the Math Curriculum in NSW.

Common age when children start attending school

In different states of Australia, the starting age of school varies. In New South Wales, preschool is not compulsory but kindergarten is. The Department of Education and Training of NSW requires children to attend school from the age of 4.5 years. The age span of children attending Kindergarten ranges between 4.5 to 6 years. The first year of primary school is

54 attended by children of 6 –7years. Hence, children may attend school with a variability of age and skills. This paper is concerned with children 4.5–6 years old (Kindergarten-first class age).

Following is an overview of the national achievement standards and school curriculum for 6 – year–old children.

Australian school system curriculum

Schooling in Australia starts with a preparatory year known as Kindergarten or Foundation Year, followed by 12 years of primary and secondary school. All Australian schools provide subjects in the eight key learning areas: English, mathematics, studies of the society and the environment, science, arts, languages other than English.

The NSW curriculum pays explicit attention to how seven general capabilities – Literacy, Numeracy, Information and communication technology competence, Critical and creative thinking, Ethical behaviour, Personal and social competences, Intercultural understanding, are taught.

According to ACARA (Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority) the Australian curriculum sets out the core knowledge, understanding, skills and general capabilities important for all Australian students. In this paper, I am not concerned with the content of the schools’ curriculum, or standards of achievement and the way it is taught. My concern is how to better present information so as to make it more interesting for children. Before describing my methods, it is necessary to identify the official school curriculum and objectives.

Mathematics course

ACARA established achievement standards for all subjects that define the quality of learning – the depth of understanding, extent of knowledge and sophistication of skill, – typically expected of students as they progress through schooling. Mathematics is one of six key learning areas for the primary curriculum. Learning in mathematics involves the use of knowledge and skills learnt in other areas, particularly in English, science and history. Numeracy was identified by theAustralian National Numeracy Review Report (2008) as requiring an across-the-school commitment, including mathematical, strategic and contextual aspects. The identification of key numeracy capacities in the descriptions of other curriculum

55 areas might be developed by including specific references to other curriculum areas in the mathematics curriculum. For example, some of the numeracy perspectives could be relevant to English, science and history. For this reason the example of a graphic design approach to children studying materials as a practical outcome of this research will be based on a part of Mathematics school course for kindergarten and the first year of study.

The curriculum focuses on developing increasingly refined and advanced mathematical understanding, logical reasoning, fluency, analytical thought and problem-solving skills. The overall structure of the Mathematic curriculum is consistent across learning areas and includes the following topics: Number and Algebra (Number and place value, Patterns and algebra), Measurement and Geometry (Using units of measurement, Shape, Location and transformation), and Statistics and Probability (Data representation and interpretation).

The objectives of ‘Number and place value’ within the curriculum are: firstly, to establish understanding of the language and processes of counting by naming numbers in sequences, initially to and from 20, moving from any starting point. Secondly, to connect number names, numerals and quantities, including zero, initially up to ten and then beyond. Thirdly, to compare, order and make correspondences between collections, initially to 20, and explain reasoning as well as represent practical situations to model addition and sharing.

The objectives of ‘Patterns and algebra’ within the curriculum are to: sort and classify familiar objects and explain the basis for these classifications copy, continue and create patterns with objects and drawings.

‘Using units of measurement’ covers using direct and indirect comparisons to decide which is longer, heavier or holds more, and explain reasoning in everyday language comparing and ordering the duration of events using the everyday language of time and connecting days of the week to familiar events and actions.

‘Shape’ sort, describe and name familiar two-dimensional shapes and three-dimensional objects in the environment.

‘Location and transformation’ describes position and movement (motion; location, geometry). For example, interpreting the everyday language of location and direction (such as ‘between’,

56 ‘near’, ‘next to’, ‘forwards’, ‘towards’), following and giving simple directions to guide a friend around an obstacle pathway and vice versa.

‘Data representation and interpretation’ answer yes/no questions to accumulate material.

Proposed method of solving the research question (practical outcome)

The maths curriculum for foundation year identifies numeracy as an area of understanding for children. One of the first topics children learn in math is the number concept.When this concept is introduced, my suggestion is that it be accompanied by a static print of a cartoon- like character or characters in order to: i. create interest and attention ii. provide information of the number concept itself e.g. three characters to represent the number three iii. activate the use of visual perception and memory by the process of pointing and counting which is intended to give the child a kinaesthetic reflection of the number concept iv. activate audio memory by naming the character(s) so they sound similar to the number’s name (one – pelican, two – kangaroo, three – trees). Also, the story itself could be a tongue-twister which further activates audio memory. Example: “Three green trees grow in three small pots” v. present the concept with a short (one sentence) story about the character using the number and supported by illustration vi. activate visual memory by highlighting the written form of the number – e.g. (‘three’) in colour (‘green’) – to assist the spelling of the number

57 The important point is that all the suggested activities are prompted by the use of the static print which provides a point of interest to capture and hold the attention of children. Activities are prompted by the print and return to it. From the graphic design point of view these activities are presented in computer-game-like boxes which are not always situated in a straight horizontal format (avoiding a formal table look). The task is written in text and supported by illustration (see Figure 33).

Figure 33 Practical outcome

58 For better memorisation and entertaining effect, the activities require:

• Ask the child to trace a number with a finger for kinaesthetic experience of the number shape.

• Ask the child to remember or to compare quantities/shapes of similar object for activation of associative memory.

• Ask the child to find something (a word or picture) on the page so as to generate attention.

The practical model is designed in the shape of a horizontal card or a book shape (see Figure 34).

Figure 34 Number concept and shape concept

In addition, I designed a multilevel board game, and little cards, which could be used in many different ways, depending on teachers’ preferences (see Figure 35).

59 Figure 35 Set of cards, board game and little cards

60 Also, I have designed the board game in a similar way to the cards set: each number has an associated character and background colour, in order to activate visual memory (see Figure 36).

Figure 36 Board game consists of 3 layers

61 The board game has three layers:

The top layer is concerned with division. Children can learn fractions on a material that is very familiar for them (a pizza) and that visually conveys the concept of fractions. The choice of pizza as a model for division was made because it is a very popular food and a lot of children like it, so that dividing a paper pizza may make personal connection to understanding how to divide on fractions. Division has its own explanation card (see Figure 37).

Figure 37 Pizza as a model for division

62 The second layer is numbers up to ten. It has a shape of decagon with ten edges for ten numbers. Each number is presented exactly in the same way as in the explanation card for visual recognition. Also, it visually shows what half of ten is and helps to remember the order of numbers.

The same idea is used in the third layer – numbers up to 20. I divided the board in four sections coloured in four colours which makes it easier to remember the quarter of 20, half and three quarters (see Figure 38). The game was to ask a child to pronounce the numbers so that audio memory would work. The set of little cards has numbers on one side and spelling on theother; also each number has its character (see Figure 39). My idea was to design materials that are suitable for different teaching techniques. That is why I don’t suggest any rules of how to use them.

63 Figure 38 Layers of board game

Figure 39 Cards have number on one side and its spelling on the other

This paper argues that the above method has the potential to positively influence the development of study skills, e.g. teach the child to work in a classroom, collaborate with peers, and complete tasks. In terms of the goals of this paper, an important consideration is the support materials given to contemporary teaching methods. In Chapter 2, this paper gave an overview and feature list that was derived by my research. Additionally, the practical outcome supports contemporary teaching methods in that the cards / board game and the activities built around them foster:

65 i. Engagement and active participation engendered by the use of bright colours, appealing characters, entertaining story accompanying the concept. Also, emotional comfort follows as a consequence of the interest and engagement. ii. Better memory engendered by multi-coding methods, e.g. alignment of number of characters (4 frogs) with the number concept itself (4); aligning number with a particular character, e.g. 2 and kangaroo to activate audio memory. iii. Better understanding engendered by multisensory approach, e.g. pointing and counting activities. iv. Familiarity engendered by use of horizontal orientation; dark background; rounded corners to imitate screen layout. Personal connection is engendered by the use of objects that are very familiar for children, e.g. the division concept that is presented as a familiar pizza and the problem of dividing and sharing it. v. Learning in ‘bits’ or ‘blocks’. Both methods are supported by the practical outcome which provides an opportunity to use either. The set of cards could be used singly to introduce two concepts if the educators want to use it for learning by ‘bits’, e.g. number and shape together. If the educators prefer to use learning by ‘blocks’, then they can use just one side of the card at a time – number or shape. Also, these materials could be printed in book form by sequencing pages to bring all number concepts together followed by all shape concepts (blocks); or interleave concepts (bits).

This paper also argues the methods and strategies above form a targeted set of ‘reforms’ which will elicit positive emotional and cognitive responses by:

• their contemporary design and realistic style making them more familiar and interesting

• their use of appealing characters making them more ‘fun’

• their ability to clarify concepts making the student more disposed or willing to exert the effort to understand

• their use of authentic or ‘real-world’ tasks (e.g. dividing a pizza). 66 The conceptual framework (described in Chapter 1) suggests that these classroom factors and their positive responses will affect the classroom environment to engender engagement which in turn mediates academic achievement.

67 Chapter 4 - Evaluation and Conclusion

Answering the research question

This paper makes the case that a new strategy is needed to improve static teaching resources. This was argued in the following way: firstly, it was shown that the use of dynamic media was high for children as they are regular and active consumers of cartoon and game playing media (on average 4.5 hours/day) and low consumers of printed media (on average 0.2 hours/day). This supports the view that children, today, have become habituated to receiving information in the mode of dynamic media. Secondly, the research of static prints (including maths textbooks) shows static prints (diagrams, pictures) are outdated and add little other than decoration to the learning text. The consequence of these two points is that children disengage from static media in the learning environment.

This paper makes the case that commercial film and video together with graphic design offers the means to make learning more relevant to children today. This was argued in the following way: research shows that the elements of dynamic media children find attractive are interesting characters, colourful, bright, moving, exaggerated emotions, etc. Based on this, this paper identified a set of visual and non-visual design elements from commercial film and media that can be adopted by static media. Using these design elements, together with the tools of graphic design, a set of cards and board game for teaching foundation year mathematics was created. The result is a set of static teaching resources that are more relevant, i.e. contemporary (belonging to the present), familiar, interesting and potentially more motivating to children.

This paper makes the case that improved resources can be practically applied to the contemporary teaching environment. It is no use developing resources that are unsuitable or unusable in the real world. In order to show that these resources could be practically applied, this paper explained and demonstrated how they could be practically applied to maths learning foundation year.

This paper makes the case that positive emotional and cognitive responses will be elicited by the methods and strategies proposed, with the result that engagement – a mediator for academic achievement – is engendered. This was argued by: setting out the conceptual framework and explaining why classroom learning materials were a contextual factor that fitted the conceptual model’s definition; and explaining how the improved teaching resources

68 would elicit the kind of responses the model predicts which will foster engagement and so improve education outcomes.

In summary, this paper has shown that a new strategy is needed to improve static teaching resources; that commercial film and video together with graphic design offers the means to make them more relevant to children today; that improved teaching resources can be developed and practically applied; and that the methods and strategy proposed have the potential to mediate positive educational outcomes.

Implications of an innovative graphic design approach

Apart from relevance, what other benefits could derive from my strategy/methods? Research shows that dynamic media develops a central vision to the detriment of peripheral vision as a consequence of excessive screen watching. The importance of peripheral vision is to develop spatial awareness which in turn develops the ability to assess information being presented, e.g. relationships etc. This is particularly important for children with learning difficulties where an optimal combination of both central and peripheral vision is advantageous (Parondjanov, 2001). The graphic cards I have designed attempt to encode as much information as possible into a single frame. Children are encouraged to find relationships and associations whether they be colour, shape, character, sound (name of character), etc. This develops peripheral vision and awareness which, as I have noted, is beneficial to the child.Additionally, many other benefits accrue: increased physical activity; development of motor skills; and development of social and communication skills.

The graphic design approach that I propose requires a degree of collaboration between specialists from graphic design and education to develop suitable materials. As was described in the section ‘Evolution of dynamic media’, the resources used to develop dynamic media can be both considerable and expensive. However, the kind of work required for static media is relatively modest and could be undertaken by a graphic design and education specialist who would understand the visual and non-visual ‘language’ that would need to be employed. The education specialist would set the design objectives and the graphic designer would implement a design to meet those objectives.

Future possibilities

This paper has shown that a new strategy for static teaching resources is needed so as to make them more relevant to children; but what about the thought of making static teaching 69 resources more effective for learning? The Gonski Report tells us that academic achievement has been in decline in Australia in the last ten years. Though the precise reasons for the decline are unknown, this paper argues that improving static teaching resources has the potential to improve academic performance for children for at least three reasons: firstly, as has been described, peripheral vision is developed and so conceptual abilities are improved. Secondly, research shows that children who engage more with static materials – e.g. read books – perform better academically. Thirdly, the conceptual framework or model confirms the potential for the improved resources described to foster engagement which then mediates academic achievement.

The methods and practical design outcomes would need to be tested in the ‘real world’ to confirm that they are properly targeted. This could be done as a ‘next step’. This paper suggests the following: a trial with a group of children; strategy, material and methods suggested in this paper applied to their learning; results gathered and refinements made; re- evaluation and further testing and so on in order to affirm their effectiveness.

The practical outcome could be used for other subject areas (besides foundation year maths) and other age groups. English is an example: the concept of a word could be presented in a similar way to the concept of a number.

The question of the future of static teaching resources has been left to last for the reason that it is a difficult one to answer. As discussed, school teaching resources are still primarily in printed form (AEL, 2003). How long this situation will persist is a matter of speculation. Certainly, there is a growing trend to digitise teaching resources and move them on-line for the reason they are easier to reproduce and disseminate. Also, in the last few years the classroom itself has undergone change with the uptake of electronic forms of information delivery. Electronic white-boards, as an example, have proliferated as their price has dropped in recent times. These devices have the ability to render content using mixed media – both dynamic and static forms – and save them for review and/or future lessons. This paper argues that the strategies and methods described could be used to improve the static content of these devices so that both static and dynamic media could be employed alongside and to support one another. Notwithstanding this recent digital trend, static printed teaching resources have a place in the armoury of good teaching practice for the reason that they develop perceptual and conceptual abilities as has been discussed.

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List of figures and tables

Figure 1 These pictures are used as decorations without conveying the message. Page from ‘My learn-along page’ by Scholastic, 2009. 9

Figure 2 Cartoon characters marketing snack food Photo by Rachael Grannell, 2012, http://www.fitbie.com/2012/07/18/dreamworks-criticized- madagascar-characters-appear-junk-food 12

Figure 3 Example of old traditional text book

77 ‘Math book’ by J.W. Studebaker, W.C. Findley, F.B. Knight, and G.M. Ruch. Illustrated by Matilda Brewer and John Osebold, 1943. 16

Figure 4 Number Fun 1932 ‘Number Fun’ Activity Book for Beginners by Beckley-Cardy Co, USA, 1932. 16

Figure 5 Numbers We See 1948 Numbers We See, Teacher’s Edition, by Anita Riess, Maurice L. Hartung and Catharine Mahoney. Illustrated by Julia Kolb. Published by Scott, Foresman and Company, 1948. 17

Figure 6 ‘La Ronde Des Nombres’ 1957 ‘La Ronde Des Nombres’ by René & Suzanne Brandicourt, illustrations by M.T Aberdam, edited by Les Editions Bourrelier 1957. 17

Figure 7 'Seeing Through Arithmetic 1’ 1963 Seeing Through Arithmetic 1’, W. J. Gage Limited, Toronto, 1963. Illustrated by Jerry Warshaw and Jim Weathers. 18

Figure 8 Educational flash cards of 1960-es Educational flash cards by Milton Bradley, 1961. 18

Figure 9 ‘1 + 1 Take Away Two!’ 1991 Written by Michael Berenstain, illustrated by Doug Cushman,1991. 19

Figure 10 Math K 1994 John Saxon, 1994. 20

Figure 11 ‘Math: A Book You Can Count On’ 2010 Simon Basher & Dan Green, 2010. 21

Figure 12 Contemporary math text books ‘Cambridge Primary Mathematics’ by Cambridge Press, 2013; Australian Math Dictionary by Judith De Klerk, 2010, published by Dorling Kindersley; Big Workbook Second Grade by School Zone Publishing Company, 1999; Happy Math: Numbers by Mala Kumar, illustrated by Angle and Upesh. Pratham Books, 2007. 21

78 Figure 13 BOOST Maths BOOST Maths Ages written by Helenmary Jarrott. Pearson Australia, 2007. 22

Figure 14 EnVisionMATHS F Interactive Whiteboard DVD Pearson Australia, 2012, http://www.pearson.com.au/products/enVisionMATHS-F-Interactive- Whiteboard-DVD/9781442530089?R=9781442530089 23

Figure 15 Math textbooks by Danica Mae McKellar danicamckellar.com, http://www.danicamckellar.com/math-books/ 24

Figure 16 Cartoons from 2-D to 3-D. ‘The Flintstones’ by Hanna-Barbera Productions, 1960, and ‘Monsters, Inc.’ by Pixar Animation Studios, 2001. 33

Figure 17 Popular cartoon character helps to promote other children’s products. ‘Madagascar’ by DreamWorks Animation, 2005 33

Figure 18 Development of video games ‘Super Mario Bros.’, 1985, and ‘New Super Mario Brothers’, 2006 by Nintendo. 34

Figure 19 Contemporary books ‘Possum Magic’ illustrated by Vivas, J. Voyager Books, 1991. ‘Snow Queen’ illustrations by Yerko, V., Published by A-ba-ba-ga-la-ma-ga Books 2006 34

Figure 20 Classrooms materials of Mt Colah primary public school Photo by Tetiana Koldunenko, 2011. 35

Figure 21 Printed materials from Mt Colah primary public school Photo by Tetiana Koldunenko , 2011. 35

Figure 22 Design of a character from static printed material versus dynamic Tasksheet from online teaching portal k5learning.com http://www.k5learning.com/free-math- worksheets/third-grade-3/multiplication and character from ‘Monsters Inc.’ film by Pixar Animation Studios, 2001. 36

Figure 23 Pizza as an example of Division concept Illustrations to the research by Tetiana Koldunenko. 44 79 Figure 24 Imitation of screen Illustrations to the research by Tetiana Koldunenko. 46

Figure 25 Vertical and horizontal layouts Page from ‘Math Basics 1’ School zone, 2007, and ilustrations to the research by Tetiana Koldunenko. 47

Figure 26 Dark background Computer game ‘Chicken Invaders 2: The Next Wave’, InterAction Studios, 2012, and illustrations to the research by Tetiana Koldunenko. 48

Figure 27 Bright colours Computer game ‘Freddi Fish 2: The Case of the Haunted Schoolhouse’, Bad Animals Studio (1996, 2002), and illustrations to the research by Tetiana Koldunenko. 48

Figure 28 Linear, table like layout and informal layout math.kids.com, 2011 http://math.kids-theme.com/writing-number-12.html and illustrations to the research by Tetiana Koldunenko. 49

Figure 29 3-dimensional objects look more attractive Houghton Mifflin Teachers edition, http://www.eduplace.com/math/mw/ and illustrations to the research by Tetiana Koldunenko. 49

Figure 30 Imitation of modern cartoon style Illustrations to the research by Tetiana Koldunenko. 50

Figure 31 Hyper-real human emotions Illustrations to the research by Tetiana Koldunenko. 51

Figure 32 Presentation of a number concept Illustrations to the research by Tetiana Koldunenko. 52

Figure 33 Practical outcome Illustrations to the research by Tetiana Koldunenko. 56

Figure 34 Number concept and Shape concept Illustrations to the research by Tetiana Koldunenko. 57 80 Figure 35 Set of cards, board game and little cards Illustrations to the research by Tetiana Koldunenko. 58

Figure 36 Board game consists of 3 layers Illustrations to the research by Tetiana Koldunenko. 59

Figure 37 Pizza as a model for division Illustrations to the research by Tetiana Koldunenko. 60

Figure 38 Layers of board game Illustrations to the research by Tetiana Koldunenko. 62

Figure 39 Cards have number on one side and its spelling on other Illustrations to the research by Tetiana Koldunenko. 63

Table 1 Prices in USA for educational books BLS, Census Bureau, http://www.bls.gov/bls/infohome.htm 25

Table 2 Minutes children spent on activity per day, during weekends Graph from the article ‘Too much screen time eating into playtime’ by Deborah Smith (Sydney Morning Herald, 21.11. 2011) 31