Pragmatics in Bakuli: a Linguistic Ethnographer’S Notes from the Neighborhood

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Pragmatics in Bakuli: a Linguistic Ethnographer’S Notes from the Neighborhood 108 Pragmatics in Bakuli: A Linguistic Ethnographer’s Notes from the Neighborhood Nico Nassenstein Department of Anthropology and African Studies JGU Mainz [email protected] Abstract This contribution offers insights into contemporary language practices in the Ugandan capital Kampala where Rwandans and Burundians, Congolese traders, refugees and travelers meet and interact. Speakers in Bakuli, a vibrant neighborhood of the Ugandan capital, do not seem to categorize themselves according to geolinguistic lines of national belonging, instead language appears to be fluid and permeable. Based on an experience- based and reflection-based approach pursuing a linguistic ethnography, my preliminary contribution compares processes of “(un)doing” language(s) in the context of colonial nation-building with recent contexts of conflict migration. Central questions are: Which strategies do specifically contemporary migrants from Rwanda and Burundi employ to subvert and play with the differences between both languages and break language boundaries? How do they create a new language-in-between that includes emblematic features of both Kinyarwanda and Kirundi, making a clear indication of nationality and national categorization therefore impossible? In the framework of a “pragmatics of place”, this ethnographic note intends to show how concepts of place/space contribute to a change in meaning of linguistic varieties and their speakers’ (internal) selfing strategies, as well as to a rearrangement of external categorizations of speakers, ethnic groups and geolinguistic belonging. Keywords: pragmatics of place, fluidity, language boundaries, linguistic ethnography, Kinyarwanda-Kirundi 1. Introduction: On space, place and the context of language use in Uganda Bakuli is a lively neighborhood in Kampala, the Ugandan capital, where refugees, traders (selling arms, trucks, conflict minerals, and much more) and travelers from all across East and Central Africa meet, negotiate, visit strip clubs, connect to other bus lines to Nairobi (Kenya), Goma (DR Congo), or to Bujumbura (Burundi) and Kigali (Rwanda), interact with sex workers or share a drink. Most interactions around these spots are commonly held in either Kinyarwanda or Kirundi, two strikingly similar and mutually intelligible Bantu languages1 from Rwanda and Burundi, where most refugees and vendors originate 1 I refer to Kinyarwanda and Kirundi here (and in the following) as “languages” in order to bring the reader closer to the geographical and linguistic background of this study, Journal of Postcolonial Linguistics, 2(2020), 108–127 Pragmatics in Bakuli: A Linguistic Ethnographer’s Notes from the Neighborhood 109 from. These two Bantu languages are spoken by approximately 20 million speakers all throughout the Central African nation states of Rwanda and Burundi, as well as through parts of Eastern DR Congo and Uganda. In a more detailed historical study, I have tried to sketch the history of these two languages and the role of missionaries and of the colonial administration in their emergence and implementation over time (Nassenstein 2019). Kinyarwanda and Kirundi share a common history: The varieties used in schools nowadays both emerged out of colonial processes of choosing among closely-related dialects, which were then transformed into official or national languages. According to a Bantuist tradition in African Linguistics, the Kinyarwanda-Kirundi dialect continuum is subsumed under the letter-digit combination JD60 (based on the classification suggested by linguist Malcolm Guthrie 1967–1971 and later by Jouni Filip Maho in 2009). Among the widely acknowledged varieties, mostly the national languages Kinyarwanda and Kirundi are known and commonly listed. Some others, specifically those spoken outside of both countries, are sometimes listed, too, namely Kinyabwisha and Kinyamulenge (see Nassenstein 2018a, among others) in Eastern DR Congo and Rufumbira as spoken in southwestern Uganda (Nassenstein 2016). The fact that most traders, passengers and refugees in the Bakuli neighborhood are proficient in either Kinyarwanda or Kirundi has historical reasons due to early waves of migration from Rwanda to Uganda in the 1960s as well as in subsequent decades. In more recent times, a large number of Burundian refugees migrated to Uganda, triggered by the outbreak of violent conflict in Burundi in 2015. Congolese individuals, mostly speakers of closely-related languages, too, have been present in Uganda due to trade and also persecution, such as a larger community of Banyamulenge refugees from South Kivu province. For all these, Uganda has either been a safe haven, an attractive spot for trading or a stopover on their trip through East Africa. Also students from Rwanda often choose Ugandan universities as their preferred institutions. It is not surprising that these events, i.e. political conflict in the area and trajectories of larger groups of migrants, are a direct consequence of power inequalities whose foundations were laid in colonial times. The “pragmatics of place” of Kinyarwanda- and Kirundi-speaking individuals in a neighborhood of Uganda’s capital therefore serve as a critical reflection of colonial constructions of “imagined communities” (Anderson 1982) and how these are bound to specific places. The unboundedness of speakers in Bakuli, Kampala, reveals a conscious reconfiguration of these ideas of ethnolinguistic and geolinguistic belonging through creative practice. clarifying the emergence of specific systems of classifying spoken practice as named and assorted languages. I do not intend to repeat processes of artefactualization/reification of colonial language-making in my paper, nor to substitute former categories with more recent ones. In the course of this work, the difficulty of dealing with hybrid registers that have emerged out of named languages will be further addressed. Recent literature on problems of fixity and fluidity of language(s) also provides helpful approaches that show how linguists are often trapped in their own categories (see, among many others, Jaspers & Madsen 2018; Sabino 2018). Nico Nassenstein 110 In their colonial context, these two languages, which were rather two ways of speaking of a dialect continuum than separate entities, were created, artefactualized and prescribed in grammars and dictionaries by German and Belgian authorities (from approximately 1894 to 1961/2). Until today, these languages are used in the education system of both countries and index a strong national belonging in Rwanda and Burundi, as “official languages” beneath others (French and English in Burundi; French, English and Swahili in Rwanda). Speakers who were—according to the languages they spoke in each of the German Protektorate (until 1916) and later Belgian colonies (until 1961/62)—clearly associated with either Rwanda or Burundi as users of either of these two languages, then migrated in large numbers to neighboring Uganda, often settling in (or frequenting) Bakuli, a place that already had a considerable number of Kinyarwanda-speaking and Kirundi-speaking visitors, travelers and inhabitants. In Bakuli, however, migrants often play with the indexical value of certain linguistic realizations (Kinyarwanda as “the language of Rwandans” vs. Kirundi as “the language of Burundians”) and thus modify their language with a high degree of fluidity according to their social needs: Accents are imitated, the lexicon is adapted, and Rwandans turn into Burundians, while Burundians turn into Rwandans. Linguistic accommodation (Giles & Smith 1979), convergence and divergence and language crossing (Rampton 1995) are some of the linguistic processes that could be observed in Bakuli, showing that “complex hybridic forms of communication have evolved in which pragmatic practices from different languages and ethnic groups are subtly combined” (Anchimbe & Janney 2011: 1451). These practices of undoing differences guarantee security or may improve one’s position in business transactions; “being Rwandan” vs. “being Burundian” index very complex associations. These practices of mimicry, mimesis and of fluid adaptation largely have to do with colonial place-making and constructions of belonging2, which were either too rigid in terms of speakers’ localization and portray them as static, immobile and bound to one national language or as too simplistic in terms of speakers’ multilingual repertoires omitting that they constantly expand their repertoires based on encounters, trajectories, and so on. But which role does the Bakuli neighborhood as a place of encounters play? Historically, the Ugandan capital Kampala was constructed on seven hills. The early Anglican missionaries and later the British colonial government named the newly established town after the central hill where the royal palace of the Buganda court was located, Mengo. In close proximity to Mengo lies Old Kampala Hill, which holds the vibrant neighborhood Bakuli. Its denomination is derived from the British commissioner of Uganda, Ernest James Berkeley, the successor of Colonel Colville, who presided over Kampala until 1894 and led the invasions from Buganda into Bunyoro Kingdom. Berkeley, bantuized to its present form Bakuli, was therefore one of the earliest well- 2 The “mixing” of both languages could, apart from its potential as a place-making- strategy, also be seen as register tied to a specific kind of lifestyle in which it is an advantage not to be clearly identifiable—and to fleeting interactions and encounters in a transit
Recommended publications
  • Some Principles of the Use of Macro-Areas Language Dynamics &A
    Online Appendix for Harald Hammarstr¨om& Mark Donohue (2014) Some Principles of the Use of Macro-Areas Language Dynamics & Change Harald Hammarstr¨om& Mark Donohue The following document lists the languages of the world and their as- signment to the macro-areas described in the main body of the paper as well as the WALS macro-area for languages featured in the WALS 2005 edi- tion. 7160 languages are included, which represent all languages for which we had coordinates available1. Every language is given with its ISO-639-3 code (if it has one) for proper identification. The mapping between WALS languages and ISO-codes was done by using the mapping downloadable from the 2011 online WALS edition2 (because a number of errors in the mapping were corrected for the 2011 edition). 38 WALS languages are not given an ISO-code in the 2011 mapping, 36 of these have been assigned their appropri- ate iso-code based on the sources the WALS lists for the respective language. This was not possible for Tasmanian (WALS-code: tsm) because the WALS mixes data from very different Tasmanian languages and for Kualan (WALS- code: kua) because no source is given. 17 WALS-languages were assigned ISO-codes which have subsequently been retired { these have been assigned their appropriate updated ISO-code. In many cases, a WALS-language is mapped to several ISO-codes. As this has no bearing for the assignment to macro-areas, multiple mappings have been retained. 1There are another couple of hundred languages which are attested but for which our database currently lacks coordinates.
    [Show full text]
  • Edinburgh Research Explorer
    Edinburgh Research Explorer Translinguistic apposition in a multilingual media blog in Rwanda Citation for published version: Gafaranga, J 2015, 'Translinguistic apposition in a multilingual media blog in Rwanda: Towards an interpretive perspective in language policy research', Language in Society, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 87-112. https://doi.org/10.1017/S004740451400075X Digital Object Identifier (DOI): 10.1017/S004740451400075X Link: Link to publication record in Edinburgh Research Explorer Document Version: Peer reviewed version Published In: Language in Society Publisher Rights Statement: © Gafaranga, J. (2015). Translinguistic apposition in a multilingual media blog in Rwanda: Towards an interpretive perspective in language policy research. Language in Society, 44(1), 87-112. 10.1017/S004740451400075X General rights Copyright for the publications made accessible via the Edinburgh Research Explorer is retained by the author(s) and / or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing these publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. Take down policy The University of Edinburgh has made every reasonable effort to ensure that Edinburgh Research Explorer content complies with UK legislation. If you believe that the public display of this file breaches copyright please contact [email protected] providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Download date: 24. Sep. 2021 Translinguistic apposition Translinguistic apposition in a multilingual media blog in Rwanda: Towards an interpretive perspective in language policy research Abstract Researchers have called for studies which link the macro and the micro in language policy research. In turn, the notion of ‘micro’ has been theorised as referring either to the micro implementation of macro policies or to micro policies.
    [Show full text]
  • Reglas De Congo: Palo Monte Mayombe) a Book by Lydia Cabrera an English Translation from the Spanish
    THE KONGO RULE: THE PALO MONTE MAYOMBE WISDOM SOCIETY (REGLAS DE CONGO: PALO MONTE MAYOMBE) A BOOK BY LYDIA CABRERA AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION FROM THE SPANISH Donato Fhunsu A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of English and Comparative Literature (Comparative Literature). Chapel Hill 2016 Approved by: Inger S. B. Brodey Todd Ramón Ochoa Marsha S. Collins Tanya L. Shields Madeline G. Levine © 2016 Donato Fhunsu ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ABSTRACT Donato Fhunsu: The Kongo Rule: The Palo Monte Mayombe Wisdom Society (Reglas de Congo: Palo Monte Mayombe) A Book by Lydia Cabrera An English Translation from the Spanish (Under the direction of Inger S. B. Brodey and Todd Ramón Ochoa) This dissertation is a critical analysis and annotated translation, from Spanish into English, of the book Reglas de Congo: Palo Monte Mayombe, by the Cuban anthropologist, artist, and writer Lydia Cabrera (1899-1991). Cabrera’s text is a hybrid ethnographic book of religion, slave narratives (oral history), and folklore (songs, poetry) that she devoted to a group of Afro-Cubans known as “los Congos de Cuba,” descendants of the Africans who were brought to the Caribbean island of Cuba during the trans-Atlantic Ocean African slave trade from the former Kongo Kingdom, which occupied the present-day southwestern part of Congo-Kinshasa, Congo-Brazzaville, Cabinda, and northern Angola. The Kongo Kingdom had formal contact with Christianity through the Kingdom of Portugal as early as the 1490s.
    [Show full text]
  • An African Basketry of Heterogeneous Variables Kongo-Kikongo-Kisankasa
    ISSN 2394-9694 International Journal of Novel Research in Humanity and Social Sciences Vol. 8, Issue 2, pp: (2-31), Month: March - April 2021, Available at: www.noveltyjournals.com An African Basketry of Heterogeneous Variables Kongo-Kikongo-Kisankasa Rojukurthi Sudhakar Rao (M.Phil Degree Student-Researcher, Centre for African Studies, University of Mumbai, Maharashtra Rajya, India) e-mail:[email protected] Abstract: In terms of scientific systems approach to the knowledge of human origins, human organizations, human histories, human kingdoms, human languages, human populations and above all the human genes, unquestionable scientific evidence with human dignity flabbergasted the European strong world of slave-masters and colonialist- policy-rulers. This deduces that the early Europeans knew nothing scientific about the mankind beforehand unleashing their one-up-man-ship over Africa and the Africans except that they were the white skinned flocks and so, not the kith and kin of the Africans in black skin living in what they called the „Dark Continent‟! Of course, in later times, the same masters and rulers committed to not repeating their colonialist racial geo-political injustices. The whites were domineering and weaponized to the hilt on their own mentality, for their own interests and by their own logic opposing the geopolitically distant African blacks inhabiting the natural resources enriched frontiers. Those „twists and twitches‟ in time-line led to the black‟s slavery and white‟s slave-trade with meddling Christian Adventist Missionaries, colonialists, religious conversionists, Anglican Universities‟ Missions , inter- sexual-births, the associative asomi , the dissociative asomi and the non-asomi divisions within African natives in concomitance.
    [Show full text]
  • Central Africa, 2021 Region of Africa
    Quickworld Entity Report Central Africa, 2021 Region of Africa Quickworld Factoid Name : Central Africa Status : Region of Africa Land Area : 7,215,000 sq km - 2,786,000 sq mi Political Entities Sovereign Countries (19) Angola Burundi Cameroon Central African Republic Chad Congo (DR) Congo (Republic) Equatorial Guinea Gabon Libya Malawi Niger Nigeria Rwanda South Sudan Sudan Tanzania Uganda Zambia International Organizations Worldwide Organizations (3) Commonwealth of Nations La Francophonie United Nations Organization Continental Organizations (1) African Union Conflicts and Disputes Internal Conflicts and Secessions (1) Lybian Civil War Territorial Disputes (1) Sudan-South Sudan Border Disputes Languages Language Families (9) Bihari languages Central Sudanic languages Chadic languages English-based creoles and pidgins French-based creoles and pidgins Manobo languages Portuguese-based creoles and pidgins Prakrit languages Songhai languages © 2019 Quickworld Inc. Page 1 of 7 Quickworld Inc assumes no responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions in the content of this document. The information contained in this document is provided on an "as is" basis with no guarantees of completeness, accuracy, usefulness or timeliness. Quickworld Entity Report Central Africa, 2021 Region of Africa Languages (485) Abar Acoli Adhola Aghem Ajumbu Aka Aka Akoose Akum Akwa Alur Amba language Ambele Amdang Áncá Assangori Atong language Awing Baali Babango Babanki Bada Bafaw-Balong Bafia Bakaka Bakoko Bakole Bala Balo Baloi Bambili-Bambui Bamukumbit
    [Show full text]
  • Pots, Words and the Bantu Problem: on Lexical Reconstruction and Early African History*
    Journal of African History, 48 (2007), pp. 173–99. f 2007 Cambridge University Press 173 doi:10.1017/S002185370700254X Printed in the United Kingdom POTS, WORDS AND THE BANTU PROBLEM: ON LEXICAL RECONSTRUCTION AND EARLY AFRICAN HISTORY* BY KOEN BOSTOEN Royal Museum for Central Africa Tervuren, Universite´ libre de Bruxelles ABSTRACT: Historical-comparative linguistics has played a key role in the recon- struction of early history in Africa. Regarding the ‘Bantu Problem’ in particular, linguistic research, particularly language classification, has oriented historical study and been a guiding principle for both historians and archaeologists. Some historians have also embraced the comparison of cultural vocabularies as a core method for reconstructing African history. This paper evaluates the merits and limits of this latter methodology by analysing Bantu pottery vocabulary. Challenging earlier interpretations, it argues that speakers of Proto-Bantu in- herited the craft of pot-making from their Benue-Congo-speaking ancestors who introduced this technology into the Grassfields region. This ‘Proto-Bantu ceramic tradition’ was the result of a long, local development, but spread quite rapidly into Atlantic Central Africa, and possibly as far as Southern Angola and northern Namibia. The people who brought Early Iron Age (EIA) ceramics to southwestern Africa were not the first Bantu-speakers in this area nor did they introduce the technology of pot-making. KEY WORDS: Archaeology, Bantu origins, linguistics. T HE Bantu languages stretch out from Cameroon in the west to southern Somalia in the east and as far as Southern Africa in the south.1 This group of closely related languages is by far Africa’s most widespread language group.
    [Show full text]
  • Critical Analysis of Social Genetics and Linguistic Inquiry
    International Journal of Language and Linguistics 2020; 8(1): 11-16 http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/ijll doi: 10.11648/j.ijll.20200801.12 ISSN: 2330-0205 (Print); ISSN: 2330-0221 (Online) Critical Analysis of Social Genetics and Linguistic Inquiry Samuel Leykun Department of Linguistics, Ambo University, Ambo, Ethiopia Email address: To cite this article: Samuel Leykun. Critical Analysis of Social Genetics and Linguistic Inquiry. International Journal of Language and Linguistics . Vol. 8, No. 1, 2020, pp. 11-16. doi: 10.11648/j.ijll.20200801.12 Received : August 27, 2019; Accepted : October 24, 2019; Published : January 7, 2020 Abstract: Human being on Earth has undergone several transitions during its history, from the fire age to modern technology. There has been notable progress in linguistic development and social development. Sociolinguistics and Social genetics as a newlly emerging discipline have strong relationship and enaged with one another. This study tried to analyzed critically the social genetics and linguistic inquiry of human being regardless of anything. The objectives of the study were to introduce this complex idea to the biologists and linguists to reduce their racial baises and to make sense of social genetics and sociolinguistics are the major parameter of human race and genetics than hereditary genetics. The critical paradigm is used as paradigm of the study. Regarding techniques of data analysis, the qualitative approach is utilized in this study. Concerning data collection tools, the secondary data were collected from journals, findings of different researches, books, and proceedings. Therefore, this research is a desktop research. To mention some of the findings, the concept of hereditary genetics distinguish an individual or a group of individual from the other is a refutational way that triggers a misconception, and incorrect.
    [Show full text]
  • Synergies Afrique Des Grands Lacs
    REVUE DU GERFLINT 2014 Synergies Afrique des Grands Lacs N°3 / Année 2014 Langues et littératures dans la région des Grands Lacs Coordonné par Jean Chrysostome Nkejabahizi et Jean-Paul Mortelette GERFLINT REVUE DU GERFLINT 2014 Synergies Afrique des Grands Lacs n°3 - 2014 POLITIQUE EDITORIALE Synergies Afrique des Grands Lacs est une revue francophone de recherche en sciences humaines, particulièrement ouverte aux travaux d’aménagement linguistique, de langues et littératures, de lexicologie, de terminologie et de traduction. Sa vocation est de mettre en œuvre dans les six pays (Burundi, Rwanda, RD Congo, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzanie) de l’Afrique des Grands Lacs, le Programme Mondial de Diffusion Scientifique Francophone en Réseau du GERFLINT, Groupe d’Etudes et de Recherches pour le Français Langue Internationale. C’est pourquoi elle publie des articles dans cette langue, mais sans exclusive linguistique et accueille, de façon majori- taire, les travaux issus de la pensée scientifique des chercheurs francophones de son espace géographique dont le français n'est pas la langue première. Comme toutes les revues du GERFLINT, elle poursuit les objectifs suivants: défense de la recherche scientifique francophone dans l’ensemble des sciences humaines, promotion du dialogue entre les disciplines, les langues et les cultures, ouverture sur l’ensemble de la commu- nauté scientifique, adoption d’une large couverture disciplinaire, aide aux jeunes chercheurs, formation à l’écriture scientifique francophone, veille sur la qualité scientifique des travaux. Libre Accès et Copyright : © Synergies Afrique des Grands Lacs est une revue éditée par le GERFLINT qui se situe dans le cadre du libre accès à l’information scientifique et technique.
    [Show full text]
  • Declared Vs. Practiced Language Policies at the Rwandan Parliament
    Edinburgh Research Explorer Micro declared language policy or not? Citation for published version: Gafaranga, J, Niyomugaboo, C & Uwizeyimana, V 2013, 'Micro declared language policy or not? language- policy-like statements in the rules of procedure of the Rwandan Parliament', Language Policy, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 313-332. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-013-9274-y Digital Object Identifier (DOI): 10.1007/s10993-013-9274-y Link: Link to publication record in Edinburgh Research Explorer Document Version: Peer reviewed version Published In: Language Policy Publisher Rights Statement: © Gafaranga, J., Niyomugaboo, C., & Uwizeyimana, V. (2013). Micro declared language policy or not?: language-policy-like statements in the rules of procedure of the Rwandan Parliament. Language Policy, 12(4), 313-332. 10.1007/s10993-013-9274-y General rights Copyright for the publications made accessible via the Edinburgh Research Explorer is retained by the author(s) and / or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing these publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. Take down policy The University of Edinburgh has made every reasonable effort to ensure that Edinburgh Research Explorer content complies with UK legislation. If you believe that the public display of this file breaches copyright please contact [email protected] providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Download date: 27. Sep. 2021 Micro declared language policy or not? Language policy-like statements in the rules of procedure of the Rwandan Parliament Introduction In a key contribution to the field of language policy1 research, Ricento (2000) highlights the need to integrate macro and micro level analyses, indicating that studies with this focus are the way forward for research in the 21st century.
    [Show full text]
  • Sexuality, Poverty and Politics in Rwanda
    EVIDENCE REPORT No 131 IDSSexuality, Poverty and Law Sexuality, Poverty and Politics in Rwanda Polly Haste and Tierry Kevin Gatete April 2015 The IDS programme on Strengthening Evidence-based Policy works across seven key themes. Each theme works with partner institutions to co-construct policy-relevant knowledge and engage in policy-influencing processes. This material has been developed under the Sexuality, Poverty and Law theme. Input was provided by the Centre for Human Rights – Rwanda. The material has been funded by UK aid from the UK Government, however the views expressed do not necessarily reflect the UK Government’s official policies. AG Level 2 Output ID: 238 SEXUALITY, POVERTY AND POLITICS IN RWANDA Polly Haste and Tierry Kevin Gatete April 2015 This is an Open Access publication distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are clearly credited. First published by the Institute of Development Studies in April 2015 © Institute of Development Studies 2015 IDS is a charitable company limited by guarantee and registered in England (No. 877338). Contents Abbreviations 3 Executive summary 4 1 Introduction 6 1.1 Rationale and focus 7 2 Methodology 9 2.1 Informal discussions 9 2.2 Participant observation 10 2.2.1 Capacity-building workshop 10 2.3 Semi-structured interviews 11 2.4 Language 11 3 Rwanda in context 13 3.1 From nation-building to economic development 13 3.2 Poverty in Rwanda
    [Show full text]
  • Revising the Bantu Tree
    Cladistics Cladistics (2018) 1–20 10.1111/cla.12353 Revising the Bantu tree Peter M. Whiteleya, Ming Xuea and Ward C. Wheelerb,* aDivision of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History, 200 Central Park West, New York, NY, 10024-5192, USA; bDivision of Invertebrate Zoology, American Museum of Natural History, 200 Central Park West, New York, NY, 10024-5192, USA Accepted 15 June 2018 Abstract Phylogenetic methods offer a promising advance for the historical study of language and cultural relationships. Applications to date, however, have been hampered by traditional approaches dependent on unfalsifiable authority statements: in this regard, historical linguistics remains in a similar position to evolutionary biology prior to the cladistic revolution. Influential phyloge- netic studies of Bantu languages over the last two decades, which provide the foundation for multiple analyses of Bantu socio- cultural histories, are a major case in point. Comparative analyses of basic lexica, instead of directly treating written words, use only numerical symbols that express non-replicable authority opinion about underlying relationships. Building on a previous study of Uto-Aztecan, here we analyse Bantu language relationships with methods deriving from DNA sequence optimization algorithms, treating basic vocabulary as sequences of sounds. This yields finer-grained results that indicate major revisions to the Bantu tree, and enables more robust inferences about the history of Bantu language expansion and/or migration throughout sub-Saharan Africa. “Early-split” versus “late-split” hypotheses for East and West Bantu are tested, and overall results are com- pared to trees based on numerical reductions of vocabulary data. Reconstruction of language histories is more empirically based and robust than with previous methods.
    [Show full text]
  • Indoor Air Pollution: Health Effects and Policy Opportunities in Rwanda
    1 Indoor Air Pollution: Health Effects and Policy Opportunities in Rwanda Vanessa Gatskie Advisor: Dr. Robert Karch Spring 2010 General University Honors 2 History of Rwanda Pre-colonial History The pre-colonial history of the origins and ways of life of the three main ethnic groups of Rwanda: the Tutsi, the Hutu and the Twa, is largely tainted by the speculation of European colonialists and their European-educated Rwandan counterparts. These origins portray the Twa as the first ethnic group to settle in Rwanda, and characterize the Twa as a hunter-gatherer group that predominantly lived in forests (Twagilimana 2007, xli-xlii). Later, between the fifth and eleventh centuries, the Hutu, a group of farmers, were believed to have arrived in Rwanda, a group more advanced than the Twa due to their political and clan organization (xli-xlii). The very last group to arrive in Rwanda, the Tutsi, was believed to have come from the Horn of Africa in the fourteenth century (Department of State). The Tutsi were seen to be the most highly developed of all of the groups due to their extensive cattle holdings, as cattle were seen as the primary measure of wealth in Rwanda. The Tutsi conquered both the Hutu and the Twa, and by the sixteenth century, Tutsi king, Ruganzu II Ndori, unified the many disparate Rwandan kingdoms, forming a feudal monarchy (Twagilimana 2007, xlii). Under Tutsi rule, Hutu were subject to a vassalage system, known as ubuhake, wherein Hutu pledged their service, as well as the services of their descendents, to a Tutsi lord (Department of State).
    [Show full text]