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Who We Are and How We Got Here : Ancient DNA and the New Science of the Human Past / David Reich

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Who We Are and How We Got Here : Ancient DNA and the New Science of the Human Past / David Reich Copyright © 2018 by David Reich and Eugenie Reich All rights reserved. Published in the United States by Pantheon Books, a division of Penguin Random House LLC, New York, and distributed in Canada by Random House of Canada, a division of Penguin Random House Canada Limited, Toronto. Pantheon Books and colophon are registered trademarks of Penguin Random House LLC. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Name: Reich, David [date], author. Title: Who we are and how we got here : ancient DNA and the new science of the human past / David Reich. Description: First edition. New York : Pantheon Books, [2018]. Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2017038165. ISBN 9781101870327 (hardcover). ISBN 9781101870334 (ebook). Subjects: LCSH: Human genetics—Popular works. Genomics—Popular works. DNA—Analysis. Prehistoric peoples. Human population genetics. BISAC: SCIENCE/Life Sciences/Genetics & Genomics. SCIENCE/Life Sciences/Evolution. SOCIAL SCIENCE/Anthropology/General. Classification: LCC QH431 .R37 2018. DDC 572.8/6—dc23. LC record available at lccn.loc.gov/2017038165. Ebook ISBN 9781101870334 www.pantheonbooks.com Cover design by Oliver Uberti Illustrations and map by Oliver Uberti v5.2 a 2 Encounters with Neanderthals The Meeting of Neanderthals and Modern Humans Today, the particular subgroup of humans to which we belong— modern humans—is alone on our planet. We outcompeted or exterminated other humans, mostly during the period after around fifty thousand years ago when modern humans expanded throughout Eurasia and when major movements of humans likely happened within Africa too. Today, our closest living relatives are the African apes: the chimpanzees, bonobos, and gorillas, all incapable of making sophisticated tools or using conceptual language. But until around forty thousand years ago, the world was inhabited by multiple groups of archaic humans who differed from us physically but walked upright and shared many of our capabilities. The question that the archaeological record cannot answer—but the DNA record can—is how those archaic people were related to us. For no archaic group has the answer to this question seemed more urgent than for the Neanderthals. In Europe after four hundred thousand years ago, the landscape was dominated by these large- bodied people with brains slightly bigger on average than those of modern humans. The specimen that gave its name to Neanderthals was found in 1856 by miners in a limestone quarry in the Neander Valley (the German word for valley is Thal or Tal). For years, debate raged over whether these remains came from a deformed human, a human ancestor, or a human lineage that is extremely divergent from our own. Neanderthals became the first archaic humans to be recognized by science. In The Descent of Man, published in 1871, Charles Darwin argued that humans are like other animals in that they are also the products of evolution.1 Although Darwin didn’t himself appreciate their significance, Neanderthals were eventually acknowledged to be from a population more closely related to modern humans than to living apes, providing evidence for Darwin’s theory that such populations must have existed in the past. Over the next century and a half there were discoveries of many additional Neanderthal skeletons. These studies revealed that Neanderthals had evolved in Europe from even more archaic humans. In popular culture, they garnered a reputation as beastly—much more different from us than they in fact were. The primitive reputation of Neanderthals was fueled in large part by a slouched reconstruction of the Neanderthal skeleton from La Chapelle-aux-Saints, France, made in 1911. But from all the evidence we have, before about one hundred thousand years ago, Neanderthals were behaviorally just as sophisticated as our own ancestors—anatomically modern humans. Both Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans made stone tools using a technique that has become known as Levallois, which requires as much cognitive skill and dexterity as the Upper Paleolithic and Later Stone Age toolmaking techniques that emerged among modern humans after around fifty thousand years ago. In this technique, flakes are struck off carefully prepared rock cores that have little resemblance to the resulting tools, so that craftspeople must hold in their minds an image of what the finished tool will look like and execute the complex steps by which the stone must be worked to achieve that goal. Other signs of the cognitive sophistication of Neanderthals include the evidence that they cared for their sick and elderly. An excavation at Shanidar Cave in Iraq has revealed nine skeletons, all apparently deliberately buried, one of which was a half-blind elderly man with a withered arm, suggesting that the only way he could have survived is if friends and family had lovingly cared for him.2 The Neanderthals also had an appreciation of symbolism, as revealed by jewelry made of eagle talons found at Krapina Cave in Croatia and dating to about 130,000 years ago,3 and stone circles built deep inside Bruniquel Cave in France and dating to around 180,000 years ago.4 Yet despite similarities between Neanderthals and modern humans, profound differences are evident. An article written in the 1950s claimed that a Neanderthal on the New York City subway would attract no attention, “provided that he were bathed, shaved, and dressed in modern clothing.”5 But in truth, his or her strangely projecting brow and impressively muscular body would be giveaways. Neanderthals were much more different from any human population today than present-day populations are from each other. The encounter of Neanderthals and modern humans has also captured the imagination of novelists. In William Golding’s 1955 The Inheritors, a band of Neanderthals is killed by modern humans, who adopt a surviving Neanderthal child.6 In Jean Auel’s 1980 The Clan of the Cave Bear, a modern human woman is brought up by Neanderthals, and the conceit of the book is a dramatization of what close interaction of these two sophisticated groups of humans, so alien to each other and yet so similar, might have been like.7 There is hard scientific evidence that modern humans and Neanderthals met. The most direct is from western Europe, where Neanderthals disappeared around thirty-nine thousand years ago.8 The arrival of modern humans in western Europe was at least a few thousand years earlier, as is evident at Fumane in southern Italy where around forty-four thousand years ago, Neanderthal-type stone tools gave way to tools typical of modern humans. In southwestern Europe, tools typical of modern humans, made in a style called Châtelperronian, have been found amidst Neanderthal remains that date to between forty-four thousand and thirty-nine thousand years ago, suggesting that Neanderthals may have imitated modern human toolmaking, or that the two groups traded tools or materials. Not all archaeologists accept this interpretation, though, and there is ongoing debate about whether Châtelperronian artifacts were made by Neanderthals or by modern humans.9 Meetings between Neanderthals and modern humans took place not only in Europe but almost certainly in the Near East as well. After around seventy thousand years ago, a strong and successful Neanderthal population expanded from Europe into central Asia as far as the Altai Mountains, and into the Near East. The Near East had already been inhabited by modern humans, as attested by remains at Skhul Cave on the Carmel Ridge in Israel and Qafzeh Cave in the Lower Galilee dating to between about 130,000 and 100,000 years ago.10 Later, Neanderthals moved into the region, with one skeleton at Kebara Cave on the Carmel Ridge dating to between sixty and forty- eight thousand years ago.11 Reversing the expectation we might have that modern humans displaced Neanderthals at every encounter, Neanderthals were advancing from their homeland (Europe) even as modern humans retreated. Sometime after sixty thousand years ago, though, modern humans began to predominate in the Near East. Now the Neanderthals were the losers in the encounter, and they went extinct not only in the Near East but eventually elsewhere in Eurasia as well. So it was that in the Near East there were at least two opportunities for encounters between Neanderthals and modern humans: when early modern humans first peopled the region before around one hundred thousand years ago and established a population that met the expanding Neanderthals, and when modern humans returned and displaced the Neanderthals there sometime around sixty or fifty thousand years ago. Figure 6. After around 400,000 years ago, Neanderthals were the dominant humans in western Eurasia, eventually extending as far east as the Altai Mountains. They survived an initial influx of modern humans at least by 120,000 years ago. Then, after 60,000 years ago, modern humans made a second push out of Africa into Eurasia. Before long, the Neanderthals went extinct. Did the two populations interbreed? Are the Neanderthals among the direct ancestors of any present-day humans? There is some skeletal evidence for hybridization. Erik Trinkaus identified remains such as those from Oase Cave in Romania that he argued were intermediate between modern humans and Neanderthals.12 However, shared skeletal features sometimes reflect adaptation to the same environmental pressures, not shared ancestry. This is why archaeological and skeletal records cannot determine the relatedness of Neanderthals to us. Studies of the genome can. Neanderthal DNA Early on, scientists studying ancient DNA focused almost exclusively on mitochondrial DNA, for two reasons. First, there are about one thousand copies of mitochondrial DNA in each cell, compared to two copies of most of the rest of the genome, increasing the chance of successful extraction. Second, mitochondrial DNA is information- dense: there are many more differences for a given number of DNA letters than in most other places in the genome, making it possible to obtain a more precise measurement of genetic separation time for every letter of DNA that is successfully analyzed.
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