Star Formation and Galaxy Evolution of the Local Universe Based on HIPASS

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Star formation and galaxy evolution of the Local Universe based on HIPASS

Oiwei Ivy Wong

Submitted in total fulﬁlment of the requirements of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

School of Physics University of Melbourne

December, 2007

Abstract

This thesis investigates the star formation and galaxy evolution of the nearby Local Volume based on Neutral Hydrogen (HI) studies. A large portion of this thesis consists of work with the Northern extension of the HI Parkes All Sky Survey (HIPASS). HIPASS is an HI survey of the entire Southern sky up to a declination of +25.5 degrees (including the Northern extension) using the Parkes 64-metre radio telescope. I have also produced a catalogue of the optical counterparts corresponding to the galaxies found in Northern HIPASS. From this optical catalogue, we also conclude that we did not ﬁnd any isolated dark galaxies. The other half of my thesis consists of work with the SINGG and SUNGG projects. SINGG is the Survey for Ioniza- tion in Neutral Gas Galaxies and SUNGG is the Survey of Ultraviolet emission in Neutral Gas Galaxies. Both SINGG and SUNGG are selected from HIPASS and are star formation studies in the H-alpha and ultraviolet (UV), respectively. My work in the SINGG-SUNGG collaboration is mostly based on SUNGG. Using the results of SUNGG, I measured the local luminosity density and the cosmic star formation rate density (SFRD) of the Local Universe. Using far-infrared (FIR) observations from IRAS, the FIR luminosity density was also calculated. Combining the FUV luminosity density and the FIR luminosity density, the bolometric SFRD of the Lo- cal Universe was estimated. This thesis also includes the discovery of one of the nearest drop-through ring galaxies, NGC 922, which is a factor of three closer than the infamous Cartwheel galaxy.

Declaration

The declaration.

This is to certify that:

• This thesis entitled “Star formation and galaxy evolution of the Local Universe based on HIPASS” comprises only my original work, except where indicated in the preface.

• Due acknowledgement has been made in the text to all other material used.

• The thesis is less than 100,000 words in length, exclusive of tables, maps, bibliographies and appendices.

......

Oiwei Ivy Wong

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Preface

While the work presented herein is essentially my own, there is some that is the result of collaborative work, or the result of the work of others. Any such data used are acknowledged in the text, and other speciﬁc details are listed here:

• In Chapter 2, the galaxy finding program TopHat and the processing programs used to search and parameterised the HIPASS data are similar programs used in (Meyer et al. 2004) but modified to process the Northern HIPASS data by the author of this thesis. The Duchamp software used is written by Dr Matthew Whiting (Whiting 2006). Chapter 2 is a modified version of a published paper (Wong et al. 2006b) in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. All the actual work was done by the author of this thesis and the co-authors on the paper contributed by providing ideas and suggestions for the work.

• This author also acknowledges the help with the Parkes narrow-band follow-up observations (used in Chapter 2) provided by N. Bate, A. Karick, E. MacDon- ald, M. J. Pierce, R. M. Price, N. Rughoonauth, S. Singh, D. Weldrake and M. Wolleben.

• The MIRIAD software package (see Sault et al. 1995) was used extensively in the data reduction and analysis in Chapter 3 and 4.

• Chapter 3 is a slightly modiﬁed version of a paper to be submitted (Wong et al. 2007a) for publication in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.

• Most of the concepts and algorithms used to process the SUNGG images in Chapter 5 and 6 have been derived from similar programs made by Dr Dan

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Hanish and Dr David Thilker. They have been modiﬁed by the author of this thesis to process the SUNGG dataset. Chapters 5 and 6 are a modiﬁed version of a paper to be submitted (Wong et al. 2007b) for publication in the Astrophysical Journal.

• Chapter 7 is a slightly modiﬁed version of a published paper (Wong et al. 2006a) in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. The simulations discussed in the chapter and paper were done by Kenji Bekki but all the other work presented were done by me. The other co-authors and collaborators provided suggestions and ideas.

• This work was not possible without the radio telescope facilities at Parkes and Narrabri, which are part of Australia Telescope, which is funded by the Commonwealth of Australia for operation as a National Facility managed by CSIRO.

• The research has made extensive use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED, see http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. NASA’s Astrophysics Data System Abstract and Article Services (ADS, available at http://adswww.harvard.edu/) has also been an invaluable online re- source.

• The research makes use of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Centre/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation.

• The author of this thesis also acknowledges the assistance received from the PORES scheme and the NASA GALEX Guest Investigator grant GALEXGI04- 0105-0009 and NASA LTSA grant NAG5-13083 to her supervisor, Dr Gerhardt Meurer. Acknowledgements

This thesis would not have been possible if it weren’t for the help and support I received from many people throughout my PhD candidature. First and foremost, I wish to thank Professor Rachel Webster for being a brilliant supervisor. I would not have made it as an astrophysicist (or astronomer) had it not been for all the indispensable help, support, advice and the wonderful opportunities which you’ve aﬀorded me. Thank you for believing in my capabilities and thank you for being not just a supervisor but also an inspiring mentor, collaborator and friend. I am just so grateful for all these years. Thank you very much to Dr Gerhardt Meurer for being one of the most enthu- siastic and thorough supervisor-collaborators throughout my PhD (in addition to being an all-round nice guy). I am very grateful for your patience and good humour. I also had a wonderful time working with the SINGG–SUNGG project during my year long visit to Johns Hopkins University in 2005. Thank you very much. Your generosity at work and during oﬀ-peak hours in helping to drive me around is very much appreciated. Many thanks also goes to Dr Virginia Kilborn for all the discussions and brain- storm sessions. Thank you for your patience and encouragement through the years. It has certainly been a pleasure working with you for my PhD after having worked with you as a summer undergraduate student. Thank you also to my ATNF co-supervisors Professor Lister Staveley-Smith and later, Dr Baerbel Koribalski. Although occasional, your thoughts and support are much appreciated. Thank you very much Lister for occasionally acting as my chauf- feur for observing sessions as well as the dry sense of humour you generously-peppered throughout most conversations. Thanks also goes to Dr Dan Hanish for all your help with the SINGG dataset.

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I apologise and thank you at the same time for all those endless IDL-related image- processing and data analysis questions and initial bugs which you had the pleasure (or not) of receiving. I am very grateful for your patience and good humour. Thank you also to Dr David Thilker and the rest of the SINGG–SUNGG team who provided great suggestions and ﬁxes for all my questions and conundrums. I also like to thank Dr Emma Ryan-Weber for being a wonderful collaborator whose advice is genuine, honest and encouraging. Your guidance, support and dedi- cation to your work is certainly an inspiration to me. Thank you very much also to Dr Martin Zwaan for your help with HIPASS and the long-distance help you aﬀorded me via email. Thank you also Dr Martin Meyer for similar HIPASS help as well as driving me to IKEA in order to obtain my blanket and other necessary household items. Thank you Dr Meryl Waugh for being my ‘human-matcher’ as well as for keeping my grammar in check. Thank you Dr Matt Whiting for helping out with some of bugs in Duchamp Version 0.9 as well as the occasional proof-reading. Thank you to Dr Marianne Doyle and Dr Mike Read for their help with acquiring the POSSII images used in Chapter 3. Thank you Dr Jamie Stevens and Tim Dyce for answering my technical questions, the free lunches, moral support and mostly being all-round good mates. Thank you also to Jhan Srbinovsky, Christine Chung and Matthias Vigelius for all the stimulating conversations during lunch. Last but certainly not least, many thanks goes to my parents for all the love, understanding and my upbringing as well as the opportunities to pursue the impos- sible. Thank you to my sisters for the last-minute proof-reading too. Last but not least, I’d like to thank my husband, Berin, for his moral support and willingness to chase my dreams with me. For my part I know nothing with any certainty, but the sight of stars make me dream.

- Vincent van Gogh

Contents

1 Overview 1 1.1 The Hi emission line and star formation ...... 1 1.2 Goals of this Research ...... 2 1.3 Outline of this Thesis ...... 3

2 Northern HIPASS 5 2.1 Introduction ...... 5 2.2 Northern HIPASS Data ...... 7 2.2.1 Northern HIPASS Catalogue (NHICAT) ...... 8 2.2.2 Noise characteristics ...... 12 2.3 Completeness and reliability of NHICAT ...... 16 2.3.1 Completeness of NHICAT ...... 17 2.3.2 Reliability of NHICAT ...... 18 2.4 DUCHAMP ...... 21 2.4.1 Description of Duchamp ...... 21 2.4.2 Results ...... 24 2.5 Summary ...... 29

3 NOIRCAT 31 3.1 Introduction ...... 31 3.2 NOIRCAT ...... 33 3.2.1 The construction of NOIRCAT ...... 33 3.2.2 Properties of NOIRCAT ...... 36 3.2.3 The search for dark galaxies ...... 44 3.3 Discussion ...... 49

xi CONTENTS xii

3.4 Summary ...... 60

4 SINGG 63 4.1 Introduction to SINGG ...... 64 4.2 ATCA observations of SINGG sources ...... 65 4.2.1 Observations ...... 66 4.2.2 Calibration ...... 66 4.2.3 Results ...... 68 4.3 Discussion ...... 85

5 SUNGG 91 5.1 The SUNGG sample ...... 93 5.1.1 Source selection criteria ...... 93 5.1.2 Sample properties ...... 94 5.2 Observations ...... 94 5.2.1 Data processing ...... 96 5.2.2 Determining the surface brightness proﬁle ...... 99 5.2.3 Removal of foreground dust absorption ...... 101 5.3 Properties and results ...... 101 5.3.1 SUNGG properties ...... 101 5.3.2 Measuring internal dust extinction ...... 106 5.3.3 Comparing Hi properties to UV properties ...... 113 5.3.4 Comparing SINGG & SUNGG ...... 117 5.4 Summary ...... 121

6 Luminosity density & star formation rate density 123 6.1 Ultraviolet luminosity density from SUNGG ...... 124 6.1.1 Methodology ...... 124 6.1.2 Results ...... 126 6.2 Far-infrared luminosity density ...... 128 6.3 Star formation rate density of the Local Universe ...... 131 6.3.1 SFRD from SUNGG ...... 131 6.3.2 SFRD from FIR luminosity density of SINGG ...... 132 6.3.3 Bolometric SFRD of the Local Universe ...... 132 6.3.4 Comparison of bolometric SFRD with previous measurements . 133 6.4 Summary ...... 139 xiii CONTENTS

7 NGC922 141 7.1 Observations ...... 141 7.1.1 Multi-wavelength morphology and luminosity ...... 143 7.1.2 SFR, metallicity and mass ...... 145 7.2 Analysis ...... 147 7.2.1 Model and simulations ...... 148 7.2.2 Results ...... 149 7.3 Conclusions...... 149

8 Conclusion 153 8.1 Northern HIPASS ...... 153 8.2 NOIRCAT ...... 154 8.3 SINGG & SUNGG ...... 155 8.4 Luminosity density & star formation rate density ...... 156 8.5 NGC 922 ...... 157 8.6 Future work ...... 157 8.7 Conclusion ...... 159

A NOIRCAT Flag 5b sources 177

B Hi properties of SUNGG sources 185

C SUNGG sample 197

D SUNGG properties 205

E Observations of SUNGG ﬁelds and radial proﬁles 241

List of Figures

1.1 A striking false colour composite image of the Cartwheel Galaxy. The main picture shows the X-ray observations (from the Chandra Obser- vatory) in purple, the UV observations (from GALEX) in blue, the Hubble Space Telescope’s observations in green and the infrared observations (from the Spitzer Space Telescope) in red. The small panels on the right shows the Cartwheel galaxy as observed by each of the diﬀerent wavebands. The above image can be found on the publicity website ...... 4

max 2.1 Log-log bivariate distributions of velocity width (W50 ), peak ﬂux (Sp) and inte-

grated ﬂux (Sint). Plotted along the diagonal are single parameter histograms. . . 9

2.2 Skymap of detections found in Northern HIPASS. The lines mark increasing declinations inwards where the centre is the north pole. The radial divisions show increasing RA in an anti-clockwise direction starting with 0 hours at the top of the diagram. The dotted lines mark lines of Galactic latitude, b...... 12

2.3 Peak-normalised distributions of pixel flux of entire cubes in HIPASS. The distribution of the pixel flux from a typical northern cube (cube number 538) is represented by crosses and the distribution marked by circles represent the pixel flux from a typical southern cube (cube number 194). A parabola (solid line) is shown to compare these distributions with Gaussian noise statistics...... 13

xv LIST OF FIGURES xvi

2.4 Skymap of the 1-percentile pixel ﬂux map of both Northern and Southern HIPASS. The south pole (δ = −90◦) is in the centre and RA increases in an anti-clockwise direction starting with 0 hour at the top of the diagram. Observations through the Galaxy (where b = 0◦) correspond to the darker horizontal band of cubes. The southern cube identiﬁcation numbers range from 1-388 and the northern cubes are 389-538...... 14 2.5 Normalised histograms of ‘outlier’ levels (1-percentile measures). The distribution of ‘outlier’ levels in Southern HIPASS is represented by the solid line distribution. The dashed line distribution represents the ‘outlier’ levels in the declination band between +2◦ < δ < +10◦ and the dotted line distribution represents the ‘outlier’ levels in the declination bands between +10◦ < δ < +26◦...... 14

2.6 Completeness of NHICAT as a function of Sp, W50 and Sint...... 16

2.7 Peak ﬂux, Speak (Jy), distributions of the follow-up observations in Northern HIPASS (left) and in Southern HIPASS (right). The distributions marked with lines on a 45 degree angle represent the population of observed and conﬁrmed detections, while, the distributions marked with horizontal lines represent the population of non-detected sources...... 19

2.8 Reliability of NHICAT as a function of Sp, W50 and Sint. The histograms show

the Sp, W50 and Sint distributions of NHICAT sources...... 20 2.9 Example of 3 data products available online at hhttp://hipass.aus-vo.orgi for source HIPASSJ0030+02. Clockwise from top left: Integrated intensity map, Hi spectra and a position-velocity projection intensity map...... 20 2.10 Distributions of parameters resulting from Duchamp (solid line) and NHICAT (dotted line). Clockwise from top left: a)Peak-normalised distributions of peak flux densities; b)Peak-normalised distributions of total integrated flux; c) Distributions of source velocities; d) Distributions of velocity widths...... 25 2.11 Distributions of the number of sources found per cube in Northern HIPASS. The red represents the NHICAT distribution and the black represents the results from Duchamp. The dotted line divides the northern-most cubes (cube number ≥ 491) from the rest of the Northern HIPASS cubes...... 26 2.12 Angular separation distribution of the 501 matched detections between NHICAT and Duchamp...... 27 2.13 Parameter comparisons between NHICAT and the results from Duchamp for the matched detections. Clockwise from top left: a)Peak flux densities; b)Total integrated flux; c) Source velocities; d) Velocity widths. The dotted line in each plot shows the line of one-to-one correlation...... 27 2.14 Number of Duchamp sources with no NHICAT matches as a function of the cube number...... 28 xvii LIST OF FIGURES

2.15 Distribution of source parameters for Duchamp sources with no NHICAT matches. Clockwise from top left: a) Peak ﬂux densities: the dotted line marks the 95% completeness level of NHICAT; b) Total integrated ﬂux: the dotted line marks the 95% completeness level of NHICAT; c) Source velocities; d) Velocity widths. . . . 28

3.1 Screenshot of an example field window used during the interactive inspection. The field centre is of HIPASSJ0419+02. The circle shows the 7.50 radius from the HIPASS centre which is in the centre of the field. All matches found in NED are marked by a ‘+’ and a number corresponding to an optical source listed in the text window...... 34

3.2 HIPASS integrated ﬂux (SINT) as a function of 2MASS J, H and K ﬂux densities

for the 414 Flag 1 sources. The dotted line in each plot shows the HIPASS SINT limit for a detection that is ﬁve times the RMS...... 39

3.3 J − K colour as a function of Hi mass for the 414 Flag 1 sources. The dotted lines show the best robust linear ﬁt to the data...... 40

3.4 The 50 by 50 optical images and the HIPASS Hi spectrum is shown on the left and right column, respectively. The top row shows HIPASSJ0912+09, while HIPASSJ1958+02 is shown on the bottom row. The galaxies are circled in the POSS II images. . . . 41

3.5 J − K colour as a function of Hi mass for the 414 Flag 1 sources. The dotted lines show the best robust linear ﬁt to the data...... 41

3.6 J − H versus H − K colour-colour diagram for the 414 Flag 1 sources (in grey). The black contours provide the 1-σ contour of the two-dimensional NIR colour distribution of our sample. The black cross marks the normal range of NIR colours (indicated by the error bars) for galaxies with nuclei dominated by an older stellar population . The black arrows indicate the shift in direction of a galaxy’s NIR colours due to factors such as starburst events, gaseous emission from ionised regions, thermal re-radiation of hot dust and reddening (Geller et al. 2006). . . . . 43 LIST OF FIGURES xviii

3.7 The galactic latitude of each match as a function of heliocentric velocity from NHICAT. The black open circles represent the NOIRCAT sources in Flags 1, 2, 3 and 4. The pink open triangles represent the 87 Flag 5a sources with previous Hi velocity matches. The green solid triangles and the blue crosses represent the 219 Flag 5b sources (with probable matches based on positional matches) and the 25 category 5c sources (with probable matches with galaxies not listed in NED), respectively. The remaining 16 Flag 5c sources without any matches to optically- visible galaxies are represented by the black solid circles. The cluster of sources found at velocities of ∼1000 km s−1 and at Galactic latitude of 65◦ corresponds to the Virgo Cluster. The cluster of sources at Galactic latitude of −50◦ is a result of projection eﬀects and is not the location of any known clusters. On the right panel, the distribution of Galactic latitude of all the NOIRCAT sources is shown. 47

3.8 Distribution of the number of ‘blank’ fields out of a set of 260 randomly-generated field coordinates for the 1000 bootstrap repetitions. ‘Blank’ fields are fields in which NED has no listed galaxies. The dotted lines shows the median of the distribution. 48

3.9 Distributions of match separations. Plots (a): match separations of the optical velocity matches, (b): match separations for the galaxies with previous higher- res- olution Hi velocity matches and (c): match separations for the detections without any velocity matches...... 50

3.10 Distributions of match separations at three diﬀerent Galactic latitude (b) ranges. The top, middle and bottom panels show the match separations for sources located at b ≥ +5◦, −5◦ < b < +5◦ and b ≤ −5◦, respectively. The match separation distributions of the NOIRCAT sources (Flag 1, 2 & 5a) are represented by the solid histograms, while the dotted line histograms show the distributions for the randomly-simulated sources. It should be noted that the NOIRCAT sample only had two sources in the range of −5◦ < b < +5◦...... 51

3.11 Cumulative distributions of the match separations at three diﬀerent Galactic latitude (b) ranges. The top, middle and bottom panels show the match separations for sources located at b ≥ +5◦, −5◦ < b < +5◦ and b ≤ −5◦, respectively. In each plot, the cumulative plot of the sample-normalised NOIRCAT sample (Flag 1, 2 & 5a) is represented by the solid line, while the dotted line illustrates the cumulative distribution of the randomly-simulated sample. As with Figure 3.10, it should be noted that the NOIRCAT sample only had two sources in the range of −5◦ < b < +5◦...... 52 xix LIST OF FIGURES

3.12 Distributions of match separations at three different Galactic latitude (b) ranges. The top, middle and bottom panels show the match separations for sources located at b ≥ +5◦, −5◦ < b < +5◦ and b ≤ −5◦, respectively. The match separation distributions of the NOIRCAT matches (Flag 1, 2 & 5a) are represented by the solid histograms, while the dotted line histograms show the distributions for the simulated sources which are one degree away from any NHICAT source positions. It should be noted that the NOIRCAT sample only had two sources in the range of −5◦ < b < +5◦. In addition, the observed peaks in the simulated distribution in the middle panel is due to the smaller sample size...... 54 3.13 Distributions of match separations at three different Galactic latitude (b) ranges. The top, middle and bottom panels show the match separations for sources located at b ≥ +5◦, −5◦ < b < +5◦ and b ≤ −5◦, respectively. The match separation distributions of the NOIRCAT matches (Flag 1, 2 & 5a) are represented by the solid histograms, while the dotted line histograms show the distributions for the simulated sources which are five degrees away from any NHICAT source positions. It should be noted that the NOIRCAT sample only had two sources in the range of −5◦ < b < +5◦. In addition, the observed peaks in the simulated distribution in the middle panel is due to the smaller sample size...... 55 3.14 Distributions of match separations at three different Galactic latitude (b) ranges. The top, middle and bottom panels show the match separations for sources located at b ≥ +5◦, −5◦ < b < +5◦ and b ≤ −5◦, respectively. The match separation distributions of the NOIRCAT matches (Flag 1, 2 & 5a) are represented by the solid histograms, while the dotted line histograms show the distributions for the simulated sources which are ten degrees away from any NHICAT source positions. It should be noted that the NOIRCAT sample only had two sources in the range of −5◦ < b < +5◦. In addition, the observed peaks in the simulated distribution in the middle panel is due to the smaller sample size...... 56 3.15 VLA integrated flux contours overlaid on POSSII images of 3 NOIRCAT sources with match separations greater than 50. The centre of the fields correspond to the HIPASS coordinate centres. From left to right: HIPASSJ1114+12 (NGC 3593), HIPASSJ1224+12 (NGC 4351) and HIPASSJ1243+13a (NGC 4639)...... 59 3.16 HIPASS spectrum of HIPASSJ1114+12 (top), HIPASSJ1224+12 (middle) and HIPASSJ1243+13a (bottom). The region between the dashed lines mark the Hi emission profile and the solid line shows the fit to the baseline...... 61

4.1 A continuum-subtracted Hα image of the region near S3 and S4. The circle shows the isolated Hii region found by Ryan-Weber et al. (2004). The two objects between the Hii region and S3 are residuals of foreground stars...... 69 LIST OF FIGURES xx

4.2 VLA observations of the Hi extent (black contours, spanning ∼ 200) of HCG 16 (J0209-10) by Verdes-Montenegro et al. (2001)...... 71 4.3 Three-colour SINGG image of J0224-24 overlaid with Hi contours (yellow). The yellow ellipse in the bottom left shows the beam shape. The continuum- subtracted Hα, the observed Hα and the R-band continuum images are represented by the red, green and blue respectively. The contour levels are at 1.5 Jy km s−1, 2.0 Jy km s−1, 2.5 Jy km s−1, 3.0 Jy km s−1...... 72 4.4 The Hi spectra of J0224-24 from HIPASS (left) and from the ATCA (right). . . . 73 4.5 J0342-13: The contour levels are at 1.8 Jy km s−1, 2.3 Jy km s−1, 2.8 Jy km s−1 and 3.3 Jy km s−1. See figure 4.3 for further explanation of how this image is made. 74 4.6 The Hi spectra of J0342-13 from HIPASS (left) and from the ATCA (right). . . . 74 4.7 J0359-45. Top: the contour levels are at 0.7 Jy km s−1, 0.8 Jy km s−1, 0.9 Jy km s−1, 1.0 Jy km s−1, 1.1 Jy km s−1, 1.2 Jy km s−1. Bottom: the contour levels are at 0.4 Jy km s−1, 0.5 Jy km s−1 and 0.6 Jy km s−1. See figure 4.3 for further explanation of how this image is made...... 75 4.8 Top: Hi spectra of J0359-45 from HIPASS. Middle: Hi spectra of the Horologium Dwarf from ATCA observations. Bottom: Hi spectra of ESO259-G035 from ATCA observations...... 77 4.9 J0403-43: The contour levels are at 0.3 Jy km s−1, 0.6 Jy km s−1, 0.9 Jy km s−1, 1.2 Jy km s−1, 1.5 Jy km s−1, 1.8Jy km s−1, 2.1 Jy km s−1. See figure 4.3 for further explanation of how this image is made...... 78 4.10 The Hi spectra of J0403-43 from HIPASS (left) and from the ATCA (right). . . . 78 4.11 J0503-63: The contour levels are at 1.5 Jy km s−1, 2.0 Jy km s−1, 2.5 Jy km s−1. See figure 4.3 for further explanation of how this image is made...... 79 4.12 The Hi spectra of J0503-63 from HIPASS (left) and from the ATCA (right). . . . 80 4.13 J0504-16: The contour levels are at 1.8 Jy km s−1, 2.2 Jy km s−1, 2.6 Jy km s−1, 3.0 Jy km s−1, 3.4 Jy km s−1. The two galaxies marked with ‘?’ are two galaxies within the field with no NED identification. See figure 4.3 for further explanation of how this image is made...... 81 4.14 The Hi spectra of J0504-16 from HIPASS (left) and from the ATCA (right). . . . 81 4.15 J0514-61: The contour levels are at 1.5 Jy km s−1, 1.8 Jy km s−1, 2.1 Jy km s−1, 2.4 Jy km s−1, 2.7 Jy km s−1, 3.0 Jy km s−1, 3.3 Jy km s−1, 3.6 Jy km s−1, 3.9 Jy km s−1, 4.2 Jy km s−1, 4.5 Jy km s−1, 4.8 Jy km s−1. See figure 4.3 for further explanation of how this image is made...... 82 4.16 The Hi spectra of J0514-61 from HIPASS (left) and from the ATCA (right). . . . 83 4.17 J1054-18: The contour levels are at 0.8 Jy km s−1, 1.0 Jy km s−1, 1.2 Jy km s−1. See figure 4.3 for further explanation of how this image is made...... 84 4.18 The Hi spectra of J1054-18 from HIPASS...... 84 xxi LIST OF FIGURES

4.19 J2149-60. Top: The contour levels are at 2.7 Jy km s−1, 2.9 Jy km s−1, 3.1 Jy km s−1, 3.3 Jy km s−1, 3.5 Jy km s−1, 3.7 Jy km s−1. Bottom: The contour levels are at 1.5 Jy km s−1, 1.7 Jy km s−1, 1.9 Jy km s−1, 2.1 Jy km s−1, 2.3 Jy km s−1, 2.5 Jy km s−1. See ﬁgure 4.3 for further explanation of how this image is made. . 86 4.20 The Hi spectra of J2149-60 from HIPASS (left) and from the ATCA (right). . . . 87 4.21 J2202-20: The contour levels are at 2.0 Jy km s−1, 2.5 Jy km s−1, 3.5 Jy km s−1. See ﬁgure 4.3 for further explanation of how this image is made...... 87 4.22 The Hi spectra of J2202-20 from HIPASS (left) and from the ATCA (right). . . . 88

5.1 Distribution of Hi mass for the SUNGG sample. The top panel shows the Hi mass distribution of HICAT (non-shaded histogram) and the complete SUNGG sample (shaded in dark gray). The bottom panel presents the mass distribution of the SUNGG sample where the dark gray histogram represents the SUNGG sample presented in this paper and the striped histogram represents the remaining SUNGG sample...... 95 5.2 Distribution of exposure times for the SUNGG sample. The top panel shows the NUV exposure times distribution and the bottom panel describes the FUV exposure times distribution...... 97 5.3 A colour (F UV − NUV ) versus size plot of all the sources found in the SUNGG field, J1051-17. The dotted lines mark the region where a source is considered a star...... 99 5.4 A two-colour GALEX image of the SUNGG field, J1051-17, where the FUV and NUV emission is represented by the blue and red colours, respectively...... 100 5.5 Example of the masking procedure for the field J0145-43. The NUV image of the J0145-43 field is shown on the left and on the right, the image of all the masked objects (shown in black and white) is shown...... 101 5.6 Seeing distribution for the SUNGG sample. The top and bottom panels show the distribution of FWHM of sources within the NUV and FUV fields respectively. The dotted lines in each plot marks the median of the respective distribution. . . . 102 5.7 Distribution of the axial ratios of the current SUNGG sample...... 103 5.8 SUNGG distributions of the median sky level (left) and the median sky RMS (right). The FUV and the NUV distributions are represented by the solid line and the dotted line, respectively. The solid red line shows the median of the FUV distributions, while the dotted red line shows the median of the NUV distributions. 103 5.9 Comparison between FUV and NUV properties. Left: the absolute magnitude (without internal dust correction) as a function of the UV colour. Right: the ratio of half-light radii between the FUV and NUV observations as a function of the NUV half-light radius...... 104 LIST OF FIGURES xxii

5.10 Surface brightness profiles of NGC0908 (left) and NGC0907 (right). The NUV profile is represented by the dotted line and the FUV profile is represented by the solid line...... 105 5.11 Surface brightness profiles of IC0223 (left) and NGC0899 (right). The NUV profile is represented by the dotted line and the FUV profile is represented by the solid line.105 5.12 Curve of growth (cumulative flux distribution) of NGC1365. The solid line shows the FUV curve of growth and the dashed line shows the NUV curve of growth. The vertical dashed line shows the NUV half-light radius, while, the vertical solid line shows the FUV half-light radius...... 106

5.13 Comparison between the ANUV derived using the Calzetti (2001) method (ANUV CALZ)

and the Buat et al. (2005) method (ANUV BUAT). The solid line is the best linear ﬁt to the data and the dotted line shows the line of one-to-one correlation. . . . . 108

5.14 The infrared excess (log10(FTIR/FFUV)) as a function of the F UV − NUV color for our sample of galaxies. The thick black solid line is a ﬁt to our data, while the gray solid line is the ﬁt found by Boissier et al. (2006). The dotted and dashed lines represent the correlations found by Gil de Paz et al. (2006) and Cortese et al. (2006), respectively...... 109

5.15 The infrared excess (log10(FTIR/FNUV)) as a function of the F UV − NUV color for our sample of galaxies. The thick black solid line is a ﬁt to our data...... 110

colour 5.16 Comparison between the FTIR values derived using the F UV −NUV colors (FTIR ) Dale and the Dale et al. (2001) deﬁnition (FTIR ). The solid line shows the line of best ﬁt, while the dotted line shows the line of one-to-one correlation...... 111

BUAT 5.17 Comparison between the FTIR derived using the IRAS flux densities and the COLOR FTIR estimated from our simple colour calibration. The solid line is the best linear fit to the data and the dotted line shows the line of one-to-one correlation. . 112 5.18 FUV flux density (with no internal dust correction) as a function of the Hi integrated flux. The black dots represent the SUNGG sources which have no companions, while, the grey open circles represent the SUNGG sources with companions. The solid black line is the linear fit for the black dots and the solid gray line is the linear fit for the gray dots. The lines of constant gas consumption timescales (τ) are shown by the dotted lines where the different τ are labelled beneath each line. 114 5.19 FUV flux density (with internal dust correction) as a function of the Hi integrated flux. The black dots represent the SUNGG sources which have no companions, while, the gray open circles represent the SUNGG sources with companions. The solid black line is the linear fit for the black dots and the solid gray line is the linear fit for the gray dots. The lines of constant gas consumption timescales (τ) are shown by the dotted lines where the different τ are labelled beneath each line. . 115 xxiii LIST OF FIGURES

5.20 The Hi content (MHI) of the SUNGG sources without companions as a function of their star formation rate (SF R)...... 116

5.21 Three colour composite image of NGC7424. The top image shows the Hα (in red), the optical R-band (in green) and the FUV (in blue). The bottom image shows the optical R-band (in red), the NUV (in green) and the FUV (in blue)...... 118

5.22 Three colour composite image of NGC1512. The top image shows the Hα (in red), the optical R-band (in green) and the FUV (in blue). The bottom image shows the optical R-band (in red), the NUV (in green) and the FUV (in blue)...... 119

5.23 The FUV-to-Hα ratio of SFR values as a function of Hi mass. The solid line shows the linear ﬁt to the points and the dotted line shows the hypothetical line where the SFR measured by both the FUV and Hα were equal...... 120

6.1 Fraction of total luminosity densities, lFUV and lNUV as a function of diﬀerent measured parameters (without internal dust correction). The FUV measurements are shown in red, while the NUV measurements are shown in blue. Each plot shows both the binned distributions as well as the cumulative proﬁles...... 127

6.2 The relation between the R absolute magnitude (uncorrected for dust) and the H-alpha and FIR ratio for SR1. The dotted line represents the linear ﬁt...... 129

6.3 The Hα surface brightness versus the ratio of the Hα luminosity to the dust- corrected FUV luminosity. The dotted line shows the line of best ﬁt...... 135

6.4 Comparison of star formation rate densities as a function of redshift. Plot (a) does not account for internal dust extinction and plot (b) includes internal dust corrections. Star formation rate densities derived from Hα, UV and IR/submm observations are represented by solid circles, hollow circles and asterisks, respectively.

The grey star and diamond at redshift 0 represents the SFRD (ρ˙SFR) derived from SUNGG and SINGG (Hanish et al. 2006), respectively. The dashed line shows the best ﬁt for redshifts 0 to 1...... 139

6.5 Comparison of star formation rate densities as a function of redshift. Plot (a) does not account for internal dust extinction and plot (b) includes internal dust corrections. Star formation rate densities derived from Hα, UV and IR/submm observations are represented by solid circles, hollow circles and asterisks, respectively.

The diamond at redshift 0 represents the SFRD (ρ˙SFR) derived from lFIR for the SINGG sample, while, the star represents the bolometric SFRD derived from this chapter. The dashed line shows the best ﬁt for redshifts 0 to 1...... 140 LIST OF FIGURES xxiv

7.1 The greyscale optical image (top) is a deep image from digitally-stacked plates of NGC922 (bottom-left) and S2 (top-right). The height of the greyscale image is ∼40. The enlarged images are SINGG-SUNGG composite images of NGC922 and S2 where red represents Hα, green represents R-band and blue represents FUV. A diﬀuse plume of stars on the north-western side of NGC922 can be seen in the R-band to be extending towards the companion...... 142

7.2 The Hα equivalent width (radial) profile of NGC922 is shown on the left and radial colour profiles of NGC922 are shown on the right where the FUV-NUV and FUV-R colour profiles are represented by the dotted and solid lines respectively...... 144

7.3 Morphological evolution of a gas-rich, bulge-less spiral colliding with a dwarf companion (represented by a big pink dot). Time (T ) in Gyr since the start of the simulation is shown in the upper left corner of each panel. Stars, gas, and new stars are shown in green, red, and blue, respectively. For clarity, dark matter particles are not shown. The companion comes from the left side and passes through the central region of the spiral. Note that the simulated “C-shaped” morphology is strikingly similar to the observed morphological properties of NGC 922. . . . . 150

E.1 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of IC1914. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 242

E.2 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 242

E.3 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of IC1954. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 243

E.4 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 243

E.5 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of IC4933. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 244

E.6 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 244

E.7 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of IC5020. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 245 xxv LIST OF FIGURES

E.8 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 246

E.9 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of IC5249. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 247

E.10 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 247

E.11 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0005-28. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 248

E.12 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 248

E.13 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0008-34. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 249

E.14 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 249

E.15 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0008-59. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 250

E.16 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 250

E.17 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0031-22. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 251

E.18 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 251

E.19 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0140-05. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 252 LIST OF FIGURES xxvi

E.20 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 253

E.21 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0145-43. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 254

E.22 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 254

E.23 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0258-74. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 255

E.24 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 256

E.25 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0305-45. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 257

E.26 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 257

E.27 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0309-41. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 258

E.28 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 258

E.29 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0310-53. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 259

E.30 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 259

E.31 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0313-57. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 260 xxvii LIST OF FIGURES

E.32 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 260

E.33 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0334-51. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 261

E.34 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 261

E.35 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0351-38. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 262

E.36 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 262

E.37 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0354-43. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 263

E.38 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 263

E.39 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0359-45. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 264

E.40 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 265

E.41 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0411-35. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 266

E.42 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 266

E.43 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0429-27. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 267 LIST OF FIGURES xxviii

E.44 Surface brightness profile(s): The FUV and NUV profiles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 267 E.45 FUV (left) and NUV (right) fields of J0508-38. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX field of view...... 268 E.46 Surface brightness profile(s): The FUV and NUV profiles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 268 E.47 FUV (left) and NUV (right) fields of J0515-41. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX field of view...... 269 E.48 Surface brightness profile(s): The FUV and NUV profiles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 269 E.49 FUV (left) and NUV (right) fields of J0516-37. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX field of view...... 270 E.50 Surface brightness profile(s): The FUV and NUV profiles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 270 E.51 FUV (left) and NUV (right) fields of J1026-19. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX field of view...... 271 E.52 Surface brightness profile(s): The FUV and NUV profiles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 271 E.53 Surface brightness profile(s): The FUV and NUV profiles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 272 E.54 FUV (left) and NUV (right) fields of J1106-14. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX field of view...... 273 E.55 Surface brightness profile(s): The FUV and NUV profiles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 273 xxix LIST OF FIGURES

E.56 FUV (left) and NUV (right) fields of J1107-17. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX field of view...... 274 E.57 Surface brightness profile(s): The FUV and NUV profiles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 274 E.58 FUV (left) and NUV (right) fields of J1118-17. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX field of view...... 275 E.59 Surface brightness profile(s): The FUV and NUV profiles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 276 E.60 FUV (left) and NUV (right) fields of J1127-04. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX field of view...... 277 E.61 Surface brightness profile(s): The FUV and NUV profiles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 277 E.62 FUV (left) and NUV (right) fields of J1145+02. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX field of view...... 278 E.63 Surface brightness profile(s): The FUV and NUV profiles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 278 E.64 FUV (left) and NUV (right) fields of J1254-10a. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX field of view...... 279 E.65 Surface brightness profile(s): The FUV and NUV profiles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 280 E.66 FUV (left) and NUV (right) fields of J1257-05. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX field of view...... 281 E.67 Surface brightness profile(s): The FUV and NUV profiles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 281 E.68 FUV (left) and NUV (right) fields of J1321-31. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX field of view...... 282 LIST OF FIGURES xxx

E.69 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 282

E.70 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J1403-27. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 283

E.71 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 283

E.72 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J1419-26. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 284

E.73 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 284

E.74 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J2222-48. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 285

E.75 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 285

E.76 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J2254-26. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 286

E.77 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 286

E.78 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of MISDR1-12924-0282. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 287

E.79 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 287

E.80 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of MISDR1-18475-0455. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 288 xxxi LIST OF FIGURES

E.81 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 288

E.82 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of MISDR1-18534-0456. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 289

E.83 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 289

E.84 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGA-NGC1097. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 290

E.85 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 290

E.86 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGA-NGC1291. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 291

E.87 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 291

E.88 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGA-NGC1365. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 292

E.89 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 292

E.90 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGA-NGC1512. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 293

E.91 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 293

E.92 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGA-NGC1566. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 294 LIST OF FIGURES xxxii

E.93 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 294

E.94 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGA-NGC1672. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 295

E.95 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 295

E.96 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGA-NGC1800. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 296

E.97 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 296

E.98 FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGA-NGC5253. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 297

E.99 Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 298

E.100FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGA-NGC7793. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 299

E.101Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 299

E.102FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC0157. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 300

E.103Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 300

E.104FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC0210. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 301 xxxiii LIST OF FIGURES

E.105Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 302

E.106FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC0309. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 303

E.107Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 303

E.108FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC0428. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 304

E.109Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 304

E.110FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC0578. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 305

E.111Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 305

E.112FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC0858. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 306

E.113Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 306

E.114FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC0908. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 307

E.115Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 308

E.116FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC0922. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 309 LIST OF FIGURES xxxiv

E.117Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 310

E.118FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC0958. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 311

E.119Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 311

E.120FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC0961. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 312

E.121Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 312

E.122FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC1179. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 313

E.123Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 313

E.124FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC1249. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 314

E.125Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 314

E.126FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC1291. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 315

E.127Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 315

E.128FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC1371. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 316 xxxv LIST OF FIGURES

E.129Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 316

E.130FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC1437a. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 317

E.131Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 317

E.132FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC1487. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 318

E.133Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 318

E.134FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC1518. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 319

E.135Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 319

E.136FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC1556. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 320

E.137Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 320

E.138FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC1679. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 321

E.139Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 321

E.140FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC1744. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 322 LIST OF FIGURES xxxvi

E.141Surface brightness profile(s): The FUV and NUV profiles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 322 E.142FUV (left) and NUV (right) fields of NGC1792. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX field of view...... 323 E.143Surface brightness profile(s): The FUV and NUV profiles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 323 E.144FUV (left) and NUV (right) fields of NGC1879. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX field of view...... 324 E.145Surface brightness profile(s): The FUV and NUV profiles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 324 E.146FUV (left) and NUV (right) fields of NGC2101. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX field of view...... 325 E.147Surface brightness profile(s): The FUV and NUV profiles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 326 E.148FUV (left) and NUV (right) fields of NGC3355. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX field of view...... 327 E.149Surface brightness profile(s): The FUV and NUV profiles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 327 E.150FUV (left) and NUV (right) fields of NGC3431. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX field of view...... 328 E.151Surface brightness profile(s): The FUV and NUV profiles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 328 E.152Surface brightness profile(s): The FUV and NUV profiles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 329 xxxvii LIST OF FIGURES

E.153FUV (left) and NUV (right) fields of NGC3511. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX field of view...... 330 E.154Surface brightness profile(s): The FUV and NUV profiles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 331 E.155FUV (left) and NUV (right) fields of NGC3887. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX field of view...... 332 E.156Surface brightness profile(s): The FUV and NUV profiles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 332 E.157FUV (left) and NUV (right) fields of NGC4487. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX field of view...... 333 E.158Surface brightness profile(s): The FUV and NUV profiles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 333 E.159FUV (left) and NUV (right) fields of NGC4504. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX field of view...... 334 E.160Surface brightness profile(s): The FUV and NUV profiles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 334 E.161FUV (left) and NUV (right) fields of NGC4691. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX field of view...... 335 E.162Surface brightness profile(s): The FUV and NUV profiles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 335 E.163FUV (left) and NUV (right) fields of NGC4723. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX field of view...... 336 E.164Surface brightness profile(s): The FUV and NUV profiles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 336 E.165FUV (left) and NUV (right) fields of NGC4904. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX field of view...... 337 LIST OF FIGURES xxxviii

E.166Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 338

E.167FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC4948. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 339

E.168Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 340

E.169FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC625. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 341

E.170Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 341

E.171FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC6902. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 342

E.172Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 343

E.173FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC6907. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 344

E.174Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 344

E.175FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC6925. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 345

E.176Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 345

E.177FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC6943. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 346 xxxix LIST OF FIGURES

E.178Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 346

E.179FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC7038. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 347

E.180Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 347

E.181FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC7059. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 348

E.182Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 348

E.183FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC7083. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 349

E.184Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 349

E.185FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC7125. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 350

E.186Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 351

E.187FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC7424. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 352

E.188Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 352

E.189FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC7456. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 353 LIST OF FIGURES xl

E.190Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 353

E.191FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC7531. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 354

E.192Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 354

E.193FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC7590. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 355

E.194Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 356

E.195FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of UGC07332. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 357

E.196Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 357

E.197FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of UGCA015. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 358

E.198Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 358

E.199FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of UGCA038. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 359

E.200Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 359

E.201FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of UGCA044. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 360 xli LIST OF FIGURES

E.202Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 360

E.203FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of UGCA090. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 361

E.204Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 361

E.205FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of UGCA106. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 362

E.206Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 362

E.207FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of UGCA270. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 363

E.208Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 363

E.209FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of UGCA307. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 364

E.210Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 364

E.211FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of UGCA312. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 365

E.212Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 365

E.213FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of UGCA433. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view...... 366 LIST OF FIGURES xlii

E.214Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve...... 366 List of Tables

2.1 Survey and catalogue parameters...... 7 2.2 Comparison of source number density in NHICAT and HICAT. Note that 1 source in NHICAT was detected below 2◦ in declination...... 13 2.3 Completeness of NHICAT. The error function (erf) is commonly used in probability statistics to describe the error probability of a single measurement...... 15 2.4 Reliability of NHICAT...... 21 2.5 Parameter settings used in Duchamp...... 23 2.6 Excerpt from NHICAT. Note that all the velocities are cz and heliocentric. . . . 30

3.1 Definition of flags in the processing of NOIRCAT...... 33 3.2 Number of HIPASS sources in each flag category...... 36 3.3 Parameter description of NOIRCAT...... 37 3.4 Example of the first 10 sources of NOIRCAT. It should be noted that only Category 5 sources with velocity matches from previous Hi observations are listed...... 38 3.5 Galactic extinction values and optical colours for HIPASSJ0912+09 and HIPASSJ1958+02. 40 3.6 NHICAT properties of 25 Flag 5b sources found with probable matches to sources not listed in NED...... 45 3.7 NHICAT properties of the 16 Flag 5c sources without optical counterparts. . . . . 46 3.8 Comparisons of the match separation (s) distributions of the random simulated sample and the NOIRCAT sample ...... 53 3.9 Comparisons of the match separation (s) distributions of a semi-random sample at angular separations (a) of one, five and ten degrees away from known NHICAT source positions. The fraction of matches (F ) from the semi-random simulations versus the NOIRCAT matches with s ≤ 1.250 are also presented...... 57

xliii LIST OF TABLES xliv

3.10 Properties of VLA observations of HIPASSJ1114+12, HIPASSJ1224+12 and HIPASSJ1243+13a. 60

4.1 Details of source and ATCA conﬁgurations for the new ATCA observations of the SINGG sources...... 65 4.2 Exposure times of ATCA observations...... 66 4.3 Properties of previous Hi observations of SINGG sources from the ATCA. . . . . 67 4.4 Fractional contribution of Hα emission by each galaxy relative to the total emission found from the entire group...... 70

5.1 Summary of the number of galaxies found in the 118 SUNGG ﬁelds...... 94 5.2 Parameter description of Table B.1...... 96 5.3 SUNGG’s observing parameters ...... 96 5.4 Objects which appear in both the ﬁrst SINGG data release as well as the current SUNGG data release...... 117

6.1 Breakdown of fractional luminosity densities by galaxy properties...... 128

7.1 Observed properties of NGC922 and S2...... 145 7.2 Derived properties of NGC922 and S2...... 147

A.1 NHICAT properties of 218 Flag 5b sources for which NED had 1 or more sources which were classiﬁed as galaxies with positional matches only ...... 177

B.1 Hi properties of the original SUNGG galaxies...... 186

C.1 Observational properties of the current SUNGG sample...... 198

D.1 Derived SUNGG properties ...... 206 CHAPTER 1

Overview

With increasing technological advances, astronomers are now able to explore further into the Early Universe. In order to understand the formation and evolution of the objects in the Early Universe, there is a need to understand the formation and evolutionary processes of the Local Universe ﬁrst. The Local Universe provides an ideal high-resolution laboratory for studying an array of galaxy types and environments which can be translated to the higher-redshift Universe. An example of this is the striking resemblances between the local C-shaped ring galaxy, NGC922 (see Chapter 7 for more details; Wong et al. 2006a) and the class of high-redshift galaxies known as “clump cluster” galaxies found by Elmegreen et al. (2005). In this thesis, new and recent surveys of the Local Universe will be used to study the processes of star formation and galaxy evolution.

1.1 The Hi emission line and star formation

The neutral Hydrogen (Hi) emission line at the wavelength of 21 cm—the result of the hyperfine “spin flip” transition of atomic or neutral Hydrogen - was first hypothesised to be observable by Hendrik van der Hulst during his PhD candidature in 1944. It was expected that a great amount of Hi should exist in the direction of the Galaxy. This prediction was verified and observed by Ewen & Purcell (1951). Since then, Hi astronomy has progressed from being a scientific discovery in its own right to being one of the main tools used by current astronomers. Not only is Hi a useful probe of the gas content of a galaxy but it also provides a distance measure (in

1 CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW 2 the radial direction) as well as a tracer of the dynamics and evolution of the galaxy. The current largest Hi survey is the Hi Parkes All Sky Survey (HIPASS; Koribalski et al. 2004a; Meyer et al. 2004; Wong et al. 2006c) which has mapped over 70% of the entire sky. HIPASS maps the extragalactic Universe up to a redshift (z) of ∼0.041. Hi has also been associated with stars and star formation. Apart from interaction- driven Hi tails or bridges, observations of Hi has always been accompanied by observations of stars. The general idea is that the Hi provides fuel for star formation. A recent star formation survey of a sample of Hi-selected galaxies (SINGG; Meurer et al. 2006) found evidence of recent star formation in every Hi-selected galaxy observed. Therefore there is deﬁnitely a relationship between the neutral gas content and the star formation process.

1.2 Goals of this Research

The main goal of this thesis is to examine the star formation and galaxy evolution of Hi-selected galaxies in the Local Universe. Most previous star formation studies are based on optical surveys which biases against smaller dwarf and low surface brightness galaxies. Hence, we hope to make a more comprehensive study of the local star formation scenario by examining all the galaxies containing the fuel needed for star formation. The detailed goals of this thesis are as follows:-

? To produce the Northern HIPASS catalogue (NHICAT) as well as to measure the completeness and reliability of the catalogue.

? To produce the optical counterpart catalogue to NHICAT in order to compare the observed stellar component of the galaxy to the observed Hi content of the galaxy.

? Using the optical counterpart catalogue, we also aim to investigate the existence of dark galaxies (i.e.˙ galaxies with only Hi gas and no stars) within NHICAT.

? To deduce the Hi contribution of each galaxy within the SINGG ﬁelds with multiple galaxies. SINGG is an Hi-selected (from HIPASS) star formation study in the HαS (see Chapter 4 for more details).

? To determine the cosmic star formation rate density of the Local Universe using SINGG’s ultraviolet(UV) sister survey of Hi-selected galaxies (SUNGG). More details about this survey can be found in Chapter 5.

1Redshift is a distance measure derived from the recessional velocity of a galaxy due to the expansion of the Universe. We adopt the optical convention where v = cz and c is the speed of light 3 CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW

? To determine the cosmic star formation rate density of the Local Universe using far-infrared (FIR) observations of the SINGG sources.

? To determine the bolometric (i.e. total) cosmic star formation rate density of the Local Universe.

? To investigate the properties of the newly-discovered drop-through ring galaxy, NGC 922.

1.3 Outline of this Thesis

The ﬁrst part of this thesis involves the construction of the Northern HIPASS catalogue which extends the HIPASS catalogue to include the entire sky region up to a declination of +25.5◦. Chapter 2 presents this catalogue as well as the analysis of the completeness and reliability of this catalogue. Chapter 3 describes the optical counterpart catalogue to the Northern HIPASS catalogue. This chapter also determines and discusses the possible existence of dark galaxies within the Northern HIPASS sample. The second part of this thesis investigates the star formation process in the Local Universe based on a sample of galaxies selected solely from their Hi content. Chapter 4 introduces the Survey for Ionization of Neutral Gas Galaxies (SINGG) and its sister survey, the Survey of Ultraviolet emission in Neutral Gas Galaxies (SUNGG). These surveys are star formation studies of galaxies selected from HIPASS. A key part of this thesis involves the processing and analysis of the SUNGG observations and hence Chapter 5 will mostly describe the properties of the SUNGG survey. The star formation rate density of the Local Universe is estimated from the UV results of SUNGG as well as FIR observations in Chapter 6. Combining the FUV and FIR measurements, Chapter 6 determines the bolometric star formation rate density of the Local Universe. A serendipitous discovery of a new drop-through ring galaxy was also made in the SINGG-SUNGG observations of the HIPASS source, HIPASSJ0224-24 (NGC 922). The investigation and star formation properties of NGC 922 are presented in Chapter 7. Within the Local Universe, there are very few interaction-driven ring galaxies. NGC 922 is currently one of the nearest drop-through ring galaxies found and is nearer than the infamous Cartwheel galaxy (see Figure 1.1). CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW 4

Figure 1.1: A striking false colour composite image of the Cartwheel Galaxy. The main picture shows the X-ray observations (from the Chandra Observatory) in purple, the UV observations (from GALEX) in blue, the Hubble Space Telescope’s observations in green and the infrared observations (from the Spitzer Space Telescope) in red. The small panels on the right shows the Cartwheel galaxy as observed by each of the diﬀerent wavebands. The above image can be found on the publicity website . CHAPTER 2

Northern HIPASS

2.1 Introduction to HIPASS

The Hi Parkes All-Sky Survey (HIPASS) is a blind Hi survey using the Parkes Radio Telescope1, and the Northern extension increases this survey by a further 19 percent in total sky area. The primary objective of extending Southern HIPASS to the north is to complement the southern census of gas-rich galaxies in the local Universe. The Hi mass function, HIMF, (Zwaan et al. 2003) and galaxy two-point correlation function (Meyer et al. 2006) based on Southern HIPASS showed that the statistical measures of the galaxy population from HIPASS are limited by cosmic variance. Recently, Zwaan et al. (2005) used HICAT to investigate the effects of the local galaxy density on the HIMF. Using the n-th nearest neighbour statistic, they found tentative evidence that the low-mass end of the HIMF becomes steeper in higher density regions. These authors were able to examine the trend in the slope of the HIMF for different values of n in the statistic. Larger values of n correspond to sampling the density on larger scales. For each value up to n = 10, the slope became systematically steeper as the density increased. Thus it appears that the Hi properties of galaxies might be correlated with environmental effects on quite large scales (where a typical separation of the n = 10 nearest neighbours is ∼ 5 Mpc), in addition to the well-known local effects, such as tidal interactions between neighbouring galaxies. Previously, Rosenberg & Schneider (2002) found α ≈ −1.2 and α ≈ −1.5 for the slope of the HIMF in the immediate and field regions of the

1The Parkes telescope is part of the Australia Telescope which is funded by the Commonwealth of Australia for operation as a National Facility managed by CSIRO.

5 CHAPTER 2. NORTHERN HIPASS 6

Virgo Cluster, respectively. Also, Springob et al. (2005), found flatter slopes to the low mass end of the HIMF in higher density regions. However, their galaxy sample was selected optically. Since Northern HIPASS covers the entire Virgo Cluster region, the Northern HIPASS catalogue (NHICAT) can be used in conjunction with the Southern HIPASS catalogue (HICAT) to explore these trends and investigate the effects of cosmic variance on HIPASS galaxy catalogue statistics. It is worth noting that the Northern HIPASS also provides the first blind Hi survey of the entire region in and around the Virgo Cluster. Assuming a Virgo distance of 16 Mpc and an integrated flux limit of 15 Jy km s−1, this corresponds 8 to a mass sensitivity of 9 × 10 M . Thus the survey will detect any unresolved Hi clouds above this mass limit in the vicinity of the Virgo Cluster, regardless of stellar content. The Virgo Cluster provides a nearby example of processes that are more common at higher redshifts, such as galaxy-galaxy and galaxy-intracluster medium interactions. Northern HIPASS will be used to investigate the role of Hi in a cluster environment in individual galaxies as well as statistically across the whole cluster. Understanding the role of Hi is vital for galaxy evolution models. Kenney et al. (2004b) found six galaxies in the Virgo Cluster showing distorted Hi morphology. Using N-body simulations, Vollmer et al. (2001) investigated the effect of ram pressure stripping in the Virgo Cluster and found that Hi deficiency is dependent on galaxy orbits within the cluster. They concluded that all the galaxies showing some form of distorted Hi distribution have already passed through the centre of the cluster and are not infalling for the first time. The catalogue of extragalactic Hi sources from HIPASS was named HICAT and was presented in Meyer et al. (2004) (hereafter known as MZ04), while the completeness and reliability of HICAT was assessed by Zwaan et al. (2004). Here we present a catalogue of extragalactic Hi sources from Northern HIPASS, named NHICAT. The basic parameters of HIPASS, Northern HIPASS, HICAT and NHICAT are given in Table 2.1. Apart from the declination coverage, the main difference between the two surveys and catalogues is the higher noise level in Northern HIPASS. For a full summary of parameters of existing blind Hi surveys, including subsets of HIPASS (HIPASS Bright Galaxy Catalogue, Koribalski et al. (2004b); the South Celestial Cap catalogue, Kilborn et al. (2002)) see Table 1 of MZ04. The Northern HIPASS Zone of Avoidance (NHIZOA) survey by Donley et al. (2005) covers northern declinations of the Galaxy—a subset of the Northern HIPASS area—at a higher sensitivity (RMS = 6 mJy beam−1). Optical identification of NHICAT sources will use similar techniques to HICAT (Doyle et al. 2005) and will be presented in a later paper. With a total spatial cover- 7 CHAPTER 2. NORTHERN HIPASS

Table 2.1: Survey and catalogue parameters.

Survey name Survey range RMS Catalogue Name Catalogue range Sources (deg, km s−1 ) (mJy beam−1) (deg, km s−1 ) HIPASS δ < +2◦, 13 HICAT δ < +2◦, 4315 (MZ04) −1280 < v < 12700 300 < v < 12700

Northern extension +2◦ < δ < +26◦, 14 NHICAT +2◦ < δ < +25◦300, 1002∗ HIPASS, this work −1280 < v < 12700 300 < v < 12700

∗ Note that 1 source was found slightly below declination +2◦.

age of 29,343 square degrees and 5317 sources, the combined HICAT and NHICAT catalogue is the largest purely Hi-selected galaxy catalogue to date. The Arecibo L-Band Feed Array (ALFALFA) surveys will eventually cover the same region of sky as Northern HIPASS and will extend up to a declination of +36◦. More information about the progress of ALFALFA can be found online at (Giovanelli et al. 2005). In this chapter we present NHICAT, together with the completeness and reliability analysis of the catalogue. Section 2.2 reviews Northern HIPASS and its properties. The source identiﬁcation and the generation of the catalogue is described in Section 2.2.1. Section 2.2.2 discusses the noise statistics of Northern HIPASS and the completeness of NHICAT is analysed in Section 2.3. The narrowband follow- up observations and the reliability of NHICAT will be described in Section 2.3.2. Section 2.4 describes the testing of a new source ﬁnder, Duchamp (currently being developed at the ATNF), on the Northern HIPASS data.

2.2 Northern HIPASS Data

Northern HIPASS was designed to cover all RAs in the region between declinations +2◦ < δ < +25◦. Observations were undertaken using the 21-cm Multibeam receiver (Staveley-Smith et al. 1996) on the Parkes radio telescope during the period from 2000 to 2002. Observations were made by scanning in 8◦ strips of sky with 7 arcminutes in RA of separation between scans. A 1024 channel conﬁguration covering a 64 MHz bandwidth was used in the Multibeam correlator to give a channel separation of ∆v = 13.2 km s−1 across the heliocentric velocity range of -1,280 km s−1 to 12,700 km s−1 . The observation and reduction methods are exactly the same as Southern HIPASS and can be found in detail in Barnes et al. (2001). The northern dataset consists of 102 8◦ × 8◦ cubes and 48 8◦ × 7◦ cubes in the northernmost declination band. CHAPTER 2. NORTHERN HIPASS 8

The catalogue also includes sources in the range +25◦ < δ < +25◦300. At this declination range, the observational limits change. The telescope ﬁeld of view is increased, though the sensitivity is signiﬁcantly decreased.

2.2.1 Northern HIPASS Catalogue (NHICAT)

NHICAT was generated using essentially the same method as HICAT, with some improvements in efficiency. An updated version of the TopHat finder algorithm (see MZ04 for details of the original TopHat) was used to identify sources. The updated TopHat finder is very effective at filtering false detections which have narrow velocity widths. Velocity widths with a FWHM of less than 30 km s−1 were considered to be too narrow to be extragalactic sources. Such narrow velocity width detections are usually associated with hydrogen recombination frequencies or known interference lines. The consistency of the updated finder was tested by comparing the output of the original and updated finder for the southern cubes. The updated finder returned exactly the same sources as the original version without the narrow velocity width detections. Two galaxy finders were used to generate HICAT: ‘MULTIFIND’ and TopHat. The ‘MULTIFIND’ finder uses a peak flux threshold method, whereas the TopHat algorithm involves the cross-correlation of spectra with tophat profiles at various scales (MZ04). Although the original version of TopHat was reported to find ∼90% of final catalogue sources in southern HICAT (MZ04), further tests showed that all sources with Speak > 100 mJy were recovered by the updated TopHat finder. Since ‘MULTIFIND’ generated many more false detections in the northern data due to the different level and character of noise (see section 2.2), we decided to use the updated TopHat finder only. The TopHat finder was found to be quite robust against the increased level of noise and baseline ripple. In addition, since the updated TopHat finder is much more effective, separate radio-frequency interference (RFI) and recombination line removal (as described in MZ04) was not necessary. Although the known narrowband RFI have been filtered out in the process described above, not all the known RFI have been removed from the data. Not only is the Sun (and the reflections of the Sun) the strongest source of interference, but it also provides broadband interference which could not be easily filtered out. This solar interference produces a standing wave effect (known as ‘solar ripple’ ) in our data which in turn will affect the effectiveness of galaxy detection. These standing waves are likely to be worse at lower elevations due to the ground reflection of the Sun. NHICAT was constructed by first running the TopHat galaxy finder on all cubes, −1 excluding the region −300 < vhel < 300 km s to minimise confusion with Galactic 9 CHAPTER 2. NORTHERN HIPASS

max Figure 2.1: Log-log bivariate distributions of velocity width (W50 ), peak flux (Sp) and integrated flux (Sint). Plotted along the diagonal are single parameter histograms. CHAPTER 2. NORTHERN HIPASS 10 emission. 14,879 galaxy candidates were found. Each candidate source was then checked manually by simultaneously displaying the source in four ways: a spectrum, an integrated intensity map, a declination-velocity projection and a Right Ascension- velocity projection. A candidate source was accepted if it had a spectral profile which was easily distinguishable from the noisy baseline and a position-velocity profile which was wider than 2 pixels across the position axes. On the other hand, a candidate source was rejected if either its spectral profile was not distinguishable from the noise or if its position-velocity projections showed a distinct signal which was exactly 2 pixels wide, as these sources are usually the result of interference in the data. All the accepted sources were then passed to a semi-interactive parameter finder. Sources were flagged during parameter finding as either 1, 2, 3, 4 or a high-velocity cloud (HVC) detection: Flag=1 represented a definite source detection, 2 represented source detection with less certainty, 3 represented a source detected on the edge of a cube and 4 represented a non-detection. The Flag=4 option is provided to the parameter finder in the case of misclassification of a source during the checking stage. It should be noted that a significant number of HVCs were detected in Northern HIPASS at RA ∼ 23 hours due to the Magellanic stream. The Magellanic Stream from the Northern HIPASS data has been presented by Putman et al. (2003). Source lists from all cubes were then merged and duplicates were removed. The process of merging matched every Flag=3 source with the detection of the same source in the neighbouring cube with the same overlap region. The procedures for the manual checking and parametrisation used are exactly the same as MZ04. More detailed descriptions of these procedures can be found in sections 3.2 and 3.3 of MZ04. Bivariate distributions of the basic properties (heliocentric velocity, velocity width, peak flux and integrated flux) of the sources detected in Northern HIPASS are shown in Figure 2.1. Single parameter histograms are shown on the diagonal of this figure. As expected, we observe a correlation between the peak and integrated flux. There is also a loose correlation between the integrated flux and the velocity width of a source. The cubes were then re-checked for missed sources using a semi-interactive process. Sources detected in each cube were marked with a cross on an integrated intensity map. These maps were then manually checked for unmarked sources. From these manual checks, 15 additional sources were detected. In each of the 15 cases, the missed sources were close to several other sources. Two sources may also have been identified as the same source. Such sources can be differentiated by inspecting the spectra and the spatial moment maps since separate sources will not overlap both spatially and spectrally. These particular sources were flagged as ‘confused’. There are two ‘confused’ sources in NHICAT. 11 CHAPTER 2. NORTHERN HIPASS

Extended sources were identified and fitted in the same fashion as in MZ04 (see section 3.5 of MZ04 for more details). All sources with best-fit Gaussians more extended than 70 were identified as potentially extended sources. The integrated flux limit corresponding to a fixed source size can be determined using the relationship between integrated flux Sint, and source diameter,

2 −1 Sint = SdV ≈ 1.2θ [Jy km (2.1) Z HI

An explanation and derivation of Equation 2.1 can be found in MZ04. The Sint limit corresponding to a source size greater than 70 is 57 Jy km s−1 . In total, 41 candidates were found to have a measured flux greater than this limit. The moment maps of each of these sources were then examined and two sources were found to be extended. All the cube velocities are heliocentric and use the optical definition where velocity, v = c(fo/f)/f where c, fo and f represent the speed of light, rest and observed frequency respectively. The sources were then assigned names according to the convention of HICAT (Meyer et al. 2004). The final stage of the processing involved checking the 19 sources located at δ < +2◦. Of these, 18 sources have already been catalogued in HICAT showing that the datasets and analysis techniques are consistent between the two surveys at a 95% level. The extra source is located only slightly south of δ = +2◦ and has been retained in NHICAT so that the final combined NHICAT and HICAT catalogue will be a complete catalogue of the southern skies up to δ = +25◦300. Northern HIPASS covers 7997 square degrees of sky and 1002 galaxy candidates were found from their Hi content in this region. The parameters provided with the catalogue are the same as the parameters given in HICAT. Detailed descriptions of each parameter can be found in Table 4 of MZ04. Figure 2.2 shows the spatial distribution of all the sources found in NHICAT. Note that the cluster of sources at RA, α ∼ 12 hours is the Virgo cluster. Galaxies are also found at low Galactic latitudes—a region often avoided by optical galaxy surveys due to high dust extinction. NHIZOA (Donley et al. 2005), one of the latest surveys of this region, covers the Northern Galactic plane region (l = 136◦– 52◦, l = 196◦–212◦ and 0 < b < 5◦). We re-identify 23 galaxies (in NHICAT) from the overlapping regions of the NHIZOA catalogue. The RMS of NHIZOA is 2.33 times less than that of the observations in Northern HIPASS. Assuming that the detected number of galaxies is based solely on the sensitivity of the observations, one would expect Northern HIPASS to find only 33 of the 77 NHIZOA sources. There are fewer matches between Northern HIPASS and NHIZOA because the source detection rate is not fully described by the CHAPTER 2. NORTHERN HIPASS 12

Figure 2.2: Skymap of detections found in Northern HIPASS. The lines mark increasing declinations inwards where the centre is the north pole. The radial divisions show increasing RA in an anti-clockwise direction starting with 0 hours at the top of the diagram. The dotted lines mark lines of Galactic latitude, b. sensitivity (as explained in the following section). In accordance with HICAT conventions, NHICAT only included detections with −1 |vhel| > 300 km s . One galaxy, HIPASSJ1213+14a, was found to have a mean Hi −1 −1 vhel = −222.7 km s , Speak = 0.181 Jy and Sint = 42.9 Jy km s . This galaxy was detected because its velocity width extended into the heliocentric velocity range −1 −1 where vhel < −300 km s . In summary, no galaxies with vhel < −300 km s were found in NHICAT. The number density of the sources found in Northern HIPASS was approximately 0.13 sources per square degree of sky. In comparison, 0.20 sources per square degree of sky were found in Southern HIPASS. The cause of this diﬀerence will be discussed in Section 2.2.2.

2.2.2 Noise characteristics

Fewer sources were detected in NHICAT at higher declinations than in HICAT, as can be seen in Table 2.2 (which shows the number density in NHICAT and HICAT). Although some deviation is expected due to cosmic variance, the most likely cause of this density diﬀerence is the higher level of noise in Northern HIPASS. The variation in gain and system temperature (Tsys) of the telescope with respect to elevation are insuﬃcient to account for the higher noise level observed in the northern survey. The 13 CHAPTER 2. NORTHERN HIPASS

Table 2.2: Comparison of source number density in NHICAT and HICAT. Note that 1 source in NHICAT was detected below 2◦ in declination.

Catalogue Declination range Area of sky (sq degs) No. of sources Number density (per sq degs) HICAT −90◦ < δ < +2◦ 21,346 4,315 0.20 NHICAT +2◦ ≤ δ < +10◦ 2,862 413 0.14 +10◦ ≤ δ < +18◦ 2,792 364 0.13 +18◦ ≤ δ < +25◦ 2,343 224 0.10

Figure 2.3: Peak-normalised distributions of pixel flux of entire cubes in HIPASS. The distribution of the pixel flux from a typical northern cube (cube number 538) is represented by crosses and the distribution marked by circles represent the pixel flux from a typical southern cube (cube number 194). A parabola (solid line) is shown to compare these distributions with Gaussian noise statistics. level of noise in Northern HIPASS is greater than in Southern HIPASS because the Parkes radio telescope observes northern sources at lower sky elevations. This results in the telescope gathering a greater amount of interference from ground reflections and the Sun. As the most northerly areas of the survey were only observable during a short local sidereal time (LST) window, sidelobe solar interference was often unavoidable. As shown in Table 2.1, the RMS of both Northern and Southern HIPASS are very similar. However, the Northern HIPASS cubes appeared much ‘noisier’ in the flux density maps than that of the cubes in Southern HIPASS. Hence, the RMS method is not an effective way of illustrating why Northern HIPASS appeared ‘noisier’. The aim of this section is to characterise the distribution of noise observed in Northern HIPASS cubes. One method is to examine the distribution of all the pixel flux values in a given cube and measure the 99-percentile value of this distribution. This measure illustrates the noise characteristics in a given cube by measuring the extent of the outlying pixel flux values in the pixel distribution. Instead of character- CHAPTER 2. NORTHERN HIPASS 14

Figure 2.4: Skymap of the 1-percentile pixel ﬂux map of both Northern and Southern HIPASS. The south pole (δ = −90◦) is in the centre and RA increases in an anti-clockwise direction starting with 0 hour at the top of the diagram. Observations through the Galaxy (where b = 0◦) correspond to the darker horizontal band of cubes. The southern cube identiﬁcation numbers range from 1-388 and the northern cubes are 389-538.

Figure 2.5: Normalised histograms of ‘outlier’ levels (1-percentile measures). The distribution of ‘outlier’ levels in Southern HIPASS is represented by the solid line distribution. The dashed line distribution represents the ‘outlier’ levels in the declination band between +2◦ < δ < +10◦ and the dotted line distribution represents the ‘outlier’ levels in the declination bands between +10◦ < δ < +26◦. 15 CHAPTER 2. NORTHERN HIPASS

Table 2.3: Completeness of NHICAT. The error function (erf) is commonly used in probability statistics to describe the error probability of a single measurement.

Parameter Completeness Fit C=0.95 Sp (Jy) erf[18.5(Sp − 0.02)] 0.095 −1 Sint (Jy km s ) erf[0.1(Sint − 1.0)] 15.0 −1 Sp(Jy), Sint (Jy km s ) erf[20.0(Sp − 0.005)]erf[0.14(Sint − 1.0)] ising the noise in terms of the width of the flux distribution (as in the RMS method), we now examine the extent to which the outlier population is extended. Figure 2.3 shows the peak-normalised pixel flux distributions of two average cubes—one from Northern HIPASS (cube number 538) and the other from Southern HIPASS (cube number 194). Since Hi detections comprise very few pixels compared with the entire cube, the Hi sources have not been removed from the plot. The excess of negative flux in Northern cubes (as seen in Figure 2.3) is due to the bandpass removal and calibration method. Negative bandpass sidelobes occur at declinations either side of bright sources (Barnes et al. 2001). This means that bright interference is surrounded by negative artifacts, leading to an excess of both positive and negative pixels in the data with stronger interference. An ideal cube with only Gaussian noise would have a parabolic distribution (as shown by the solid line) since the natural log of a Gaussian distribution, exp(−x2), is −x2. As can be seen in Figure 2.3, the offset from the parabola is greater in the Northern cube than in the Southern cube, suggesting broader distributions of pixel noise values in the North. Thus the ‘outlier’ level can now be characterised by measuring the extent of outliers using the 99-percentile rank of the pixel flux distribution. In actuality, the 1-percentile rank has been used to avoid bias caused by actual Hi sources in this measure. Figure 2.4 shows the skymap of the 1-percentile measures for both Northern HIPASS and Southern HIPASS. It should be noted that the three outer bands of declinations (cube numbers 389 - 538) form the regions observed in Northern HIPASS, and the inner declination bands (cube numbers 1 - 388) represent the observed regions in Southern HIPASS. It is qualitatively obvious from Figure 2.4 that observations through the Galaxy appear much ‘noisier’ than observations away from the Galaxy. It can also be seen that the northernmost declination band in Northern HIPASS is much noisier than the rest of the HIPASS observations. A quantitative version of Figure 2.4 is as shown in Figure 2.5 with three normalised distributions of cube ‘outlier’ levels (characterised by 1-percentile rank). The cube ‘outlier’ levels of Southern HIPASS are represented by the solid line distribution; the dashed and dotted line represent cube ‘outlier’ level distributions of CHAPTER 2. NORTHERN HIPASS 16

Figure 2.6: Completeness of NHICAT as a function of Sp, W50 and Sint.

Northern HIPASS. The cube ‘outlier’ level of the southernmost declination band in Northern HIPASS is shown by the dashed line distribution and the cube ‘outlier’ level of the rest of Northern HIPASS is shown by the dotted line distribution. The median ‘outlier’ level for the solid line and dashed line distributions are at 42 mJy and 43 mJy respectively, while the median ‘outlier’ level for the dotted line distribution (northernmost HIPASS) is 55 mJy. By this measure, the noise level has increased by 31%.

In conclusion, the ‘noisiness’ observed in the Northern HIPASS cube can be described quite accurately using the 1-percentile rank which measures the values of the pixel ﬂux outliers in each cube. As mentioned before, the increase in the 1- percentile rank values for the northernmost declination band in Northern HIPASS is most likely a result of the increase in solar interference from increasingly lower elevation observations.

2.3 Completeness and reliability of NHICAT

The techniques used to calculate the completeness and reliability in NHICAT are the same as the methods used for HICAT. Detailed descriptions of the methods used to analyse the completeness and reliability of HICAT can be found in Zwaan et al. (2004). 17 CHAPTER 2. NORTHERN HIPASS

2.3.1 Completeness of NHICAT

Synthetic sources were inserted into all the Northern HIPASS cubes before NHICAT was constructed in order to measure the completeness of the resulting catalogue. These synthetic sources were then extracted after the parameter ﬁnding process. In total, 774 non-extended synthetic sources were inserted into the Northern HIPASS cubes. These sources represent a random sample of sources ranging in 50% velocity −1 width (W50) from 20 to 650 km s , from 0.02 to 0.13 Jy in peak ﬂux (Sp) and from −1 300 to 10000 km s in heliocentric velocity (vhel). The completeness of recovery can be easily estimated by measuring the fraction of fake sources (recovered in each parameter bin), D:

fake fake D(Sp, W ) = Nrecovered(Sp, W )/N (Sp, W ) (2.2)

However, the completeness as a function of one parameter cannot be effectively measured solely using D. The completeness, C, of NHICAT can be measured via the ratio of the number of detected real sources, N, over the true number of sources in each bin. The true number of sources in each bin can be estimated by N/D. Since the number of sources in each bin differs and the parameter distribution of the fake sources may be different from the distribution of the real galaxies, this method cannot give a very good estimate of the completeness as a function of one parameter. A correction can be made by integrating over another parameter and applying a weighting to account for the different number of sources in each bin. As an example,

C(Sp) can be estimated by integrating over W :

∞ ΣW=0N(Sp, W ) C(Sp) = ∞ (2.3) ΣW=0N(Sp, W )/D(Sp, W )

Likewise, C(W ) and C(Sint) have been calculated by integrating over Sp . Fig- ure 2.6 shows the completeness of NHICAT as functions of Sp, W50 and Sint respectively where the solid lines are error function fits to the datapoint. The error bars on the datapoints were determined using bootstrap re-sampling and show 68 percent confidence levels. The error function fits and the completeness limits at 95% confidence levels are given in Table 2.3. Using the same method as Zwaan et al. (2004), different fitting functions were tested in order to fit the completeness as a function of two parameters. The completeness of NHICAT as a function of Sp(Jy) and Sint (Jy km s−1 ) is also shown in Table 2.3.

The completeness (C(Sp)) limits at 95% confidence level is at 68 mJy for HICAT, while NHICAT’s completeness at the same confidence level is 91 mJy. It appears that to first order, the completeness of Sp scales with the noise level. However, it would CHAPTER 2. NORTHERN HIPASS 18 be too simplistic to assume that the noise levels and source detection scale linearly. It should also be noted that cosmic variance has not been taken into account.

2.3.2 Reliability of NHICAT

The reliability of NHICAT was measured by re-observing a subsample of NHICAT sources in the narrowband mode at the Parkes Telescope. As with the reliability estimation of HICAT (Zwaan et al. 2004), a random sample representing the full range of NHICAT parameters was chosen, while giving preference to NHICAT detections −1 with low Sint and Sp (generally with Sint < 8 Jy km s and Sp < 0.07 Jy).

Narrowband observations

In addition to calculating the reliability of NHICAT, the narrowband observations were also used to remove spurious detections from the catalogue. As such, the less certain source detections (Flag=2) were observed as higher priority. In addition, definite source detections (Flag=1) were chosen randomly by the observer for observation. These narrowband observations took place over four observing sessions from July 2003 to February 2005. A spectral resolution of 1.65 km s−1 at z = 0 was obtained by observing with the narrow-band mode which consisted of 1024 channels over 8 MHz. Using the inner seven beams of the multibeam receiver, a target is centred sequentially in each beam while the other six beams are used to measure the composite off-source spectrum. Integration times are approximately 15 minutes per source. This is the same observing mode used for measuring the reliability of HICAT (Zwaan et al. 2004). The narrowband observations were reduced using the AIPS++ packages livedata and gridzilla (Barnes et al. 2001) as with the narrowband observations of HICAT. The percentage of rejected sources in the NHICAT narrowband observations was greater than for HICAT. A likely explanation is that the signal-to-noise level is less in the north and thus source detection algorithm is less effective than in the south. A total of 857 sources were observed, of which 172 (20%) were rejected, compared with the narrowband observations of HICAT where less than 10% of the observed sources were rejected. Figure 2.7 shows the peak flux distributions of the follow-up observations in both Northern and Southern HIPASS. As can be seen from this figure, more sources were rejected at Speak > 0.05 Jy in the Northern follow-up observations than in the Southern follow-up observations. Also, the percentage of sources with

Speak > 0.05 observed in the Southern follow-up observations are higher than in the Northern observations which may also explain the diﬀerence in the percentage rejected. 19 CHAPTER 2. NORTHERN HIPASS

Figure 2.7: Peak ﬂux, Speak (Jy), distributions of the follow-up observations in Northern HIPASS (left) and in Southern HIPASS (right). The distributions marked with lines on a 45 degree angle represent the population of observed and conﬁrmed detections, while, the distributions marked with horizontal lines represent the population of non-detected sources.

Reliability measure

As explained in Zwaan et al. (2004), the reliability will improve when more uncertain sources are removed after the narrowband follow-up observations. Therefore we start by examining the original catalogue before unconfirmed sources were removed. The rel ratio of the number of confirmed sources (Nconf ) to the number of observed sources rel (Nobs) is defined to be :

rel rel T (Sp, W ) = Nconf (Sp, W )/Nobs(Sp, W ) (2.4)

The reliability R as a function of a single parameter is the mean of T , weighted by the number of sources in each bin. For example the reliability as a function of peak

ﬂux (Sp) is: ∞ ΣW=0N(Sp, W ) × T (Sp, W ) R(Sp) = ∞ (2.5) ΣW=0N(Sp, W )

Similarly, R(W ) and R(Sint) can be measured by integrating over Sp. Since 20% of the observed sources in the initial NHICAT have been rejected and removed from the catalogue, the reliability of the catalogue has been improved by re-observing a subsample of the sources. An estimate of the expected number of real sources has to be made in order to calculate the reliability of NHICAT after the removal of unconﬁrmed sources. The expected number of sources is given by:

Nexpectreal = Nconﬁrmed + (T × Nunobserved) (2.6) CHAPTER 2. NORTHERN HIPASS 20

Figure 2.8: Reliability of NHICAT as a function of Sp, W50 and Sint. The histograms show the Sp, W50 and Sint distributions of NHICAT sources.

Figure 2.9: Example of 3 data products available online at hhttp://hipass.aus-vo.orgi for source HIPASSJ0030+02. Clockwise from top left: Integrated intensity map, Hi spectra and a position-velocity projection intensity map. 21 CHAPTER 2. NORTHERN HIPASS

Table 2.4: Reliability of NHICAT. Parameter Reliability Fit C=0.95 Sp (Jy) erf[58(Sp − 0.012)] 0.036

where Nunobserved is the number of sources that have not been reobserved. T can now be redeﬁned as :

Nexpectreal(Sp, W ) T (Sp, W ) = (2.7) N(Sp, W ) where N(Sp, W ) is the total number of sources in NHICAT excluding the uncon- ﬁrmed sources. Equation 2.5 can now be used to calculate the reliability of the ﬁnal NHICAT.

Figure 2.8 shows the Sp, W50 and Sint distributions of NHICAT sources as well as the reliability of NHICAT as functions of Sp, W50 and Sint where the dashed lines are error function ﬁts to the datapoint. It should be noted that 871 sources, 1002 sources and 764 sources are plotted in the Sp, W50 and Sint distributions, respectively.

This is due to the fact that the rest of the sources have Sp and Sint greater than the parameter ranges given in Figure 2.8. The error bars on the datapoints were determined using bootstrap re-sampling and indicate 68 percent confidence levels. The error function fits and the completeness limits at 95% confidence levels are given in Table 2.4. It is interesting though to note that the 95% level of reliability in NHICAT is lower (in Sp and Sint) than the 95% level of reliability in HICAT. This result can be attributed to the fact that a larger proportion of the original NHICAT have been re-observed in the narrowband follow-up observations.

2.4 DUCHAMP

Duchamp is a completely automated three-dimensional source ﬁnder for Hi data cubes. It is currently being developed by Matthew Whiting at the ATNF. The primary aim of this section is to test Duchamp using the all the Northern HIPASS cubes and compare the result to the published NHICAT sample. The aim of this section is to test and compare the Duchamp ﬁnder using its default settings with NHICAT.

2.4.1 Description of Duchamp

Duchamp uses the a` trous wavelet reconstruction method outlined by Starck & Murtagh (2002) to reconstruct an image cube. The a` trous wavelet algorithm trans- CHAPTER 2. NORTHERN HIPASS 22

forms an image into a set wj for each scale j. The original data at position k (c0,k) is expressed as the sum of all the wavelet coeﬃcients at position k, plus the smoothed array, cJ as (Starck & Murtagh 2002):

J c0,k = cJ,k + Σj=1wj,k (2.8)

To determine the significance of the wavelet coefficients, a multiresolution, M D is defined for a dataset D to be (Starck & Murtagh 2002):

D 1 if wj,k is significant Mj,k =  (2.9) 0 if wj,k is not significant  The coefficients wj,k are compared to a threshold level, tj, where tj = kσj and σj is the noise standard deviation at scale j. The value used for k is usually between 3 and 5 because k = 3 gives the probability of a false detection to be 0.27%. Hence wj,k is considered to be significant when |wj,k| ≥ tj. It should be noted that the noise is assumed to be Gaussian in nature. Subsequently, a hard thresholding filtering method can be used to set all wavelet coefficients which have absolute values lower than the tj to be zero. Equation 2.10 defines the function, F (M, x), which sets all the wavelet coefficients to zero where M = 0 (Starck & Murtagh 2002).

J F (M, x) = cJ,k + Σj=1Mj,kwj,k (2.10)

The reconstructed image results in an enhancement of a ‘true’ source signal while suppressing the random noise in the image. Each Northern HIPASS cube was processed using the settings described in Table 2.5. More information about the procedures and algorithms for source ﬁnding can be found in the Duchamp user manual (Whiting 2006). 23 CHAPTER 2. NORTHERN HIPASS (momentmap.ps) Settings (File.fits) (Logfile.txt) (Resultsfile.txt) (detectionmap.ps) (Spectra.ps) 3. 1 1 0 5. [1:169,1:124,*] 2 1 1 1 3 1.5 ) σ . of (units Duchamp detection in a cube detection a used for the reconstruction detections spectrum for of processing in reconstruction threshold each settings for channels pixels growing used emission the regions reconstruction from used in in Way detection arameter detection filter P spatial trous cube used velocity file for used a specific ) Milky of file the the baseline of nt the i 2.5: S the of filename ( of spectra map remove number use reduce threshold remove number process able threshold results log threshold Map filename T to to to number to to Minimum Cutoff Flag Output Output Cutoff Moment Image Smaller Description Subsection Flag Flag Code Resultant Minimum Detection Flag Flag outFile spectraFile logFile momentMap Parameters imageFile minPix subsection flagATrous snrRecon flagGrowth flagSubsection detectionMap growthCut filterCode snrCut flagMW flagBaseline minChannels CHAPTER 2. NORTHERN HIPASS 24

It should be noted that the noisy, unmosaiced northern edge of the northernmost HIPASS cubes have to be excluded using the ‘subsection’ parameter because the signal-to-noise ratios are too low in these regions for source extraction. Hence, Duchamp will search for sources between the declinations of +2◦ and +25◦. Duchamp (Version 0.9) was used at the time of testing.

2.4.2 Results

We found 3246 sources in Northern HIPASS at +2◦ ≤ δ ≥ +25◦, while only 988 sources have been catalogued in NHICAT within the same region. Figure 2.10 shows the parameter distributions of the sources found by Duchamp and NHICAT. Al- though NHICAT has found more sources at lower SPEAK, Duchamp in general has found more sources with lower total SINT. In general, both Duchamp and NHICAT distributions of source velocity and velocity widths are similar except for large concentrations of Duchamp sources located at specific parameter space (which are not consistent with the findings of NHICAT). It is likely that the significant number of sources found by Duchamp with very narrow velocity widths are not real and resulted from observations of RFI. With respect to the source velocity distributions, the large concentration of sources located at v < 0 km s−1 is the result of confusion with the Galactic plane. This suggests that the default velocity width of the Milky Way needs to be increased in order to remove all the Galactic interference. The concentration of Duchamp detections at v ∼ 3800 to 4000 km s−1 is attributed to interference from the recombination of warm ionised gas in the Milky Way. The likely source of all the large number of detections found at v ∼ 8500 km s−1 is the global positioning system (GPS) L3 beacon which emits at 1381 MHz. Meyer et al. (2004) lists all the possible sources of erroneous source detections within HIPASS. In future analyses using Duchamp, the accuracy and effectiveness can be improved by masking the Milky Way with a wider velocity width as well as removing source detections with very narrow velocity widths. Detections with narrow velocity widths at known interference velocities should also be removed. We matched the Duchamp detections to within 150 and 500 km s−1 of the NHI- CAT sources. Of the 3246 detections found by Duchamp, 553 have matches to NHICAT. However, 52 of these 553 sources are matched to 26 HIPASS sources. Hence, using the default settings of Duchamp, HIPASS sources with large velocity widths appear to be detected as two separate sources using Duchamp. This issue can be resolved in future studies by increasing the allowed velocity width for a source. Figure 2.11 shows the number of detections as a function of the Northern HIPASS 25 CHAPTER 2. NORTHERN HIPASS

Figure 2.10: Distributions of parameters resulting from Duchamp (solid line) and NHICAT (dotted line). Clockwise from top left: a)Peak-normalised distributions of peak ﬂux densities; b)Peak- normalised distributions of total integrated ﬂux; c) Distributions of source velocities; d) Distributions of velocity widths. CHAPTER 2. NORTHERN HIPASS 26

Figure 2.11: Distributions of the number of sources found per cube in Northern HIPASS. The red represents the NHICAT distribution and the black represents the results from Duchamp. The dotted line divides the northern-most cubes (cube number ≥ 491) from the rest of the Northern HIPASS cubes.

cube number. As expected, the decrease in signal-to-noise increases the number of erroneous source detections by Duchamp.

For the 501 sources common to Duchamp and NHICAT, Figure 2.12 shows the angular separation between the source position deduced by the diﬀerent ﬁnder algorithms. Most sources are matched to positional separations of less than 20; however, detections which appear to have match separations greater than 50are either very extended sources or are not matches and are resultant from the liberal match criteria.

Figure 2.13 compares the parameter values derived from Duchamp to the same parameters published in NHICAT for the 501 matched detections. The source velocities follow a very tight correlation, whereas Duchamp measures greater SPEAK and lower SINT than the corresponding NHICAT values at low NHICAT ﬂuxes. The large scatter in the Duchamp SINT values at low NHICAT SINT is most likely due to the parameter settings of the accepted source velocity width. Likewise, the scatter in the velocity width plot is most likely an eﬀect of the current default parameter settings of Duchamp. The distribution of the low Duchamp SINT values are also shown in Figure 2.10.

The distribution of Duchamp detections with no NHICAT matches is as shown in Figure 2.14. Figure 2.15 presents the parameter distributions of all the Duchamp sources with no NHICAT counterparts. 27 CHAPTER 2. NORTHERN HIPASS

Figure 2.12: Angular separation distribution of the 501 matched detections between NHICAT and Duchamp.

Figure 2.13: Parameter comparisons between NHICAT and the results from Duchamp for the matched detections. Clockwise from top left: a)Peak ﬂux densities; b)Total integrated ﬂux; c) Source velocities; d) Velocity widths. The dotted line in each plot shows the line of one-to-one correlation. CHAPTER 2. NORTHERN HIPASS 28

Figure 2.14: Number of Duchamp sources with no NHICAT matches as a function of the cube number.

Figure 2.15: Distribution of source parameters for Duchamp sources with no NHICAT matches. Clockwise from top left: a) Peak ﬂux densities: the dotted line marks the 95% completeness level of NHICAT; b) Total integrated ﬂux: the dotted line marks the 95% completeness level of NHICAT; c) Source velocities; d) Velocity widths. 29 CHAPTER 2. NORTHERN HIPASS

2.5 Summary

In the northern extension of HIPASS, which covers the region between declinations +2◦ < δ < +25◦300, 1001 extragalactic sources were found and catalogued in NHI- CAT. In addition an extra source found with δ slightly less than +2◦ (which was not detected in HICAT) has also been included into NHICAT. NHICAT has been found to be 95% complete at peak flux 95 mJy and at an integrated flux 15 Jy km s−1 . The reliability of the subset of re-observed sources is 100% and the remainder is approximately 80% reliable. The entire catalogue and source spectra is made publicly-available online at hhttp://hipass.aus-vo.orgi. The catalogue parameters presented in the online archive are the same 33 parameters detailed in Table 4 of Meyer et al. (2004). An excerpt of the online catalogue is shown in Table 3.1. The online archive also contains the detection spectra and integrated intensity maps in various projections. Examples of these data products are shown in Figure 2.9. In addition to the Aus-VO archive, the catalogue and spectra will also be submitted to the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED). We also tested the new Duchamp source finder. Using the default settings, only ∼ 56% of the NHICAT sources were recovered from a resultant sample 3.3 times the number of sources in NHICAT. We conclude that the Duchamp finder will produce improved results if we change the default parameter settings. However, a combination of an automated finder and an interactive process will still be more effective at finding sources if the number of sources are of similar magnitude to the number of sources within HIPASS. CHAPTER 2. NORTHERN HIPASS 30 ) ) 1 1 ) − − 0 s s ( ) y km J km 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 ( ( size ( p 0.053 0.945 0.112 0.069 0.060 0.090 0.037 0.088 321.3 255.4 -324.4 2989.5 4055.5 5129.9 1490.0 1516.0 5362.3 1762.8 4402.7 1696.0 1104.5 2844.4 6730.6 3036.2 x S eclo Bo mom sp v v tric. ) ) ) 1 1 ) 1 cen 1 − − − s s − s s km km km helio 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 ( ( km ( 94.9 81.0 109.9 248.0 434.8 293.6 0.000 307.0 765.3 ( 1843.3 4542.0 1750.0 5590.2 6924.2 1167.3 3212.5 3025.0 2989.1 4336.6 1505.4 1023.3 3634.9 -9999.0 -9999.0 hi min 20 and min 20 v v Sigma W cz ) ) 1 ) 1 are − 1 − s s − s e km km ( km ( 390 392 392 395 389 395 394 395 cities 94.9 81.0 Cub 109.9 248.0 434.8 293.6 0.000 307.0 ( 1685.4 4242.8 1618.9 5111.8 6532.9 1047.8 2864.7 2668.9 5347.5 2848.4 1764.0 4390.4 1696.6 1103.6 3039.7 -9999.0 elo lo max 20 max 20 v v v W the ) ) ) 1 1 1 all − − − s (Jy) s s e km km 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 km ( ( that ( 80.6 73.0 58.6 94.6 73.5 93.4 Cub 235.8 137.5 1737.9 4377.6 1668.9 5336.2 6705.0 1079.7 3009.8 2816.4 5509.0 2793.6 1763.9 4454.8 1695.8 6787.8 1104.7 2952.5 0.01222 0.01362 0.01362 0.01440 0.01209 0.01440 0.01380 0.01440 b Extended min 50 min 50 cm RMS v v W Note T. ) ) 1 ) 1 − 1 − s s − (Jy) s km km 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ( km NHICA ( Clip 80.6 73.0 58.6 225.9 361.8 349.4 264.4 242.6 762.0 376.0 ( 0.0073 0.0058 0.0060 0.0066 0.0049 0.0063 0.0543 0.0069 1746.6 4386.3 1677.6 5344.9 6713.7 1088.4 3018.5 2825.0 2988.9 4340.8 1503.8 3645.8 1024.6 6731.0 Confused lg max 50 max 50 v RMS v W from ) 1 ) − 1 s − s Excerpt km ( km (Jy) ( w-up 2.6: ollo gsr mask 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0.0080 RMS v v 0.0070 0.0065 0.0072 0.0065 0.0075 0.2363 0.0075 1772.0 1685,1843 4411.8 4243,4542 1703.0 1619,1750 5370.3 5112,5590 6739.1 6533,6924 1113.8 1048,1167 3043.9 2865,3212 2850.4 2669,3025 Dec F 02:56:20 02:40:37 02:18:58 02:05:46 02:45:38 02:20:42 02:08:27 02:57:22 ) able ) 1 1 T − ) s − 1 s − s km t km ( y km J hi ( ( ec t p in S sp 9.5 1 1 9.0 1 1744.6 3221.2 4478.3 5941.5 13.5 S Commen v v 1 1 1677.9 3127.1 3.5 1 5514.5 6973.1 1 6833.6 8319.0 9.2 1 17.1 1105.4 2536.0 55.6 16.9 2937.1 4603.0 2762.3 4384.8 RA 01:42:28.4 00:33:44.3 01:50:15.2 00:30:00.6 02:59:48.2 02:53:48.6 02:49:06.4 02:54:05.6 ASSJ0142+02 ASSJ0033+02 ASSJ0150+02 ASSJ0030+02 ASSJ0259+02 ASSJ0253+02 ASSJ0249+02 ASSJ0254+02 HIP HIP HIP Name HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP CHAPTER 3

Northern HIPASS optical counterpart catalogue

3.1 Introduction

Since the dawn of time (or in our case, the late 1970s), astronomers have been speculating and debating over the existence of dark galaxies. Primordial gas clouds are postulated to exist in the Local Universe due to the slow collapse of material about small density perturbations present in the matter density field (after the epoch of recombination) which have not reached the threshold density needed to form stars (Giovanelli & Haynes 1989). N-body simulations of galaxy formation using the Cold Dark Matter cosmological model (Klypin et al. 1999; Moore et al. 1999) found a significant number of small dark matter halos. Since dark matter halos exist around most galaxies, small dark matter haloes are assumed to exist around dwarf galaxies. However, current observations find the number of dwarf galaxies to be significantly less than the predicted number of small dark matter halos. Without modifying the large-scale properties of these models, it may be possible for small dark matter halos to exist and not have been observed if star formation had been suppressed in these dark halos. Two possibilities exist: (i) the halos may contain gas but star formation is suppressed; (ii) the halos do not contain gas. Current reionisation models of the Universe predict the latter as they find that almost all of the gas from 95% of the 8 −1 low-mass systems (Mvirial ≤ 10 M or vcirc ≤ 20 km s ) appears to have been photoevaporated during the epoch of reionisation (Susa & Umemura 2004). Schneider (1996) suggested that Hi surveys can be used to probe the regions of the Local Universe where stars have not formed since most surveys conducted with

31 CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT 32 optical telescopes are biased against objects such as low surface brightness (LSB) galaxies and the proposed dark galaxies. There are also numerous objects such as NGC 2915, a small blue compact dwarf galaxy in optical wavelengths, with an enor- mous envelope of Hi extending beyond 5 Holmberg radii (Meurer et al. 1996). Hence, blind all-sky Hi surveys (i.e. HIPASS) may reveal a large undiscovered population of gas-rich LSB galaxies (Disney 1976) as well as other gas-rich dwarf galaxies. The Hi Parkes All-Sky Survey (HIPASS) is the largest blind Hi survey, covering 71% of the total sky using the Parkes Radio Telescope1. Northern HIPASS surveys the entire sky within the declination range +2◦ < δ < +25.5◦, whereas Southern HIPASS covers the entire Southern sky south of a declination of +2◦. The Northern HIPASS catalogue (NHICAT; Wong et al. 2006c) and the Southern HIPASS catalogue (HICAT; Meyer et al. 2004) detected 1002 and 4315 galaxies respectively, based solely on the Hi content. Here, we present the Northern HIPASS optical and near-IR catalogue (NOIRCAT)—a catalogue of optical and near-infrared counterparts to the Hi galaxies in NHICAT. NOIRCAT is analogous to the HIPASS Optical Catalogue (HOPCAT; Doyle et al. 2005) which is a catalogue of optical counterparts for HICAT. There are many theoretical arguments for (Davies et al. 2006; Verde et al. 2002) and against (Taylor & Webster 2005) the existence of dark galaxies which will be further discussed in Section 3. An object argued to be a dark galaxy, VIRGOHI21 (Minchin et al. 2005), is shrouded with controversy. Minchin et al. (2005) reported VIRGOHI21 to be the first dark galaxy discovered, while Bekki et al. (2005) argued that VIRGOHI21 is likely to be a tidal remnant. To avoid confusion, we define a dark galaxy to be an optically dark, isolated Hi source (with no neighbouring galaxies and no stars). Prior to the discovery of VIRGOHI21, dark galaxy candidates were always proven otherwise. These “dark” galaxies were either high velocity clouds (Kilborn et al. 2000), gas clouds associated with optical galaxies (Ryder et al. 2001; Schneider et al. 1983) or optically-faint LSB galaxies (e.g. Salzer et al. 1991). For example, the isolated Hi cloud (also dubbed a protogalaxy) found by Giovanelli & Haynes (1989) was later found to be associated with a pair of LSB dwarf irregular galaxies (Impey et al. 1990). The most recent unconfirmed dark galaxy candidate is GEMS N3783 2, an isolated region of Hi gas with no visible optical counterpart located within the NGC 3783 galaxy group (Kilborn et al. 2006). Kilborn et al. (2006) concluded that GEMS N3783 2 was formed during the interaction of NGC 3706 and ESO 378-G003. However, the projected separation of GEMS N3783 2 and ESO 378-G003 is 450 kpc with no obvious Hi bridge or tail structures. Hence deeper Hi observations are needed

1The Parkes telescope is part of the Australia Telescope which is funded by the Commonwealth of Australia for operation as a National Facility managed by CSIRO. 33 CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT

Table 3.1: Deﬁnition of ﬂags in the processing of NOIRCAT.

Flag Deﬁnition 1 Single optical velocity match with 2MASS counterpart 2 Single optical velocity match without 2MASS counterpart 3 Multiple optical velocity matches where all matches also have 2MASS counterpart 4 Multiple optical velocity matches where 1 or more matches are without 2MASS counterpart 5a No optical velocity match but with higher angular resolution Hi velocity match 5b No velocity match but positional matches available to NED galaxies 5c No velocity or positional matches to any galaxies listed in NED

to conﬁrm and uncover any further Hi remaining in this system. Previous blind HI surveys, including HIPASS, have not found any evidence for the existence of dark galaxies. Even though NOIRCAT’s main aim is to provide accompanying optical/near-infrared data for NHICAT, NOIRCAT will also be able to provide an independent search for dark galaxies. Section 3.2 describes the construction of NOIRCAT as well as the resulting properties of NOIRCAT. Discussion of the scientiﬁc implications can be found in Section 3.3.

3.2 NOIRCAT

This section describes the method used to produce NOIRCAT and the properties of NOIRCAT. In order to probe the question of the existence of dark galaxies, sources with no optical velocity matches within 7.50 of the HIPASS centre will be further analysed in Section 3.2.3.

3.2.1 The construction of NOIRCAT

There have been several methods with which catalogues of optical counterparts (for HIPASS samples) have been produced. Both Kilborn et al. (2002) and Ryan-Weber et al. (2002) checked NED2 for known optical counterparts to each of the Hi sources in the South Celestial Cap (SCC) sample and the HIPASS Bright Galaxy Catalogue (BGC; Koribalski et al. 2004a), respectively. On the other hand, HOPCAT was produced using an automated visual interactive program which displays SExtractor (Bertin & Arnouts 1996) ellipses representing areas within the SUPERCOSMOS ﬁelds which are above the sky intensity as well as velocities derived from both 6dF

2The NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) is operated by the Jet Propulsion Labora- tory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT 34

Figure 3.1: Screenshot of an example field window used during the interactive inspection. The field centre is of HIPASSJ0419+02. The circle shows the 7.50 radius from the HIPASS centre which is in the centre of the field. All matches found in NED are marked by a ‘+’ and a number corresponding to an optical source listed in the text window. 35 CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT and NED. The automated visual display program was then used by three people to interactively compile HOPCAT. In HOPCAT, an optical match is proposed when the HIPASS velocity is within 400 km s−1 of the velocity derived from NED/6dF and the positional match is within the 150 × 150 SUPERCOSMOS field. The large Southern sky surveys used to generate HOPCAT, such as 6dF and SUPERCOSMOS, are not available for the construction of NOIRCAT. Northern analogues of 6dF and SUPERCOSMOS do not exist – most large, recent optical surveys such as SDSS do not cover the entire Northern sky. Hence, NED is used as our source catalogue for optically matching the Northern HIPASS detections. It should be noted that we used the October 2006 version of NED. To improve optical detection limits, we also used the 2MASS near-infrared catalogue. For NOIRCAT, the primary method for determining the optical/near-infrared matches was by “interactive” cataloguing, after an automated search of the NED and 2MASS catalogues. The automated search identified all the NED and 2MASS sources within 7.50 and 400 km s−1 of each NHICAT source. These preliminary search criterions were intended to be simple, in order to include as many galaxies with large extended Hi morphologies as possible. These parameters are also consistent with HOPCAT’s matching criteria. The preliminary matches were then plotted with a ‘+’ and a number onto an optical field centred on the corresponding HIPASS source centre. Figure 3.1 shows an example of the graphics window shown for HIPASSJ0419+02 during this interactive process. Each HIPASS field was then displayed, inspected and graded using the automated interactive process. Table 3.1 shows the five main categories into which each source was sorted. A list of properties resulting from the automated search was also generated during the visual inspection. The list of properties included the HIPASS velocity, velocity width, name, optical velocities (and errors) as well as the availability of 2MASS magnitudes for each of the NED sources found. We obtained optical fields for all the NHICAT sources from the Second Palomar Sky Survey (POSSII; Reid et al. 1991) in the red band. During the interactive process, the appropriate optical matches and match category are determined for each HIPASS source. The four rules used for determining a match are:

1. Optical sources must be within 7.50 of the HIPASS centre.

2. Where there are multiple source names referring to the same source (e.g. SDSS and APM nomenclatures), the non-SDSS/APM reference is preferred.

3. Optical velocity matches are made when the published optical velocity (including velocity uncertainties) is consistent to within 100 km s−1 of the HIPASS CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT 36

Table 3.2: Number of HIPASS sources in each ﬂag category.

Flag Number of HIPASS sources 1 414 2 126 3 63 4 52 5a 87 5b 219 5c 41

velocity proﬁle.

4. For optical velocities without published errors in NED, a match is recorded when the published velocity is within 150 km s−1 of the HIPASS velocity proﬁle.

To be consistent with previous HIPASS optical counterpart catalogues (Doyle et al. 2005; Ryan-Weber et al. 2002), we chose 7.50 to be the maximum angular separation between a HIPASS source centre and potential optical match. Although the predicted position accuracy is ∼30, the position accuracy also depends on the Hi peak ﬂux density, the source extent and any asymmetries or confusion intrinsic to the source (Barnes et al. 2001). Previous catalogues have also found match separations greater than 50. Other reasons for positional matches beyond ∼30 will be further discussed in Section 3. The interactive cataloguing was undertaken by two independent researchers (O. Ivy Wong and Meryl Waugh). It should be noted that, unlike HOPCAT, all multiple optical matches (Flag 3 or 4) will be listed in NOIRCAT and no attempt has been made to choose between possible matches. This discrimination can only be made with high resolution Hi imaging.

3.2.2 Properties of NOIRCAT

We found that 655 of 1002 NHICAT sources could be matched with previously- catalogued galaxies for which an optical velocity was available (Flags 1 to 4). Of these 655 sources, 82% are matches to single galaxies and 73% have 2MASS observations in the J, H and K magnitudes. Table 3.2 summarises the distribution of NHICAT sources over the seven match categories. A full description of NOIRCAT’s parameters can be found in Table 3.3. Table 3.4 presents a table of example sources from NOIRCAT. 37 CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT source hed matc the air) P and tre Galaxy cen , Galaxy source ) ASS (e.g. source e T. MAX ) 50 HIP yp 2MASS 2MASS CA source v t 2MASS ( h y the y MAX optical 50 NOIR from from cit 2MASS 2MASS cit from W 2MASS of source (J2000) ( sources matc een of source optical elo elo w T v v of (J2000) of et from error from error from error source b width optical tric (J2000) morphology optical y category of ascension NHICA optical cen description of h cit t (J2000) optical NED for elo the helio v righ declination of error magnitude magnitude magnitude magnitude matc magnitude magnitude separation of name classiﬁcation y y ascension arameter t cit cit P ASS ASS ASS ASS -band -band -band -band elo elo -band -band HIP HIP V V Optical H K J NED’s Published Names HIP Reference J H K Righ HIP Declination Source Spatial Description 3.3: able 1 1 1 1 utes T − − − − s s s s N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A h:m:s h:m:s d:m:s d:m:s Units km km km km magnitude magnitude magnitude magnitude magnitude magnitude arcmin e name ASS source ASS ASS optical ASS yp t morph HIP optical HIP optical HIP optical err source ASS HIP err err err el el el el arameter RA RA HIP Flag Optical W Dec V Dec V V Separation H K K J J V H NED NED P er b Num 6 2 8 1 7 5 3 4 9 14 15 10 18 20 21 16 17 13 19 12 11 Column CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT 38 Hi previous from hes matc source optical y el C3.9.C...0000d 00:06:38.3 00:03:58.9 00:01:28.4 00:03:43.3 00:04:08.8 00:03:48.8 00:03:14.9 00:02:05.4 00:06:49.5 00:04:28.8 V RA cit elo 1990ApJS...72..245S 1990ApJS...72..245S 1990ApJS...72..245S v 1991R 1999ApJS..121..287H 1999ApJS..121..287H 1999ApJS..121..287H 1999ApJS..121..287H 1999ApJS..121..287H with source 7817 7818 7816 7814 optical err – – – – 6 4 4 1 1 5 1 5 4 5377 sources 0.008 0.024 0.034 0.060 0.131 0.069 K err 5 IC NGC NGC NGC NGC UGC00047 UGC12910 UGC00017 UGC00052 UGC00027 el V Optical 1999ApJS..121..287H Category – – – – 2 5 5 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 K only optical 878 873 Flag 1050 3118 6201 5241 2310 3949 1050 8.421 7.084 9.525 10.405 12.265 11.079 el V that c ASS noted c err morph – – – – 78 48 e Im Sm 101 211 221 107 199 182 457 109 Scd Scd Sb Sdm 5257 HIP 0.007 0.023 0.030 0.053 0.120 0.066 H SAb b SB(r)m SA(S)ab W NED should e ASS It yp t – – – – H 875 874 SAc T. HIP 5255 3112 2162 3957 6193 5241 1047 1047 8.734 7.361 9.863 10.772 12.749 11.499 Galaxy Galaxy Galaxy Galaxy Galaxy Galaxy Galaxy Galaxy Galaxy el NED CA V NOIR ASS of err – – – – 6.4 3.8 1.6 2.4 0.7 4.8 0.8 5.3 3.8 HIP J 0.006 0.020 0.037 0.076 0.046 0.024 Galaxy 08:37:26 05:50:00 17:20:22 20:49:39 05:18:47 15:11:59 07:21:47 07:29:02 16:08:51 16:35:13 Separation Dec sources 10 1.0 ASS – – – – J ﬁrst optical HIP 9.489 8.089 11.361 13.275 12.117 10.561 +20:45:08 +17:17:03 +05:50:50 +07:22:46 +16:35:25 +16:08:44 +07:28:43 +05:23:22 +15:13:06 00:06:45.7 00:04:34.4 00:06:30.3 00:04:18.1 00:01:39.0 00:03:58.4 00:04:17.6 00:03:46.1 00:02:54.9 00:02:08.4 the Dec RA +08:37:43 of listed. Example are name ASSJ0006+08 ASSJ0004+05 ASSJ0006+17 ASSJ0004+20 ASSJ0002+16b ASS ASSJ0001+05 ASSJ0003+15 ASSJ0004+07 ASSJ0002+16a ASSJ0003+07 3.4: ations HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP able T observ 39 CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT

Figure 3.2: HIPASS integrated flux (SINT) as a function of 2MASS J, H and K flux densities for the 414 Flag 1 sources. The dotted line in each plot shows the HIPASS SINT limit for a detection that is five times the RMS.

To examine the properties of these matched galaxies, we use the 2MASS J, H and K magnitudes instead of the optical magnitudes because the 2MASS catalogue is the best available optical/NIR catalogue and has the best Northern sky coverage corresponding to the sky coverage of Northern HIPASS. The NIR wavelengths are also less sensitive to the dust obscuration in the Galactic plane. The NIR apparent magnitudes can be used as stellar mass indicators. The NIR observations are better tracers of mass distribution because NIR emission is derived primarily from cooler giant and dwarf stars (instead of hot young stars) which account for a major fraction of the bolometric luminosity of a galaxy. Using the NIR observations, we explore the relationships between the Hi content of HIPASS galaxies and their inferred stellar content.

Figure 3.2 shows the Hi integrated flux (SINT) of Flag 1 sources as a function of the J, H and K flux densities. The 5σ peak brightness of Northern HIPASS is −1 0.07 Jy beam . Likewise, the 2MASS observation limits are at log10(J) = −19.3 W −2 −1 −2 −1 cm µm , log10(J) = −19.5 W cm µm and log10(K) = −19.7 for a SNR = 5 detection in the J, H and K bands, respectively. We find that Figure 3.2 agrees with previous work (e.g. Hanish et al. 2006) which found that galaxies with more gas correspond to galaxies with more stars. Bell et al. (2003) found a correlation between the stellar mass-to-light ratios and the colours of galaxies from the 2MASS/SDSS passbands. Using the NIR colours from the publicly available 2MASS catalogue, we can distinguish between the galaxies which consist mainly of young stars, from the galaxies with larger fractions of older giants. Figure 3.3 shows the J − K colours as a function of MHI. Hubble Flow CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT 40

Figure 3.3: J − K colour as a function of Hi mass for the 414 Flag 1 sources. The dotted lines show the best robust linear ﬁt to the data.

Table 3.5: Galactic extinction values and optical colours for HIPASSJ0912+09 and HIPASSJ1958+02.

HIPASS name AB E(B − V ) B − R HIPASSJ0912+09 0.335 0.078 0.2 HIPASSJ1958+02 0.769 0.178 3.1

−1 −1 distances assuming, H◦ = 73 km s Mpc , are used to determine the Hi mass. Most of the Flag 1 sources appear to have colours concentrated around J − K = 1, and we found the best linear ﬁt to be J − K = 0.09log(MHI) + 0.08. However, the correlation is very weak. There are two extremely red galaxies evident in Figure 3.3 with high Hi gas content. The galaxy HIPASSJ0912+09 (UGC4845; marked as ‘A’ in Figure 3.3) is a small SBd galaxy at a distance of 33.4 Mpc, while the galaxy HIPASSJ1958+02 (UGC11501; marked as ‘B’ in Figure 3.3) is a faint face-on disk galaxy at a distance of 102.0 Mpc, which has an observed companion and a tidal stream. Figure 3.4 shows the POSS II ﬁelds and Hi spectra from HIPASS of HIPASSJ0912+09 and HIPASSJ1958+02. An examination of the Galactic extinction values in the direction of these two galaxies also do not account for the amount of reddening observed. Table 3.5 lists the Galactic extinction values derived from Schlegel et al. (1998) for each galaxy. The

Hi mass-to-light ratios (MHI/LB) for both galaxies were derived using the B-band 41 CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT

Figure 3.4: The 50 by 50 optical images and the HIPASS Hi spectrum is shown on the left and right column, respectively. The top row shows HIPASSJ0912+09, while HIPASSJ1958+02 is shown on the bottom row. The galaxies are circled in the POSS II images.

Figure 3.5: J − K colour as a function of Hi mass for the 414 Flag 1 sources. The dotted lines show the best robust linear ﬁt to the data. CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT 42

magnitudes obtained from NED. We determined MHI/LB to be 10.7 M / L and 1.9

M / L for HIPASSJ0912+09 and HIPASSJ1958+02, respectively. Apart from the NIR colours and the high mass-to-light ratios, these two galaxies appear to be fairly different from each other. Further examination of the optical and 2MASS images revealed that these two galaxies are in close proximity (in terms of celestial coordinates) to several Galactic stars. To rule out stellar contamination as the source of our NIR colours, we enlisted the help of Thomas Jarrett3 to re- process the 2MASS fields of these two objects. Unfortunately, our previous 2MASS colours were due to inaccurate masking of the stars around our target galaxies. Jarrett re-reduced the data and advised that incorrect masking of the stars around our target galaxies had resulted in incorrect colours in the 2MASS catalogue. The corrected J −K colours of HIPASS0912+09 and HIPASS1958+02 are 1.092 (0.105) and 0.827 (0.052), respectively. An updated version of Figure 3.3 can be found in Figure 3.5. As the new J − K colours lie directly on the line-of-best-fit (shown in Figure 3.5), we can infer that most of the scatter from this relation may be due to the uncertainties from the 2MASS automated processing pipeline. It is interesting to note that independent NIR observations of HIPASSJ0912+02 by Pérez et al. (2005) found J − K = 2.61 0.04, which gives an indication of the large uncertainties involved when extracting photometric magnitudes from a crowded field. Near-infrared studies of normal non-interacting galaxies with nuclei dominated by older stars found that such galaxies span a very narrow window in the J − H versus H − K colour-colour diagram (Geller et al. 2006; Giuricin et al. 1993). Geller et al. (2006) currently contains the largest sample of NIR colours of galaxy pairs. The NIR properties of these interacting galaxies were compared to the NIR properties of normal galaxy population from the Nearby Field Galaxy Sample (NFGS; Jansen et al. 2000a,b). The distribution of J − H and H − K colours were found to be broader for interacting galaxies than for average field galaxies. Geller et al. (2006) interpreted this result as evidence for bursts of star formation (which shifts the NIR colours blueward) and for dust-reddening/extinction and/or radiation from hot dust (which in turn results in redder colours). Radiation from hot dust is thought to be responsible for the reddest H − K colours. Since these previous NIR studies are all based on optically-selected samples, our Hi-selected sample of galaxies will provide an interesting comparison. Figure 3.6 shows a NIR colour-colour plot of the same sources as in Figure 3.5. The points from our dataset are plotted in grey where the black contours provide the standard deviation (1-σ = 3.75) of the two-dimensional NIR colour distribution (bin size=0.1)

3Support scientist for the NASA-Two Micron All Sky Survey as well as the ﬁrst author of the 2MASS extended source catalogue (Jarrett et al. 2000). 43 CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT

Figure 3.6: J − H versus H − K colour-colour diagram for the 414 Flag 1 sources (in grey). The black contours provide the 1-σ contour of the two-dimensional NIR colour distribution of our sample. The black cross marks the normal range of NIR colours (indicated by the error bars) for galaxies with nuclei dominated by an older stellar population . The black arrows indicate the shift in direction of a galaxy’s NIR colours due to factors such as starburst events, gaseous emission from ionised regions, thermal re-radiation of hot dust and reddening (Geller et al. 2006).

of our sample. Also plotted on Figure 3.6 is a black cross indicating the range of NIR colours for normal galaxies (Geller et al. 2006; Giuricin et al. 1993). The region enclosed by the dotted-lines mark the range of NIR colours found from the NFGS used by Geller et al. (2006) as the benchmark of a normal field galaxy sample. A simple model was proposed by Geller et al. (2006) to explain qualitatively the distribution of colours observed between the sample of galaxy pairs and the NFGS sample. Their model explained that: (i) dust extinction will redden the intrinsic colour of the galaxies, (ii) emission from bursts of star formation will shift the NIR colours blueward, (iii) re-radiation from hot dust will in general redden the NIR colours, particularly the H − K colours, and (iv) the emission from regions with ionised gas shifts the J − H colours blueward and the H − K colours redward. These effects are summed up in Figure 3.6 as vector arrows extending away from the median NIR colour of the normal field galaxies. As can be seen from Figure 3.6, our dataset is not entirely concentrated within CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT 44 the NIR colour region for the normal galaxies found by Geller et al. (2006) and Giuricin et al. (1993). Although the scatter of NIR colours from our sample could be due to the uncertainties from the 2MASS magnitudes, the general distribution of our sample is more widespread. In total, 143 of the 414 galaxies (35%) have NIR colours outside the region bounded by the dotted lines in Figure 3.6. Of these outlying galaxies, 21 (14%) have J − H < 0.5 and H − K < 0.5 which suggests the existence of galaxies within our Hi-selected sample that exhibit the effects of gaseous ionising regions which are under-represented by the optically-based NFGS sample. Our 1- σ contour also suggests that a large proportion of our sample is experiencing the effects of star formation (or some other effect which may be responsible for shifting the H − K colours bluewards) as suggested by the large number (62) of sources with H − K < 0.1.

3.2.3 The search for dark galaxies

To investigate the possible existence of dark galaxies in NOIRCAT, we further analyse the Northern HIPASS detections with no optical velocity matches, (Flag 5) which account for 35% of NOIRCAT. In addition to optical velocity matches, identification of the Flag 5 sources is possible using velocities from previous higher-resolution Hi surveys. Analogous to the determination of optical velocity matches (as described in subsection 2.1), we found all NED sources with positional matches and higher angular resolution Hi velocity matches with the Flag 5 NOIRCAT sources. Using the same interactive software as before (Section 2.1), we classify 87 optically-visible galaxies found with matching Hi velocities (from higher resolution observations) as Flag 5a sources (see Table 3.1). Of the remaining 260 Flag 5 sources, 219 had one or more positional matches with galaxies listed in NED (see Appendix A). We identified these sources to be Flag 5b sources, and the rest of the sources (with no matches within 7.50 to galaxies in NED) were catalogued as Flag 5c sources. We found 25 Flag 5c sources with possible positional matches to galaxies observed in the POSSII/DSS fields but not listed in NED (see Table 3.6). Without velocity confirmation, these matches are not definitive, but do provide a possible identification which could be confirmed with follow-up optical or higher resolution Hi observations. High resolution Hi observations will help pinpoint the exact location of the Hi source and within limits, prove one way or another if the source is a dark galaxy. 45 CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT ) ◦ ( Latitude 4.04 0.27 1.79 -0.26 -1.05 49.73 70.12 56.01 43.32 19.75 61.23 25.74 79.04 57.49 10.18 29.33 21.58 -52.70 -41.33 -20.03 -20.72 -40.97 -21.33 -31.36 -54.24 NED. in Galactic listed ) 1 − not s km ( 93.1 87.6 38.3 78.5 47.9 59.6 52.1 35.9 94.5 81.0 60.4 64.7 115.0 136.8 103.4 169.0 253.6 120.9 336.1 176.7 109.0 150.3 252.8 141.2 124.1 sources ASS to HIP hes W ) matc 1 − s km ( probable 677.7 955.2 3273.2 7152.4 4542.4 3548.8 4491.4 2811.9 1004.6 3111.1 2087.0 1209.4 5121.2 2726.3 3934.7 5899.2 1556.4 2346.0 3148.2 1865.6 3974.9 3630.8 4132.7 1978.0 9972.0 ASS with HIP el V found sources (J2000) 5b ASS 06:47:59 19:51:31 11:53:13 03:10:47 05:50:20 15:47:44 14:05:44 12:26:29 24:10:50 04:40:51 20:14:24 08:01:23 14:19:57 18:42:50 14:15:07 14:43:10 10:59:36 09:21:00 05:14:54 18:29:16 21:00:08 03:21:04 10:03:19 08:37:51 12:13:37 Flag HIP 25 Dec of erties (J2000) prop T ASS 23:47:25.0 13:27:14.3 19:17:24.0 07:03:06.6 15:15:18.5 23:16:54.1 19:19:44.4 11:54:16.0 19:49:58.4 07:27:39.6 10:25:29.9 15:51:41.2 04:43:54.9 19:22:50.1 08:35:15.8 23:06:07.3 07:58:12.7 19:37:31.1 08:36:37.5 04:26:41.1 04:13:53.3 08:21:45.9 03:58:36.1 00:50:06.4 10:48:00.8 HIP NHICA RA 3.6: able T name ASSJ2347+06 ASSJ1327+19 ASSJ1048+12a ASSJ1917+11 ASSJ0703+03 ASSJ1515+05 ASSJ2316+15 ASSJ0821+03b ASSJ1919+14 ASSJ1154+12 ASSJ1949+24 ASSJ0727+04 ASSJ1025+20 ASSJ1551+08 ASSJ0443+14 ASSJ1922+18 ASSJ0835+14 ASSJ2306+14 ASSJ0758+10 ASSJ1937+09 ASSJ0836+05 ASSJ0426+18 ASSJ0413+21 ASSJ0358+10 ASS ASSJ0050+08 HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT 46

Table 3.7: NHICAT properties of the 16 Flag 5c sources without optical counterparts.

−1 −1 HIPASS name RA (J2000) Dec (J2000) VelHEL ( km s ) W ( km s ) Gal Lat (deg) HIPASSJ0542+11 05:42:43.6 11:27:29 887.3 109.4 -9.61 HIPASSJ0608+13 06:08:35.7 13:06:50 5650.8 66.2 -3.30 HIPASSJ0636+04 06:36:48.2 04:02:12 3526.1 191.0 -1.41 HIPASSJ0843+21† 08:43:14.6 21:29:23 3527.6 146.1 33.72 HIPASSJ1853+09 18:53:58.0 09:51:52 4731.7 331.9 3.92 HIPASSJ1900+13 19:00:02.1 13:30:32 4724.8 96.7 4.25 HIPASSJ1901+06 19:01:35.4 06:52:00 2942.2 79.8 0.88 HIPASSJ1914+10 19:14:58.4 10:17:37 654.7 81.6 -0.47 HIPASSJ1919+18 19:19:53.7 18:47:37 4830.6 118.8 2.44 HIPASSJ1921+14 19:21:35.8 14:54:15 4080.3 81.7 0.25 HIPASSJ1922+08 19:22:10.4 08:13:21 3119.8 112.5 -3.01 HIPASSJ1927+20 19:27:31.5 20:13:41 7141.0 72.4 1.53 HIPASSJ1929+08 19:29:09.1 08:06:27 3092.7 225.6 -4.59 HIPASSJ1937+23 19:37:06.8 23:15:34 7148.5 161.7 1.04 HIPASSJ1942+18 19:42:45.1 18:40:58 4473.0 127.0 -2.36 HIPASSJ1950+18a 19:50:40.8 18:20:05 4879.6 152.2 -4.16

† This source has a foreground star saturating its optical ﬁeld.

The remaining 16 Flag 5c sources for which there were no optically-visible galaxies in the POSSII fields are listed in Table 3.7. One of the sources (HIPASSJ0843+21) has a bright foreground star saturating the field, while the other 15 are located in crowded stellar fields in the direction of the Galactic plane. A consistent result was found by Ryan-Weber et al. (2002), who found optical counterparts for their entire sample except for one HIPASS BGC source, which was located behind the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) where the field was too obscured for any identification. Figure 3.7 shows the Galactic latitude of the NHICAT sources as a function of their measured heliocentric velocity for different types of NOIRCAT matches. Evidently, the distribution of the NOIRCAT galaxies is dominated by the substructure of the Local Universe. We investigated the number of ‘blank’ fields (within Northern HIPASS declinations) present in the NED database, defining a ‘blank’ field as one with a radius of 7.50 centred on a set of randomly generated coordinates where NED has no listed galaxies. Two hundred and sixty sets of coordinates within the Northern HIPASS sky coverage area were generated and queried in NED for galaxies. This was repeated 1000 times. The median number of ‘blank’ fields in each set of 260 field searches was 45 with a standard deviation of 6. Figure 3.8 shows the distribution of the number of ‘blank’ fields in every 260 NED coordinate searches for the 1000 bootstrap repetitions. These results indicate that NED listed no galaxies for about 17.3% of the sky surveyed by Northern HIPASS, consistent with our finding of the 41 Flag 5c galaxies (including the 16 sources located in the direction of the Galactic plane) with no 47 CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT

Figure 3.7: The galactic latitude of each match as a function of heliocentric velocity from NHICAT. The black open circles represent the NOIRCAT sources in Flags 1, 2, 3 and 4. The pink open triangles represent the 87 Flag 5a sources with previous Hi velocity matches. The green solid triangles and the blue crosses represent the 219 Flag 5b sources (with probable matches based on positional matches) and the 25 category 5c sources (with probable matches with galaxies not listed in NED), respectively. The remaining 16 Flag 5c sources without any matches to optically-visible galaxies are represented by the black solid circles. The cluster of sources found at velocities of ∼1000 km s−1 and at Galactic latitude of 65◦ corresponds to the Virgo Cluster. The cluster of sources at Galactic latitude of −50◦ is a result of projection eﬀects and is not the location of any known clusters. On the right panel, the distribution of Galactic latitude of all the NOIRCAT sources is shown. CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT 48

Figure 3.8: Distribution of the number of ‘blank’ fields out of a set of 260 randomly-generated field coordinates for the 1000 bootstrap repetitions. ‘Blank’ fields are fields in which NED has no listed galaxies. The dotted lines shows the median of the distribution. 49 CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT possible NED identification. In summary, the easiest place to search for dark galaxies would be in the 5b sources (219 candidates) or the 5c sources with POSS II counterparts (25 candidates). Although 93% of the Flag 5b/5c sources (260) are coincident with optically-visible galaxies in the POSSII fields, the probability of chance alignment prevents the solid identification of these sources whether they are dark or luminous galaxies. Hence, we are unable to confirm or deny the existence of dark galaxies until optical redshift measurements and high angular resolution Hi observations are performed.

3.3 Discussion

The distributions of Hi-optical/IR separations for different types of NOIRCAT sources are shown in Figure 3.9 where plots (a), (b) and (c) show the match separation distributions for Flags 1 and 2, Flag 5a and Flag 5b sources, respectively. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov (KS) test was used to determine if these distributions were derived from the same parent distribution. We found that plots (a) and (b) have a KS probability of 0.81, while plots (a) and (c) have a KS probability of 0.96. This infers that the distributions are consistent and do not show any unusual differences due to selection effects inadvertently introduced during the processing of the catalogue. To further investigate the NOIRCAT match separations, we used a Monte Carlo simulation to examine the reality of our ‘confirmed’ matches to NED when compared statistically with the positional matches of a sample of randomly- simulated sources. We simulated 100,000 source positions weighted by the distribution of b of NOIRCAT sources (see the right panel of Figure 3.7). It should be noted that the weights are according to b increments of 10 degrees (from −70◦ ≥ b ≤ +90◦). Of the 100,000 simulated positions, 86,757 resulted in matches to galaxies catalogued in NED. To illustrate the dependency of match separations to the Galactic latitude, Fig- ure 3.10 divides the sample of 86,757 simulated sources (with matches to NED galaxies) into three groups of Galactic latitudes; b ≤ −5◦ (49,656 sources), −5◦ < b < +5◦ (1646 sources) and b ≥ +5◦ (34,959 sources). The match separation distributions of the simulated sources are shown by the dotted line, while, the distributions normalised in sample size for the NOIRCAT sources (Flags 1, 2 & 5a) are represented by the solid line histograms. Figure 3.11 compares the cumulative distributions of the match separations of the NOIRCAT sample to the randomly-generated sample. The KS test was used to compare the real and simulated match separation distributions in all three Galactic latitude ranges. The results of the KS test is presented in Table 3.8, which also lists the medians of the distributions. Using the sample-normalised match separation CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT 50

Figure 3.9: Distributions of match separations. Plots (a): match separations of the optical velocity matches, (b): match separations for the galaxies with previous higher- resolution Hi velocity matches and (c): match separations for the detections without any velocity matches. 51 CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT

Figure 3.10: Distributions of match separations at three diﬀerent Galactic latitude (b) ranges. The top, middle and bottom panels show the match separations for sources located at b ≥ +5◦, −5◦ < b < +5◦ and b ≤ −5◦, respectively. The match separation distributions of the NOIRCAT sources (Flag 1, 2 & 5a) are represented by the solid histograms, while the dotted line histograms show the distributions for the randomly-simulated sources. It should be noted that the NOIRCAT sample only had two sources in the range of −5◦ < b < +5◦. CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT 52

Figure 3.11: Cumulative distributions of the match separations at three diﬀerent Galactic latitude (b) ranges. The top, middle and bottom panels show the match separations for sources located at b ≥ +5◦, −5◦ < b < +5◦ and b ≤ −5◦, respectively. In each plot, the cumulative plot of the sample- normalised NOIRCAT sample (Flag 1, 2 & 5a) is represented by the solid line, while the dotted line illustrates the cumulative distribution of the randomly-simulated sample. As with Figure 3.10, it should be noted that the NOIRCAT sample only had two sources in the range of −5◦ < b < +5◦. 53 CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT

Table 3.8: Comparisons of the match separation (s) distributions of the random simulated sample and the NOIRCAT sample .

b ≥ +5◦ −5◦ < b < +5◦ b ≤ −5◦ Median s (NOIRCAT) 1.70 0.90 2.00 Median s (random) 3.00 4.50 3.70 KS probability† 0.60 1.0 × 10−10 0.08 KS diﬀerence† 0.18 0.82 0.30 ‡ Probabilityrandom 0.28 0.07 0.25

† This KS probability is derived from a comparison between the NOIRCAT and the simulated match separation distributions for a match separation range from 0.00 to 7.50. ‡ This value gives the probability that any match with s ≤ 1.250 can be due to a random match. distribution of NOIRCAT and the match separation distribution of the randomly- generated sample, the percentage and hence the probability that a match at a separation below 1.250 can be attributed to a serendipitous random match (see Table 3.8 for the results). As the distribution of galaxies sampled is not random, we need to account for the structure and clustering of the Local Universe. To do this, we repeat our simulations of a semi-randomised sample. Instead of completely random positions or positions weighted by b, semi-random positions are chosen which are one degree away in angular separation (in a random direction) from any NHICAT source positions. Such a sample will be sufficiently random, while still taking into account the medium scale structure of the local volume. Figure 3.12 presents the sample-normalised distributions of the NOIRCAT matches and the semi-random matches. It should be noted that the angular correlation length for a nearby survey such as HIPASS is approximately three degrees (Staveley-Smith 2007). To investigate the effects of increasing the angular separation between the NHICAT position and the position of the semi-random sample, the simulation was repeated for samples with positions of five and ten degrees away from the original NHICAT coordinates. Figure 3.13 and Figure 3.14 shows the distribution of the match separations for when the semi-random sample is displaced by five and ten degrees, respectively, from the original NHICAT positions. The features (peaks) observed in the middle panel of Figure 3.12, Figure 3.13 and Figure 3.14, are due to a smaller sample size and are not real. Only 1000 simulations were used in each of these figures due to time constraints. A summary of the median match separations obtained for when the semi-random sample is displaced one, five and ten degrees from any NHICAT coordinates can be found in Table 3.9. Table 3.9 also presents the ratio (or fraction) of simulated matches to NOIRCAT CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT 54

Figure 3.12: Distributions of match separations at three diﬀerent Galactic latitude (b) ranges. The top, middle and bottom panels show the match separations for sources located at b ≥ +5◦, −5◦ < b < +5◦ and b ≤ −5◦, respectively. The match separation distributions of the NOIRCAT matches (Flag 1, 2 & 5a) are represented by the solid histograms, while the dotted line histograms show the distributions for the simulated sources which are one degree away from any NHICAT source positions. It should be noted that the NOIRCAT sample only had two sources in the range of −5◦ < b < +5◦. In addition, the observed peaks in the simulated distribution in the middle panel is due to the smaller sample size. 55 CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT

Figure 3.13: Distributions of match separations at three diﬀerent Galactic latitude (b) ranges. The top, middle and bottom panels show the match separations for sources located at b ≥ +5◦, −5◦ < b < +5◦ and b ≤ −5◦, respectively. The match separation distributions of the NOIRCAT matches (Flag 1, 2 & 5a) are represented by the solid histograms, while the dotted line histograms show the distributions for the simulated sources which are ﬁve degrees away from any NHICAT source positions. It should be noted that the NOIRCAT sample only had two sources in the range of −5◦ < b < +5◦. In addition, the observed peaks in the simulated distribution in the middle panel is due to the smaller sample size. CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT 56

Figure 3.14: Distributions of match separations at three diﬀerent Galactic latitude (b) ranges. The top, middle and bottom panels show the match separations for sources located at b ≥ +5◦, −5◦ < b < +5◦ and b ≤ −5◦, respectively. The match separation distributions of the NOIRCAT matches (Flag 1, 2 & 5a) are represented by the solid histograms, while the dotted line histograms show the distributions for the simulated sources which are ten degrees away from any NHICAT source positions. It should be noted that the NOIRCAT sample only had two sources in the range of −5◦ < b < +5◦. In addition, the observed peaks in the simulated distribution in the middle panel is due to the smaller sample size. 57 CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT

Table 3.9: Comparisons of the match separation (s) distributions of a semi-random sample at angular separations (a) of one, ﬁve and ten degrees away from known NHICAT source positions. The fraction of matches (F ) from the semi-random simulations versus the NOIRCAT matches with s ≤ 1.250 are also presented.

b ≥ +5◦ −5◦ < b < +5◦ b ≤ −5◦ Median s (a = 1◦) 2.70 3.70 3.60 Median s (a = 5◦) 3.10 4.30 3.80 Median s (a = 10◦) 3.10 4.30 3.80 F (a = 1◦,s ≤ 1.250) 0.46 0.00 0.38 F (a = 5◦,s ≤ 1.250) 0.35 0.17 0.31 F (a = 10◦,s ≤ 1.250) 0.39 0.00 0.33

matches with match separations below 1.250. The simulations of a semi-random sample which accounts for the medium scale structure suggest that a larger fraction of the NOIRCAT matches can be attributed to serendipitous matches than the serendipitous fraction suggested by the random simulation weighted by b. Of the Flag 1 and 2 matches, 68.9% are also the closest positional matches, while 79.8% of the Flag 3 and 4 matches account for the closest positional match to the HIPASS coordinates. Eighty percent of the Flag 1 and 2 matches also have at least three or more positional matches. Since the median number of possible positional +3 matches for the Flag 5b sources is 3−2 (where the upper and lower bounds are the 90th and the 10th percentile values), it is probable that more than half the Flag 5b matches are true. However, we are unable to confirm the integrity of these matches until higher angular resolution observations are made. Since the surface density of galaxies in NED is high compared to the resolution of HIPASS, unique optical/near- IR identifications are not possible by positional coincidence alone. Although the positional accuracy is 30, we found 36 Flag 1 and 2 sources with match angular separations greater than 5.00. Of these, we found three with previous VLA observations listed in the NRAO Archive4. Figure 3.15 shows the VLA integrated flux contours overlaid on POSS II optical fields for these three NOIRCAT sources. These three sources (HIPASSJ1114+12, HIPASSJ1224+12 & HIPASSJ1243+13a) have match separations of 5.30, 6.10 and 6.30, respectively. Garc´ıa-Burillo et al. (2000) suggested that HIPASSJ1114+12’s optical counterpart, NGC 3593, had accreted a gas-rich dwarf 1 Gyr ago and recent stars had time to form a central counter-rotating disk in the settling gas. For both HIPASSJ1224+12 and HIPASSJ1243+13a, the optical counterparts (NGC 4351 & NGC 4639) are part of the Virgo Cluster.

4The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT 58

Using the MBSPECT tool of the MIRIAD data reduction package, we measure the total integrated flux (SINT) and velocity width (W50) from the VLA observations. HIPASS As detailed in Table 3.10, the HIPASS integrated fluxes (SINT ) and the FWHM 59 CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT tre and cen 4351) The . 0 5 (NGC than greater ASSJ1224+12 HIP separations h 3593), matc (NGC with sources T ASSJ1114+12 CA HIP t: NOIR 3 righ of to left images I rom F POSSI tres. on cen erlaid v o ordinate co tours con ASS flux HIP the 4639). to tegrated in ond (NGC VLA corresp 3.15: fields ASSJ1243+13a the of Figure HIP CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT 60

Table 3.10: Properties of VLA observations of HIPASSJ1114+12, HIPASSJ1224+12 and HIPASSJ1243+13a.

HIPASS HIPASS HIPASS name SINT W50 SINT W50 Jy km s−1 km s−1 Jy km s−1 km s−1 HIPASSJ1114+12 0.434 44.0 14.1 215.1 HIPASSJ1224+12 8.793 210.3 5.3 109.3 HIPASSJ1243+13a 1.926 70.9 35.2 331.0

HIPASS velocity widths (W50 ) are very different to those measured from the VLA observations. The Hi total integrated flux observed by the VLA of HIPASSJ1114+12 is less than 1% of the total flux measured by HIPASS. Additionally, the HIPASS velocity width is five times greater than the velocity width detected by the VLA. This suggests that most of the Hi emission measured by HIPASS in HIPASSJ1114+12 is diffuse and remains undetected by the VLA due to the lack of sensitivity at low column densities. This can also explain the difference in the total integrated flux measured by HIPASS and the VLA of HIPASS1243+13a. Conversely, the VLA has observed more Hi integrated flux and a greater Hi velocity width than HIPASS in HIPASSJ1224+12. Due to the strong radio emission from Virgo A (a Seyfert galaxy and a strong radio source), half of the emission profile was lost in the noise. Thus, we would expect that re-fitting the baseline would recover this flux. Figure 3.16 shows the HIPASS spectra of the three sources listed in Table 3.10.

3.4 Summary

In this chapter we have presented NOIRCAT, the optical/near-infrared counterpart catalogue to NHICAT. NOIRCAT contains optically-matched counterparts for 65% of the NHICAT sources. In combination with HOPCAT, NOIRCAT creates the largest catalogue of optical counterparts of Hi sources, covering the entire sky in the declination range of −90◦ < δ < +25.5◦. Of the 347 Flag 5 sources, 25.1% have optical counterparts with matching velocities in previously-published radio emission line observations. Another 70.3% have probable optical counterparts to galaxies without published velocities (other than HIPASS observations). Follow-up higher-resolution radio observations of these sources will help pinpoint the exact Hi position and constrain possible number of dark galaxies. Unfortunately, some of the Flag 5c sources lie in the direction of the 61 CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT

Figure 3.16: HIPASS spectrum of HIPASSJ1114+12 (top), HIPASSJ1224+12 (middle) and HIPASSJ1243+13a (bottom). The region between the dashed lines mark the Hi emission proﬁle and the solid line shows the ﬁt to the baseline. CHAPTER 3. NOIRCAT 62

Galactic plane and as such, are obscured behind our Galaxy. Ignoring the effects of mergers, Verde et al. (2002) postulated that a large fraction 9 of low-mass halos (< 10 M ) will be Toomre-stable and not form stars if the gas collapse during galaxy formation conserves angular momentum. In addition, simulations by Davies et al. (2006) predicted that ‘objects with scale sizes of tens of kpc and velocities of a few hundreds of km s−1can remain dark’. Contrary to these results, Taylor & Webster (2005) found that a majority of disks are predicted to be unstable and likely to form stars in at least half the hypothetical dark galaxies 6 with baryon masses greater than 5 × 10 M . Standard reionisation models also propose that dark halos do not contain gas (Susa & Umemura 2004). It is of our opinion that the probability of finding a dark galaxy would be low, as our larger partner study, HOPCAT, did not confirm any of the 80 dark galaxies predicted to be in the HIPASS sample by Davies et al. (2006). Although our statistical analysis with our current dataset cannot confirm the number of possible dark galaxy candidates within NOIRCAT, detailed dark galaxy modelling by Taylor & Webster (2007) on the NHICAT completeness limits found that there could be ≈ 10 dark galaxies within NHICAT. These galaxies would be at the predicted limiting threshold for the formation of stars, if they formed. Hence, further observations of the Flag 5b and 5c sources may confirm the existence of these galaxies unless they are located in the direction of the Galactic plane. As with other HIPASS catalogues, NOIRCAT will be publicly-available online at: hhttp://hipass.aus-vo.orgi. It should be noted that sources classified as Flags 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5a will be included into the official NOIRCAT online. CHAPTER 4

SINGG—An Hα star formation study of HIPASS-selected galaxies

Prior to the completion of the HIPASS survey, there has been no extragalactic star formation study based on Hi-selected galaxies. Unlike traditional extragalactic star formation surveys which are based on optically-selected samples of galaxies, Hi- selected galaxies are not biased against low surface brightness (LSB) or dwarf galaxies. One such survey is the Survey for Ionization in Neutral Gas Galaxies (SINGG; Meurer et al. 2006)—a survey of Hα emission in galaxies selected from HIPASS. The aim of this project is to perform a true census of all galaxies in the Local Universe which contain the necessary fuel, hydrogen, to form stars without the usual biases associated with most previous star formation studies which rely on optically-selected (or near-infrared-selected) galaxies. However, the average HIPASS beam FWHM is 14.30 (Barnes et al. 2001) and where multiple galaxies exist within the HIPASS beam, the total Hi emission from multiple galaxies is measured instead of the Hi emission from an individual galaxy. Higher resolution follow-up Hi observations be able to differentiate between the Hi emission emitted by each galaxy within the HIPASS field-of-view. In addition, these observations can provide evidence for interaction between neighbouring galaxies and confirm the existence of companions. Detailed Hi morphologies also enable the investigation of the differences in the Hi properties between galaxies in isolation and in group environments. Corrections have been devised to account for the effect of the environment in previous derivations of the HIMF from HICAT (e.g. Zwaan et al. 2005). Such corrections can be verified using the higher angular resolution Hi

63 CHAPTER 4. SINGG 64 observations of galaxy groups. Of the 93 HIPASS sources published in the initial SINGG data release (Meurer et al. 2006), there are 12 ﬁelds with multiple galaxies. The purpose of this chapter is to examine the Hi contribution of each galaxy within these HIPASS ﬁelds with multiple galaxies. The SINGG project will be introduced and described in Section 4.1. Section 4.2 presents the new ATCA observations obtained and a summary of this chapter can be found in Section 4.3.

4.1 Introduction to SINGG

The entire SINGG survey consists of Hα and R-band observations of 468 HIPASS sources. To study uniformly the star formation properties, 180 HIPASS targets per decade of MHI were imaged over a mass range of log(MHI/M ) ≈ 8.0 to 10.6. Target candidates were selected using the following criteria (Meurer et al. 2006):

1. Hi peak ﬂux density, SPEAK ≥ 0.05 Jy

2. Galactic latitude, |b| > 30◦

◦ 3. Projected distance from the centre of the SMC, dLMC > 10

−1 4. Galactic standard of rest velocity, VGSR > 200 km s

5. In order to avoid RFI and Galactic recombination lines, some heliocentric velocities were avoided (Meurer et al. 2006).

The observations of the SINGG survey were largely obtained from the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory (CTIO) 1.5m telescope. Other SINGG observations were made at the CTIO Schmidt and 0.9m telescopes as well as the 2.3m telescope at the Siding Springs Observatory in Australia. The first data release of SINGG, SR1, comprises Hα and R band observations of 93 HIPASS targets (Meurer et al. 2006). The observations published in Meurer et al. (2006) consist of 14.70 field of view images taken from the CTIO 1.5m telescope. Star-forming regions were found in all 93 HIPASS sources. This result is consistent 6 with the theory that galaxies with baryonic masses greater than 5 × 10 M cannot remain dark with no stars as they should be unstable to star formation (Taylor & Webster 2005). Apart from confirming Hi to be a good tracer of the ionised Hii regions of star formation within galaxies, SINGG also proved Hα to be useful for discovering star- forming companions to previously-known galaxies (Meurer et al. 2006). The local SF RD from SINGG is consistent with the results of most previous star formation 65 CHAPTER 4. SINGG

Table 4.1: Details of source and ATCA conﬁgurations for the new ATCA observations of the SINGG sources.

Source Source separation(0) Conﬁguration J0209-10 1.1–6.2 6.0A/C J0224-24 8.1 1.5B/C J0342-13 4.5 6.0A/C J0504-16 4.5 1.5B/C J0514-61 4.5–13.1 1.5B/C J1054-18 5.2 1.5B/C J2202-20 5.5 1.5B/C

surveys in the Local Universe and agreed with the general consensus that the SF RD has decreased by an order of magnitude in the present day (z = 0) since z ∼ 1 (Hanish et al. 2006). However, as pointed out by Hanish et al. (2006), this agreement may be somewhat fortuitous as there are signiﬁcant diﬀerences in the Hα equivalent widths and extinction properties of the samples used in the various studies.

Hanish et al. (2006) proposed that this shift to a more ‘quiescent’ star formation process was largely due to the secular decay in star formation rate. The relatively small fraction of SINGG sources which appear to be the result of merger events also conﬁrm that the current evolution is likely to be due to the interior baryon physics instead of the more common merger processes found at earlier times of the Universe.

4.2 ATCA observations of SINGG sources

As mentioned earlier, there are currently 12 ﬁelds from SR1 which contain multiple galaxies. Four of these (J0359-45, J0403-43, J0514-61 & J2149-60) have already been observed and were found in the archive of the Australia Telescope Compact Array (ATCA). One source, J0209-10, has also been extensively mapped by Verdes- Montenegro et al. (2001) using the VLA. In 2005, observations were made of J0209- 10, J0224-24, J0342-13, J0503-63, J0504-16, J1054-18 and J2202-20 using the ATCA. Additional observations were made of J0209-10 because at the time of observations, we were unaware that J0209-10 has already been observed by Verdes-Montenegro et al. (2001). The only source out of the 12 SINGG ﬁelds with multiple galaxies that was not observed is J1131-02 (it is too far north). CHAPTER 4. SINGG 66

Table 4.2: Exposure times of ATCA observations.

Source Secondary Calibrators Exposure Time (min) J0209-10 PKS 0202-172 283 J0224-24 PKS 0237-233 156 J0342-13 PKS 0403-132 284 J0504-16 PKS 0445-221 162 J0514-61 PKS 0420-625 126 J1054-18 PKS 1127-145 213 J2202-20 PKS 2203-188 208

4.2.1 Observations

The ATCA is an east-west array of six 22 metre radio antennas situated in Narrabri, Australia. The conﬁgurations for the observations as well as the separations between the galaxies (within the SINGG ﬁeld) can be found in Table 4.1. The snapshot and spectral line observing modes as well as the 16 MHz bandwidth over 512 velocity channels were used in these observations. The goal of these observations is to resolve the Hi distribution on the scale of the known Hα emission from the galaxies. Since the galaxy separations range from 1 to 13 arcminutes, it was deduced that the 1.5 km array is appropriate for these scales. As both J0209-10 and J0342-13 are located near the equator, the 6.0 km array was used in order to reduce the elongation of the beamsize. The primary calibrators used for these observations are PKS 1934-638 and PKS 0823-500. Table 4.2 lists the secondary calibrators used for each of the observed sources as well as the exact exposure times.

Previous observations from the ATCA archive

In addition to the ATCA observations made in 2005, previous observations were also obtained from the ATCA archive. Table 4.3 lists the SINGG sources (and the respective observing conﬁgurations) found in the archive. This table also details the separations between the individual galaxies within the ﬁelds.

4.2.2 Calibration

The Miriad data reduction package (Sault et al. 1995) was used to calibrate and reduce the ATCA observations. The following steps/tasks were used: 67 CHAPTER 4. SINGG

Table 4.3: Properties of previous Hi observations of SINGG sources from the ATCA.

Source Source Separation(0) Exposure Time (min) Array Conﬁg J0359-45 3.2 1058 150B, 375, 750D & 1.5C J0403-43 4.9 601 375 J0503-63 1.8 105 EW367B J0504-16 4.5 97.5 EW352 J0514-61 4.5–13.1 104 EW352 J2149-60 4.1–6.2 1403 1.5B & 1.5C

1. atlod—To convert the raw visibility data from the RPFITS format to the Miriad format.

2. uvindex—To produce the observing log.

3. uvsplit—To split the individual visibility ﬁles.

4. blﬂag—To plot the visibilities and interactively ‘ﬂag’ discrepant points.

5. mfcal—To determine the antenna gains, delays and passband for the primary and secondary calibrators.

6. gpboot—To correct the gains table of the secondary calibrator using the primary calibrator.

7. gpcopy—To copy the calibrated corrections to the visibility dataset of the observed objects.

8. uvlin—To ﬁt a ﬁrst order polynomial to the continuum of the spectra in order to separate the continuum from the spectra.

9. invert—To form map and beam images of the observed objects from the visibilities. Also produces a theoretical RMS noise for the map.

10. clean—To perform a hybrid Hogbom/Clark/Steer Clean algorithm which in eﬀect performs a deconvolution to remove the sidelobes of a dirty beam by trying to account for the unsampled region of the u − v plane. The ‘cutoﬀ’ value of the clean process is three times the RMS found from the invert task.

11. restor—To generate a ‘clean’ map by convolving the the sky model produced by clean with a Gaussian beam.

12. linmos—To correct for the primary beam of the observations CHAPTER 4. SINGG 68

13. moment—To produce moment maps (in our case, integrated intensity maps) of the object

14. mbspect—To measure the total integrated ﬂux of an object

4.2.3 Results

Here we present the results and observed properties of each of the 12 SINGG targets with multiple galaxies. The morphologies of the galaxies are obtained from NED and Meurer et al. (2006).

HIPASS J0209-10

There are four bright galaxies observed in the Hα and R-band SINGG images of this source which is also known as HCG 16. These four galaxies are labeled as S1 (NGC 839—furthest east of the group), S2 (NGC 838—north of NGC 839), S3 (NGC 835— east of NGC 833) and S4 (NGC 833—furthest west of the group). Prominent nuclear Hα emission has been observed in all four galaxies by SINGG (Meurer et al. 2006). S1 is characterised by a LINER + Sy 2 nuclear spectrum with diffused ionised gas extending out to 31 arc second from its minor axis, while a starburst spectrum and diffused wind was observed to be emanating from the disk of S2. A double Hα ring (r ≈ 10 arc second, 43 arc second) and a LINER starburst spectrum was observed from S3 (the eastern counterpart of the interacting S3–S4 pair). A tidal arm was also observed in the R-band image of S3 extending towards the east. Similar to S1, a LINER Sy 2 spectrum was observed from the nuclear regions of S4. The diffused ionised gas from S4 appears to be connected to that of S3 (Meurer et al. 2006). Ryan-Weber et al. (2004) found an isolated Hii region (shown in Figure 4.1) near the two closely- interacting galaxies, S3 and S4. AGN activity (de Carvalho & Coziol 1999; Ribeiro et al. 1996) and diffused X-ray emission (e.g. Belsole et al. 2003) have also been observed in previous studies. Optical measurements of the radial velocities of each member of the group found that S1 (3834 km s−1) and S2 (3850 km s−1) are in fact closer in the radial direction than S3 (4118 km s−1) and S4 (3977 km s−1). The isolated Hii region is actually located at 3634 km s−1(Ryan-Weber et al. 2004). These velocities are consistent with the HIPASS heliocentric velocity of 3917 km s−1 measured across the entire group. The fractional contribution of Hα emission by each galaxy relative to the total observed emission is summarised in Table 4.4. Unfortunately, we used an array configuration which was not optimal (as the antenna spacings were too large) and as a result, we were not able to detect any of the Hi emission from this source as the Hi emission had been resolved out. However, 69 CHAPTER 4. SINGG

Figure 4.1: A continuum-subtracted Hα image of the region near S3 and S4. The circle shows the isolated Hii region found by Ryan-Weber et al. (2004). The two objects between the Hii region and S3 are residuals of foreground stars. CHAPTER 4. SINGG 70

Table 4.4: Fractional contribution of Hα emission by each galaxy relative to the total emission found from the entire group.

Group Galaxy Hα fraction J0209-10 S1 0.112 S2 0.513 S3 0.329 S4 0.046 J0224-24 S1 0.985 S2 0.015 J0342-13 S1 0.998 S2 0.002 J0359-45 S1 0.857 S2 0.143 J0403-43 S1 0.813 S2 0.187 J0503-63 S1 0.959 S2 0.041 J0504-16 S1 0.973 S2 0.027 J0514-61 S2 0.657 S2 0.214 S3 0.129 J1054-18 S1 0.547 S2 0.453 J2149-60 S1 0.666 S2 0.335 S3 0.001 J2202-20 S1 0.998 S2 0.002 71 CHAPTER 4. SINGG

Figure 4.2: VLA observations of the Hi extent (black contours, spanning ∼ 200) of HCG 16 (J0209-10) by Verdes-Montenegro et al. (2001).

this source has been previously observed at the VLA by Verdes-Montenegro et al. (2001) and it appears that the Hi emission envelopes the entire group (including the isolated Hii region) and extends in the south-east direction (towards NGC 848) beyond the ﬁeld of view of the SINGG pointing, up to ∼ 200 in spatial coordinates. Figure 4.2 shows the optical image of HCG 16 with the Hi contours.

HIPASS J0224-24

A new drop-through ring galaxy system, J0224-24 was also discovered in the SINGG- SUNGG sample. The primary galaxy, S1 (NGC 922) consists of a C-shaped ring of 42 −1 star-forming regions and has the highest Hα luminosity (LHα = 1.8 × 10 ergs s ) in SR1. The companion/interloper of this system has been identiﬁed as S2 (2MASX J02243002-2444441). More details about this system can be found in Chapter 7 (or Wong et al. 2006a). Prior to the SINGG survey, Block et al. (2001) argued that NGC 922 is a peculiar galaxy formed through secular evolution in isolation with no neighbouring galaxies. However, the Hα observations assisted with the identiﬁcation of the neighbouring compact, star-forming galaxy 8.360 north-west of S1. Table 4.4 CHAPTER 4. SINGG 72

Figure 4.3: Three-colour SINGG image of J0224-24 overlaid with Hi contours (yellow). The yellow ellipse in the bottom left shows the beam shape. The continuum- subtracted Hα, the observed Hα and the R-band continuum images are represented by the red, green and blue respectively. The contour levels are at 1.5 Jy km s−1, 2.0 Jy km s−1, 2.5 Jy km s−1, 3.0 Jy km s−1.

presents the fractional Hα contribution by each of galaxy within this pointing.

The heliocentric velocity of 3082 km s−1 obtained for S1 from HIPASS is consistent with the optical measurements of 3092 km s−1. The 6dF (Jones et al. 2004) radial velocity measurements of S2 is 3160 km s−1.

Figure 4.3 shows the Hi contours overlaid upon the three-colour SINGG image. The measured integrated flux from this system is 10.36 Jy km s−1 and is concentrated around the main galaxy, NGC 922. On the other hand, HIPASS found a total integrated flux of 26.9 Jy km s−1 for the entire system (see Figure 4.4 for the spectra comparison). This suggests that a smaller array configuration will be able to detect more diffuse Hi from this system. Further observations at a different epoch will also reduce the elongation of the beam and possibly reveal the existence of any Hi tidal structures. 73 CHAPTER 4. SINGG

Figure 4.4: The Hi spectra of J0224-24 from HIPASS (left) and from the ATCA (right).

HIPASS J0342-13

At first glance, this SINGG field may not appear to contain more than one galaxy. However, Meurer et al. (2006) found a dwarf companion galaxy (S2; APMUKS(BJ) B033959.58-133449.0) with bright nuclear Hii regions 4.60 away, in the north-west direction to the primary galaxy, NGC 1421 (which we denote as S1). S1 is close to being an edge-on disk galaxy with a very luminous nucleus. Currently, only the radial velocity of S1 has been measured to be ∼ 2076 km s−1. Follow-up observations are required to confirm S2 as the bona fide companion to S1. The fractional contribution of Hα emission observed from S1 is 99.8% of the total emission detected from both S1 and S2. Figure 4.5 shows the three-colour SINGG image of J0342-13 overlaid with the Hi intensity contours. The integrated flux measured in this image is 19.97 Jy km s−1 and is around the main galaxy, NGC 1421. This is approximately two-thirds of the integrated flux measured by HIPASS (see Figure 4.6 to compare the spectra). The elongated beam shape also prevented any confirmation of any Hi tidal structure in the northern arm of the primary galaxy. Similar to J0224-24, a smaller array configuration will be able to detect more diffuse Hi from this system.

HIPASS J0359-45

The SINGG ﬁeld, J0359-45, contains a pair of galaxies, S1 (Horologium Dwarf) and S2 (ESO249-G035). S1 is a face-on low surface brightness irregular dwarf galaxy with an edge-on dwarf disk galaxy, S2. As shown in Table 4.4, S2 accounts for ∼ 14% of the Hα ﬂux detected within this SINGG pointing. Optical observations of the group found that S2 (1031 km s−1) is at a slightly CHAPTER 4. SINGG 74

Figure 4.5: J0342-13: The contour levels are at 1.8 Jy km s−1, 2.3 Jy km s−1, 2.8 Jy km s−1 and 3.3 Jy km s−1. See ﬁgure 4.3 for further explanation of how this image is made.

Figure 4.6: The Hi spectra of J0342-13 from HIPASS (left) and from the ATCA (right). 75 CHAPTER 4. SINGG

Figure 4.7: J0359-45. Top: the contour levels are at 0.7 Jy km s−1, 0.8 Jy km s−1, 0.9 Jy km s−1, 1.0 Jy km s−1, 1.1 Jy km s−1, 1.2 Jy km s−1. Bottom: the contour levels are at 0.4 Jy km s−1, 0.5 Jy km s−1 and 0.6 Jy km s−1. See figure 4.3 for further explanation of how this image is made. CHAPTER 4. SINGG 76 higher radial velocity than S1 (∼ 901 km s−1). Previous studies of this group also found that a majority of the Hi emission is emitted by the Horologium Dwarf (Waugh et al. 2002). The integrated Hi flux detected by the ATCA (as shown in Figure 4.7) is 6.31 Jy km s−1 and 1.67 Jy km s−1 for the Horologium Dwarf and its companion, respectively. This can be compared to HIPASS’s measure of 13.4 Jy km s−1 for the entire system. The discrepancy between the measured integrated fluxes suggests that more diffuse Hi exists within the system which may bridge and envelope both galaxies. As can be seen in the bottom image of Figure 4.7, a common Hi enveloped is shared by both galaxies at the 0.4 Jy km s−1 integrated flux level. However, it should be noted that the Hi envelope of each galaxy is still centred on the corresponding optical image of the galaxy. Hence this suggests that the galaxies have not yet substantially interacted. Figure 4.8 shows the Hi spectra from HIPASS of the whole group as well as the ATCA observations of each individual galaxy.

HIPASS J0403-43

The SINGG field, J0403-43, consists of an interacting pair of starburst galaxies, S1 (NGC 1512) and S2 (NGC 1510). S1 is a large face-on barred SB galaxy with a very bright nucleus and very faint arms. The low-mass companion, S2, is a blue compact galaxy with metal-poor Hii regions and strong evidence of A-star components (Kin- ney et al. 1993). Meurer et al. (2006) found that the Hα morphology of S2 is strongly concentrated in two central knots with filamentary structures. Both galaxies appear to have similar radial velocities (S1: 896 km s−1, S2: 913 km s−1) to the heliocentric velocity measured by HIPASS (900 km s−1). The Hi emission observed from the J0403-43 field shows extensive spiral arm structure extending beyond the edge of the galaxy observed in the optical wavelengths as well as the field of view of the SINGG image. Consistent with the results from Hawarden et al. (1979), both galaxies share a common Hi envelope displaying the effects of the close interaction between the two galaxies. Figure 4.9 shows the ATCA observed Hi intensity contours overlaid on the SINGG three-colour image. A total integrated flux of 73.6 Jy km s−1 was found for this group as compared to the 250.2 Jy km s−1 detected by HIPASS. The discrepancy between the measured integrated fluxes suggests that more diffuse Hi exists within the system. Figure 4.10 shows the Hi spectra from HIPASS as well as the ATCA observations both galaxies.

HIPASS J0503-63

The SINGG ﬁeld, J0503-63, contains two galaxies, S1 (ESO085-G034) and S2—a compact dwarf companion with two bright Hii regions (Meurer et al. 2006). The 77 CHAPTER 4. SINGG

Figure 4.8: Top: Hi spectra of J0359-45 from HIPASS. Middle: Hi spectra of the Horologium Dwarf from ATCA observations. Bottom: Hi spectra of ESO259-G035 from ATCA observations. CHAPTER 4. SINGG 78

Figure 4.9: J0403-43: The contour levels are at 0.3 Jy km s−1, 0.6 Jy km s−1, 0.9 Jy km s−1, 1.2 Jy km s−1, 1.5 Jy km s−1, 1.8Jy km s−1, 2.1 Jy km s−1. See ﬁgure 4.3 for further explanation of how this image is made.

Figure 4.10: The Hi spectra of J0403-43 from HIPASS (left) and from the ATCA (right). 79 CHAPTER 4. SINGG

Figure 4.11: J0503-63: The contour levels are at 1.5 Jy km s−1, 2.0 Jy km s−1, 2.5 Jy km s−1. See ﬁgure 4.3 for further explanation of how this image is made.

tightly-wound spiral arms of S1 appear quite prominent in the Hα observations and in general, there appears to be more Hα emission detected from the eastern side of the galaxy towards S2. As shown in Figure 4.11 (Hi intensity contours from archival ATCA observations overlaid onto the SINGG three-colour image), the Hi emission envelopes both S1 and S2. In addition to this, a significant trail of Hi emission is also observed south of S1. Only 1.44 Jy km s−1 was found by the ATCA, while HIPASS detected 10.8 Jy km s−1. The discrepancy between the measured integrated fluxes suggests the presence of a more extensive diffuse Hi envelope. Figure 4.12 shows the Hi spectra from HIPASS as well as the ATCA observations both galaxies.

HIPASS J0504-16

The SINGG ﬁeld, J0504-16, contains two LSB galaxies. The primary galaxy, S1 (MCG -03-13-063), is a large face-on SBcd galaxy. Bright ionised regions are observed in Hα across the entire galaxy and along its long spiral arms. S2 is a small LSB galaxy located to the south-west of S1. A few ionised regions are observed on its CHAPTER 4. SINGG 80

Figure 4.12: The Hi spectra of J0503-63 from HIPASS (left) and from the ATCA (right).

south-eastern side. S2 has not been previously catalogued prior to the Meurer et al. (2006) observations and hence not much is known about this galaxy. In general, not much is known about the entire system. Figure 4.13 shows the observed integrated Hi flux of this field. Previous studies have found S1 to be in a group with another galaxy, MCG -03-13-069 (an Sa galaxy 24.50 south-east of S1) (e.g. Giuricin et al. 2000). However, the association with this Sa galaxy does not explain the south to south-west extent of the observed Hi morphology of S1. In addition, there are also two galaxies (marked with ‘?’ in Figure 4.13 which have not been catalogued and thus, the relationship between S1 and these galaxies are also unknown. The detected Hi emission of the J0504-16 field appears to be concentrated around S1 and totals 19.81 Jy km s−1. Compared to the HIPASS integrated flux of 22.6 Jy km s−1, S1 appears to contain most of the field’s Hi. Although the observed Hi morphology appears asymmetrical and distorted, we have not detected any Hi emission around S2. On the other hand, the difference between the measured integrated fluxes suggests the presence of more diffuse Hi emission within this field. Within this field, there are also two other galaxies (marked with ‘?’) which have not been catalogued in NED. These galaxies contain neither Hi nor Hii regions in the observed bandpasses. Figure 4.14 shows the Hi spectra from HIPASS as well as the ATCA observations of both galaxies.

HIPASS J0514-61

The SINGG ﬁeld, J0514-61, contains three emission line galaxies. The largest galaxy, S1 (ESO119-G048; a large SBa with a long oval bar which resembles a nucleated high surface brightness elliptical galaxy), is located on the eastern side of the ﬁeld, while 81 CHAPTER 4. SINGG

Figure 4.13: J0504-16: The contour levels are at 1.8 Jy km s−1, 2.2 Jy km s−1, 2.6 Jy km s−1, 3.0 Jy km s−1, 3.4 Jy km s−1. The two galaxies marked with ‘?’ are two galaxies within the field with no NED identification. See figure 4.3 for further explanation of how this image is made.

Figure 4.14: The Hi spectra of J0504-16 from HIPASS (left) and from the ATCA (right). CHAPTER 4. SINGG 82

Figure 4.15: J0514-61: The contour levels are at 1.5 Jy km s−1, 1.8 Jy km s−1, 2.1 Jy km s−1, 2.4 Jy km s−1, 2.7 Jy km s−1, 3.0 Jy km s−1, 3.3 Jy km s−1, 3.6 Jy km s−1, 3.9 Jy km s−1, 4.2 Jy km s−1, 4.5 Jy km s−1, 4.8 Jy km s−1. See ﬁgure 4.3 for further explanation of how this image is made.

S2 (ESO119-G044) is the face-on Sbc galaxy located in the south-west direction of S1. The third galaxy, S3 (2MASX J05145061-6124282), is a compact SBab galaxy to the north-east of S1. The detected Hi emission of the J0514-61 field (see Figure 4.15 shows evidence of interaction and gas exchange between S1 and S2. An Hi gaseous bridge is observed extending between the Hi envelopes of both galaxies. However, no Hi emission has been detected around S3. In addition to the gaseous bridge between S1 and S2, the Hi morphology around S1 is significantly off-centred from the centre of the optically- observed galaxy. In the ESO Quick Blue Survey of 606 fields of the Southern sky, Lauberts (1982) found S1 and S2 to be part of a cluster. If this were the case, the off-centred nature of the Hi morphology of S1 provides possible evidence for ram pressure stripping. These asymmetries are similar to those found by Kenney et al. (2004a,b) in the Virgo Cluster. However, the cluster centre is not known and without further investigation, it is not possible to determine the trajectory of the galaxy with respect to the cluster or the cause of the distorted Hi morphology. A total of 14.7 Jy km s−1 was detected from the J0514-61 field by the ATCA observations, while HIPASS observed an integrated flux of 18.1 Jy km s−1 from this system. The difference in fluxes may suggest the presence of more diffuse Hi within the field. Figure 4.16 shows the Hi spectra from HIPASS as well as the ATCA 83 CHAPTER 4. SINGG

Figure 4.16: The Hi spectra of J0514-61 from HIPASS (left) and from the ATCA (right).

observations of this ﬁeld.

HIPASS J1054-18

The SINGG field, J1054-18, consists of S1 (ESO569-G020; a moderate to LSB disk galaxy containing a small bar) and S2 (ESO569-G021; a small disk galaxy with a compact nucleus). S1 has been described by Meurer et al. (2006) to contain “flocculent Hii region rich arms”. In contrast to the wispy Hii regions observed in S1, S2 is observed to consist of a high surface brightness Hα ring. Figure 4.17 shows the observed Hi morphology of the J1054-18 field. Unfortu- nately, due to the lack of uv coverage and the short exposure time, the beam shape is highly elongated and the SNR is low. Although the Hi emission appears to be concentrated around ESO569-G020, mbspect was unable to extract an integrated flux for this source. Figure 4.18 shows the Hi spectra from HIPASS. Although the ATCA is not able to obtain full uv-coverage for objects above a declination of −24◦, additional ATCA observations with different hour angles will be able to reduce the elongation of the beam shape. For this source, the optimal observing window for follow-up observations will be between February and April in 2008.

HIPASS J2149-60

The SINGG ﬁeld, J2149-60, comprises a pair of spiral galaxies with a small LSB galaxy in between. The galaxy with the highest fraction of observed Hα is S1 (NGC 7125; an Sb galaxy) located in the south of this system. The Hα appears to be concentrated within an inner ring and the medium surface brightness arms. Its northernmost companion, S2 (NGC 7126; low inclination SBbc galaxy) also appears CHAPTER 4. SINGG 84

Figure 4.17: J1054-18: The contour levels are at 0.8 Jy km s−1, 1.0 Jy km s−1, 1.2 Jy km s−1. See ﬁgure 4.3 for further explanation of how this image is made.

Figure 4.18: The Hi spectra of J1054-18 from HIPASS. 85 CHAPTER 4. SINGG to have many Hii regions along its arms. One Hii region has also been detected by Meurer et al. (2006) in the small LSB galaxy (S3; ESO145-G018A) discovered by Nordgren et al. (1997) which is located in between S1 and S2. As shown in Figure 4.19, most of the Hi emission appears to be concentrated around the entire system. The total integrated Hi emission observed by the ATCA is 75.0 Jy km s−1, whereas, HIPASS found the total integrated flux to be 75.8 Jy km s−1. Unlike the other SINGG fields, the amount of Hi emission detected by the ATCA is comparable to that measured by HIPASS. It should be noted that the entire field contains Hi emission above 1.0 Jy km s−1enveloping all three galaxies (see the bottom image of Figure 4.19. The asymmetry at high integrated flux (top image of Figure 4.19 is highly indicative of the interaction between all three galaxies. Figure 4.20 shows the Hi spectra from HIPASS as well as the ATCA observations of this field.

HIPASS J2202-20

The SINGG field, J2202-20, contains two known emission line galaxies. Hα observations of the main galaxy, S1 (NGC 7184), clearly traces the arms of this dusty inclined Seyfert galaxy. The second galaxy, S2 (APMUKS(BJ) B220001.40-210822.0), is a small edge-on disk galaxy located to the south-east of S1. Similar to the J1054-18 field, the ATCA observations of the J2202-20 field (shown in Figure 4.21) did not have enough uv coverage which resulted in a highly elongated beam shape. Additional ATCA observations with different hour angles will be able to reduce the elongation of the beam shape. For this source, the optimal observing window for follow-up observations will be between April and June in 2008. However, there was sufficient SNR to extract a spectra, from which an integrated flux was estimated. The Hi contours suggest that most of the Hi observed belonged to the main galaxy in the field, S1. We can also infer from Figure 4.21 that the Hi distribution is asymmetrical along the major axis of S1 as more Hi emission is detected on the eastern side of the galaxy. The total Hi integrated flux was found to be 18.1 Jy km s−1. On the other hand, HIPASS found the total integrated flux of the field to be 37.7 Jy km s−1. Therefore, it’s likely that more observations with a smaller array will reveal the remaining diffuse Hi emission. Figure 4.22 shows the Hi spectra from HIPASS as well as the ATCA observations of this field.

4.3 Discussion

SINGG provides a star formation study based on Hα observations of a star-forming sample of galaxies free from biases prevalent in optically-based studies. So far, Meurer CHAPTER 4. SINGG 86

Figure 4.19: J2149-60. Top: The contour levels are at 2.7 Jy km s−1, 2.9 Jy km s−1, 3.1 Jy km s−1, 3.3 Jy km s−1, 3.5 Jy km s−1, 3.7 Jy km s−1. Bottom: The contour levels are at 1.5 Jy km s−1, 1.7 Jy km s−1, 1.9 Jy km s−1, 2.1 Jy km s−1, 2.3 Jy km s−1, 2.5 Jy km s−1. See ﬁgure 4.3 for further explanation of how this image is made. 87 CHAPTER 4. SINGG

Figure 4.20: The Hi spectra of J2149-60 from HIPASS (left) and from the ATCA (right).

Figure 4.21: J2202-20: The contour levels are at 2.0 Jy km s−1, 2.5 Jy km s−1, 3.5 Jy km s−1. See ﬁgure 4.3 for further explanation of how this image is made. CHAPTER 4. SINGG 88

Figure 4.22: The Hi spectra of J2202-20 from HIPASS (left) and from the ATCA (right).

et al. (2006) has published the first data release and the entire SINGG sample will be publicly-available and published by Meurer & Hanish (2007). The purpose of this chapter was to determine the exact amount of Hi contributed by each galaxy for SINGG fields with multiple galaxies. However, we were unable to differentiate the specific amount of Hi in most cases because (i) the total Hi observed by the ATCA does not account for all the emission observed by HIPASS and (ii) the spatial distribution of the Hi morphology are not concentrated in distinct regions around individual galaxies and appear to be distributed across multiple galaxies. There are observations of two fields (J1054-18 and J2202-20) with very elongated beam shapes. Although we do not expect to recover the full uv-coverage of these sources (due to their declination) from the ATCA, additional observations at the ATCA with different hour angles will be useful in reducing the elongation of the beam shape. To perform a more detailed study on the effects of interactions on the Hi morphology of individual galaxies, fields with less extreme beam elongation such as J0224-24 and J0342-14 will also benefit from additional ATCA observations at different hour angles as well as more compact array configurations. More ATCA observations with smaller array configurations will also enable us to study the more diffused Hi within the J0224-24 and J0342-14 fields. Apart from further Hi observations, there are also several fields comprising galaxies worth further investigation. These galaxies either exhibit an unusual star formation history or appear to be the result of tidal interactions or ram pressure. Although the interaction observed between the Horologium Dwarf (S1) and its companion (S2) does not appear to be substantial, the interaction has still caused a more turbulent Hi morphology in the Horologium Dwarf, a weak Hi bridge between the two galaxies and star formation within S1. Further kinematical analysis of this 89 CHAPTER 4. SINGG system with both observations and simulations will be able to suggest the morphology of this system after another 10 or so gigayears. This is interesting because most simulations of galaxy interactions (e.g. J0224-24 in Chapter 7) involve modelling the interaction from observations of galaxies which have already substantially interacted, whereas, in the case of the Horologium Dwarf, we have measured the empirical properties before any substantial interaction and hence, the resulting morphology can be used to compare with galaxies with known peculiar morphologies. In the case of J0403-43 (NGC 1512/1510), the Hi content is concentrated mainly in the outer arms as well as the region in and around NGC 1510 (which appears to be interacting with an inner arm of NGC 1512). Ionised Hii regions have also been found in the outer arm of NGC 1512 where the concentration of Hi knots are at its highest. More detailed kinematical observations of NGC 1510 will also determine its current trajectory and perhaps allude to evolution history of this system and explain why star formation appears so stunted in the outer arms of NGC 1512. The field J0503-63 also warrants further study. Although the interacting pair of galaxies are fairly close to each other, the observed Hi morphology of the system appears to extend south of the pair. Upon inspection of the UK Schmidt fields, there appears to be a LSB galaxy residing off the southern edge of our field which has not been catalogued in NED. Further investigation may reveal the possible relationship between the pair of galaxies studied in this chapter and this unknown LSB galaxy. The distorted and off-centred nature of the Hi morphology in the field J0504-16 also deserves further scrutiny. Although the observed morphology of the neutral gas suggests some form of interaction, not much is known about the environment or the other galaxies surrounding our primary galaxy, S1. Hence, further investigation of this field may reveal the cause of the observed asymmetries in the Hi morphology. The asymmetrical Hi morphology observed from J0514-61 (S1) is likely to be the result of an interaction. Although, Lauberts (1982) suggested that this system was in a cluster environment, the centre of this cluster is not known. To confirm the role of ram pressure stripping in this system, further study of the surrounding cluster environment is required. Through simulations, Vollmer et al. (2001) concluded that all galaxies within clusters which show some form of distorted Hi distribution are galaxies which have already passed through the centre of the cluster and are not infalling for the first time. Hence, follow-up observations of the western side of this field may reveal the rest of the cluster in which our field is located. Though preliminary, the observations presented here will be useful when combined with additional observations. As it is, our observations have already uncovered several groups of galaxies which deserve further investigation.

CHAPTER 5

SUNGG—An UV star formation study of HIPASS-selected galaxies

The three main star formation indicators observed by astronomers in star formation studies are Hα emission, ultraviolet (UV) emission and the far-infrared (FIR) emission. Hα emission (at rest wavelength λ = 6562.82 A)˚ is observed in ionized Hii regions which contain very hot young stars. These hot O-type stars have typical masses ≥ 20 M and have the ability to ionise their surrounding medium. One of the primary beneﬁts of using Hα emission as a star formation indicator is the direct connection between the detection of an ionised region and its inferred star formation rate (Kennicutt 1998). However, this connection assumes that all the massive star formation can be traced by the ionized gas. This technique is also sensitive to dust extinction as well as the assumed Initial Mass Function (IMF)1. Star formation can also be investigated using observations of UV emission. The UV emission provides a direct probe of star formation by tracing the photospheric emission of O and B-type stars (3 M < M? < 20 M ) which are also young, hot stars but are neither hot nor massive enough to produce the Hii regions. Although most of ionizing ﬂux is produced by the O-type stars, it is the B-type stars which dominate the mass, kinetic energy and metallicity return to the Interstellar Medium

(ISM; Leitherer et al. 1999). The H2 molecules can also be disassociated by the vacuum-UV photons. Hence the neutral and molecular phases of Hydrogen are kept in equilibrium in the ISM by the vacuum-UV budget. Consequently, we can directly study the massive young stars as well as investigate the inter-relationship between the ISM and the young stellar populations. The diﬀuse and extensive UV light may

1The IMF (of the form dN = km−α) deﬁnes the stellar number density as a function of the stellar mass for a given population of stars (Salpeter 1955).

91 CHAPTER 5. SUNGG 92 trace star formation in the ﬁeld which (i) may have a non-standard or varying IMF, (ii) may serve as a source population for isolated supernovae, or (iii) may be an in-situ ionisation source for the ‘Diﬀused Ionised Gas’ (DIG). However,similar to the observations of Hα emission, star formation studies based on UV surveys are very sensitive to dust extinction and are biased against LSB and/or dust-attenuated galaxies.

On the other hand, FIR surveys are biased towards galaxies with emission which have been reprocessed by dust from optical and UV light. FIR emission has been used as an indirect tracer of young stellar populations. The idea is that a considerable portion of the luminosity of a galaxy is absorbed by interstellar dust and re-emitted in the infrared (∼10–300 µm). Since the absorption cross-section of the dust peaks in the blue to UV wavelengths, a simple conclusion is that the FIR emission is a dust-reprocessed emission of the radiation from young stellar populations (Kennicutt 1998).

Hence, the sum of the SFR measured by the FIR and the UV recovers the total (or bolometric) amount of SFR within a galaxy (as indicated by the hot young stars). In this project, the bolometric star formation rates will be measured by adding the observed SFR from the UV emission to that of FIR observations. More details of our bolometric measurements can be found in Chapter 6.

So far, most star formation studies (such as SINGG) are based on ground-based Hα imaging. As B-type stars are more abundant than O-type stars, UV observations provide the means to trace the distribution of stars most responsible for the heating and the restructuring of the interstellar medium (ISM). With the launch of the GALEX UV satellite telescope, we are able to study the star forming Universe in the UV wavelengths free from extinction caused by Earth’s atmosphere.

We present an UV star formation study—the Survey of Ultraviolet emission in Neutral Gas Galaxies (SUNGG) in this chapter. The SUNGG sample, its observations and processing will be described in Sections 5.1 and 5.2. Section 5.3 discusses the results and properties of the current SUNGG sample. An analysis of the diﬀer- ent methods currently used to estimate the internal dust extinction within galaxies observed in the UV will be discussed in Section 5.3.2. A comparison between the Hi and UV properties of our sample can be found in Section 5.3.3, while a comparison of the star formation properties from the SUNGG survey with that of the SINGG survey is detailed in Section 5.3.4. Section 5.4 summarises the results of this chapter. 93 CHAPTER 5. SUNGG

5.1 The SUNGG sample

Our sample is an Hi-selected sample. The ultimate parent sample is the HIPASS survey (Koribalski et al. 2004c; Meyer et al. 2004). Meurer et al. (2006) selected 468 HIPASS targets for the Survey for Ionization in Neutral Gas Galaxy (SINGG), which is an Hα follow-up survey to HIPASS. Their selection is aimed at studying the star formation properties of all star-forming galaxies uniformly across the entire Hi mass function sampled by HIPASS (with no prior knowledge of the optical properties). The

SINGG survey sampled 180 galaxies per decade of log(MHI) for 8.0 ≤ log (MHI/M ) < 10.6 (Meurer et al. 2006). We in turn selected our sample from the SINGG selection with the intention of studying the star formation properties of the same galaxies in the UV using the Galaxy Evolution Explorer (GALEX) UV satellite telescope. Our selection criteria and sample properties are described in this section.

5.1.1 Source selection criteria

The purpose of our selection criteria is to obtain the optimal balance between the acquisition of a statistically- signiﬁcant sample of sources (which adequately samples rare subtypes of galaxies) and the availability of time on the Galaxy Evolution Ex- plorer (GALEX) UV satellite telescope. Due to high oversubscription rates for the use of GALEX, only 10 sources per 0.2 dex in Hi mass were targeted by SUNGG. However, this sample size is large enough to allow a search for more unusual objects such as galaxies with signiﬁcant Hi masses but very low star formation rates to galaxies with low MHI and very high SFR. The selection criteria for the SUNGG sample are as follows:

1. Galaxies located away from the Galactic plane (|b| > 30◦).

2. Galaxies located in regions of low Galactic dust attenuation (E(B−V ) < 0.07).

3. Galaxies in ﬁelds containing over-bright foreground stars are avoided.

4. Galaxies positioned at low inclinations and with optical axial ratios a/b < 4.

Objects positioned at high inclinations are avoided because of the large expected path length of dust through the disk, the difficulty in Hii or diffused ionized gas (DIG) discrimination and the difficulty in deducing the dynamics of highly-inclined objects. The final proposed SUNGG sample contained 136 GALEX fields where 90 fields are unique to the SUNGG project and the remaining GALEX fields are obtained from the GALEX archives. CHAPTER 5. SUNGG 94

Table 5.1: Summary of the number of galaxies found in the 118 SUNGG ﬁelds.

Total ﬁelds 118 Total HIPASS targets 142 Total galaxies 169 SINGG galaxies 141 Matches with SR1 & SR2 111 Non-SINGG extra HIPASS sources 28 HIPASS sources with multiple galaxies 18

5.1.2 Sample properties

In this chapter, we present the preliminary results of SUNGG based on the far- ultraviolet (FUV; 1515A)˚ and near-ultraviolet (NUV; 2273A)˚ observations of 118 galaxy fields using the GALEX satellite telescope. It should be noted that the GALEX field of view is 1.2◦ in diameter and as such, extra HIPASS sources are occasionally imaged as well as the original SUNGG target. We have included these extra targets in our sample. A summary of the source numbers and distributions described in this paper can be found in Table 5.1. As shown in Table 5.1, multiple galaxies were identified in 18 out of 142 HIPASS targets. Most of the multiple galaxy systems were identified as emission line galaxies in the SINGG images (Meurer & Hanish 2007; Meurer et al. 2006). In addition, two HIPASS sources were identified to be in multiple galaxies systems using the NED database. We measured the UV properties of all components of the multiple systems. Both the SINGG data release and the SUNGG observations are still in progress and have yet to be completed. As shown in Figure 5.1, the Hi mass distribution of the SINGG and SUNGG samples are evenly spreaded across the mass bins and most of the SUNGG fields have been observed. Appendix B lists the Hi properties of the 118 originally-proposed SUNGG galaxies presented in this paper. Table 5.2 explains the columns of parameters found in Appendix B.

5.2 Observations

GALEX, the UV satellite telescope, is classiﬁed as a NASA Small Explorer mission which weigh approximately 500 pounds or less and orbits 428 miles above Earth at an inclination of 29 degrees to the equator. It is equipped with an imager and several grisms (for spectroscopy). The primary purpose of GALEX is to investigate the evolution of star formation in galaxies (Martin et al. 2005). 95 CHAPTER 5. SUNGG

Figure 5.1: Distribution of Hi mass for the SUNGG sample. The top panel shows the Hi mass distribution of HICAT (non-shaded histogram) and the complete SUNGG sample (shaded in dark gray). The bottom panel presents the mass distribution of the SUNGG sample where the dark gray histogram represents the SUNGG sample presented in this paper and the striped histogram represents the remaining SUNGG sample. CHAPTER 5. SUNGG 96

Table 5.2: Parameter description of Table B.1.

Column Parameter Units Description 1 HIPASS name — HIPASS name of source 2 Optical ID — Optical identification of the HIPASS source 3 RA hr:min:secs HIPASS right ascension (J2000) 4 Dec deg:min:secs HIPASS declination (J2000) −1 5 VHEL km s Heliocentric velocity from HIPASS 6 W km s−1 Velocity width from HIPASS 7 SPEAK Jansky Peak Hi flux density from HIPASS −1 8 SINT Jansky km s Integrated Hi flux from HIPASS 9 Distance Megaparsec Distance calculated from the multipole attractor model 10 Log (MHI) log(M ) Logarithmic Hi mass 11 Original? — Explains if the source is an original SUNGG source or an extra

Table 5.3: SUNGG’s observing parameters

Parameter Value Field of view (circular) 1.2◦ FUV band 1350 - 1750 A˚ NUV band 1750 - 2750 A˚ FUV angular resolution 5.0 arc second FWHM NUV angular resolution 5.5 arc second FWHM Astrometry 1 arc second (rms) Sensitivity (for 1.5ks) 27.5 (AB mag arcsec−2)

Using GALEX, we obtain simultaneous FUV and NUV observations for a nominal 1500 seconds per pointing. Figure 5.2 shows the distribution of exposure times of the SUNGG sample presented here. Most of the SUNGG fields have exposure times longer than 1500 seconds. Appendix C details the observing properties of each SUNGG field presented here. The SUNGG observations follow similar observational configurations to the GALEX Nearby Galaxies Survey (NGS). The basic properties of the SUNGG observations are summarized in Table 5.3 (Martin et al. 2005). More details regarding the GALEX instruments and mission can be found in Martin et al. (2005) and Morrissey et al. (2005).

5.2.1 Data processing

The GALEX observations are delivered once the data has been calibrated by the pipeline developed by the GALEX team. Details of their data pipeline can be found in GALEX-TEAM (2005) and Wyder (2004). The conversion from GALEX counts 97 CHAPTER 5. SUNGG

Figure 5.2: Distribution of exposure times for the SUNGG sample. The top panel shows the NUV exposure times distribution and the bottom panel describes the FUV exposure times distribution.

per second (C) to ﬂux density (f) is :

−1 −2 −1 −15 fFUV [ergs s cm A˚ ] = 1.40 × 10 × C (5.1) −1 −2 −1 −16 fNUV [ergs s cm A˚ ] = 2.06 × 10 × C where fFUV and fNUV represent the FUV and the NUV ﬂux densities, respectively. Likewise, the GALEX C can also be converted to AB magnitudes (m) using:

mFUV [AB mag] = −2.5 log (C) + 18.82 (5.2) mNUV [AB mag] = −2.5 log (C) + 20.08 where mFUV and mNUV correspond to the AB magnitudes of the the FUV and NUV observations. Using the observations (described in the previous section), we produced three color images for some of the galaxies with both SINGG and SUNGG observations. For these galaxies; the R-band, the Hα and the FUV images are matched and aligned to the positions of the sources in the NUV images. Since the NUV images have the CHAPTER 5. SUNGG 98 poorest resolution, all the images from the other wavebands are also rebinned to this resolution before the images are combined into three color images. The only exception are the three color images which do not include NUV images. In this case, the SINGG images are matched, aligned and convolved to the resolution of the corresponding FUV image. Surface brightness profiles were determined for each of the SUNGG sources. The position angles and the axial ratios of each of the galaxies were determined by fitting ellipses to the observed morphology of each galaxy. The ellipses were fitted using a least squares fit to an isophote. The algorithm used is adapted from the algorithm used to estimate the position angles of the SINGG galaxies (Meurer et al. 2006). To mask our fields of other sources and produce maps of our masks, we re- generated source catalogues of the GALEX fields in the same way described by Wyder (2004) using SExtractor (Bertin & Arnouts 1996). The map derived from SExtractor is a segmentation image where each pixel records the catalogue entry number of the source to which it belongs. Combined with the NED catalogues of all the sources within 1.2 degrees of the source, we generated a complete source catalogue of the GALEX field. A maskfile is generated using this complete source catalogue. The sources within the catalogue are then divided into star-like or galaxy- like objects depending on its size and F UV − NUV color. A red (F UV − NUV > 1) and compact object was considered to be a star, while a blue object of any shape was considered to be a galaxy. An object was considered compact if its FWHM ≤

FWHMmode + 2FWHMσ where FWHMmode is the mode FWHM and FWHMσ is the standard deviation of the FWHM distribution of the sources within the field. This is shown by the region marked out by the dotted lines in Figure 5.3 of all the sources catalogued in the SUNGG field, J1051-17. The red sources which are larger than the FWHM cutoff are found due to edge effects from the GALEX field of view. As can be seen in the two-colour GALEX image of this field (Figure 5.4), there are no obvious large red objects within this field. The division of sources into stars and galaxies also allows for ease of comparison between the SExtractor catalogue and the NED-generated catalogue since NED only lists galaxies and not stars. Figure 5.5 shows an example NUV field, J0145-43, and its corresponding map of all the objects which were masked. A buffer is then created around each pixel that is already masked by convolving the masked pixels with a circular tophat function with a radius of three pixels. The fluxes from the masked objects are excluded in the total flux measurement of our target galaxies. The surface brightness profile and the total flux of each SUNGG source is then generated after the masking. It should be noted that the fluxes are obtained using the same aperture in both the NUV and the FUV. Subsequently, the FUV and NUV cumulative curves 99 CHAPTER 5. SUNGG

Figure 5.3: A colour (F UV − NUV ) versus size plot of all the sources found in the SUNGG ﬁeld, J1051-17. The dotted lines mark the region where a source is considered a star.

of growth are generated for each SUNGG source.

5.2.2 Determining the surface brightness proﬁle

In addition to the position, inclination and position angle of each source; a sky annulus is specified around the source in order to estimate accurately the sky background around the source. Generally, the size of the annuli depends on the proximity of bright foreground stars to the target galaxy. On average, this sky annuli is ∼ 55 arc second in radius from the outer edge of the source. The sky background level is estimated by dividing the sky annulus into bins and the median flux detection from each binned sky region is used as the sky background level. The dispersion of the bin values is used to derive the sky background uncertainty. The default bin sizes are 5.0 arc second and 5.5 arc second for the FUV and NUV images, respectively. The FUV and NUV emission from our target galaxies are also measured in a similar fashion where the entire galaxy is divided into annuli (or circle at the centre) extending out from the centre of the source. As the surface brightness profile shows the surface brightness of a galaxy relative to its radius, the SUNGG profiles are generated by subtracting the sky background level from the average intensity calculated from a region. The total flux of the source is calculated by summing the total intensity measured for the entire source. The algorithm used to determine the CHAPTER 5. SUNGG 100

Figure 5.4: A two-colour GALEX image of the SUNGG ﬁeld, J1051-17, where the FUV and NUV emission is represented by the blue and red colours, respectively. 101 CHAPTER 5. SUNGG

Figure 5.5: Example of the masking procedure for the field J0145-43. The NUV image of the J0145-43 field is shown on the left and on the right, the image of all the masked objects (shown in black and white) is shown. surface brightness profiles is adapted from existing scripts by David Thilker.

5.2.3 Removal of foreground dust absorption

UV observations are frequently obscured by dust. There are two basic dust calibrations required to recover these missing ﬂux; one is to account for the foreground Galactic dust extinction and the other is to account for the internal extinction intrinsic to each galaxy. The foreground Galactic extinction is corrected using the reddening maps from Schlegel et al. (1998) as well as assuming the extinction law of Cardelli et al. (1989). Similar to Seibert et al. (2005), the foreground reddening corrections used are

AFUV/E(B − V ) = 8.29 and ANUV/E(B − V ) = 8.18.

5.3 Properties and results

5.3.1 SUNGG properties

From the data processing methods (described in Section 3.1), we measured the position of the source at the central brightest point. Using this reference position, position angles, axial ratios, median sky background level and the sky background uncertainty were calculated. We determined the FUV and NUV surface brightness proﬁles and curves of growth for each SUNGG galaxy and deduced the ﬂux densi- CHAPTER 5. SUNGG 102

Figure 5.6: Seeing distribution for the SUNGG sample. The top and bottom panels show the distribution of FWHM of sources within the NUV and FUV ﬁelds respectively. The dotted lines in each plot marks the median of the respective distribution.

ties, absolute magnitude, luminosity and half-light radius for the available SUNGG sample. Figure 5.6 shows the distributions of the FWHM of the sources (i.e. GALEX PSF) within the NUV and FUV ﬁelds of the SUNGG sample. As can be seen, the median seeing of the NUV and FUV ﬁelds are 6.6 arc second and 5.5 arc second respectively. The axial ratio2 (a/b) distribution of the current SUNGG sample is as shown in Figure 5.7. As expected, most of the SUNGG sources are at low inclinations because of SINGG’s preference for face-on galaxies. Figure 5.8 shows the distributions of the median sky background level and the median sky RMS of both the FUV and NUV distributions. The medians of the respective distributions are marked by red vertical lines. The median background levels are 4.7 × 10−4 and 4.1 × 10−3 counts/second/pixel−2 for the FUV and NUV observations respectively. The median background RMS for the FUV is 4.7 × 10−8

2The axial ratio is the ratio of the major to minor axis 103 CHAPTER 5. SUNGG

Figure 5.7: Distribution of the axial ratios of the current SUNGG sample.

Figure 5.8: SUNGG distributions of the median sky level (left) and the median sky RMS (right). The FUV and the NUV distributions are represented by the solid line and the dotted line, respectively. The solid red line shows the median of the FUV distributions, while the dotted red line shows the median of the NUV distributions. CHAPTER 5. SUNGG 104

Figure 5.9: Comparison between FUV and NUV properties. Left: the absolute magnitude (without internal dust correction) as a function of the UV colour. Right: the ratio of half-light radii between the FUV and NUV observations as a function of the NUV half-light radius. counts/second/pix−2, while that of the NUV is 3.4 × 10−7 counts/second/pix−2. Although FUV is the more accurate star formation indicator, previous studies have also used NUV as a SFR indicator (e.g. Iglesias-Páramo et al. 2006). As we have both FUV and NUV observations of each source, we can examine the correlation between the FUV and the NUV emission of normal star-forming galaxies. We compare the FUV properties with that of the NUV properties. As can be seen in Figure 5.9, many galaxies from our Hi-selected sample span the F UV − NUV range of zero to one. There are also four SUNGG galaxies (NGC0908, NGC0907, IC0223 & NGC0899) for which the UV colour is significantly bluer (F UV − NUV = −1.3) than the rest of the sample. This may suggest that there is an unusually high abundance of young B-type stars in these four galaxies. However, the surface brightness profiles of all four galaxies (see Figure 5.10 and Figure 5.11) show a significant offset in brightness between the FUV and NUV observations. It is likely that this difference is due to possible errors within the zeropoint corrections in the GALEX processing pipeline. The comparison between the NUV half-light radii and the ratio of the FUV half- light radii to the NUV half-light radii shows a very good correlation between the FUV and NUV curves of growth (see Figure 5.9). The object with the largest ratio is the nearby galaxy, NGC 1365, which has a very red centre relative to the rest of the galaxy and hence the NUV observations has a much smaller half-light radius. Figure 5.12 shows the curve of growth of NGC 1365. Likewise the nearby galaxy, FUV NUV NGC 1672, also has a relatively large ratio (Reff /Reff = 2.0) in comparison to the rest of the sample due to its redder centre. We will release the SUNGG sample properties database in the form of an IDL database as opposed to a single text table due to the number of measured properties. 105 CHAPTER 5. SUNGG

Figure 5.10: Surface brightness profiles of NGC0908 (left) and NGC0907 (right). The NUV profile is represented by the dotted line and the FUV profile is represented by the solid line.

Figure 5.11: Surface brightness profiles of IC0223 (left) and NGC0899 (right). The NUV profile is represented by the dotted line and the FUV profile is represented by the solid line. CHAPTER 5. SUNGG 106

Figure 5.12: Curve of growth (cumulative ﬂux distribution) of NGC1365. The solid line shows the FUV curve of growth and the dashed line shows the NUV curve of growth. The vertical dashed line shows the NUV half-light radius, while, the vertical solid line shows the FUV half-light radius.

However for the purposes of this thesis, the SUNGG properties, surface brightness proﬁles and GALEX images of the SUNGG ﬁelds can be found in Appendix D and Appendix E. This database will be publicly-available at .

5.3.2 Measuring internal dust extinction

The corrections for the internal dust extinctions are very complicated; as most of the correction prescriptions have been derived for starburst galaxies instead of normal star-forming galaxies. These corrections derived from starburst galaxies inevitably overestimate the dust attenuation intrinsic to regular galaxies and the derived SF RD is strongly dependent upon this correction factor (e.g. Schiminovich et al. 2005). Moreover, the dust attenuation of individual galaxies is highly dependent upon their star formation history (e.g. Calzetti et al. 2005; Cortese et al. 2006). Currently, the best investigation of the dust-induced UV attenuation for regular star-forming galaxies is by Buat et al. (2005). The method proposed only depends on the availability of FIR observations. Buat et al. (2005) derived the UV attenuation

(A) as a function of the ratio between the total infrared ﬂux density (FTIR) and the 107 CHAPTER 5. SUNGG

3 UV ﬂux density (FFUV and FNUV ). For observations in the FUV,

A(F UV ) = −0.0333X3 + 0.3522X2 + 1.1960X + 0.4967 (5.3) where X = log(FTIR/FFUV) and the observations in the NUV can be corrected via,

A(NUV ) = −0.0495Y 3 + 0.4718Y 2 + 0.8998Y + 0.2269 (5.4) where Y = log(FTIR/FNUV). In both cases, FTIR was determined using the observed 60 µm and 100 µm ﬂux densities using the formulation from Dale et al. (2001):

2 3 4 log(FTIR) = log(FFIR) + 0.2738 − 0.0282r + 0.7281r + 0.6208r + 0.9118r (5.5)

−14 where r = log(f60/f100) and FFIR = 1.26 × 10 (2.58f60 + f100) (Helou et al. 1988). −1 The 60 µm and 100 µm ﬂux densities are in units of Jy arcsec and both FUV and −2 −2 FTIR are in W m arcsec . However, only 68 sources within our sample has been catalogued by the IRAS4 Point Source Catalog (Wheelock et al. 1994). Hence, until further FIR observations of our sample are obtained, we will not be able to determine the eﬀects of the internal dust extinction for more than half our sample. Fortunately, recent work by Boissier et al. (2006) studied a sample of 43 regular star-forming late-type galaxies using observations from IRAS and GALEX. Their result is the most recent study of normal star-forming galaxies (as opposed to starbursts) and they found an empirical relationship between the UV colour

(F UV − NUV ) and the ratio of the FTIR-to-FFUV to be:

F log TIR = log (100.57+0.671(F UV −NUV ) − 3.22) (5.6) FFUV

Using such a relationship, we can estimate the internal dust extinction for our entire FUV sample as all our FUV sources have complementary NUV observations.

Figure 5.13 compares the ANUV values estimated using the methods by Buat et al. (2005) and Calzetti (2001) for the 68 galaxies with both FUV and IRAS observations. The Pearson correlation (R-coefficient) is 0.60, indicating a correlation at the 99.9% confidence level. The linear fit (as shown by the solid line) is

ANUV−BUAT = 0.61ANUV−CALZETTI + 0.27. As expected, Figure 5.13 shows that the ANUV estimated via the Calzetti (2001) method generally overestimates that of Buat et al. (2005) by almost a factor of two since the Calzetti (2001) method is an

3 Generalised ﬂuxes: Fλ = λfλ = νfν 4Infrared Astronomical Satellite CHAPTER 5. SUNGG 108

Figure 5.13: Comparison between the ANUV derived using the Calzetti (2001) method (ANUV CALZ) and the Buat et al. (2005) method (ANUV BUAT). The solid line is the best linear ﬁt to the data and the dotted line shows the line of one-to-one correlation.

empirical result for starburst rather than regular star-forming galaxies. Using the sample of 68 sources, we derived the correlation between the F UV −

NUV color and the infrared excess, log10(FTIR/FFUV) (see Figure 5.14). The FTIR were calculated from IRAS and the error bars on the datapoints were determined using bootstrapping re-sampling. The 10th and 90th percentile uncertainties are shown. The R-coefficient is 0.68—a correlation at 99.9% level. In Figure 5.14, we have also included the fits derived by other recent dust attenuation studies by Boissier et al. (2006) (solid line), Gil de Paz et al. (2006) (dotted line) and Cortese et al. (2006) (dashed line). Our datapoints do not appear to specifically favour any of the three fits. It should be noted that the fit by Cortese et al. (2006) uses the UV spectral slope (β) defined by Kong et al. (2004) even though their sample set consists of normal star-forming galaxies as oppose to the starburst sample used by Kong et al. (2004).

Similar to the fit by Boissier et al. (2006), we estimated the fit between log 10(FTIR/FNUV) as a function of the F UV − NUV using a gradient-expansion algorithm to compute a non-linear least squares fit from the 68 sources to be:

F log TIR = log (10−0.077+1.73(F UV −NUV ) − 0.74) (5.7) FNUV 109 CHAPTER 5. SUNGG

Figure 5.14: The infrared excess (log10(FTIR/FFUV)) as a function of the F UV − NUV color for our sample of galaxies. The thick black solid line is a ﬁt to our data, while the gray solid line is the ﬁt found by Boissier et al. (2006). The dotted and dashed lines represent the correlations found by Gil de Paz et al. (2006) and Cortese et al. (2006), respectively. CHAPTER 5. SUNGG 110

Figure 5.15: The infrared excess (log10(FTIR/FNUV)) as a function of the F UV − NUV color for our sample of galaxies. The thick black solid line is a ﬁt to our data.

To test the validity of using the dust correction method of Boissier et al. (2006) −2 −1 on our sample, we derived FTIR in W m arcsec (from our sample of 68 sources with both FUV and IRAS observations) via two different ways: i) by using the F UV − NUV colors and the fits by Boissier et al. (2006) and Equation 5.7, and ii) by using the available IRAS flux densities.

It should be noted that the derivation of FTIR via the F UV −NUV calibration by Boissier et al. (2006) is only valid for sources with F UV −NUV ≥ −0.09. Figure 5.16 shows the comparison between the two FTIR values derived from the Boissier et al. (2006) colour calibration and that from IRAS observations. The linear ﬁt to our Dale colour datapoints (as shown by the solid line) is logFTIR = 0.8(logFTIR ) − 2.0. The colour Dale mean of log (FTIR /FTIR ) is −0.09 and the standard deviation is 0.36. The R-value between the two FTIR values is 0.75, inferring a correlation at a 99.9% conﬁdence level.

Likewise, we also compared the FTIR values determined from IRAS to the FTIR estimated using Equation 5.7 for our NUV sample (see Figure 5.17). The linear ﬁt BUAT COLOR (shown by the solid line) is logFTIR = 0.8(logFTIR ) − 2.5. The mean of log COLOR BUAT (FTIR /FTIR ) is 0.18 and the standard deviation is 0.34. The Pearson correlation value between the two FTIR values is 0.80, inferring a correlation at a 99.9% 111 CHAPTER 5. SUNGG

colour Figure 5.16: Comparison between the FTIR values derived using the F UV − NUV colors (FTIR ) Dale and the Dale et al. (2001) deﬁnition (FTIR ). The solid line shows the line of best ﬁt, while the dotted line shows the line of one-to-one correlation. CHAPTER 5. SUNGG 112

BUAT Figure 5.17: Comparison between the FTIR derived using the IRAS ﬂux densities and the COLOR FTIR estimated from our simple colour calibration. The solid line is the best linear ﬁt to the data and the dotted line shows the line of one-to-one correlation.

conﬁdence level. −0.4 The median AFUV in the GALEX bands found by Buat et al. (2005) is 1.1+0.5. Using the method by Buat et al. (2005), we deduced the AFUV for the SUNGG sample with both FUV and IRAS observations (68 sources) and found that the median AFUV −0.7 for our sample is 1.4+1.1 where the −0.7 and +1.1 are the 10 and 90 percentile values. Likewise, the median ANUV found for our sample is 0.96. Therefore, we assume

ANUV = 0.96 for those sources in our sample which has only been observed in the NUV. Although Gil de Paz et al. (2006) showed evidence for a strong IRX-β correlation in regular spiral galaxies, the observed scatter in Figure 5.16 suggests that the UV continuum slope (traced by the F UV − NUV color) is not a reliable indicator of the dust attenuation in regular galaxies which are not experiencing strong starburst. This is in agreement with previous work by (Bell 2002; Buat et al. 2005; Kong et al. 2004) that the UV continuum slope (traced by the FUV-NUV color) is not a reliable indicator of the dust attenuation in regular galaxies which are not experiencing strong starburst. The most recent of these investigations (by Panuzzo et al. 2007) argued that younger stars suffer higher dust attenuation than older stars and as the young stars become more obscured at dustier environments, the NUV flux becomes 113 CHAPTER 5. SUNGG dominated by the older stellar population, while the FUV is still mostly provided by the young stars. As such, the F UV − NUV can be the result of the dependence on the age of the different stellar populations as opposed to the reddening properties of dust. Hence, it should be noted that there are large uncertainties attached to our internal dust corrections due to the lack of IRAS observations for most of our sources. However, the correction used is the best available for the current dataset. This is because it is more consistent to use a single method to estimate AFUV and ANUV for our entire sample. Therefore, until further follow-up FIR observations are made with the Spitzer Space Telescope, internal dust extinction corrections will contain significant amount of uncertainties. We present all the derived properties with and without internal dust correction. Throughout this thesis, values uncorrected for internal dust extinction are denoted with a prime (0) symbol. It should be noted that A(F UV ) is assumed to be zero if the derived value is below zero. This implies the sources is bluer than the intrinsic color (F UV − NUV < −0.0926) of the normal galaxies in the Boissier et al. (2006) sample.

5.3.3 Comparing Hi properties to UV properties

Hi has long been associated with star-forming regions and FUV emission corresponds to the radiation emitted by young stars. As such, we examine the relationship between the FUV flux density as a function of the Hi content of the galaxies (i.e.˙ the total integrated Hi flux). Firstly, we examine this relationship using the FUV flux 0 density with no internal dust correction (FFUV) as a function of the Hi integrated flux (SINT) for the SUNGG galaxies. 0 Figure 5.18 shows fFUV as a function of SINT. The SUNGG sources are divided into sources with (denoted by the gray open circles) and without (denoted by black solid dots) companions within 7.50. The sample is divided because the FWHM of 0 HIPASS (from which SINT is derived) is 14.3 and as such will not be able to resolve the Hi emission from individual galaxies with neighbouring galaxies within ∼7.50. Within our sample with FUV observations, we found 16 fields where there were multiple galaxies. As such, the sum of the FUV flux density in each pointing is compared to SINT. The linear fit of the SUNGG sources without companions (shown 0 with the black solid line) is log (fFUV) = 1.1 log (SINT) −14.9, while the linear fit 0 of SUNGG sources with companions (shown with the gray solid line) is log (fFUV) = 0.9 log (SINT) −14.7. These linear fits suggest that as galaxies in groups with −1 more Hi (log (SINT) < 1.5 Jy kms ) appear to form fewer young stars than isolated CHAPTER 5. SUNGG 114

Figure 5.18: FUV flux density (with no internal dust correction) as a function of the Hi integrated flux. The black dots represent the SUNGG sources which have no companions, while, the grey open circles represent the SUNGG sources with companions. The solid black line is the linear fit for the black dots and the solid gray line is the linear fit for the gray dots. The lines of constant gas consumption timescales (τ) are shown by the dotted lines where the different τ are labelled beneath each line. 115 CHAPTER 5. SUNGG

Figure 5.19: FUV flux density (with internal dust correction) as a function of the Hi integrated flux. The black dots represent the SUNGG sources which have no companions, while, the gray open circles represent the SUNGG sources with companions. The solid black line is the linear fit for the black dots and the solid gray line is the linear fit for the gray dots. The lines of constant gas consumption timescales (τ) are shown by the dotted lines where the different τ are labelled beneath each line.

galaxies with similar amount of SINT. The R-values 0.87 and 0.71 were found for the SUNGG sources with single and multiple galaxies, respectively, inferring correlations at the 99.9% level for all the SUNGG sources. Assuming the Hi is consumed during the process of star formation, we can calculate the gas consumption time (tgas)—the time required for star formation to deplete the existing gas content at the current star formation rate. We use the relation tgas ≈ 2.3(MHI/SF R) where we adopt a uniform ratio of 2.3 between the combined molecular and neutral ISM mass and MHI following Young et al. (1996). The lines of diﬀerent gas consumption timescales (τ) are shown by the dotted lines in Figure 5.18. With no internal dust correction, the majority of our sample appear to have gas consumption timescales between 8 and 120 Gyrs. Although our sample consists of galaxies with a wide range of τ, we can conclude that the size of the young stellar population do correlate to the neutral gas content of a galaxy. It should be noted that Hi has also been thought to be by-products of star formation in certain star formation models (e.g. Taylor & Webster 2005). Accounting for internal dust extinction, we found that the FUV ﬂux density CHAPTER 5. SUNGG 116

Figure 5.20: The Hi content (MHI) of the SUNGG sources without companions as a function of their star formation rate (SF R).

0 (fFUV) is as highly-correlated to SINT as fFUV is to SINT. The R-coefficients for log (fFUV) and log (SINT) are 0.89 and 0.75 for the SUNGG sources with single and multiple galaxies, respectively. Figure 5.19 shows fFUV as a function of SINT for the SUNGG sources. Similar to Figure 5.18, the SUNGG sources without companions are denoted by the black dots, while the sources with companions are represented by the grey open circles. The linear fit of the SUNGG galaxies without companions is log (fFUV) = 1.2 log (SINT) −14.5, while the linear fit of SUNGG sources with companions is log (fFUV) = 0.9 log (SINT) −14.1. Using the lines of constant τ (shown by the dotted lines) in Figure 5.19, most of our sample appear to have gas consumption timescales between 3 and 20 Gyr. Both Figure 5.18 and Figure 5.19 confirm that galaxies containing Hi are also galaxies with hot, young O or B-type stars (as indicated by the FUV emission) and vice versa. A galaxy’s SFR can be calculated using the relationship between the SFR and −28 the FUV luminosity, SF R = 1.4×10 LFUV, where LFUV is the FUV luminosity in the units of ergs s−1 Hz−1 (Kennicutt 1998). Figure 5.20 illustrates the relationship between the ratio of Hi mass to the SFR and MHI. The linear fit is log(MHI) = 10.7 - 0.1 log (SF R). However, there is no significant correlation between the two parameters. Similar to Figure 5.19, many galaxies appear to lie in the gas consump- 117 CHAPTER 5. SUNGG

Table 5.4: Objects which appear in both the ﬁrst SINGG data release as well as the current SUNGG data release.

HIPASS Name Optical ID J0005-28 ESO409-IG015 J0031-22 ESO473-G024 J0135-41 NGC625 J0145-43 ESO245-G005 J0240-08 NGC1042 J0309-41 ESO300-G014 J0310-39 ESO300-G016 J0317-41 NGC1291 J0351-38 ESO302-G014 J0355-42 NGC1487 J0359-45 Horologium Dwarf J0403-43 NGC1512 J0459-26 NGC1744 J0506-31 NGC1800 J0512-32 UGCA106 J2149-60 NGC7125 J2222-48 ESO238-G005 J2257-41 NGC7424

tion timescale range of 2 to 20 Gyr. Other SFR indicators (Hanish et al. 2006,e.g.

Hα; ) have also been found to produce SFR correlations to the MHI, however, all the fits are slightly different because each star formation indicator is sensitive to star formation over very different time-scales.

5.3.4 Comparing SINGG & SUNGG

Currently, there are 111 SUNGG sources for which SINGG data has been processed. Of the 111 SUNGG sources, 98 have been observed in the FUV waveband. We compare the star formation properties from the Hα and the FUV as they probe diﬀerent aspects of star formation. As such, three-color composite images combining both SINGG and SUNGG observations will show both the distribution of Hii (from Hα) which is presumably ionized by O-type stars, as well as the combined O-type and B-type star distribution (from the UV). Table 5.4 presents the 18 SUNGG galaxies found in SR1. We combined both the SINGG and SUNGG images to produce three color composite images of the galaxies in order to compare the diﬀerent star formation pictures presented by both surveys. Due to SUNGG’s poorer resolution, the SINGG images CHAPTER 5. SUNGG 118

Figure 5.21: Three colour composite image of NGC7424. The top image shows the Hα (in red), the optical R-band (in green) and the FUV (in blue). The bottom image shows the optical R-band (in red), the NUV (in green) and the FUV (in blue). 119 CHAPTER 5. SUNGG

Figure 5.22: Three colour composite image of NGC1512. The top image shows the Hα (in red), the optical R-band (in green) and the FUV (in blue). The bottom image shows the optical R-band (in red), the NUV (in green) and the FUV (in blue). CHAPTER 5. SUNGG 120

Figure 5.23: The FUV-to-Hα ratio of SFR values as a function of Hi mass. The solid line shows the linear ﬁt to the points and the dotted line shows the hypothetical line where the SFR measured by both the FUV and Hα were equal.

are convolved to the resolution of the SUNGG images and matched before the images are combined. Two of the galaxies which best showcase the regions with star formation traced solely by FUV emission with no observed Hα emission are NGC 7424 and NGC 1512. As can be seen from the combined SINGG and SUNGG images of NGC 7424 (see Figure 5.21), the FUV observation traces star formation in entire sections of the outer arms, as opposed to the star-forming regions traced by the Hα which appear as isolated, compact regions not directly connected to the galaxy itself. A good example of this is the ‘rebel’ arm located in the galaxy’s north-east which appears in the FUV to be extending away from the general direction of the galaxy. This arm is not apparent in the Hα in the SINGG observations. SINGG’s observations of NGC 1512 (Figure 5.22) only show a compact spiral core of the galaxy with vague traces of the extravagant spiral arms. On the other hand, the SUNGG observations show distinct spiral arms extending a long distance away from the galaxy’s core. It should be noted that these arms are perfectly traced by the Hi morphology of this galaxy which was presented in the previous chapter. The source of FUV emission (B-type stars) accounts for a larger percentage of the young stellar population than the very hot O-type stars which ionise regions 121 CHAPTER 5. SUNGG observable by the Hα emission. In addition to this, Thilker (2007) found that ∼ 20% to 30% of the Galex Nearby Galaxy sample (Gil de Paz et al. 2006) contain extended UV (XUV) disks. As such, we expect FUV observations to yield a higher SFR than Hα measurements. Figure 5.23 validates this notion that on average, SUNGG recovers more star formation than SINGG for the same galaxy. The linear fit found for our sample is log (SF RFUV/SF RHα) = −0.12 log (MHI) + 1.37. However, the correlation is weak (R-coefficient = −0.29). This result also shows that the SFR from both the FUV and Hα measurements converge for galaxies with high MHI. Thus inferring that Hα is a less effective tracer of star formation in galaxies at lower masses. Differences between the measured star formation rates may arise from uncertainties within stellar models. For example, recent calibrations (Martins et al. 2005) of O-type star properties found that the improved stellar models resulted in a lower ionizing flux output than those previously predicted by Vacca et al. (1996). There- fore, the star formation rates derived from Hα measurements may be overestimations of the true amount of SFR observed from the Hα emission. If this is true then an increase in the difference between the SFR calculated from SINGG and SUNGG is predicted. The measured SFR is also likely to change depending on the IMF used to derive the relationship between the luminosity and the SFR. In all our calculations, we have assumed the Salpeter IMF with a power-law index, α = 2.35. Although massive stars

(above 1 M ) are well-described by a Salpeter IMF (Chabrier 2005), another review of the IMF by Kroupa (2002) suggested that a Scalo IMF with a power-law index, α = 2.7, provides a better description of the true IMF of massive stars. Based on the stellar evolutionary models of Schaller et al. (1992), Kennicutt et al. (1994) found that the use of a Scalo IMF will increase the estimated SFR determined from the Hα emission. On the other hand, both SINGG and SUNGG are tracing the O and B stars from the upper-end (in mass) of the IMF and therefore, if the change in IMF were to increase the SFR measured from Hα, the SFR from FUV will also increase similarly. A change in IMF is likely to aﬀect both the SINGG and SUNGG measurements in the same manner and thus would not explain the diﬀerences observed between the two measures.

5.4 Summary

We presented the first SUNGG data release consisting of 118 SUNGG fields observed in the FUV and NUV wavelengths using the GALEX satellite telescope. Due to the large GALEX field of view (1.2◦), SUNGG’s current 118 fields resulted in the CHAPTER 5. SUNGG 122 observations of 169 galaxies, of which 111 have SINGG counterparts from both the SINGG Release 1 (Meurer et al. 2006) and the SINGG Release 2 (Meurer & Hanish 2007). There are also 28 extra HIPASS galaxies within the 118 GALEX fields. We found that the FUV and NUV flux densities are well correlated except for four outlying galaxies. These galaxies appear to have FUV flux densities which are consistently higher than that of the NUV. This result suggests that either there is an unusually high abundance of young B-type stars in these four galaxies or that the pre-calibrated images delivered from GALEX are somewhat biased. As expected, the Hi mass of a galaxy appeared to be correlated to the star formation rate inferred from the FUV luminosity. We found that the star formation rate measured by the FUV is constantly greater than those inferred from the Hα. The SUNGG properties, surface brightness profiles and the GALEX images of the fields can be found in Appendix D and Appendix E. All the public data release from SUNGG can also be found at the website : CHAPTER 6

Luminosity density & star formation rate density

The evolution of the cosmic star formation rate density (SFRD) throughout the history of the Universe is predicted by galaxy formation and evolution models. Not only does the SFRD provide a direct measure of the cosmic stellar evolution, it also measures the chemical enrichment history of the Universe since SFRD are usually derived from observations of high mass stars (Madau et al. 1996). Recent studies (e.g. Dahlen et al. 2007; Hanish et al. 2006; Hopkins 2004; Salim et al. 2007) have investigated and confirmed the results found initially by Gallego et al. (1995); Lilly et al. (1996); Madau et al. (1996) that the peak star formation period of the Universe was at redshift (z) of 1–2 and the SFRD today (z = 0) has since declined by almost an order of magnitude. In terms of star formation in galaxies, the Universe appears to have reached its age of retirement. Large surveys of the Local Volume are able to provide empirical evidence for this decline in the star formation history of the Universe. The luminosity density (l) and the SFRD of the Local Universe will be carefully quantified in this chapter using UV observations from SUNGG and far-infrared (FIR) observations of the SINGG sources from the Infrared Astronomy Satellite (IRAS). So far, Hanish et al. (2006) has already calculated the SFRD from the first release of the SINGG sample. The first section in this chapter will determine the FUV and the NUV luminosity density of the Local Universe from the SUNGG sample (as described in Chapter 5). The Local FIR luminosity density will be determined from IRAS observations of the SINGG sample in Section 6.2. Section 6.3 will discuss the SFRD from the FUV and

123 CHAPTER 6. LUMINOSITY DENSITY & STAR FORMATION RATE DENSITY 124

FIR measurements and compare it with measurements from previous investigations. Finally, the summary of this chapter can be found in Section 6.4.

6.1 Ultraviolet luminosity density from SUNGG

6.1.1 Methodology

The cosmic property densities are calculated by integrating over the HIMF weighted by the emissivities per Hi mass. The bootstrap algorithm is also used to estimate the uncertainties in the property densities calculated. The methodology used in this chapter to calculate the distance, Hi mass (MHI), luminosity density (l) and SFRD for the SUNGG sample is the same as that used by Hanish et al. (2006).

Hi mass function

The distances of the sources in the SUNGG sample are derived from the three- attractor model of Mould et al. (2000) which corrects the velocities for in-fall towards the Virgo Cluster, the Great Attractor and the Shapley Supercluster before converting the velocities to distances.

The Hi mass (MHI) of a SUNGG galaxy is determined using the relationship determined by Roberts (1962):

5 2 −1 MHI [M ] = 2.36 × 10 D SINT [Jy km s ] (6.1) where SINT and D are the integrated Hi ﬂux and the distance (in Mpc), respectively. 6 The Hi mass range of the current SUNGG sample spans the range of 9.74 × 10 M 10 to 7.34 × 10 M and have a distance range of 3.3 to 197.1 Mpc. The Hi mass function (HIMF) is parametrized using the Schechter function:

α M MHi − Hi MHi θ(MHi) ∂MHi = θ∗ e M∗ ∂ (6.2) M∗ M∗ where θ(MHI) represents the number density of galaxies as a function of MHI (in −3 Mpc ), M∗ represents the characteristic mass, α gives the slope of the “faint” end and θ∗ is the normalization factor. The Schechter ﬁts to the raw binned θ(MHI) data from Zwaan et al. (2005) were made and adjusted to the Mould et al. (2000) distance −1 −1 for H◦ = 70 km s Mpc . Similar to the results of SINGG (Hanish et al. 2006); we 9.850.02 −2 −3 3 found M∗ = 10 h70 M , α = −1.37 0.03 and θ∗ = (4.59 0.29) × 10 h70 −3 −1 Mpc dex where the errors in M∗ and θ∗ are highly correlated. CHAPTER 6. LUMINOSITY DENSITY & STAR FORMATION RATE 125 DENSITY

Luminosity density

The UV luminosity densities are calculated from the ﬂux values determined from the current SUNGG sample which consists of 143 sources with both FUV and NUV observations. The FUV and the NUV luminosity densities are calculated using the derived HIMF. The volume density of a quantity, x, is found using:

MHI nx = θ(MHI) x(MHI) ∂ (6.3) Z M∗ where x = LUV when calculating the UV luminosity density, lUV. x can be replaced with 1.0 and MHI when calculating the number density, n or the Hi mass density, respectively. Equation 6.3 can also be re-expressed as :

Nbins Ni ∆ log(MHI)i MHIj nx = ln(10)  θ(MHIj) xj  (6.4) N M∗ Xi=1 i Xj=1   where i represents the mass bins, j represents the individual SUNGG source within each i bin and Ni represent the number of sources in each i bin. The logarithmic width of each mass bin is represented by ∆ log(MHI)i and each mass bin is 0.5 decades wide except for the lowest bin which spans 6.5 ≤ log(MHI/M ) ≤ 8.0.

Errors and uncertainties

We use the Monte Carlo and the bootstrap algorithms to quantify the random uncertainties present in the luminosity density calculations. The sources from which random errors occur are the HIMF, the limited sample size and the FUV & NUV flux uncertainties due to sky subtraction. The random uncertainties present in the HIMF derivation arises form the uncertainties in the parameters used to fit the HIMF which in turn is due to the limited number of HIPASS sources used in the HIMF derivation. Using a bootstrap resampling of the original HICAT data and the Mould et al. (2000) distance model, 100 realizations of the HIMF are created in order to estimate the random uncertainties attributed to the HIMF determination. In each realization, the HIMF is a fit to a Schechter function created using the two-dimensional step wise maximum likeli- hood technique developed by Zwaan et al. (2005). Since the HIMF Schechter fits are used in the determination of the luminosity densities, the dispersion about the mean luminosity density for all the realizations results in the estimation of the random uncertainty in each luminosity density due to the HIMF. The random sampling errors are estimated using the bootstrap resampling by CHAPTER 6. LUMINOSITY DENSITY & STAR FORMATION RATE DENSITY 126 drawing 118 objects at random (with replacement) from our dataset. This ran- domization is then repeated 10,000 times. The standard deviation of the resulting distribution gives the overall random sampling uncertainty. The systematic errors present in the SUNGG results are due to the internal dust corrections (AFUV,int). Although the choice of HIMF and the choice of the distance model also contributes to the systematic uncertainties; the systematic errors (as well as the sum of all the errors) are dominated by the internal dust corrections which, depending on the choice of correction, will increase the resulting luminosity density by a magnitude.

6.1.2 Results

The number density and the mass density of the Local Universe deduced from the +0.27 −3 7 −3 SUNGG sample is 0.191−0.55 Mpc and 4.56(0.20) × 10 M Mpc , respectively. Without accounting for internal dust extinction, the FUV luminosity density 0 +0.56 40 −1 −3 0 (lFUV) is 7.50−0.61 × 10 ergs s Mpc and the NUV luminosity density (lNUV) +0.54 40 −1 −3 is 7.55−0.60 × 10 ergs s Mpc . Using the internal dust corrections described in +0.26 41 −1 Section 3.2, we found lFUV and lNUV to be 2.49−0.22(+0.35/ − 0.34) × 10 ergs s −3 +0.17 41 −1 −3 Mpc and 3.58−0.12(+0.37/ − 0.34) × 10 ergs s Mpc , respectively. It should be noted that the uncertainties quoted in subscripts and superscripts are the random errors and the errors in parentheses represent the systematic errors. Figure 6.1 examines the fractional luminosity density contribution as a function of various measured properties of the SUNGG sample. These measured properties exclude the effects of internal dust extinction. As shown by the cumulative profiles in Figure 6.1, the FUV profiles are shown to be very consistent with the NUV profiles. This is not surprising because star formation rates can also be measured using NUV even though FUV is a more exact tracer of star formation.

In plot (a), we find that ∼ 80% of luv can be accounted by galaxies with Hi masses below M∗ (shown by the grey dashed line; Zwaan et al. 2005). Plot (b) 1 shows that galaxies with higher (log Re > 3.5) NUV effective radii contribute larger fractions of the FUV and NUV luminosity density than galaxies with log Re < 3.5. The ratio between the NUV to FUV effective radii is observed (in Plot (c)) to be fairly evenly distributed. Plots (d) and (e) relate l to the FUV and NUV absolute magnitudes, respectively. The grey dashed lines show the characteristic luminosities found by Wyder et al. (2005) for the local volume galaxies using GALEX. Plot (f) shows that the galaxies with F UV − NUV < 0.5 contribute the majority of the observed luminosity density. The dashed line shows the F UV − NUV colour of M31

1The eﬀective radius shows the radius from the centre at which half the luminosity of the galaxy emitted. CHAPTER 6. LUMINOSITY DENSITY & STAR FORMATION RATE 127 DENSITY

Figure 6.1: Fraction of total luminosity densities, lFUV and lNUV as a function of diﬀerent measured parameters (without internal dust correction). The FUV measurements are shown in red, while the NUV measurements are shown in blue. Each plot shows both the binned distributions as well as the cumulative proﬁles. CHAPTER 6. LUMINOSITY DENSITY & STAR FORMATION RATE DENSITY 128

Table 6.1: Breakdown of fractional luminosity densities by galaxy properties.

Property Percentile 10% 25% 50% 75% 90% (FUV/NUV) (FUV/NUV) (FUV/NUV) (FUV/NUV) (FUV/NUV) log (MHI [M ]) 8.25/8.17 8.95/8.81 9.38/9.31 9.82/9.79 10.03/9.95 log(Re(NUV) [pc]) 2.66/2.68 3.10/3.11 3.35/3.40 3.60/3.60 3.73/3.73 Re(NUV)/Re(FUV) 0.91/0.90 0.93/0.93 0.98/0.98 1.04/1.05 1.09/1.09 M’FUV [AB mag] −17.79/−17.79 −16.92/−17.10 −16.35/−16.40 −15.10/−15.13 −13.67/−13.77 M’NUV [AB mag] −19.02/−19.03 −18.12/−18.11 −17.54/−17.60 −16.27/−16.56 −15.12/−15.15 FUV−NUV [AB mag] 0.17/0.20 0.33/0.33 0.43/0.44 0.52/0.57 0.71/0.74

(Thilker et al. 2005) which is used as a Milky Way analogue. For details of the individual fractional breakdowns, see Table 6.1.

6.2 Far-infrared luminosity density

We obtained FIR ﬂux densities of the SINGG sample from the IRAS Point Source Catalog (PSC; Wheelock et al. 1994). We found 112 matches between the IRAS PSC and the SINGG second data release. From this catalogue, we found the “total” 40–

120 µm (FFIR) flux from the 60 and 100 micron flux densities by using the relation, −11 −1 −1 FFIR = 1.26 × 10 (2.58f60 + f100) ergs cm s , (Helou et al. 1988) where both f60 and f100 are in Janskys. Using the same method as the UV luminosity density (see Section 5.1), we determined the local FIR luminosity density (lFIR) of the 112 SINGG sources to be 2.22(0.05) × 1041 ergs s−1 Mpc−3. To avoid the effects of a small sample, we can derive the lFIR for the entire SR2 sample by estimating the FIR flux densities for the SINGG sources without IRAS observations. Meurer et al. (2006) found a trend where decreasing R absolute magnitude (with- 0 0 out dust correction, MR) correlated to decreasing FHα/FFIR. Figure 6.2 shows the 0 0 ratio, log FHα/FFIR, as a function of MR. The lower limits (in Figure 6.2) represent the SINGG sources with no IRAS observations, where the assumed FIR fluxes are three times the noise level for the 60 µm and 100 µm. Following from Meurer et al. (2006), we assume that the noise level for the 60 µm and 100 µm is at 0.4 Jy and 1.0 Jy, respectively. In Figure 6.2, we found the R-coefficient to be 0.54—indicating 0 0 a correlation at the 99.9% level. The linear fit is: log (FHα/FFIR) = 0.53 + 0.13MR. The standard deviation of the residuals was found to be 0.27 which implies that 0 0.27 the ratio, FHα/FFIR, can be estimated to an uncertainty fact of 10 ∼ 1.9. Us- ing this polynomial fit, FFIR was found for each SR2 source without actual IRAS measurements (286 sources).

The lFIR values are calculated using the resultant FFIR. The random error associated with the dispersion of the optical-FIR correlation was calculated using the CHAPTER 6. LUMINOSITY DENSITY & STAR FORMATION RATE 129 DENSITY

Figure 6.2: The relation between the R absolute magnitude (uncorrected for dust) and the H-alpha and FIR ratio for SR1. The dotted line represents the linear ﬁt. CHAPTER 6. LUMINOSITY DENSITY & STAR FORMATION RATE DENSITY 130

bootstrapping method of calculating lFIR 10,000 times and then evaluating the 10th and 90th percentile values of lFIR to be the errors. Similar to lFUV, we also include the random errors due to the HIMF and the limited sample size. The resultant lFIR from the entire SR2 sample is 8.00(0.16) × 1040 ergs s−1 Mpc−3. This value can 41 −1 −3 be compared to the dust luminosity density (lTIR = 2.86 × 10 ergs s Mpc ) calculated by Takeuchi et al. (2005) at z = 0 from the 60 µm luminosity function of the IRAS PSCz catalogue (Saunders et al. 2000). The observed difference is consistent with the results of Hirashita et al. (2003), who found that LTIR/LFIR > 2 for normal star-forming galaxies. In addition to this, previous investigations (e.g. Buat et al. 2006) found that FIR-selected and FUV-selected surveys sample very different volumes of the Universe. In the study by Buat et al. (2006), no faint galaxy 9 (LBOL < 10 L ) was found, while intrinsically bright galaxies were undersampled by the FUV selection. Hence, our apparent underestimate of lFIR suggests that our Hi-selected sample has also undersampled galaxies which are intrinsically bright. If 0 0 we were to use our correlation between MR and FHα/FFIR for the entire SR2 sample, +0.41 40 −1 −3 we find that lFIR = 7.23−0.39 × 10 ergs s Mpc .

Similar to the infrared excess (IRX) which describes the effective FUV extinction 0 (Meurer et al. 1999), we use lFIR and lFUV to determine the effective FUV extinction 0 of the Local Universe (IRXlocal = lFIR/lFUV). The FIR to FUV ratio provides a robust measure of the dust extinction since it utilises the global energy budget instead of relying on assumptions unique to specific types of galaxies (e.g. starbursts). We found IRXlocal to be 1.07. Likewise, an IRX value of 0.96 was found by using FFIR and lFIR found for the entire SR2 sample from our linear fit. This result suggests that approximately 10% of the luminosity originating in the UV has been converted to the FIR.

Interestingly, this result appears to be consistent with recent IRX measurements of Luminous Infrared Galaxies (LIRGs) by Buat et al. (2007). Their measured IRX values at z = 0 (where IRX = log (LTIR/LFUV)) span a range from 0.5 to 3.3. It should be noted that FTIR > FFIR as FTIR represents the total infrared ﬂux density compared to our far-infrared measurements and hence, our IRXlocal estimate appears higher than the average values measured by Buat et al. (2007). However, if we assume that an increase in the bolometric luminosity of a galaxy corresponds to an increase in the dust attenuation (Buat et al. 2007), our higher IRXlocal is likely to be a reﬂection of our selection of more UV-luminous star-forming galaxies instead an older population of luminous infrared sources. CHAPTER 6. LUMINOSITY DENSITY & STAR FORMATION RATE 131 DENSITY

6.3 Star formation rate density of the Local Universe

We will discuss the derivation of the SFRD from our SUNGG sample as well as the determination of the FIR luminosity density (lFIR) and the resulting SFRD from lFIR. Assuming that the UV radiation absorbed by dust is re-emitted in the FIR, we can presume that the dust-obscured star formation not measured by the FUV can be recovered using the star formation measured by the FIR. Thus, we will estimate the local bolometric SFRD by combining the SFRD values derived from the FIR and the FUV. Lastly, we will compare the derived bolometric SFRD with previous SFRD measurements.

6.3.1 SFRD from SUNGG

Apart from the assumed HIMF, the internal dust extinction correction is the main source of systematic errors within the SUNGG SFRD calculation. Hence, the SFRD estimates derived with and without internal dust correction will be presented.

The SFRD (ρ˙SFR) resulting from the SUNGG sample is measured from lFUV using the relation,

−1 −28 −1 −1 ρ˙SFR[M yr ] = 1.4 × 10 lFUV [ergs s Hz ] (6.5)

(Kennicutt 1998). Equation 6.5 was derived from a sample of previous calibration values which vary by 0.3 dex and assumes a constant SFR over timescales that are long relative to the lifetimes of the dominant UV emitting population (< 108 yr Kennicutt 1998). Using −1 −3 Equation 6.5, we ﬁnd that log (ρ˙SFR) = −2.24 M year Mpc . The inclusion of +0.04 −1 −3 internal dust extinction gives log (ρ˙SFR) = −1.61−0.06 M year Mpc . It should be noted that the quoted uncertainties do not include the 0.3 dex variation present in SFR calibration used. Despite the signiﬁcant amount of uncertainty present in this calibration, we will use Equation 6.5 for consistency between SUNGG and its sister survey SINGG (which also used SFR conversions from Kennicutt (1998)). Assuming the Hi is consumed during the process of star formation, we can calculate the gas consumption time (tgas)—the time required for star formation to deplete the existing gas content at the current star formation rate. We use the relation tgas ≈ 2.3(MHI/SF R) where we adopt a uniform ratio of 2.3 between the combined molecular and neutral ISM mass and MHI following Young et al. (1996). In the context of a volume-averaged quantity, MHI is replaced by the mass density of the Local Volume (see Section 6.1.2) and the SFRD is used. We estimate the cosmic gas CHAPTER 6. LUMINOSITY DENSITY & STAR FORMATION RATE DENSITY 132

+0.45 consumption time to be 4.22−0.54 Gyr. Our timescale is shorter than tgas derived by Hanish et al. (2006) and considerably less than the Hubble time. One reason for this is that our calculated SFRD after internal dust correction is 0.19 dex greater than that measured by Hanish et al. (2006).

6.3.2 SFRD from FIR luminosity density of SINGG

We can calculate the SFRD attributed to dust-obscured star formation using lFIR (see

Section 6) estimated for the SR2 sample. The SFRD (ρ˙SFR) derived from the FIR −1 −44 measurements is calculated using the relation, ρ˙SFR (M year ) = 4.5 × 10 lFIR (ergs s−1) (Kennicutt 1998). This calibration lie within 30% of most calibrations published previous to the review by Kennicutt (1998). Using the lFIR found in Section 6.2, we ﬁnd that the SFRD inferred from the FIR luminosity density of the −1 −3 SR2 sample is log (ρ˙SFR) = −2.44 0.01 M year Mpc . Similar to the SFRD derived from the SUNGG observations, we have not included the 30% uncertainty present within the conversion between the lFIR and the SFR in our error estimates.

6.3.3 Bolometric SFRD of the Local Universe

The FUV observations represent the regions of current star formation (populated by the majority of the young stars) and the FIR observations reveal the star-forming regions aﬀected by internal dust extinction. By combining the SFRD values derived from both the FIR and FUV observations, we can infer the total or bolometric SFRD of the Local Universe for our Hi selected sample.

The total or bolometric luminosity density (lBOL) can be determined from the sum of the lFUV and the fraction of lTIR related to star formation. Hence, the bolometric luminosity density of our sample can be found using:

0 lBOL = lFUV + (1 − η) lTIR (6.6) where η (=0.3; Buat et al. 2006) accounts for the fraction of the TIR emission reﬂected from old stars. Assuming that lTIR/lFIR = 2 (Hirashita et al. 2003), we 0 can infer that the bolometric l is of the form, lBOL = lFUV + 1.4lFIR. Hence, the +0.15 41 bolometric luminosity density of the SINGG and SUNGG sample is 1.87−0.16 × 10 ergs s−1 Mpc−3. To relate the bolometric luminosity of young stars to star formation rates, synthetic stellar populations from Starburst99 (Leitherer et al. 1999) were used by Hi- rashita et al. (2003). Similar to Kennicutt (1998), Hirashita et al. (2003) assumed a constant star formation history, solar metallicity and a Salpeter IMF with upper CHAPTER 6. LUMINOSITY DENSITY & STAR FORMATION RATE 133 DENSITY

and lower masses of 100 M and 0.1 M , respectively. The conversion between the bolometric luminosity and star formation rate (s) found by Hirashita et al. (2003) is:

−1 −10 s[M yr ] = 1.79 × 10 LBOL [L ] (6.7)

33 −1 BOL Assuming that the bolometric L is 3.83 × 10 ergs s , we estimate log (ρ˙SFR ) to −1 −3 be −2.06(0.04) M year Mpc . The most current calibration speciﬁc to converting between the UV luminosities measured from the GALEX ﬁlters and the inferred star formation rate has been provided by Treyer et al. (2007). They found that,

−1 −29 −1 −1 sFUV [M yr ] = 8.13 × 10 LFUV [ergs s Hz ] (6.8) using stellar population synthesis models by Bruzual & Charlot (2003) with similar assumptions to Kennicutt (1998) (i.e. constant star formation history, solar metal- BOL licity and scaled to a Kroupa IMF; Kroupa 2001). From this, we found log (ρ˙SFR ) +0.03 −1 −3 to be −2.05−0.04 M year Mpc . Interestingly, the SFRD resulting from both the Hirashita et al. (2003) and the Treyer et al. (2007) methods are very consistent with each other. Although a different IMF is adopted, the Kroupa IMF is in fact consistent with the Salpeter IMF at high masses (M > 3 M ; Kroupa 2001). Since our sample is measuring star formation rates from very young and massive stars, the difference between the calibrations by Treyer et al. (2007) and Hirashita et al. (2003) is most likely due to the differences between the stellar models rather than the IMF. There are two caveats to this estimation. Firstly, this estimation is indirect since the calculations are based on the FHα/FFIR versus FR calibration. Secondly, the accuracy of these density measurements of the Local Universe are affected by the difference in sources in both the SR2 and the current SUNGG sample. There are only 98 galaxies with FUV observations which are also present in the SR2 sample.

6.3.4 Comparison of bolometric SFRD with previous measurements

There are many reasons that can account for the diﬀerences in the star formation rate density measured by the diﬀerent methods and tracers. The possible explana- tions for the observed variance are: (i) errors in the star formation rate calibrations; (ii) Hii regions are ‘density-limited’ rather than ‘ionisation-limited’; (iii) AGN contamination; (iv) the IMF adopted is wrong; and (v) the IMF is not constant. More thorough discussion about these issues will be made before the comparison of SFRD values. CHAPTER 6. LUMINOSITY DENSITY & STAR FORMATION RATE DENSITY 134

1. Errors in the star formation rate calibrations Diﬀerences in the observed SFRD estimates can be attributed to the errors in stellar models. Martins et al. (2005) studied the relationship between the stellar

spectral type and the effective temperature (Teff ) and found that this revision requires revision because of the effects of line-blanketing2. They also described the relationship between the spectral type and the the ionising photon output

(NLy) which suggests that the eﬀects of line-blanketing result in a lower ionising ﬂux output than those previously predicted by Vacca et al. (1996).

However, a signiﬁcant change in the relationship between Teﬀ and NLy is not

observed even though the relationship between Teﬀ and the spectral type has changed somewhat Leitherer (2007). The population synthesis models used to determine the conversions between the star formation rate and the luminosity

of young stars only rely on the relationship between Teff and NLy (Leitherer 2007). Hence, our star formation rate measurements are not likely to be affected by the effects of line-blanketing. On the other hand, Vázquez et al. (2007) recently found that the inclusion of stellar rotation resulted in an increase in the temperature and luminosity of hot massive blue stars3. The inclusion of this result with stellar synthesis models found that the young stellar population with rotating stars became significantly more luminous at all wavelengths (Vázquez et al. 2007). This result infers that current calibrations between luminosity and star formation rate may be an overestimate due to rotating stars. Currently there are no revised relationships between the star formation rate and the luminosity which include the effects of stellar rotation. Therefore, our SFRD values can be corrected once a more accurate stellar models have been determined. Until then, there is a possibility that our star formation rate densities may be an overestimate due to the omission of rotating stars within our model calibrations. The SFRD derived from SUNGG was calculated using the calibration which assumes that the SUNGG galaxies have been continually forming stars over timescales of 108 years or more. The calibrations differ by ∼ 0.3 dex (Kennicutt 1998) and depend on the stellar libraries used and the assumed star formation timescales. As mentioned before, FUV observations are also hampered by

2Line-blanketing is caused by the increased sub-atmospheric temperature structure that leads to a shift in the He+/He ratio so the O-type stars under the previous spectral classiﬁcation now has a lower eﬀective temperature to reproduce the observed line ratio (Leitherer 2007) 3Rotating stars have a larger convective core and lower surface opacity at the end of the main- sequence evolution, making them hotter and more luminous (Leitherer 2007). CHAPTER 6. LUMINOSITY DENSITY & STAR FORMATION RATE 135 DENSITY

Figure 6.3: The Hα surface brightness versus the ratio of the Hα luminosity to the dust-corrected FUV luminosity. The dotted line shows the line of best ﬁt.

dust extinction, for which deﬁnitive understanding have yet to be attained for average disk galaxies. Most current internal dust corrections apply to starburst galaxies and hence, extinction-corrected SFR derived from FUV observations of average disk galaxies are likely to be overestimated.

2. ‘Density-limited’ Hii regions Clarke & Oey (2002) predicted that ionising radiation is escaping from galaxies with total star formation rates above a critical threshold. In a recent study of the diffused, warm ionised medium (using SR1), Oey et al. (2007) found that galaxies with Hα surface brightness greater than 2.5×1039 ergs s−1 kpc−2 (starburst galaxies) show a substantially lower fraction of diffused Hα emission when compared to other galaxies. In addition, a lower fraction of field OB- type stars do not appear to be the dominant cause of this diminished diffused fraction of ionised emission. If their models are correct, an inferred escape fraction may be as large as 25% in the SR1 sample.

0 Figure 6.3 shows the Hα surface brightness (µHα) as a function of the ratio 0 of the Hα luminosity to the dust-corrected FUV luminosity (LHα/LFUV). We obtained a 99.9% correlation for our sample shown in the top figure (R = 0.39). 0 A linear least-squares fit to our sample is LHα/LFUV = 0.024+0.001 log (µHα). Since the SINGG-SUNGG sample consists of sources at low inclinations, our results do suggest that galaxies with higher Hα surface brightnesses appear to have fractionally less Hα ionising emission. If this confirms the prediction by Clarke & Oey (2002), then SINGG may be underestimating the amount of star CHAPTER 6. LUMINOSITY DENSITY & STAR FORMATION RATE DENSITY 136

formation in starburst galaxies within the sample. However, there should not be a signiﬁcant diﬀerence between the SFRD values measured by SINGG and SUNGG because the majority of our sample consists of regular star-forming galaxies.

3. AGN contamination

The FIR emission is assumed to trace the dust component of a galaxy which is being heated by the young stellar population. Apart from the possibility of dust heating by older stars, the disparity observed between the diﬀerent SFRD estimates can also be due to the dust being heated by the surrounding AGN. One method to distinguish between AGN and galaxies is to compare their optical line ratios in AGN diagnostic diagrams such as those by Baldwin et al. (1981). Recently, reliable AGN diagnostics using the mid-IR spectral line ratios have been developed by Dale et al. (2006). Unfortunately, we do not have spectra (neither optical nor mid-infrared) for most of our sources. Hence, until further follow-up spectroscopy is performed, we cannot consistently determine the sources with or without AGN. On the other hand, our sample is Hi-selected and as such is unlikely to contain many galaxies hosting AGN because it’s likely that the AGN would have heated and ionised the cold neutral gas. Hence we do not expect our sample to be biased signiﬁcantly by the presence of AGN.

4. The assumed IMF is wrong Of all the factors which could affect our SFRD estimates, it is only the IMF which could universally affect our measurements across all the different star formation tracers. Significant systematic uncertainties are introduced depending on the choice of IMF in the determination of the SFR from the luminosity. The SFR is deduced from the luminosity by assuming that a certain fraction of stars (within certain mass ranges) will be responsible for ionising the available Hi. Hence, the resulting SFR will vary according to the assumed IMF.

In all our calculations (unless speciﬁed otherwise), we have assumed the Salpeter

IMF with a power-law index, α = 2.35. Although massive stars (above 1 M ) are well-described by a Salpeter IMF (Chabrier 2005), another review of the IMF by Kroupa (2002) suggested that a Scalo IMF with a power-law index, α = 2.7, provides a better description of the true IMF of massive stars. Based on the stellar evolutionary models of Schaller et al. (1992), Kennicutt et al. (1994) found that the use of a Scalo IMF will increase the estimated SFR determined from the Hα emission. On the other hand, both SINGG and SUNGG CHAPTER 6. LUMINOSITY DENSITY & STAR FORMATION RATE 137 DENSITY

are tracing the O and B stars from the upper-end (in mass) of the IMF and therefore, if the change in IMF were to increase the SFR measured from Hα, the SFR from FUV will also increase similarly. A change in IMF is likely to aﬀect both the SINGG and SUNGG measurements in the same manner and thus would not explain the diﬀerences observed between the two measures.

5. The IMF is not constant

It should be noted that current studies have now found that the IMF at sub- stellar masses is different to the IMF slopes at higher masses (Kroupa 2007). Hence, many studies now adopt different IMF slopes at different mass ranges (e.g. Elmegreen 2004; Kroupa 2007). In terms of relevance to our investigation, we will concentrate on the effects of variation at the upper-mass end of the IMF.

Unless the IMF is constant at the upper mass end, the SFR inferred from O and B stars may well be quite diﬀerent if the IMF slope is diﬀerent for the O stars to the B stars. This is not unexpected since the O-type stars are at least a factor of 5 more massive than the B stars. However, the standard IMF has always been assumed to be constant as it is always measured in star clusters.

Early indications of a varying IMF at upper-mass end came from a study of the

IMF of massive (> 20 M ) stars by Garmany et al. (1982). They found that the gradient of the IMF vary with galactocentric distance for these massive stars. Hence, the Salpeter slope appears to be consistent with studies of stars in clusters but the IMF slope steepens considerably at very low star formation levels in the ﬁeld (Massey 1996).

Recent discoveries of galaxies with extended-UV (XUV) disks which have very faint or no obvious optical counterpart found that young stars are the source of such emission (Gil de Paz et al. 2007) instead of hot evolved stars or dust scattering. This agrees with the ‘inside-out’ disk formation model where star formation in the outer parts of the disk is retarded when compared to that of the inner regions due to the increase in the gas-infall timescale with respect to the galactocentric radius (Hou et al. 2000; Larson 1976; Matteucci & Francois 1989; Prantzos & Boissier 2000). Gil de Paz et al. (2007) also found that a majority of their Hii regions are photoionised by single massive stars as oppose to stellar clusters. Therefore, the diﬀerence between the Hα-derived and FUV- derived SFRD can be attributed to XUV disks in some galaxies. However, if an episodic star formation history occurs where XUV episodes are followed by quieter periods, then it is possible that all spiral galaxies may have gone CHAPTER 6. LUMINOSITY DENSITY & STAR FORMATION RATE DENSITY 138

through one or more of these periods. This suggests that Hα studies of star formation may have missed most of the star formation occurring in the XUV disks. The presence of XUV disks in galaxies with truncated Hα disks can possibly be explained by a variation in the IMF. However, Hα is sensitive to star formation to the last 5 Myr, while FUV represents the integral star formation over the past 200 Myr. Thus, it is more plausible that a time variation in the SFR results in the observed XUV disks.

Additionally, an investigation of the Hα to FUV ﬂux ratio (FHα/FFUV) found that this ratio is lower in regions of diﬀused ionised gas (DIG) than that of Hii

regions (Hoopes et al. 2001). A comparison of the fraction, NLyc/LUV (where

NLyc is the number of ionising photons) to evolving stellar population models suggests that the stars in the DIG is consistent with a constant star formation model which has an IMF slope steeper than α = 2.35 (Hoopes et al. 2001). If M33 is prototypical of most galaxies, then Hoopes et al. (2001) suggests that ﬁeld stars are important sources of ionisation in most galaxies.

Similar to Hanish et al. (2006), we compare our derived SFRD values with those reviewed by Hopkins (2004). Figure 6.4 compares these previously-derived (Hopkins 2004) SFRD values to the SFRD measured from the SUNGG and SINGG sample. As UV observations are more affected by dust extinction, the SUNGG results (grey star) in Figure 6.4 are also more affected by dust than the SINGG observations (grey diamond). Our derived SFRD from SUNGG (including internal dust corrections) is greater than the SFRD calculated from SINGG. One reason is because Hα is a recombination line resulting from Hydrogen photoionisation by UV photons and since it would be reasonable to assume that not all UV photons ionise Hydrogen, there would be more UV to Hα emission. Also, Hα emission is observed in regions in the immediate vicinity of O-type stars whereas the majority of the young stars tend to be B-type stars (which are not hot enough to produce ionised regions). B-type stars also happen to be not as short- lived as O-type stars. Hence, this translates to an availability of more observable UV to Hα emission. Although the final SUNGG SFRD (after correcting for internal dust extinction) is 0.18 dex greater than the SFRD derived from SINGG, the SUNGG SFRD is still consistent with the SFRD values determined by previous calculations. The SUNGG SFRD value (after internal dust correction) is very close to the SFRD found by Pérez- González et al. (2003) using Hα observations of local volume galaxies. However, all the SFRD values derived from previous UV observations are above the value we found in SUNGG. It is most likely due to the overestimation of internal dust extinction CHAPTER 6. LUMINOSITY DENSITY & STAR FORMATION RATE 139 DENSITY

Figure 6.4: Comparison of star formation rate densities as a function of redshift. Plot (a) does not account for internal dust extinction and plot (b) includes internal dust corrections. Star formation rate densities derived from Hα, UV and IR/submm observations are represented by solid circles, hollow circles and asterisks, respectively. The grey star and diamond at redshift 0 represents the SFRD (ρ˙SFR) derived from SUNGG and SINGG (Hanish et al. 2006), respectively. The dashed line shows the best ﬁt for redshifts 0 to 1. since most measurements prior to GALEX were corrected using dust corrections formulated for starburst galaxies.

Figure 6.5 compares the SFRD calculated from the lFIR for the SR2 sample and the bolometric SFRD (determined in this chapter) to previous measures of cosmic FIR star formation rate densities (Hopkins 2004). As ρ˙SFR is not aﬀected by dust obscu- FIR ration, ρ˙SFR remains constant in both plots (a) and (b) of Figure 6.5. The bolometric SFRD consists of the SFRD derived from the FUV measurements (prior to dust corrections) in addition to the FIR measurements found for the same sample. Hence our bolometric SFRD also remains constant across both plots (a) and (b) as well because no other dust corrections have been applied to the bolometric measure. This result suggests that either (i) all the previous estimates have slight overestimations of their dust corrections or that (ii) our bolometric measurement is an underestimate of the local SFRD.

6.4 Summary

We estimated the bolometric star formation rate density of the Local Universe by the SFRD derived from both the FUV and FIR luminosity densities. This is because the dust-obscured star formation not measured by the FUV can be recovered using the star formation measured by the FIR. Without accounting for internal dust extinction, the FUV luminosity density CHAPTER 6. LUMINOSITY DENSITY & STAR FORMATION RATE DENSITY 140

Figure 6.5: Comparison of star formation rate densities as a function of redshift. Plot (a) does not account for internal dust extinction and plot (b) includes internal dust corrections. Star formation rate densities derived from Hα, UV and IR/submm observations are represented by solid circles, hollow circles and asterisks, respectively. The diamond at redshift 0 represents the SFRD (ρ˙SFR) derived from lFIR for the SINGG sample, while, the star represents the bolometric SFRD derived from this chapter. The dashed line shows the best ﬁt for redshifts 0 to 1.

0 +0.56 40 −1 −3 (lFUV) equals 7.50−0.61 × 10 ergs s Mpc and the NUV luminosity density 0 +0.54 40 −1 −3 (lNUV) equals 7.55−0.60 × 10 ergs s Mpc . The inclusion of the internal dust +0.61 41 −1 −3 corrections results in lFUV and lNUV to equal 2.49−0.56 × 10 ergs s Mpc and +0.54 38 −1 −3 1.33−0.46 × 10 ergs s Mpc , respectively. To calculate the lFIR from the entire SINGG sample, we used the IRAS measurements (where available) and the inferred relationship between the R absolute 0 0 0 2 magnitude and the Hα-FIR ratio (log (FHα/FFIR) = 3.80 + 0.46MR + 0.008MR ) derived from the SINGG sources for which IRAS ﬂuxes were found. The resultant 40 −1 −3 lFIR from the entire SINGG sample is 8.00 0.16 × 10 ergs s Mpc . +0.04 −1 −3 Using SUNGG, we found that log (ρ˙SFR) = −1.61−0.06 M year Mpc for the Local Universe. In addition, the SFRD derived from the lFIR for the SINGG −1 −3 sample yielded log (ρ˙SFR) = −2.44 0.01 M year Mpc . Used in combination, we found the bolometric star formation rate density of the Local Universe to be −2.05(+0.03/−0.04) −1 −3 10 M year Mpc . Our bolometric SFRD is comparable to recent local star formation density measurements by Condon et al. (2002) who obtained log (ρ˙SFR) equivalent to −1.960.03 −1 −3 M year Mpc . Although the dust-corrected SUNGG SFRD is greater than the SFRD derived from SINGG, our results still conﬁrm the fact that the cosmic SFRD has decreased by nearly a factor of 10 since redshift of 1. This infers that the current star formation scenario is ‘quieter’ and less intense than at higher redshifts. CHAPTER 7

NGC922

Interest in ring galaxies as examples of galaxy collisions dates back to early simulations of the famous Cartwheel Galaxy (Lynds & Toomre 1976), which was modelled by a small galaxy passing through a larger one. This interaction is thought to dis- perse stellar populations, induce star formation and thicken the disk of the larger galaxy. Here we present observations of the peculiar galaxy NGC922 which Block et al. (2001) describe as a dust-obscured grand design spiral. Here we argue that it is indeed a very nearby example of this phenomena and we identify its perturber. We find striking resemblances between this galaxy and several high-redshift galaxies categorised as clump cluster galaxies by Elmegreen et al. (2005). Since both galaxy density and the dispersion about the Hubble flow increase with redshift, the probability of interactions between galaxies should also increase. Hence, ring galaxies should be more common at earlier times. This chapter presents the available observational properties of the system, identi- fies the companion and demonstrates that the system can be described by an off-axis collision model.

7.1 Observations

The Survey for Ionization in Neutral Gas Galaxies (SINGG Meurer et al. 2006) and its sister survey, the Survey of Ultraviolet emission of Neutral Gas Galaxies (SUNGG) are surveys in the Hα and ultraviolet (UV) of an HI-selected sample of galaxies from the Hi Parkes All Sky Survey (HIPASS; Meyer et al. (2004), Koribalski

141 CHAPTER 7. NGC922 142

Figure 7.1: The greyscale optical image (top) is a deep image from digitally-stacked plates of NGC922 (bottom-left) and S2 (top-right). The height of the greyscale image is ∼40. The enlarged images are SINGG-SUNGG composite images of NGC922 and S2 where red represents Hα, green represents R-band and blue represents FUV. A diﬀuse plume of stars on the north-western side of NGC922 can be seen in the R-band to be extending towards the companion. 143 CHAPTER 7. NGC922 et al. (2004c)). SINGG consists of optical R-band and Hα images obtained primarily from the 1.5m telescope at Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory (CTIO), Chile. The Galaxy Evolution Explorer (GALEX) satellite telescope is used to obtain the far-ultraviolet (FUV) 1515A˚ images and near-ultraviolet (NUV) 2273A˚ images for SUNGG. In addition, observations from the 6-degree Field Galaxy Survey, 6dFGS, (Jones et al. 2004) and the Two Micron All Sky Survey, 2MASS, (Jarrett et al. 2000) were also used.

7.1.1 Multi-wavelength morphology and luminosity

Two Hα sources, HIPASSJ0224-24:S1 (NGC922) and HIPASSJ0224-24:S2 (2MASXJ02243002-2444441) were identified with the SINGG data (Meurer et al. 2006). For convenience, we refer to the first source as NGC922 and its companion as S2 in this paper. A deep greyscale optical image of the NGC922 field created from UK Schmidt plates, courtesy David Malin1 is as shown in Fig 7.1 where NGC922 is located in the south-east corner and its companion is projected 8.20(102 kpc) towards the north-west. The enlarged images of NGC922 and S2 are colour composite images where red represents Hα, green represents R-band and blue represents FUV. The distance of 43 Mpc to the NGC922/S2 system was derived from the Hi radial velocity, using the Mould et al. (2000) distance model and adopting a Hubble constant −1 −1 H0 = 70 km s Mpc (Meurer et al. 2006). Young star-forming regions in NGC922’s ring are revealed with the Hα and FUV observations. As shown clearly in the deep optical image from Figure 7.1, a spray of stars (only visible in R-band in the bottom colour image) from NGC922 can be seen to be extending towards S2. The Hα equivalent width (EW) profile and the radial colour profiles of NGC922 are shown in Figure 7.2. All the profiles were generated with the same isophotal parameters using the task ELLIPSE in IRAF2. Concentric ellipses were fitted in each image centred on the location of the NUV brightness peak. The surface brightness radial profile was then measured as a function of semi-major distance from that location. The position angle of NGC922 is 51◦. It can be seen from the Hα EW profile that the brightness peak in Hα (at 5 arc second) is slightly displaced from the NUV brightness peak. The central colour dip corresponds to the central peaks in FUV and NUV. The two main peaks in the Hα EW profile correspond to the core of the galaxy (R ∼ 5 arc second) and the ring (R ∼ 50 arc second). Likewise,

1http://www.aao.gov.au/images/deep html/n0922 d.html 2IRAF is distributed by the National Optical Astronomy Observatories, which are operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. CHAPTER 7. NGC922 144

Figure 7.2: The Hα equivalent width (radial) profile of NGC922 is shown on the left and radial colour profiles of NGC922 are shown on the right where the FUV-NUV and FUV-R colour profiles are represented by the dotted and solid lines respectively.

the FUV-NUV colour profile shows minima at these radii. Hence, star formation is enhanced in the core and especially the ring. We also find the inner regions of NGC922 to be slightly redder, presumably older, than the outer regions as shown by the FUV-R profile in Figure 7.2, and in agreement with ring galaxy model predictions (e.g. Hernquist & Weil 1993) The optical spectra and NIR images (JHK bands) of NGC922 and S2 were obtained from the 6dF Galaxy Redshift Survey (Jones et al. 2004) and the 2MASS Extended Source Catalog (Jarrett et al. 2000), respectively. Radial velocities of NGC922 and S2 were measured from the spectra and are listed in Table 7.1. The fibre diameter of the 6dF instrument is 6.700 which translates to an aperture size of 1.4 kpc for NGC922. Both the NUV and FUV magnitudes were corrected for foreground Galactic reddening using the relationships of Seibert et al. (2005) based on the dust reddening maps of Schlegel et al. (1998). The FUV attenuation (AFUV) due to internal extinction was also calculated using the F UV − NUV relations by Seibert et al. (2005).

A more direct method of estimating AFUV, using the ratio of the IRAS far infrared (FIR) ﬂux with the FUV ﬂux (Meurer et al. 1999), was also calculated for NGC922.

Both AFUV values are comparable and equal 1.09 and 0.95 using the Seibert et al.

(2005) and the Meurer et al. (1999) methods respectively. This derived AFUV is lower than most of the attenuations found in the local UV bright starburst galaxies (Meurer et al. 1999). IRAS data is not available for S2 and so the Seibert et al. (2005) method is used for both NGC922 and S2.

The intrinsic ﬂuxes (f0(λ)), free from internal dust extinction, of NGC922 and S2 were calculated from the observed ﬂuxes (f(λ)) for the NUV, R, J, H and K 145 CHAPTER 7. NGC922

Table 7.1: Observed properties of NGC922 and S2.

Properties NGC922 S2 RA [J2000] 02:25:04.4 02:24:30.0 Dec [J2000] -24:47:17 -24:44:44 −1 vh [km s ] 3077 3162 E(B − V )G [mag] 0.019 0.018 E(B − V )i [mag] 0.21 0.23 (MR)0 [ABmag] -21.59 -18.45 (F UV − NUV )0 [ABmag] -0.09 -0.08 (NUV − R)0 [ABmag] 1.52 1.32 (R − J)0 [ABmag] 0.90 0.75 (J − H)0 [ABmag] 0.54 0.44 (H − K)0 [ABmag] 0.16 0.58 −12 −2 −1 f0(Hα) [10 ergs cm s ] 4.65 0.18 0.145 0.017 EWHα (A˚) 773 435

measurements via, e 0.4E(B−V )ik (λ) f0(λ) = f(λ)10 (7.1) where E(B − V )i is the reddening excess intrinsic to the galaxy which can be estimated using the relationships found in Calzetti et al. (1994). The extinction relations for the stellar continuum (ke(λ)) were calculated from the correlations determined by Calzetti et al. (2000). The intrinsic Hα ﬂuxes were derived from the intrinsic

R-band attenuation (AR,i) from the adopted relation AHα,i ≈ 2AR,i (Calzetti et al. 1994). A summary of foreground and internal extinction values in addition to the observed properties of NGC922 and S2 from SINGG, SUNGG and 2MASS can be found in Table 7.1.

7.1.2 SFR, metallicity and mass

−1 The SFR was calculated: i) using the Hα luminosity, LHα[erg s ] (Kennicutt et al. 1994): L SF R = Hα (7.2) Hα 1.26 × 1041 −1 −1 and ii) using the FUV luminosity, LFUV [erg s Hz ] (Kennicutt 1998):

−28 SF RF UV = 1.4 × 10 LFUV (7.3)

−1 The SFR calculated from method (i) for NGC922 and S2 are 8.2 M year and 0.26 −1 M year , respectively. Similarly, the SFR calculated using the FUV luminosities CHAPTER 7. NGC922 146

−1 −1 for NGC922 and S2 are 7.0 M year and 0.47 M year , respectively. The oxygen abundance (log(O/H)+12) and metallicity (Z) can be approximated using the integrated flux ratios of various emission lines from the 6dF optical spectra. Within the wavelength range of the 6dF spectra, it is possible to use the integrated flux ratios of of the [NII] and [SII] emission lines as well as the flux ratios of [NII] and Hα (Kewley & Dopita 2002). The ratio [NII]/[SII] = 1.12, 0.538 was measured for NGC922 and S2, respectively. Assuming the average ionisation parameter, q = 2×107 cm s−1 (Kewley & Dopita 2002), log(O/H)+12 equals 9.0 and 8.6 respectively for NGC922 and S2. These values indicate that the metallicity of NGC922 is

∼1.0 Z and the metallicity of S2 is ∼0.5 Z . Using the ﬂux ratios of [NII]/Hα, log(O/H)+12 equals 8.6 (∼0.5 Z ) and 8.3 (∼0.3 Z ) for NGC922 and S2 respectively. Using the luminosity-metallicity relation found by Lamareille et al. (2004) for R-band luminosities in the local Universe, log(O/H)+12 equals 9.1 and 8.3 for NGC922 and S2 respectively. Both galaxies agree with the luminosity-metallicity relation.

The stellar mass (M?) of NGC922 can be estimated using the K band ﬂuxes and the calibrations of Bell et al. (2003). Using this method, M? is approximately 9 5.47 × 10 M for NGC922, while S2 has an order of magnitude less stars: M? = 8 2.82 × 10 M , assuming it is a typical S0-Sa galaxy (as judged by its morphology) with B-V colour of 0.8 (Sparke & Gallagher 2000). Assuming that the Hi line proﬁle is dominated by NGC922 and its width gives the rotational velocity at the optical radius, one can estimate the enclosed dynamical mass using

V 2R M (R) = R (7.4) dyn G

−1 where VR ≈ 146 km s is the inclination-corrected rotational velocity, the maximum radius of the R-band surface brightness proﬁle R = 13.4 kpc and G is the gravitational 10 constant. This yields a dynamical mass of 6.65 × 10 M within 13.4 kpc. The Hi 10 mass (MHI) of NGC922 was measured to be 1.2 × 10 M by HIPASS. We see that 8% and 20% of the dynamical mass of NGC922 are due to the stellar and Hi mass respectively. These calculations suggest that most of the mass can be attributed to dark matter. Assuming that the system is not in virial equilibrium and is expanding, the total mass is probably an overestimation. As yet, the only Hi observation of NGC922 does not have enough spatial resolution to trace the neutral gas morphology of the system, hence, higher resolution Hi mapping of this system is needed to check if gaseous tails exist, such as the ones found in the Cartwheel Galaxy (Higdon 1996). This would further verify our interacting companion. Table 7.2 summarizes the derived properties of both NGC922 and S2. 147 CHAPTER 7. NGC922

Table 7.2: Derived properties of NGC922 and S2.

Properties NGC922 S2 log(O/H) + 12 8.6-9.0 8.3-8.6 Z [Z ] 0.5-1.0 0.3-0.5 −1 SF RHα [M year ] 8.20 0.32 0.26 0.03 −1 SF RF UV [M year ] 7.040.02 0.47 0.02 9 8 M? [M ] 5.47 ×10 2.82 × 10 10 Mdyn [M ] 6.65 × 10 − 10 MHI [M ] 1.2 × 10 −

7.2 Analysis

Block et al. (2001) argue that the peculiar properties of NGC922 mark it as a dust- obscured grand design spiral galaxy in the process of assembly, and hence it largely results from secular (interaction free) evolution. Secular processes are indeed important in the present epoch (Kormendy & Kennicutt 2004) and can even produce ring-like structures. However in those cases the ring typically accompanies a strong bar producing a θ morphology, quite different from what is observed in NGC922. While some aspects of NGC922’s morphology may have a secular origin, the observed evidence for a strong interaction is very compelling. We propose that the outstanding properties of NGC922 are likely to be the result of a high-speed, off-centre collision between a gas-rich disk galaxy and a dwarf companion for the following reasons: 1) The stellar plume observed in NGC922 extending towards S2 is most likely to be caused by an external mechanism such as the tidal interaction between NGC922 and its companion galaxy. 2) Numerous simulations (e.g. Hernquist & Weil 1993) have shown that ring structures can be formed from outwardly-propagating waves. 3) From our observations of the flocculent region in between the centre and the ring of NGC922, the ‘arms’ of the inner spiral observed by Block et al. (2001) can be described as ‘spoke’-like structures analogous to those observed in the Cartwheel galaxy. 4) The high SFR and EW of NGC922 and S2, coupled with the low gas cycling time of the system indicates a recent starburst. We are aware that this reason alone does not necessarily rule out a secular origin for the global properties of NGC922 since starbursts have been observed in systems with no obvious companions (e.g. Meurer et al. 1996). Similarly, simulations show that if a bar or disk can be displaced from the centre of mass in a galaxy, lopsided arms or a single arm can result in a morphology similar to NGC922’s partial ring, although an external perturbations still may be needed to excite the offset (Bournaud et al. CHAPTER 7. NGC922 148

2005; Colin & Athanassoula 1989). Although secular evolution may account for some of the observed properties of NGC922, we ﬁnd that all the observed features of NGC922 can be explained by a high-speed, oﬀ-centre collision between a gas-rich spiral and a dwarf, which we model below. Since our main focus is on the observed properties of NGC922, rather than the details of the simulation results for a range of model parameters, we present only the results for which the observed morphology can be reproduced reasonably well. Detailed descriptions of the numerical methods and techniques used to model the dynamical evolution of interacting galaxies can be found in Bekki et al. (2002).

7.2.1 Model and simulations

NGC922 and S2 are represented by a self-consistent disk galaxy model and a point mass, respectively. The progenitor disk galaxy of NGC922 consists of a dark halo and a thin exponential disk. The masses and distances are measured in units of total disk mass (Md) and total disk size (Rd). Velocity and time are measured in 1/2 3 1/2 units of v = (GMd/Rd) and tdyn = (Rd/GMd) , respectively. The units are scaled so that G = 1.0. The radial (R) and vertical (Z) density proﬁles of the disk are assumed to be proportional to exp(−R/R0) with scale length R0 = 0.2 and to 2 sech (Z/Z0) with scale length Z0 = 0.04 in our units, respectively. The initial radial and azimuthal velocity dispersions are added to the disk component in accordance with epicyclic theory, and a Toomre parameter value of Q = 1.5 (Binney & Tremaine 1987). The vertical velocity dispersion at a given radius is proportionally half the radial velocity dispersion such as observed in the Milky Way (e.g. Wielen 1977). Assuming 10 −1 that Md = 2.0 × 10 M and Rd = 13.4 kpc for the disk galaxy; v = 80.1 km s , tdyn = 164 Myr, radial scale length of the disk equals 2.68 kpc and the maximum rotational velocity equals 145 km s−1. The total mass of NGC922 enclosed within 10 Rd is 7.5 × 10 M . The gas mass fraction of the spiral is assumed to be 0.2 and the Schmidt law (Schmidt 1959) with an index of 1.5 (Kennicutt 1989) is adopted for star formation in the disk galaxy.

The assumed mass ratio between the dwarf companion and the spiral is 0.2. Xg and Vg represents the initial locations and velocities of the companion with respect to the centre of the disk galaxy. For the model presented here: Xg = (x, y, z) =

(−4Rd, 0.5Rd, 0) and Vg = (vx, vy, vz) = (6v, 0, 0). The inclination of the spiral with respect to the x-y plane is assumed to be 80 degrees, hence the x − y plane roughly corresponds to the tangential plane of our images. The adopted values of vx = 6v −1 (corresponding to the relative velocity of ∼ 481 km s ) and y = 0.5Rd (∼ 6.7 kpc) 149 CHAPTER 7. NGC922 represents an oﬀ-centre very high speed collision. Note that stars that are initially within the spiral’s disk are referred to as “stars” (or “old stars”), while, the stars that are formed after the collision from the gas are referred to as “new stars”.

7.2.2 Results

Figure 7.3 describes how a ring galaxy is formed during an oﬀ-center collision between a spiral and its dwarf companion. The rapid passage of the companion through the disk initially causes the disk to contract as it feels the mass of the companion and then to expand as the mass disappears, resulting in an expanding density wave (Lynds & Toomre (1976); Hernquist & Weil (1993)). Within 0.2 Gyr of the spiral-dwarf collision, a non-axisymmetric ring-like structure and a tidal plume composed mainly of gas and old stars are formed. Owing to the strong compression of the disk gas, new stars have formed along the C-shaped ring. In comparison to our observations, the observed morphology of NGC922 is best matched by the simulated model at 0.33 Gyr after the collision. At T = 0.33 Gyr, the radius of the ring is ∼ 14 − 15 kpc and the distance between the simulated disk galaxy and its companion is ∼ 104 kpc. These values are comparable to both the observed radius of NGC922 and the projected distance between NGC922 and S2. In Fig. 7.3, the companion is no longer visible at T = 0.33 Gyr due to its high −1 relative velocity, while vz(T = 0.33) ∼ 203 km s of the intruder is in reasonable agreement with the radial velocity diﬀerence between NGC922 and S2. In conclusion, the observed ring morphology of NGC922 can be reproduced simply by passing a point mass through a disk galaxy as shown above.

7.3 Conclusions.

Block et al. (2001) showed that the structure of NGC922 determined from Fourier decomposition of IR images is similar to that of grand-design spirals, which are presumably evolving in a secular fashion. Hence the dominant galaxy may originally have been a spiral. However, concentrating on the IR properties minimises the signiﬁcance of the star formation event which is well-traced by our Hα and UV observations. These show a very disturbed morphology. The most compelling argu- ment for a drop through encounter in the NGC922 system is the ease with which this scenario can account for all the major features of the system: the oﬀ-centre star-forming bar, a nearly complete star-forming ring, the low mass companion and the plume of stars apparently directed at the companion. We are not aware of any self-consistent secular models which also produce all these features. CHAPTER 7. NGC922 150

Figure 7.3: Morphological evolution of a gas-rich, bulge-less spiral colliding with a dwarf companion (represented by a big pink dot). Time (T ) in Gyr since the start of the simulation is shown in the upper left corner of each panel. Stars, gas, and new stars are shown in green, red, and blue, respectively. For clarity, dark matter particles are not shown. The companion comes from the left side and passes through the central region of the spiral. Note that the simulated “C-shaped” morphology is strikingly similar to the observed morphological properties of NGC 922. 151 CHAPTER 7. NGC922

Although ring or ring-like galaxies only account for 0.02–0.2% of all spiral galaxies (Athanassoula & Bosma 1985) in the local Universe, they should be more common at higher redshifts, since both galaxy density and the dispersion about the Hubble flow increase with redshift. C-shaped rings like that in NGC922 should be more common at all redshifts than complete rings like the Cartwheel galaxy, since off-axis collisions are more likely than on axis ones. Indeed, five out of the eight example high redshift clump cluster galaxies shown by Elmegreen et al. (2005) have a ring or partial ring morphology. Our observations and simulations demonstrate that the ring galaxy NGC922 can be formed by the slightly off-axis passage of a dwarf companion through the disk of a spiral galaxy. A series of expanding density waves consisting of both stellar and gaseous material result from the collision and enhanced star formation in the ring and the core of NGC922 (due to the compression of the displaced gas) is observed. We are not able to discuss the star formation induced in the companion from these simulations since we simply modelled the companion as a point mass. In the future, more sophisticated simulations could probe the star formation scenario and stellar populations of the companion, while Hi synthesis observations of the system could check for the existence of a gaseous tail between NGC922 and S2.

CHAPTER 8

Conclusion

How is star formation and galaxy evolution within the Local Universe portrayed by an Hi-selected sample of galaxies? This thesis aimed to address this question from three diﬀerent directions. Firstly, we compared the Hi properties of each galaxy to its stellar content (as inferred from optical/NIR observations). The existence of isolated Hi galaxies with no stars was also investigated. Secondly, we aimed to perform a more comprehensive study of the local star formation rate density (ρ˙SFR) from a sample solely selected by its ability to form stars. Thirdly, we explored the eﬀects of interactions on star formation and galaxy evolution.

8.1 Northern HIPASS

The Northern extension of HIPASS—an all sky survey of Hi observed at the Parkes Radio Telescope—has been presented in Chapter 1. This extension spans the region of sky between the declinations of +2◦ to +25.5◦ (i.e. the Northernmost observing limit of the telescope) which includes the first ever blind survey of the region in and around the Virgo Cluster. Chapter 1 describes the development of the Northern HIPASS Catalogue (NHI- CAT) as well as the analysis of its completeness and reliability. As the noise levels are greater in NHICAT than its Southern counterpart, we found that the completeness limits at a 95% confidence level is at 91 mJy beam−1, while the reliability limits at a 95% confidence level is at 36 mJy beam−1. Since a significant portion of the sample has been reobserved at higher resolution, the reliability of the reobserved

153 CHAPTER 8. CONCLUSION 154 sample is 100%, while the remaining sample has a reliability of 80%. This proves that the publicly-available NHICAT is very reliable even though it is not complete at low peak ﬂux densities.

The resulting NHICAT has been included in the current version of the NED database and it is also publicly-available at .

In addition, we also tested a newly-developed source finder, Duchamp (version 0.9). From the quick trial using the default settings, only 56% of the NHICAT sources were recovered from the resulting sample of ∼ 3300 sources. Thus it can be concluded that the default parameter settings are not ideal for retrieving sources within the Northern HIPASS cubes. However, this finder can potentially find more sources if more appropriate parameter settings are used.

8.2 NOIRCAT

Chapter 3 presents the Northern HIPASS optical/near-infrared catalogue (NOIR- CAT; the optical/near-infrared counterpart catalogue to NHICAT) and investigates the existence of dark galaxies within the sample. We deﬁned dark galaxies to be an optically dark, isolated Hi source with neither neighbouring galaxies nor stars. Ap- proximately 74% NHICAT sources have been matched to galaxies which have been observed in the optical and/or near-infrared wavelengths. Of these sources, 73% are matches to single galaxies within 7.50 of the HIPASS position.

We found that galaxies with higher MHI correlate to galaxies with more stars and redder J − K colours. In addition, 35% of our sample have NIR colours which lie outside the NIR colour-colour distribution for normal ﬁeld galaxies. These galaxies show evidence for ionised regions and recent bursts of star formation which shifts the NIR colours (J − H and H − K) accordingly.

Eighty four percent of the 26% (260) NHICAT sources with no deﬁnite matches have no velocity matches but have positional matches to galaxies within the NED database. Of the 41 sources with neither positional nor velocity matches to NED galaxies, 16 are in the direction of the Galactic plane.

Even though the probability is small, we cannot exclude the possibility for the existence of dark galaxy within our sample without further higher resolution observations. Similarly to NHICAT, NOIRCAT will also be publicly-available at . 155 CHAPTER 8. CONCLUSION

8.3 SINGG & SUNGG

Chapters 4 and 5 describe the Survey for Ionization in Neutral Gas Galaxies (SINGG) and the Survey of Ultraviolet Emission in Neutral Gas Galaxies. The purpose of these surveys is to study the star formation rate in the Local Universe based on a sample of Hi-selected galaxies (i.e. from HIPASS). Unlike previous star formation studies, the SINGG and SUNGG samples include all star-forming galaxies without the usual optical bias towards massive and luminous galaxies. The first SINGG data release has already been published by Meurer et al. (2006). Meurer & Hanish (2007) will publish the entire SINGG SR2 sample shortly. One of the main discoveries found by Meurer et al. (2006) is that all 93 published HIPASS sources have been detected in Hα (i.e. star-forming). Since the average HIPASS beam FWHM is 14.30 (Barnes et al. 2001), there are 12 SINGG fields for which there are pairs or groups of galaxies. To distinguish between the Hi emitted by each of the galaxies, quick ATCA snapshots were made of seven of these galaxies in December 2005. Four of the 12 have already been previously observed and were found in the archive. However, there is one source (J1131-02) that is too far north to be observed using the ATCA. We were not able to recover all the flux observed by HIPASS in each of the SINGG fields, suggesting that a significant fraction in each case is distributed diffusely. Apart from J0359-45, the contribution of Hi by an individual galaxy is not obvious as the Hi morphologies tended to overlap multiple galaxies. Though preliminary, the observations presented in Chapter 4 have uncovered several groups of galaxies worthy of further study. There are four fields (J1054-18, J2202-20, J0224-24 & J0342-14) which require further observations using different and smaller array configurations the ATCA as well as more observations at different hour angles in order to reduce the elongation of the beam shape of the current observations. With these follow-up observations, we hope to recover the true Hi morphology of J1054-18 and J2202-20; and to obtain a more detailed map of the diffuse emission surrounding J0224-24 and J0342-14. Our observations of the fields, J0503-63, J0504-16 and J0514-61 revealed very unusual Hi morphologies which hint at some form of interaction between the observed galaxies and their surrounding. Currently, there are no detailed studies of these fields which explain the observed asymmetrical Hi distribution. Hence, further investigations and kinematical studies will determine the evolution of these galaxies and reveal the cause of the observed asymmetrical Hi morphologies. The SUNGG survey (as described in Chapter 5) is a star formation study of a subset of the SINGG sample in the ultraviolet using the GALEX satellite telescope. CHAPTER 8. CONCLUSION 156

Similar to SINGG, SUNGG studies regions of young stellar population. However as opposed to SINGG, SUNGG observes the direct emission of the young B-type stars instead of the compact ionized regions believed to be ionized by the very hot and massive O-type stars. Due to the large GALEX field of view (1.2◦), SUNGG’s current 118 fields resulted in the observations of 169 galaxies, of which 111 have SINGG counterparts from both the SINGG Release 1 (Meurer et al. 2006) and the SINGG Release 2 (Meurer & Hanish 2007). There are also 28 extra HIPASS galaxies within the 118 GALEX fields. We found that the FUV and NUV flux densities are well correlated except for four outlying galaxies. These galaxies appear to have FUV flux densities which are consistently higher than that of the NUV. This result suggests that either there is an unusually high abundance of young B-type stars in these four galaxies or that the pre-calibrated images delivered from GALEX is somewhat biased. As expected, the Hi mass of a galaxy appeared to be correlated to the star formation rate inferred from the FUV luminosity. The star formation rates measured from the FUV also appears correlated to those measured from the Hα by SINGG. We found that the star formation rate measured by the FUV is constantly greater than those inferred from the Hα. The resulting properties and plots measured for each SUNGG galaxy can be found in Appendix D and Appendix E. A database of the parameters and properties will be publicly-available in the form of an IDL database from .

8.4 Luminosity density & star formation rate density

Chapter 6 investigates and determines the luminosity density and star formation rate density of the Local Universe from the SINGG-SUNGG sample. The FUV luminosity density (lFUV) is calculated from the SUNGG sample, while the FIR luminosity density (lFIR) is estimated from the SINGG sources with previous IRAS observations.

By using the lFUV in combination with lFIR, we are able to estimate the bolometric star formation rate density. This is because the dust-obscured star formation not measured by the FUV can be recovered using the star formation measured by the FIR. Without accounting for internal dust extinction, the FUV luminosity density 0 +0.56 40 −1 −3 0 (lFUV) equals 7.50−0.61 ×10 ergs s Mpc and the NUV luminosity density (lNUV) equals 7.55(+0.54/ − 0.60) × 1040 ergs s−1 Mpc−3. The inclusion of the internal dust +0.26 41 −1 corrections results in lFUV and lNUV to equal 2.49−0.22(+0.35/−0.34)×10 ergs s −3 +0.17 41 −1 −3 Mpc and 3.58−0.12(+0.37/ − 0.34) × 10 ergs s Mpc , respectively. To calculate the lFIR from the entire SINGG sample, we used the inferred rela- 157 CHAPTER 8. CONCLUSION

0 tionship between the R absolute magnitude and the Hα-FIR ratio (log (FHα/FFIR) = 0 0.53+0.13MR) derived from all the SINGG sources for which IRAS ﬂuxes were found. 40 −1 −3 The resultant lFIR from the entire SR2 sample is 8.00(0.16) × 10 ergs s Mpc . +0.04 −1 −3 Using SUNGG, we found that log (ρ˙SFR) = −1.61−0.06 M year Mpc for the Local Universe. In addition, the ρ˙SFR derived from the lFIR for the SINGG −1 −3 sample yielded log (ρ˙SFR) = −2.44(0.01) M year Mpc . Used in combination, we found the bolometric star formation rate density of the Local Universe to be −2.05(+0.11/−0.14) −1 −3 10 M year Mpc . Our result is consistent with previous studies (e.g. Condon et al. 2002) indicating that the Universe is now past its peak star-forming period, which occurred at around z = 1.

8.5 NGC 922

Chapter 7 describes the discovery of a new drop-through ring galaxy from the SINGG–SUNGG sample of galaxies. NGC 922 and its companion, 2MASXJ02243002- 2444441, were identified as one of the closest drop-through ring galaxy systems. They are three times closer relative to the infamous Cartwheel Galaxy. Young star-forming regions in NGC 922’s ring are revealed by the Hα and FUV observations and a spray of stars (only visible in R-band) can be seen to be extending from NGC 922 towards the companion. In addition to our observations, our simulations also demonstrate that the ring galaxy can be formed by the slightly off-axis passage of a dwarf companion through the disk of a spiral galaxy. A series of expanding density waves consisting of both stellar and gaseous material result from the collision and enhanced star formation in the ring and the core of NGC 922 (due to the compression of the displaced gas) is observed. The ease with which our simple model reproduced the off-centre star- forming bar, the nearly complete star-forming ring, the low mass companion and the plume of stars apparently directed at the companion; provides strong support for the drop-through explanation of the system’s morphology.

8.6 Future work

Following on from Chapter 2, further investigations of the Duchamp parameter settings may result in a more efficient source finding algorithm than the current processing pipeline. The Duchamp software version 1.1 has now been released and hence, all further studies of Duchamp’s capabilities should be tested using the latest version. To further constrain the existence of dark galaxies within NOIRCAT, higher CHAPTER 8. CONCLUSION 158 resolution observations of Flag 5b and Flag 5c sources (i.e. the ones not located in the direction of the Galactic plane) are required. Hence, a logical continuation from Chapter 3 will be to submit a short proposal to observe some of the sources using the Arecibo Radio Telescope. The Arecibo Radio Telescope is able to observe approximately 50 sources within the three hour limit stipulated by the short proposal guidelines. In addition to the sources observed using the ATCA in Chapter 4, Hi synthesis observations of the SINGG field, J1131-02, as well as some of the sources (within VLA’s declination limit) with extremely elongated ATCA beam shapes, will be very useful for pin-pointing and differentiating the source(s) of the Hi emission in each field. The preliminary observations described in Chapter 4 also uncovered several groups of galaxies (with distorted and offset Hi contours) which hint at some form of galaxy–galaxy and galaxy–intracluster medium interactions. As detailed studies of these fields are currently unavailable, further detailed investigation of these groups of galaxies are needed. The obvious next step after the work presented in Chapters 5 and 6 is to finalise the SUNGG sample after all the observations are completed. The luminosity density and the star formation rate density should also be recalculated from the final SUNGG sample. A further improvement to our measurements would be to acquire mid-to-far infrared observations of the SINGG-SUNGG sample in order to obtain more direct infrared luminosities as well as a better understanding of the internal dust attenuation in the UV observations. Currently, far-infrared observations can be performed using the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope (Mauna Kea, Hawaii), the NANTEN2 Observatory (Atacama Desert, Chile) and the Antarctic Submillimetre Telescope and Remote observatories. All these facilities are capable of imaging at wavelengths greater than 200 µm (in the FIR). To obtain a more complete picture of the Local SFRD, we are also planning to examine radio continuum observations of the SINGG-SUNGG sample from the HIPASS continuum catalogue (Melchiori & Webster 2007). In the future, more sophisticated simulations could probe the star formation scenario and stellar populations of NGC 922’s companion. Even though recent ATCA observations (see Chapter 4) did not show a gaseous bridge between NGC 922 and its companion, the observations consisted of very short snapshots and further Hi synthesis observations of the system using smaller array configurations is likely to show more diffuse emission surrounding the galaxies. In addition to these observations, our request for observing time using the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) was also granted. The goals of this proposal is to gain a more detailed picture of the geometry of NGC 922. The high resolution images from HST 159 CHAPTER 8. CONCLUSION should reveal structures such as spokes, the bar, the inner ring and the second outer ring. The second aim is to examine the life-cycle of the stellar clusters and the diffuse stellar population. This will provide a useful constraint to the interaction history of the system.

8.7 Conclusion

Our Hi-selected galaxies show that galaxies with higher neutral gas content correlate to galaxies with more stars and redder near-infrared J − K colours. Many galaxies in our sample show a significant deviation from the NIR colour-colour distribution of normal field galaxies. The NIR colours of our sample show that many galaxies contain regions with ionised gas and are experiencing bursts of star formation. On the other hand, no isolated Hi galaxy (with no stars) have been confirmed. Using FUV observations of our Hi-selected sample and accounting for internal +0.04 −1 −3 dust extinction, we found that log (ρ˙SFR) = −1.61−0.06 M year Mpc for the Local Universe. All previous FUV studies of the local ρ˙SFR are higher than our measured value. This is because previous estimates of internal dust attenuation were derived from observations of starburst galaxies. This leads to an overestimation of the internal extinction when the sample consists of normal star-forming galaxies as opposed to starburst galaxies. By combining the UV and FIR observations of our sample, we estimated the −2.05(+0.11/−0.14) −1 −3 bolometric ρ˙SFR of the Local Universe to be 10 M year Mpc .

Compared to previous optically-selected studies of the local ρ˙ SFR, our result is consistent with the results of Condon et al. (2002). Preliminary high-resolution Hi imaging of our sample found possible signs of galaxy–galaxy and/or galaxy–intracluster medium interactions as suggested by the observed asymmetrical (and on occasions, off-centred) Hi morphologies. In addition, we presented a detailed study of the J0224-24 field (where NGC 922 is the primary galaxy). The companion galaxy to NGC 922 was identified using Hα observations. We concluded (from our observations, modelling and simulations of this system) that the current ring morphology of NGC 922 is due to a high-velocity off-axis passage of a dwarf companion through the disk of a spiral galaxy.

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NOIRCAT Flag 5b sources

Table A.1: NHICAT properties of 218 Flag 5b sources for which NED had 1 or more sources which were classiﬁed as galaxies with positional matches only .

HIPASS name RA [J2000] Dec [J2000] Vel [ km s−1] W [ km s−1] HIPASSJ0003+08 00:03:14.6 08:42:34 2626.7 139.1 HIPASSJ0003+15 00:03:58.4 15:11:59 873.8 100.6 HIPASSJ0010+13 00:10:42.8 13:43:57 1740.5 76.4 HIPASSJ0014+07 00:14:39.8 07:30:58 3513.9 108.2 HIPASSJ0016+07 00:16:54.8 07:12:06 3967.5 402.3 HIPASSJ0017+04 00:17:01.1 04:55:42 6528.2 501.3 HIPASSJ0019+04 00:19:28.3 04:04:42 3023.8 543.1 HIPASSJ0020+08 00:20:06.4 08:28:58 5604.5 67.0 HIPASSJ0020+10 00:20:03.0 10:53:16 1142.4 134.3 HIPASSJ0021+08 00:21:00.9 08:35:06 693.1 41.3 HIPASSJ0028+11 00:28:54.3 11:18:15 6207.9 81.3 HIPASSJ0033+02 00:33:44.3 02:40:37 4389.2 225.9 HIPASSJ0109+13 01:09:57.9 13:18:37 4219.4 166.5 HIPASSJ0120+05 01:20:20.7 05:49:57 2165.0 82.8 HIPASSJ0121+12 01:21:20.6 12:25:35 642.7 119.1 continued on next page

177 APPENDIX A. NOIRCAT FLAG 5B SOURCES 178

Table A.1 – continued from previous page HIPASS name RA [J2000] Dec [J2000] Vel [ km s−1] W [ km s−1] HIPASSJ0129+10 01:29:33.0 10:00:01 9530.9 93.3 HIPASSJ0131+23 01:31:21.7 23:54:22 3413.0 61.5 HIPASSJ0133+14 01:33:13.0 14:23:11 671.0 78.0 HIPASSJ0134+04 01:34:53.5 04:24:17 1959.5 108.1 HIPASSJ0142+02 01:42:28.4 02:56:20 1763.9 80.6 HIPASSJ0143+19 01:43:15.9 19:58:20 496.7 71.7 HIPASSJ0158+04 01:58:05.1 04:21:43 4765.3 312.4 HIPASSJ0210+06 02:10:41.4 06:46:27 1604.0 103.3 HIPASSJ0211+14 02:11:49.9 14:11:42 3812.7 58.9 HIPASSJ0221+14 02:21:52.1 14:19:27 3586.3 51.7 HIPASSJ0237+12 02:37:26.3 12:31:07 960.2 50.9 HIPASSJ0239+12 02:39:29.9 12:41:25 3554.1 154.2 HIPASSJ0243+16 02:43:16.8 16:45:37 821.4 44.8 HIPASSJ0247+03 02:47:55.9 03:53:38 1024.6 90.5 HIPASSJ0250+03 02:50:56.6 03:22:08 3009.1 46.5 HIPASSJ0251+06 02:51:32.0 06:02:30 6921.3 111.5 HIPASSJ0253+02 02:53:48.6 02:20:42 6731.0 349.4 HIPASSJ0253+06 02:53:09.3 06:32:03 5431.5 328.9 HIPASSJ0314+24 03:14:22.0 24:10:20 1303.8 143.9 HIPASSJ0320+17 03:20:24.3 17:18:56 355.2 74.2 HIPASSJ0332+15 03:32:18.4 15:26:35 6141.0 123.1 HIPASSJ0339+08 03:39:33.5 08:31:37 6728.9 110.3 HIPASSJ0340+05 03:40:51.5 05:22:08 6137.2 65.2 HIPASSJ0341+24 03:41:19.2 24:00:54 1259.6 110.3 HIPASSJ0341+18 03:41:53.5 18:07:21 1296.8 45.3 HIPASSJ0345+08 03:45:11.7 08:51:12 1755.6 40.9 HIPASSJ0345+02 03:45:36.6 02:12:00 4256.7 75.1 HIPASSJ0354+06 03:54:41.4 06:37:15 3470.4 249.8 HIPASSJ0413+24 04:13:29.7 24:50:23 3877.4 130.3 HIPASSJ0414+02 04:14:24.5 02:46:54 3336.4 270.8 HIPASSJ0415+02 04:15:41.3 02:28:45 3584.6 140.6 HIPASSJ0417+13 04:17:55.1 13:30:32 7510.4 396.3 HIPASSJ0421+10 04:21:10.1 10:09:26 7694.7 93.6 HIPASSJ0428+18 04:28:50.7 18:57:19 4793.7 87.5 HIPASSJ0431+07 04:31:07.3 07:24:28 3917.2 104.9 continued on next page 179 APPENDIX A. NOIRCAT FLAG 5B SOURCES

Table A.1 – continued from previous page HIPASS name RA [J2000] Dec [J2000] Vel [ km s−1] W [ km s−1] HIPASSJ0432+16 04:32:42.8 16:12:18 4107.1 44.6 HIPASSJ0446+08 04:46:31.4 08:18:58 4651.7 241.8 HIPASSJ0503+18 05:03:14.4 18:24:56 5005.8 389.1 HIPASSJ0506+25 05:06:50.7 25:12:46 3059.7 254.5 HIPASSJ0508+10 05:08:49.5 10:45:00 1669.1 555.1 HIPASSJ0519+22 05:19:44.1 22:56:38 7182.5 314.9 HIPASSJ0520+17 05:20:50.9 17:02:24 6621.8 168.8 HIPASSJ0524+04 05:24:58.6 04:31:11 519.3 166.5 HIPASSJ0524+07 05:24:18.8 07:23:46 4395.3 106.7 HIPASSJ0527+15 05:27:42.9 15:52:52 5598.2 161.2 HIPASSJ0531+08 05:31:05.6 08:20:12 961.0 90.1 HIPASSJ0544+04 05:44:24.9 04:13:03 3537.2 66.7 HIPASSJ0545+05 05:45:02.0 05:04:09 387.8 122.0 HIPASSJ0547+17 05:47:07.9 17:35:07 5571.2 90.9 HIPASSJ0554+18 05:54:10.1 18:00:42 5726.2 46.7 HIPASSJ0556+13 05:56:26.8 13:40:07 7877.4 264.9 HIPASSJ0559+15 05:59:53.0 15:36:00 5454.9 196.8 HIPASSJ0603+08 06:03:49.3 08:38:43 5380.5 206.6 HIPASSJ0605+19 06:05:26.6 19:29:32 5763.3 286.2 HIPASSJ0620+20 06:20:36.1 20:10:49 1318.0 138.1 HIPASSJ0621+11 06:21:18.5 11:06:52 5602.4 195.6 HIPASSJ0622+11 06:22:49.2 11:08:28 5509.4 384.1 HIPASSJ0623+04 06:23:52.1 04:16:55 2867.8 102.5 HIPASSJ0624+23 06:24:35.3 23:21:20 1464.1 72.8 HIPASSJ0626+24 06:26:39.8 24:40:18 1473.2 99.2 HIPASSJ0630+23 06:30:04.1 23:34:08 1452.4 135.4 HIPASSJ0630+08 06:30:09.2 08:21:16 363.7 53.4 HIPASSJ0630+16 06:30:08.5 16:47:50 2526.4 275.1 HIPASSJ0631+02 06:31:12.9 02:44:05 2774.1 114.7 HIPASSJ0633+21 06:33:12.5 21:02:15 5451.5 467.6 HIPASSJ0635+20 06:35:32.9 20:36:31 4329.3 269.4 HIPASSJ0635+11 06:35:47.6 11:13:11 3575.4 76.6 HIPASSJ0635+14 06:35:52.7 14:36:39 4023.3 347.5 HIPASSJ0637+03 06:37:39.3 03:24:50 3428.5 159.8 HIPASSJ0637+22 06:37:56.1 22:39:24 1380.5 114.0 continued on next page APPENDIX A. NOIRCAT FLAG 5B SOURCES 180

Table A.1 – continued from previous page HIPASS name RA [J2000] Dec [J2000] Vel [ km s−1] W [ km s−1] HIPASSJ0645+22 06:45:42.5 22:25:58 4482.1 195.0 HIPASSJ0656+06b 06:56:27.1 06:14:42 6783.4 228.5 HIPASSJ0704+13 07:04:55.2 13:56:18 2367.5 53.1 HIPASSJ0705+02 07:05:43.6 02:37:12 1744.6 46.3 HIPASSJ0710+05 07:10:09.9 05:16:33 3609.1 139.6 HIPASSJ0714+06 07:14:00.6 06:18:00 8422.1 139.7 HIPASSJ0731+08 07:31:16.0 08:00:01 1882.9 55.2 HIPASSJ0755+03 07:55:52.3 03:27:05 9720.8 93.4 HIPASSJ0818+04 08:18:14.2 04:37:29 4221.7 52.2 HIPASSJ0831+07 08:31:31.0 07:00:18 1850.8 128.2 HIPASSJ0901+21 09:01:20.5 21:13:10 7641.6 86.5 HIPASSJ0905+21 09:05:26.9 21:38:58 3073.6 107.0 HIPASSJ0908+05a 09:08:12.9 05:55:02 1313.7 71.4 HIPASSJ0922+03 09:22:25.6 03:51:36 4139.3 128.9 HIPASSJ0942+04 09:42:46.9 04:49:53 1955.0 66.2 HIPASSJ1003+11 10:03:15.9 11:29:33 3501.6 52.8 HIPASSJ1027+24 10:27:07.6 24:10:09 1211.8 52.5 HIPASSJ1031+25 10:31:34.9 25:16:07 1282.3 125.4 HIPASSJ1034+23 10:34:38.9 23:03:06 1238.0 49.3 HIPASSJ1052+07 10:52:59.4 07:37:52 3392.0 80.2 HIPASSJ1106+19 11:06:02.6 19:49:15 1334.9 38.3 HIPASSJ1113+21 11:13:43.0 21:34:37 1440.2 164.6 HIPASSJ1119+03 11:19:10.4 03:36:02 7169.7 202.7 HIPASSJ1119+09 11:19:16.4 09:34:56 995.2 69.9 HIPASSJ1122+13 11:22:33.2 13:40:32 896.3 51.4 HIPASSJ1129+11 11:29:44.4 11:58:38 3240.9 94.6 HIPASSJ1137+18 11:37:29.7 18:22:18 946.0 41.1 HIPASSJ1148+23 11:48:55.2 23:48:54 528.2 101.1 HIPASSJ1204+16 12:04:00.7 16:30:43 2063.9 173.6 HIPASSJ1205+21 12:05:10.1 21:29:07 3128.5 37.3 HIPASSJ1209+14 12:09:56.3 14:20:57 820.0 52.6 HIPASSJ1213+16 12:13:03.1 16:11:21 7135.9 83.5 HIPASSJ1214+09 12:14:41.5 09:11:45 1784.3 121.9 HIPASSJ1215+09b 12:15:53.0 09:40:01 2219.4 35.6 HIPASSJ1215+12 12:15:26.5 12:59:54 2090.3 36.0 continued on next page 181 APPENDIX A. NOIRCAT FLAG 5B SOURCES

Table A.1 – continued from previous page HIPASS name RA [J2000] Dec [J2000] Vel [ km s−1] W [ km s−1] HIPASSJ1218+07 12:18:23.0 07:39:09 3956.6 150.4 HIPASSJ1219+06b 12:19:53.6 06:39:42 480.7 41.5 HIPASSJ1230+09 12:30:22.3 09:31:28 495.9 69.5 HIPASSJ1230+17 12:30:06.6 17:24:52 2556.1 282.9 HIPASSJ1231+20 12:31:44.5 20:23:28 1332.1 68.6 HIPASSJ1234+15 12:34:41.7 15:12:11 671.1 91.2 HIPASSJ1240+13 12:40:01.5 13:50:48 1004.3 40.2 HIPASSJ1242+05 12:42:43.3 05:46:12 989.1 106.0 HIPASSJ1243+07 12:43:13.1 07:37:56 1314.7 66.8 HIPASSJ1244+12 12:44:07.0 12:08:52 1008.1 111.7 HIPASSJ1250+17 12:50:22.7 17:30:18 843.5 116.9 HIPASSJ1256+19 12:56:04.9 19:07:38 418.4 33.0 HIPASSJ1314+23 13:14:11.2 23:11:30 3441.9 76.6 HIPASSJ1327+10 13:27:18.7 10:03:17 1050.0 50.8 HIPASSJ1336+08 13:36:04.2 08:51:39 1159.4 130.8 HIPASSJ1355+17 13:55:22.9 17:47:24 956.7 97.5 HIPASSJ1403+09 14:03:21.3 09:25:34 4638.5 43.9 HIPASSJ1404+08a 14:04:15.4 08:47:43 6289.2 55.2 HIPASSJ1406+22 14:06:56.0 22:04:40 2320.0 122.3 HIPASSJ1415+16 14:15:38.2 16:32:48 2270.6 90.0 HIPASSJ1420+08 14:20:54.4 08:40:24 1298.0 81.9 HIPASSJ1435+05 14:35:24.0 05:17:26 1636.3 96.0 HIPASSJ1435+13 14:35:37.9 13:02:19 1827.0 227.9 HIPASSJ1436+21 14:36:36.3 21:02:51 5458.5 291.9 HIPASSJ1445+07 14:45:16.0 07:52:49 1690.6 38.3 HIPASSJ1526+14 15:26:22.1 14:25:11 8694.9 136.8 HIPASSJ1538+12a 15:38:18.2 12:58:47 1860.5 158.2 HIPASSJ1545+12 15:45:42.6 12:30:40 1122.5 110.4 HIPASSJ1548+16 15:48:58.1 16:43:14 2051.9 94.5 HIPASSJ1557+14 15:57:56.1 14:58:41 11276.2 62.4 HIPASSJ1604+14 16:04:10.8 14:37:54 4793.0 111.5 HIPASSJ1606+08 16:06:14.9 08:29:46 1362.9 145.9 HIPASSJ1614+02 16:14:14.1 02:30:46 4852.8 78.3 HIPASSJ1621+20 16:21:38.7 20:52:25 3100.6 128.1 HIPASSJ1735+02 17:35:34.7 02:46:46 10311.9 139.3 continued on next page APPENDIX A. NOIRCAT FLAG 5B SOURCES 182

Table A.1 – continued from previous page HIPASS name RA [J2000] Dec [J2000] Vel [ km s−1] W [ km s−1] HIPASSJ1736+15 17:36:49.7 15:12:00 6613.4 45.2 HIPASSJ1747+04 17:47:06.5 04:11:58 8158.7 80.9 HIPASSJ1747+18 17:47:31.8 18:18:00 5827.3 57.7 HIPASSJ1750+21 17:50:13.4 21:15:50 3221.7 82.4 HIPASSJ1752+22 17:52:56.0 22:54:44 8255.3 143.2 HIPASSJ1754+02 17:54:40.9 02:55:07 1761.7 187.1 HIPASSJ1758+14 17:58:46.7 14:47:43 2957.5 133.8 HIPASSJ1804+21 18:04:37.7 21:39:04 2224.0 196.6 HIPASSJ1805+17 18:05:05.9 17:19:09 5548.3 149.7 HIPASSJ1805+23a 18:05:31.2 23:13:00 2339.6 101.4 HIPASSJ1805+23b 18:05:57.2 23:26:38 6666.8 58.6 HIPASSJ1807+09 18:07:57.2 09:46:19 2070.0 150.5 HIPASSJ1807+25 18:07:22.0 25:19:41 4688.0 126.2 HIPASSJ1817+14 18:17:07.7 14:25:02 5362.7 200.5 HIPASSJ1819+14 18:19:56.8 14:40:45 5181.1 132.5 HIPASSJ1828+06 18:28:49.8 06:32:26 2957.3 158.5 HIPASSJ1832+06 18:32:12.6 06:25:06 2823.3 90.6 HIPASSJ1833+10 18:33:29.4 10:38:48 3165.1 158.1 HIPASSJ1837+11 18:37:37.3 11:55:17 3584.4 80.9 HIPASSJ1837+22 18:37:45.3 22:04:32 4101.0 132.2 HIPASSJ1839+13 18:39:35.3 13:19:21 3892.9 151.4 HIPASSJ1842+17 18:42:53.8 17:02:14 3909.8 89.4 HIPASSJ1842+15 18:42:58.3 15:00:29 4263.6 36.6 HIPASSJ1843+19 18:43:27.2 19:26:41 4300.7 206.1 HIPASSJ1846+22 18:46:11.3 22:36:24 4698.6 316.5 HIPASSJ1849+18 18:49:55.0 18:44:16 3081.8 130.0 HIPASSJ1912+13 19:12:37.3 13:23:54 2776.7 112.2 HIPASSJ1915+20 19:15:00.4 20:11:43 4710.3 545.6 HIPASSJ1917+04 19:17:39.1 04:27:21 6182.8 167.2 HIPASSJ1950+18b 19:50:52.8 18:23:51 3979.2 310.9 HIPASSJ2004+07 20:04:12.1 07:23:37 5943.3 145.0 HIPASSJ2004+14 20:04:46.0 14:06:19 4406.0 138.4 HIPASSJ2015+12 20:15:50.3 12:40:44 1950.9 51.6 HIPASSJ2042+07 20:42:16.7 07:36:53 5737.4 120.5 HIPASSJ2045+12 20:45:19.4 12:53:03 4916.0 124.2 continued on next page 183 APPENDIX A. NOIRCAT FLAG 5B SOURCES

Table A.1 – continued from previous page HIPASS name RA [J2000] Dec [J2000] Vel [ km s−1] W [ km s−1] HIPASSJ2109+21 21:09:41.2 21:18:16 3394.7 111.2 HIPASSJ2112+12 21:12:26.7 12:37:20 4857.6 200.0 HIPASSJ2132+07 21:32:52.3 07:58:22 3490.8 66.7 HIPASSJ2142+22 21:42:27.7 22:38:58 5623.0 84.4 HIPASSJ2149+14 21:49:34.4 14:14:35 1103.0 119.4 HIPASSJ2158+14 21:58:34.9 14:07:01 1703.2 90.5 HIPASSJ2207+15 22:07:06.0 15:59:05 1767.1 64.3 HIPASSJ2208+03 22:08:05.5 03:36:27 4012.2 152.7 HIPASSJ2209+01 22:09:44.7 01:59:07 3840.3 100.7 HIPASSJ2211+17 22:11:54.7 17:54:35 1738.0 151.3 HIPASSJ2224+22 22:24:52.1 22:58:23 1249.8 90.6 HIPASSJ2225+06 22:25:31.1 06:23:15 8377.6 69.1 HIPASSJ2251+07 22:51:29.7 07:15:58 3211.6 105.6 HIPASSJ2253+11 22:53:48.0 11:16:15 2243.5 148.8 HIPASSJ2255+11 22:55:37.8 11:03:54 2064.3 146.8 HIPASSJ2301+12 23:01:06.0 12:44:53 2805.2 213.5 HIPASSJ2308+17 23:08:47.5 17:12:44 1764.2 142.0 HIPASSJ2316+05 23:16:00.0 05:11:47 9884.7 152.9 HIPASSJ2319+16 23:19:36.8 16:06:43 7222.5 478.0 HIPASSJ2322+13 23:22:27.2 13:52:11 7799.7 64.1 HIPASSJ2333+04 23:33:20.8 04:23:33 5814.1 88.9 HIPASSJ2336+12 23:36:29.9 12:46:22 6184.4 62.1 HIPASSJ2336+14 23:36:41.6 14:12:05 3971.0 174.2 HIPASSJ2339+07 23:39:32.7 07:48:53 3430.9 60.5 HIPASSJ2349+02 23:49:53.6 02:43:12 5307.8 222.8 HIPASSJ2353+07 23:53:55.1 07:56:25 5132.9 167.3 HIPASSJ2357+23 23:57:57.2 23:59:54 10927.8 100.2 HIPASSJ2358+04 23:58:15.2 04:47:37 3035.2 110.7 HIPASSJ2359+02 23:59:17.3 02:42:05 2616.0 147.8

APPENDIX B

Hi properties of SUNGG sources

185 APPENDIX B. HI PROPERTIES OF SUNGG SOURCES 186 ] 1 − s page INT 3.7 7.0 5.8 7.0 8.9 9.1 4.1 km 76.9 25.4 68.8 70.3 20.9 63.9 12.4 16.0 S next on [Jy ued tin [Jy] PEAK 0.098 0.145 0.5373 0.1660 0.1067 0.3103 0.2994 0.3495 0.1208 0.2883 0.0442 0.0453 0.0703 0.0626 0.0283 S Con ] 1 − s W 36.0 30.0 47.9 52.8 75.2 160.0 220.8 281.4 209.8 266.8 411.9 221.3 132.0 353.1 185.8 km [ ] 1 − s es es es es es es es es es km No No No No No [ Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 294.6 221.0 539.2 737.3 1151.9 1651.8 1636.1 5660.3 1627.6 6155.3 3976.1 6774.3 1451.9 7786.4 7200.2 Original? HEL V galaxies. )]

M SUNGG [log( ) [J2000] I 7.17 8.01 7.26 8.27 9.95 9.40 9.82 9.95 9.69 10.34 10.49 10.28 10.68 10.02 H 00:58:34 01:18:05 -08:23:21 -13:52:52 -20:59:48 -09:56:00 -22:40:12 -20:28:40 -14:15:33 -14:10:17 -34:34:46 -59:31:41 -59:42:45 -22:47:37 -28:07:06 original M ( Dec the Log of c] erties [Mp prop 3.3 7.9 4.6 [J2000] 10.7 23.4 20.6 55.8 23.1 86.5 79.2 94.6 16.5 112.1 103.8 Hi 01:12:57.4 00:34:48.7 00:40:36.5 00:49:25.9 00:56:37.9 01:30:28.9 00:47:40.4 00:39:57.0 01:11:25.3 00:39:05.7 00:08:04.0 00:08:25.4 00:10:41.3 00:31:24.5 00:05:39.0 RA B.1: Distance able T ID Optical UGC00749 NGC0428 ESO409-IG015 ESO349-G031 ESO111-G014 ESO111-G016 ESO473-G024 NGC0157 NGC0210 NGC0247D UGCA015 NGC0309 NGC0578 NGC0207 NGC0178 name 0005-28 0008-34 0008-59 0010-59 0031-22 0034-08 0039-14a 0039-14b 0040-13 0047-20 0049-20 0056-09 0111+01 0112+00 0130-22 ASS ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP 187 APPENDIX B. HI PROPERTIES OF SUNGG SOURCES ] 1 − s page INT 9.0 6.7 1.8 km 31.2 81.5 18.4 40.8 26.9 20.5 25.3 14.2 44.9 20.8 57.9 12.1 S next on [Jy ued tin [Jy] PEAK 0.4130 0.1100 1.2684 0.0986 0.1727 0.1617 0.1155 0.0789 0.0753 0.4388 0.1459 0.0497 0.5402 0.0731 0.0472 S Con ] 1 − s W 75.2 87.7 63.0 96.5 78.9 253.6 375.1 188.2 194.3 547.6 242.6 102.1 185.8 151.2 181.3 km [ ] 1 − s es es es es es es es es es es es km No No No No [ Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 395.7 391.0 1654.7 1507.5 3082.6 1510.7 5739.0 1245.9 1370.6 1324.8 1294.3 1565.0 1498.1 1283.7 12324.3 Original? HEL V page )]

M previous [log( ) [J2000] I 8.09 8.58 9.89 8.14 9.10 9.81 9.36 9.63 9.33 9.01 9.59 8.86 10.07 10.58 10.68 H -41:26:26 -22:29:09 -20:43:35 -21:13:09 -24:47:10 -24:16:53 -02:55:19 -08:07:59 -08:25:29 -06:05:33 -06:55:31 -43:36:26 -20:48:22 -05:38:31 from -05:32:28.0 M ( Dec ued Log tin c] con – [Mp B.1 4.1 4.4 [J2000] 22.7 18.1 21.0 21.8 23.0 20.9 43.1 21.0 80.0 17.4 19.2 18.6 173.5 01:35:03.2 02:12:34.8 02:23:07.7 02:23:10.3 02:24:58.3 02:26:24.8 02:30:42.0 02:39:32.3 02:40:24.2 02:40:32.5 02:41:03.9 01:45:00.4 02:21:56.1 01:40:15.1 01:41:04.00 able RA T Distance ID Optical NGC625 APMUKS(BJ)B013743.03 MCG-01-05-017 ESO245-G005 NGC0858 NGC899/IC223 NGC0907 NGC0908 NGC0922 UGCA032 NGC0958 NGC1035 NGC1042 UGCA038 NGC0961 name 0135-41 0140-05 0141-05 0145-43 0212-22 0221-20 0223-20 0223-21 0224-24 0226-24 0230-02 0239-08 0240-08 0240-06 0241-06 ASS ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP APPENDIX B. HI PROPERTIES OF SUNGG SOURCES 188 ] 1 − s page INT 2.5 4.3 km 87.7 12.6 48.0 19.1 70.0 48.0 25.6 22.2 10.2 24.5 S 162.1 104.1 174.7 next on [Jy ued tin [Jy] PEAK 0.0487 1.5145 0.1427 0.2828 0.1010 0.1139 0.2706 0.7288 0.3251 0.5657 0.6767 0.2258 0.0720 0.0633 0.1406 S Con ] 1 − s W 48.5 49.3 88.9 36.8 205.2 224.5 295.5 377.5 188.5 226.2 373.7 130.3 399.9 190.1 213.5 km [ ] 1 − s es es es es es es es es es es es es es es es km [ Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 996.2 838.6 955.0 709.7 1028.3 1063.4 1405.4 1270.0 1092.0 1777.2 1072.5 1636.4 4805.3 1391.0 1146.6 Original? HEL V page )]

M previous [log( ) [J2000] I 7.95 9.21 9.80 8.85 9.84 8.95 9.00 9.71 9.14 8.03 9.41 9.33 8.96 10.07 10.41 H -49:36:34 -51:54:16 -07:34:16 -30:16:22 -02:39:40 -18:53:33 -53:20:07 -37:51:34 -41:06:39 -36:08:27 -74:26:28 -45:58:39 -41:01:33 -39:57:25 -57:22:47 from M ( Dec ued Log tin c] con – [Mp B.1 9.4 [J2000] 18.1 19.7 17.5 15.5 69.9 24.8 19.2 12.9 14.4 15.5 13.5 11.2 13.8 14.3 03:19:25.0 03:31:42.0 02:46:01.5 02:46:17.7 02:49:24.1 03:02:42.1 03:10:03.3 03:17:28.1 03:17:13.8 03:33:33.4 02:58:22.2 03:05:06.5 03:09:42.9 03:10:08.1 03:13:02.9 able RA T Distance ID Optical NGC1084 NGC1097 UGCA044 ESO031-G005 NGC1179 ESO248-G002 ESO300-G014 ESO300-G016 NGC1249 ESO116-G012 NGC1291 NGC1291 IC1914 IC1954 NGC1365 name 0246-07 0246-30 0249-02 0258-74 0302-18 0305-45 0309-41 0310-39 0310-53 0313-57 0317-37 0317-41 0319-49 0331-51 0333-36 ASS ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP 189 APPENDIX B. HI PROPERTIES OF SUNGG SOURCES ] 1 − s page INT 8.4 7.3 6.2 3.3 2.2 2.8 km 60.1 10.2 10.8 11.1 69.9 43.0 13.4 S 250.2 154.4 next on [Jy ued tin [Jy] PEAK 0.070 0.103 0.3510 1.3355 0.0690 0.0868 0.1633 0.0887 0.3079 0.3929 0.9723 0.0789 0.0297 0.1949 0.0378 S Con ] 1 − s W 86.1 67.0 96.7 69.7 47.2 85.0 70.3 85.3 206.5 236.4 167.5 102.4 391.4 112.4 205.8 km [ ] 1 − s es es es es es es es es es es es es es km No No [ Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 848.3 900.6 988.9 898.6 889.1 871.7 923.6 848.8 897.7 1462.9 1053.4 1503.0 1023.5 1856.4 1429.6 Original? HEL V page )]

M previous [log( ) [J2000] I 8.16 9.84 8.54 8.39 8.55 8.56 9.25 9.31 8.65 9.93 8.44 8.42 8.28 8.64 10.33 H -42:22:52 -24:55:57 -46:13:12 -43:20:53 -50:10:43 -54:57:14 -52:38:24 -36:17:15 -51:26:21 -24:54:46 -38:27:39 -43:46:56 -35:49:55 -45:52:09 from -35:24:13.0 M ( Dec ued Log tin c] con – [Mp B.1 [J2000] 22.8 13.7 20.4 26.0 12.0 11.7 12.3 11.3 14.2 11.9 12.0 11.8 19.9 11.4 13.2 3:55:43.8 03:34:59.9 03:57:24.9 04:03:59.0 04:17:45.4 04:19:56.5 04:06:11.3 03:42:52.5 03:34:56.2 03:36:44.8 03:51:38.3 03:54:16.3 04:08:59.4 04:11:04.8 03:59:13.8 able RA T Distance ID arf Dw Optical 1522 ESO200-G045 NGC1371 ESO482-G013 NGC1437A ESO302-G014 ESO249-G026 NGC1487 NGC1493 Horologium NGC1512 NGC ESO359-G022 ESO359-G024 NGC1556 NGC1566 name 0334-51 0335-24 0336-24 0342-36 0351-38 0354-43 0355-42 0357-46 0359-45 0403-43 0406-52 0408-35 0411-35 0417-50 0419-54 ASS ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP APPENDIX B. HI PROPERTIES OF SUNGG SOURCES 190 ] 1 − s page INT 5.3 5.9 5.9 km 80.1 12.3 24.5 56.9 48.5 40.0 14.7 62.6 21.6 57.8 S 154.1 198.8 next on [Jy ued tin [Jy] PEAK 1.109 0.1730 0.2587 0.3744 0.9410 0.9095 0.3639 0.1556 0.1249 0.0402 0.5728 0.1384 0.2654 0.0793 0.0785 S Con ] 1 − s W 65.6 73.4 93.8 74.6 73.4 179.4 200.8 250.7 136.5 300.6 140.6 226.2 116.3 160.5 280.2 km [ ] 1 − s es es es es es es es es es es es es es km No No [ Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 898.2 740.8 810.6 928.6 946.0 1334.0 1050.8 1209.3 1241.0 1192.3 3941.1 1020.4 1071.6 1344.0 1343.4 Original? HEL V page )]

M previous [log( ) [J2000] I 9.32 8.37 9.38 9.56 9.42 9.60 8.54 9.45 9.48 9.03 9.68 8.69 9.02 10.19 10.19 H -21:50:36 -59:14:48 -31:57:27 -26:01:29 -37:58:26 -31:56:38 -32:58:30 -32:08:26 -52:05:13 -31:46:35 -38:18:26 -41:21:33 -37:05:50 -37:04:41 -27:25:22 from M ( Dec ued Log tin c] con – [Mp B.1 [J2000] 20.7 12.4 13.0 18.1 14.4 10.0 16.7 56.4 10.9 13.8 12.6 14.5 18.7 18.7 17.3 04:21:15.1 04:45:43.7 04:49:58.3 04:59:58.6 05:05:15.3 05:06:29.4 05:12:00.9 05:19:56.7 05:46:19.3 05:05:10.4 05:08:09.2 05:15:01.9 05:16:41.1 05:19:31.7 04:29:51.1 able RA T Distance ID Optical UGCA090 ESO421-IG002NED02 NGC1672 NGC1679 NGC1744 NGC1792 ESO422-G027 NGC1800 ESO305-G009 UGCA106 ESO305-G017 ESO362-G011 ESO0362-G016 NGC1879 NGC2101 name 0421-21 0429-27 0445-59 0449-31 0459-26 0505-37 0505-31 0506-31 0508-38 0512-32 0515-41 0516-37 0519-37 0519-32 0546-52 ASS ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP 191 APPENDIX B. HI PROPERTIES OF SUNGG SOURCES ] 1 − s page INT 5.6 6.4 6.5 5.5 9.6 km 11.1 10.3 11.1 29.3 22.2 17.4 87.5 10.0 27.8 12.2 S next on [Jy ued tin [Jy] PEAK 0.093 0.1465 0.1731 0.1630 0.0734 0.2430 0.1778 0.0548 0.4726 0.0512 0.1996 0.0593 0.0809 0.0576 0.0685 S Con ] 1 − s W 77.3 56.6 40.8 90.2 91.0 76.9 144.2 131.0 522.3 265.2 242.5 141.8 280.3 110.0 150.0 km [ ] 1 − s es es es es es es es es es es km No No No No No [ Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 966.6 993.5 1039.3 1069.3 1010.0 1102.6 1160.3 1195.3 5477.2 1113.9 1197.0 9094.1 1044.6 3623.3 1916.9 Original? HEL V page )]

M previous [log( ) [J2000] I 9.18 8.81 9.12 9.06 9.92 9.62 9.23 8.62 8.26 8.62 9.29 8.24 8.34 10.45 10.63 H 00:49:40 -14:22:43 -17:38:27 -51:34:09 -23:23:16 -17:05:35 -23:06:47 -23:14:44 -19:03:18 -23:56:10 -23:38:38 -04:54:37 -17:37:02 -17:31:02 +02:09:57 from M ( Dec ued Log tin c] con – [Mp B.1 [J2000] 16.1 15.6 15.9 13.2 82.8 53.8 14.2 15.7 12.7 11.9 13.1 29.3 10.6 12.0 135.0 11:06:07.6 11:18:04.9 11:45:03.4 11:36:30.3 05:47:08.2 10:41:25.4 10:51:34.3 11:03:26.6 11:03:46.1 10:26:36.9 10:42:35.2 11:02:48.7 11:27:44.7 11:07:04.5 11:19:26.2 able RA T Distance ID Optical KKH072 UGC6578 NGC2104 ESO568-G011 NGC3355 ESO501-G080 NGC3431 ESO502-G012 NGC3511 NGC3513 — GSC608000727 — GSC608700176 MCG-01-29-023 name 0547-51 1026-19 1041-23 1042-23 1051-17 1102-23 1103-23 1104-23 1106-14 1107-17 1118-17 1119-17 1127-04 1136+00b 1145+02 ASS ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP APPENDIX B. HI PROPERTIES OF SUNGG SOURCES 192 ] 1 − s page INT 4.5 8.8 km 24.1 19.9 26.6 12.1 13.2 32.0 89.8 44.2 52.0 16.8 30.3 58.8 29.4 S next on [Jy ued tin [Jy] PEAK 0.209 0.1927 0.3123 0.3514 0.0671 0.1261 0.1750 0.5507 0.2467 0.5096 0.1061 0.1647 0.2859 0.0553 0.2343 S Con ] 1 − s — W 60.2 72.2 64.8 93.7 74.0 231.0 240.9 113.6 194.3 171.0 239.4 233.9 180.1 148.1 km [ ] 1 − s es es es es es es es es es es es es km No No No [ Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 935.2 997.0 824.2 1206.5 1721.8 1033.1 1124.7 1298.1 1306.9 1579.7 2554.0 1344.1 1260.1 2472.0 1257.8 Original? HEL V page )]

M previous [log( ) [J2000] I 8.57 8.67 8.14 9.39 9.90 8.96 9.37 8.17 8.92 9.55 9.27 9.48 9.21 8.98 9.36 H -16:50:57 -22:51:42 -08:02:48 -07:34:03 -03:17:27 -13:14:37 -12:05:10 -12:13:42 -12:21:22 -13:27:20 -10:19:26 -10:30:40 -11:54:12 -05:19:57 +00:27:29 from M ( Dec ued Log tin c] con – [Mp B.1 8.9 8.6 [J2000] 10.2 15.4 25.3 11.1 10.5 11.8 17.1 16.1 18.1 38.3 15.3 17.4 24.2 12:17:56.2 11:47:03.2 12:06:07.9 12:31:00.3 12:32:20.3 12:47:54.4 12:51:05.1 12:53:58.0 12:59:08.4 13:00:14.2 13:00:48.6 12:54:58.1 12:54:27.9 12:54:49.5 12:57:18.1 able RA T Distance ID Optical UGC7332 NGC3887 UGCA270 NGC4487 NGC4504 NGC4691 NGC4723 UGCA307 MCG-02-33-058 MCG-01-33-059 UGCA312 UGCA314 NGC4897 NGC4781 NGC4781/4 name 1147-16 1206-22 1217+00 1231-08 1232-07 1247-03 1251-13 1253-12 1254-10a 1254-10b 1254-11 1257-05 1259-12 1300-12 1300-13 ASS ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP 193 APPENDIX B. HI PROPERTIES OF SUNGG SOURCES ] 1 − s page INT 5.6 7.0 7.9 5.9 8.0 km 44.4 26.3 10.3 11.4 10.4 73.7 19.2 12.1 18.0 11.9 S next on [Jy ued tin [Jy] PEAK 0.1593 0.1182 0.6100 0.0568 0.0963 0.0883 0.0732 0.0851 0.2966 0.0668 0.1073 0.0981 0.0987 0.1187 0.0573 S Con ] 1 − s W 38.6 58.6 67.0 94.9 175.4 267.5 138.4 168.5 159.2 327.2 238.0 125.9 245.9 119.8 153.3 km [ ] 1 − s es es es es es es es km No No No No No No No No [ Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 571.8 407.0 1307.8 4264.2 4915.0 1718.9 1743.8 1122.9 2796.6 2645.5 2960.6 1540.8 6705.0 1326.2 11515.8 Original? HEL V page )]

M previous [log( ) [J2000] I 7.56 8.07 8.71 9.86 9.29 9.35 8.62 8.90 8.99 9.87 9.74 10.04 10.52 10.87 10.64 H -31:32:27 -13:32:00 -55:21:06 -54:56:16 -08:03:52 -07:40:03 -07:53:50 -43:39:25 -13:56:06 -43:55:28 -31:39:06 -08:09:36 -26:39:49 -27:17:02 -31:40:31 from M ( Dec ued Log tin c] con – [Mp B.1 5.2 3.4 [J2000] 39.0 17.5 40.1 28.2 28.8 13.1 23.9 18.6 63.2 72.8 44.1 197.1 100.8 13:21:05.3 13:01:00.5 20:00:04.8 20:03:26.4 13:02:59.8 13:04:09.1 13:05:18.0 20:24:32.0 13:01:03.6 20:23:04.5 13:39:56.0 13:05:05.3 14:19:28.5 14:03:33.2 13:39:29.9 able RA T Distance ID Optical NGC4928 NGC4942 NGC4948 NGC4948A — 2MASXJ13392085-31403 ESO510-IG052 ESO511-G030 IC4919 IC4933 NGC6902B NGC6902 — NGC4899 NGC5253 name 1300-13b 1301-13b 1302-08 1304-07 1305-07 1305-08 1321-31 1339-31 1339-31A 1403-27 1419-26 2000-55 2003-54 2023-43 2024-43 ASS ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP APPENDIX B. HI PROPERTIES OF SUNGG SOURCES 194 ] 1 − s page INT 8.5 9.0 5.0 km 33.0 22.6 14.9 48.4 50.8 48.2 21.1 59.8 41.4 75.8 10.5 S 250.2 next on [Jy ued tin [Jy] PEAK 0.1421 1.8158 0.1678 0.0443 0.1427 0.1813 0.1883 0.1670 0.1622 0.0644 0.2787 0.1456 0.4272 0.0434 0.0891 S Con ] 1 − s W 57.5 85.0 159.9 271.2 248.3 222.2 285.4 507.7 409.9 511.2 270.5 393.7 147.3 130.8 126.6 km [ ] 1 − s es es es es es es es es es es es es es km No No [ Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 829.0 938.5 706.6 818.2 3085.6 3319.3 2367.3 3182.0 2792.0 3114.2 4938.0 1734.2 3101.9 3116.0 3094.7 Original? HEL V page )]

M previous [log( ) [J2000] I 9.40 9.94 9.70 8.55 8.54 9.79 8.57 10.48 10.42 10.22 10.32 10.37 10.42 10.30 10.57 H -33:29:31 -64:20:31 -64:50:23 -24:48:31 -31:58:44 -68:45:16 -47:16:53 -60:01:22 -63:54:13 -60:39:44 -04:45:34 -41:04:02 -43:15:26 -48:24:36 -26:53:41 from M ( Dec ued Log tin c] con – [Mp B.1 [J2000] 41.7 47.9 46.1 46.2 41.9 45.4 72.5 24.9 45.2 48.5 45.5 10.1 13.2 34.0 12.3 20:30:39.9 21:38:42.0 22:47:16.4 20:25:06.6 20:34:17.7 20:44:34.7 21:15:26.5 21:27:23.2 21:35:49.9 21:49:13.9 22:39:03.7 22:57:19.0 20:25:11.0 22:22:24.7 22:54:50.3 able RA T Distance ID Optical NGC6907 ESO285-G009 IC5020 NGC6925 NGC6943 NGC7038 NGC7059 NGC7083 IC5120 NGC7125 ESO238-G005 UGCA433 IC5249 MCG-05-54-004 NGC7424 name 2025-24 2025-43 2030-33 2034-31 2044-68 2115-47 2127-60 2135-63 2138-64 2149-60 2222-48 2239-04 2247-64 2254-26 2257-41 ASS ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP 195 APPENDIX B. HI PROPERTIES OF SUNGG SOURCES ] 1 − s INT 5.3 km 57.2 47.5 82.1 36.9 S 280.5 103.9 [Jy [Jy] PEAK 0.2819 1.7636 0.2687 0.4080 0.2022 0.1035 0.4009 S ] 1 − s — W 53.7 173.2 234.2 322.2 179.0 222.1 km [ ] 1 − s es es es es es km No No No [ Y Y Y Y Y 227.3 1199.2 1596.2 1608.5 1651.3 1604.0 1575.3 Original? HEL V page )]

M previous [log( ) [J2000] I 9.01 10.0 9.53 8.82 9.67 9.88 10.00 10.10 H -39:34:08 -43:36:44 -42:35:03 -32:36:04 -42:17:48 -43:46:33 -42:17:46 from M ( Dec ued Log tin c] con – [Mp B.1 3.9 [J2000] 13.6 17.3 23.1 22.9 23.1 22.6 23.7 23:02:08.1 23:14:47.8 23:16:16.1 23:57:49.0 23:18:54.3 23:12:27.8 23:18:49.8 able RA T Distance ID Optical NGC7456 NGC7496A NGC7531 NGC7552 NGC7793 NGC7599 NGC7582/90 name 2302-39 2312-43 2314-43 2316-42 2318-42a 2318-42b 2357-32 ASS ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ ASSJ HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP HIP

APPENDIX C

SUNGG sample

197 APPENDIX C. SUNGG SAMPLE 198 page targets next on ASS ued J0047-20 J0141-05 J0408-35 J0140-05 J1247-03 J1217+00 J0049-20 J2239-04 HIP J0310-39 J0317-37 J0406-52 J0342-36 J1321-31 J2254-26 J0334-51 J1127-04 J0005-28 J0411-35 J1107-17 J0429-27 J0354-43 J1145+02 J0031-22 J0140-05 tin Con targets sample. J0140-05:S1 J1247-03 SINGG J1217+00 J0049-20 J2239-04 J0310-39 J0317-37 J0406-52 J0342-36 J1321-31 J2254-26 J0334-51 J1127-04 J0005-28 J0411-35 J1107-17 J0429-27 J0354-43 J1145+02 J0140-05:S2 J0031-22 t SUNGG t 821 1577 3285 1516 1378 1655 3457 3063 2789 1458 2829 1608 1561 1702 3259 1563 1657 1354.1 3458.35 1608.05 NUV (seconds) curren the t of — — — 821 40.9 1516 1655 1759 1438 1664 1657 1374 2829 1608 1561 1702 1561 1563 2535.2 FUV 1608.05 erties (seconds) prop ational (J2000) ter -20:38:50.0 -04:45:27.0 -39:51:11.0 -03:17:20.0 -37:51:27.0 -52:38:17.0 -36:17:08.0 -31:32:20.0 -22:47:30.0 -51:26:14.0 -05:38:24.0 -04:54:30.0 -27:52:27.0 -35:36:40.0 -17:36:55.0 -27:25:15.0 -26:53:34.0 -43:43:53.0 +00:27:36.0 +02:09:32.0 Dec Observ cen C.1: Field able (J2000) T 00:49:28.0 22:39:04.20 03:09:35.80 12:47:54.90 03:17:28.70 04:06:12.10 03:42:53.10 12:17:56.70 13:21:05.80 00:31:25.00 11:45:19.20 03:34:57.00 01:40:15.60 11:27:45.20 00:05:58.40 04:09:56.20 11:07:05.00 04:29:51.60 22:54:50.80 03:54:42.00 RA name Field UGCA015 HPJ1321-31 NGC1249 HPJ0031-22 HPJ1145+02 NGC4691 NGC1291 HPJ0334-51 HPJ0140-05 HPJ1127-04 HPJ0005-28 HPJ0411-35 HPJ1107-17 NGC1437A HPJ0429-27 UGC07332 NGC1518 HPJ2254-26 HPJ0354-43 UGCA433 199 APPENDIX C. SUNGG SAMPLE page targets next on ASS ued J1254-11 J1302-08 J1304-07 J1305-08 J1119-17 J1300-12 J1042-23 J1118-17 J0547-51 J0547-51 J1253-12 J1259-12 J1305-07 J1231-08 J1251-13 HIP J0331-51 J0249-02 J0417-50 J1041-23 J0519-32 J0313-57 J0546-52 J1106-14 J0515-41 J1118-17 tin Con targets J1118-17:S2 J1042-23 J0547-51:S1 J0547-51:S2 J1253-12 J1259-12 J1305-07 J1231-08 J1251-13 SINGG J0331-51 J0249-02 J0417-50 J1041-23 J0519-32 J0313-57 J0546-52 J1106-14 J0515-41 J1118-17:S1 page t 339 3247 3332 1919 1562 1570 1614 1700 3109 1702 1684 4060 3702.1 4057.05 1644.65 NUV (seconds) previous t from — — — — — 255 1614 1700 1506 1702 1473 1684 2719 FUV ued 2298.05 1644.65 (seconds) tin con – (J2000) C.1 ter -51:54:09.0 -12:23:58.0 -02:39:44.0 -12:17:41.0 -07:53:43.0 -50:10:36.0 -08:02:41.0 -13:14:30.0 -23:23:09.0 -52:05:06.0 -32:08:19.0 -14:22:36.0 -17:38:20.0 -41:21:26.0 -57:22:40.0 Dec able cen T Field (J2000) 03:31:42.80 12:54:28.20 02:48:40.50 12:59:08.60 13:05:18.50 04:17:46.10 12:31:00.80 12:51:05.60 10:41:25.90 05:46:20.10 05:19:57.30 11:06:08.10 11:18:05.40 05:15:02.50 03:13:03.80 RA name Field UGCA307 HPJ1106-14 NGC4948 HPJ1118-17 NGC1556 NGC4487 IC1954 UGCA044 NGC4723 UGCA312 HPJ0515-41 HPJ0313-57 NGC3355 NGC2101 NGC1879 APPENDIX C. SUNGG SAMPLE 200 page targets s1 s2 next on ASS ued J1102-23 J0111+01 J0519-37 J0221-20 J0221-20 J0223-20 J0336-24 J1254-10a J1254-10 J1104-23 J1232-07 HIP J0319-49 J0112+00 J0449-31 J0505-37 J2302-39 J0223-21 J0335-24 J1257-05 J1103-23 J1147-16 J0130-22 J1254-10 J0508-38 J0516-37 tin Con s2 s1 targets J1254-10 J1254-10a J1103-23:S2 J1232-07 SINGG J0319-49 J0112+00 J0449-31 J0505-37 J2302-39 J1103-23:S1 J0223-21 J0335-24 J1257-05 J1147-16 J1254-10 J0130-22 J0508-38 J0516-37 page t 1345 1643 1520 3335 3954 2164 1704 1705 1700 1684 1575 2835 1667.5 8006.4 1651.05 NUV (seconds) previous t from — — — 1520 1643 1638 1957 2164 1704 1622 1700 2835 1490 1667.5 ued FUV 1651.05 (seconds) tin con – (J2000) C.1 ter -49:50:30.0 -07:33:56.0 -31:57:20.0 -16:50:50.0 -37:58:19.0 -39:34:01.0 -23:06:40.0 -21:13:02.0 -24:57:40.0 -22:40:05.0 -05:20:49.0 -38:18:19.0 -37:05:43.0 -10:30:33.0 +00:58:41.0 Dec able cen T Field (J2000) 01:12:35.8 03:20:56.20 12:32:20.80 04:49:58.90 11:47:03.70 05:05:15.90 23:02:08.70 11:03:27.10 02:23:10.80 03:35:22.80 01:30:29.40 12:58:33.80 05:08:09.80 05:16:41.70 12:54:28.40 RA name Field NGC4504 IC1914 NGC1679 HPJ1257-05 NGC3887 HPJ0508-38 HPJ1254-10a NGC1792 NGC7456 NGC3511 NGC0428 HPJ0516-37 NGC0908 NGC1371 NGC0578 201 APPENDIX C. SUNGG SAMPLE page targets next on ASS ued J0039-14b J2316-42 J2312-43 J2138-64 J2023-43 J2025-43 J0039-14a J2030-33 J2030-33 J2318-42a J2318-42b HIP J0040-13 J0302-18 J2127-60 J2257-41 J2314-43 J2034-31 J2024-43 J2135-63 J2149-60 J1206-22 J0034-08 J2044-68 J2030-33 J2318-42a tin Con targets J0039-14a J2318-42a:S1 J2318-42a:S3 J2030-33:S2 J2030-33:S3 SINGG J0040-13 J0302-18 J2127-60 J2257-41 J2314-43 J2034-31 J2024-43 J2149-60:S2 J2135-63 J2030-33:S1 J1206-22 J0034-08 J2318-42a:S2 J2044-68 page t 1607 1695 2709 1675 1676 1844 1106 2664 2904.35 2536.05 2571.05 1604.05 7560.95 1676.05 NUV (seconds) previous t from 558 1607 1695 1695 1675 1676 1686 1106 1687 FUV ued 1655.05 2571.05 1604.05 3463.45 1676.05 (seconds) tin con – (J2000) C.1 ter -33:41:55.0 -22:51:35.0 -13:52:45.0 -08:23:14.0 -18:53:26.0 -60:01:15.0 -41:03:55.0 -42:17:39.0 -43:36:37.0 -32:01:47.0 -63:54:06.0 -68:43:29.0 -43:39:18.0 -60:39:37.0 Dec able cen T Field (J2000) 20:31:18.10 12:06:08.40 00:40:37.00 00:34:49.20 03:02:42.60 21:27:24.10 22:57:19.60 23:18:50.40 23:14:48.40 20:34:32.20 21:35:51.00 20:40:40.20 20:24:32.60 21:49:14.90 RA name Field NGC0210 NGC0157 NGC1179 NGC7059 UGCA270 NGC7424 NGC7590 NGC7531 NGC6925 NGC7083 NGC6943 IC5020 NGC6902 NGC7125 APPENDIX C. SUNGG SAMPLE 202 page targets next on ASS ued J2000-55 J0010-59 J2149-60 J2149-60 J0258-74 J0258-74 J1051-17 J1051-17 J1051-17 J1051-17 J1051-17 J1026-19 J1026-19 J1026-19 J1026-19 HIP J2025-24 J2115-47 J0230-02 J0008-59 J2003-54 J1051-17 J0056-09 J1419-26 J0258-74 J1026-19 tin Con targets J2149-60:S1 J2149-60:S3 J0258-74:S3 J0258-74:S4 J1051-17:S1 J1051-17:S3 J1051-17:S4 J1051-17:S5 J1051-17:S7 J1026-19:S2 J1026-19:S3 J1026-19:S4 J1026-19:S5 SINGG J2025-24 J2115-47 J0230-02 J1051-17:S2 J2003-54 J0008-59 J1419-26:S1 J0056-09 J0258-74:S1 J1026-19:S1 page t 41 2175 1683 1696 1702 2430 1461 1681 2644.05 1648.05 NUV (seconds) previous t from — — 1686 1683 1696 1702 1461 1681 1855.9 ued FUV 1648.05 (seconds) tin con – (J2000) C.1 ter -54:55:39.0 -24:55:22.0 -47:16:46.0 -09:47:16.0 -02:55:12.0 -17:05:28.0 -74:26:21.0 -26:39:42.0 -59:34:33.0 -19:02:06.0 Dec able cen T Field (J2000) 20:02:22.90 20:24:03.90 21:15:27.20 00:56:19.00 02:30:42.50 10:51:34.80 02:58:23.90 14:19:29.00 00:09:49.10 10:27:42.20 RA name Field NGC6907 HPJ0258-74 NGC7038 IC4933 NGC0309 NGC0958 NGC3431 HPJ1419-26 HPJ0008-59 HPJ1026-19 203 APPENDIX C. SUNGG SAMPLE page targets next on ASS ued J1300-13b J1301-13b J0226-24 J0240-08 J1026-19 J1300-13 J0224-24 J0403-43 J2247-64 HIP J0240-06 J0212-22 J1300-13 J0224-24 J1403-27 J0241-06 J0317-41 J0419-54 J0445-59 J0403-43 J0246-30 J0333-36 J0305-45 J0239-08 J0246-07 J1136+00b tin Con targets J1026-19:S6 J1300-13:S2 J0224-24:S2 J0240-08 J0403-43:S2 J2247-64 SINGG J1300-13:S1 J0240-06 J0212-22 J0224-24:S1 J1403-27 J0241-06 J0317-41 J0403-43:S1 J0419-54 J0445-59 J0246-30 J0333-36 J0305-45 J1136+00b J0239-08 J0246-07 page t 2785 1695 1704 2285 2674 1705 2380 3233 2698 2744 1705 1703 3290.35 1670.05 2958.05 1662.05 1594.05 NUV (seconds) previous t from — — — 1695 1621 2285 1705 2380 3233 2698 1705 1703 1530 FUV ued 1670.05 2958.05 1662.05 1594.05 (seconds) tin con – (J2000) C.1 ter -64:50:16.0 -06:05:26.0 -22:29:02.0 -06:55:24.0 -13:27:13.0 -24:47:03.0 -30:16:11.0 -41:06:10.0 -36:07:53.0 -43:21:54.0 -54:56:00.0 -59:00:37.0 -27:16:55.0 -45:58:32.0 -08:33:54.0 -07:42:36.0 +00:29:17.0 Dec able cen T Field (J2000) 22:47:17.50 02:40:33.00 02:12:35.30 02:41:04.40 13:00:49.10 02:24:58.80 02:46:20.40 03:17:19.90 03:33:26.30 04:03:44.80 04:20:02.60 04:45:58.40 14:03:33.70 03:05:07.20 11:35:22.50 02:39:04.30 02:45:28.90 RA name Field NGC0858 UGCA038 HPJ1403-27 HPJ0305-45 NGC0961 IC5249 NGC4904 NGC0922 MISDR1-12924-0282 MISDR1-18475-0455 MISDR1-18534-0456 NGA-NGC1097 NGA-NGC1291 NGA-NGC1365 NGA-NGC1512 NGA-NGC1566 NGA-NGC1672 APPENDIX C. SUNGG SAMPLE 204 targets ASS J0505-31 J0357-46 J1339-31 J1339-31 J0359-45 J0459-26 J0355-42 HIP J0512-32 J0421-21 J1339-31A J0310-53 J0135-41 J2222-48 J0351-38 J0145-43 J0309-41 J2357-32 J0359-45 J0008-34 J0506-31 targets J1339-31:S1 J1339-31:S2 J0359-45:S2 J0357-46 SINGG J0459-26 J0355-42 J0512-32 J0421-21 J1339-31A J0310-53 J0135-41 J2222-48 J0351-38 J0145-43 J0359-45:S1 J0309-41 J2357-32 J0008-34 J0506-31 page t 655 537 53.1 91.5 1496 1446 1698 1223 1509 1643 742.1 1504.5 1430.8 1506.05 1698.05 NUV (seconds) previous t from 655 537 53.1 91.5 1496 1446 1698 1223 1509 1643 742.1 1504.5 1430.8 ued FUV 1506.05 1698.05 (seconds) tin con – (J2000) C.1 ter -21:50:29.0 -32:58:23.0 -41:26:19.0 -42:22:45.0 -26:01:22.0 -31:56:58.0 -31:38:06.0 -32:35:13.0 -34:34:39.0 -48:24:29.0 -38:27:32.0 -43:36:19.0 -45:52:02.0 -41:01:26.0 -53:20:00.0 Dec able cen T Field (J2000) 04:21:15.60 05:12:01.50 01:35:03.80 03:55:44.40 04:59:59.10 05:06:26.80 13:39:57.30 23:57:51.10 00:08:04.60 22:22:25.40 03:51:38.90 01:45:01.00 03:59:14.50 03:09:43.50 03:10:04.10 RA name Field NGA-NGC1800 NGA-NGC5253 NGA-NGC7793 HPJ0008-34 NGC0625 HPJ2222-48 HPJ0351-38 HPJ0145-43 HPJ0359-45 HPJ0309-41 NGC1487 UGCA090 NGC1744 UGCA106 HPJ0310-53 APPENDIX D

SUNGG properties

205 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES 206 NUV FUV page NUV el — next 0.019 0.018 0.018 0.019 0.062 -19.42 -14.71 -13.11 -11.56 -14.87 9.86e-19 8.20e-19 6.13e-19 6.80e-19 7.09e-19 4.38e-14 2.39e-14 3.53e-14 2.81e-14 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle — — 9.82 9.36 40.40 38.40 37.77 38.42 15.27 11.79 15.20 37.88 94.40 38.00 50.71 18.43 9.43e-15 5.09e-15 7.22e-15 6.97e-15 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV — — 1.62 1.85 1.80 1.50 1.40 -16.3 -16.3 -16.5 -16.6 SE 3.35e-23 6.08e-23 2.37e-22 3.33e-22 3.49e-14 1.73e-14 3.43e-15 1.94e-14 3.16e-14 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV — — [J2000] 37.67 40.19 37.05 38.31 -19.12 -14.11 -12.54 -14.17 -21.015 -20.486 -22.766 -40.003 -31.529 4.87e-19 4.25e-19 3.78e-19 6.63e-19 7.17e-15 4.93e-15 2.15e-15 3.89e-15 5.66e-15 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev erties prop NUV FUV NUV — [J2000] 3.34 9.70 5.22 9.35 8.94 7.91 -16.6 -16.5 -17.4 -16.5 14.39 86.51 15.49 7.844 12.455 11.904 47.544 SUNGG 200.284 SE 1.97e-23 1.77e-22 3.96e-23 4.42e-23 1.49e-22 Distance Effrad ed RA SkyRMS Deriv D.1: able T ID ASSJ1321-31 Optical UGCA015 NGC0247D ESO300-G016 HIP ESO473-G024 source ASS HIP J0049-20 J0047-20 J0310-39 J1321-31 J0031-22 field SUNGG UGCA015 UGCA015 J1321-31 NGC1249 J0031-22 207 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES NUV FUV page NUV el — next 0.025 0.027 0.023 0.014 0.035 -17.36 -14.02 -15.68 -14.59 -15.00 8.14e-19 6.00e-19 6.48e-19 7.74e-19 9.26e-19 2.44e-14 1.37e-14 1.52e-14 1.63e-14 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle — — 7.73 6.75 38.48 38.80 38.48 38.53 13.47 12.44 10.13 86.46 90.00 94.76 142.41 132.51 3.61e-15 4.54e-15 4.21e-15 4.48e-15 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV — — 1.41 1.86 2.50 2.07 1.71 -16.3 -16.6 -16.7 -16.7 SE 1.47e-22 9.21e-23 8.06e-22 2.72e-23 3.96e-14 1.41e-13 4.90e-15 8.12e-15 6.80e-15 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV — — [J2000] 38.37 38.69 39.37 38.03 38.26 page 2.164 -14.31 -15.13 -14.33 -14.45 -3.333 -5.690 -37.844 -51.454 5.08e-19 4.57e-19 1.08e-18 4.49e-19 3.32e-15 1.15e-13 2.73e-15 2.86e-15 2.82e-15 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV — from [J2000] 6.34 9.68 -16.7 -16.5 -15.4 -16.8 -17.1 10.22 13.25 11.79 13.52 13.70 11.44 18.08 49.377 53.759 25.058 176.225 192.057 SE 6.55e-23 1.62e-23 6.38e-23 3.35e-22 2.03e-23 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID ASSJ0140-05 CCB0035 Optical KKH072 NGC4691 F ESO200-G045 HIP source ASS HIP J1247-03 J0317-37 J1145+02 J0334-51 J0140-05 field SUNGG J1145+02 NGC4691 NGC1291 J0334-51 J0140-05 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES 208 NUV FUV page NUV el next 0.017 0.012 0.034 0.035 0.045 -14.44 -14.67 -18.36 -17.67 -16.28 6.75e-19 5.17e-19 1.52e-18 7.45e-19 6.48e-19 7.82e-14 1.03e-13 4.80e-14 4.23e-14 3.05e-14 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle 6.91 7.20 38.76 38.67 39.49 39.74 38.81 24.74 18.14 11.10 69.44 141.00 135.00 168.83 165.26 1.00e-14 2.36e-14 6.65e-15 1.83e-14 9.94e-15 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV 1.80 1.33 5.02 2.30 1.53 -15.8 -15.9 -16.6 -16.3 -16.2 SE 1.23e-22 4.53e-23 5.40e-23 4.03e-23 2.17e-23 1.50e-13 5.90e-14 6.37e-14 1.17e-14 1.27e-14 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV [J2000] 38.42 39.77 39.49 38.94 38.20 page -15.02 -14.81 -16.83 -17.46 -15.15 -5.521 -5.568 -4.925 -28.098 -35.831 5.77e-19 6.37e-19 3.79e-19 4.48e-19 4.15e-19 9.63e-15 1.63e-14 5.82e-15 1.01e-14 6.26e-15 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV from [J2000] 6.19 6.49 -17.0 -16.4 -16.5 -16.1 -16.4 18.08 23.32 21.00 18.52 10.64 10.45 10.65 11.38 1.383 62.739 25.116 25.280 171.932 SE 2.36e-21 2.68e-23 4.04e-23 2.94e-23 1.62e-23 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID Optical MCG-01-05-014 MCG-01-05-017 MCG-01-29-023 ESO409-IG015 ESO359-G024 source ASS HIP J0140-05 J0141-05 J1127-04 J0005-28 J0411-35 field SUNGG J0140-05 J0140-05 J1127-04 J0005-28 J0411-35 209 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES NUV FUV page NUV el — next 0.025 0.008 0.011 0.035 0.045 -16.08 -16.20 -16.37 -17.04 -14.88 8.35e-19 4.84e-19 7.31e-19 8.93e-19 5.89e-19 2.75e-14 5.00e-14 1.15e-13 1.83e-13 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle — — 8.19 9.93 8.55 39.11 38.93 39.57 39.30 17.25 22.70 60.33 23.96 90.00 90.00 135.00 7.81e-15 8.13e-15 2.51e-14 7.57e-14 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV — — 1.09 1.70 1.21 2.33 2.33 -16.2 -16.0 -15.3 -16.2 SE 2.34e-23 1.55e-22 1.64e-23 7.12e-23 1.52e-14 4.73e-14 1.01e-13 4.62e-14 2.51e-14 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV — — [J2000] 38.29 38.86 38.90 39.24 38.97 page 0.435 -15.90 -15.44 -17.04 -16.36 -35.390 -36.273 -27.409 -17.606 3.55e-19 5.64e-19 4.27e-19 1.03e-18 5.35e-15 6.49e-15 1.96e-14 4.04e-14 2.07e-14 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV — from [J2000] 8.28 9.15 7.67 8.89 -16.4 -16.4 -16.1 -16.3 -16.0 19.85 11.90 11.98 16.88 13.00 62.190 55.759 67.420 184.484 166.766 SE 1.29e-23 1.06e-22 1.13e-23 5.38e-23 1.79e-23 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID Optical ESO359-G022 GSC608000727 ESO421-IG002 UGC07332 NGC1437a source ASS HIP J0408-35 J1107-17 J0429-27 J0342-36 J1217+00 field SUNGG J0411-35 J1107-17 NGC1437a J0429-27 UGC07332 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES 210 NUV FUV page NUV el — next 0.053 0.014 0.054 0.009 0.026 -15.78 -14.49 -15.15 -16.39 -14.92 9.75e-19 1.78e-18 6.81e-19 9.11e-19 8.54e-19 8.80e-14 3.10e-14 3.77e-14 5.47e-14 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle — — 6.96 6.55 39.17 38.75 38.84 39.06 10.70 18.32 17.39 71.57 45.00 83.66 138.69 162.65 3.06e-14 1.18e-14 1.21e-14 8.90e-15 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV — — 1.56 1.19 2.80 2.51 1.71 -15.5 -15.8 -16.2 -16.8 SE 1.10e-21 4.20e-23 3.87e-22 1.18e-22 3.27e-14 9.15e-15 1.68e-14 4.56e-14 2.77e-14 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV — — [J2000] 38.38 38.74 38.22 38.48 38.98 page -16.03 -14.99 -15.21 -15.76 -4.760 -52.668 -12.109 -43.758 -26.890 1.63e-18 4.05e-19 8.81e-19 8.02e-19 1.87e-14 6.63e-15 7.76e-15 6.86e-15 1.84e-14 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV — from [J2000] 6.40 5.81 9.36 8.62 -17.1 -16.0 -16.5 -16.6 -16.7 11.78 12.28 12.33 13.21 22.23 61.533 58.554 339.788 193.490 343.689 SE 9.84e-22 3.06e-23 2.47e-22 3.07e-23 5.17e-23 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID Optical NGC1522 UGCA433 UGCA307 MCG-05-54-004 ESO249-G026 source ASS HIP J0406-52 J2239-04 J1253-12 J2254-26 J0354-43 field SUNGG NGC1518 J2254-26 J0354-43 UGCA433 UGCA307 211 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES NUV FUV page NUV el — — — — next 0.048 0.052 0.046 0.051 0.052 -15.96 -17.42 -15.90 -18.54 -17.63 8.34e-19 8.04e-19 1.55e-18 1.17e-18 7.64e-19 6.56e-14 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle — — — — — — — — 39.10 33.27 27.90 12.51 12.86 18.77 57.99 30.70 36.87 121.70 138.58 7.34e-15 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV — — — — — — — — 1.34 1.71 1.62 2.02 3.24 -16.9 SE 1.56e-22 3.67e-15 1.28e-13 2.97e-14 7.30e-14 3.00e-14 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV — — — — — — — — [J2000] 38.39 38.81 39.39 38.78 39.84 page -15.87 -7.948 -8.085 -7.649 -14.405 -11.892 6.17e-19 2.48e-15 7.11e-15 2.01e-14 5.08e-14 2.11e-14 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV — — — — from [J2000] -16.8 -18.3 -16.6 -16.5 -16.2 38.25 12.68 28.42 13.09 28.20 28.81 196.233 195.752 196.080 166.550 193.713 SE 1.02e-22 8.34e-23 1.08e-23 1.49e-22 1.10e-22 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID B1103-14 Optical MCG-02-33-058 NGC4948 NGC4928 NGC4942 WHI source ASS HIP J1254-11 J1305-07 J1302-08 J1304-07 J1106-14 field SUNGG UGCA307 J1106-14 NGC4948 NGC4948 NGC4948 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES 212 NUV FUV page NUV el — next 0.038 0.042 0.021 0.038 0.043 -14.33 -13.63 -16.90 -16.73 -17.21 1.07e-18 7.31e-19 6.37e-19 2.87e-18 9.98e-19 1.21e-14 7.36e-15 1.67e-14 1.67e-13 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle — — 7.03 6.01 38.40 38.18 39.24 39.54 18.44 24.95 10.53 35.84 90.00 142.80 163.30 126.25 2.66e-15 1.77e-15 3.06e-15 4.12e-14 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV — — 1.59 2.05 1.85 1.49 -16.4 -16.4 -17.3 -15.6 13.30 SE 2.36e-22 1.60e-22 7.38e-21 1.65e-22 2.23e-14 6.99e-15 3.64e-15 1.27e-14 9.81e-14 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV — — [J2000] 39.47 39.18 38.16 37.87 39.12 page -14.11 -13.57 -16.21 -16.96 -8.161 -17.632 -50.164 -17.642 -17.511 5.16e-19 4.63e-19 3.34e-18 9.98e-19 1.63e-14 1.85e-15 1.17e-15 2.30e-15 2.88e-14 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV — from [J2000] 6.60 5.54 -16.9 -17.0 -16.6 -16.8 -17.5 23.85 13.11 13.11 29.31 23.92 13.16 10.41 64.437 169.569 196.274 169.512 169.894 SE 9.28e-23 1.34e-22 9.88e-23 5.53e-21 1.29e-22 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T 00176 ID NED ASSJ1118-17 Optical NGC4948A NGC1556 HIP NO GSC6087 source ASS HIP J1305-08 J0417-50 J1118-17 J1118-17 J1119-17 field SUNGG NGC4948 J1118-17 J1118-17 J1118-17 NGC1556 213 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES NUV FUV page NUV el — — — next 0.016 0.051 0.022 0.057 0.040 -15.66 -16.90 -18.73 -18.01 -14.84 2.44e-18 1.13e-18 8.40e-19 7.74e-19 6.83e-19 4.32e-13 1.18e-13 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle — — — — — — 9.42 40.02 39.53 33.25 20.59 21.25 16.03 59.04 76.61 78.69 52.43 141.34 9.60e-14 1.60e-14 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV — — — — — — 1.98 1.07 1.95 1.49 1.46 -15.8 -16.4 SE 3.06e-23 1.27e-23 1.04e-13 3.37e-13 1.48e-13 1.39e-14 6.33e-15 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV — — — — — — [J2000] 39.31 39.18 39.92 39.63 38.69 page -18.18 -16.94 -2.654 -8.054 -51.905 -13.237 -12.228 7.64e-19 5.34e-19 8.88e-14 7.26e-14 1.38e-14 9.04e-15 4.67e-15 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV — — — from [J2000] -15.9 -16.8 -15.9 -16.3 -16.6 11.05 14.28 20.75 15.45 21.98 17.12 17.41 52.881 42.342 187.769 192.762 194.778 SE 4.75e-22 2.19e-23 8.27e-24 1.78e-22 2.07e-23 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID Optical IC1954 NGC4487 UGCA044 NGC4723 UGCA312 source ASS HIP J0331-51 J1231-08 J0249-02 J1251-13 J1259-12 field SUNGG NGC4487 IC1954 UGCA044 NGC4723 UGCA312 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES 214 NUV FUV page NUV el — next 0.045 0.070 0.029 0.022 0.044 -16.49 -16.45 -18.37 -18.27 -18.42 8.49e-19 8.93e-19 8.21e-19 7.63e-19 1.06e-18 7.62e-14 2.92e-13 1.62e-13 2.48e-13 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle — — 39.28 39.92 39.69 39.71 27.93 19.17 20.85 23.29 18.07 48.01 64.54 29.36 105.25 114.90 1.90e-14 6.54e-14 2.47e-14 2.96e-14 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV — — 3.25 1.93 1.53 3.47 3.40 -16.5 -16.0 -16.4 -15.9 SE 1.60e-22 2.31e-22 5.76e-23 1.61e-22 1.51e-14 3.98e-14 2.07e-13 1.76e-13 2.98e-13 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV — — [J2000] 38.36 39.02 39.00 39.77 39.73 page -16.33 -17.93 -17.35 -17.40 -23.936 -12.347 -23.383 -41.392 -57.357 9.14e-19 8.32e-19 6.45e-19 1.11e-18 1.08e-14 1.28e-14 4.81e-14 2.05e-14 2.52e-14 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV — from [J2000] -17.4 -17.5 -16.8 -16.1 -16.3 24.15 14.54 19.25 15.46 20.44 15.95 25.08 13.16 16.92 78.753 48.270 160.659 195.071 160.358 SE 4.42e-23 9.98e-23 1.04e-22 4.61e-23 1.60e-22 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID Optical UGCA314 NGC3355 IC0625 ESO305-G017 ESO116-G012 source ASS HIP J1300-12 J1041-23 J1042-23 J0515-41 J0313-57 field SUNGG UGCA312 J0515-41 J0313-57 NGC3355 NGC3355 215 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES NUV FUV page NUV el — next 0.057 0.023 0.025 0.055 0.057 -14.69 -18.15 -18.37 -18.02 -16.98 8.24e-19 1.00e-18 1.21e-18 9.54e-19 1.12e-18 2.50e-13 2.38e-13 6.23e-15 2.17e-13 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle — — 6.29 38.26 39.89 39.84 39.89 23.62 16.45 21.25 44.78 52.76 143.66 143.80 103.00 173.99 4.63e-14 3.70e-14 8.61e-16 5.48e-14 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV — — 1.88 2.04 2.40 1.90 1.55 -16.5 -16.1 -15.8 -16.1 SE 4.84e-23 3.78e-23 2.89e-22 1.58e-22 1.56e-13 2.02e-13 6.82e-15 1.19e-13 1.25e-13 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV — — [J2000] 39.79 39.68 39.77 38.30 39.63 page -13.77 -17.84 -17.72 -17.84 -7.563 -51.596 -52.089 -51.553 -32.143 1.07e-18 1.06e-18 9.15e-19 1.55e-18 3.29e-14 2.87e-14 7.15e-16 3.75e-14 1.04e-13 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV — from [J2000] 5.43 -15.8 -16.4 -15.9 -16.6 -16.4 16.09 22.63 15.62 16.26 15.62 17.30 21.37 10.48 86.878 86.601 86.770 79.951 188.073 SE 1.79e-22 2.46e-23 2.15e-22 9.56e-23 1.82e-23 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID NED Optical NGC2101 NGC2104 NO NGC1879 NGC4504 source ASS HIP J0546-52 J0547-51 J0547-51 J0519-32 J1232-07 field SUNGG NGC2101 NGC2101 NGC2101 NGC1879 NGC4504 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES 216 NUV FUV page NUV el — next 0.020 0.034 0.022 0.027 0.030 -17.86 -19.27 -16.59 -19.96 -20.32 9.84e-19 9.95e-19 7.25e-19 8.66e-19 9.74e-19 3.97e-13 7.85e-13 7.87e-13 7.22e-13 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle — — 39.96 40.29 40.35 40.22 42.58 29.10 25.01 44.76 48.77 29.13 105.94 143.47 109.89 106.11 1.24e-13 1.77e-13 1.27e-13 9.31e-14 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV — — 1.89 1.45 1.72 1.21 1.63 -16.5 -15.8 -16.3 -16.3 SE 1.41e-21 2.41e-23 6.23e-23 6.28e-24 1.61e-13 5.42e-13 4.13e-14 9.07e-13 1.55e-12 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV — — [J2000] 39.22 39.57 40.13 39.06 40.41 page -18.01 -18.85 -18.99 -18.67 -5.346 -49.600 -31.965 -16.855 -38.309 1.82e-18 7.72e-19 8.68e-19 5.17e-19 7.79e-14 1.30e-13 3.30e-14 1.06e-13 9.24e-14 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV — from [J2000] -17.0 -16.8 -16.0 -17.0 -16.1 13.82 46.31 14.45 29.70 15.27 15.35 48.30 13.85 48.73 49.855 72.478 77.032 176.769 194.319 SE 3.83e-22 1.38e-23 6.96e-23 3.47e-23 2.23e-22 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID Optical IC1914 NGC1679 NGC3887 MCG-01-33-059 ESO305-G009 source ASS HIP J0319-49 J0449-31 J1147-16 J1257-05 J0508-38 field SUNGG IC1914 NGC1679 J1257-05 NGC3887 J0508-38 217 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES NUV FUV page NUV el — — — next 0.010 0.022 0.047 0.048 0.048 -13.20 -18.06 -17.39 -20.79 -19.45 1.55e-18 8.82e-19 1.11e-18 1.42e-18 6.21e-19 8.27e-13 4.73e-13 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle — — — — — — 7.47 40.44 40.23 29.26 14.81 37.63 48.31 26.17 92.29 94.40 135.00 118.95 1.14e-13 1.00e-13 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV — — — — — — 2.10 2.89 1.47 2.20 1.89 -16.1 -16.5 SE 1.46e-22 1.55e-23 1.44e-13 1.64e-15 6.08e-14 1.65e-12 4.42e-13 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV — — — — — — [J2000] 40.55 39.65 37.70 39.38 40.74 page -19.22 -18.70 -37.981 -39.569 -10.248 -10.537 -10.613 1.24e-18 3.95e-19 1.01e-13 1.14e-15 4.26e-14 1.11e-13 7.99e-14 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV — — — from [J2000] -16.0 -16.6 -17.3 -16.4 -15.7 16.05 16.05 18.13 16.67 41.16 17.34 50.20 76.310 345.543 193.716 193.599 193.654 SE 1.35e-22 7.42e-23 7.63e-23 1.13e-22 1.11e-23 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID Optical NGC1792 NGC7456 NGC4790 NGC4781 NGC4784 source ASS HIP J0505-37 J2302-39 J1254-10a J1254-10a J1254-10b field SUNGG J1254-10a J1254-10a J1254-10a NGC1792 NGC7456 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES 218 NUV FUV page NUV el next 0.028 0.067 0.067 0.064 0.082 -19.98 -19.27 -20.48 -19.28 -19.31 1.03e-18 6.97e-19 8.69e-19 1.18e-18 7.13e-19 9.95e-13 7.83e-13 1.11e-13 6.77e-13 7.02e-13 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle 40.38 40.28 40.58 40.30 40.36 49.12 24.75 13.53 28.05 40.58 73.86 29.06 107.28 115.94 171.87 1.27e-13 1.22e-13 1.27e-14 1.12e-13 1.61e-13 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV 1.53 2.62 1.05 1.29 1.50 -16.3 -15.7 -16.0 -15.9 -16.2 SE 1.15e-22 2.62e-23 7.85e-23 1.21e-22 9.98e-24 1.08e-12 5.65e-13 1.19e-13 4.60e-13 4.33e-13 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV [J2000] 40.20 40.41 40.13 40.62 40.13 page 0.982 -19.07 -18.81 -19.58 -18.88 -19.02 -23.087 -23.245 -23.246 -23.592 1.12e-18 7.49e-19 9.07e-19 1.33e-18 4.69e-19 1.06e-13 9.05e-14 1.05e-14 8.15e-14 1.14e-13 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV from [J2000] -16.5 -16.1 -15.8 -16.0 -16.0 14.19 54.65 14.19 25.69 53.82 13.80 15.74 29.67 16.51 43.88 18.232 165.849 165.942 165.942 165.709 SE 6.77e-23 1.32e-23 5.18e-23 1.01e-22 8.58e-24 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID Optical NGC0428 NGC3511 NGC3513 ESO502-G012 NGC3513 source ASS HIP J1103-23 J1103-23 J1102-23 J1104-23 J0112+00 field SUNGG NGC3511 NGC3511 NGC3511 NGC3511 NGC0428 219 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES NUV FUV page NUV el next 0.027 0.025 0.035 0.043 0.047 -21.33 -10.00 -19.00 -15.79 -10.51 7.28e-19 1.36e-19 8.93e-19 9.69e-19 3.10e-19 1.31e-13 2.08e-13 2.66e-14 1.87e-13 1.07e-13 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle 8.62 9.24 2.86 41.15 39.78 39.94 39.05 39.99 51.29 14.73 70.84 75.78 75.47 116.57 150.64 2.76e-14 2.95e-14 6.15e-15 1.55e-13 8.72e-14 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV 1.00 2.68 2.72 7.34 2.98 -15.5 -15.7 -17.0 -16.7 -17.2 SE 3.52e-23 1.10e-22 3.81e-22 4.40e-22 1.36e-22 8.46e-14 2.52e-13 1.31e-14 8.06e-17 4.70e-17 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV [J2000] 40.15 40.96 40.02 38.74 36.63 page 1.321 -20.99 -17.58 -17.97 -15.73 -18.10 -20.823 -21.234 -37.103 -37.108 5.03e-19 9.39e-19 1.06e-18 2.10e-18 9.25e-19 1.98e-14 2.52e-14 4.09e-15 2.27e-14 1.28e-14 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV from [J2000] 8.20 8.90 -16.4 -15.7 -16.8 -17.0 -20.6 94.60 18.70 55.90 18.70 15.08 20.94 71.02 21.75 35.471 35.769 17.878 79.162 79.828 SE 2.31e-23 6.85e-23 1.70e-22 6.48e-23 2.01e-23 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID Optical UGC00749 NGC0908 NGC899 ESO362-G011 ESO362-G016 source ASS HIP J0111+01 J0223-21 J0221-20 J0516-37 J0519-37 field SUNGG NGC0428 J0516-37 J0516-37 NGC0908 NGC0908 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES 220 NUV FUV page NUV el next -9.25 -8.86 0.034 0.027 0.026 0.012 0.017 -16.36 -23.17 -21.42 1.20e-19 7.34e-19 1.55e-19 5.36e-19 6.02e-19 5.22e-14 3.48e-14 2.10e-12 3.25e-14 1.10e-12 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle 6.43 7.13 39.47 39.42 39.34 40.83 41.02 16.52 92.29 38.67 90.00 45.00 143.62 133.00 107.00 4.24e-14 2.68e-14 1.99e-13 1.14e-14 1.88e-13 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV 1.48 2.70 1.40 1.80 1.70 -15.6 -15.9 -16.7 -16.0 -16.5 SE 1.66e-22 2.46e-22 1.54e-24 1.35e-22 4.43e-24 2.34e-17 1.47e-17 9.94e-12 1.15e-14 1.58e-12 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV [J2000] 36.43 36.12 35.97 41.69 38.97 page -16.80 -16.66 -16.48 -20.20 -20.67 -20.746 -20.712 -24.933 -22.667 -24.913 8.18e-19 1.06e-18 4.03e-19 6.37e-19 2.70e-19 6.25e-15 3.91e-15 2.42e-13 6.82e-15 1.68e-13 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV from [J2000] 5.94 6.52 -19.1 -19.0 -20.1 -15.7 -16.4 21.75 23.00 16.08 20.36 25.95 22.72 43.03 107.30 35.505 35.758 53.756 22.621 54.224 SE 2.44e-23 3.62e-23 1.36e-23 9.20e-23 4.20e-24 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID Optical IC0223 NGC0907 NGC1371 ESO482-G013 NGC0578 source ASS HIP J0221-20 J0223-20 J0335-24 J0336-24 J0130-22 field SUNGG NGC0908 NGC0908 NGC1371 NGC1371 NGC0578 221 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES NUV FUV page NUV el next 0.044 0.020 0.021 0.024 0.022 -19.03 -20.44 -17.87 -21.72 -20.93 7.83e-19 8.18e-19 1.63e-18 9.81e-19 5.78e-19 5.58e-13 2.38e-13 5.20e-14 1.02e-12 5.66e-13 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle 7.40 40.29 40.55 40.08 40.83 40.62 72.54 12.98 34.78 50.97 40.06 90.00 17.65 44.36 153.12 1.00e-13 8.97e-14 1.33e-14 1.20e-13 8.72e-14 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV 1.51 1.75 1.99 1.45 1.46 -15.8 -16.9 -15.6 -15.9 -16.5 SE 4.20e-23 1.05e-21 1.57e-22 4.70e-23 8.69e-24 6.24e-13 7.39e-14 2.92e-14 1.98e-12 8.55e-13 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV [J2000] 40.99 40.60 39.57 40.04 41.11 page -18.84 -19.50 -18.32 -20.18 -19.67 -8.396 -14.237 -14.173 -13.873 -18.898 6.26e-19 2.24e-18 5.57e-19 6.91e-19 3.89e-19 8.34e-14 5.15e-14 9.19e-15 1.16e-13 7.88e-14 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV from [J2000] 7.27 -15.8 -16.7 -16.2 -16.1 -15.6 23.12 80.53 20.57 12.93 55.76 23.41 37.25 24.75 54.05 8.695 9.920 9.785 10.146 45.660 SE 3.65e-23 4.75e-22 1.12e-22 3.76e-23 6.49e-24 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID Optical NGC0210 NGC0157 NGC1179 NGC0207 NGC0178 source ASS HIP J0040-13 J0039-14a J0039-14b J0034-08 J0302-18 field SUNGG NGC0210 NGC0210 NGC0210 NGC0157 NGC1179 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES 222 NUV FUV page NUV el next 0.032 0.050 0.011 0.017 0.017 -20.59 -23.90 -21.30 -19.63 -21.83 1.27e-18 8.62e-19 1.48e-18 5.58e-19 5.53e-19 4.07e-13 1.26e-12 3.22e-12 3.96e-13 4.75e-13 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle 40.48 40.98 40.38 40.46 40.85 28.35 35.86 95.13 20.24 29.22 99.96 87.47 54.00 25.00 161.00 5.88e-14 7.37e-14 6.00e-13 8.77e-14 4.75e-14 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV 1.90 1.11 1.30 2.40 2.11 -16.2 -15.8 -15.8 -16.2 -16.3 SE 1.24e-22 2.87e-23 2.00e-24 3.49e-22 1.79e-23 6.11e-13 1.26e-11 4.00e-12 3.09e-13 2.34e-12 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV [J2000] 40.80 40.66 41.99 40.94 40.28 page -19.32 -20.58 -19.08 -19.28 -20.25 -60.015 -22.849 -41.070 -42.239 -42.370 8.81e-19 7.59e-19 3.05e-19 1.33e-18 3.42e-19 5.31e-14 1.09e-13 5.15e-13 6.63e-14 5.85e-14 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV from [J2000] -16.3 -15.9 -14.8 -16.2 -15.9 24.94 30.81 25.30 33.71 13.56 22.62 21.11 22.62 33.85 102.62 321.839 181.530 344.326 349.728 349.598 SE 7.46e-22 7.41e-23 2.82e-24 6.98e-22 1.02e-23 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID Optical NGC7059 UGCA270 NGC7424 NGC7590 NGC7582 source ASS HIP J2127-60 J1206-22 J2257-41 J2318-42a J2318-42a field SUNGG NGC7059 UGCA270 NGC7424 NGC7590 NGC7590 223 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES NUV FUV page NUV el next 0.059 0.011 0.017 0.014 0.009 -19.53 -20.02 -20.92 -17.28 -22.06 9.47e-19 7.55e-19 5.90e-19 6.03e-19 9.06e-19 2.07e-13 4.59e-13 6.52e-13 6.95e-14 6.57e-13 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle 7.00 40.12 40.49 40.61 39.65 41.14 33.33 46.26 29.65 15.61 52.09 25.00 55.12 96.71 107.65 3.68e-14 9.61e-14 1.11e-13 2.10e-14 8.33e-14 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV 1.20 2.40 3.54 3.90 1.40 -16.6 -16.5 -16.0 -16.3 -16.5 SE 2.23e-22 4.98e-23 1.17e-23 1.64e-23 2.24e-23 2.70e-13 4.00e-13 9.81e-13 3.41e-14 8.43e-13 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV [J2000] 41.16 40.24 40.43 40.79 39.34 page -18.42 -19.34 -19.65 -17.23 -20.97 -42.585 -43.600 -31.981 -42.257 -43.778 9.06e-19 5.75e-19 3.30e-19 3.25e-19 7.34e-19 3.19e-14 7.49e-14 1.00e-13 1.39e-14 7.21e-14 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV from [J2000] -15.4 -16.4 -16.5 -15.8 -16.7 23.11 34.93 23.72 50.19 22.93 32.03 23.05 15.16 41.95 56.55 349.045 348.702 308.586 349.838 348.097 SE 1.44e-22 7.88e-23 9.93e-24 1.03e-22 2.61e-23 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID Optical NGC7552 NGC7531 NGC7496A NGC6925 NGC7599 source ASS HIP J2316-42 J2318-42b J2314-43 J2312-43 J2034-31 field SUNGG NGC7590 NGC7590 NGC7531 NGC7531 NGC6925 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES 224 NUV FUV page NUV el next 0.040 0.056 0.039 0.056 0.050 -22.78 -20.32 -21.91 -21.69 -21.39 7.90e-19 8.80e-19 8.83e-19 9.21e-19 1.39e-18 7.76e-13 5.39e-14 5.91e-13 3.41e-13 1.79e-13 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle 5.00 41.28 40.18 41.16 40.94 40.66 32.38 17.52 39.95 16.69 21.30 64.66 131.99 102.10 119.17 9.81e-14 6.13e-15 8.73e-14 4.18e-14 1.87e-14 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV 1.56 4.90 1.90 1.70 1.24 -16.1 -16.6 -16.3 -15.8 -16.1 SE 2.56e-23 1.21e-22 2.35e-23 2.30e-23 6.39e-23 1.40e-12 1.27e-13 6.28e-13 4.93e-13 3.75e-13 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV [J2000] 41.25 41.54 40.55 41.19 41.10 page -21.32 -18.57 -21.03 -20.47 -19.77 -33.486 -64.350 -63.903 -68.748 -33.477 5.55e-19 7.06e-19 8.92e-19 8.62e-19 7.30e-19 9.30e-14 6.23e-15 7.19e-14 3.74e-14 1.84e-14 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV from [J2000] -16.3 -15.7 -16.2 -16.2 -15.6 45.25 38.73 48.48 17.67 45.38 45.34 46.23 19.36 46.23 18.93 307.660 324.701 323.936 311.141 307.806 SE 1.13e-22 6.30e-23 5.40e-23 1.22e-23 7.97e-22 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID Optical IC5020 ESO400-G037 NGC7083 IC5120 NGC6943 source ASS HIP J2030-33 J2030-33 J2135-63 J2138-64 J2044-68 field SUNGG NGC7083 NGC7083 NGC6943 IC5020 IC5020 225 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES NUV FUV page NUV el next 0.040 0.037 0.045 0.044 0.056 -16.77 -23.71 -20.19 -19.57 -21.11 1.06e-18 1.08e-18 9.95e-19 8.37e-19 9.90e-19 8.50e-15 1.39e-12 1.32e-13 6.89e-14 4.61e-13 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle 9.71 39.34 41.46 40.49 40.24 41.06 25.08 16.49 13.03 29.09 155.00 108.00 169.38 119.06 121.81 1.56e-15 1.45e-13 2.05e-14 1.08e-14 9.57e-14 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV 1.40 1.60 1.30 1.70 2.50 -16.8 -15.5 -16.1 -16.2 -16.1 SE 5.81e-22 2.14e-23 2.85e-23 7.73e-23 1.00e-22 5.28e-15 3.91e-12 1.36e-13 7.05e-14 2.99e-13 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV [J2000] 40.98 39.13 41.91 40.50 40.25 page -16.46 -21.77 -19.34 -18.73 -20.76 -43.654 -60.713 -43.869 -43.257 -33.486 1.07e-18 7.85e-19 8.64e-19 7.62e-19 9.78e-19 1.11e-15 1.55e-13 1.68e-14 8.83e-15 6.87e-14 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV from [J2000] 9.44 -15.9 -17.1 -15.0 -16.1 -16.2 46.23 41.69 26.22 44.12 16.65 46.11 12.74 45.48 29.27 306.117 327.317 305.779 306.300 307.775 SE 2.83e-22 9.82e-23 8.19e-23 5.00e-23 7.01e-23 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID Optical ESO400-G037A NGC6902 NGC6902B ESO285-G009 NGC7125 source ASS HIP J2030-33 J2024-43 J2023-43 J2025-43 J2149-60 field SUNGG IC5020 NGC6902 NGC6902 NGC6902 NGC7125 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES 226 NUV FUV page NUV el next 0.037 0.063 0.057 0.037 0.057 -15.90 -19.28 -20.74 -23.79 -21.34 6.84e-19 9.23e-19 9.13e-19 1.13e-18 8.46e-19 1.85e-13 3.00e-15 1.40e-12 1.04e-13 8.12e-15 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle 6.11 8.35 8.82 38.87 39.68 40.66 41.58 40.78 13.75 24.57 22.81 72.35 45.00 11.53 103.22 2.90e-14 5.53e-16 1.34e-13 1.25e-14 7.39e-16 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV 2.13 1.20 3.40 1.43 2.19 -16.8 -16.6 -15.9 -15.5 -16.7 SE 1.07e-22 1.72e-22 1.82e-23 1.36e-22 3.75e-22 2.13e-13 2.45e-15 3.16e-12 1.55e-13 2.33e-14 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV [J2000] 40.87 40.72 38.78 41.94 40.96 page -15.30 -17.31 -19.77 -22.08 -20.08 -60.609 -24.809 -74.457 -60.662 -74.434 9.43e-19 4.50e-19 7.11e-19 7.98e-19 8.99e-19 2.44e-14 4.24e-16 1.35e-13 1.13e-14 7.92e-16 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV from [J2000] 5.51 7.08 -16.3 -15.7 -17.0 -15.1 -16.3 45.48 14.94 45.48 47.93 26.38 69.93 27.25 69.93 44.528 44.678 327.329 306.278 327.410 SE 6.13e-23 1.37e-22 1.72e-22 6.70e-23 2.64e-22 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID Optical NGC7126 ESO145-G018A NGC6907 ESO031-G005 2MASXJ02584292-7426028 source ASS HIP J2149-60 J2149-60 J2025-24 J0258-74 J0258-74 field SUNGG NGC7125 NGC7125 NGC6907 J0258-74 J0258-74 227 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES NUV FUV page NUV el next 0.057 0.062 0.040 0.047 0.034 -16.70 -22.93 -22.13 -20.88 -23.69 8.70e-19 8.04e-19 1.09e-18 1.18e-18 8.82e-19 2.11e-15 3.43e-13 2.38e-13 1.17e-13 5.17e-13 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle 7.38 39.09 41.33 41.18 40.75 41.59 38.36 19.98 14.86 29.34 29.44 134.85 176.42 137.60 125.13 2.99e-16 4.50e-14 3.34e-14 1.56e-14 6.19e-14 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV 1.33 1.05 1.00 1.98 1.59 -16.9 -16.5 -16.1 -16.1 -16.1 SE 3.87e-22 2.66e-23 1.09e-22 1.63e-22 9.43e-24 2.18e-15 6.29e-13 2.97e-13 1.25e-13 1.06e-12 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV [J2000] 40.13 39.10 41.60 41.28 40.78 page -15.85 -21.46 -21.07 -19.99 -22.09 -9.914 -74.376 -54.980 -55.373 -47.221 6.78e-19 4.94e-19 1.11e-18 1.05e-18 4.54e-19 2.44e-16 4.29e-14 2.87e-14 1.29e-14 6.06e-14 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV from [J2000] 5.23 -16.3 -17.2 -16.2 -15.9 -16.0 69.93 72.49 41.59 72.82 22.38 63.24 15.53 79.19 30.88 44.372 14.178 300.871 300.038 318.781 SE 8.93e-22 1.17e-22 7.68e-23 1.62e-22 1.71e-22 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID NED Optical IC4933 IC4919 NGC7038 NGC0309 NO source ASS HIP J2003-54 J2000-55 J2115-47 J0056-09 J0258-74 field SUNGG J0258-74 NGC7038 IC4933 IC4933 NGC0309 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES 228 NUV FUV page NUV el next 0.030 0.046 0.046 0.046 0.046 -18.66 -16.30 -22.86 -23.07 -22.68 6.44e-19 6.36e-19 9.55e-19 6.05e-19 6.35e-19 1.61e-13 1.26e-13 1.56e-13 8.59e-15 1.63e-15 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle 7.28 6.02 5.71 39.85 39.13 41.09 41.01 41.11 27.14 13.24 37.71 41.63 40.41 180.00 131.49 1.77e-14 1.06e-14 1.65e-14 1.29e-15 3.16e-16 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV 1.73 1.10 3.09 2.06 1.92 -16.5 -17.1 -16.6 -15.9 -16.8 SE 4.94e-23 2.71e-23 3.01e-23 1.59e-22 2.87e-22 4.83e-13 5.46e-13 3.82e-13 9.42e-15 1.07e-15 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV [J2000] 41.90 41.57 41.65 41.50 39.89 page -17.74 -15.94 -20.85 -20.65 -20.89 -2.941 -16.988 -17.085 -17.008 -17.125 5.25e-19 4.59e-19 4.79e-19 4.52e-19 4.47e-19 1.92e-14 1.26e-14 1.69e-14 1.07e-15 2.28e-16 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV from [J2000] 6.88 5.88 -15.7 -16.0 -15.3 -16.4 -16.5 79.97 30.83 82.79 12.46 82.79 39.72 82.79 82.79 37.677 162.900 162.859 162.813 162.906 SE 3.53e-22 1.66e-23 1.58e-23 1.07e-22 1.63e-22 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID NED NED Optical NGC0958 NGC3431 2MASXJ10513744-1707292 NO NO source ASS HIP J0230-02 J1051-17 J1051-17 J1051-17 J1051-17 field SUNGG NGC0958 NGC3431 NGC3431 NGC3431 NGC3431 229 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES NUV FUV page NUV el — — — next 0.046 0.046 0.065 0.012 0.065 -18.62 -17.89 -18.30 -21.39 -19.51 1.11e-18 9.85e-19 9.86e-19 5.84e-19 1.04e-18 4.71e-15 4.16e-15 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle — — — — — — 6.18 6.67 6.07 8.39 39.59 39.53 12.90 25.49 25.26 37.38 17.22 165.26 5.51e-16 6.21e-16 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV — — — — — — 1.84 1.50 3.51 1.20 1.71 -16.6 -16.7 SE 1.58e-22 6.95e-22 9.10e-15 4.61e-15 7.87e-14 4.57e-15 1.12e-14 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV — — — — — — [J2000] 38.94 39.87 39.58 40.98 39.74 page -17.09 -16.95 -16.975 -17.143 -59.516 -26.645 -26.778 4.18e-19 1.07e-18 5.32e-16 5.17e-16 4.81e-14 2.79e-15 1.02e-14 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV — — — from [J2000] 5.60 5.99 -17.3 -16.4 -16.8 -16.1 -16.7 82.79 82.79 2.078 100.81 100.81 112.11 162.962 162.890 214.843 214.737 SE 8.93e-23 4.05e-22 7.88e-23 6.90e-23 2.28e-22 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID NED NED Optical NO NO ESO511-G030 ESO511-G027 ESO111-G014 source ASS HIP J1051-17 J1051-17 J1419-26 J1419-26 J0008-59 field SUNGG NGC3431 NGC3431 J1419-26 J1419-26 J0008-59 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES 230 NUV FUV page NUV el — next 0.063 0.063 0.014 0.063 0.063 -20.69 -19.41 -14.59 -18.34 -22.51 1.54e-18 7.31e-19 7.61e-19 6.83e-19 9.38e-19 8.60e-14 1.69e-14 6.05e-15 6.27e-16 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle — — 6.18 5.88 5.90 40.57 40.12 39.14 41.27 18.66 10.53 81.87 29.27 102.29 158.32 140.19 1.01e-14 2.02e-15 7.76e-16 3.88e-16 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV — — 1.46 1.34 1.51 1.79 1.48 -16.1 -16.5 -17.4 -15.9 SE 3.01e-22 1.32e-22 4.40e-22 4.04e-22 4.46e-15 1.22e-13 2.30e-14 7.09e-15 8.36e-17 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV — — [J2000] 40.23 39.76 41.43 40.70 40.19 page -19.54 -18.42 -15.96 -21.30 -18.964 -19.034 -59.695 -19.051 -19.075 8.88e-19 5.69e-19 7.16e-19 6.35e-19 4.02e-15 9.00e-15 1.78e-15 6.56e-16 1.64e-16 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV — from [J2000] 5.65 5.36 5.19 -17.6 -17.7 -15.8 -16.0 -16.5 10.78 2.670 103.75 135.00 135.00 135.00 135.00 156.579 156.602 156.670 156.709 SE 1.85e-21 1.82e-22 8.13e-23 2.83e-22 1.96e-22 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID NED NED Optical ESO111-G016 ESO568-G011 2MASXJ10265008-1904310 NO NO source ASS HIP J0010-59 J1026-19 J1026-19 J1026-19 J1026-19 field SUNGG J0008-59 J1026-19 J1026-19 J1026-19 J1026-19 231 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES NUV FUV page NUV el — next 0.063 0.025 0.015 0.064 0.063 -19.42 -16.39 -20.84 -22.13 -18.22 1.04e-18 9.49e-19 6.91e-19 7.38e-19 6.24e-19 8.42e-14 2.98e-15 2.51e-14 5.91e-14 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle — — 6.65 6.86 39.81 40.74 41.33 39.54 10.33 13.45 16.73 26.65 28.81 73.30 15.75 15.92 1.29e-14 2.80e-16 3.39e-15 1.24e-14 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV — — 1.87 1.47 1.26 1.95 2.34 -16.9 -16.4 -16.3 -16.3 SE 1.97e-23 5.93e-22 1.27e-22 2.37e-22 7.10e-15 2.63e-14 5.26e-14 1.25e-13 2.31e-14 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV — — [J2000] 38.26 40.19 40.76 41.28 39.71 page -17.65 -19.97 -21.44 -16.97 -6.106 -19.126 -22.472 -27.280 -19.176 3.68e-19 6.54e-19 5.98e-19 5.78e-19 2.86e-16 2.78e-15 9.75e-15 1.16e-14 1.42e-14 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV — from [J2000] 5.95 9.98 -18.4 -16.6 -16.4 -16.3 -16.1 14.48 18.56 15.96 18.57 135.00 135.00 173.53 33.126 40.126 156.675 210.894 156.605 SE 5.53e-22 6.90e-23 1.47e-22 1.18e-23 1.08e-22 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID NED Optical NGC0858 UGCA038 NO FLASHJ102625.16-191034.7 ESO510-IG052 source ASS HIP J0212-22 J0240-06 J1026-19 J1026-19 J1403-27 field SUNGG J1026-19 J1026-19 NGC0858 UGCA038 J1403-27 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES 232 NUV FUV page NUV el — — — next 0.044 0.026 0.034 0.044 0.013 -15.54 -18.09 -19.38 -17.17 -19.24 6.91e-19 8.36e-19 8.31e-19 6.60e-19 6.48e-19 8.36e-14 2.59e-13 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle — — — — — — 7.20 3.81 39.57 40.01 33.14 21.52 34.62 20.58 54.87 15.10 16.70 119.70 1.52e-14 3.97e-14 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV — — — — — — 1.72 1.77 7.80 1.02 4.66 -17.0 -16.0 SE 5.69e-23 1.47e-23 1.04e-13 3.79e-13 1.42e-14 7.25e-14 2.40e-15 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV — — — — — — [J2000] 38.98 39.66 40.17 39.29 40.12 page -17.03 -18.14 -6.936 -13.440 -64.832 -13.450 -45.962 4.77e-19 3.75e-19 1.31e-14 3.56e-14 1.10e-14 5.19e-14 1.72e-15 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV — — — from [J2000] -16.1 -16.8 -15.9 -17.7 -16.6 19.16 34.67 18.13 21.38 34.03 38.98 38.98 40.260 46.276 195.279 341.776 195.221 SE 3.83e-23 9.59e-24 8.74e-23 6.92e-24 1.34e-22 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID NED Optical IC5249 NGC0961 NGC4904 NO ESO248-G002 source ASS HIP J2247-64 J0241-06 J1300-13 J1300-13 J0305-45 field SUNGG J0305-45 NGC0961 IC5249 NGC4904 NGC4904 233 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES NUV FUV page NUV el — — next 0.019 0.018 0.050 0.045 0.019 -15.21 -17.51 -19.05 -20.83 -19.47 9.32e-19 9.23e-19 6.32e-19 8.03e-19 1.18e-18 5.17e-13 2.39e-14 3.48e-13 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle — — — — 6.83 6.09 39.73 41.06 40.26 22.06 15.42 24.71 51.00 54.69 19.65 21.80 29.90 1.44e-13 6.58e-15 7.17e-14 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV — — — — 1.30 1.80 1.37 1.19 1.80 -15.9 -15.4 -16.1 SE 4.85e-23 8.44e-23 6.05e-23 8.76e-15 5.76e-14 2.56e-13 1.20e-14 3.08e-13 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV — — — — [J2000] 38.64 38.51 40.04 40.76 39.43 page -17.43 -20.77 -18.78 -24.788 -24.289 -13.944 -13.519 -24.745 8.39e-19 4.96e-19 7.03e-19 6.25e-15 3.94e-14 9.56e-14 4.39e-15 5.61e-14 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV — — from [J2000] 5.44 -17.1 -16.5 -16.7 -15.8 -16.3 17.53 40.11 43.10 15.17 43.10 20.98 25.62 36.268 36.593 36.125 195.236 195.279 SE 9.16e-23 3.31e-23 3.36e-23 5.03e-23 3.71e-22 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID ASSJ1300-13B Optical NGC0922 2MASXJ02243002-2444441 UGCA032 NGC4899 HIP source ASS HIP J1300-13B J1301-13b J0224-24 J0224-24 J0226-24 field SUNGG NGC4904 NGC4904 NGC0922 NGC0922 NGC0922 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES 234 NUV FUV page NUV el next 0.027 0.027 0.017 0.025 0.028 -16.77 -19.03 -20.15 -20.38 -21.40 9.30e-19 6.83e-19 6.74e-19 2.35e-18 8.66e-19 9.01e-14 1.65e-13 8.72e-13 8.04e-13 1.90e-12 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle 6.85 39.34 39.78 40.58 40.57 40.84 18.96 57.45 34.08 72.77 25.42 135.37 157.49 152.15 164.69 2.23e-14 2.33e-14 1.75e-13 1.45e-13 2.98e-13 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV 1.15 1.71 2.05 1.37 3.53 -15.5 -16.1 -16.4 -16.1 -16.2 SE 4.78e-23 4.62e-23 1.22e-23 7.39e-22 1.03e-22 5.59e-14 2.99e-13 6.91e-13 8.17e-13 2.62e-12 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV [J2000] 40.21 39.13 40.04 40.48 40.58 page 0.816 -16.47 -17.57 -19.58 -19.55 -20.23 -8.133 -8.434 -7.579 -30.253 4.78e-19 5.07e-19 5.14e-19 2.76e-18 4.96e-19 1.58e-14 2.21e-14 1.33e-13 1.18e-13 2.63e-13 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV from [J2000] 6.44 -16.1 -15.7 -15.9 -16.5 -16.0 14.24 17.45 19.19 19.16 59.22 19.65 37.99 17.54 71.83 41.575 39.871 40.100 41.500 174.153 SE 3.83e-22 3.07e-23 7.32e-24 5.20e-22 6.96e-22 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID Optical NGC1097 IC1933 NGC1035 NGC1042 NGC1084 source ASS HIP J0246-30 J0325-52 J0239-08 J0240-08 J0246-07 field SUNGG MISDR1-12924-0282 MISDR1-18475-0455 MISDR1-18475-0455 MISDR1-18534-0456 NGA-NGC1097 235 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES NUV FUV page NUV el next 0.013 0.021 0.009 0.011 0.011 -17.76 -22.22 -21.93 -21.50 -21.64 8.20e-19 5.52e-19 6.45e-19 8.36e-19 8.22e-19 1.94e-12 2.66e-12 2.51e-12 2.63e-13 2.96e-12 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle 7.20 39.66 40.46 41.22 40.64 41.18 23.39 25.58 11.53 48.07 66.41 30.53 97.29 117.08 174.73 1.73e-13 5.18e-13 3.49e-13 6.24e-14 6.89e-13 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV 1.00 2.04 1.16 2.02 1.59 -15.0 -15.2 -16.3 -14.4 -15.7 SE 3.27e-24 2.21e-23 2.74e-24 6.51e-23 1.62e-23 1.37e-11 2.54e-12 6.12e-12 1.96e-13 2.35e-12 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV [J2000] 40.98 41.31 41.20 41.02 39.53 page -17.26 -19.28 -21.16 -19.71 -21.07 -41.108 -36.140 -43.349 -43.400 -54.938 3.95e-19 5.86e-19 5.61e-19 8.40e-19 8.38e-19 2.33e-13 4.14e-13 3.58e-13 4.66e-14 5.23e-13 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV from [J2000] 6.39 -16.1 -14.4 -15.2 -14.1 -15.2 11.19 21.52 22.77 93.55 11.99 10.22 11.99 20.71 51.29 49.327 53.402 60.976 60.886 65.002 SE 4.25e-24 1.17e-23 6.18e-23 6.55e-23 2.74e-23 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID Optical NGC1291 NGC1365 NGC1512 NGC1510 NGC1566 source ASS HIP J0317-41 J0333-36 J0403-43 J0403-43 J0419-54 field SUNGG NGA-NGC1291 NGA-NGC1365 NGA-NGC1512 NGA-NGC1512 NGA-NGC1566 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES 236 NUV FUV page NUV el next 0.023 0.021 0.014 0.056 0.054 -22.77 -20.75 -16.60 -19.42 -17.82 1.96e-18 1.60e-18 9.73e-19 9.57e-19 7.51e-19 2.45e-12 2.12e-12 1.73e-13 6.70e-14 3.48e-14 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle 7.56 7.77 39.39 39.52 41.21 40.92 40.41 14.41 10.27 14.56 10.17 69.09 36.48 134.15 137.63 3.43e-13 4.98e-13 5.15e-14 1.62e-14 3.69e-15 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV 1.25 2.28 1.44 1.75 1.47 -15.5 -14.3 -15.9 -15.4 -16.3 SE 3.81e-23 1.79e-23 1.35e-21 8.17e-23 1.76e-22 1.34e-12 8.16e-14 4.10e-14 2.66e-12 7.31e-14 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV [J2000] 41.08 40.72 39.06 40.19 39.55 page -16.59 -16.91 -21.14 -20.42 -19.14 -59.247 -31.954 -31.784 -31.640 -31.716 1.43e-18 1.24e-18 1.88e-18 8.14e-19 1.05e-18 3.55e-13 3.37e-14 1.15e-14 2.84e-13 3.64e-15 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV from [J2000] 9.05 3.35 8.39 6.85 -15.8 -15.0 -15.9 -16.5 -14.4 18.13 28.23 10.87 56.38 14.99 197.14 71.427 76.607 76.279 204.983 204.949 SE 1.67e-23 1.17e-21 4.64e-23 2.76e-22 9.89e-23 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID Optical NGC1672 NGC1800 ESO422-G027 2MASXJ13394791-3142570 NGC5253 source ASS HIP J0445-59 J0506-31 J0505-31 J1339-31A J1339-31 field SUNGG NGA-NGC1672 NGA-NGC1800 NGA-NGC1800 NGA-NGC5253 NGA-NGC5253 237 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES NUV FUV page NUV el next 0.016 0.012 0.013 0.019 0.054 -20.27 -17.98 -13.68 -16.54 -18.12 1.35e-18 9.98e-19 6.29e-19 1.22e-18 5.87e-19 4.67e-12 3.73e-14 5.92e-13 1.26e-13 9.54e-15 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle 9.41 1.04 40.65 39.93 37.68 39.07 39.19 73.21 14.39 20.69 36.26 94.79 23.89 96.34 106.81 1.31e-12 6.11e-15 1.21e-13 1.57e-14 1.60e-15 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV 2.40 2.29 2.39 1.40 1.76 -16.8 -15.9 -16.4 -15.6 -16.8 SE 7.88e-23 4.78e-23 3.53e-22 3.25e-23 5.54e-22 7.34e-15 2.26e-12 6.06e-14 5.51e-13 3.85e-13 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV [J2000] 41.53 40.53 39.62 37.89 39.04 page -19.74 -17.95 -12.33 -15.79 -16.09 -41.436 -34.578 -48.405 -32.591 -31.678 1.29e-18 3.03e-19 9.36e-19 3.81e-19 1.53e-18 1.20e-15 8.66e-13 5.63e-15 9.56e-14 1.71e-14 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV from [J2000] 3.91 3.29 4.07 -15.7 -16.9 -16.2 -16.3 -15.7 10.30 77.39 12.90 19.99 10.09 37.16 2.056 197.14 23.769 335.625 359.458 204.837 SE 3.28e-22 3.42e-23 4.18e-23 1.39e-22 1.87e-23 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID Optical NGC625 ESO349-G031 ESO238-G005 GSC726600111 NGC7793 source ASS HIP J0135-41 J0008-34 J2222-48 J1339-31 J2357-32 field SUNGG NGA-NGC5253 NGA-NGC7793 J0008-34 NGC625 J2222-48 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES 238 NUV FUV page NUV el next 0.011 0.009 0.010 0.016 0.010 -16.84 -16.19 -19.05 -16.74 -15.66 5.49e-19 6.32e-19 6.30e-19 6.10e-19 5.81e-19 5.82e-13 1.04e-13 7.76e-13 8.39e-14 2.78e-14 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle 3.29 39.23 39.14 40.27 39.15 38.67 28.37 49.22 33.83 30.94 11.39 87.16 128.02 142.49 110.30 1.51e-13 2.36e-14 2.08e-13 1.80e-14 5.64e-15 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV 1.10 1.14 1.21 2.96 1.33 -16.7 -16.5 -16.0 -16.9 -16.5 SE 1.41e-23 1.84e-23 2.11e-23 3.88e-23 9.17e-23 8.83e-14 3.38e-13 4.61e-13 7.76e-14 2.87e-14 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV [J2000] 39.67 39.16 38.90 40.05 39.12 page -16.20 -15.96 -18.80 -16.00 -14.80 -46.211 -38.452 -43.598 -45.859 -45.873 5.00e-19 3.73e-19 6.53e-19 5.37e-19 4.57e-19 1.82e-14 1.05e-13 1.45e-13 1.42e-14 4.60e-15 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV from [J2000] 4.43 -16.3 -16.8 -16.7 -16.2 -16.9 11.68 29.98 52.74 14.20 35.92 11.91 33.12 11.91 11.28 59.364 57.920 26.266 59.735 59.815 SE 1.18e-23 7.61e-24 1.75e-23 1.93e-23 1.75e-22 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 arf dw able T ID Optical ESO302-G014 ESO245-G005 NGC1493 Horologium ESO249-G035 source ASS HIP J0351-38 J0145-43 J0357-46 J0359-45 J0359-45 field SUNGG J0351-38 J0145-43 J0359-45 J0359-45 J0359-45 239 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES NUV FUV page NUV el next 0.012 0.041 0.024 0.022 0.016 -18.81 -18.01 -18.55 -19.51 -18.75 5.76e-19 1.07e-18 8.24e-19 9.54e-19 8.41e-19 3.03e-13 5.56e-13 4.48e-13 1.55e-12 5.36e-13 E(B-V) on AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev ued tin FUV NUV FUV Con angle 39.78 39.92 39.92 40.27 40.01 55.86 21.80 52.21 59.20 74.57 46.58 166.70 141.35 173.21 170.08 5.00e-14 1.62e-13 9.08e-14 2.63e-13 1.11e-13 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV 4.43 2.38 2.47 1.95 2.91 -16.8 -15.7 -16.6 -16.2 -16.9 SE 1.93e-23 2.32e-22 4.48e-23 1.17e-23 2.10e-23 4.45e-13 2.80e-13 3.77e-13 1.41e-12 4.42e-13 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV [J2000] 38.69 39.95 39.63 39.84 40.23 page -17.57 -17.93 -17.92 -18.79 -18.14 -42.368 -26.022 -21.846 -32.973 -41.030 3.96e-19 1.23e-18 8.11e-19 9.33e-19 6.59e-19 4.49e-14 1.08e-13 7.01e-14 2.08e-13 8.51e-14 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV from [J2000] -16.5 -16.6 -16.0 -16.7 -16.2 12.89 57.26 11.25 20.48 12.44 54.68 10.01 63.02 12.61 78.76 58.942 65.307 74.991 77.997 47.408 SE 1.69e-23 1.62e-22 2.62e-23 2.31e-23 8.48e-23 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID Optical NGC1487 UGCA090 NGC1744 UGCA106 ESO300-G014 source ASS HIP J0355-42 J0421-21 J0459-26 J0512-32 J0309-41 field SUNGG J0309-41 NGC1487 UGCA090 NGC1744 UGCA106 APPENDIX D. SUNGG PROPERTIES 240 NUV FUV NUV el 0.017 -18.91 5.55e-19 6.63e-13 E(B-V) AbsMag Fluxcorr SkyLev FUV NUV FUV angle 40.22 32.14 82.00 1.70e-13 os. Flux log(L) Effrad P FUV NUV Ratio FUV 1.48 -16.0 SE 2.03e-23 3.90e-13 Axial Fluxcorr SkyRMS FUV FUV NUV el NUV [J2000] 39.93 39.99 page -18.66 -53.722 5.65e-19 1.19e-13 Flux log(L) Dec AbsMag SkyLev previous NUV FUV NUV from [J2000] -16.9 -16.2 14.43 34.39 47.622 SE 1.11e-23 Distance Effrad RA ued SkyRMS tin con – D.1 able T ID Optical NGC1249 source ASS HIP J0310-53 field SUNGG J0310-53 APPENDIX E

Observations of SUNGG ﬁelds and radial proﬁles

241 APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 242

Figure E.1: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of IC1914. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

IC1914

Figure E.2: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 243 PROFILES

Figure E.3: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of IC1954. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

IC1954

Figure E.4: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 244

Figure E.5: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of IC4933. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

IC4933

J2000-55

Figure E.6: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 245 PROFILES

Figure E.7: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of IC5020. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 246

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J2030-33:S1

J2030-33:S2

J2030-33:S3

Figure E.8: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 247 PROFILES

Figure E.9: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of IC5249. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

IC5249

Figure E.10: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 248

Figure E.11: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0005-28. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J0005-28

Figure E.12: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 249 PROFILES

Figure E.13: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0008-34. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J0008-34

Figure E.14: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 250

FUV image not availabe

Figure E.15: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0008-59. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J0008-59

J0010-59

Figure E.16: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 251 PROFILES

Figure E.17: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0031-22. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J0031-22

Figure E.18: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 252

Figure E.19: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0140-05. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 253 PROFILES

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J0140-05:S2

J0140-05:S1

J0141-05

Figure E.20: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 254

Figure E.21: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0145-43. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J0145-43

Figure E.22: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 255 PROFILES

Figure E.23: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0258-74. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 256

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J0258-74:S1

J0258-74:S3

J0258-74:S4

Figure E.24: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 257 PROFILES

Figure E.25: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0305-45. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J0305-45

Figure E.26: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 258

Figure E.27: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0309-41. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J0309-41

Figure E.28: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 259 PROFILES

Figure E.29: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0310-53. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J0310-53

Figure E.30: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 260

Figure E.31: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0313-57. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J0313-57

Figure E.32: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 261 PROFILES

Figure E.33: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0334-51. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J0334-51

Figure E.34: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 262

Figure E.35: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0351-38. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J0351-38

Figure E.36: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 263 PROFILES

Figure E.37: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0354-43. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J0354-43

Figure E.38: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 264

Figure E.39: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0359-45. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 265 PROFILES

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J0357-46

J0359-45:S1

J0359-45:S2

Figure E.40: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 266

Figure E.41: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0411-35. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J0411-35

J0408-35

Figure E.42: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 267 PROFILES

Figure E.43: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0429-27. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J0429-27

Figure E.44: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 268

Figure E.45: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0508-38. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J0508-38

Figure E.46: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 269 PROFILES

Figure E.47: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0515-41. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J0515-41

Figure E.48: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 270

Figure E.49: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J0516-37. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J0516-37

J0519-37

Figure E.50: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 271 PROFILES

Figure E.51: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J1026-19. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J1026-19:S1

J1026-19:S2 continued on next page

Figure E.52: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 272

continued from previous page Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J1026-19:S3

J1026-19:S4

J1026-19:S5

J1026-19:S6

Figure E.53: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 273 PROFILES

Figure E.54: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J1106-14. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J1106-14

Figure E.55: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 274

Figure E.56: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J1107-17. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J1107-17

Figure E.57: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 275 PROFILES

Figure E.58: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J1118-17. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 276

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J1118-17:S1

J1118-17:S2

J1119-17

Figure E.59: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 277 PROFILES

Figure E.60: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J1127-04. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J1127-04

Figure E.61: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 278

Figure E.62: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J1145+02. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J1145+02

Figure E.63: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 279 PROFILES

FUV image not availabe

Figure E.64: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J1254-10a. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 280

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J1254-10a NGC4781

J1254-10a NGC4784

J1254-10b

Figure E.65: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 281 PROFILES

FUV image not availabe

Figure E.66: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J1257-05. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J1257-05

Figure E.67: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 282

FUV image not availabe

Figure E.68: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J1321-31. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J1321-31

Figure E.69: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 283 PROFILES

FUV image not availabe

Figure E.70: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J1403-27. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J1403-27

Figure E.71: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 284

FUV image not availabe

Figure E.72: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J1419-26. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J1419-26:S1

J1419-26:S2

Figure E.73: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 285 PROFILES

Figure E.74: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J2222-48. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J2222-48

Figure E.75: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 286

Figure E.76: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of J2254-26. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J2254-26

Figure E.77: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 287 PROFILES

Figure E.78: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of MISDR1-12924-0282. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

MISDR1 12924 0282

Figure E.79: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 288

Figure E.80: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of MISDR1-18475-0455. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

MISDR1 18475 0455

J0240-08

Figure E.81: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 289 PROFILES

Figure E.82: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of MISDR1-18534-0456. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

MISDR1 18534 0456

Figure E.83: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 290

Figure E.84: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGA-NGC1097. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGA NGC1097

Figure E.85: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 291 PROFILES

Figure E.86: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGA-NGC1291. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGA NGC1291

Figure E.87: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 292

Figure E.88: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGA-NGC1365. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGA NGC1365

Figure E.89: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 293 PROFILES

Figure E.90: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGA-NGC1512. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J0403-43:S1

J0403-43:S2

Figure E.91: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 294

Figure E.92: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGA-NGC1566. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGA NGC1566

Figure E.93: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 295 PROFILES

Figure E.94: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGA-NGC1672. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGA NGC1672

Figure E.95: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 296

Figure E.96: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGA-NGC1800. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGA NGC1800

J0505-31

Figure E.97: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 297 PROFILES

Figure E.98: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGA-NGC5253. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 298

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGA NGC5253

J1339-31:S2

J1339-31:S1

Figure E.99: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 299 PROFILES

Figure E.100: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGA-NGC7793. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGA NGC7793

Figure E.101: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 300

Figure E.102: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC0157. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC0157

Figure E.103: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 301 PROFILES

Figure E.104: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC0210. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 302

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC0210

J0039-14a

J0039-14b

Figure E.105: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 303 PROFILES

Figure E.106: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC0309. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC0309

Figure E.107: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 304

Figure E.108: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC0428. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC0428

J0111+01

Figure E.109: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 305 PROFILES

Figure E.110: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC0578. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC0578

Figure E.111: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 306

Figure E.112: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC0858. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC0858

Figure E.113: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 307 PROFILES

Figure E.114: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC0908. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 308

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC0908

J0221-20 NGC899

J0221-20 IC0223

J0223-20

Figure E.115: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 309 PROFILES

Figure E.116: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC0922. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 310

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J0224-24:S1

J0224-24:S2

J0226-24

Figure E.117: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 311 PROFILES

Figure E.118: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC0958. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC0958

Figure E.119: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 312

Figure E.120: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC0961. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC0961

Figure E.121: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 313 PROFILES

Figure E.122: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC1179. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC1179

Figure E.123: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 314

Figure E.124: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC1249. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J0310-39

Figure E.125: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 315 PROFILES

Figure E.126: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC1291. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J0317-37

Figure E.127: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 316

Figure E.128: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC1371. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC1371

J0336-24

Figure E.129: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 317 PROFILES

Figure E.130: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC1437a. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC1437a

Figure E.131: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 318

Figure E.132: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC1487. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC1487

Figure E.133: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 319 PROFILES

Figure E.134: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC1518. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC1522

Figure E.135: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 320

Figure E.136: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC1556. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC1556

Figure E.137: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 321 PROFILES

Figure E.138: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC1679. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC1679

Figure E.139: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 322

Figure E.140: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC1744. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC1744

Figure E.141: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 323 PROFILES

Figure E.142: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC1792. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC1792

Figure E.143: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 324

Figure E.144: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC1879. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC1879

Figure E.145: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 325 PROFILES

Figure E.146: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC2101. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 326

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC2101

J0547-51:S1

J0547-51:S2

Figure E.147: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 327 PROFILES

Figure E.148: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC3355. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC3355

J1042-23

Figure E.149: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 328

Figure E.150: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC3431. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J1051-17:S2

J1051-17:S1 continued on next page

Figure E.151: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 329 PROFILES

continued from previous page Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J1051-17:S3

J1051-17:S4

J1051-17:S5

J1051-17:S7

Figure E.152: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 330

Figure E.153: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC3511. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 331 PROFILES

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J1103-23:S1

J1103-23:S2

J1102-23

J1104-23

Figure E.154: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 332

Figure E.155: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC3887. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC3887

Figure E.156: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 333 PROFILES

FUV image not availabe

Figure E.157: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC4487. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC4487

Figure E.158: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 334

FUV image not availabe

Figure E.159: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC4504. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC4504

Figure E.160: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 335 PROFILES

FUV image not availabe

Figure E.161: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC4691. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC4691

Figure E.162: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 336

FUV image not availabe

Figure E.163: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC4723. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC4723

Figure E.164: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 337 PROFILES

FUV image not availabe

Figure E.165: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC4904. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 338

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J1300-13:S1

J1300-13:S2

J1300-13b

J1301-13b

Figure E.166: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 339 PROFILES

FUV image not availabe

Figure E.167: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC4948. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 340

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC4948

J1302-08

J1304-07

J1305-08

Figure E.168: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 341 PROFILES

Figure E.169: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC625. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC625

Figure E.170: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 342

Figure E.171: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC6902. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 343 PROFILES

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC6902

J2023-43

J2025-43

Figure E.172: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 344

Figure E.173: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC6907. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC6907

Figure E.174: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 345 PROFILES

Figure E.175: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC6925. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC6925

Figure E.176: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 346

Figure E.177: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC6943. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC6943

Figure E.178: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 347 PROFILES

Figure E.179: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC7038. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC7038

Figure E.180: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 348

Figure E.181: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC7059. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC7059

Figure E.182: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 349 PROFILES

Figure E.183: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC7083. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC7083

J2138-64

Figure E.184: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 350

Figure E.185: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC7125. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 351 PROFILES

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J2149-60:S2

J2149-60:S1

J2149-60:S3

Figure E.186: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 352

Figure E.187: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC7424. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC7424

Figure E.188: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 353 PROFILES

Figure E.189: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC7456. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC7456

Figure E.190: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 354

Figure E.191: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC7531. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

NGC7531

J2312-43

Figure E.192: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 355 PROFILES

Figure E.193: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of NGC7590. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 356

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

J2318-42a:S2

J2318-42a:S1

J2316-42

J2318-42a:S3

Figure E.194: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 357 PROFILES

FUV image not availabe

Figure E.195: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of UGC07332. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

UGC07332

Figure E.196: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 358

Figure E.197: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of UGCA015. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

UGCA015

J0047-20

Figure E.198: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 359 PROFILES

Figure E.199: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of UGCA038. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

UGCA038

Figure E.200: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 360

Figure E.201: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of UGCA044. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

UGCA044

Figure E.202: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 361 PROFILES

Figure E.203: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of UGCA090. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

UGCA090

Figure E.204: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 362

Figure E.205: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of UGCA106. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

UGCA106

Figure E.206: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 363 PROFILES

Figure E.207: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of UGCA270. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

UGCA270

Figure E.208: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 364

FUV image not availabe

Figure E.209: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of UGCA307. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

UGCA307

J1254-11

Figure E.210: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL 365 PROFILES

FUV image not availabe

Figure E.211: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of UGCA312. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

UGCA312

J1300-12

Figure E.212: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve. APPENDIX E. OBSERVATIONS OF SUNGG FIELDS AND RADIAL PROFILES 366

Figure E.213: FUV (left) and NUV (right) ﬁelds of UGCA433. The crosshairs mark out the SUNGG sources within each GALEX ﬁeld of view.

Object Surface brightness proﬁle Curve of growth

UGCA433

Figure E.214: Surface brightness proﬁle(s): The FUV and NUV proﬁles are represented by the solid and dotted lines, respectively. Curve(s) of growth: The bold solid lines and the dashed lines represent the FUV curve, while the regular solid lines and the dotted lines represent the NUV curve.